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= Taboo Tuesday ( 2004 ) =
Taboo Tuesday ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by AT & T which took place on October 19 , 2004 at the Bradley Center in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . It was the first annual Taboo Tuesday event , marking the first time in which the fans were given the chance to vote on stipulations for the matches . The voting for the event started on October 18 , 2004 and ended during the event . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : a storyline expansion of the promotion where employees are assigned to a wrestling brand under the WWE banner .
The main event was a Steel cage match , which is fought in a cage with four sheets of mesh metal around , in , or against the edges of the wrestling ring , in which Randy Orton defeated Ric Flair by pinfall . Two bouts were featured on the undercard . In respective singles matches , World Heavyweight Champion Triple H defeated Shawn Michaels to retain his title and Gene Snitsky defeated Kane in a Weapon of Choice match , a match in which the use of foreign objects , which is usually illegal under the standard rules of professional wrestling , is allowed .
Taboo Tuesday grossed over $ 215 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 3 @,@ 500 and received 174 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . This event helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 6.2m compared to the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of seventh on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart .
Taboo Tuesday was the first regularly @-@ scheduled pay @-@ per @-@ view held by WWE on a Tuesday since 1991 's This Tuesday in Texas , the first regularly @-@ scheduled non @-@ Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view since the 1994 Survivor Series , and the first non @-@ Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view of any kind since In Your House 8 : Beware of Dog 2 in 1996 .
= = Background = =
Unlike most WWE events , where rules and participants for matches were determined by WWE 's creative staff , this was the first event where at least some part of each match was determined by votes from WWE fans conducted on WWE 's official website . The event was scheduled to feature eight professional wrestling matches . Various wrestlers were involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines leading to the matches taking place at this event . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events . The event featured wrestlers and other talent from the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its on @-@ air talent to separate television brands .
The main event at Taboo Tuesday was a match between Randy Orton and Ric Flair where the online fan vote would determine whether the match was a steel cage match , a Falls Count Anywhere match , or a submission match . On the September 27 , 2004 , episode of Raw — one of WWE 's primary television programs — Orton was given an opportunity to face Triple H at Taboo Tuesday for the World Heavyweight Championship if he was able to win a match against Batista , but he was not able to do so . During the singles match , Ric Flair interfered on behalf of Batista . This led to Orton blaming his loss on Flair . Orton commented on everything Flair had accomplished in the WWE and criticized him for calling Triple H the greatest wrestler of all . Flair responded to Orton 's comments . He asserted that despite Orton 's claim of being a " Legend Killer " , wrestlers whom he had defeated such as Shawn Michaels and Mick Foley are not truly legends and therefore do not make Orton a true " Legend Killer " . Flair also announced that he and Orton would meet in a match at Taboo Tuesday and the fans would have the opportunity to choose what type of match they would compete in .
One of the featured matches on the under @-@ card was contested for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which Triple H would have to defend the title against the fans ' choice of three possible opponents : Chris Benoit , Edge , or Shawn Michaels . At Unforgiven , Raw 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Triple H defeated Randy Orton to capture the World Heavyweight Championship . The following night on Raw , Triple H had a celebration thrown in his honor , complete with women , confetti , streamers and a giant cake . Orton , however , sought revenge by coming out of the cake and assaulting the three members of Evolution , Triple H 's stable with Ric Flair and Batista , which Orton had previously been a part of . On the October 4 episode of Raw , it was announced that because Orton has not won the opportunity to challenge Triple H , fans would be able to choose between three potential contenders for Triple H 's World title at Taboo Tuesday . Chris Benoit and Edge were revealed as two of the candidates . Shawn Michaels , however , competed in a qualifying match , which saw him defeat Christian , to become the third candidate . On the October 18 episode of Raw , a standard match involving three wrestlers , called a Triple Threat match , was scheduled between Benoit , Edge , and Michaels . Edge won the match after he pinned Benoit by using the ring ropes for unfair leverage . During the match , Michaels legitimately injured his left knee , tearing his meniscus .
The other featured preliminary match was between Kane and Gene Snitsky . At Unforgiven , Shawn Michaels defeated Kane in a no disqualification match , a match where neither wrestler can be disqualified , allowing for weapons and outside interference . The next night on Raw , Kane demanded that authority figure Eric Bischoff , a portrayed match @-@ maker and rule @-@ enforcer , give him a rematch against Michaels , but Bischoff refused to do so as Michaels was preoccupied with appearing in Chris Jericho 's interview segment , The Highlight Reel . Bischoff , however , scheduled Kane in a no disqualification match against an opponent of Bischoff 's choice . Kane 's opponent was revealed to be Gene Snistky . During the match , Kane 's scripted wife , Lita , who was pregnant in the storyline , entered the ring . This led to Kane accidentally falling on top of her after Snitsky hit Kane with a steel chair , ending the match . Trainers and emergency medical technicians rushed to the scene and took Lita away in an ambulance for medical attention . The following week , Kane was informed by doctors that Lita suffered a scripted miscarriage following the events of the previous week . On the September 27 episode of Raw , in an interview with Todd Grisham , Kane informed Grisham that he sought revenge against Snitsky for his actions . The following week , Lita gave her first interview since the miscarriage and revealed that she and Kane would get payback against Snitsky . During the same episode , Snitsky was interviewed by Raw commentator Jim Ross and told Ross that the death of the couple 's unborn child was not his fault . Kane interrupted the interview segment , but Snitsky attacked Kane with a lead pipe in self @-@ defense . This led Bischoff to announce a Weapon of Choice match for Taboo Tuesday , where fans would be able to vote on whether a lead pipe , a steel chain , or a steel chair would be legal for use in the match .
The main Divas feud entering the event was between Christy Hemme and Carmella DeCesare , the two finalists in the Raw Diva Search . On the September 20 episode of Raw , Christy was announced as the winner of the Diva Search and received a one @-@ year contract with WWE and $ 250 @,@ 000 . After the Diva Search , Carmella became a villainess and began a feud with Christy , due to jealousy of Christy winning the Diva Search . On the last edition of Raw before Taboo Tuesday , it was announced that Christy and Carmella would face each other at the pay @-@ per @-@ view with the fans choosing what type of match they would compete in . The choices were a Lingerie Pillow Fight , an Evening Gown Match , or an Aerobics Challenge . After the announcement was made , Carmella attacked Christy .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sgt. Slaughter defeated Muhammad Hassan , who was accompanied by Daivari , by disqualification in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first televised match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , in which Chris Jericho defended the title against Shelton Benjamin , who won the fans ' vote with 37 % . The match started off with Jericho performing an enzuigiri , an attack that strikes the back of the head . This was followed with Jericho on the top ropes , which was countered when Benjamin jumped on the ropes and performed a superplex on Jericho . Later in the match , Jericho performed variety of signature move attempts , such as grabbing Benjamin 's head and driving his face into the mat and springboarding the middle rope to perform a backflip , but Benjamin countered the attacks . The match came to an end when Benjamin performed a T @-@ Bone Suplex on Jericho and gaining the pinfall victory and becoming the new Intercontinental Champion .
The voting results for Triple H 's opponent for the World Heavyweight Championship were then revealed , with Shawn Michaels winning . The next match was a Fulfill Your Fantasy Battle Royal match for the WWE Women 's Championship between Molly Holly , Stacy Keibler , Victoria , Gail Kim , Jazz , Nidia , and Trish Stratus , an elimination style match where the last person in the ring is the winner . The first to be eliminated was Nidia , which was followed with the elimination of Jazz . Kim performed a hurricanrana on Victoria , a move that is executed by jumping forward and straddling on a standing opponent 's shoulders , but Victoria countered the move as she sent Kim out of the ring , thus being eliminated from the match . Victoria was eliminated afterwards by both Stratus and Molly , after they double teamed Victoria . Stratus and Molly continued working together , as they got the upper hand over Keibler . Molly eliminated Keibler from the match . This led Stratus to catch Molly off @-@ guard , as she pushed her through the ropes to retain her WWE Women 's Championship .
The third match was between Gene Snitsky and Kane ( with Lita ) . The match was a Weapons of Choice match , which gained 41 % of the vote . The match began with Kane , as he grabbed a chain and used it against Snitsky 's head . Snitsky regained the momentum by grabbing the chain and swinging the chain onto Kane 's head and proceeding to choke Kane with it . Back and forth action took place ; the match , however , came to an end when Snitsky came off of the second rope onto a steel chair that was wrapped around Kane 's neck and pinned him for the win .
The next match was between General Manager Eric Bischoff and Eugene in a " Choose the Loser 's Fate " . The match saw Eugene defeat Bischoff , after Eugene performed a leg drop to get the pinfall victory . After the match ended , the audience voted that Bischoff get his head shaved . Jonathan Coachman , however , announced that the audience instead voted " Loser is Winners Servant " , in which he and Bischoff would be Eugene 's servants for five minutes . WWE Chairman Vince McMahon came out and reversed the stipulation and announced that Bischoff would get his head shaved . McMahon warned that if Bischoff did not go through it , he would be fired . Eugene shaved Bischoff 's hair and Coachman was forced to wear a dress for messing up the outcome of the match .
The fifth match was for the World Tag Team Championships between La Résistance ( Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway ) against Edge and Chris Benoit , the two individuals who were not chosen to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight championship . There was back and forth action between the two teams , as all the superstars were able to participate in the match . Edge abandoned Benoit during the match , which forced Benoit to wrestle both members of La Résistance by himself . Benoit fought them off , and he was able to get the upper hand over Grenier . The match concluded with Benoit winning the World Tag Team Championship , after he locked his hands together and pulled Conway 's face and pulling his neck backwards , a move which Benoit calls the Crippler Crossface , making Conway submit to the hold .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The next match was between Christy Hemme and Carmella DeCesare . The match was a Lingerie Pillow Fight , which gained 57 % of the fans ' vote . During this match , Hemme and DeCesare began hitting each other with pillows while wearing lingerie . The match ended when Hemme covered DeCesare to win the match via pinfall . The seventh match was the World Heavyweight Championship match , where the fans ' chose Shawn Michaels by 38 % , to face the champion , Triple H for the championship . Coming into the match , Michaels ' knee was legitimately injured . Triple H used the injury to his advantage during the beginning of the bout , as he hit and targeted the leg , including applying a Figure four leglock on Michaels . Michaels would however , gain the advantage when he countered a maneuver by Triple H , which had him hit the steel ring post . Later into the match , as Michaels was about to perform Sweet Chin Music on Triple H , Edge interfered in the match and hit Michaels with a spear . Following this , Triple H covered Michaels to win the match via pinfall and retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
The main event and final match of the night was between Randy Orton and Ric Flair . The match was a steel cage match , which gained 68 % of the vote . During the match , both Orton and Flair managed to get the upper hand . A spot in the match saw Flair hit a low blow on Orton and proceeding to send him crashing head @-@ first into the steel cage , causing Orton to bleed from the head , the blood loss results from previous cuts that wrestlers perform before a match called blading . Orton regained the momentum by sending Flair into the steel cage , thus resulting in Flair to bleed from the head . The match concluded with Orton performing an RKO , a move where you jump to the opponent 's head while parallel to the ground , applying a three @-@ quarter facelock and then slam your opponent 's head to the mat , Orton then pinned Flair for the pinfall victory . After the match , they shook hands .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Taboo Tuesday , Evolution ( Triple H , Ric Flair and Batista ) were put in charge of Raw , after Eric Bischoff took the night off , following his match the night before . Triple H granted Flair the match of his choice ; Flair wanted a rematch against Randy Orton , as he lost a steel cage match to Orton the previous night . Orton accepted Flair 's challenge , with a stipulation that if he defeated Flair he would get an opportunity to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at the November pay @-@ per @-@ view Survivor Series . Orton did not receive the opportunity , as he lost to Flair . On the November 1 episode of Raw , Bischoff scheduled a traditional 8 @-@ man elimination tag team match involving Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Jericho , Maven and Chris Benoit ) facing off against Team Triple H ( Triple H , Batista , Edge and Gene Snitsky ) at Survivor Series . The winning team would be granted absolute control of running the show for a month , and the winning members would all get a week to be in charge of the program . At the November event , Team Orton defeated Team Triple H and the team were given the opportunity to be in charge of Raw for a week .
On the October 25 episode of Raw , a rematch for the Intercontinental Championship was scheduled between Shelton Benjamin and Chris Jericho . The match saw Benjamin defeat Jericho and retain the title . After the match , Benjamin was attacked by Christian , which led Christian to overhook Benjamin 's arms and pivoted him to an 180 ° thus driving his face onto the mat , a move Christian calls the Unprettier . The following week , Bischoff scheduled an Intercontinental championship match between Benjamin and Christian at Survivor Series . At Survivor Series , Benjamin retained the Intercontinental championship .
In November 2004 , Lita returned to the women 's division . She began a feud with Trish Stratus after Stratus called Lita " chubby " because of her pregnancy weight gain . Lita challenged Stratus to a WWE Women 's Championship match at Survivor Series , however , due to the months of humiliation and being verbally berated by Stratus , Lita was more concerned with doing as much damage as possible , leading to her disqualification .
= = = Reception = = =
The Bradley Center had a maximum capacity of 18 @,@ 000 , which was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 215 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 3 @,@ 500 . It also received 174 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Taboo Tuesday helped World Wrestling Entertainment earn $ 24 @.@ 7 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 18 @.@ 5 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon on November 23 , 2004 in a quarterly result . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event 5 out of 10 stars . The rating was lower than the Taboo Tuesday event in 2005 , which was rated 7 out of 10 stars . The Steel cage match was rated a ten of ten stars . The Lingerie Pillow Fight match was rated zero out of 10 stars .
The event was released on DVD on November 23 , 2004 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Sony Music Entertainment .
= = Results = =
= = = Battle royal eliminations = = =
= = = Voting results = = =
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= Nicolo Giraud =
Nicolo or Nicolas Giraud ( born c . 1795 – after 1815 ) was a friend and possibly a lover of the English Romantic poet Lord Byron . The two met in 1809 while Byron was staying in Athens . Giraud was reported to have taught him Italian , and was his travel companion in Greece . Byron paid for Giraud 's education and left him £ 7 @,@ 000 ( about £ 450 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in his will . Years after they parted company , Byron changed his will to exclude Giraud . Other than his involvement with Byron , little is known of Giraud 's life .
The friendship between Byron and Giraud has become a topic of interest among scholars and biographers of Byron . Many believe that the pair 's relationship was platonic , but correspondence between Byron and his friends has been used since the late 20th century to argue that the two were engaged in a love affair . The earliest claim of a sexual relationship between them comes from George Colman 's poem Don Leon , in which Byron is the principal character and Giraud is portrayed as his liberator from the sexual prejudices in Britain . The poem is not biographical ; it promotes Colman 's own social and political views .
= = Life = =
Nicolas Giraud was born in Greece to French parents ; the name by which he is most commonly known , Nicolo , was given to him by Byron . Giraud may have been the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Giovanni Battista Lusieri , a Roman painter and broker for Lord Elgin . Demetrius Zograffo , Byron 's guide in Greece , informed Byron that the 60 @-@ year @-@ old Lusieri was unmarried , and was courting two women , each of whom believed that Lusieri was to marry her . Lusieri certainly had a close relationship with Giraud , so it is possible that the two were related in another way , perhaps as father and son . Byron met Giraud in Athens in January 1809 , and the two were companions until Byron resumed his travels in March .
During the following year , Giraud was working at a Capuchin monastery when he was assigned to teach Byron Italian after the latter 's return to Greece . The two spent their days studying , swimming , and taking in the landscape as Byron composed poetry . In a letter to John Hobhouse , dated 23 August 1810 and written at the Capuchin monastery of Mendele near Athens where he was residing , Byron states :
But my friend , as you may easily imagine , is Nicolo who by @-@ the @-@ by , is my Italian master , and we are already very philosophical . I am his " Padrone " and his " amico " , and the Lord knows what besides . It is about two hours since , that , after informing me he was most desirous to follow him ( that is me ) over the world , he concluded by telling me it was proper for us not only to live , but " morire insieme " [ die together ] . The latter I hope to avoid – as much of the former as he pleases .
Byron took Giraud to visit Charles Meryon , an English doctor who recounted the visit in his memoirs and noted Byron 's vivid interest in the boy . Afterward , rumours were spread by Byron 's servant that the consultation concerned an anal rupture . Meryon was a travelling companion with Michael Bruce and Lady Hester Stanhope , one of Byron 's friends . Accounts from Bruce and Howe Browne , both witnesses to Byron 's interactions with Giraud , provided confirmation of the relationship to Byron 's early biographer Thomas Moore , although in disparaging terms . In mid @-@ 1810 , Giraud acted as Byron 's majordomo on their travels to the Peloponnese , and took care of Byron during his illness while at Patras , eventually becoming ill himself . After recovering , although still weak , the pair continued on their travels , arriving at Athens on 13 October . By November they were joined by Lusieri , Louis François Sébastien Fauvel , who was a French consul , and a group of German academics .
Byron and Giraud parted ways in Valletta , Malta . Byron saw to Giraud 's education by paying for his schooling in a monastery on the island . The two stayed in contact by letter , and after a year Giraud left the monastery , telling Byron that he was tired of the company of monks . Shortly after Giraud left Malta , Byron drew up for him in his will a bequest of £ 7 @,@ 000 ( £ 450 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , almost twice as much as he later lent for refitting the Greek Navy . The will read : " To Nicolo Giraud of Athens , subject of France , but born in Greece , the sume of seven thousand pounds sterling , to be paid from the sale of such parts of Rochdale , Newstead or elsewhere , as may enable the said Nicolo Giraud ... to receive the above sum on his attaining the age of twenty @-@ one years . " Byron later removed Giraud from his will ( as he did with John Edleston – who predeceased him – and other boyhood companions ) .
Giraud wrote to Byron in January 1815 :
My most precious Master , I cannot describe the grief of my heart at not seeing you for such a long time . Ah , if only I were a bird and could fly so as to come and see you for one hour , and I would be happy to die at the same time . Hope tells me that I shall see you again and that is my consolation for not dying immediately . It is two years now since I spoke English . I have completely forgotten it .
Byron had not been responding to Nicolo 's letters , which Nicolo mentions in the letter : " It is now almost three years that I am at Athens ; and have sent you many letters , but I have not received any answer " . It is possible that Byron did not respond because he was married and , according to the 20th @-@ century Byron biographer Phyllis Grosskurth , " Nicolo was the last person he would have wanted to hear from . "
= = Relationship with Byron = =
Giraud 's relationship with Byron has been a topic discussed by many of Byron 's biographers . Moore , Byron 's early biographer , described the relationship between Byron and Giraud as :
one of those extraordinary friendships – if attachment to persons so inferior to himself can be called by that name – of which I have already mentioned two or three instances in his younger days , and in which the pride of being a protector , and the pleasure of exerting gratitude , seem to have constituted to his mind the chief , pervading charm . The person , whom he now adopted in this manner , and from similar feelings to those which had inspired his early attachments to the cottage @-@ boy near Newstead , and the young chorister at Cambridge , was a Greek youth , named Nicolo Giraud , the son , I believe , of a widow lady , in whose house the artist Lusieri lodged . In this young man he appear [ s ] to have taken the most lively , and even brotherly , interest .
Moore 's work was commented on by Byron 's close friend , John Hobhouse , who noted that " Moore had not the remotest guess at the real reason which induced Lord B. at that time to prefer having no Englishman immediately or constantly near him . " Regardless of Moore 's bias against the lower class and Byron 's spending time with other boys during his times in Greece , Byron was close to Giraud while the two were together .
Early 20th @-@ century biographer André Maurois argues that " what Byron was capable of loving in another was a certain kind of innocence and youthfulness " and that the relationship was one of Byron 's " protective passions " . Likewise , G. Wilson Knight , in his 1953 biography of Byron , believes that Byron became protective over Giraud just as he did with all of the children he met during his travels . Giraud was special to Byron , and , according to Knight , " it was probably of Nicolo that he was thinking when he wrote that Greece was ' the only place I was ever contented in ' " . In Byron : A Biography , published in 1957 , Marchand points out that Byron " wished Hobhouse there to share the nonsensical gaiety " of when Byron and Giraud were together , but changed his mind after remembering that Hobhouse 's personality would not be conducive to entertainment . Their time together " was a relaxed pleasure that [ Byron ] was to remember more fondly than most of the adventures of his travels " .
A few critics disagree with the speculation over Giraud 's and Byron 's relationship . The early 20th @-@ century biographer Ethel Mayne points out both the frequency of such relationships in Byron 's life and their inherent ambiguity when she says , " His stay was also marked by one of those ambiguous friendships with a youth infinitely below him in rank which have already been seen to recur in his life ... The patron was supposed to be learning Italian from [ Girard ] ; this made a pretext for giving him , on their parting at Malta in 1811 ... a considerable sum of money " . Elizabeth Longford , in her 1976 biography , disagrees with the claims that there was a physical relationship between the two and argues , " Byron 's especial favourite among the ' ragazzi ' was Nicolo Giraud . He had first taken up with Nicolo while Hobhouse was away in Euboea the year before , but there is no evidence that his feelings for Nicolo were anything but romantic and protective . " Jerome Christensen followed this view in 1993 and adds , " we know little more than what Byron tells us " .
Christensen points out that " although there is no evidence that Lord Byron , padrone and amico , was ever so vulgar as to set an exact market value on his sexual arrangements in Greece , Nicolo Giraud , Eustathius 's replacement in Byron 's affections , was employed as ' dragoman and Major Domo ' , a position that almost certainly entailed payment in love and money " . D. L. MacDonald 's 1986 biography simply describes Giraud as " The great love of Byron 's Eastern tour " , and D. S. Neff 's 2002 work describes the two as part of " an amorous relationship " . Others , such Jay Losey and William Brewer in their analysis of 19th @-@ century sexuality , speculate that Byron 's relationship with Giraud was modeled on a Grecian form of pederasty , and homosexual studies scholar Louis Crompton believes that pederasty was a facet of Byron 's life and that his letters hinted towards a sexual relationship between Byron and Giraud . As Paul Douglass , in an analysis of Byron biographical studies , points out , Crompton also claims that biographers like Marchand ignored the nature of Byron 's relationship with Giraud . Douglass also mentions that Crompton 's work , Byron and Greek Love " focuses Byron 's life around a single issue , rather than attempting to create a larger view . Such studies prompt negative responses from those who feel the writer warps Byron to fit the theme , presenting a one @-@ sided account " .
Benita Eisler , in 2000 , argues that Giraud was one of many of Byron 's intended sexual conquests . Although , as Eisler claims , Byron was at first unable to attain " that state of total and complete satisfaction " of a sexual relationship with Giraud , he wrote to Charles Matthews declaring that he would soon conquer any of the boy 's remaining inhibitions . During Byron 's illness , Byron boasted to Hobhouse and Lady Melbourne that he continued to have sex with one such incident almost causing his death . Although it is uncertain , according to Eisler , " Whether this surfeit of erotic fulfillment involved only Nicolo as partner , he does not say . He was still fond enough of the boy , but his sexual obsession , with its attendant scorekeeping , seems to have run its course . " Nigel Leask , in 2004 , argues that Hobhouse would have disapproved of Byron 's relationship with Giraud , and Fiona MacCarthy notes in her 2002 biography that Lady Melbourne " would have understood his partner to be female " . In a survey of the various biographical opinions and disagreements about Byron 's relationships , including Giraud , written before 2004 , Douglass points out that " despite the greater certainty about his sexual ambivalence , the exact nature of those relationships remains elusive " .
= = = Don Leon = = =
George Colman , Byron 's friend , anonymously wrote a poem called Don Leon that , according to Bernard Grebanier , " depicts Byron as having wooed Giraud with gifts when they first met , and to have busied himself with developing the boy 's mind " .
The narrator of Don Leon praises Giraud and claims that Giraud was so beautiful that he :
Gave pleasing doubts of what his sex might be ;
And who that saw him would perplexed have been ,
For beauty marked his gender epicoene .
Throughout the poem , the narrator describes how Byron ( Don Leon ) spent his time with Giraud :
Spent half in love and half in poetry !
The muse each morn I wooed , each eve the boy ,
And tasted sweets that never seemed to cloy .
The poem ends with Giraud 's beauty conquering any fears that Byron may have about their relationship :
But thou , Giraud , whose beauty would unlock
The gates of prejudice , and bid me mock
The sober fears that timid minds endure ,
Whose ardent passions women only cure ,
Receive this faithful tribute to thy charms ,
Not vowed alone , but paid too in thy arms .
For here the wish , long cherished , long denied ,
Within that monkish cell was gratified .
G. Wilson Knight , unlike most early critics , thought the poem was worthy of response , although he says that it was from " the most indecent poet of high quality in our literature " . Grebanier believes that Colman , as " a recipient of Byron 's confidence during a crucial period of the poet 's life , and as a man who shared Byron 's hatred of pretense ... must have seen an ideal subject in presenting ruthlessly , even brutally , the basic truths about Byron 's moral dilemma , as a powerful means of blasting once more that sanctimoniousness which has always been fashionable in Britain . " Colman 's purpose was not necessarily to discuss Giraud , but to respond to those who spread rumours about Byron and criticized Byron for his failed marriage , the reason for his exile . The poem does focus on Giraud , and , as Grebanier argues , " If , the poem says , our hero 's affections were fastened upon Nicolo Giraud " then Byron 's actions are acceptable because " he was but following the custom of the country . Once he had seen a beautiful Ganymede of fifteen attending the Turkish Governor , a Grecian youth , publicly known as the Governor 's ' catamite . ' Was it criminal to do what the Governor was doing ? "
Byrne Fone , a historian of homosexuality @-@ related issues , emphasizes how the poem and the fictional discussion of Giraud and Byron 's relationship reveal insights into 19th @-@ century British views on homosexuality . To Fone , the poem was written by one who knew Byron and reveals Byron 's homosexuality . Fone also argues that the 1833 publication of the poem was prompted by the arrest of William Bankes , a homosexual friend of Byron , and the execution of Henry Nicholls for homosexual activity . The opening lines of the poem mention " crippled Talleyrand " , William Beckford and William Courtenay . Fone argues that the references to Beckford and Courtenay are used both to talk about the unfair treatment of homosexual men who had committed no real crime , and to emphasise England 's hypocrisy when it comes to sex . The poem then claims that England 's treatment of homosexuals forces Don Leon to travel to Greece in order to fulfill his desires and be free of intellectual control , which is fulfilled when Don Leon is able to be with Giraud . The fictional Giraud , according to Fone , allows Don Leon to break free of the homophobia of England . The poem , as he points out , tries to convince Moore to mention Byron 's homosexual desires . Fone concludes , " It is not only the poem that is an effective attack on homophobic prejudice , but the example of the poet himself . "
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= SMS Körös =
SMS Körös was the name ship of the Körös @-@ class river monitors built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Completed in 1892 , the ship was part of the Danube Flotilla , and fought various Allied forces from Belgrade down the Danube to the Black Sea during World War I. After the war , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Morava . She remained in service throughout the interwar period , although budget restrictions meant she was not always in full commission .
During the World War II German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Morava was the flagship of the 2nd Mine Barrage Division , and operated on the Tisza river . She fought off attacks by the Luftwaffe , and shot down one enemy aircraft , but was forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , navigating monitors was difficult , and she was scuttled by her crew on 11 April . Some of her crew tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but most surrendered on 14 April . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , which was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April . She was later raised by the navy of the Axis puppet state the Independent State of Croatia and continued in service as Bosna until June 1944 , when she struck a mine and sank .
= = Description and construction = =
The name ship of the Körös @-@ class river monitors was built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by H. Schönichen . She was laid down at Budapest on 30 March 1890 . Körös and her sister ship SMS Szamos doubled the size of Austria @-@ Hungary 's Danube Flotilla . The two monitors had an overall length of 54 m ( 177 ft 2 in ) , a beam of 9 m ( 29 ft 6 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) . Her displacement was 448 tonnes ( 441 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 77 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered using steam generated by two Yarrow boilers driving two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and carried 54 tonnes ( 53 long tons ) of coal . Her engines were rated at 1 @,@ 200 ihp ( 890 kW ) and she was designed to reach a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Körös was armed with two single gun turrets of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L35 fore and aft , two superfiring 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / L42 anti @-@ aircraft guns protected by gun shields on the superstructure fore and aft , and two machine guns . Her armour consisted of a belt and bulkheads 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , deck armour 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) thick , and conning tower and gun turret armour 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The armour was produced by the Witkowitz steel works , in Moravia . She was launched on 5 February 1892 and commissioned on 21 April of the same year . Her sister ship Szamos was completed in 1893 , and was identical except for 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) armour on her conning tower .
= = Career = =
= = = Commissioning and World War I = = =
= = = = Serbian campaign = = = =
At the start of World War I , Körös was based at Zemun , just upstream from Belgrade on the Danube . Her commander was Linienschiffsleutnant ( LSL ) Josef Meusburger , and she was accompanied by another three monitors and three patrol boats . Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 , and that night the flotilla fired the first shots of the war against fortifications at the Zemun – Belgrade railway bridge over the river Sava and on the Topčider Hill , although Körös was not initially involved . The Serbs were outgunned by the monitors , and by August began to receive assistance from the Russians . This support included the supply and emplacement of naval guns and the establishment of river obstacles and mines .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Zemun was briefly evacuated due to a Serbian counterattack in September . On 28 September , Körös , along with the monitor SMS Temes , a patrol boat and a minesweeper , broke through the minefields on the Sava near Belgrade and pushed upstream to join the fighting near Šabac . In November , French artillery support arrived in Belgrade , endangering the monitor 's anchorage . The stalemate continued until December 1914 when the Serbs briefly evacuated Belgrade in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault , although Körös did not support this action . After less than two weeks , the Austro @-@ Hungarians had to withdraw from Belgrade , and it was soon recaptured by the Serbs with Russian and French assistance . Körös continued in action against Serbia and her allies at Belgrade until December , when the base of the Danube Flotilla was withdrawn north to Petrovaradin for the winter .
In January 1915 , British artillery arrived in Belgrade , further bolstering its defences . On 22 April 1915 , a British picket boat that had been brought overland by rail from Salonika was used to attack the Danube Flotilla anchorage at Zemun , firing two torpedoes without success . Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in September 1915 , and the Serbian Army soon faced an overwhelming Austro @-@ Hungarian , German and Bulgarian ground invasion . On 7 October , the Austro @-@ Hungarian 3rd Army attacked Belgrade , and Körös , along with the majority of the flotilla , was heavily engaged in support of the crossings near the Belgrade Fortress and Ada Ciganlija island . During the final river crossing and support of the resulting bridgehead , the ship provided close support , during which her stack was hit and damaged . The following day , Körös assisted SMS Enns when the latter took a direct hit and began to take on water .
Following the capture of Belgrade , the flotilla sailed downstream to Orșova near the Hungarian – Romanian border and waited for the lower Danube to be swept for mines . It then escorted a series of munitions convoys down the Danube to Lom , from where they were transferred to the Bulgarian railway system for shipment to the Ottoman Empire .
= = = = Romanian campaign = = = =
In November 1915 , Körös and the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The position of Romania was uncertain ; the Central Powers were aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the opposing side of the Entente . To protect the Danube 's 480 km ( 300 mi ) border between Romania and Bulgaria , the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal . When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , and were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . The Second Monitor Division , consisting of Körös and three other monitors , was tasked with shelling Giurgiu . This bombardment set fire to oil storage tanks as well as the railway station and magazines , and sank several Romanian lighters . While the attack was underway , the First Monitor Division escorted supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . The Körös and her companions then destroyed two Romanian patrol boats and an improvised minelayer on their way back to Belene . This was followed by forays of the monitors both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled .
In April 1918 , Körös , along with three other monitors , two patrol boats and a tug , were formed into Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff . Flottenabteilung Wulff was sent through the mouth of the Danube and across the Black Sea to Odessa , where it spent several months supporting the Austro @-@ Hungarian troops enforcing the peace agreement with Russia . It returned to the Danube at the end of August , and was anchored at Brăila on 12 September . On 16 October , Körös and the rest of the First Monitor Division sailed from Brăila to Belene . For several weeks the Danube Flotilla was engaged in protecting Austro @-@ Hungarian troops retreating towards Budapest , fighting French and irregular Serbian forces as they withdrew ; the flotilla arrived in Belene on 6 November .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
= = = = 1919 – 41 = = = =
Immediately after the Armistice of Villa Giusti signed by the Austro @-@ Hungarians on 3 November 1918 , Körös was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in 1918 – 19 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye concluded in September 1919 , Körös was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Morava in 1920 . Her sister ship Szamos was dismantled and used as a pontoon . In 1925 – 26 , Morava was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
= = = = 1941 – 45 = = = =
On 6 April 1941 , when the World War II German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began , Morava was based at Stara Kanjiža on the Tisza river , as the flagship of the 2nd Mine Barrage Division . This force was responsible for the Hungarian border , and came under the operational control of the 7th Infantry Division Potiska . The remainder of the 2nd Mine Barrage Division consisted of the river tug R @-@ XXI , the river transport Senta , and a few mobilised customs motorboats , based further south on the Tisza at Senta . On 7 April , Morava withdrew to Senta , where she was attacked by German aircraft . According to her commander , Poručnik bojnog broda Božidar Aranđelović , her crew shot down one German aircraft and captured a Luftwaffe Oberstleutnant . On 10 April , Morava was ordered to withdraw to conform with the retreat of the 2nd Army Group of the Royal Yugoslav Army from Bačka and Baranja . On the evening of 11 April , Morava anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade , along with her fellow monitors Vardar and Sava , and Aranđelović took command of the flotilla . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , demolition charges on the bridge exploded prematurely and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed .
After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Morava and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac , and armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective . The larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo on 14 April before they surrendered . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , which was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
Morava was later raised and repaired by the navy of an Axis puppet state , the Independent State of Croatia , in which she served as Bosna . She served alongside her fellow monitor Sava , which had also been raised and repaired , but retained her name . Along with six captured motorboats and ten auxiliary vessels , they made up the riverine police force of the Croatian state . Bosna was part of the 2nd Patrol Group of the River Flotilla Command , headquartered at Zemun . She struck a mine near Bosanski Novi on the Una river and sank in June 1944 . The following year she was raised and broken up .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= The Turn of the Screw ( 2009 film ) =
The Turn of the Screw ( also known as Ghost Story : The Turn of the Screw ) is a British television film based on Henry James 's 1898 ghost story of the same name . Commissioned and produced by the BBC , it was first broadcast on 30 December 2009 , on BBC One . The novella was adapted for the screen by Sandy Welch , and the film was directed by Tim Fywell . Although generally true to the tone and story of James 's work , the film is set in the 1920s — in contrast to the original 1840s setting — and accentuates sexual elements that some theorists have identified in the novella . The film 's story is told in flashbacks during consultations between the institutionalised Ann ( Michelle Dockery ) and Dr Fisher ( Dan Stevens ) . Ann tells how she was hired by an aristocrat ( Mark Umbers ) to care for the orphans Miles ( Josef Lindsay ) and Flora ( Eva Sayer ) . She is met at the children 's home , Bly , by Mrs Grose ( Sue Johnston ) , the housekeeper . Ann soon begins to see unknown figures around the manor , and seeks an explanation .
Critics were divided in their reviews of The Turn of the Screw . The acting and tone of the production were generally praised , but the plot 's divergences from the original story were less well received . A particular disagreement concerned the film 's horrific elements ; some critics considered it to be genuinely scary , while others suggested that the horror was not fully effective . The original story has been much analysed owing to its ambiguity , and critics disagreed about the extent to which the film succeeded in portraying this trait . Academic analyses found the film considerably less ambiguous than the novella . The Turn of the Screw was released on DVD on 1 March 2010 in the UK and on 28 April 2015 in North America .
= = Production = =
The BBC had previously adapted several horror stories as Christmas films , with their series A Ghost Story for Christmas including adaptations of the M. R. James stories " The Stalls of Barchester Cathedral " ( filmed as The Stalls of Barchester ) , " A Warning to the Curious " , " Lost Hearts " , " The Treasure of Abbot Thomas " and " The Ash Tree " . The Turn of the Screw fits into this " mini @-@ genre " of the Christmas horror film . The BBC executive and drama commissioner Ben Stephenson , discussing The Turn of the Screw , said that " Christmas wouldn 't be Christmas without a ghost story for the adults to watch in front of the fire when the children are in bed , and they don 't get more chilling than this bold reimagining of the classic Henry James tale . " The film was commissioned by Stephenson and Jay Hunt , then controller of BBC One . It was directed by Tim Fywell , and produced by Colin Wratten ; the executive producer was Jessica Pope .
The film is an adaptation of Henry James 's 1898 novella The Turn of the Screw . As one of his more popular stories it had already been adapted for films and television many times , although not previously by the BBC . The adaptation was screenwritten by Sandy Welch , who set the film in the early 1920s , in contrast to the novella 's 1840s setting . This allowed the introduction of the Freudian psychiatrist interviewing the main character ; this framing device is not used by James , but both the novella and the film share a first @-@ person narrator . The updated setting also allowed the First World War to account for the lack of male staff at the house . The Freudian and libidinous elements some literary theorists have seen in James 's story are particularly prevalent in the film , with Ann 's repressed sexual feelings for the Master resulting in a number of highly sexual sequences . Further , Welch added a theological element not present in James 's story ; Ann 's father is a preacher , although Ann herself is unsure of her faith . The psychiatrist , by contrast , is an atheist . When he asks Ann about her faith , she replies that she believes in the Devil .
The changes to the story were mostly superficial , and the adaptation generally mirrors the novella 's tone . The television critic Matthew Baylis observed that the film creates unease and horror through distortions of reality , and that The Turn of the Screw is not a " screaming @-@ banshees @-@ and @-@ horrible @-@ corpses style of ghost story " . The film utilises subtle horror , including details such as a broken doll on a window ledge , and the fact that viewers never discover certain elements of the story ( for example , it is never revealed why the character Miles has been suspended from his boarding school ) . This , for Baylis , ties to the title of the film : " it 's the writer who puts the screw in the hole and the best ones ask the audience to turn it themselves " .
The Turn of the Screw was filmed on location in the West Country of England , beginning in August 2009 . The scenes at Bly were filmed at Brympton d 'Evercy , a manor house near Yeovil , Somerset . Brympton was chosen because of its similarity to Bly House , as described by James , including its extensive grounds and large lake . The railway scenes were filmed at the East Somerset Railway .
The Turn of the Screw starred Michelle Dockery as Ann , Sue Johnston as Mrs Sarah Grose , Dan Stevens as Dr Fisher , Mark Umbers as the Master , Nicola Walker as Carla , Edward MacLiam as Peter Quint and Katie Lightfoot as Emily Jessel . Corin Redgrave , who played the professor , was the son of Michael Redgrave , who starred in The Innocents , a 1961 adaption of The Turn of the Screw . The children , Flora and Miles , were played respectively by Eva Sayer and Josef Lindsay . However , due to the sexual content of the film , the child actors did not attend the preview screenings .
= = = Broadcast and release = = =
The Turn of the Screw was first shown at 9 pm on BBC One on 30 December 2009 , as part of the BBC 's Christmas 2009 season . It has since been broadcast on other BBC channels and on Drama . In the UK , the film was released on DVD on 1 March 2010 , and distributed by Acorn Media UK . The DVD was rated " 15 " by the British Board of Film Classification for " infrequent scenes of strong sex " . The film was released on DVD for the North American market as Ghost Story : The Turn of the Screw on 28 April 2015 . The DVD was unrated and had no extra features . Foreign language versions of the film include television screenings or DVD releases of the film in German ( Schloss des Schreckens ) , Finnish ( Ruuvikierre ) and Polish ( W kleszczach lęku ) .
= = Plot = =
The film 's story is told in a series of flashbacks interspersed with discussions between Ann ( Dockery ) , a patient in a sanatorium , and Dr Fisher ( Stevens ) , a sceptical and atheistic psychiatrist . Despite the suggestion of his superior ( Redgrave ) that he focus upon soldiers who have returned from the First World War , Fisher wishes to help Ann if he can .
In flashbacks , Ann is hired by a wealthy and sophisticated aristocrat ( Umbers ) to act as a governess for his orphaned nephew and niece who live at Bly . He tells her that he is not to be bothered in London , and that Ann is to deal with any problems that may arise . Ann travels to Bly , where she meets the all @-@ female household staff — led by Mrs Sarah Grose ( Johnston ) , the housekeeper — and then the young Flora ( Sayer ) , one of Ann 's new pupils . Ann finds the house somewhat unnerving , and the staff standoffish and unwilling to talk . Ann subsequently receives a letter informing her that Miles ( Lindsay ) , her other pupil , has been expelled from his boarding school , but is assured by Mrs Grose that Miles is well behaved . When he arrives at Bly , Ann finds Miles to be charming , and although he does not explain what happened at school , she does not push him . Her interactions with the children are idyllic , and they sail on Bly 's lake and enjoy picnics together . Meanwhile , Ann fantasises about the Master , futilely hoping that he will visit .
Ann discovers that her predecessor , Emily Jessel ( Lightfoot ) , is buried in Bly 's church , and is told that Jessel killed herself . She also begins to see the figures of a young man and a young woman around Bly . Mrs Grose dismisses Ann 's stories , but one maid , Carla ( Walker ) , tells Ann of the sexually abusive former valet Peter Quint ( MacLiam ) . Mrs Grose reveals that Carla had been badly affected by the War , and is prone to flights of fancy . Later , Ann is woken at night by the figure of the woman , and follows her to find Flora standing next to an open window . The pair see Carla fall from the roof , landing near Miles , who is in the garden . Ann rushes outside , and sees the male figure on the roof . Inside again , Mrs Grose assures Ann that she must be confused .
Ann believes the figures to be the ghosts of Quint and Jessel , seeking to continue their passionate and violent sexual encounters through Miles and Flora . However , she is concerned to find that others apparently cannot see the ghosts . She then begins to suspect that Miles and Flora , having been groomed by and involved in the activities of Quint and Jessel , may be deliberately seeking to bring the pair back . She resolves to leave Bly , but , when saying goodbye to Miles , learns that he , too , sees the figures . Minutes after leaving , she asks to be taken back . Later , Ann panics , believing Miles and Flora to have left the house . She finds them by the lake , but they are playing roughly ; when Miles pushes Flora 's head under the water , Ann sees the pair as Quint and Jessel . She rushes to intervene , and grapples with the figure which alternates between Quint and Miles . When Ann repeatedly strikes Miles , Mrs Grose stops her , and Flora says that she no longer wishes to see Ann . After ordering the staff and Flora away from Bly , Ann waits with Miles to confront Quint . The pair are scared , but when Quint arrives Ann tells Miles to demand that Quint leave him alone . Miles ( speaking with Quint 's voice ) shouts at Ann , but eventually ( in his own voice ) tells the ghostly Quint that he wishes him to leave . Ann embraces Miles , whose body goes limp .
Ann is found some time later by the police , clutching Miles 's dead body , but she refuses to speak of what happened until meeting Dr Fisher . He seems to accept Ann 's story , unconvinced by his own psychosexual explanations of her visions . Fisher is dismayed to see Ann led away by the police , accused of Miles 's murder , and he sees Quint 's face on one of the officers . The film closes with a new governess arriving at Bly .
= = Cast = =
= = Critical reception = =
The critical response to The Turn of the Screw was mixed . The film was praised by Matt Baylis , writing in The Express , as one of the better adaptations of James 's story . The Times 's David Chater , although he did not consider the film " terrifying " or " suppurate [ d ] in evil " , found it " never less than absorbing " , suspecting this would be particularly so for viewers unfamiliar with the story . The Daily Telegraph 's Simon Horsford felt that The Turn of the Screw " might not work on all levels but it is an unsettling interpretation nonetheless " . By contrast , Tom Sutcliffe , writing in The Independent , was unimpressed with the film , considering James 's novel to have been " comprehensively vandalised " , while Richard Whittaker , writing in The Austin Chronicle , felt that the film was " a particular and peculiar misfire " from Welch . The Turn of the Screw was chosen as " pick of the day " in The Sunday Times , despite the reviewer , Victoria Segal , expressing her view that the film was " far from perfect " . But she added that the flaws could be overlooked , and although there are times " when it grinds through the gears with a clunk and clatter " , the " spirit " of James 's story is retained .
Several other critics praised the way that the film had kept the tone of James 's story and the subtle approach to horror . This subtlety , according to a review in the Western Morning News , hit " exactly the right note of terror " , and the film was praised as genuinely scary by some critics . Whittaker , though generally critical of the film , felt it strongest when focussed on the house , children and ghosts . Paul Whitelaw , writing in The Scotsman , commended Welch and Fywell for sustaining a horrific atmosphere , and noted that the soundtrack added to the horror . For him , even the use of horror clichés was effective , contributing to the film 's atmosphere . The Guardian 's Phil Hogan expressed a contrary opinion : while he thought The Turn of the Screw " exquisitely turned out " , he felt the film 's use of clichés limited the extent to which it was actually scary . In a review for The Leader @-@ Post , Andy Cooper praised the " creepy atmosphere " and tension , but said that the film " [ fell ] short in the chills department " and " could have done with a few jolts of terror to breathe more life into it " .
The divergences from the original novella 's plot were generally not well received . Tim Teeman , reviewing The Turn of the Screw for The Times , felt the 1920s setting did not contribute to the story , as it was not properly developed . He compared the film to Sarah Waters 's novel The Little Stranger , a ghost story set in the 1920s in which the social upheavals of the decade are explored . Gerard Gilbert , writing both for The Independent and The Arts Desk , felt that Ann 's relationship to the Master was " unnecessarily sexed up " , and that this element added nothing to the story , and , in fact , detracted from it . In his review of the American DVD release for the Deseret Morning News , Chris Hicks said that he could not see why the changes had been made , and that the literalisation of the sex and violence detracted from the film . Whittaker suggested that The Turn of the Screw was " oddly sexually explicit " , and that the changes were unnecessary for the plot . The biggest problem , he suggested , was the introduction of the psychiatrist ; his discussions with Ann , which could easily be removed , served to remove the mystery from the plot , in Whittaker 's eyes . Sutcliffe was critical of the reframing of the story as a stereotypical account of how " a cocky young man of science has his certainties upturned " , and said the film took " the terrifying indeterminacies of the original " , turning them " into a slightly shabby ghost @-@ train ride " .
Critics disagreed about how successful the film was in capturing the novel 's ambiguity , which is part of the enduring appeal of James 's story . For Tim Dowling , a columnist for The Guardian , the film failed in this regard . The novella , Dowling explained , can be understood as a straightforward ghost story , but it can also be understood as a story about Ann 's madness , and there is further ambiguity concerning whether the children are being controlled by Quint and Jessel , or whether the children are controlling Ann . He suggested that " there 's probably a subtlety to all this ambiguity on the page which , when translated to the screen , just looks like having it both ways . " As a result , " the narrative was at times more evasive than ambiguous " . Whittaker felt that the film failed to appropriately present the novella 's ambiguity and implicit themes , saying that the adaptation " feels oddly obligated to fill in all those blanks , and it 's really the script 's fault " . Sutcliffe expressed a similar view ; for example , he noted that " when the governess sees Quint on the tower for the first time so do we , and the thing that really haunts us as we read the story — uncertainty — vanishes to be replaced by a much duller kind of fretfulness , about when something is next going to pop out at us . " By contrast , Chater and Teeman ( both writing for The Times ) felt the ambiguity of the film was praiseworthy , with Chater asking whether the ghosts truly exist or are just a manifestation of " hysterical imagination " , and Teeman suggesting that viewers will be more likely to believe ( with Dr Fisher ) that Ann 's retelling is accurate . The Scotsman 's Whitelaw praised Welch 's ability to balance the various subtexts of the film while still delivering an effective narrative .
The cast of the film were praised , with Dowling considering The Turn of the Screw " a slick production with strong performances " , and Cooper saying that the film features " a great supporting cast " . Critics particularly commended the performances of Dockery and Johnston . Dowling also picked out the performances of Lindsay and Sayer as worthy of note , while Whitelaw praised MacLiam , who was able " to personify pure evil with scarcely a line of dialogue " . Segal , by contrast , felt MacLiam was badly cast , which resulted in " one of the story 's primary dark forces [ looking ] more like a member of Elbow than the very essence of evil " .
= = Literary analysis = =
James 's novella The Turn of the Screw has been much analysed in academic literature , and , given that it has been frequently reinterpreted in the arts , discussion of many of the adaptations has found a place in the academic literature on Henry James and neo @-@ Victorian culture . Considering the frame narrative of the film , Anna Viola Sborgi , a literary theorist , argues that the fact that Ann begins the film in a sanatorium conveys the impression that the character is mad , resulting in a loss of ambiguity . Consequently , the film is left less a horror story and more a psychological thriller . Sborgi argues that the film is explicitly made psychological through particular narrative and visual choices ; for example , Miles appears at the train station in a ghost @-@ like way through a cloud of steam . The fact that the film is a thriller , she argues , is further expressed through the use of a collage of images before the opening scene . However , the use of horrific imagery ( including an open grave ) in the collage " highlight [ s ] the contradiction inherent in this rendering of the novella " : while the story is presented as psychological , the viewer is nonetheless drawn into the film as a horror story . Other than the atypical frame narrative , Sborgi considers the adaptation fairly conventional with regard to both setting and costume .
For the literary theorist Thomas S. Hischak , The Turn of the Screw is a weak adaptation of the novella , with poor acting which can be " ascribed to the trite , anachronistic dialogue and leaden direction " . He likens the film to In a Dark Place ( 2006 ) , another film adaptation of James 's novella , which focuses upon the supposed sexual aspects of the story . For Hischack , the 2009 film presents a governess who is not successful in repressing her sexuality . Ann 's fantasies of her own sexual encounters with the Master , as well as her visions of the sexual encounters between Quint and Jessel , " are among the many obvious and clumsy aspects of this adaptation " . Like Sborgi , Hischak sees little ambiguity in the film , calling it a " misguided adaptation that likes to spell things out for the viewer " .
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= Whale =
Whale is the common name for a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals . They are an informal grouping within the infraorder Cetacea , usually excluding dolphins and porpoises . Whales , dolphins and porpoises belong to the order Cetartiodactyla with even @-@ toed ungulates and their closest living relatives are the hippopotamuses , having diverged about 40 million years ago . The two parvorders of whales , baleen whales ( Mysticeti ) and toothed whales ( Odontoceti ) , are thought to have split apart around 34 million years ago . The whales comprise eight extant families : Balaenopteridae ( the rorquals ) , Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Cetotheriidae ( the pygmy right whale ) , Eschrichtiidae ( the gray whale ) , Monodontidae ( belugas and narwhals ) , Physeteridae ( the sperm whale ) , Kogiidae ( the dwarf and pygmy sperm whale ) , and Ziphiidae ( the beaked whales ) .
Whales are creatures of the open ocean ; they feed , mate , give birth , suckle and raise their young at sea . So extreme is their adaptation to life underwater that they are unable to survive on land . Whales range in size from the 2 @.@ 6 metres ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) and 135 kilograms ( 298 lb ) dwarf sperm whale to the 34 metres ( 112 ft ) and 190 metric tons ( 210 short tons ) blue whale , which is the largest creature that has ever lived . The sperm whale is the largest toothed predator on earth . Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism , in that the females are larger than males . Baleen whales have no teeth ; instead they have plates of baleen , a fringe @-@ like structure used to expel water while retaining the krill and plankton which they feed on . They use their throat pleats to expand the mouth to take in huge gulps of water . Balaenids have heads that can make up 40 % of their body mass to take in water . Toothed whales , on the other hand , have conical teeth designed for catching fish or squid . Baleen whales have a well developed sense of " smell " , whereas toothed whales have well @-@ developed hearing − their hearing , that is adapted for both air and water , is so well developed that some can survive even if they are blind . Some species , such as sperm whales , are well adapted for diving to great depths to catch squid and other favoured prey .
Whales have evolved from land @-@ living mammals . As such they must breathe air regularly , though they can remain submerged for long periods . They have blowholes ( modified nostrils ) located on top of their heads , through which air is taken in and expelled in the form of vapour . They are warm @-@ blooded , and have a layer of fat , or blubber , under the skin . With streamlined fusiform bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers , whales can travel at up to 20 knots , though they are not as flexible or agile as seals . Whales produce a great variety of vocalizations , notably the extended songs of the humpback whale . Although whales are widespread , most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres , and migrate to the equator to give birth . Species such as humpbacks and blue whales are capable of travelling thousands of miles without feeding . Males typically mate with multiple females every year , but females only mate every two to three years . Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them . Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively long period of time .
Once relentlessly hunted for their products , whales are now protected by international law . The North Atlantic right whales nearly became extinct in the twentieth century , with a population low of 450 , and the North Pacific gray whale population is ranked Critically Endangered by the IUCN . Besides whaling , they also face threats from bycatch and marine pollution . The meat , blubber and baleen of whales have traditionally been used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic . Whales have been depicted in various cultures worldwide , notably by the Inuit and the coastal peoples of Vietnam and Ghana , who sometimes hold whale funerals . Whales occasionally feature in literature and film , as in the great white whale of Herman Melville 's Moby Dick . Small whales , such as belugas , are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks , but breeding success has been poor and the animals often die within a few months of capture . Whale watching has become a form of tourism around the world .
= = Etymology and definitions = =
The word " whale " comes from the Old English whæl , related to the High German wal . Related forms are the Old Norse hvalr and the Swedish / Danish hval . The obsolete " whalefish " has a similar derivation , indicating a time when whales were thought to be fish . Other archaic English forms include wal , wale , whal , whalle , whaille , wheal , etc .
The term " whale " is sometimes used interchangeably with dolphins and porpoises , acting as a synonym for Cetacea . Six species of dolphins have the word " whale " in their name , collectively known as blackfish : the killer whale , the melon @-@ headed whale , the pygmy killer whale , the false killer whale , and the two species of pilot whales , all of which are classified under the family Delphinidae ( oceanic dolphins ) . Each species has a different reason for it , for example , the killer whale was named " Ballena asesina " by Spanish sailors , which translates directly to " whale assassin " or " whale killer " , but is more often translated to " killer whale " .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The whales are part of the largely terrestrial mammalian clade Laurasiatheria . Whales do not form a clade or order ; the infraorder Cetacea includes dolphins and porpoises , which are not considered whales .
Whales in green
A = Artiofabula
C = Cetruminantia
W = Whippomorpha
Cetaceans are divided into two parvorders : the largest parvorder , Mysticeti ( baleen whales ) , is characterized by the presence of baleen , a sieve @-@ like structure in the upper jaw made of keratin , which it uses to filter plankton , among others , from the water ; Odontocetes ( toothed whales ) are characterized by bearing sharp teeth for hunting , as opposed to their counterparts ' baleen .
Cetaceans and artiodactyls now are classified under the order Cetartiodactyla , often still referred to as Artiodactyla , which includes both whales and hippopotamuses . The hippopotamus and pygmy hippopotamus are the whale 's closest terrestrial living relatives .
= = = Mysticetes = = =
Mysticetes are also known as baleen whales . They have a pair of blowholes side @-@ by @-@ side and lack teeth , which renders them incapable of catching larger prey ; they instead have baleen plates which is a sieve @-@ like structure in the upper jaw made of keratin , which it uses to filter plankton and other food from the water ; this forces them to follow krill or plankton migrations . Some whales , such as the humpback , reside in the polar regions where they feed on a reliable source of schooling fish and krill . These animals rely on their well @-@ developed flippers and tail fin to propel themselves through the water ; they swim by moving their fore @-@ flippers and tail fin up and down . Whale ribs loosely articulate with their thoracic vertebrae at the proximal end , but do not form a rigid rib cage . This adaptation allows their chest to compress during deep dives as the pressure increases with depth . Mysticetes consist of four families : rorquals ( balaenopterids ) , cetotheriids , right whales ( balaenids ) , and gray whales ( eschrichtiids ) .
The main difference between each family of mysticete is in their feeding adaptations and subsequent behaviour . Balaenopterids are the rorquals . These animals , along with the cetotheriids , rely on their throat pleats to gulp large amounts of water while feeding . The throat pleats extend from the mouth to the navel and allow the mouth to expand to a large volume for more efficient capture of the small animals they feed on . Balaenopterids consist of two genera and eight species . Balaenids are the right whales . These animals have very large heads , which can make up as much as 40 % of their body mass , and much of the head is the mouth . This allows them to take in large amounts of water into their mouths , letting them feed more effectively . Eschrichtiids have one living member : the gray whale . They are bottom feeders , mainly eating crustaceans and benthic invertebrates . They feed by turning on their sides and taking in water mixed with sediment , which is then expelled through the baleen , leaving their prey trapped inside . This is an efficient method of hunting , in which the whale has no major competitors .
= = = Odontocetes = = =
Odontocetes are known as toothed whales ; they have teeth and only one blowhole . They rely on their well @-@ developed sonar to find their way in the water . Toothed whales send out ultrasonic clicks using the melon . Sound waves travel through the water . Upon striking an object in the water , the sound waves bounce back at the whale . These vibrations are received through fatty tissues in the jaw , which is then rerouted into the ear @-@ bone and into the brain where the vibrations are interpreted . All toothed whales are opportunistic , meaning they will eat anything they can fit in their throat because they are unable to chew . These animals rely on their well @-@ developed flippers and tail fin to propel themselves through the water ; they swim by moving their fore @-@ flippers and tail fin up and down . Whale ribs loosely articulate with their thoracic vertebrae at the proximal end , but they do not form a rigid rib cage . This adaptation allows the chest to compress during deep dives as opposed to resisting the force of water pressure . Excluding dolphins and porpoises , odontocetes consist of four families : belugas and narwhals ( monodontids ) , sperm whales ( physeterids ) , dwarf and pygmy sperm whales ( kogiids ) , and beaked whales ( ziphiids ) . There are six species , sometimes referred to as " blackfish " , that are dolphins commonly misconceived as whales : the killer whale , the melon @-@ headed whale , the pygmy killer whale , the false killer whale , and the two species of pilot whales , all of which are classified under the family Delphinidae ( oceanic dolphins ) .
The differences between families of odontocetes include size , feeding adaptations and distribution . Monodontids consist of two species : the beluga and the narwhal . They both reside in the frigid arctic and both have large amounts of blubber . Belugas , being white , hunt in large pods near the surface and around pack ice , their coloration acting as camouflage . Narwhals , being black , hunt in large pods in the aphotic zone , but their underbelly still remains white to remain camouflaged when something is looking directly up or down at them . They have no dorsal fin to prevent collision with pack ice . Physeterids and Kogiids consist of sperm whales . Sperm whales consist the largest and smallest odontocetes , and spend a large portion of their life hunting squid . P. macrocephalus spends most of its life in search of squid in the depths ; these animals do not require any degree of light at all , in fact , blind sperm whales have been caught in perfect health . The behaviour of Kogiids remains largely unknown , but , due to their small lungs , they are thought to hunt in the photic zone . Ziphiids consist of 22 species of beaked whale . These vary from size , to coloration , to distribution , but they all share a similar hunting style . They use a suction technique , aided by a pair of grooves on the underside of their head , not unlike the throat pleats on the rorquals , to feed .
= = = Evolution = = =
Whales are descendants of land @-@ dwelling mammals of the artiodactyl order ( even @-@ toed ungulates ) . They are related to the Indohyus , an extinct chevrotain @-@ like ungulate , from which they split approximately 48 million years ago . Primitive cetaceans , or archaeocetes , first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic 5 – 10 million years later . What defines an archaeocete is the presence of anatomical features exclusive to cetaceans , alongside other primitive features not found in modern cetaceans , such as visible legs or asymmetrical teeth . Their features became adapted for living in the marine environment . Major anatomical changes included their hearing set @-@ up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone ( Ambulocetus 49 mya ) , a streamlined body and the growth of flukes on the tail ( Protocetus 43 mya ) , the migration of the nostrils toward the top of the cranium ( blowholes ) , and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers ( Basilosaurus 35 mya ) , and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs ( the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 mya ) .
Today , the closest living relatives of cetaceans are the hippopotamuses ; these share a semi @-@ aquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls some 60 mya . Around 40 mya , a common ancestor between the two branched off into cetacea and anthracotheres ; nearly all anthracotheres became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene 2 @.@ 5 mya , eventually leaving only one surviving lineage - the hippo .
Whales split into two separate parvorders around 34 mya - the baleen whales ( Mysticetes ) and the toothed whales ( Odontocetes ) .
= = Biology = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
Whales have torpedo shaped bodies with non @-@ flexible necks , limbs modified into flippers , non @-@ existent external ear flaps , a large tail fin , and flat heads ( with the exception of monodontids and ziphiids ) . Whale skulls have small eye orbits , long snouts ( with the exception of monodontids and ziphiids ) and eyes placed on the sides of its head . Whales range in size from the 2 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) and 135 @-@ kilogram ( 298 lb ) dwarf sperm whale to the 34 @-@ metre ( 112 ft ) and 190 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 210 @-@ short @-@ ton ) blue whale . Overall , they tend to dwarf other cetartiodactyls ; the blue whale is the largest creature on earth . Several species have female @-@ biased sexual dimorphism , with the females being larger than the males . One exception is with the sperm whale , which has males larger than the females .
Odontocetes , such as the sperm whale , possess teeth with cementum cells overlying dentine cells . Unlike human teeth , which are composed mostly of enamel on the portion of the tooth outside of the gum , whale teeth have cementum outside the gum . Only in larger whales , where the cementum is worn away on the tip of the tooth , does enamel show . Mysticetes have large whalebone , as opposed to teeth , made of keratin . Mysticetes have two blowholes , whereas Odontocetes contain only one .
Breathing involves expelling stale air from the blowhole , forming an upward , steamy spout , followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs ; a humpback whale 's lungs can hold about 5 @,@ 000 litres of air . Spout shapes differ among species , which facilitates identification .
All whales have a thick layer of blubber . In species that live near the poles , the blubber can be as thick as 11 inches . This blubber can help with buoyancy ( which is helpful for a 100 @-@ ton whale ) , protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat , and energy for fasting when migrating to the equator ; the primary usage for blubber is insulation from the harsh climate . It can constitute as much as 50 % of a whales body weight . Calves are born with only a thin layer of blubber , but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos .
Whales have a two- to three @-@ chambered stomach that is similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores . Mysticetes contain a proventriculus as an extension of the oesophagus ; this contains stones that grind up food . They also have fundic and pyloric chambers .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Whales have two flippers on the front , and a tail fin . These flippers contain four digits . Although whales do not possess fully developed hind limbs , some , such as the sperm whale and bowhead whale , possess discrete rudimentary appendages , which may contain feet and digits . Whales are fast swimmers in comparison to seals , which typically cruise at 5 – 15 kn , or 9 – 28 kilometres per hour ( 5 @.@ 6 – 17 @.@ 4 mph ) ; the fin whale , in comparison , can travel at speeds up to 47 kilometres per hour ( 29 mph ) and the sperm whale can reach speeds of 35 kilometres per hour ( 22 mph ) . The fusing of the neck vertebrae , while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds , decreases flexibility ; whales are unable to turn their heads . When swimming , whales rely on their tail fin propel them through the water . Flipper movement is continuous . Whales swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down , propelling themselves through vertical movement , while their flippers are mainly used for steering . Some species log out of the water , which may allow then to travel faster . Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers . Most species have a dorsal fin .
Whales are adapted for diving to great depths . In addition to their streamlined bodies , they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen ; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs ; haemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissue ; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin . Before going on long dives , many whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding ; they stay close to the surface for a series of short , shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves , and then make a sounding dive .
= = = Senses = = =
The whale ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment . In humans , the middle ear works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air 's low impedance and the cochlear fluid 's high impedance . In whales , and other marine mammals , there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments . Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear , whales receive sound through the throat , from which it passes through a low @-@ impedance fat @-@ filled cavity to the inner ear . The whale ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air @-@ filled sinus pockets , which allow for greater directional hearing underwater . Odontocetes send out high frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon . This melon consists of fat , and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression . The melon size varies between species , the bigger the more dependent they are of it . A beaked whale for example has a small bulge sitting on top of its skull , whereas a sperm whale 's head is filled up mainly with the melon .
The whale eye is relatively small for its size , yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight . As well as this , the eyes of a whale are placed on the sides of its head , so their vision consists of two fields , rather than a binocular view like humans have . When belugas surface , their lens and cornea correct the nearsightedness that results from the refraction of light ; they contain both rod and cone cells , meaning they can see in both dim and bright light , but they have far more rod cells than they do cone cells . Whales do , however , lack short wavelength sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells indicating a more limited capacity for colour vision than most mammals . Most whales have slightly flattened eyeballs , enlarged pupils ( which shrink as they surface to prevent damage ) , slightly flattened corneas and a tapetum lucidum ; these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye and , therefore , a very clear image of the surrounding area . In water , a whale can see around 10 @.@ 7 metres ( 35 ft ) ahead of itself , but , of course , they have a smaller range above water . They also have glands on the eyelids and outer corneal layer that act as protection for the cornea .
The olfactory lobes are absent in toothed whales , suggesting that they have no sense of smell . Some whales , such as the bowhead whale , possess a vomeronasal organ , which does mean that they can " sniff out " krill .
Whales are not thought to have a good sense of taste , as their taste buds are atrophied or missing altogether . However , some toothed whales have preferences between different kinds of fish , indicating some sort of attachment to taste . The presence of the Jacobson 's organ indicates that whales can smell food once inside their mouth , which might be similar to the sensation of taste .
= = = Communication = = =
Whale vocalization is likely to serve several purposes . Some species , such as the humpback whale , communicate using melodic sounds , known as whale song . These sounds may be extremely loud , depending on the species . Humpback whales only have been heard making clicks , while toothed whales use sonar that may generate up to 20 @,@ 000 watts of sound ( + 73 dBm or + 43 dBw ) and be heard for many miles .
Captive whales have occasionally been known to mimic human speech . Scientists have suggested this indicates a strong desire on behalf of the whales to communicate with humans , as whales have a very different vocal mechanism , so imitate human speech likely takes considerable effort .
Whales emit two distinct kinds of acoustic signals , which are called whistles and clicks : Clicks are quick broadband burst pulses , used for sonar , although some lower @-@ frequency broadband vocalizations may serve a non @-@ echolocative purpose such as communication ; for example , the pulsed calls of belugas . Pulses in a click train are emitted at intervals of ~ 35 – 50 milliseconds , and in general these inter @-@ click intervals are slightly greater than the round @-@ trip time of sound to the target . Whistles are narrow @-@ band frequency modulated ( FM ) signals , used for communicative purposes , such as contact calls .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Whales are known to teach , learn , cooperate , scheme , and grieve . The neocortex of many species of whale is home to elongated spindle neurons that , prior to 2007 , were known only in hominids . In humans , these cells are involved in social conduct , emotions , judgement , and theory of mind . Whale spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain that are homologous to where they are found in humans , suggesting that they perform a similar function .
Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal . Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions , greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks . Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass . Comparison of a particular animal 's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence . Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth , averaging 8 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres ( 490 in3 ) and 7 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 17 lb ) in mature males , in comparison to the average human brain which averages 1 @,@ 450 cubic centimetres ( 88 in3 ) in mature males . The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes , such as belugas and narwhals , is second only to humans .
Small whales are known to engage in complex play behaviour , which includes such things as producing stable underwater toroidal air @-@ core vortex rings or " bubble rings " . There are two main methods of bubble ring production : rapid puffing of a burst of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface , forming a ring , or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the helical vortex currents thus formed . They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex @-@ rings , so that they burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface . Some believe this is a means of communication . Whales are also known to produce bubble @-@ nets for the purpose of foraging .
Larger whales are also thought , to some degree , to engage in play . The southern right whale , for example , elevates their tail fluke above the water , remaining in the same position for a considerable amount of time . This is known as " sailing " . It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of Argentina and South Africa . Humpback whales , among others , are also known to display this behaviour .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Whales are fully aquatic creatures , which means that birth and courtship behaviours are very different from terrestrial and semi @-@ aquatic creatures . Since they are unable to go onto land to calve , they deliver the baby with the fetus positioned for tail @-@ first delivery . This prevents the baby from drowning either upon or during delivery . To feed the new @-@ born , whales , being aquatic , must squirt the milk into the mouth of the calf . Being mammals , they , of course , have mammary glands used for nursing calves ; they are weaned off at about 11 months of age . This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber ; it contains so much fat that it has the consistency of toothpaste . Females deliver a single calf with gestation lasting about a year , dependency until one to two years , and maturity around seven to ten years , all varying between the species . This mode of reproduction produces few offspring , but increases the survival probability of each one . Females , referred to as " cows " , carry the responsibility of childcare as males , referred to as " bulls " , play no part in raising calves .
Most mysticetes reside at the poles . So , to prevent the unborn calf from dying of frostbite , they migrate to calving / mating grounds . They will then stay there for a matter of months until the calf has developed enough blubber to survive the bitter temperatures of the poles . Until then , the calves will feed on the mother 's fatty milk . With the exception of the humpback whale , it is largely unknown when whales migrate . Most will travel from the Arctic or Antarctic into the tropics to mate , calve , and raise during the winter and spring ; they will migrate back to the poles in the warmer summer months so the calf can continue growing while the mother can continue eating , as they fast in the breeding grounds . One exception to this is the southern right whale , which migrates to Patagonia and western New Zealand to calve ; both are well out of the tropic zone .
= = = Sleep = = =
Unlike most animals , whales are conscious breathers . All mammals sleep , but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown . While knowledge of sleep in wild cetaceans is limited , toothed cetaceans in captivity have been recorded to sleep with one side of their brain at a time , so that they may swim , breathe consciously , and avoid both predators and social contact during their period of rest .
A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow ' drift @-@ dives ' , generally during the day , during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact , leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Foraging and predation = = =
All whales are carnivorous and predatory . Odontocetes , as a whole , mostly feed on fish and cephalopods , and then followed by crustaceans and bivalves . All species are generalist and opportunistic feeders . Mysticetes , as a whole , mostly feed on krill and plankton , followed by crustaceans and other invertebrates . A few are specialists . Examples include the blue whale , which eats almost exclusively krill , the minke whale , which eats mainly schooling fish , the sperm whale , which specialize on squid , and the gray whale which feed on bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates . The elaborate baleen " teeth " of filter @-@ feeding species , mysticetes , allow them to remove water before they swallow their planktonic food by using the teeth as a sieve . Usually whales hunt solitarily , but they do sometimes hunt cooperatively in small groups . The former behaviour is typical when hunting non @-@ schooling fish , slow @-@ moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey . When large amounts of prey are available , whales such as certain mysticetes hunt cooperatively in small groups . Some cetaceans may forage with other kinds of animals , such as other species of whales or certain species of pinnipeds .
Large whales , such as mysticetes , are not usually subject to predation , but smaller whales , such as monodontids or ziphiids , are . These species are preyed on by the killer whale or orca . To subdue and kill whales , orcas continuously ram them with their heads ; this can sometimes kill bowhead whales , or severely injure them . Other times they corral the narwhals or belugas before striking . They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer orcas , but they are seldom attacked by an individual . Calves are more commonly taken by orcas , but adults can be targeted as well .
These small whales are also targeted by terrestrial and pagophilic predators . The polar bear is well adapted for hunting Arctic whales and calves . Bears are known to use sit @-@ and @-@ wait tactics as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water . Whales lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups . This however means less room around the breathing hole as the ice slowly closes the gap . When out at sea , whales dive out of the reach of surface @-@ hunting orcas . Polar bear attacks on belugas and narwhals are usually successful in winter , but rarely inflict any damage in summer .
= = = Whale pump = = =
A 2010 study considered whales to be a positive influence to the productivity of ocean fisheries , in what has been termed a " whale pump . " Whales carry nutrients such as nitrogen from the depths back to the surface . This functions as an upward biological pump , reversing an earlier presumption that whales accelerate the loss of nutrients to the bottom . This nitrogen input in the Gulf of Maine is " more than the input of all rivers combined " emptying into the gulf , some 23 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 000 short tons ) each year . Whales defecate at the ocean 's surface ; their excrement is important for fisheries because it is rich in iron and nitrogen . The whale faeces are liquid and instead of sinking , they stay at the surface where phytoplankton feed off it .
= = = Whale fall = = =
Upon death , whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life . Evidence of whale falls in present @-@ day and fossil records shows that deep sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures , with a global diversity of 407 species , comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots , such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents .
Deterioration of whale carcasses happens though a series of three stages . Initially , moving organisms such as sharks and hagfish , scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months , and as long as two years . This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments ( which contain organic matter ) by enrichment opportunists , such as crustaceans and polychaetes , throughout a period of years . Finally , sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing hydrogen sulphide enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms , which in turn , support other organisms such as mussels , clams , limpets , and sea snails . This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species , averaging 185 species per site .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Whaling = = =
Whaling by humans has existed since the Stone Age . Ancient whalers used harpoons to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea . People from Norway started hunting whales around 2000 B.C. , and people from Japan began hunting whales in the Pacific at least as early . Whales are typically hunted for their meat and blubber by aboriginal groups ; they used baleen for baskets or roofing , and made tools and masks out of bones . The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean . The Basques started whaling as early as the 11th century , sailing as far as Newfoundland in the 16th century in search of right whales . 18th and 19th century whalers hunted down whales mainly for their oil , which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant , baleen or whalebone , which was used for items such as corsets and skirt hoops , and ambergris , which was used as a fixative for perfumes . The most successful whaling nations at this time were Holland , Japan , and the United States .
Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries . Whaling was at that time a sizeable European industry with ships from Britain , France , Spain , Denmark , the Netherlands and Germany , sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic , sometimes in competition leading even to war . By the early 1790s , whalers , namely the Americans and Australians , mainly focused efforts in the South Pacific where they mainly hunted sperm whales and right whales , with catches of up to 39 @,@ 000 right whales by Americans alone . By 1853 , U.S. profits turned to US $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( UK £ 6.5m ) , equivalent to US $ 348 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( UK £ 230m ) today , the most profitable year for the American whaling industry . Commonly exploited species included North Atlantic right whales , sperm whales , which were mainly hunted by Americans , bowhead whales , which were mainly hunted by the Dutch , common minke whales , blue whales , and gray whales . The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially after 1982 when the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country , excluding aboriginal groups until 2004 .
Current whaling nations are Norway , Iceland , and Japan , despite their joining to the IWC , as well as the aboriginal communities of Siberia , Alaska , and northern Canada . Subsistence hunters typically use whale products for themselves and depend on them for survival . National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of hunting are seen as less destructive and wasteful . This distinction is being questioned as these aboriginal groups are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with , and are selling whale products in the marketplace . Some anthropologists argue that the term " subsistence " should also apply to these cash @-@ based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption . In 1946 , the IWC placed a moratorium , limiting the annual whale catch . Since then , yearly profits for these " subsistence " hunters have been close to US $ 31 million ( UK £ 20m ) per year .
= = = Other threats = = =
Whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly . They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as bycatch and accidentally swallow fishing hooks . Gillnetting and Seine netting is a significant cause of mortality in whales and other marine mammals . Species commonly entangled include beaked whales . Whales are also affected by marine pollution . High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain . They have large reserves of blubber , more so for toothed whales as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales . Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young . These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases . They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter , such as plastic bags . Environmentalists speculate that advanced naval sonar endangers some whales . Some scientists suggest that sonar may trigger whale beachings , and they point to signs that such whales have experienced decompression sickness .
= = = Conservation = = =
The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially after 1946 when , in response to the steep decline in whale populations , the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country ; this excluded aboriginal groups up until 2004 . As of 2015 , aboriginal communities are allowed to take 280 bowhead whales off of Alaska and two from the western coast of Greenland , 620 gray whales off of Washington state , three common minke whales off of the eastern coast of Greenland and 178 on their western coast , 10 fin whales from the west coast of Greenland , nine humpback whales from the west coast of Greenland and 20 off of St. Vincent and the Grenadines each year . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , Grey whales may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting , but the North Atlantic population is functionally extinct . Conversely , the North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched across the North Atlantic , and only remains in small fragments along the coast of Canada , Greenland , and is considered functionally extinct along the European coastline .
The IWC has designated two whale sanctuaries : the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary , and the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary . The Southern Ocean whale sanctuary spans 30 @,@ 560 @,@ 860 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 799 @,@ 610 sq mi ) and envelopes Antarctica . The Indian Ocean whale sanctuary takes up all of the Indian Ocean south of 55 ° S. The IWC is a voluntary organization , with no treaty . Any nation may leave as they wish ; the IWC cannot enforce any law it makes .
As of 2013 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) recognized 86 cetacean species , 40 of which are considered whales . Six are considered at risk , as they are ranked Critically Endangered ( the North Atlantic right whale ) , " Endangered " ( blue whale , fin whale , North Pacific right whale , and sei whale ) , and " Vulnerable " ( sperm whale ) . Twenty @-@ one species have a " Data Deficient " ranking . Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing climate change , particularly the time when pack ice forms and melts .
= = = Whale watching = = =
An estimated 13 million people went whale watching globally in 2008 , in all oceans except the Arctic . Rules and codes of conduct have been created to minimize harassment of the whales . Iceland , Japan and Norway have both whaling and whale watching industries . Whale watching lobbyists are concerned that the most inquisitive whales , which approach boats closely and provide much of the entertainment on whale @-@ watching trips , will be the first to be taken if whaling is resumed in the same areas . Whale watching generated US $ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( UK £ 1 @.@ 4 billion ) per annum in tourism revenue worldwide , employing around 13 @,@ 000 workers . In contrast , the whaling industry , with the moratorium in place , generates US $ 31 million ( UK £ 20 million ) per year . The size and rapid growth of the industry has led to complex and continuing debates with the whaling industry about the best use of whales as a natural resource .
= = = In myth , literature and art = = =
As marine creatures that reside in either the depths or the poles , humans knew very little about whales over the course of history ; many feared or revered them . The Nords and various arctic tribes revered the whale as they were important pieces of their lives . In Inuit creation myths , when ' Big Raven ' , a deity in human form , found a stranded whale , he was told by the Great Spirit where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus , return order to the world . In an Icelandic legend , a man threw a stone at a fin whale and hit the blowhole , causing the whale to burst . The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years , but during the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him .
Whales played a major part in shaping the art forms of many coastal civilizations , such as the Norse , with some dating to the Stone Age . Petroglyphs off a cliff face in Bangudae , South Korea show 300 depictions of various animals , a third of which are whales . Some show particular detail in which there are throat pleats , typical of rorquals . These petroglyphs show these people , of around 7 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 B.C.E. in South Korea , had a very high dependency on whales .
The Pacific Islanders and Australian Aborigines viewed whales as bringers of good and joy . One exception is French Polynesia , where in many parts , cetaceans are met with great brutality .
In Vietnam and Ghana , among other places , whales hold a sense of divinity . They are so respected in their cultures that they occasionally hold funerals for beached whales , a throwback to Vietnam 's ancient sea @-@ based Austro @-@ Asiatic culture . The god of the seas , according to Chinese folklore , was a large whale with human limbs .
Whales have also played a role in sacred texts such as the Bible . It mentions whales in Genesis 1 : 21 , Job 7 : 12 , and Ezekiel 32 : 2 . The " leviathan " described at length in Job 41 : 1 @-@ 34 is generally understood to refer to a whale . The " sea monsters " in Lamentations 4 : 3 have been taken by some to refer to marine mammals , in particular whales , although most modern versions use the word " jackals " instead . The story of Jonah being swallowed by a great fish is told both in the Qur 'an and in the Bible . A medieval column capital sculpture depicting this was made in the 12th century in the abbey church in Mozac , France . The Old Testament contains the Book of Jonah and in the New Testament , Jesus mentions this story in Matthew 12 : 40 .
In 1585 , Alessandro Farnese , 1585 , and Francois , Duke of Anjou , 1582 , were greeted on his ceremonial entry into the port city of Antwerp by floats including " Neptune and the Whale " , indicating at least the city 's dependence on the sea for its wealth .
Whales continue to be prevalent in modern literature . For example , Herman Melville 's Moby Dick features a " great white whale " as the main antagonist for Ahab , who eventually is killed by it . The whale is an albino sperm whale , considered by Melville to be the largest type of whale , and is partly based on the historically attested bull whale Mocha Dick . Rudyard Kipling 's Just So Stories includes the story of " How the Whale got in his Throat " . Niki Caro 's film the Whale Rider has a Māori girl ride a whale in her journey to be a suitable heir to the chieftain @-@ ship . Walt Disney 's film Pinocchio features a giant whale named Monstro as the final antagonist . Alan Hovhaness ' orchestra And God Created Great Whales including the recorded sounds of humpback and bowhead whales . Léo Ferré 's song " Il n 'y a plus rien " is an example of biomusic that begins and ends with recorded whale songs mixed with a symphonic orchestra and his voice .
= = = In captivity = = =
Belugas were the first whales to be kept in captivity . Other species were too rare , too shy , or too big . The first beluga was shown at Barnum 's Museum in New York City in 1861 . For most of the 20th century , Canada was the predominant source of wild belugas . They were taken from the St. Lawrence River estuary until the late 1960s , after which they were predominantly taken from the Churchill River estuary until capture was banned in 1992 . Russia has become the largest provider since it had been banned in Canada . Belugas are caught in the Amur River delta and their eastern coast , and then are either transported domestically to aquariums or dolphinariums in Moscow , St. Petersburg , and Sochi , or exported to other countries , such as Canada . Most captive belugas are caught in the wild , since captive @-@ breeding programs are not very successful .
As of 2006 , 30 belugas were in Canada and 28 in the United States , and 42 deaths in captivity had been reported up to that time . A single specimen can reportedly fetch up to US $ 100 @,@ 000 ( UK £ 64 @,@ 160 ) on the market . The beluga 's popularity is due to its unique colour and its facial expressions . The latter is possible because while most cetacean " smiles " are fixed , the extra movement afforded by the beluga 's unfused cervical vertebrae allows a greater range of apparent expression .
Between 1960 and 1992 , the Navy carried out a program that included the study of marine mammals ' abilities with sonar , with the objective of improving the detection of underwater objects . A large number of belugas were used from 1975 on , the first being dolphins . The program also included training them to carry equipment and material to divers working underwater by holding cameras in their mouths to locate lost objects , survey ships and submarines , and underwater monitoring . A similar program was used by the Russian Navy during the Cold War , in which belugas were also trained for antimining operations in the Arctic .
Aquariums have tried housing other species of whales in captivity . The success of belugas turned attention to maintaining their relative , the narwhal , in captivity . However , in repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s , all narwhals kept in captivity died within months . A pair of pygmy right whales were retained in an enclosed area ( with nets ) ; they were eventually released in South Africa . There was one attempt to keep a stranded Sowerby 's beaked whale calf in captivity ; the calf rammed into the tank wall , breaking its rostrum , which resulted in death . It was thought that Sowerby 's beaked whale evolved to swim fast in a straight line , and a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) was not big enough . There have been attempts to keep baleen whales in captivity . There were three attempts to keep gray whales in captivity . Gigi was a gray whale calf that died in transport . Gigi II was another gray whale calf that was captured in the Ojo de Liebre Lagoon , and was transported to SeaWorld . The 680 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) calf was a popular attraction , and behaved normally , despite being separated from his mother . A year later , the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 18 @,@ 000 lb ) whale grew too big to keep in captivity and was released ; it was the first of two gray whales , the other being another gray whale calf named JJ , to successfully be kept in captivity . There were three attempts to keep minke whales in captivity in Japan . They were kept in a tidal pool with a sea @-@ gate at the Izu Mito Sea Paradise . Another , unsuccessful , attempt was made by the U.S. One stranded humpback whale calf was kept in captivity for rehabilitation , but died days later .
= = = Cryptid whales = = =
Over the last few hundred years sailors and whalers have reported seeing whales they cannot identify . Giglioli 's whale is a purported species of baleen whale observed by Enrico Hillyer Giglioli . Trunko is the nickname for a whale @-@ like creature reportedly sighted in Margate , South Africa in 1924 . The high @-@ finned sperm whale , or Physeter tursio , is a supposed variant or relative of the known sperm whale , Physeter macrocephalus , said to live in the seas around the Shetland Islands , the Southern Ocean , and Nova Scotia .
= = = Books = = =
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= Cobalt =
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27 . Like nickel , cobalt is found in the Earth 's crust only in chemically combined form , save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron . The free element , produced by reductive smelting , is a hard , lustrous , silver @-@ gray metal .
Cobalt @-@ based blue pigments ( cobalt blue ) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints , and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass , but the color was later thought by alchemists to be due to the known metal bismuth . Miners had long used the name kobold ore ( German for goblin ore ) for some of the blue @-@ pigment producing minerals ; they were so named because they were poor in known metals , and gave poisonous arsenic @-@ containing fumes upon smelting . In 1735 , such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal ( the first discovered since ancient times ) , and this was ultimately named for the kobold .
Today , some cobalt is produced specifically from various metallic @-@ lustered ores , for example cobaltite ( CoAsS ) , but the main source of the element is as a by @-@ product of copper and nickel mining . The copper belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Central African Republic and Zambia yields most of the cobalt mined worldwide .
Cobalt is primarily used in the preparation of magnetic , wear @-@ resistant and high @-@ strength alloys . The compounds , cobalt silicate and cobalt ( II ) aluminate ( CoAl2O4 , cobalt blue ) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass , ceramics , inks , paints and varnishes . Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope , cobalt @-@ 59 . Cobalt @-@ 60 is a commercially important radioisotope , used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high energy gamma rays .
Cobalt is the active center of coenzymes called cobalamins , the most common example of which is vitamin B12 . As such , it is an essential trace dietary mineral for all animals . Cobalt in inorganic form is also micronutrient for bacteria , algae and fungi .
= = Characteristics = =
Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8 @.@ 9 . The Curie temperature is 1 @,@ 115 ° C ( 2 @,@ 039 ° F ) and the magnetic moment is 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 7 Bohr magnetons per atom . Cobalt has a relative permeability two @-@ thirds that of iron . Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures : hcp and fcc . The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 ° C ( 842 ° F ) , but in practice , the energy difference is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common .
Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that in pure metallic form , is protected from oxidation by a passivating oxide film . It is attacked by halogens and sulfur . Heating in oxygen produces Co3O4 which loses oxygen at 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) to give the monoxide CoO . The metal reacts with fluorine ( F2 ) at 520 K to give CoF3 ; with chlorine ( Cl2 ) , bromine ( Br2 ) and iodine ( I2 ) , producing equivalent binary halides . It does not react with hydrogen gas ( H2 ) or nitrogen gas ( N2 ) even when heated , but it does react with boron , carbon , phosphorus , arsenic and sulfur . At ordinary temperatures , it reacts slowly with mineral acids , and very slowly with moist , but not with dry , air .
= = Compounds = =
Common oxidation states of cobalt include + 2 and + 3 , although compounds with oxidation states ranging from − 3 to + 4 are also known . A common oxidation state for simple compounds is + 2 ( cobalt ( II ) ) . These salts form the pink @-@ colored metal aquo complex [ Co ( H2O ) 6 ] 2 + in water . Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue [ CoCl
4 ] 2 − .
In a borax bead flame test , cobalt shows deep blue in both the oxydizing and reducing flames .
= = = Oxygen and chalcogen compounds = = =
Several oxides of cobalt are known . Green cobalt ( II ) oxide ( CoO ) has rocksalt structure . It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt ( III ) hydroxide ( Co ( OH ) 3 ) . At temperatures of 600 – 700 ° C , CoO oxidizes to the blue cobalt ( II , III ) oxide ( Co3O4 ) , which has a spinel structure . Black cobalt ( III ) oxide ( Co2O3 ) is also known . Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature : CoO ( Néel temperature 291 K ) and Co3O4 ( Néel temperature : 40 K ) , which is analogous to magnetite ( Fe3O4 ) , with a mixture of + 2 and + 3 oxidation states .
The principal chalcogenides of cobalt include the black cobalt ( II ) sulfides , CoS2 , which adopts a pyrite @-@ like structure , and cobalt ( III ) sulfide ( Co2S3 ) .
= = = Halides = = =
Four dihalides of cobalt ( II ) are known : cobalt ( II ) fluoride ( CoF2 , pink ) , cobalt ( II ) chloride ( CoCl2 , blue ) , cobalt ( II ) bromide ( CoBr2 , green ) , cobalt ( II ) iodide ( CoI2 , blue @-@ black ) . These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms . Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue , the hydrate is red .
The reduction potential for the reaction
Co3 + + e − → Co2 +
is + 1 @.@ 92 V , beyond that for chlorine to chloride , + 1 @.@ 36 V. Consequently , cobalt ( III ) and chloride would result in the cobalt ( III ) being reduced to cobalt ( II ) . Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high , + 2 @.@ 87 V , cobalt ( III ) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt ( III ) compounds . Cobalt ( III ) fluoride , which is used in some fluorination reactions , reacts vigorously with water .
= = = Coordination compounds = = =
As for all metals , molecular compounds and polyatomic ions of cobalt are classified as coordination complexes , that is , molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to several ligands . The principles of electronegativity and hardness – softness of a series of ligands can be used to explain the usual oxidation state of cobalt . For example , Co + 3 complexes tend to have ammine ligands . Because phosphorus is softer than nitrogen , phosphine ligands tend to feature the softer Co2 + and Co + , an example being tris ( triphenylphosphine ) cobalt ( I ) chloride ( ( P ( C6H5 ) 3 ) 3CoCl ) . The more electronegative ( and harder ) oxide and fluoride can stabilize Co4 + and Co5 + derivatives , e.g. caesium hexafluorocobaltate ( Cs2CoF6 ) and potassium percobaltate ( K3CoO4 ) .
Alfred Werner , a Nobel @-@ prize winning pioneer in coordination chemistry , worked with compounds of empirical formula [ Co ( NH3 ) 6 ] Cl3 . One of the isomers determined was cobalt ( III ) hexammine chloride . This coordination complex , a typical Werner @-@ type complex , consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six ammine orthogonal ligands and three chloride counteranions . Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives tris ( ethylenediamine ) cobalt ( III ) chloride ( [ Co ( en ) 3 ] Cl3 ) , which was one of the first coordination complexes to be resolved into optical isomers . The complex exists in the right- and left @-@ handed forms of a " three @-@ bladed propeller " . This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow @-@ gold needle @-@ like crystals .
= = = Organometallic compounds = = =
Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene with cobalt in place of iron . Cobaltocene is much more sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene . Cobalt carbonyl ( Co2 ( CO ) 8 ) is a catalyst in carbonylation and hydrosilylation reactions . Vitamin B12 ( see below ) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only vitamin that contains a metal atom .
= = Isotopes = =
59Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope to exist naturally on Earth . 22 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 60Co with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 2714 years , 57Co with a half @-@ life of 271 @.@ 8 days , 56Co with a half @-@ life of 77 @.@ 27 days , and 58Co with a half @-@ life of 70 @.@ 86 days . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are shorter than 18 hours , and the majority of these are shorter than 1 second . This element also has 4 meta states , all of which have half @-@ lives shorter than 15 minutes .
The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u ( 50Co ) to 73 u ( 73Co ) . The primary decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope , 59Co , is electron capture and the primary mode of decay for those of greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay . The primary decay products before 59Co are element 26 ( iron ) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 ( nickel ) isotopes .
= = History = =
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass , glazes , and ceramics . Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture and Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC , in the ruins of Pompeii ( destroyed in 79 AD ) , and in China dating from the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 AD ) and the Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 AD ) .
Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age . The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass , cast during the 14th century BC . Blue glass items from Egypt are colored with copper , iron , or cobalt . The oldest cobalt @-@ colored glass is from the Eighteenth dynasty in Egypt ( 1550 – 1292 BC ) . The source of that cobalt is unknown .
The word cobalt is derived from the German kobalt , from kobold meaning " goblin " , a superstitious term used for the ore of cobalt by miners . The first attempts to smelt those ores for copper or nickel failed , yielding simply powder ( cobalt ( II ) oxide ) instead . Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic , smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile arsenic oxide , adding to the notoriety of the ore .
Swedish chemist Georg Brandt ( 1694 – 1768 ) is credited with discovering cobalt circa 1735 , showing it to be a previously unknown element , different from bismuth and other traditional metals . Brandt called it a new " semi @-@ metal . " He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass , which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt . Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre @-@ historical period , during which all the known metals ( iron , copper , silver , gold , zinc , mercury , tin , lead and bismuth ) had no recorded discoverers .
During the 19th century , a significant part of the world 's production of cobalt blue ( a dye made with cobalt compounds and alumina ) and smalt ( cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting ) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket . The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway , Sweden , Saxony and Hungary . With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864 , the mining of cobalt in Europe declined . With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario , Canada in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914 , the mining operations shifted again . When the Shaba conflict started in 1978 , the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production . The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected : cobalt is a rare metal , the pigment is highly toxic , and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials . In some cases , industry was able to change to cobalt @-@ free alternatives .
In 1938 , John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered the radioisotope cobalt @-@ 60 . This isotope was famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta decay .
After World War II , the US wanted to guaranteed the supply of cobalt ore for military uses ( as the Germans had been during ) and prospected for cobalt within the U.S. border . An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near Blackbird canyon in the side of a mountain . The firm Calera Mining Company started production at the site .
= = Occurrence = =
The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovas through the r @-@ process . It comprises 0 @.@ 0029 % of the Earth 's crust and is one of the first transition metals .
Free cobalt ( the native metal ) is not found on Earth because of oxygen in the atmosphere and chlorine in the ocean . Oxygen and chlorine are abundant enough in the upper layers of the Earth 's crust to prevent the formation of native metal cobalt . Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron , pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth ( see below ) . Though the element is of medium abundance , natural compounds of cobalt are numerous . Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks , soil , plants , and animals .
In nature , cobalt is frequently associated with nickel , and both are characteristic components of meteoric iron , though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel . As with nickel , cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free ( but alloyed ) metal , though neither element is seen in that form in the ancient terrestrial crust .
Cobalt in compound form occurs as a minor component of copper and nickel minerals . It is the major metallic component in combination with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite ( CoAsS ) , safflorite ( CoAs2 ) , glaucodot ( ( Co , Fe ) AsS ) , and skutterudite ( CoAs3 ) minerals . The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together with vaesite in the copper deposits of the Katanga Province . Upon contact with the atmosphere , weathering occurs and the sulfide minerals oxidize to form pink erythrite ( " cobalt glance " : Co3 ( AsO4 ) 2 · 8H2O ) and spherocobaltite ( CoCO3 ) .
= = Production = =
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite , erythrite , glaucodot and skutterudite ( see above ) , but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by @-@ products of nickel and copper mining and smelting .
In 2005 , the copper deposits in the Katanga Province ( former Shaba province ) of the Democratic Republic of the Congo were the top producer of cobalt with almost 40 % world share , reports the British Geological Survey . The political situation in the Congo influences the price of cobalt significantly .
The Mukondo Mountain project , operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company in Katanga , may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world . It is estimated able to produce about one third of total global production of cobalt in 2008 . In July 2009 CAMEC announced a long term agreement under which CAMEC would deliver its entire annual production of cobalt in concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China .
Several methods exist for the separation of cobalt from copper and nickel . They depend on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore . One separation step involves froth flotation , in which surfactants bind to different ore components , leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores . Subsequent roasting converts the ores to the cobalt sulfate , whereas the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide . Leaching with water extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates . The residues are further leached with sulfuric acid , yielding a solution of copper sulfate . Cobalt can also be leached from the slag of copper smelting .
The products of the above @-@ mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide ( Co3O4 ) . This oxide is reduced to the metal by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace .
Human rights activists allege that child labor is used in some African countries to mine a portion of the worldwide supply of cobalt .
= = Applications = =
The main application of cobalt is the production of high performance alloys .
= = = Alloys = = =
Cobalt @-@ based superalloys consume most of the produced cobalt . The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and jet aircraft engines , though nickel @-@ based single crystal alloys surpass them in performance . Cobalt @-@ based alloys are also corrosion and wear @-@ resistant , making them ( along with titanium ) useful in medical orthopedic implants that do not wear down over time . The development of wear @-@ resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys , containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon . Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear resistant . Special cobalt @-@ chromium @-@ molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts ( hip and knee replacements ) . Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel , which may be allergenic . Some high speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear @-@ resistance . The special alloys of aluminium , nickel , cobalt and iron , known as Alnico , and of samarium and cobalt ( samarium @-@ cobalt magnet ) are used in permanent magnets . It is also alloyed with 95 % platinum for jewelry , yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting and is also slightly magnetic .
= = = Batteries = = =
Lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO2 ) is widely used in lithium ion battery cathodes . The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers in which the lithium is intercalated . During discharge , the lithium released as lithium ion . Nickel @-@ cadmium ( NiCd ) and nickel metal hydride ( NiMH ) batteries also include cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery .
= = = Catalysts = = =
Several cobalt compounds are used in chemical reactions as oxidation catalysts . Cobalt acetate is used for the conversion of xylene to terephthalic acid , the precursor to the bulk polymer polyethylene terephthalate . Typical catalysts are the cobalt carboxylates ( known as cobalt soaps ) . They are also used in paints , varnishes , and inks as " drying agents " through the oxidation of drying oils . The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel @-@ belted radial tires .
Cobalt @-@ based catalysts are used in reactions involving carbon monoxide . Steam reforming , useful in hydrogen production , uses cobalt oxide @-@ base catalysts . Cobalt is also a catalyst in the Fischer – Tropsch process for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels . Hydroformylation of alkenes often uses cobalt octacarbonyl as a catalyst , although it is often replaced by more efficient iridium- and rhodium @-@ based catalysts , e.g. the Cativa process .
The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum . This process helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels .
= = = Pigments and coloring = = =
Before the 19th century , cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment . Since the Middle Ages , it has been used in the production of smalt , a blue colored glass . Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of the roasted mineral smaltite , quartz and potassium carbonate , yielding a dark blue silicate glass which is finely ground after the production . Smalt was widely used for the coloration of glass and as pigment for paintings . In 1780 , Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green , and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt blue . Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue ( cobalt aluminate ) , cerulean blue ( cobalt ( II ) stannate ) , various hues of cobalt green ( a mixture of cobalt ( II ) oxide and zinc oxide ) , and cobalt violet ( cobalt phosphate ) are used as artist 's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability . Aureolin ( cobalt yellow ) is now largely replaced by more lightfast yellow pigments .
= = = Radioisotopes = = =
Cobalt @-@ 60 ( Co @-@ 60 or 60Co ) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in predictable quantity and high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons . It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1 @.@ 17 and 1 @.@ 33 MeV .
It is used in external beam radiotherapy , sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste , radiation treatment of foods for sterilization ( cold pasteurization ) , industrial radiography ( e.g. weld integrity radiographs ) , density measurements ( e.g. concrete density measurements ) , and tank fill height switches . The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust , causing problems with radiation protection . Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly , and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984 , when a discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt @-@ 60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez , Mexico .
Cobalt @-@ 60 has a radioactive half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 27 years . The loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators in modern radiation therapy .
Cobalt @-@ 57 ( Co @-@ 57 or 57Co ) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests , as a radiolabel for vitamin B12 uptake , and for the Schilling test . Cobalt @-@ 57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X @-@ ray fluorescence devices .
Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate 59Co , some of which would be activated in a nuclear explosion to produce 60Co . The 60Co , dispersed as nuclear fallout , creates what is sometimes called a cobalt bomb .
= = = Other uses = = =
Cobalt is used in electroplating for its attractive appearance , hardness , resistance to oxidation ; it is used as a base primer coat for porcelain enamels .
= = Biological role = =
Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals . It is a key constituent of cobalamin , also known as vitamin B12 , the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element . Bacteria in the guts of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B12 , a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea . The minimum presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of grazing animals , and an uptake of 0 @.@ 20 mg / kg a day is recommended because they have no other source of vitamin B12 .
In the early 20th century during the development for farming of the North Island Volcanic Plateau of New Zealand , cattle suffered from what was termed " bush sickness " . It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain . The ailment was cured by adding small amounts of cobalt to fertilizers in the form of Superphosphate ( at the time derived from Canadian sources ) .
The " coast disease " of sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia in the 1930s was found to originate in nutritional deficiencies of the trace elements , cobalt and copper . The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of " cobalt bullets " , dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal 's rumen .
Non @-@ ruminant herbivores produce vitamin B12 from bacteria in their colons which again make the vitamin from simple cobalt salts . However , the vitamin cannot be absorbed from the colon and non @-@ ruminants must ingest feces to obtain the nutrient . Other non @-@ ruminants that do not follow these habits must ingest the vitamin from other animal products , and cannot benefit from ingesting simple cobalt salts .
Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt . Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C @-@ Co bond that participates in the reactions . In humans , B12 has two types of alkyl ligand : methyl and adenosyl . MeB12 promotes methyl ( -CH3 ) group transfers . The adenosyl version of B12 catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent , X , which may be a carbon atom with substituents , an oxygen atom of an alcohol , or an amine . Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase ( MUT ) converts MMl @-@ CoA to Su @-@ CoA , an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats .
Although far less common than other metalloproteins ( e.g. those of zinc and iron ) , cobaltoproteins are known aside from B12 . These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2 , an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B12 , but binds cobalt directly . Another non @-@ corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase , an enzyme in bacteria that metabolize nitriles .
= = Precautions = =
Cobalt is an essential element for life in minute amounts . The LD50 value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg / kg . Thus , for a 100 kg person the LD50 for a single dose would be about 20 grams . In the US , the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has designated a permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) in the workplace as a time @-@ weighted average ( TWA ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 05 mg / m3 , time @-@ weighted average . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) value is 20 mg / m3 .
However , chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose . In 1966 , the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin @-@ induced cardiomyopathy , which came to be known as beer drinker 's cardiomyopathy .
After nickel and chromium , cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis .
Cobalt can be effectively absorbed by charred pigs bones ; however this process is inhibited by copper and zinc ; which have greater affinities to bone char .
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= Museum of Socialist Art , Sofia =
The Museum of Socialist Art ( Bulgarian : Музей на социалистическото изкуство , Muzey na sotsialisticheskoto izkustvo ) in Sofia , is a museum of art which covers the history of the communist regime in Bulgaria . It was established on 19 September 2011 amidst a controversy over the name , which was initially proposed as " Museum of Totalitarian Art " . The museum 's collection of large and small statues , busts , and paintings represents the period from 1944 to 1989 , from the time of introduction of communism to Bulgaria to the end of the totalitarian regime . The museum spread over an area of 7 @,@ 500 square metres ( 81 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in the Sofia suburb known as " Red Star is in three parts - a park with sculpture installations drawn from the communist period , an exhibition hall with paintings and easel representations , and a media or video hall in which films and newsreels related to the communist period are screened .
= = History = =
Many projects were mooted since the 1990s for establishing museums of communism in Sofia , Dimitrovgrad , and Haskovo , but none came to fruition . During the same period , many monuments of the Soviet regime were destroyed or dismantled . During the summer of 2011 attempts to create exhibits on the role of the communist regime in Bulgaria were made by a group of artists who painted " pop icons " on the Soviet army memorial in Sofia in June 2011 . At that point , the government decided to establish museums in Bulgaria and also to restore dismantled monuments . The establishment of the Museum of Contemporary Art , the Museum of Ancient Sofia , and the National Museum Complex ( renamed as " the Bulgarian Louvre " ) came to be established in Sofia as a result of that decision . At the same time it was decided by Ministry of Culture to create the Museum of Socialist Art in Sofia to enhance the city 's cultural ambiance and its position as a major tourist attraction , in conformity with similarly themed museums that had been established in many cities of Eastern Europe . It was also considered and accepted by the ministry that the museum would be a subsidiary of the National Gallery of Art . Vezhdi Rashidov , the Minister of Culture , himself a sculptor , took the initiative to see through the project of creating the museum for exhibiting the artistic heritage of the communist regime . The Government of Bulgaria fully supported the initiative and provided funds to the extent of 1 @.@ 5 million euros to establish the museum , hoping that the revenue from the sale of entry tickets would recover this cost in a period of 2 years . The remnants of the socialist regime were found from basement of very town in Bulgaria for installation at the museum before it formally opened on 19 September 2011 .
Amidst controversy , the museum 's name , originally planned to be " Museum of Totalitarian Art " , was changed to " Museum of Socialist Art " . The new museum was formally inaugurated on 19 September 2011 .
At the inauguration , which was held in the presence of Prime Minister Boyko Borisov , Mayor of Sofia Yordanka Fandakova , and many ministers , the Finance Minister Simeon Djankov stated : " We are closing one page of the Bulgarian history and communism is going where it belongs – in the museum ... Bulgaria has already shaken it off and is moving forward " . The date of the inauguration also marked the formal occupation of Bulgaria by communists in 1944 . As journalist Georgi Lozanov noted : " Bulgaria must have a museum of communism that will tell new generations the story of a period that should never again become reality " .
= = Description = =
The museum , a branch of the national art gallery , has a display of socialist regime of 45 years ( 1944 @-@ 89 ) period of art symbols and other artifacts and archives with statues in the park . The museum covers an area of 7 @,@ 500 square metres ( 81 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in the Sofia suburb known as " Red Star " . It consists of three parts : a park in which 77 statues or sculptures drawn from the communist period , including a statue of Vladimir Lenin , have been erected ; an exhibition hall with 60 paintings and 25 easel paintings representations ; and a media or video hall in which propaganda films and newsreels related to the communist period are screened . There is also a souvenir kiosk where communist period memorabilia are sold . The museum 's collection covers the period from 1944 to 1989 , from the introduction of communism to Bulgaria to the end of the totalitarian regime . At the entrance of the museum stands a large " five @-@ pointed star " which had earlier adorned the Party House in Sofia from 1954 to 1984 . The statue park , which is said to be the " most representative part of the museum " , features statues , busts , and figures of popular communist leaders and activists , of poets , sculptures of Red army soldiers , agricultural and industrial workers , and so forth .
Within the museum hall there are sculptures of communist leaders Todor Zhivkov , Vladimir Lenin , and Joseph Stalin . Some of the exhibits with artistic expression are attributed to many well @-@ known sculptors of the communist regime . Paintings made by artists during the communist regime are also on display , including depictions of the entry of the Soviet Army in 1944 , the creation of communist party branches , portraits , and landscapes . Most of the exhibits on display are of " trials of the partisan and resistance movement during World War II " , the creation of the socialistic pattern of society , and people 's contented life . Some of the paintings depict " Herculean @-@ sized laborers " . Many oil paintings extol the presumed theme of " eternal friendship " between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union . In the museum 's restaurant also there are portraits of Karl Marx , Lenin , Engles and Stalin which are evocative of incongruity .
In 2012 , an exhibition on " The Cultural Opening of Bulgaria to the World " , which was the creation of Lyudmila daughter of Todor Zhivkov who ruled in 1953 , and which brought into focus " a golden age of socialist culture " was also exhibited at this museum .
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= The Don ( Nas song ) =
" The Don " is a song by American rapper Nas . Released as the second single from his tenth studio album , Life Is Good ( 2012 ) , it is produced by record producers Da Internz , Heavy D and Salaam Remi , who all helped write the song along with Nas , although Heavy D died before the song could be finished . Built around a sample of " Dance in New York " by reggae singer Super Cat , a former collaborator of Nas , " The Don " is backed by a boom bap , reggae @-@ tinged production with additional drum and piano sounds . Lyrically , Nas attempts to reaffirm his status as a " street poet " , addressing the hardships of poverty within disadvantaged societies and the realities of weapon and drug problems .
" The Don " was released to digital retailers on April 3 , 2012 . Although the song was not commercially successful , charting only in the lower regions of the UK Singles Chart , it received acclaim from music critics , many of whom praised Nas ' rapping style and lyrics , especially the realistic persona he conveyed . Some also pronounced themselves impressed with Nas ' motivation at such a point in his long career . A music video for " The Don " , directed by Aristotle Torres , was premiered on April 27 , 2012 , which attempts to present several aspects of Nas ' lifestyle , including performing at concerts , as well as his experiences in New York City , his place of residence .
= = Background = =
" The Don " was produced by Da Internz , Heavy D and Salaam Remi – the latter a regular collaborator with Nas on many of his previous songs , including the singles " I Can " and " Made You Look " . Heavy D originally presented the song " Dance in New York " , by reggae singer Super Cat to Remi in the belief that Remi could create a " crazy " production if he could choose an appropriate part of the song to sample and edit . Nas , who had worked with Super Cat earlier in his career , claimed that Super Cat actually mentioned him in " Dance in New York " on his first listening of the song . Remi began to try and edit the song , and put together the bassline that would eventually be used on " The Don " , but could not work with the sample that he had been given extensively : after learning the identity of the original producer of " Dance in New York " , Jah Thomas , he paid Thomas in return for use of the song 's multitrack .
Remi continued to work on the production whilst also putting together material for the posthumous Amy Winehouse album Lioness : Hidden Treasures ( 2011 ) in London : whilst there , he learnt of Heavy D 's recent death , encouraging him to complete the production for " The Don " . After Nas received the song , he requested that production duo Da Internz work on " The Don " and edit it further before it would be rapped over . In an interview with XXL , Da Internz called it " an honour that you wouldn 't believe " to have worked on the song once they knew of Heavy D 's involvement in its conception , as they had wished to work with him before he died : they also praised Nas ' attitude in the recording studio , describing " his bars [ and ] his approach " as " just special " . Following the song 's completion , radio disc jockey Funkmaster Flex premiered " The Don " on the New York City radio station Hot 97 on March 15 , 2012 ; Def Jam Recordings later released it to digital retailers on April 3 , 2012 .
= = Recording = =
" The Don " was written by Nasir Jones , Dwight Myers , Salaam Gibbs , Marcos Palacios and Ernest Clark , and produced by Myers under his production name Heavy D , Gibbs under his production name Salaam Remi , and Palacios and Clark under their production name Da Internz . Gibbs also provided additional bass sounds in the song 's production . The song was recorded by Gleyder Disla at Instrument Zoo Studios and by Brian Summer at Conway Recording Studios – recording studios in Miami , Florida and Hollywood , California respectively . Reggae artists Super Cat and Jah Thomas are credited as writers on " The Don " , as a sample of the song " Dance in New York " , which the duo wrote together , is interpolated in " The Don " . Audio mixing was carried out by Jaycen Joshua at Larrabee Studios in Hollywood , California , with additional vocals being provided by Red Alert . " The Don " was mastered by Chris Gehringer at Sterling Sound , New York City .
= = Composition = =
" The Don " is a hip hop song of three minutes and two seconds in length . It begins with the first use of a sample of " Dance in New York " by Super Cat , used as a means of explaining the importance of music to poorer communities . Following this , Nas ' lyrics are backed by an " airy " , boom bap @-@ orientated production , composed by producers Da Internz , Heavy D and Salaam Remi , containing influences of reggae , whilst also featuring a prominent " bass thud " , staccato drum and piano break – similar in style to much of the production featured on Nas ' debut album , Illmatic ( 1994 ) . Other parts of " Dance in New York " are blended into the song 's production throughout . A reviewer for DJBooth felt that the production shared an old @-@ fashioned aesthetic with Nas ' previous single , " Nasty " , noting that " The Don " " shares its predecessor ’ s grimy , old @-@ school informed yet forward @-@ looking feel " . Ken Capobianco shared similar sentiments about the song 's style , observing that it " evoke [ s ] the sound and feel of New York ’ s ' 90s hip @-@ hop heyday " . Henry Adaso of About.com noted Nas ' lyrics as consistent with his persona of a " street poet " , writing that " there are gun threats , car boasts , thoughts of rooftop sex , shoutouts to New York rap pioneers , and references to real drug rings " . According to Rolling Stone writer Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson , Nas " deftly " addresses his earlier life by describing " a concise portrait of the artist as a young man " . Heavy D , who died before the song was fully completed , is also mentioned by Nas in the song 's lyrics , where he notes that Heavy D was the one who came up with the production and the ideas behind it before he showed it to Remi .
= = Reception = =
" The Don " received universal acclaim from music critics , with Nas 's lyrics drawing particular praise . Rico Barrino of Artistdirect praised Nas 's rapping as being able to impress in different contexts , calling his lyrics " both catchy and commanding " and noted his " precise , potent lyrical poetry honed by 20 years in the game " . Writing for MTV News , Rob Markman called the production " a sonic departure " from Nas ' previous work , but complimented his lyrics as " vintage " and pointed out the consistency of the lyrical quality throughout the song . In his review of " The Don " for About.com , Henry Adaso described the song as " the type of lyrical exercise Nas only throws down once or twice per album " , and that songs such as " The Don " gave a case for Nas ' inclusion " as one of hip @-@ hop 's all @-@ time greats " , also picking up on his " assured " boasts and the " quiet confidence " enveloped in his tone . Adaso also expressed a positive response towards the song 's production , expressing his surprise that having three different producers working on the song had not led to a " case of too many cooks in the kitchen " , writing that " instead , we get a cohesive , hard @-@ hitting , face @-@ melting , reggae @-@ tinged beat " . A reviewer of the song for DJBooth wrote of Nas ' performance as " at turns wistful , threatening and braggadocious " , and praised the production 's " compulsively head @-@ noddable groove " . In their review of Life Is Good , Sputnikmusic recommended " The Don " to first @-@ time listeners of Nas , stating to be an exhibition of Nas ' " incredible lyrical structures " and " how rapidly this guy can punch out the syllables " . They also noted it as a " change of pace " from the more downtempo material on Life Is Good . In his review of Life Is Good for Prefix Magazine , Charlie Kaplan called " The Don " the album 's " clear highlight " and felt it a fitting tribute to Heavy D 's life and work , writing that it " raises a glass to the recently departed overweight lover with a vivid tour of New York rap 's classic soundscapes " . For the chart week dated July 28 , 2012 , " The Don " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 196 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
A music video for " The Don " was filmed in New York City , and directed by Aristotle Torres . On April 18 , 2012 , a 30 @-@ second promotional clip of the video was released online , which contained shots of skyscrapers and Nas being escorted out of a crowd of party @-@ goers into a white Rolls @-@ Royce . Graphics then appear , announcing the forthcoming release of the full video .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a shot of a yacht out on water , which then segues to an image of the Statue of Liberty : the words " Nas " and " The Don " have been superimposed in mid @-@ air on the left and right @-@ hand sides of the statue respectively . After quickly moving between various images of New York City , Nas is shown sitting at a table at an open air restaurant with a female , at which point he raps the opening lyrics of the song . Again , the video moves rapidly between images , this time addressing Nas ' lifestyle , with shots of sunglasses , jackets and shirts all featured . Shortly following this , Nas is escorted into a white Rolls Royce , wearing a white suit . He is then shown standing in a ring of fire set up on the ground , whilst continuing to recite lyrics from the song .
The video then continues to alternate between three different settings : Nas ' journey in the Rolls Royce , during which he is driven around New York ; him standing in the ring of fire , performing lyrics from the song ; and him sitting in a club , surrounded by several women , also performing lyrics from the song . Black @-@ and @-@ white shots are then shown of Nas performing at a concert , with many fans shown supporting him . Finally , the video ends with several aerial shots of New York City , and an image of the letter " N " burned into the ground .
= = Live performances = =
Nas first performed " The Don " live on March 18 , 2012 , as part of a set specially organised by video service Vevo at the music festival South by Southwest . At the 2012 ESPY Awards , Nas performed " The Don " as part of a medley of songs from Life Is Good , including " Nasty " and " Summer on Smash " , the latter which he performed with rapper and producer Swizz Beatz . On July 17 , 2012 , as part of an appearance on the satirical television program The Colbert Report , Nas performed both " The Don " and the single " Daughters " , a song which also appears on Life Is Good .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" The Don " – 3 : 02
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits for " The Don " are adapted from the liner notes of Life Is Good .
Recording
Recorded at : Instrument Zoo Studios in Miami , Florida , and Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Nas – songwriting , vocals
Da Internz – songwriting , production
Heavy D – songwriting , production
Salaam Remi – songwriting , production , bass
Marcos Palacios – songwriting
Ernest Clark – songwriting
Super Cat – songwriting
Jah Thomas – songwriting
Gleyder Disla – recording
Brian Summer – recording
Jaycen Joshua – mixing
Red Alert – additional vocals
Chris Gehringer – mastering
Samples
Contains elements of " Dance in New York " , performed by Super Cat and written by William Maragh and Nkrumah Thomas .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Astoria Riverfront Trolley =
The Astoria Riverfront Trolley is a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) heritage streetcar line that operates in Astoria , Oregon , United States , using former freight railroad tracks along or near the south bank of the Columbia River , with no overhead line . The service began operating in 1999 , using a 1913 @-@ built streetcar from San Antonio , Texas . As of 2012 , the service was reported as carrying 35 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 passengers per year and has been called a " symbol " and " icon " of Astoria . The line 's operation is seasonal , normally during spring break and from May through September .
Volunteers from the non @-@ profit Astoria Riverfront Trolley Association ( ARTA ) operate the service and maintain the streetcar and tracks , but the city of Astoria has provided some funds for certain purchases , including a new carbarn in 2001 and a contribution to the cost of purchasing the streetcar . The car was on loan from San Antonio for the first seven years , but was purchased by ARTA in August 2005 . By 2004 , the Trolley had become " one of Astoria 's most popular features " and " a main attraction in the city of Astoria " .
= = Pre @-@ opening history = =
The idea of creating a heritage streetcar system in Astoria , as part of efforts to redevelop and revitalize the riverfront area , had first been raised in 1980 , long after the closure of the city 's streetcar @-@ transit system , which operated from 1892 to 1924 . An attempt by city officials to acquire a trolley car in 1986 was dropped in the face of high insurance costs .
When Burlington Northern abandoned its freight railroad line from Portland to Astoria in 1996 , the city of Astoria purchased about 6 miles ( 10 km ) of BN right @-@ of @-@ way and track in and around downtown Astoria for possible future use , an action known as " railbanking " . The remaining 92 @-@ mile ( 148 km ) section of the Portland – Astoria line was sold by BN to the Portland and Western Railroad in 1997 and kept intact . After Astoria officials learned that a genuine vintage streetcar already in Oregon was not in use and was available for possible lease , they approached its owners and negotiated a five @-@ year lease . The car was ex @-@ San Antonio Public Service Company No. 300 and was owned by the San Antonio Museum of Art , but had been in Oregon since 1990 and had been used on the Willamette Shore Trolley line , in Portland , from 1990 through 1994 . In November 1998 , Astoria mayor Willis Van Dusen signed the five @-@ year lease , which specified a rent of just $ 1 per year , and car 300 was moved to Astoria the following month . Since 1995 , it had been stored in a closed museum near Gales Creek , Oregon , known as the Trolley Park ( and formally as the Oregon Electric Railway Museum until that museum moved in 1996 ) . Although the car had been in regular use until fewer than four years earlier , it had been stored outdoors since that time and was now in need of extensive restoration work .
After raising $ 40 @,@ 000 in donations , volunteers refurbished car 300 and repainted it from the yellow paint scheme it had worn in Portland ( inherited from San Antonio ) to a new red @-@ and @-@ green livery , with " Astoria Riverfront Trolley " lettered along the side , above the windows . To avoid the expense of installing trolley wire and associated support poles and electrical substations , the electric motors of the trolley are powered by a diesel generator mounted on a trailer that the car pulls when westbound and pushes when eastbound , the same arrangement that car 300 had used when running on the Willamette Shore Trolley .
= = Route and service = =
Service was inaugurated on June 8 , 1999 , on a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) route from Portway Street to 36th Street . The principal boarding location was at the Columbia River Maritime Museum ( at 17th Street and approximately the middle of the route ) , and initially there were no other set stops . Several designated stops were added later , and some of these include a bench and small shelter . Passengers are still permitted to flag @-@ down the trolley in between the posted stops .
The route runs parallel to the Columbia River 's bank , and the river is visible most of the way . In a few places , the tracks are carried on low trestles over the water . The line passes through the NRHP @-@ listed Downtown Historic District , and its westernmost section passes under the Astoria – Megler Bridge . To the east of the Maritime Museum , at 20th Street , it passes a former Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway depot built in 1924 . The fare has always been $ 1 , with an all @-@ day pass available for $ 2 . Around 2006 , operation was extended east from 36th Street to 39th Street , making the line about 3 miles ( 5 km ) long .
During the first few years , the line operated from March or April through December , daily in summer months and otherwise Fridays through Sundays . Since about 2005 , it has typically run daily from May through September , and sometimes also during spring break . Hours of operation are noon to 7 p.m. daily , Memorial Day to Labor Day , with more limited dates and hours in late spring and early fall . A round trip takes about 50 minutes . The car makes a trip approximately once an hour in each direction , but there is no exact schedule . Volunteers from the trolley association operate the car , with a two @-@ person crew consisting of a motorman and a conductor . Boarding takes place at the rear door , where the conductor assists people in boarding , collects fares and identifies sights along the route while talking about the city 's history .
The trolley line has been credited by local officials with being instrumental in bringing about redevelopment of the downtown waterfront area , among them the chairman of the Port of Astoria Commission , the executive director of the chamber of commerce and the chairman of the Clatsop County Commission . Mayor Willis Van Dusen , another of the trolley 's supporters , was quoted in a 2004 Daily Astorian article as saying that the trolley " has become almost a logo for the city , second only to the Astoria Column . "
= = Facilities and acquisitions = =
Benches and shelters were installed at several stops along the line in 2000 and 2001 . In 2002 , a new carbarn was built on Industry Street , at the line 's west end , where the trolley car is stored and maintained . The 4 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 370 m2 ) building is owned by the city of Astoria . In 2004 , the Sunset Empire Transportation District opened a new bus transit center near the trolley line , at Ninth Avenue and Marine Drive .
In 2005 , the San Antonio Museum of Art ( SAMA ) , which had previously been unwilling to sell car 300 , agreed to allow the Astoria Riverfront Trolley Association ( ARTA ) to buy it . The price was $ 50 @,@ 000 , and it was paid for almost entirely with donations , but with the city of Astoria contributing $ 5 @,@ 000 . The purchase was completed in early 2006 .
In 2010 , the car was fitted with a GPS tracking device , and the Astoria @-@ Warrenton Chamber of Commerce makes location information available to the public on its website . The data is updated online every two minutes while the trolley is running .
= = Car 300 history = =
ARTA 's only streetcar is No. 300 , nicknamed " Old 300 " and built in 1913 by the American Car Company for the streetcar system in San Antonio , Texas . It served San Antonio until the abandonment of streetcar service there in 1933 and was acquired at that time by the San Antonio Museum Association , former parent of the San Antonio Museum of Art . In 1981 , SAMA opened in a former Lone Star Brewery building located along the tracks of the Texas Transportation Company . As an additional attraction for museum visitors , car 300 was restored to operating condition , and in October 1982 it began providing public rides along a short section of track behind the art museum . This heritage trolley service was discontinued at the end of 1985 due to budget cuts , and the trolley car , by then already nicknamed " Old Number 300 " , went back into storage .
No. 300 was brought to Oregon in June 1990 by Gales Creek Enterprises ( GCE ) , the then @-@ new operator of the Willamette Shore Trolley line in Portland . GCE was leasing the car from the San Antonio Museum Association . Car 300 was the main streetcar on the WST line through the 1994 season , but in 1995 the city of Lake Oswego decided to give the operating contract for the WST instead to the Oregon Electric Railway Historical Society , and that group substituted its own historic streetcars to provide WST service . GCE moved car 300 to storage at the Oregon Electric Railway Museum , located near Glenwood ( and Gales Creek ) at that time . Meanwhile , the San Antonio Museum Association was dissolved in 1994 , and the San Antonio Museum of Art became car 300 's owner .
In 1998 , Astoria officials learned of the car 's availability and secured a five @-@ year lease agreement with SAMA . The car was brought to Astoria in December 1998 to be restored , and it inaugurated the Astoria Riverfront Trolley service in June 1999 . In 2003 , the lease agreement was extended for another five years , but in 2005 this was superseded by an outright purchase , after SAMA agreed to sell the car to the Astoria Riverfront Trolley Association .
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= Powderfinger =
Powderfinger were an Australian rock band formed in Brisbane in 1989 . From 1992 until their break @-@ up in 2010 the line @-@ up consisted of vocalist Bernard Fanning , guitarists Darren Middleton and Ian Haug , bass guitarist John Collins and drummer Jon Coghill . The group 's third studio album Internationalist , peaked at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart in September 1998 . They followed with four more number @-@ one studio albums in a row , Odyssey Number Five ( September 2000 ) , Vulture Street ( July 2003 ) , Dream Days at the Hotel Existence ( June 2007 ) and Golden Rule ( November 2009 ) . Their Top Ten hit singles are " My Happiness " ( 2000 ) , " ( Baby I 've Got You ) On My Mind " ( 2003 ) and " Lost and Running " ( 2007 ) . Powderfinger earned a total of eighteen ARIA Awards making them the second most awarded band behind Silverchair . Ten Powderfinger albums and DVDs were certified multiple @-@ platinum status , with Odyssey Number Five – their most successful album – achieving eight times platinum certification for shipment of over 560 @,@ 000 units .
After the release of their first DVD , These Days : Live in Concert ( September 2004 ) , and a compilation album , Fingerprints : The Best of Powderfinger , 1994 – 2000 ( November 2004 ) , the group announced a hiatus in 2005 . The June 2007 announcement of a two @-@ month @-@ long nationwide tour with Silverchair , Across the Great Divide Tour , followed the release of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . Powderfinger were involved in philanthropic causes . In 2005 , they performed at a WaveAid concert in Sydney , to help raise funds for areas affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . Another performance at the Sydney Opera House in October 2007 raised funds for breast cancer victims and their families . One aim of their Across the Great Divide Tour was to promote the efforts of Reconciliation Australia , and awareness of the gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non @-@ Indigenous children . In April 2010 Powderfinger announced that they would be breaking up after their Sunsets Farewell Tour , declaring it would be their last ever as they had musically said everything they wanted to say . On 13 November 2010 , they played their last concert , signifying their disbandment . In November the following year , Dino Scatena , a rock music journalist , and the band , published a biography , Footprints : the inside story of Australia 's best loved band .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early releases ( 1989 – 93 ) = = =
Powderfinger were formed in 1989 by Steven Bishop ( ex @-@ The Eternal ) on drums , John Collins ( The Eternal ) on bass guitar and Ian Haug ( The Vibrants , The Fossils ) on guitar and vocals . The Eternal , The Vibrants and The Fossils were other Brisbane @-@ based outfits . All three members of Powderfinger were students at Brisbane Grammar School – a private school in Spring Hill – and they started as a cover band playing pub rock classics by The Rolling Stones , The Doors , Led Zeppelin , Steppenwolf , Rodriguez and Neil Young . The band 's name is from Young 's song of the same name . Despite their popularity in Brisbane , when playing a heavy metal gig in Newcastle in 1990 , Powderfinger were booed off stage .
After completing secondary education , Collins and Haug attended University of Queensland , where the latter met Bernard Fanning in an Economics class – and learned that Fanning had similar interests in music and he could sing . Fanning took over the role of lead vocals from Haug and also provided guitar and harmonica . Late in 1990 , Jon Coghill – another university student with Fanning and Haug – replaced Bishop on drums , which was described as a " mutual leaving " . Bishop later worked in London @-@ based bands before returning to Brisbane where he was a member of Moonjuice and then The Haymakers . Powderfinger 's final line @-@ up change was in 1992 with the addition of Darren Middleton ( The Pirates ) on guitar , keyboards and backing vocals . Powderfinger initially performed cover versions of other artists ' songs , but gradually developed by writing and performing their own material .
In August 1992 , the group self @-@ funded a seven track self @-@ titled extended play , also known as the Blue EP , on their own Finger label and distributed by MDS . It was produced by Leroy Bath and Ian Taylor , recorded at Broken Toys Studios , Brisbane . The EP has an early version of " Save Your Skin " , co @-@ written by Coghill , Collins , Haug , Middleton and Fanning ; it was later expanded and released in July 1994 as a single from their debut album , Parables for Wooden Ears . Their second EP , Transfusion , was issued in September 1993 , it was distributed by Polydor Records . At that time , Simon McKenzie of Time Off noted they were " hoping the major label will put a bit of weight behind the disc , but it 's not as though they 've signed a record deal or anything " . McKenzie felt the EP showed they were " wanting to get heavier and louder for a long time , but is it also a reaction against the sixties tags they 've been stuck with ? " . The five tracks include " Reap What You Sow " , which reached the No. 1 spot on the ARIA Alternative Singles Chart , replacing Nirvana 's " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " . The group recorded their first music video , for " Reap What You Sow " , which was directed by David Barker , who subsequently directed their next seven videos . After the EP 's success the group were signed by Polydor .
= = = Early albums ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =
In January 1994 Powderfinger performed on the Big Day Out Tour ( see 1994 line @-@ up ) . On 18 July that year they released their debut studio album , Parables for Wooden Ears under Polydor . According to Australian rock music historian , Ian McFarlane , it " featured complex , meticulously crafted rock but was somewhat ponderous and sombre , which did little to fulfil the promise displayed on Transfusion " . The album was produced by Tony Cohen ( Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds , The Cruel Sea ) , which Fanning later described as the band 's " dark dark days " , received limited radio coverage . Supporting the album 's release , the band toured heavily appearing at the Livid and Homebake music festivals . Powderfinger supported United States visitors Pantera on that group 's Driven Downunder Tour ' 94 . Another Australian support act on the tour was Newcastle @-@ formed band , Silverchair . Three singles were released from Powderfinger 's debut album – " Tail " , " Grave Concern " and " Save Your Skin " – but none appeared on the ARIA Singles Chart Top 50 . Following the album 's release , and lukewarm reception , in April 1995 the band recorded at Melbourne 's Metropolis Studio with Lachlan " Magoo " Goold ( Regurgitator ) and in July released a five @-@ track EP , Mr Kneebone .
The band 's second studio album , Double Allergic , was issued on 2 September 1996 , which peaked at No. 4 on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified triple platinum by ARIA for shipment of 210 @,@ 000 units by 2007 . It was co @-@ produced by Tim Whitten and the group . McFarlane felt this album was " more self @-@ assured and textured [ it ] consolidated the band 's position at the forefront of the alternative rock scene , alongside the likes of You Am I , Spiderbait , silverchair , Regurgitator and Tumbleweed . [ The album ] was full of accessible , spirited rock " . Australian rock music journalist , Ed Nimmervoll , noted " [ it ] revealed a significant shift towards accessible rock songs rooted in melodic grooves . Powderfinger 's reason to be is to create songs strong enough for the band and audience to play and hear months or years down the line " . Four singles were released from the album – " Pick You Up " , " D.A.F. " , " Living Type " and " Take Me In " . " Take Me In " was released as a video single featuring several other music videos by the group . FasterLouder , a music review web site , recalled that " when Double Allergic was released in 1996 , it showed the band were here for the long haul to become arguably one of the best of the decade " . In 1997 the album was issued in Canada and the group toured North America to promote it .
= = = Critical acclaim and chart success ( 1998 – 2003 ) = = =
On 7 September 1998 , Powderfinger released their third studio album , Internationalist , which peaked at No. 1 and spent 101 weeks in the Top 50 of the ARIA Albums Chart , it was produced by Nick DiDia ( Rage Against the Machine , Pearl Jam ) . Allmusic 's Jonathan Lewis had mixed feelings about the album , he was enchanted by its lead single , " The Day You Come " , however " the rest of the album didn 't measure up " except for " some fine tracks " in " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " and " Already Gone " . Nevertheless , by 2007 the album had shipped over 350 @,@ 000 copies and was certified five times platinum domestically , and had reached European audiences . Internationalist was the first Powderfinger album to win any ARIA Music Awards . At the 1999 ceremony it won " Album of the Year " , " Best Rock Album " and " Best Cover Art " ( by Kevin Wilkins ) ; and " The Day You Come " won " Single of the Year " . " Passenger " , another single from Internationalist , was nominated for three additional categories in the following year . The band was both praised and criticised for their political views on Internationalist . In a November 1998 interview with Benedict Watts of Juice Magazine , Haug said that political messages in " The Day You Come " were not something they were just preaching about , but rather were something they saw as a responsibility .
Powderfinger 's fourth studio album , Odyssey Number Five , was released on 4 September 2000 , which also peaked at No. 1 . Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Weingarten provided a positive review and found the group " prove that there 's still terrain left to be explored [ in ] guitar rock ... melancholy is the default mode ... [ they ] can be as prim as Travis or as mock @-@ grandiose as Oasis " . However Allmusic 's Dean Carlson was more negative seeing the album as " little more than a slightly off @-@ base perspective into the world of mid @-@ 90s American grunge " . Odyssey Number Five is Powderfinger 's most commercially successful album , shipping 560 @,@ 000 copies and certified eight times platinum by 2004 . It also appeared on the New Zealand Albums Chart at No. 15 . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2001 the group won " Album of the Year " , " Highest Selling Album " , " Best Rock Album " , " Best Cover Art " ( by Wilkins ) and " Best Group " .
Two of Odyssey Number Five 's tracks featured on film soundtracks : " These Days " was written for Two Hands ( 1999 ) and " My Kind of Scene " on Mission : Impossible II ( 2000 ) . Singles from the album are " My Kind of Scene " , " My Happiness " , " Like a Dog " , and the double A @-@ side , " The Metre " / " Waiting for the Sun " . " My Happiness " which peaked at No. 4 in Australia and No. 7 in New Zealand is the group 's highest charting single in both countries . At the ARIA Awards ceremony " My Happiness " won " Single of the Year " , and other songs were nominated in various categories . Their tracks were voted for , by national radio station Triple J 's listeners , on annual Hottest 100 lists : " These Days " , " Already Gone " , " Good @-@ Day Ray " , and " Passenger " were ranked in 1999 , and " My Happiness " and " My Kind of Scene " in 2000 . In 2009 , " These Days " was voted at No. 21 and " My Happiness " at No. 27 in the Hottest 100 of all time , placing them as second and fourth highest Australian tracks after the Hilltop Hoods ' " The Nosebleed Section " and Hunters & Collectors ' " Throw Your Arms Around Me " , respectively .
= = = Rock resurgence ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
Powderfinger 's Vulture Street was released on 4 July 2003 , and became their third album to peak at No. 1 in Australia , while in New Zealand it reached No. 17 . Recorded in January and February 2003 , it was named for the location of the band 's first recording room in West End , Brisbane . The Sydney Morning Herald 's music critic , Bernard Zuel approved of " a rawer , louder , but by no means unrefined , album " with " a real energy here that has some connections to early Powderfinger , but bears the mark of a superior intellect " , he felt it had Haug and Middleton " dominating in a way they had not since their 1994 debut " album . Simon Evans of musicOMH described the group as having " opted for a visceral live feel , adding a real punch to songs " . Middleton described the band 's aim was to " get a sound in the songs that was reminiscent of things we grew up loving , which was Bowie , Zeppelin , Kiss ... that sort of thing ; all based in the 70s . We wanted to sonically have that as well , so it 's a very old @-@ school @-@ sounding record . It 's all the old amps , we used old guitars and recorded to tape , of course . It 's fairly organic in that sense " . Vulture Street won four ARIA Awards in 2003 : " Album of the Year " , " Best Group " , " Best Rock Album " and " Best Cover Art " ( by Steven Gorrow , Revolution Design ) . Singles issued from the album are : " ( Baby I 've Got You ) On My Mind " , " Since You 've Been Gone " , " Love Your Way " , and " Sunsets " . Tracks were also nominated for awards in 2003 and 2004 .
In September 2004 the group issued their first live album , These Days : Live in Concert , initially as a CD and followed in October with a two @-@ disc DVD . One single , " Stumblin ' " , which had appeared on Vulture Street , was issued as a live version . In late October they released a compilation album , Fingerprints : The Best of Powderfinger , 1994 – 2000 , which included many of their singles from the first four albums as well as non @-@ singles : " Thrilloilogy " and " Belter " , and a re @-@ release of " These Days " . " These Days " , although never officially released as a single , was ranked at No. 1 on the Triple J Hottest 100 poll of 1999 . The album also included two new songs : " Bless My Soul " and " Process This " , although only " Bless My Soul " was released as a single . Following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , Powderfinger appeared at the WaveAid fund raising concert in January 2005 in Sydney , to raise funds for aid organisations working in the disaster affected areas . Fanning , as a member of The Wrights , sang lead vocals on " Evie , part 2 " at the concert . The Wrights released a studio version in March as a single with some of the proceeds going to tsunami relief efforts .
= = = Era of side projects ( 2005 – 07 ) = = =
After the WaveAid concert , from early 2005 , Powderfinger had a period of hiatus . During the separation , most band members pursued other musical projects ; on the personal front : Haug and Middleton each had children , and Fanning met his future wife . Middleton 's side project , Drag , had issued an EP , Gas Food Lodging , in 2002 . Zombos Reviews found the EP was " full of well @-@ written jangly pop , and has some rather nice ballads " . Their debut album , The Way Out , was recorded in March 2005 and released on 10 July , which was " a tad disappointing [ compared with the EP ] ... mostly mid @-@ tempo pop @-@ rock songs , mixed with some slower , pretty ballads . Everything 's tastefully arranged , and there 's always nice melodies and harmonies " . Collins and Haug formed The Predators with Powderfinger 's former drummer , Steven Bishop , now on drums and lead vocals . The group released a six @-@ track EP , Pick Up the Pace , in July 2006 and undertook a short tour around Australia .
In October 2005 Fanning issued his debut solo album , Tea & Sympathy , which reached No. 1 in Australia and No. 11 in New Zealand . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2006 , Fanning won in four categories including " Album of the Year " for Tea & Sympathy and " Best Video " for its lead single , " Wish You Well " . " Wish You Well " was ranked at No. 1 on the Triple J Hottest 100 poll in 2005 . At the end of 2006 , Fanning toured in support of the album 's release in the United Kingdom and North America ; at its conclusion Powderfinger resumed from their hiatus . Fanning compared his solo work to Powderfinger recordings " when a problem came up in the studio , especially guitar @-@ wise , I 've always had Darren and Ian to call on . They could usually come up with something good . But I played all the guitar on it , and my abilities are fairly limited " and that " Powderfinger is my real job and I 'm looking forward to doing it again " .
= = = Return from hiatus ( 2007 – 09 ) = = =
Powderfinger started recording their sixth studio album , Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , in January 2007 , which was released on 2 June . Debuting at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart – their fourth to do so consecutively – it broke the Australian digital sales record with over 3000 copies sold online . Generally reviewers did not rate it as highly as its predecessor , Vulture Street , with Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun HiT describing it as " No radical reinvention , no huge change in direction ... In a word : consistent " . Zuel described it as " Powderfinger 's first dull album " but the band as " the biggest rock band in the country . " " Lost and Running " , their first single for three years , had been issued in May , and reached No. 5 . A second single , " I Don 't Remember " , appeared in August . A song from the album , " Black Tears " , was amended following concerns that it could prejudice a trial over the 2004 Palm Island death in custody case . Fanning stated that an alternative version would be on the album as a result of the concerns . On 18 August that year , Powderfinger performed a concert in Karratha , as part of Triple J 's AWOL Series . The band was supported by The Grates and Muph N Plutonic , and various local acts . While in Karratha , Fanning and Coghill visited Gumala Mirnuwarni , a local school in Roebourne that encourages children to stay in school .
In June 2007 Powderfinger and Silverchair announced the nine @-@ week Across the Great Divide Tour to promote reconciliation with Indigenous Australians . From August to October that year the two groups toured all state capital cities , fourteen Australian regional centres , and included four performances in New Zealand . They performed 34 concerts in 26 towns across Australia , with an estimated total of 220 @,@ 000 people in attendance . On 1 December a triple @-@ DVD set was released with the same title as the tour with the Melbourne performances for both bands and backstage footage from the tour . The schedule consisted of three main parts , beginning with a supporting artist performing one set , followed by Silverchair and then Powderfinger playing the final set . The two bands united on @-@ stage during only three performances throughout the tour , including Daniel Johns ( Silverchair ) and Fanning sharing lead vocals on a cover version of The Who 's " Substitute " at a Sydney and two Melbourne shows .
Dream Days at the Hotel Existence was the recipient of the ARIA Award for " Best Cover Art " in 2007 . It was also nominated for " Album of the Year " , " Best Rock Album " and " Best Group " , while " Lost and Running " received nominations for " Single of the Year " and " Best Video " . Powderfinger failed to win any of these awards with tour mates Silverchair 's Young Modern and " Straight Lines obtaining all five . On 28 October at the ceremony , Powderfinger performed " Lost and Running " . The third single from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , " Nobody Sees " was released in December 2007 . On 27 September 2008 , Powderfinger performed " ( Baby I 've Got You ) On My Mind " and AC / DC 's " Long Way to the Top " at the AFL Grand Final . Their song " Drifting Further Away " featured on Grey 's Anatomy 's fifth season in episode 13 , " Stairway to Heaven " , which aired on 21 January 2009 .
= = = Golden Rule and disbandment ( 2009 – 10 ) = = =
From mid @-@ June 2009 Powderfinger worked with DiDia producing their seventh studio album , Golden Rule , which was issued on 13 November . The album peaked at No. 1 on the ARIA albums chart – becoming their fifth studio album in a row to do so . The album 's lead single , " All of the Dreamers " , was released in September . " Burn Your Name " , the second single followed in December . That same month the band performed at the 2009 Homebake festival – after a 10 @-@ year absence . In late January they toured on the 2010 Big Day Out . The third single from the album , " Sail the Widest Stretch " , appeared in April .
Also in April 2010 , Powderfinger announced that after 21 years , the group would disband following their Sunsets Farewell Tour in September and October that year :
With the completion of our last album , Golden Rule , we feel that we have said all that we want to say as a musical group . We firmly believe that it is our most complete and satisfying album and can 't think of a better way to farewell our fans than with music that we all believe in and also with , hopefully , our best tour to date .
Coghill told Australian Times that the final tour is " going to be great fun , but it 's also going to be sad " . He confirmed that he had no plans to start a new band or for a solo project . Instead he intended to finish his degree , " [ o ] nce I 'm done with that , I might put the feelers out and see what 's happening . I don 't think I 'd be doing anything solo , but I might look to join other bands , just to have a chance to keep playing . I 'm just not keen to be off touring the world anymore " . Powderfinger played their final show at the River Stage in Brisbane on 13 November 2010 in front of 10 @,@ 000 fans ; the last song they performed was " These Days " . On 25 January 2011 the band issued a previously unreleased track , " I 'm on Your Side " , as a fund raiser for the Premier 's Flood Appeal as a result of major flooding in Queensland from December the previous year into January . The song was available via the band 's website with all proceeds going towards the cause . On 8 November 2011 , the group released a second compilation album , Footprints : The Best of Powderfinger , 2001 @-@ 2011 , containing two new tracks . There was also a 2 @-@ disc release , Fingerprints & Footprints – The Ultimate Collection , combining both Fingerprints and Footprints in one set . Also in November , Dino Scatena and the band , published a biography , Footprints : the inside story of Australia 's best loved band . Scatena , a rock music journalist , had started writing the book in the previous October during the Sunsets Farewell Tour .
= = = Afterwards = = =
Former Powderfinger member , Fanning worked on his second solo album Departures during late 2012 in Los Angeles with Joe Chiccarelli producing . It was released in June the following year and peaked at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart . Middleton had relocated to Melbourne and worked with Red Door Sounds ' Paul Annison – producer of Children Collide 's album , Monument ( April 2012 ) . In December that year Middleton revealed that " I ’ m halfway through a new record " . Middleton 's album , Translations , was released independently in November 2013 . Around the same time Coghill was working as a journalist on the Gold Coast , while Collins was " developing business projects in Queensland " .
In January 2013 Haug produced the second album , Sins of a Li 'l Later Kiss , by Brisbane @-@ based folk duo Cole and Van Dijk . He then joined The Church , replacing Marty Willson @-@ Piper , and featured on their 2014 album Further / Deeper .
= = Musical style = =
Powderfinger 's musical style includes hard rock and alternative music and , according to McFarlane , " the band made its mark with an earthy , blues @-@ based sound that combined soaring , 1970s @-@ influenced riff @-@ rock with 1990s studio technology . With the added textures of folk , country and a soulful groove , the band was able to head in any direction " . Nimmervoll acclaimed them as " one of Australia 's most popular radio @-@ friendly rock bands " which " produced music the rest of Australia embraced " . McFarlane was partially disappointed with their debut 1994 album Parables for Wooden Ears compared to their earlier EP Transfusion . Their 1996 album , Double Allergic , was " more self @-@ assured and textured " and " consolidated the band 's position at the forefront of the alternative rock scene " . It " revealed a significant shift towards accessible rock songs rooted in melodic grooves " according to Nimmervoll .
In a November 2007 interview with Paul Cashmere of Undercover website , Middleton stated that a couple of songs they had initially written for Vulture Street " were just too Odyssey Number Five based " , and that the first track , " Rockin ' Rocks " , was " probably the start of where we were heading " with the album " . Cashmere stated that the album was " the toughest [ he has ] heard Powderfinger sound " . Zuel reviewed two of Powderfinger 's more recent albums , he described Vulture Street as " a rawer , louder " album in comparison to Odyssey Number Five ; it highlighted Fanning 's " talent as a lyricist " and stated that it featured guitarists Haug and Middleton " dominating in a way they haven 't since their 1994 debut " . Zuel stated that there is a " real energy here that has some connections to early Powderfinger , " and described " On My Mind " as having " AC / DC meatiness " , and " Love Your Way " as " acoustic tumbling into weaving Zeppelin lines . " In his review of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , Zuel described it as " [ having ] high @-@ gloss and muscular framework , " and stated that that was what " American radio considers serious rock . "
Compared with the relatively lean , agile sound they 've perfected up to now , this is Powderfinger as the footballer who in the off @-@ season spends his time in the gym and emerges buff and beefy . The problem is he has bulk but has traded in his nimbleness .
Clayton Bolger of Allmusic stated in his review of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence that Powderfinger " largely revisit the sound of their Internationalist album , leaving behind much of the glam and swagger of 2003 's Vulture Street " . He commented on Fanning 's " commanding and distinctive vocals " , the " twin @-@ guitar attack " of Middleton and Haug , Collins ' " innovative basslines " , and the " powerhouse drum work " of Coghill . Nimmervoll described Golden Rule as " Powderfinger back to its essence . They ’ d experimented with the sound , tried different things with the songwriting process and recorded in America with different producers . [ It ] was recorded at home , the band reunited with American Nick DiDia , who had previously worked with the band during the “ classic ” era , producing Internationalist , Odyssey Number 5 and Vulture Street . They also wrote the songs as a team , with Bernard responsible for the bulk of the lyrics . The album was recorded in the same spirit , as close to the live sound as a studio album could be " .
= = Philanthropy = =
Powderfinger were active in supporting causes or opposing actions taken in charitable , philanthropic , disaster , and political circumstances . In 1996 , when Crowded House decided to break up , they organised a farewell concert as a charity event for the Sydney Children 's Hospital , on 24 November . They approached Powderfinger and fellow Australian acts Custard and You Am I to also appear on the steps of the Sydney Opera House . The charity event , which was recorded and later released as a live album titled Farewell to the World , was claimed to have the largest Australian live concert audience , with estimates of between 100 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 people . In the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , Powderfinger performed at the WaveAid fund @-@ raising concert in Sydney in January 2005 . The disaster killed more than 225 @,@ 000 people from 11 countries in the area . The total profit from the funds raised from ticket sales and donations was A $ 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 .
The song " Black Tears " from the album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence originally had the lyric " An island watchhouse bed , a black man 's lying dead " , which sparked fears that it might prejudice the trial of the former Senior Sergeant Chris Hurley over the 2004 Palm Island death in custody case . The band claimed that the song 's lyrics primarily dealt with the climbing of Uluru by tourists despite requests from the Indigenous people of the area to respect their sacred sites and not climb . The original version of the song was retracted from the album , and replaced with an alternative version with the criticised material removed . The legal team for Hurley , who was charged with manslaughter over the death of Mulrunji in 2004 , had referred the song to the Attorney @-@ General of Queensland , Kerry Shine , in their attempt at altering the track . One of Hurley 's lawyers , Glen Cranny , stated that " the content and proposed timing of the song 's release raises some serious concerns regarding Mr Hurley 's trial " . Powderfinger 's band manager , Paul Piticco , stated that Fanning had confirmed that a line in the song was related to the case . However , he added that the lyric in question could refer to " a watchhouse in The Bahamas or something " .
In June 2007 , Powderfinger and Silverchair announced their combined Across the Great Divide Tour , which promoted Reconciliation Australia , a foundation helping to improve the welfare of the Indigenous people of Australia , and to " show [ that ] both bands are behind the idea of reconciliation " . Reconciliation Australia increased the awareness of the 17 @-@ year difference in life expectancy between the Indigenous and non @-@ Indigenous children of Australia . In October that year , during Breast Cancer Awareness Month , Powderfinger performed another concert on the steps of the Sydney Opera House . This concert was for invitees only – breast cancer patients , survivors and their families were eligible to attend . Powderfinger performed alongside Silverchair , Missy Higgins , and other artists to an audience of 700 . The concert was filmed and later broadcast as a MAX Session on Foxtel channel MAX on 3 November .
For the Sunsets Farewell Tour in September 2010 , the band promoted another indigenous cause , the Yalari organisation . The organisation provides indigenous children with opportunities to get a proper education . In January 2011 , following the Queensland flood disaster , [ undercover.fm ] reported that Powderfinger would not reform for a benefit concert but instead donated a never before released track , " I 'm on Your Side " , to help raise money for the victims .
= = Personnel = =
Throughout their recording career Powderfinger consisted of five members : Bernard Fanning- vocalist , guitarist , keyboardist and harmonicist and contributed lyrics ; John Collins was their bass guitarist ; Ian Haug was their first lead vocalist but mostly provided backing vocals and guitar ; Darren Middleton was their co @-@ lead guitarist , keyboardist , backing vocalist and sometime lead vocalist ; Jon Coghill was their drummer and percussionist . The lineup remained stable from 1992 to their disbandment in November 2010 . Steven Bishop had been the group 's original drummer , but had left to focus on his studies . The band refers to one another by nicknames , including Collins as JC and Coghill as Cogsy .
Powderfinger have collaborated with some artists , they had pianist Benmont Tench play on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . For touring or session work auxiliary musicians used include Alex Pertout on percussion , Duane Billings on percussion , and Lachlan Doley on keyboards . For their second album , Double Allergic , the group enlisted Tim Whitten as producer . The group approached American expatriate Nick DiDia as their producer for Internationalist , and recorded with him at Sing Sing Studios in Melbourne . DiDia also produced the following two albums . In 2007 Rob Schnapf , producer for Beck , was asked to produce Dream Days at the Hotel Existence in Los Angeles . DiDia returned for Golden Rule . Powderfinger 's first music video , for the song " Reap What You Sow " in 1993 , was directed by David Barker , an award @-@ winning director . Film companies who directed other videos of the group include Fifty Fifty Films , and Head Pictures .
= = Discography = =
1994 : Parables for Wooden Ears
1996 : Double Allergic
1998 : Internationalist
2000 : Odyssey Number Five
2003 : Vulture Street
2007 : Dream Days at the Hotel Existence
2009 : Golden Rule
= = Awards and accolades = =
Powderfinger was highly successful in the Australian recording industry , being a recipient of the industry 's flagship awards , the ARIA Music Awards , 18 times from 47 nominations – second highest band behind Silverchair 's 21 wins from 49 nominations . Powderfinger 's most successful year was 2001 they won six awards from eight nominations for Odyssey Number Five and its related singles . " These Days " and " My Happiness " were ranked at No. 1 on the Triple J Hottest 100 lists in 1999 and 2000 respectively , and 21 other Powderfinger tracks have ranked on lists in other years .
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= Operation Ke =
Operation Ke ( ケ号作戦 ) was the largely successful withdrawal of Japanese forces from Guadalcanal at the conclusion of the Guadalcanal Campaign of World War II . The operation took place between 14 January and 7 February 1943 , and involved both army and navy forces under the overall direction of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters ( IGH ) . Commanders of the operation included Isoroku Yamamoto and Hitoshi Imamura .
The Japanese decided to withdraw and concede Guadalcanal to Allied forces for several reasons . All attempts by the Japanese army to recapture Henderson Field , the airfield on Guadalcanal in use by Allied aircraft , had been repulsed with heavy losses . Japanese ground forces on the island were beginning to die in large numbers from starvation and lack of adequate medical care . Japanese naval forces in the area were also suffering heavy losses attempting to reinforce and resupply the ground forces on the island . These losses , plus the projected resources needed for more attempts to recapture Guadalcanal , were affecting strategic security and operations in other areas of the Japanese Empire . The decision to withdraw was endorsed by Emperor Hirohito on 31 December 1942 .
The operation began on 14 January with the delivery of a battalion of infantry troops to Guadalcanal to act as rearguard for the evacuation . Around the same time , Japanese army and navy air forces began an air superiority campaign around the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . During the air campaign , a US cruiser was sunk in the Battle of Rennell Island . Two days later , Japanese aircraft sank a US destroyer near Guadalcanal . The actual withdrawal was carried out on the nights of 1 , 4 , and 7 February by destroyers . Apart from some air and PT boat attacks on the evacuating destroyers , Allied forces did not actively attempt to impede the withdrawal because Allied commanders believed the operation was actually a reinforcement operation , not an evacuation .
In total , the Japanese evacuated 10 @,@ 652 men from Guadalcanal at a cost of one destroyer sunk and three damaged . On 9 February , Allied forces realized that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure , ending the six @-@ month campaign for control of the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal Campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily United States ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the US and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of capturing or neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August the Allied troops ( mainly United States Marine Corps ) secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The Allies later renamed it " Henderson Field " . Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters ( IGH ) assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's ( IJA ) 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command headquartered at Rabaul under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake , the task of retaking Guadalcanal . Because of the threat by CAF aircraft , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) was unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands were used to carry forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
Using forces delivered to Guadalcanal in this manner , the Japanese army tried three times to retake Henderson Field , but was defeated each time . After the third failure , an attempt by the IJN to deliver the rest of the IJA 38th Infantry Division and its heavy equipment failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 12 – 15 November . Because of this failure , the Japanese cancelled their next planned attempt to recapture Henderson Field .
In mid @-@ November , Allied forces attacked the Japanese at Buna @-@ Gona in New Guinea . Japanese Combined Fleet naval leaders , headquartered at Truk and under the overall command of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , felt Allied advances in New Guinea posed a greater threat to the security of the Japanese Empire than an Allied military presence in the southern Solomons . Therefore , Combined Fleet naval staff officers began to prepare plans for abandoning Guadalcanal and shifting priorities and resources to operations around New Guinea . At this time , the navy did not inform the army of their intentions in this regard .
As December began , the Japanese experienced considerable difficulty in keeping their troops on Guadalcanal resupplied because of Allied air and naval attacks on the Japanese supply chain of ships and bases . The few supplies delivered to the island were not enough to sustain Japanese troops , who by 7 December were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition , disease , and Allied ground or air attacks . The Japanese had delivered almost 30 @,@ 000 army troops to Guadalcanal since the campaign began , but by December only about 20 @,@ 000 of that number were still alive , and only about 12 @,@ 000 remained more or less fit for combat duty , with the rest incapacitated by battle wounds , disease , or malnutrition .
The IJN continued to suffer losses and damage to its ships in attempting to keep the Japanese on Guadalcanal resupplied . One destroyer was sunk by American warships at the Battle of Tassafaronga on 30 November . Another destroyer plus a submarine were sunk and two destroyers damaged by American PT boat and CAF air attacks during subsequent resupply missions from 3 – 12 December . Compounding the navy 's frustration , very few of the supplies carried on these missions actually reached Japanese army forces on the island . Combined Fleet leaders began telling their army counterparts the losses and damage to warships engaged in the resupply effort threatened future strategic plans for protecting the Japanese Empire .
= = = Decision to withdraw = = =
Throughout November , Japan 's top military leaders at the IGH in Tokyo continued to openly support further efforts to retake Guadalcanal from Allied forces . At the same time , however , lower @-@ ranking staff officers began to discreetly discuss abandoning the island . Takushiro Hattori and Masanobu Tsuji , each of whom had recently visited Guadalcanal , told their colleagues on the staff that any further attempt to retake the island was a lost cause . Ryūzō Sejima reported that the attrition of IJA troop @-@ strength on Guadalcanal was so unexpectedly severe that future operations would be untenable . On 11 December , two staff officers , IJN Commander Yuji Yamamoto and IJA Major Takahiko Hayashi returned to Tokyo from Rabaul and confirmed Hattori 's , Tsuji 's , and Sejima 's reports . They further reported that most of the IJN and IJA officers at Rabaul appeared to support abandoning Guadalcanal . Around this time , Japan 's War Ministry informed the IGH that there was an insufficient amount of shipping to support both the effort to retake Guadalcanal and transport strategic resources to maintain Japan 's economy and military forces .
On 19 December , a delegation of IGH staff officers , led by IJA Colonel Joichiro Sanada , chief of the IGH 's operations section , arrived at Rabaul for discussions about future plans concerning New Guinea and Guadalcanal . Hitoshi Imamura , commander of the 8th Area Army in charge of IJA operations in New Guinea and the Solomons , did not directly recommend a withdrawal from Guadalcanal but openly and clearly described the current difficulties involved with any further attempts to retake the island . Imamura also stated that any decision to withdraw should include plans to evacuate as many of the soldiers from Guadalcanal as possible .
Sanada returned to Tokyo on 25 December and recommended to the IGH that Guadalcanal be abandoned immediately and all priority given to the campaign in New Guinea . The IGH 's top leaders agreed with Sanada 's recommendation on 26 December and ordered their staffs to begin drafting plans for the withdrawal from Guadalcanal and establishment of a new defense line in the central Solomons .
On 28 December , General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano personally informed Emperor Hirohito of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal . On 31 December , the Emperor formally endorsed the decision .
= = = Plan and forces = = =
On 3 January , IGH informed the 8th Area Army and the Combined Fleet of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal . By 9 January , the Combined Fleet and 8th Area Army staffs together completed the plan , officially called Operation Ke after a mora in Japanese Kana vocabulary , to execute the evacuation .
The plan called for a battalion of army infantry to land by destroyer on Guadalcanal around 14 January to act as a rear guard during the evacuation . The 17th Army was to begin withdrawing to the western end of the island about 25 or 26 January . An air superiority campaign around the southern Solomons would begin on 28 January . The 17th Army would be picked up in three lifts by destroyers the first week of February with a target completion date of 10 February . At the same time , Japanese air and naval assets would conduct conspicuous maneuvers and minor attacks around New Guinea and the Marshall Islands along with deceptive radio traffic to try to confuse the Allies as to their intentions .
Yamamoto detailed aircraft carriers Junyō and Zuiho , battleships Kongō and Haruna — with four heavy cruisers and a destroyer as the screening force — under Nobutake Kondō to provide distant cover for Ke around Ontong Java in the northern Solomons . The evacuation runs were to be carried out by Mikawa 's 8th Fleet , consisting of heavy cruisers Chōkai and Kumano , light cruiser Sendai , and 21 destroyers . Mikawa 's destroyers were charged with conducting the actual evacuation . Yamamoto expected that at least half of Mikawa 's destroyers would be sunk during the operation .
Supporting the air superiority portion of the operation were the IJN 's 11th Air Fleet and the IJA 's 6th Air Division , based at Rabaul with 212 and 100 aircraft , respectively . 64 aircraft from carrier Zuikaku 's air group were also temporarily assigned to Rabaul . An additional 60 floatplanes from the IJN 's " R " Area Air Force , based at Rabaul , Bougainville , and the Shortland Islands , brought the total number of Japanese aircraft involved in the operation to 436 . The combined Japanese warship and naval air units in the area formed the Southeast Area Fleet , commanded by Jinichi Kusaka at Rabaul .
Opposing the Japanese and under the command of United States Navy Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific , were fleet carriers USS Enterprise and Saratoga , six escort carriers , three fast battleships , four old battleships , 13 cruisers , and 45 destroyers . In the air , the 13th Air Force numbered 92 fighters and bombers under United States Army Brigadier General Nathan F. Twining and the CAF on Guadalcanal counted 81 aircraft under US Marine Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy . Rear Admiral Aubrey Fitch was overall commander of Aircraft South Pacific . The air units of the fleet and escort carriers added another 339 aircraft . In addition , 30 heavy bombers were stationed in New Guinea with sufficient range to conduct missions over the Solomon Islands . In total , the Allies possessed around 539 aircraft available to oppose the Ke operation .
By the first week of January , disease , starvation , and battle had reduced Hyakutake 's command to about 14 @,@ 000 troops , with many of them too sick and malnourished to fight . The 17th Army possessed three operable field cannon and a severe shortage of artillery shells . In contrast , the Allied commander on the island , US Army Major General Alexander Patch , fielded a combined force of US Army and US Marines , designated the XIV Corps , totaling 50 @,@ 666 men . At Patch 's disposal were 167 artillery weapons , including 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) , 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) , and 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers , and plentiful stocks of shells .
= = Operation = =
= = = Preparation = = =
On 1 January , the Japanese military changed their radio communication codes , making it more difficult for Allied intelligence , which had heretofore partially broken Japanese radio ciphers , to divine Japanese intentions and movement . As January progressed , Allied reconnaissance and radio traffic analysis noted the buildup of ships and aircraft at Truk , Rabaul , and the Shortland Islands . Allied analysts determined that the increased radio traffic in the Marshalls was a deception meant to divert attention from an operation about to take place in either New Guinea or the Solomons . Allied intelligence personnel , however , misinterpreted the nature of the operation . On 26 January , the Allied Pacific Command 's intelligence section informed Allied forces in the Pacific that the Japanese were preparing for a new offensive , called Ke , in either the Solomons or New Guinea .
On 14 January , an Express mission of nine destroyers delivered the Yano Battalion , designated as the rear guard for the Ke evacuation , to Guadalcanal . The battalion , commanded by Major Keiji Yano , consisted of 750 infantry and a battery of mountain guns crewed by another 100 men . Accompanying the battalion was Lieutenant Colonel Kumao Imoto , representing the 8th Area Army , who was to deliver the evacuation order and plan to Hyakutake . The 17th Army had not yet been informed of the decision to withdraw . CAF and 13th Air Force air attacks on the nine destroyers during their return trip damaged destroyers Arashi and Tanikaze and destroyed eight Japanese fighters escorting the convoy . Five American aircraft were shot down .
Late on 15 January , Imoto reached 17th Army 's headquarters at Kokumbona and informed Hyakutake and his staff of the decision to withdraw from the island . Grudgingly accepting the order on the 16th , the 17th Army staff communicated the Ke evacuation plan to their forces on the 18th . The plan directed the 38th Division , which was currently defending against an American offensive on ridges and hills in the interior of the island , to disengage and withdraw towards Cape Esperance on the western end of Guadalcanal beginning on the 20th . The 38th 's retirement would be covered by the 2nd Infantry Division , in place on Guadalcanal since October 1942 , and the Yano Battalion , both of which would then follow the 38th westward . Any troops unable to move were encouraged to kill themselves to " uphold the honor of the Imperial Army " .
= = = Withdrawal westward = = =
Patch initiated a new offensive just as the 38th Division began to withdraw from the inland ridges and hills that it had occupied . On 20 January , the 25th Infantry Division , under Major General J. Lawton Collins , attacked several hills , designated Hills 87 , 88 , and 89 by the Americans , that formed a ridge that dominated Kokumbona . Encountering much lighter resistance than anticipated , the Americans seized the three hills by the morning of 22 January . Shifting forces to exploit the unexpected breakthrough , Collins quickly continued the advance and captured the next two hills , 90 and 91 , by nightfall , placing the Americans in position to isolate and capture Kokumbona and trap the Japanese 2nd Division .
Reacting quickly to the situation , the Japanese hurriedly evacuated Kokumbona and ordered the 2nd Division to retire westward immediately . The Americans captured Kokumbona on 23 January . Although some Japanese units were trapped between the American forces and destroyed , most of the 2nd Division 's survivors escaped .
Still fearing a renewed and reinforced Japanese offensive , Patch committed the equivalent of only one regiment at a time to attack the Japanese forces west of Kokumbona , keeping the rest near Lunga Point to protect the airfield . The terrain west of Kokumbona favored the Japanese efforts to delay the Americans as the rest of the 17th Army continued its withdrawal towards Cape Esperance . The American advance was hemmed into a corridor only 300 – 600 yd ( 270 – 550 m ) wide between the ocean and the thick , inland jungle and steep coral ridges . The ridges , running perpendicular to the coast , paralleled numerous streams and creeks that crossed the corridor with " washboard regularity . "
On 26 January , a combined U.S. Army and Marine unit called the Composite Army @-@ Marine ( CAM ) Division advancing westward encountered the Yano Battalion at the Marmura River . Yano 's troops temporarily halted the CAM 's advance and then slowly withdrew westward over the next three days . On 29 January , the Yano retreated across the Bonegi River , where soldiers from the 2nd Division had constructed another defensive position .
The Japanese defenses at the Bonegi held up the American advance for almost three days . On 1 February , with help from a shore bombardment by the destroyers USS Wilson and Anderson , the Americans successfully crossed the river but did not immediately press the advance westward .
= = = Air campaign = = =
The Ke air superiority campaign began in mid @-@ January with nightly harassment attacks on Henderson Field by 3 @-@ 10 aircraft , causing little damage . On 20 January , a lone Kawanishi H8K bombed Espiritu Santo . On 25 January , the IJN sent 58 Zero fighters on a daylight raid to Guadalcanal . In response , the CAF sent aloft eight Wildcat and six P @-@ 38 fighters , which shot down four Zeros without loss .
A second large raid was conducted on 27 January by nine Kawasaki Ki @-@ 48 " Lily " light bombers escorted by 74 Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighters from the IJA 's 6th Air Division from Rabaul . Twelve Wildcats , six P @-@ 38s , and 10 P @-@ 40s from Henderson met the raid over Guadalcanal . In the resulting action , the Japanese lost six fighters while the CAF lost one Wildcat , four P @-@ 40s , and two P @-@ 38s . The " Lily " s dropped their bombs on American positions around the Matanikau River , causing little damage .
= = = Battle of Rennell Island = = =
Believing that the Japanese were beginning a major offensive in the southern Solomons aimed at Henderson Field , Halsey responded by sending , beginning on 29 January , a resupply convoy to Guadalcanal supported by most of his warship forces , separated into five task forces . These five task forces included two fleet carriers , two escort carriers , three battleships , 12 cruisers , and 25 destroyers
Screening the approach of the transport convoy was Task Force 18 ( TF 18 ) , under Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen , with three heavy and three light cruisers , two escort carriers , and eight destroyers . A fleet carrier task force , centered on carrier USS Enterprise , steamed about 250 mi ( 220 nmi ; 400 km ) behind TF 18 .
In addition to protecting the supply convoy , TF 18 was charged with rendezvousing with a force of four U.S. destroyers , stationed at Tulagi , at 21 : 00 on 29 January in order to conduct a sweep up " The Slot " north of Guadalcanal the next day to screen the unloading of the transports at Guadalcanal . However , the escort carriers were too slow to allow Giffen 's force to make the scheduled rendezvous , so Giffen left the carriers behind with two destroyers at 14 : 00 on 29 January and pushed on ahead .
Giffen 's force was being tracked by Japanese submarines , who reported on Giffen 's location and movement to their naval headquarters units . Around mid @-@ afternoon , based on the submarine 's reports , 16 Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " from the 705 Air Group and 16 Mitsubishi G3M " Nell " bombers from the 701 Air Group took off from Rabaul carrying torpedoes to attack Giffen 's force , now located between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal .
The torpedo bombers attacked Giffen 's ships in two waves between 19 : 00 and 20 : 00 . Two torpedoes hit the heavy cruiser USS Chicago , causing heavy damage and bringing her to a dead stop . Three of the Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire from Giffen 's ships . In response , Halsey sent a tug to take Chicago under tow and ordered Giffen 's task force to return to base the next day . Six destroyers were left behind to escort Chicago and the tugboat .
At 16 : 00 on 30 January , a flight of 11 Mitsubishi torpedo bombers from the 751 Air Group , based at Kavieng and staging through Buka , attacked the force towing Chicago . Fighter aircraft from Enterprise shot down eight of them , but most of the Japanese aircraft were able to release their torpedoes before crashing . One torpedo hit the destroyer USS La Vallette , causing heavy damage . Four more torpedoes hit Chicago , sinking her .
The transport convoy reached Guadalcanal and successfully unloaded its cargo on 30 – 31 January . The rest of Halsey 's warships took station in the Coral Sea south of the Solomons to wait for the approach of any Japanese warship forces supporting what the Allies believed to be an imminent offensive . The departure of TF 18 from the Guadalcanal area removed a significant potential threat to the Ke operation .
At 18 : 30 on 29 January , two corvettes from the Royal New Zealand Navy , Moa and Kiwi , intercepted the Japanese submarine I @-@ 1 , which was attempting a supply run , off of Kamimbo on Guadalcanal . The two corvettes rammed and sank I @-@ 1 after a 90 @-@ minute battle ( 09 ° 13 ′ S 159 ° 40 ′ E ) .
= = = First evacuation run = = =
Leaving his cruisers at Kavieng , Mikawa gathered all 21 of his destroyers at the Japanese naval base in the Shortlands on 31 January to begin the evacuation runs . Rear Admiral Shintaro Hashimoto was placed in charge of this group of destroyers , titled the Reinforcement Unit . The " R " Area Air Force 's 60 floatplanes were tasked with scouting for the Reinforcement Unit and helping defend against Allied PT boat attacks during the nighttime evacuation runs . Allied B @-@ 17 bombers attacked the Shortlands anchorage on the morning of 1 February , causing no damage and losing four aircraft to Japanese fighters . This same day , the IJA 's 6th Air Division raided Henderson Field with 23 " Oscar " s and six " Lily " s but caused no damage and suffered the loss of one fighter .
Believing that the Japanese might be retreating to the south coast of Guadalcanal , on the morning of 1 February Patch landed a reinforced battalion of army and Marine troops , about 1 @,@ 500 men under the command of Colonel Alexander George , at Verahue on Guadalcanal 's south coast . The U.S. troops were delivered to the landing location by a naval transport force of six landing craft tanks and one transport destroyer ( USS Stringham ) , escorted by four other destroyers ( the same destroyers that were to have joined TF 18 three days earlier ) . A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft spotted the naval landing force . Believing that the force posed a threat to that night 's scheduled evacuation run , an airstrike of 13 Aichi D3A2 " Val " dive bombers escorted by 40 Zeros departed Buin , Bougainville to attack the ships .
Mistaking the Japanese strike aircraft as friendly , the U.S. destroyers withheld fire until the " Val " s began their attack . Beginning at 14 : 53 , destroyer USS De Haven was rapidly hit by three bombs and sank almost immediately 2 mi ( 1 @.@ 7 nmi ; 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Savo Island with the loss of 167 of her crew , including her captain . Destroyer USS Nicholas was damaged by several near @-@ misses . Five " Val " s and three Zeros were lost to anti @-@ aircraft fire and CAF fighters . The CAF lost three Wildcats in the engagement .
Hashimoto departed the Shortlands at 11 : 30 on 1 February with 20 destroyers for the first evacuation run . Eleven destroyers were designated as transports screened by the other nine . The destroyers were attacked in the late afternoon near Vangunu by 92 CAF aircraft in two waves . The Allied fliers scored a near miss on Makinami , Hashimoto 's flagship , heavily damaging it . Four CAF aircraft were shot down . Hashimoto transferred to Shirayuki and detached Fumizuki to tow Makinami back to base .
Eleven U.S. PT boats awaited Hashimoto 's destroyers between Guadalcanal and Savo Island . Beginning at 22 : 45 , Hashimoto 's warships and the PT boats engaged in a series of running battles over the next three hours . Hashimoto 's destroyers , with help from " R " Area aircraft , sank three of the PT boats .
In the meantime , the transport destroyers arrived off of two pick @-@ up locations at Cape Esperance and Kamimbo at 22 : 40 and 24 : 00 respectively . Japanese naval personnel ferried the waiting troops out to the destroyers in barges and landing craft . Rear Admiral Tomiji Koyanagi , second @-@ in @-@ command of the Reinforcement Unit , described the evacuees : " They wore only the remains of clothes that were so soiled their physical deterioration was extreme . Probably they were happy but they showed no expression . Their digestive organs were so completely destroyed , we couldn 't give them good food , only porridge . " Another officer added that , " Their buttocks were so emaciated that their anuses were completely exposed , and on the destroyers that picked them up they suffered from constant and uncontrolled diarrhea . "
After embarking 4 @,@ 935 soldiers , mainly from the 38th Division , the transport destroyers ceased loading at 01 : 58 and prepared to depart for the return trip to the Shortlands . About this time , Makigumo , one of the screening destroyers , was suddenly wracked by a large explosion , caused by either a PT boat torpedo or a naval mine . Informed that Makigumo was immobilized , Hashimoto ordered her abandoned and scuttled ( 09 ° 15 ′ S 159 ° 47 ′ E ) . During the return trip , the Reinforcement Unit was attacked by CAF aircraft at 08 : 00 , but sustained no damage and arrived at the Shortlands without further incident at 12 : 00 on 2 February .
= = = Second and third evacuation runs = = =
On 4 February , Patch ordered the 161st Infantry Regiment to replace the 147th at the front and resume the advance westward . The Yano battalion retreated to new positions at the Segilau River and troops were sent to block the advance of George 's force along the south coast . Meanwhile , Halsey 's carrier and battleship task forces remained just beyond Japanese air attack range about 300 mi ( 260 nmi ; 480 km ) south of Guadalcanal .
Kondo sent two of his force 's destroyers , Asagumo and Samidare , to the Shortlands to replace the two destroyers lost in the first evacuation run . Hashimoto led the second evacuation mission with 20 destroyers south toward Guadalcanal at 11 : 30 on 4 February . The CAF attacked Hashimoto in two waves beginning at 15 : 50 with a total of 74 aircraft . Bomb near @-@ misses heavily damaged Maikaze , and Hashimoto detached Nagatsuki to tow her back to Shortland . The CAF lost 11 aircraft in the attack while the Japanese lost one Zero .
The U.S. PT boats did not sortie to attack Hashimoto 's force this night and the loading went uneventfully . The Reinforcement Force embarked Hyakutake , his staff , and 3 @,@ 921 men , mainly from the 2nd Division , and reached Bougainville without incident by 12 : 50 on 5 February . A CAF airstrike launched that morning failed to locate Hashimoto 's force .
Believing that the Japanese operations on 1 and 4 February had been reinforcement , not evacuation missions , the American forces on Guadalcanal proceeded slowly and cautiously , advancing only about 900 yd ( 820 m ) each day . George 's force halted on 6 February after advancing to Titi on the south coast . On the north coast , the 161st finally began their attack westward at 10 : 00 on 6 February and reached the Umasani River the same day . At the same time , the Japanese were withdrawing their remaining 2 @,@ 000 troops to Kamimbo .
On 7 February , the 161st crossed the Umasani and reached Bunina , about 9 mi ( 7 @.@ 8 nmi ; 14 km ) from Cape Esperance . George 's force , now commanded by George F. Ferry , advanced from Titi to Marovovo and dug in for the night about 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) north of the village .
Aware of the presence of Halsey 's carriers and other large warships near Guadalcanal , the Japanese considered canceling the third evacuation run , but decided to go ahead as planned . Kondo 's force closed to within 550 mi ( 480 nmi ; 890 km ) of Guadalcanal from the north to be ready in case Halsey 's warships attempted to intervene . Hashimoto departed the Shortlands with 18 destroyers midday of 7 February , this time taking a course south of the Solomons instead of down the Slot . A CAF strike force of 36 aircraft attacked Hashimoto at 17 : 55 , heavily damaging Isokaze with a bomb near miss . Isokaze retired escorted by Kawakaze . The Allies and the Japanese each lost one aircraft in the attack .
Arriving off Kamimbo , Hashimoto 's force loaded 1 @,@ 972 soldiers by 00 : 03 on 8 February , unhindered by the U.S. Navy . For an additional 90 minutes , destroyer crewmen rowed their boats along the shore calling out again and again to make sure no one was left behind . At 01 : 32 , the Reinforcement Group left Guadalcanal in its wake and reached Bougainville without incident at 10 : 00 , completing the operation .
= = Aftermath = =
At dawn on 8 February , the U.S. Army forces on both coasts resumed their advances , encountering only a few sick and dying Japanese soldiers . Patch now realized that the Tokyo Express runs over the last week were evacuation , not reinforcement missions . At 16 : 50 on 9 February , the two American forces met on the west coast at the village of Tenaro . Patch sent a message to Halsey stating , " Total and complete defeat of Japanese forces on Guadalcanal effected 16 : 25 today ... the Tokyo Express no longer has a terminus on Guadalcanal . "
The Japanese had successfully evacuated a total of 10 @,@ 652 men from Guadalcanal , about all that remained of the 36 @,@ 000 total troops sent to the island during the campaign . Six hundred of the evacuees succumbed to their injuries or illnesses before they could receive sufficient medical care . Three thousand more required lengthy hospitalization or recuperation . After receiving word of the completion of the operation , Yamamoto commended all the units involved and ordered Kondo to return to Truk with his warships . The 2nd and 38th Divisions were shipped to Rabaul and partially reconstituted with replacements . The 2nd Division was relocated to the Philippines in March 1943 while the 38th was assigned to defend Rabaul and New Ireland . The 8th Area Army and Southeast Area Fleet reoriented their forces to defend the central Solomons at Kolombangara and New Georgia and prepared to send the reinforcements , mainly consisting of the 51st Infantry Division , originally detailed for Guadalcanal to New Guinea . The 17th Army was rebuilt around the 6th Infantry Division and headquartered on Bougainville . A few Japanese stragglers remained on Guadalcanal , many of whom were subsequently killed or captured by Allied patrols . The last known Japanese holdout surrendered in October 1947 .
In hindsight , historians have faulted the Americans , especially Patch and Halsey , for not taking advantage of their ground , aerial , and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal . Said Chester Nimitz , commander of Allied forces in the Pacific , of the success of Operation Ke , " Until the last moment it appeared that the Japanese were attempting a major reinforcement effort . Only the skill in keeping their plans disguised and bold celerity in carrying them out enabled the Japanese to withdraw the remnants of the Guadalcanal garrison . Not until all organized forces had been evacuated on 8 February did we realize the purpose of their air and naval dispositions . "
Nevertheless , the successful campaign to recapture Guadalcanal from the Japanese was an important strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies . Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere , the Allies continued their campaign against Japan , ultimately culminating in Japan 's defeat and the end of World War II .
= = = Print = = =
Brown , David ( 1990 ) . Warship Losses of World War Two . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55750 @-@ 914 @-@ X.
Crenshaw , Russell Sydnor ( 1998 ) . South Pacific Destroyer : The Battle for the Solomons from Savo Island to Vella Gulf . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55750 @-@ 136 @-@ X.
D 'Albas , Andrieu ( 1965 ) . Death of a Navy : Japanese Naval Action in World War II . Devin @-@ Adair Pub . ISBN 0 @-@ 8159 @-@ 5302 @-@ X.
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 @-@ 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard B. ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Penguin Group . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 016561 @-@ 4 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Hayashi , Saburo ( 1959 ) . Kogun : The Japanese Army in the Pacific War . Marine Corps Association . ASIN B000ID3YRK .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Letourneau , Roger ; Letourneau , Dennis ( 2012 ) . Operation Ke : The Cactus Air Force and the Japanese Withdrawal from Guadalcanal . Annapolis , MD : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59114 @-@ 446 @-@ 5 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 @-@ 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Tagaya , Osamu ( 2001 ) . Mitsubishi Type 1 " Rikko " ' Betty ' Units of World War 2 . New York : Osprey . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 082 @-@ 7 .
Toland , John ( 2003 ) [ First published in 1970 ] . The Rising Sun : The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire , 1936 @-@ 1945 . New York : The Modern Library . ISBN 0 @-@ 8129 @-@ 6858 @-@ 1 .
= = = Web = = =
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1995 ) [ 1949 ] . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 5 @-@ 3 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Parshall , Jon ; Bob Hackett ; Sander Kingsepp ; Allyn Nevitt . " Imperial Japanese Navy Page ( Combinedfleet.com ) " . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 06 @-@ 14 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= Sharpe , Paley and Austin =
For lists of works by the practice in its various phases see Lists of works by Sharpe , Paley and Austin
Sharpe , Paley and Austin are the surnames of architects who practised in Lancaster , Lancashire , England , between 1835 and 1946 , working either alone or in partnership . The full names of the principals in their practice , which went under various names during its life , are Edmund Sharpe ( 1809 – 77 ) ; Edward Graham Paley ( 1823 – 97 ) , who practised as E. G. Paley ; Hubert James Austin ( 1841 – 1915 ) ; Henry Anderson Paley ( 1859 – 1946 ) , son of Edward , usually known as Harry Paley ; and , for a very brief period , Geoffrey Langshaw Austin ( 1884 – 1971 ) , son of Hubert . The firm 's commissions were mainly for buildings in Lancashire and what is now Cumbria , but also in Yorkshire , Cheshire , the West Midlands , North Wales , and Hertfordshire .
The practice specialised in work on churches ; the design of new churches , restoring older churches , and making additions or alterations . They also designed country houses , and made alterations to existing houses . Almost all their churches were designed in Gothic Revival style , except for some of Sharpe 's earliest churches and a few designed later by the practice . Within the Gothic Revival style , the practice initially used Early English and , particularly , Decorated features . E. G. Paley introduced Perpendicular elements , and Perpendicular became the dominant style used by the practice following the arrival of Hubert Austin , to such a degree that the firm became regarded as the regional leader in the use of that style .
The practice used a greater variety of styles when working on country houses , including Elizabethan and Jacobean elements as well as Gothic . Other features were incorporated towards the end of the 19th century similar to those in works produced by the Aesthetic and the Arts and Crafts Movements . Not all the firm 's work was on a large scale ; as the major architectural practice in North West England they also undertook work on schools , vicarages , hospitals , factories , hotels , shops , railway stations , and war memorials .
= = History and works = =
During the life of the practice its title varied according to the names of the architects who ran it , either individually or in partnership . The history of the practice , and the works produced during each stage , are described under the titles used by the practice . As there are two periods when the practice worked under the title Austin and Paley , the relevant dates have been added to these headings .
= = = Edmund Sharpe = = =
Edmund Sharpe established an architectural practice in his mother 's house in Penny Street , Lancaster , in late 1835 . He had received no formal training in architecture , gaining his knowledge from studying and drawing buildings during a tour of Germany and France between 1832 and 1835 . In 1838 he moved his office to Sun Street , and that year Edward Paley , then aged 15 , joined him as a pupil . The following year Sharpe moved his office again , this time to St Leonard 's Gate .
Sharpe 's earliest commissions were for churches , the first being St Mark , Witton ( 1836 – 38 ) , quickly followed by St Saviour 's Church , Cuerden ( 1836 – 37 ) . He then designed two small chapels , Holy Trinity , Howgill , and St John , Cowgill ( both 1837 – 38 ) , in what is now Cumbria . Larger and grander churches followed , including Christ Church , Walmsley ( 1839 – 40 ) , and his largest church , Holy Trinity , Blackburn ( 1837 – 48 ) . The latter was a Commissioners ' church , so @-@ called because it was partly financed by a grant from the Church Building Commissioners . In all , Sharpe designed six Commissioner 's churches , including St George , Stalybridge ( 1838 – 40 ) . In the early 1840s Sharpe gained a commission from the trustees of the Weaver Navigation to build three ( or four ) churches along its route for their employees . By 1842 he was designing his 31st church , including a long hoped for commission from the 13th Earl of Derby to design St Mary , Knowsley ( 1843 – 44 ) .
Sharpe was persuaded by his future brother @-@ in @-@ law John Fletcher , owner of Ladyshore Colliery , to experiment with the use of terracotta in the structure of his churches ; not just for decoration , as had been done before , but for the whole structure of the church , other than the foundations and rubble infill . The churches resulting from this project were St Stephen and All Martyrs , Lever Bridge ( 1842 – 44 ) , and Holy Trinity , Rusholme ( 1845 – 46 ) . These were nicknamed by Sharpe himself as " the pot churches " .
In addition to Edward Paley , Sharpe took on other pupils , some of whom later established their own architectural practices . One of these was Thomas Austin ( 1822 – 67 ) , who joined Sharpe in 1841 and left in 1852 to set up his practice in Newcastle upon Tyne . Another pupil was John Douglas ( 1830 – 1911 ) , who created a successful practice in Chester .
Sharpe 's architectural works were not limited to churches , nor was his practice confined to architecture . His most important architectural work in the domestic field was his remodelling of Capernwray Hall ( 1844 – 48 ) , and in Knutsford he designed a house for the governor of the gaol ( 1844 ) . In 1838 he was appointed as architect to what was then called the County Lunatic Asylum ( later Lancaster Moor Hospital ) . Here , in addition to carrying out minor repairs , he added a chapel and six additional wings for the residents . Other duties in this post included work on Lancaster Castle and the Judges Lodgings . Sharpe 's other business interests were in the field of engineering . By 1837 he had been appointed Bridgemaster for the South Lonsdale Hundred , in which role he cared for the roads and bridges in north Lancashire , including building at least two new bridges . He had also become involved with the development of railways in the region , initially by designing bridges and a viaduct for the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway ( now part of the West Coast Main Line ) . He was also becoming involved in the civic life of Lancaster , having been elected as a councillor in 1841 .
= = = Sharpe and Paley = = =
Sharpe appointed Paley as his partner in 1845 , and then took an increasing interest in activities outside the practice . By 1847 Paley was responsible for most of the work in the practice , certainly carrying out independent commissions from at least 1849 . In 1851 , the year of Paley 's marriage to Sharpe 's youngest sister , Frances , Sharpe formally withdrew from the practice , although it continued to be known as Sharpe and Paley until 1856 . Being the only major architect practising in the area between Preston and Carlisle , Paley took on commissions of all sizes and types but , like Sharpe , his major designs were for churches . Between 1851 and 1867 he designed or rebuilt about 36 new churches , almost all of them for the Church of England , with a small number for Congregationalists and Roman Catholics . Among his earlier churches were St Patrick , Preston Patrick ( 1852 – 53 ) , St Anne , Thwaites ( 1853 – 54 ) , and Christ Church , Bacup ( 1854 ) .
The first secular work undertaken during this period was the remodelling of Hornby Castle between 1847 and 1852 , including its " expansive " symmetrical frontage . The next commission was the conversion of a manor house close to the ruins of Furness Abbey into the Furness Abbey Hotel starting in 1847 . Other secular commissions around this time were for two vicarages and for the North Western Hotel in Morecambe ( 1847 ) , and for work at Giggleswick School ( 1850 – 51 ) . Paley also carried out work at Rossall School , including the chapel ( 1861 – 62 ) , and the east range ( 1867 ) . He designed new schools , including the Royal Grammar School in Lancaster ( 1851 – 52 ) , and eight village schools . Paley 's main domestic works were the rebuilding of Wennington Hall ( 1855 – 56 ) , and a smaller house , The Ridding . Other varies commissions included the restoration of a music hall in Settle ( 1853 ) , and cemetery buildings in Lancaster and Stalmine ( 1855 and 1856 ) .
The rapid growth of the town of Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , the construction of the Furness Railway following the discovery of deposits of iron ore in the Furness peninsular , and the development of industries using iron as a raw material resulted in many commissions for the practice . The population of Barrow doubled between 1851 and 1861 , and doubled again in the next decade . The major figure in the development of the town and the railway was James Ramsden ( 1822 – 96 ) , who eventually became managing director of the railway , the Barrow Haematite Steel Company , and the Barrow Shipbuilding Company . The largest deposits of iron ore had been discovered in about 1850 by Henry Schneider in land owned by William Cavendish , who was at that time the 2nd Earl of Burlington , and who also played a part in the industry . All three men commissioned the practice to design a variety of buildings . In addition Paley designed a country house , Abbot 's Wood ( 1857 – 59 ) for Ramsden , a large and complex building with Gothic and Tudor features .
= = = E. G. Paley = = =
Paley continued to work from the offices in St Leonard 's Gate after Sharpe 's resignation , but in 1860 he moved to offices in Castle Hill , where the practice remained throughout the rest of its existence . During the 1850s he designed St Peter , Lancaster , a Roman Catholic church that later became Lancaster Cathedral ( 1857 – 59 ) . This is regarded by Brandwood et al. as his " masterwork as an independent church architect " . Hartwell et al. agree , calling this church , with its northwest steeple 240 feet ( 73 m ) high , his chef d 'oeuvre . During the 1860s , Paley began to design churches with bare brick interior walls , rather than plastered walls , the earliest being St Peter , Quernmore ( 1860 ) . Although the High Victorian style was becoming popular elsewhere , it played little part in Paley 's designs , other than more elaborate decorative features , such as the embellishment of the principal rafters at Quernmore . He never used the more blatant features of the style , such as polychromy . During this decade , before the arrival of Austin , he designed churches for the industrial towns of Lancashire , one of the largest being St James , Poolstock ( 1863 – 66 ) . The rebuilding of St Peter 's Church , Bolton ( 1867 – 71 ) with its northwest tower rising to 180 feet ( 55 m ) , is considered by Brandwood et al. to be " Paley 's other great independent church project " . Hartwell et al. refer to it as a " formidable new church " .
Secular commissions during this period included the restoration of the medieval tower at Dalton Castle ( 1859 ) , and buildings for the Lancaster Carriage and Wagon Works ( 1864 – 65 ) . The largest building designed by Paley , and indeed by the practice , was the Royal Albert Asylum ( later renamed the Royal Albert Hospital ) in Lancaster ( 1868 – 73 ) ; it was in Gothic Revival style , and had an E @-@ shaped plan . It has a central French @-@ type tower , with a steeply pitched pyramidal roof flanked by pinnacles . Paley designed stations for the Furness Railway , starting with the Strand Station in Barrow ( 1863 ) ; he probably also designed the station at Grange @-@ over @-@ Sands ( 1866 ) . Overlooking the latter town he designed the Grange Hotel ( 1866 ) .
= = = Paley and Austin = = =
On 28 January 1867 Hubert Austin joined Paley in the practice as a partner . He was the half @-@ brother of Thomas Austin , who had been a pupil of Sharpe . Hubert Austin had worked for three years in the office of George Gilbert Scott , and before he joined the Lancaster practice had designed Christ Church , Ashford , Kent ( 1855 – 56 ) . Following his arrival , the work of the practice continued much as before , with both ecclesiastical and secular commissions .
= = = = Ecclesiastical works = = = =
Two early large churches in industrial areas in Lancashire were built in 1869 – 71 : St Chad , Kirkby , and St John the Evangelist , Cheetham . Pollard describes St Chad as one of the partnership 's " most powerful churches " , Brandwood et al. consider that St John the Evangelist is the practice 's " most important church in Manchester . These were followed by the rebuilding , other than the tower , of St Mary , Leigh ( 1871 – 73 ) , in which the Perpendicular style , generally unfashionable at the time , was used throughout . Similarly the body of All Saints ' Church , Daresbury ( 1870 – 72 ) was rebuilt in Perpendicular style . Meanwhile the practice was designing new churches or rebuilding old churches for villages in the countryside . Some of these were small , others larger and more impressive , such as St Peter , Finsthwaite ( 1873 – 74 ) and St Peter , Scorton ( 1878 – 79 ) . In 1872 – 73 the partners built their only new church in Wales , St Mary , Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed . This was followed by an estate church , St John the Evangelist ( 1882 – 84 ) at Walton , south of Warrington , and by the rebuilding of the old parish church of St Mary ( 1884 – 85 ) at Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness .
They also designed about 23 urban churches of varying sizes and styles . Most were in the industrial towns of Lancashire , except for St John the Evangelist , Greenock ( 1877 – 78 ) in Scotland , a mission chapel in Scarborough , North Yorkshire ( 1885 ) , and St Barnabas ( 1884 – 85 ) in the railway town of Crewe , Cheshire . Notable among the Lancashire urban churches are St Matthew and St James , Mossley Hill , Liverpool ( 1870 – 75 ) , described by Pollard as " one of the best Victorian churches in Liverpool , St Michael and All Angels , Howe Bridge , Atherton ( 1875 – 77 ) , considered by Pollard to be one of Paley and Austin 's " most stimulating churches " , and St John the Baptist , also in Atherton ( 1878 – 79 ) , of which Pollard says " The whole is monumental , one of Paley and Austin 's best " , with a tower that is " magnificently mighty " . In Astley Bridge , Bolton , they built two churches , which are described by Hartwell et al. as being " remarkable " ; these were All Souls ( 1878 – 81 ) , which is now redundant , and St Saviour ( 1882 – 85 ) , which was demolished in 1975 . St James , Daisy Hill , Westhoughton ( 1879 – 81 ) is considered by Hartwell et al. as " a masterly performance for relatively little cash " , and St Peter , Westleigh Leigh ( 1879 – 81 ) is described by Pollard as one of Paley and Austin 's " most radical and thrilling churches " . Meanwhile , in rapidly growing Barrow , they had built four smaller churches to a common design , each dedicated to one of the Four Evangelists . In 1884 the partnership submitted plans for a new Anglican cathedral in Liverpool . Their plan was placed in the top twelve , but failed to make the next round of the competition . In the event the project was abandoned in 1888 , the cathedral being built later and on a different site .
= = = = Secular works = = = =
Meanwhile , the town of Barrow was continuing to grow , and this resulted in many commissions for the practice . In order to deal with this they opened a sub @-@ office in the town , run by John Harrison ( 1837 – 96 ) , which continued to exist until the late 1880s . The first major commission in the town was to design a flax and jute mill for James Ramsden ( 1870 – 72 ) . Other secular buildings included banks , cemetery buildings ( including a large gateway ) , ten large tenement blocks , schools , villas , meeting halls , and the School of Art . For the Furness Railway they designed stations , goods sheds , workers ' cottages and , probably , the circular water tower at Seascale . The partners were also involved with work at large country houses . The most important commission was to build a new wing at Holker Hall in 1871 – 75 to replace a wing severely damaged by fire ; this was the largest project undertaken by the partners . The next major country house commission was the restoration of Hoghton Tower ( 1876 – 78 ) for Sir Henry de Hoghton . Other work on country houses included building Sedgwick House ( 1868 – 69 ) , adding an extension to Leighton Hall ( 1870 ) , making extensions to Walton Hall ( 1870 ) , Underley Hall ( 1872 ) , Capernwray Hall ( 1875 – 76 ) , and Whittington Hall ( 1887 ) . New houses included Oak Lea for Henry Schneider ( 1874 , since demolished ) , Witherslack Hall ( 1874 ) , and Hampsfield House ( 1880 – 82 ) . Their last major work on a country house was the remodelling of Thurland Castle ( 1879 – 85 ) following severe damage by fire . The practice continued to design new schools , and in the 1870s they began to design new buildings for Sedbergh School , creating an association with the school that was to produce commissions throughout the remaining life of the practice .
= = = Paley , Austin and Paley = = =
In 1886 Edward Paley 's son , Henry ( who was and is usually known as Harry ) , became a partner in the practice , which continued to work much as before , with ecclesiastical and secular commissions . New churches were built in villages and towns , and older churches were restored or altered . The first new country church resulting from the partnership was the Church of the Good Shepherd , Tatham ( 1888 – 89 ) . Brandwood et al. describe the 1890s as " something of a golden decade for the firm 's country churches " . The first of these was St Bartholomew , Barbon ( 1892 – 93 ) , mainly Perpendicular in style , but with some rounded arches , followed by St Peter , Field Broughton ( 1892 – 94 ) , also in Perpendicular style . Smaller churches were St Mary , Borwick ( 1894 – 96 ) ( Perpendicular again ) , and a mission church seating 150 at Sunderland Point ( 1894 ) . The 1890s was also a prolific period for new town churches but , before the start of that decade , the firm had designed St Mary , Ince @-@ in @-@ Makerfield ( 1887 , demolished 1974 ) , St John , Birkdale ( 1899 – 90 ) , and St John , Cloughfold , in Rawtenstall ( 1899 – 90 , now redundant ) . Major town churches of the first half of the 1890s include St John , Crawshawbooth ( 1890 – 92 ) , and Christ Church , Waterloo ( near Liverpool ) ( 1891 – 99 ) . During this time the partnership produced their only church in the south of England , All Saints , Hertford ( 1893 – 95 ) . Brandwood et al. say that it is a " Perpendicular building entirely characteristic of the firm " but , being built in Runcorn sandstone from Cheshire , Pevsner considered that it was " completely alien in Herts " . This period also saw the finest church design to be executed by the practice , St George , Heaviley in Stockport ( 1892 – 97 ) , which is considered to be the solely the work of Austin . Brandwood et al. describe it as " the largest , grandest and most expensive church the practice ever built and is the masterwork of Hubert Austin " . Hartwell et al. say it is " a church on a splendid scale " . Another ecclesiastical project was the chapel at the Royal Albert Asylum ( 1886 – 80 ) .
During this time much less work was carried out in the secular sphere . There were no new substantial country houses designed during this time , the largest being the " rather plain , four @-@ square " Hampsfield House . The only major public buildings were the Storey Institute ( 1887 – 91 ) in Lancaster , and the Lancaster Royal Infirmary ( 1893 – 96 ) . Work was carried out on school buildings , including extensions at Lancaster Royal Grammar School and Christ Church School , Lancaster ( both 1887 ) , and a new building for the Keswick School of Industrial Art ( 1893 – 94 ) . Commercial buildings included shops for the Lancaster and Skerton Cooperative Society , including a large store in the middle of Lancaster .
= = = Austin and Paley = = =
= = = = 1895 – 1914 = = = =
Edward Paley died on 23 January 1895 at the age of 71 , and the remaining partners continued the practice under the title Austin and Paley . It is not clear how much Edward Paley had been contributing to the work of the practice in his later years ; it is likely that by then Austin had been " the chief creative force " . The church commissions continued much as before , particularly with new churches , and also with church restorations . New country churches included St Mark , Dolphinholme ( 1897 – 98 ) , St Luke , Slyne ( 1898 – 1900 ) , and St John , Flookburgh ( 1897 – 1900 ) , the last of which incorporated Romanesque features . After 1900 the practice designed All Saints , Barnacre ( 1905 – 06 ) , St John , Ellel ( 1906 – 07 ) , and St Mark , Natland ( 1909 – 10 ) . There were many new town churches , including St Barnabas , Morecambe ( 1898 – 1900 ) , St John the Divine , Sandylands ( 1898 – 1901 ) ( also in Morecambe ) , St Anne , Hindsford ( 1898 – 1901 now redundant ) , and St Thomas , St Anne 's @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea ( 1899 – 1900 ) . These were followed in the 20th century by new churches including St Michael , Middleton ( 1901 – 02 ) , St Mary , Walney ( 1907 – 08 ) , St Andrew , Starbeck , Harrogate ( 1909 – 10 ) , and St Margaret , Halliwell , Bolton ( 1911 – 13 ) . Brandwood et al. describe two further buildings as the partnership 's " last two major urban churches " . The first of these is St Michael and All Angels , Ashton @-@ on @-@ Ribble , Preston ( 1906 – 08 ) . The other , described as the partners ' " last great masterpiece " is St Mary , Widnes ( 1908 – 10 ) . Further ecclesiastical works were the chapels built for Sedbergh School ( 1895 – 97 ) and for St Bees ' School ( 1906 ) .
Although church work dominated the work of the practice there were also some secular commissions . There was no work on country houses during this period , nor were there any commissions for public buildings , other than an expansion of the Storey Institute ( 1906 – 08 ) . The last public building designed by the partnership was Hornby Village Institute ( 1914 ) . In the commercial field the firm designed workshops and a showroom for William Atkinson , which were among the earliest motor garages and showrooms in the provinces . The practice continued to carry out work for the Lancaster and Skerton Cooperative Society , designing numerous shops in the local area . The partners also carried out work on schools , in particular for Sedbergh School . They designed an extension to Leeds Grammar School ( 1904 – 05 ) , Llandovery College , North Wales ( 1901 – 03 ) , Shrewsbury School ( 1913 – 14 ) , and extra buildings for St Bees School , Rossall School , and the Clergy Daughters ' School at Casterton ( 1896 ) .
= = = = Austin , Paley and Austin = = = =
Hubert Austin 's eldest son , Bernard Tate ( 1873 – 1955 ) , studied architecture in the firm , but had a disagreement with his father and left in 1902 to work as an architect for Lever Brothers . Austin 's youngest son , Geoffrey Langshaw ( 1884 – 1971 ) , also worked with the practice from 1907 , and was made a junior partner in January 1914 , when the practice became known as Austin , Paley and Austin . However the partnership was short @-@ lived as Geoffrey enlisted to serve in the King 's Own Royal Lancaster Regiment in February 1915 . He saw active service in the First World War , leaving the army in 1919 , but did not return to the practice , nor did he continue with an architectural career .
= = = = 1915 – 44 = = = =
Hubert Austin died on 22 March 1915 leaving Harry Paley as the sole principal , but the practice continued to be known as Austin and Paley . Helped by assistants and clerks Paley continued to work until the 1940s , but without appointing another partner . He continued to work on churches , repairing and restoring older churches , and designing new ones . His new churches include All Saints , Becconsall ( 1925 – 26 ) , St Stephen on @-@ the @-@ Cliffs , Blackpool ( 1925 – 27 ) , St Hilda , Bilsborrow ( 1926 – 27 ) , St Luke , Orrell ( 1927 – 28 and 1938 ) , St Stephen , Whelley ( 1928 – 30 and 1937 – 38 ) , St Barbara , Earlsdon , Coventry ( 1930 – 31 ) , St Thomas , Blackpool ( 1930 – 32 ) , and his last church , St John , Abram ( 1935 – 37 ) . A major source of commissions following the First World War was the design of war memorials and monuments . Two of Paley 's war memorials are considered to be sufficiently notable to have been designated as Grade II listed buildings . They are both in villages in Cumbria , Beetham and Great Salkeld , both in sandstone in the form of a Celtic cross , and were constructed in or about 1919 . Work continued to be carried out at Sedbergh , Giggleswick , and Leeds Grammar Schools , and on the Royal Lancaster Infirmary . The practice continued to be active until the 1940s . It is uncertain when Harry Paley retired , and it is possible that some work was carried out by his assistants after his retirement . The practice had certainly closed by 1945 , when the offices were sold to Lancaster Corporation and the records of the firm were destroyed . Harry Paley died on 19 April 1946 .
= = Architectural styles = =
Sharpe 's first three churches were in Romanesque style , as according to Sharpe " no style can be worked so cheap as Romanesque " . He then started to include Gothic features , which often did not accurately reflect the features to be found in medieval churches , being an approximation rather than an accurate ( or " correct " ) representation . Influenced by A. W. N. Pugin ( 1812 – 52 ) and the Cambridge Camden Society ( later named the Ecclesiological Society ) , of which Sharpe was a member , he introduced more " correct " Gothic features into his designs , which he continued to use throughout the rest of his career . In 1844 he was praised by the society for his design of the new steeple at St Michael , Kirkham ( 1843 – 44 ) , which was described as being " beautiful and correct " .
Almost all of Paley 's designs were in Gothic Revival style , mainly reflecting features of the 13th and early 14th centuries , with open roofs , benches for the congregation , stalls for the choir , the pulpit to the side of the entrance to the chancel , steps leading up to the chancel , and no side chapels . Most of the designs were largely in the Decorated style , although Paley did occasionally introduce 15th @-@ century Perpendicular features , for example in his rebuilding of St Patrick , Preston Patrick ( 1852 – 53 ) . During the 1850s Paley introduced what was to become one of his favourite features , the traceried oculus window , in Christ Church , Bacup ( 1854 ) and St James , Wrightington ( 1857 ) .
During the Paley and Austin partnership , the architectural styles used by the practice changed and developed . In church architecture , Paley had already started to introduce Perpendicular features in some of his designs , and this trend was to continue and increase after the arrival of Austin . Throughout their partnership , the designs for churches were mainly in Gothic Revival style . After the arrival of Austin , there was much greater use of Perpendicular features . Brandwood et al. see the practice as national pioneers in this trend , saying " the firm can be seen as a true pioneer in the rehabilitation of Perpendicular architecture after its ecclesiological exile for a quarter of a century " . Early examples of what the authors consider to be part of what they call " the Perpendicular revival in the North " are the rebuilding of the bodies of St Mary , Leigh , ( 1871 – 73 ) and All Saints , Daresbury ( 1870 – 72 ) . The Perpendicular " would become the stock @-@ in @-@ trade style for some of the most admired buildings as the years rolled on " . However they did continue to use features from the Early English and Decorated styles , sometimes together in the same church , as in New St Leonard , Langho . Away from the Gothic Revival style , Norman or Norman transitional features were occasionally used , as in St Mary , Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed ( 1872 – 73 ) , and St Peter , Finsthwaite ( 1873 – 74 ) .
Brandwood et al identify two other , potentially incompatible , stylistic changes in the firm 's designs during this period . The first is what they describe as " a greater muscularity ... at times accompanied by continental overtones " . Examples are in the restoration of the tower of St Peter , Heversham , ( 1868 – 70 ) and in the new church of St Mary , Walton , Cumbria ( 1869 – 70 ) . The other stylistic factor was the use of " gentler , less ornate " motifs taken from the Aesthetic Movement , or motifs that could " pass muster as proto @-@ Arts & Crafts work " . Features " verging on Art Nouveau " are present in window tracery in All Saints , St Helens , and on the gate @-@ piers outside St George , Heaviley . What became a " favourite feature " for Austin and Paley were carved inscriptions , usually black , sometimes in Latin and sometimes in English ; examples can be in St John , Crawshawbooth , and Christ Church , Waterloo ( both in Merseyside ) .
In their secular commissions the practice used a variety of styles . Their new wing at Holker Hall was in Elizabethan style , as were the additions to Underley Hall . Witherslack Hall has Jacobean detailing , while other country houses , such as Sedgwick House , incorporate Gothic features . Thurland Castle has features of both Elizabethan and late Gothic styles . Motifs taken from the Aesthetic Movement can be found in both the exterior and the interior of their new wing at Holker Hall , and from the Arts and Crafts Movement in the interior of Thurland Castle .
= = Patrons = =
Sharpe 's earliest commissions were promoted by his older cousin Revd J. W. Whitaker , vicar of Blackburn . Whittaker had connections with major figures in the Church of England and members of the aristocracy . Sharpe 's work came to the notice of the Bishop of Chester , Rt Rev John Bird Sumner , whose diocese at that time included Lancashire as well as Cheshire . He was a member of the Church Building Commission , and it is likely that he played a part in Sharpe 's involvement in designing Commissioners ' Churches . Family connections led to an association with the Greenall family , brewers in Warrington , which possibly led to the commission for the series of churches along the Weaver Navigation . Sharpe had hoped to gain commissions from the Earl of Derby , but was successful only in his design for St Mary , Knowsley . The relationship the practice developed with the major entrepreneurs in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , James Ramsden , and Henry Schneider , resulted in the many commissions for buildings in the town and for the Furness Railway .
= = Practice organisation and personalities = =
As the office records have been destroyed there is no detailed account of how the office was run , or how the partners related to each other in business matters . Sharpe was a man of many interests and talents . In addition to him being an entrepreneur , establishing a practice that lasted for more than 100 years , he was a railway engineer and developer , a public figure who pioneered sanitary reform in Lancaster . He was also an accomplished sportsman and musician . Edward Paley also took an active part in the civil life of Lancaster , while Hubert Austin had a more retiring personality , concentrating more on his work in the practice and with his family . By the time Harry Paley came to run the practice alone there was less work available . As he was relatively comfortable financially , he was also able to take part in the life of the town and in his sporting interests .
All the principals were Anglicans , and most of the church commissions came from the Church of England . Sharpe , in particular , had low church sympathies , and most of the commissions throughout the life of the practice were for the churches of low church or middle @-@ of the @-@ road patrons . This was consistent with the state of Anglicanism generally in Lancashire , possibly a reaction against the strong presence of Catholicism in the county . Henry Austin was a keen churchman , and was a churchwarden for many years . Nevertheless , the practice did design churches and other buildings for Catholics , Congregationalists and Presbyterians .
= = Appraisal = =
The firm was a " provincial architectural practice " in the strict use of the term ; sited as it was in a town some distance from any major city . Its output was almost entirely located in North West England , particularly in Lancashire and in the southern part of what is now Cumbria . Nevertheless , the practice did achieve national recognition , especially in the later part of the 19th century , and in particular for its churches . A contemporary opinion of the practice was given by the German architect and critic Hermann Muthesius who was present in England between 1896 and 1904 . He commented on English architecture and architects , and in his book Die neuere kirchliche Baukunst in England ( 1901 ) he placed the works of Austin and Paley on a par with Bodley and Garner , James Brooks , J. D. Sedding , Norman Shaw , and George Gilbert Scott , junior . He was particularly impressed by St Peter , Lancaster , and by the village churches designed by the practice . Writing in 1969 the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner said " this Lancaster dynasty of architects did more work in the county , and for a time more outstanding work , than any other " . Referring to the late Victorian churches designed by the practice , Pevsner stated that they were " of the highest European standard of their years " . Of the partners , Pevsner had highest regard for Hubert Austin , whom he called a " genius " , saying that it was he " it seems , who was responsible for the firm 's masterpieces " . The title of the introduction to the book by Brandwood et al. entitled The Architecture of Sharpe , Paley and Austin is " A practice like no other " .
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= Trevor Pinnock =
Trevor David Pinnock CBE ( born 16 December 1946 ) is an English harpsichordist and conductor .
He is best known for his association with the period @-@ performance orchestra The English Concert which he helped found and directed from the keyboard for over 30 years in baroque and early classical music . He is a former artistic director of Canada 's National Arts Centre Orchestra and founded The Classical Band in New York .
Since his resignation from The English Concert in 2003 , Pinnock has continued his career as a conductor , appearing with major orchestras and opera companies around the world . He has also performed and recorded as a harpsichordist in solo and chamber music and conducted and otherwise trained student groups at conservatoires . Trevor Pinnock won a Gramophone Award for his recording of Bach 's Brandenburg Concertos with the European Brandenburg Ensemble , an occasional orchestra formed to mark his 60th birthday .
= = Biography and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Trevor Pinnock was born in Canterbury , where his grandfather had run a Salvation Army band . His father was Kenneth Alfred Thomas Pinnock , a publisher , and his mother , Joyce Edith , née Muggleton , was an amateur singer . In Canterbury , the Pinnock family lived near the pianist Ronald Smith , from whose sister Pinnock had piano lessons . He became a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral when he was seven , attending the choir school from 1956 to 1961 and subsequently Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys . After receiving instruction in piano and organ , he served as a church organist ; by the time he was 15 , he began to play the harpsichord . At age 19 , he won a Foundation Scholarship to the Royal College of Music to study organ and he also studied harpsichord , winning prizes for performance on both instruments . His teachers were Ralph Downes and Millicent Silver . A strong early influence was Gustav Leonhardt , though he did not study with him .
= = = Instrumentalist = = =
As a harpsichordist , Pinnock toured Europe with the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields . While a student at the RCM , he was told by the registrar , John Stainer , that it would be impossible to make a living as a harpsichordist . He made his London debut at the Royal Festival Hall in 1966 with the Galliard Harpsichord Trio , which he co @-@ founded with Stephen Preston , flute , and Anthony Pleeth , cello . At this stage , they were playing baroque music on modern instruments . His solo harpsichord debut was in 1968 at the Purcell Room in London .
To maximise his possibilities for work early on in his career , he included in his repertoire not only the regular baroque repertoire , but also modern harpsichord concertos including Roberto Gerhard 's concerto for harpsichord , percussion and strings , Manuel de Falla 's concerto for harpsichord , Frank Martin 's Petite symphonie concertante for harp , harpsichord , piano and double string orchestra and Francis Poulenc 's Concert Champêtre . Pinnock and Maxim Vengerov toured together in 2000 , with Vengerov taking up the baroque violin for the first time and Pinnock taking up the modern grand piano . These concerts consisted of a first half of harpsichord and baroque violin , followed by a second half of piano and modern violin .
= = = The English Concert = = =
In November 1972 the Galliard Trio expanded to become The English Concert , an orchestra specialising in performances of baroque and early classical music on period instruments . The orchestra initially started with seven members but soon grew in size . The decision to move to period performance was taken for a number of reasons :
What I really had in mind was a journey of discovery into the unknown . Although I felt there were excellent interpretations of baroque music performed on modern instruments , I sensed that we 'd come to the end of the road – and yet I knew that there were still discoveries to be made . I was thinking about the interesting experiments made by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Gustav Leonhardt , although I knew we 'd have to experiment in our own way . It was a huge challenge ; playing period instruments wasn 't as easy as it is today , and finding out their secrets was a difficult process . Nowadays an extraordinarily high technical level has been achieved and the upcoming generations don 't have any of the problems we pioneers faced . We cleared the way .
Pinnock was at the forefront of the period performance movement and the revitalisation of the baroque repertoire ; the reaction of Leonard Bernstein to his performances is typical : " In my opinion , the work of the conductor Trevor Pinnock in this area is particularly exciting – his performances of Bach and Handel make me jump out of my seat ! "
The English Concert 's London debut was at the English Bach Festival in 1973 . In 1975 , Pinnock played the harpsichord in the first ever performance of Rameau 's last opera , Les Boréades , under John Eliot Gardiner . He toured North America with The English Concert for the first time in 1983 ; he had earlier spent two periods as Artist in Residence at Washington University , St. Louis . His debut at The Proms was in 1980 ; he later directed Handel 's oratorio Solomon in 1986 and many other large @-@ scale works with his orchestra . They toured worldwide and made numerous recordings , Pinnock directing " with a characteristic energy and enthusiasm which are readily communicated to audiences . " The Choir of the English Concert was at first an ad @-@ hoc group of singers assembled as needed , originally in 1983 for the first 20th century performance of Rameau 's Acante et Céphise ; it became an established choir for a period from the mid @-@ 1990s at the time they were performing Bach 's Mass in B minor . This allowed the ensemble to regularly perform baroque operas , oratorios and other vocal works ; a series of Bach 's major choral works followed .
He directed The English Concert , usually from the harpsichord or chamber organ , for over 30 years , deciding , with the other orchestra members , to hand it over to violinist Andrew Manze in 2003 . He explained the decision as follows :
There are other things I want to develop – or rather come back to . Having done The English Concert for 18 – 20 weeks per year , and guest conducting the rest of the time , I 'd sacrificed playing the harpsichord rather more than I wanted to . I had to make a decision to move forward : there were certain solo projects I wanted to do , and I wanted to make the decision now rather than wait until after I am 60 and it 's too late to do half of them . [ ... ] There 's a wealth of keyboard repertoire I want to revisit . I especially want to go back to the rich English repertoire such as Tomkins , Byrd , Bull and Gibbons .
= = = Other conducting projects = = =
In 1989 Pinnock founded The Classical Band in New York , signing an 18 @-@ disc recording contract with Deutsche Grammophon before the ensemble 's first rehearsal . He led the group in performances of the classical repertoire from Haydn to Mendelssohn on period instruments , including playing as fortepiano soloist . After a disappointing series of concerts , he resigned in 1990 and was succeeded by Bruno Weil .
From 1991 – 1996 he was artistic director and principal conductor of the National Arts Centre Orchestra in Ottawa , a group he had first directed in 1985 . He subsequently served as its artistic advisor during the 1996 – 1997 and 1997 – 1998 seasons , including a tour of the USA with the performance and recording of Beethoven 's 1st and 5th piano concertos with Grigory Sokolov as soloist . He has made occasional return visits to the orchestra since relinquishing his formal position with them .
= = = = Guest conducting = = = =
He has appeared frequently as a guest conductor with many of the world 's leading orchestras , including the Boston , Birmingham , San Francisco and Detroit symphony orchestras , the Saint Paul , Los Angeles and Mito chamber orchestras , the Freiburger Barockorchester , Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra , Mozarteum Orchestra of Salzburg , Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra , Austro @-@ Hungarian Haydn Orchestra , the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and London Philharmonic Orchestra and at the Tanglewood , Mostly Mozart and Salzburg festivals . He is a regular guest conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and Deutsche Kammerphilharmonie
He made his Metropolitan Opera debut in 1988 conducting Handel 's opera Giulio Cesare , the same year he made his debut at the Salzburg Festival with Handel 's Messiah . He conducted Opera Australia and Michael Chance in Handel 's Rinaldo at the Sydney Opera House in 2005 . He also played William Babell 's virtuoso harpsichord transcriptions with some of the arias ( which Babell claimed were of Handel 's actual improvisations ) .
= = = Recent years = = =
Since resigning his position with The English Concert , Pinnock has divided his time between performing as a harpsichordist and conducting both modern- and period @-@ instrument orchestras . He has also taken an interest in educational projects .
In 2004 he commissioned modern harpsichord music by English composer John Webb , whose Surge ( 2004 ) " is built up over an implacable rhythmic repeat @-@ figure . Though neither is explicitly tonal , each skilfully avoids the merely percussive effect that the harpsichord 's complex overtones can all too easily impart to more densely dissonant music . " He has also played the same composer 's Ebb ( 2000 ) , which " comprises a spasmodic discourse against a manic background of descending scale patterns like a kind of out @-@ of @-@ kilter change @-@ ringing " .
He toured Europe and the Far East in 2007 with the European Brandenburg Ensemble , a baroque orchestra , formed to mark his 60th birthday by recording Bach 's Brandenburg Concertos and performing popular baroque music . Its recording of the concertos won the Gramophone Award for Baroque Instrumental in 2008 . The band was not a permanent orchestra , but planned to reconvene in 2011 when Bach 's St John Passion was to be the focus of their work .
Pinnock 's educational work takes place both in the United Kingdom and elsewhere . It includes being principal guest conductor of the Royal Academy of Music 's Concert Orchestra , taking masterclasses or workshops at other British universities , and conducting the orchestras of such establishments as Mozarteum University of Salzburg and The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts .
= = Degrees and honours = =
ARCM Hons ( organ ) 1965 , FRCM 1996 ; Hon.FRAM 1988 . Honorary doctorates : University of Ottawa ( D. University ) in 1993 , University of Kent ( DMus ) in 1995 , University of Sheffield ( DMus ) in 2005 . He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours in 1992 and an Officier of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1998 .
= = Recordings = =
Each original release is listed . Years are those of recording .
= = = Solo harpsichord = = =
= = = = By composer = = = =
J. S. Bach : toccatas 910 & 912 , prelude and fugue in A minor BWV 894 , fantasia in C minor BWV 906 , Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue BWV 903 ( 1978 )
J. S. Bach : toccatas 911 , 913 – 916 ( 1977 )
J. S. Bach : Partitas for harpsichord BWV 825 – 830 ( 1985 )
J. S. Bach : Partitas for harpsichord BWV 825 – 830 , Hänssler Classics ( 1998 – 1999 )
J. S. Bach : Goldberg Variations BWV 988 ( 1980 )
J. S. Bach : Italian Concerto BWV 971 , concerto after Vivaldi ( op.3 no.9 ) BWV 972 and French Overture BWV 831 ( 1979 )
J. S. Bach : French suite no.5 BWV 816 , English suite no.3 BWV 808 , chromatic fantasia and fugue BWV 903 and preludes and fugues BWV 846 , 876 , 881 from The Well @-@ Tempered Clavier ( 1992 )
Handel : harpsichord suites and chaconne HWV 434 , 441 , 436 , 438 , 435
Rameau : Complete harpsichord works , CRD records
Rameau : Les Cyclopes ( Suites in A minor and E minor ) , Avie records ( 2005 )
Scarlatti : Sonatas Kk . 46 , 87 , 95 , 99 , 124 , 201 , 204a , 490 , 491 , 492 , 513 , 520 , 521 ; CRD 3368 ( 1997 ; 1981 as LP )
Scarlatti : Sonatas Kk . 460 , 461 , 478 , 479 , 502 , 516 , 517 , 518 , 519 , 529 , 544 , 545 , 546 , 547 ( 1986 )
Gibbons : The Woods So Wild ( Vanguard 72021 )
= = = = Collections = = = =
16th Century English Keyboard Music , CRD ( 1976 )
A Choice Collection of Lessons and Ayres ( 17th and 18th Century English Keyboard Music ) , CRD
at the Victoria and Albert Museum , CRD ( 1974 )
The Harmonious Blacksmith : Favourite Harpsichord Works ( 1983 )
Suites by Purcell and Handel and Sonatas by Haydn , Wigmore Hall Live ( 2009 )
= = = Harpsichord concertos = = =
J. S. Bach : harpsichord concertos BWV 1052 – 1058 , concertos for 2 , 3 and 4 harpsichords 1060 – 1065 ( Kenneth Gilbert , Lars Ulrik Mortensen and Nicholas Kraemer , harpsichords 2 – 4 ) ( 1979 – 1981 )
J. S. Bach : concerto for harpsichord , violin and flute BWV 1044 ( on the recording 3 concerti ) ( 1984 )
J. S. Bach : Brandenburg concerto no.5 BWV 1050 ( on his two recordings of the Brandenburg concertos ) ( 1982 and 2006 )
Sons of Bach harpsichord concertos : C. P. E. Bach : Wq.14 , Wq.43 ; J. C. Bach / Mozart : concerto in D major ; CRD ( 1974 )
Arne : Harpsichord concerto no.5 in G minor ( on A Grand Concert of Musick ) ( 1979 )
Haydn : Concerto for Harpsichord and Orchestra Hob . XVIII : 11 ( on Haydn : concertos and Pachelbel : Canon and Gigue ) ( 1985 )
Leigh : Concertino for Harpsichord and String Orchestra with Nicholas Braithwaite conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra ; he also plays in Leigh 's Midsummer Night 's Dream suite ; Lyrita records ( 1980 )
Poulenc : Concert champêtre with Seiji Ozawa conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra ( live recording ) , Deutsche Grammophon ( 1991 )
= = = Chamber music = = =
J. C. Bach : 3 Quintets , Sextet ( also playing fortepiano and square piano ) with members of The English Concert ( 1988 )
J. S. Bach : sonatas for flute and harpsichord BWV 1030 – 1032 with Stephen Preston ( baroque flute ) and sonatas for flute and continuo BWV 1033 – 1035 with the addition of Jordi Savall ( viola da gamba ) , CRD
J. S. Bach : sonatas for flute and harpsichord BWV 1020 , 1030 – 1032 with Jean @-@ Pierre Rampal ( modern flute ) and sonatas for flute and continuo BWV 1033 – 1035 with the addition of Roland Pidoux ( cello ) , CBS Records ( 1985 )
J. S. Bach : sonatas for flute BWV 1020 , 1030 , 1032 and sonata for flute and harpsichord BWV 1031 with Emmanuel Pahud , sonatas for flute BWV 1033 – 1035 with the addition of Jonathan Manson ( cello ) ; sonata for two flutes BWV 1039 with the further addition of Silvia Careddu ( flute ) , EMI Classics ( 2008 )
J. S. Bach : sonatas for violin and harpsichord BWV 1014 – 1019 with Rachel Podger ( violin ) and BWV 1019a and the sonatas for violin and continuo BWV 1021 , 1023 with the addition of Jonathan Manson ( viola da gamba ) , Channel Classics ( 2000 )
J. S. Bach : sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord BWV 1027 – 1029 , 1030b ( an early version of the flute sonata ) with Jonathan Manson , Avie ( 2006 )
Corelli : Trio Sonatas with members of The English Concert ( 1987 )
Handel : Trio Sonatas with members of The English Concert ( 1985 )
Rameau : Pièces de Clavecin en Concerts with Rachel Podger and Jonathan Manson , Channel Classics ( 2002 )
Soler : Six Concertos for Two Keyboard Instruments ( playing harpsichord and fortepiano ) with Kenneth Gilbert ( 1979 )
Wesley : Duet for Organ in C major with Simon Preston on his recording Early English Keyboard Music ( 1986 )
The Punckes Delight and other seventeenth @-@ century English music for viol and keyboard ( virginal and chamber organ ) with Jordi Savall , Argo Records ( 1978 )
The Flute King : Music from the court of Frederick the Great . Featuring Emmanuel Pahud on flute . One disc of flute concertos and one of flute sonatas ; Trevor Pinnock directs the Kammerakademie Potsdam orchestra and plays harpsichord continuo . Jonathan Manson plays cello continuo . EMI Classics ( 2011 ) .
= = = Orchestral works with The English Concert = = =
Trevor Pinnock generally directs while playing harpsichord continuo . Recordings on Archiv Produktion unless otherwise indicated .
= = = = By composer = = = =
C. P. E. Bach : 6 symphonies for strings , Wq.182 ( 1979 )
C. P. E. Bach : flute concertos Wq.166 and Wq.167 ( Stephen Preston , flute ) ( 1980 )
J. S. Bach : Brandenburg concertos ( 1982 )
J. S. Bach : Orchestral Suites nos . 1 & 3 ( 1978 )
J. S. Bach : Orchestral Suite no . 2 and concerto for harpsichord , violin and flute BWV 1044 ( Simon Standage , violin ; Stephen Preston , flute ) ( 1978 )
J. S. Bach : Orchestral Suite no . 4 and Brandenburg concerto no . 5 ( 1979 )
J. S. Bach : Orchestral Suites ( Lisa Beznosiuk , flute ) and cantata sinfonias BWV 110 , 174 , 249 , 42 , 52 ( 1993 )
J. S. Bach : single and double violin concertos ( Simon Standage , Elizabeth Wilcock , violins ) ( 1983 )
J. S. Bach : 3 concerti : concerto for oboe d 'amore BWV 1055 , concerto for oboe and violin BWV 1060 and concerto for harpsichord , violin and flute BWV 1044 ( 1984 )
Boyce : 8 Symphonies , op.2 ( 1986 )
Corelli : 12 concerti grossi op.6 ( 1988 )
Fasch : Concertos and Orchestral Suite ( 1995 )
Handel : 6 concerti grossi op.3 ( 1984 )
Handel : 12 concerti grossi op.6 ( 1985 )
Handel : Water Music ( 1983 )
Handel : Music for the Royal Fireworks and concerti a due cori nos.2 and 3 ( no.1 is on Christmas Concertos ) ( 1985 )
Handel : Music for the Royal Fireworks ( original version of 1749 ) , concertos , occasional suite ( 1995 )
Handel : Concerto grosso Alexander 's Feast HWV 318 , sonata à cinque HWV 288 , concertos for oboe HWV 287 , 301 , 302a ( Simon Standage , violin ; David Reichenberg , oboe ) ( 1984 )
Handel : Overtures from Samson , il pastor fido , Agrippina , Alceste , Saul and Teseo ( 1986 )
Handel : Organ concertos op.4 , op.7 and HWV 295 , 296 , 304 ( Simon Preston , organ ) ( 1984 )
Handel : Coronation Anthems ( with Simon Preston conducting the choir of Westminster Abbey ) ( 1982 )
Handel : Dettingen Te Deum , Dettingen Anthem ( with Simon Preston conducting the choir of Westminster Abbey ) ( 1984 )
Handel : Ode for St. Cecilia 's Day ( Felicity Lott , soprano ; Anthony Rolfe Johnson , tenor ) ( 1985 )
Handel : Italian cantatas : Silete venti HWV 242 ; Cecilia , vogli un sguardo HWV 89 ( Jennifer Smith , soprano ; John Elwes , tenor )
Handel : Messiah ( Arleen Auger , soprano ; Anne Sofie von Otter , contralto ; Michael Chance , countertenor ; Howard Crook , tenor ; John Tomlinson , bass ) ( 1988 )
Handel : Belshazzar ( 1990 )
Handel : Acis and Galatea in Mozart 's arrangement K.566 ( 1991 )
Handel : Tamerlano ( 2001 ) ; CD : Avie records ( live recording , London ) , DVD : Arthaus Musik ( live recording , Halle )
Haydn : concertos for oboe , trumpet and harpsichord ( Hob.XVIII : 11 ) ( Paul Goodwin , oboe ; Mark Bennett , trumpet ; Trevor Pinnock , harpsichord ) ( 1985 )
Haydn : violin concertos ; Salomon : Romance for violin ( Simon Standage , violin ) ( 1989 )
Haydn : Stabat mater ( 1990 )
Haydn : missa in angustiis ( Nelson mass ) , te deum ( 1987 )
Haydn : missa sancti Nicolai , Theresienmesse ( 1993 )
Haydn : symphonies le matin , le midi , le soir , ( nos . 6 , 7 , 8 ) ( 1987 )
Haydn : Sturm und Drang symphonies ( nos . 26 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 58 , 59 , 65 ) ( 1989 – 1991 )
Mozart : complete symphonies ( 1992 – 1995 )
Mozart : Krönungsmesse " Coronation Mass " , Exsultate jubilate and Vesperae solennes de confessore ( 1994 )
Purcell : Dido and Aeneas ( 1991 )
Purcell : Timon of Athens and Dioclesian ( 1995 )
Purcell : King Arthur ( 1991 )
Purcell : Odes : Come , ye sons of art , away ; Ode for St. Cecilia 's Day ; Of old , when heroes thought it base ( the Yorkshire feast song ) ( 1989 )
Purcell : choral works with the choir of Christ Church , Oxford , conducted by Simon Preston
Telemann : 3 Orchestral Suites for 3 oboes and bassoon TWV 55 : C6 and B10 , for 2 hunting horns TWV 55 : D19 ( 1993 )
Telemann : Suites , Concerto in D Major for 3 oboes & bassoon TWV 55 : g4 and D1 , for 3 trumpets TWV 54 : D4 ( 1994 )
Vivaldi : 12 concertos il cimento dell 'armonia e dell 'inventione op.8 ( Simon Standage , violin ) ; flute concerto RV 429 , cello concerto RV 424 ; CRD records ( 1978 )
Vivaldi : le quattro stagioni ( Simon Standage , violin ) ( 1982 )
Vivaldi : 12 concertos for 1 @,@ 2 and 4 violins l 'estro Armonico op.3 ( Simon Standage , Micaela Comberti , Elizabeth Wilcock , Miles Golding , violins ) ( 1987 )
Vivaldi : 12 concertos for violin la stravaganza op.4 ( Simon Standage , violin ) ( 1990 )
Vivaldi : 7 concerti for woodwind and strings ( 1995 )
Vivaldi : Concerto alla rustica ( 1986 )
Vivaldi : concerti l 'amoroso ( 1987 )
Vivaldi : 6 concerti for flute op.10 ( Lisa Beznosiuk , flute ) ( 1988 )
Vivaldi : Gloria ; A. Scarlatti : dixit dominus ( 1988 )
Vivaldi : stabat mater , salve regina , nisi dominus ( Michael Chance , countertenor ) ; sinfonia for strings RV 169 ( 1995 )
= = = = Collections = = = =
Christmas Concertos ( 1988 )
Pachelbel : Canon and Gigue ( 1990 )
A Grand Concert of Musick : English Baroque Concertos ( 1979 )
Christmas in Rome : Vivaldi : Gloria ; Corelli : Christmas Concerto ; A. Scarlatti : O di Betlemme altera povertà ( on video and CD ) ( 1992 )
Opera Arias by Mozart , Haydn and Gluck ( Anne @-@ Sofie von Otter , mezzo @-@ soprano ) ( 1995 )
Oboe Concertos : C. P. E. Bach , Wq.165 ; Lebrun , no.1 ; Mozart , K.314. ( Paul Goodwin , oboe ) ( 1990 )
= = = Conducting = = =
Exquisite Fires : Music of Linda Bouchard with the National Arts Centre Orchestra ; Marquis Classics ( 1998 )
Renée Fleming : Sacred Songs in Concert from Mainz Cathedral with the Deutsche Kammerphilharmonie Bremen and the Mainzer Domchor ; Decca records ( 2005 ) ( on DVD only )
J. S. Bach : The Brandenburg Concertos with the European Brandenburg Ensemble , ( 2007 ) , Avie
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= Lê Văn Duyệt =
Lê Văn Duyệt ( 1763 or 1764 – 3 July 1832 ) was a Vietnamese general who helped Nguyễn Ánh — the future Emperor Gia Long — put down the Tây Sơn rebellion , unify Vietnam and establish the Nguyễn Dynasty . After the Nguyễn came to power in 1802 , Duyệt became a high @-@ ranking mandarin , serving under the first two Nguyễn emperors Gia Long and Minh Mạng .
Born into a family of peasants near Tiền Giang , Duyệt joined Prince Nguyễn Ánh in fighting the Tây Sơn rebellion . Because of Duyệt 's military ability , he quickly rose through the ranks of the Nguyễn army and became a marshal when the Tây Sơn @-@ Nguyễn war ended . After the foundation of the Nguyễn Dynasty , Duyệt served as a high @-@ ranking mandarin and , later , viceroy of the southern part of Vietnam .
His governance greatly stabilized and helped develop the southern third of Vietnam , turning it into a wealthy and peaceful region . In addition , Duyệt opposed Emperor Minh Mạng 's ascension and defended Christian missionaries and converts from the emperor 's isolationist and Confucian policies . These attitudes brought Duyệt into conflict with Minh Mạng and led to the posthumous desecration of Duyệt 's tomb , which provoked his adopted son Lê Văn Khôi to revolt against the court . Later , Emperor Thiệu Trị , the successor of Minh Mạng , rehabilitated Duyệt and restored his tomb .
= = Early life = =
Lê Văn Duyệt was born in either 1763 or 1764 in Định Tường ( present day Tiền Giang ) , a regional town in the Mekong Delta , in the far south of Vietnam . His parents were ordinary peasants whose ancestors came from Quảng Ngãi Province in central Vietnam during the southwards expansion of the Nguyễn Lords . Duyệt was born in a poor family , and he tended buffaloes during his childhood . Attracted by the possibilities of the " New South " , the family then moved to Gia Định .
= = General of Nguyễn Ánh = =
In 1780 , Duyệt became a eunuch of the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Prince Nguyễn Ánh , the nephew of the slain Nguyễn Lord and the most senior member of the family who survived the revolt by the three Tây Sơn brothers , who seized southern Vietnam from the Nguyễn in 1777 . As a result , Nguyễn Ánh and a few loyalists fled into the dense jungles of the Mekong Delta in the far south . Later , Nguyễn Ánh made Duyệt a Cai Cơ ( " Commander " ) of his bodyguards . From 1777 onwards , the military balance between the Tây Sơn and the Nguyễn fluctuated , as the enemies counterattacked each other frequently .
In 1782 , the Tây Sơn attacked Gia Định ( later known as Saigon and now Ho Chi Minh City ) again and forced Nguyễn Ánh to flee to the island of Phú Quốc under Duyệt 's escort . It was one of many times when Gia Định changed hands . In 1787 , Duyệt began organizing and commanding his own unit , and individually recruited his own enlisted men . In 1788 , the tide began to turn in favour of the Nguyễn , after Pigneau de Behaine , a French Catholic priest who befriended Nguyễn Ánh in the hope that the young prince would gain power and give special privileges to his religion , recruited French military officers to fight for the Nguyễn . In 1788 , the Nguyễn recaptured Gia Định and never relinquished it again . From then on , Nguyễn Ánh transformed the city into a fortress and his powerbase and began consolidating his hold on the surrounding area , before attacking the Tây Sơn with a view to eliminating them .
In 1789 , Nguyễn Ánh made Duyệt a general . From this point on , Duyệt accompanied his master on many military campaigns against the Tây Sơn . Continuous warfare then ensued , mostly centred near Nha Trang and Qui Nhơn on the south central coast , where the Nguyễn besieged the Tây Sơn 's strongholds . In 1801 , Duyệt engineered a naval victory in Thị Nại , which was a turning point of the war and heralded the complete collapse of the Tây Sơn . In the same year , a close colleague , Tong Viet Phuc was killed in battle by the Tây Sơn , leading Duyệt to fly into " an almost insane rage " and start killing every enemy soldier he came across , leading Nguyễn Ánh to rebuke him . Shortly thereafter , Nguyễn Ánh exploited the absence of most of the Tây Sơn 's army , which was attempting to recapture Quy Nhon , to lead his army in an attack on Phú Xuân , the capital of the Tây Sơn . However , the Nguyễn encountered heavy resistance from Tây Sơn forces around the Tu Dung sea gate , the entrance into the citadel of Phú Xuân . Seeing that the Nguyễn forces could not breach the defense by frontal attacks , Nguyễn Ánh ordered Duyet to lead a naval division to attack the Tây Sơn defense complex from the rear . Lê Văn Duyệt and his deputy Le Chat then defeated the Tây Sơn army and forced their commander , Prince Consort Nguyen Van Tri , to flee . This paved a way for the Nguyễn to assault the citadel of Phú Xuân .
In 1802 , Nguyễn Ánh , who had declared himself Emperor Gia Long after capturing Phú Xuân ( Huế ) , appointed Duyệt to the position of Khâm Sai Chưởng Tả Quân Dinh Bình Tây Tướng Quân ( " Marshal of King 's Left Division , Tây Sơn Pacification General " ) and ordered him to attack Tây Sơn @-@ controlled northern Vietnam . In October 1802 , Duyệt captured the north , and then renamed it from Bắc Hà ( " Northern River " ) to Bắc Thành ( " Northern Citadel " ) thus marking ultimate victory of the Nguyễn against the Tây Sơn .
Duyệt 's strategy , along with the French military tactics and technology recruited by Pigneau , played an important role in Nguyễn Ánh 's success and the foundation of the Nguyễn Dynasty .
= = Mandarin of the Nguyễn Dynasty = =
From 1802 to 1812 , Duyệt served as a high @-@ ranking general in the new imperial capital Huế in Annam ( central Vietnam ) . In 1812 , Emperor Gia Long appointed Duyệt as the viceroy of Gia Định . At this time , the viceroy of Gia Định held jurisdiction not only over Cochinchina ( southern Vietnam ) but also over Cambodia .
The post of viceroy had significant powers ; although no precise description of the head of Gia Định 's responsibilities survives to this day , the rights of his northern counterpart included the power " ... to decide lawsuits ; and to appoint and dismiss officials at his own will . It is enough only to report to the court after acting at his own discretion . " Gia Long trusted Duyệt and his fellow southerners ; all of the viceroy 's lheading deputies were locally bred men , whereas many of those who ran the north were not . This allowed Duyệt and his entourage to develop a strong support base with the grassroots population and gave them more gravitas with which to rule . He also tried to expand the support base for the Nguyễn in the south by appointing newly arrived Chinese refugees who had fled their homeland after the fall of the Ming Dynasty as well as former rebels and bandits , to administrative posts if they were qualified , and encouraging their integration into and participation in society . Under the system of the time , military governors such as Duyệt moved to different posts with individual units that they had commanded for years , so he could count on their fidelity .
In 1812 , a Siamese @-@ supported young brother of Ang Chan , the King of Cambodia , rose up and seized the throne , which forced the incumbent to flee to Gia Định . In 1813 , Duyệt , with the approval of Gia Long , entered Cambodia with an army of 10 @,@ 000 troops and forced the Siamese army to retreat . He reinstated Ang Chan and built two citadels , Nam Vang and La Liem on Cambodian territory in order to maintain Vietnamese jurisdiction over the nation , which was formally made a protectorate , adding to his prestige . In addition , Duyet 's domestic governance was effective and stabilized the south , which prompted the people to give him the sobriquet Cọp Gấm Đồng Nai ( " White Tiger of Đồng Nai " ) . As Gia Long 's most trusted mandarin , Duyệt often acted as a conduit between the emperor and the European merchants and government delegates who visited Vietnam . In the early 1820s , Duyet dispatched a delegation to seek out British officials in an attempt to buy arms , but the party got lost in storms and were arrested after washing up in Burma . Duyet remained an advocate of hawkish foreign policy after the protectorate over Cambodia was entrenched , advocating an alliance with Burma against Siam , and expressing confidence that Vietnam could defeat Siam and dominate Southeast Asia .
In 1815 , Emperor Gia Long summoned him back in order to suppress widespread rebellions in central Vietnam . In 1819 , Duyệt was in Nghệ An and Thanh Hóa in northern Vietnam putting down revolts for Gia Long . During this time , he joined forces with a former rebel leader from a highlands minority group in Cao Bằng . This man became Duyệt 's adopted son under the name Lê Văn Khôi and his men also rallied to the court . Khoi was then propelled directly into a high @-@ ranking post in Gia Định . During the final four years of Gia Long 's reign , Duyệt ascended to the highest rank in the court , and he and Pham Dang Hung , another southerner , were the only people present as the emperor died . Gia Long decreed that Duyệt take command of five royal regiments .
After pacifying central Vietnam , Duyệt was reappointed to be the viceroy of southern Vietnam and Cambodia in 1820 by Emperor Minh Mạng , Gia Long 's successor . The emperor further enhanced Duyệt 's powers by allowing him the power to oversee all foreign trade coming into his area , and collect taxes in Cambodia and on imports and exports at his discretion . This gave Duyệt control over the vast economic resources in the fertile agricultural and lumber @-@ rich region and most importantly , land development . The southern area had only been populated by ethnic Vietnamese in recent centuries and immigration , clearing and development of land was rapid .
At the beginning of his second period as viceroy , Duyệt suppressed a revolt of the local Khmer people and enlisted ten thousand new taxpayers , thereby generating a large new revenue source for the court . He supervised the renovation of the Vĩnh Tế Canal , an important waterway in southern Vietnam . Moreover , Duyệt was successful in suppressing unrest and criminal activity , and increasing foreign trade in southern Vietnam and Cambodia . Duyệt 's works greatly stabilized and developed southern Vietnam , turning it into a wealthy and peaceful region . As recognition for Duyệt 's service , Minh Mạng rewarded Duyệt with a belt made of jade — a prestigious gift in the Confucian system usually given to an emperor as a tribute , or by a monarch to an official to honour a great service — and betrothed a princess to Duyệt 's adopted son as a wife .
Duyệt was also involved in internal palace machinations . He became involved in a bitter rivalry with General Nguyen Van Thanh , the viceroy of northern Vietnam and commander of the Center Division ; Thanh was another of Gia Long 's leading generals . Duyệt was assisted in this dispute by Nguyen Huu Nghi , who had been a former confidant of Thanh before defecting . Later , another soldier who had served Thanh was caught mingling in Duyệt 's military camp and was captured . Duyệt claimed that the man confessed to being sent by Thanh to assassinate him .
On an other hand , Duyệt was the mandarin who charged former Crown Prince Cảnh 's wife for having an incestuous relationship with her eldest son and then executed her by drowning in 1824 . Duyệt 's action effectively ended the claim to Vietnam 's throne by Prince Cảnh 's descendants . According to one report however , Minh Mạng had already been informed from another quarter of the affair . Choi Byung Wook , a Korean historian , described this event as a " most dramatic event illustrating Lê Văn Duyệt 's loyalty to Minh Mạng " .
= = Conflict with Minh Mạng = =
There was a lot of tension between Duyet and Minh Mạng . Although Gia Long had enlisted European support to claim the throne and allowed missionaries to function in Vietnam in gratitude to Pigneau , he ran a classical Confucian administration . He also expressed dismay at the Catholic condemnation of the traditional ancestral worship , a basic tenet of Vietnamese culture ; Crown Prince Cảnh had been converted by Pigneau and subsequently refused to bow down to his ancestors , instead desecrating a shrine with feces .
As Crown Prince Cảnh had died of smallpox during the war against the Tây Sơn , it was assumed that Cảnh 's son would succeed Gia Long , but in 1816 Nguyễn Phúc Đảm , the son of Gia Long 's second wife , was appointed instead . Gia Long chose him for his strong character and his deeply conservative aversion to Westerners , whereas Cảnh 's lineage had converted to Catholicism and had shunned Confucian traditions such as ancestor worship . Gia Long told his son to treat the Europeans — especially the French — respectfully , but not to grant them any position of preponderance .
Minh Mạng disliked Duyệt because he was one of many high @-@ ranking mandarins who opposed Gia Long 's succession plan . Duyệt and many of his southern associates tended to be favourable to Christianity , and supported the installation of Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh 's descendants . As a result , Duyệt was held in high regard by the Catholic community . Historian Mark McLeod said that " As the head of a region enjoying substantial autonomy , Lê Văn Duyệt had good reason to prefer that the empire be ruled after Gia @-@ long 's death by an immature or malleable monarch . " According to McLeod , as Duyệt was not from a scholar @-@ gentry background and lacked a classical Confucian education , he did not place a great emphasis on tradition and was more concerned with military needs , and that as a result , he would be more interested in maintaining strong relations with Europeans so that he could acquire weapons from them , rather than worrying about the social implications of Westernization . There was also speculation that Gia Long was worried that Cảnh 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old heir was too young and could have been manipulated , and that he would forget his Eastern roots , whereas the more mature Minh Mạng — aged 26 — would not . Gia Long was aware of the fact that Catholic clergy were opposed to the installation of Minh Mạng .
Minh Mạng began to place restrictions on Catholicism . He enacted " edicts of interdiction of the Catholic religion " and condemned Christianity as a " heterodox doctrine " . He saw the Catholics as a possible source of division , especially as the missionaries were arriving in Vietnam in ever @-@ increasing numbers .
Because of the role of Westerners in the war between the Nguyễn and the Tây Sơn , and Pigneau 's role in recruiting European assistance , Duyệt protected Vietnamese Catholic converts and Westerners from Minh Mạng 's isolationalist and Confucian policies by disobeying the emperor 's orders . In defense of the Christians , Duyệt wrote to Ming Mạng , " We still have between our teeth the rice which the missionaries gave us when we were starving . " This came in response to an imperial edict that ordered missionaries to leave their areas of operation and move to the imperial city , ostensibly because the palace needed translators , but in reality to stop the Catholics from proselytizing . Whereas the government officials in central and northern Vietnam complied , Duyệt disobeyed the order and Minh Mạng was forced to bide his time . In the meantime , southern Christians were still publicly identifying themselves as such and praticising their beliefs without facing any obstacles from local officials . Choi said that " From the point of view of Minh Mạng and his men , the land of Gia Định was thoroughly sheltered by Lê Văn Duyệt 's prestige . "
Duyệt 's policy towards criminals and former rebels also courted conflict with Minh Mạng . In the early @-@ 19th century , the nascent years of the Nguyễn Dynasty were plagued by incessant revolts , particularly in northern and central Vietnam . This resulted in a large number of rebels being captured along with common criminals and bandits . Such people were usually internally exiled to the opposite part of the country , so a large number ended up in southern Vietnam . These included many former rebels who were spared the death penalty after being defeated by Duyệt in northern and central Vietnam during his pacification campaigns in the late 1810s , and had sworn loyalty towards the general personally . These men were sent south with their wives and children to remove them from potentially rebellious areas and to punish them , but another objective was to start military colonies to help develop southern Vietnam , which had only recently been acquired by ethnic Vietnamese . The convicts were given equipment to work on the land and some were later pardoned . Duyệt and Gia Long had employed surrendered Tây Sơn officers in positions of authority , and this policy had continued due a shortage of manpower until Minh Mạng came to power . Duyệt wanted to continue this policy and wrote to Minh Mạng for permission , but was rejected . The emperor replied that such a policy was " like releasing a monkey to climb up a tree " . For Minh Mạng , the placement of former convicts and rebels in positions of power was contrary to the Confucian system of order and debauched the prestige of the state , whereas Duyet was only concerned with practicality .
During the 1820s , Duyệt 's continued cultivated of relations with the immigrant Chinese community that had settled in southern Vietnam in large numbers brought him into conflict with Minh Mạng . The general had adopted a Chinese immigrant merchant as his son and gave him favours , including appointing him to position of the body that regulated trade . The Japanese historian Shimao concluded that Duyệt and his entourage were given financial rewards and gifts from the Chinese merchants in return for favourable treatment by government officials . It was also pointed out that another of Duyet 's men was himself a businessman who had a Chinese agent . At the time , southern Vietnam was producing rice in plentiful quantities but export was banned by Minh Mạng , but prices in Vietnam , which were lower than those overseas , kept rising by 50 – 100 % in various parts of the country in five years . In the meantime , the opium supply kept on increasing . It was thought that Chinese merchants , whom Duyệt patronised , were illegally exporting rice at higher prices , and then bringing back opium during return journeys along with incoming immigrants . For his part , the general disagreed with the prevailing view held by the emperor , and said that people of both races were engaging in illegal trading , as well as blaming the incoming immigrants ' personal addictions rather than the Chinese merchants for bringing in opium . The historian Nola Cooke said that Duyet 's viewpoint was more plausible and speculated that the emperor 's stance was borne more out of a fear of the consequences of a disproportionate Chinese influence on the country than the reality of illegal trading . Duyệt wanted to further give tax concessions to newly arrived Chinese immigrants that were deemed to be impoverished to encourage immigration and speed up development of the region , something that the emperor was sceptical of , on the reasoning that it was difficult to genuinely determine who was in need and that the concession system was therefore open to rorting . Nevertheless , Duyệt disobeyed Minh Mạng and tax concessions were granted . Because of their involvement in the illegal exportation of rice and importation of opium , Minh Mạng tried to ban the Chinese from engaging in sea trade in 1827 , but this was easily circumvented by the merchants , who exploited their contacts with Duyệt and used fraudulent registrations , often under the name of Vietnamese wives . It was not until Duyệt died that Minh Mạng was able to crack down on fraudulent sea trade .
For a time , Duyệt 's attitude and stature in the south forced Minh Mạng to moderate his policies and allow the preaching of Christian missionaries . However , it also increased the tension between the pair and Minh Mạng was anxious to curtail the autonomy that his father had granted to Duyệt and the southerners . The emperor began to slowly wind back their military powers , in an attempt to wear down Duyệt 's power base by gradually removing the general 's close aides .
In 1821 , Minh Mạng sent two of his aides from central Vietnam to serve as education officials in the south . One of the objectives was that they would oversee the imperial examination process and education system , which would allow them to determine who would serve in the government as mandarins and therefore fill the southern ranks with men acceptable to the court . However , their attempts were either blocked or circumvented by Duyệt 's incumbent officials and they returned to the capital two years later in failure . In 1823 , one of Duyệt 's closest subordinates Tran Nhat Vinh , was indicted by one of Minh Mạng 's officials from Huế , who charged him with trading rice on the black market and operating a brothel . Duyệt put a stop to the legal proceedings and angrily tried to turn the tables , calling on the emperor to execute the accusing official . This ended in a stalemate , but a few years later , Vinh was transferred to northern Vietnam and later imprisoned while Duyet was unable to do anything about the matter in the south ; Vinh 's position was taken by one of the emperor 's men . In 1826 , Duyệt resisted the removal of a regional official by the palace , leading the emperor to criticise him in a proclamation declaring that court appointments came under the purview of Huế . The following year , Duyệt executed convicted criminals without informing the capital , leading the emperor to criticise him again , saying that " the ultimate authority to decide questions of life and death belongs to the court . "
In 1829 , Duyet suffered another blow when Nguyen Van Thoai , an ally whom he appointed to run Cambodia for him died . The general nominated another subordinate to replace his colleague Nguyen Van Xuan , but Minh Mạng overruled him and instead appointed one of his mandarins Bui Minh Duc to the post . Although the emperor formally asked Duc to cooperate with Duyet , Minh Mạng then appointed Duc to the post of Minister of the Board of War , putting him above the general in the chain of command , effectively making Duyet irrelevant with regards to the running of the protectorate . In 1831 , just before Duyet 's death , Minh Mạng began to dismantle his military infrastructure and sending his component units to other parts of Vietnam , and sent a loyalist General Nguyen Van Khue to Gia Định , allowing him to dilute the viceroy 's power . In addition , no government reports could be officially approved and sent to the capital until it was countersigned by civil officials sent south by the emperor . These moves against southern autonomy gradually increased the resentment and regionalist sentiments among the local population .
= = Family and personal life = =
Lê Văn Duyệt had a wife named Đỗ Thị Phận . Apart from Lê Văn Khôi , Duyệt had another adopted son named Lê Văn Yen who had married princess Ngoc Nghien , a daughter of Gia Long .
Duyệt was typically described as a stern , hot @-@ tempered but fair man , which made him both feared and respected by people . Many lower @-@ level bureaucrats and military officers were loath to speak to him directly , as were some higher officials . Some later accounts have portrayed his strict ways in a more negative light . According to the later imperial official Phan Thuc Truc , Duyệt sometimes fatally beat dogs and beheaded senior local officials for no reason . Duyệt was also regarded as an eccentric ; he raised 30 members of the Montagnard hill tribes to act as servants , and kept exactly 100 chickens and 100 dogs at his home . Whenever he returned to his official residence after an assignment , he ordered a tiger and 50 dogs to march after him . In 1825 , Michel @-@ Duc Chaigneau , the nephew of Gia Long 's French military mandarin Jean @-@ Baptiste Chaigneau , visited Gia Định on a government mission and said that Duyệt " has great talent both in battle and administration . People fear him , but he is heartily loved by people here because he is fair . "
He was also famous for his love of cockfighting , hát bội ( Vietnamese classical opera ) and court dancing , all of which were popular with the common Vietnamese southerner . He reportedly gave a long speech praising cockfighting , in a joking manner , to Emperor Gia Long and sometimes beat the drum himself in order to encourage the actors and actresses of the hát bội troupes when they were performing for him . He was also known for his patronage of goddess spirits that were popularly venerated by local southerners in folk religions . In addition , Duyệt was the instructor of three đình formalities , a code of ceremonial conduct and customs that were copies of royal rituals .
George Finlayson , a representative of the British government who visited Gia Định in 1822 , described Duyệt as a man who liked to dress plainly , almost in a manner similar to his peasant constituents . Finlayson said that Duyệt " has an intelligent look , and may be esteemed to possess considerable activity both of mind and body : his face is round and soft , his features flabby and wrinkled ; he has no beard , and bears considerable resemblance to an old woman : his voice , too , is shrill and feminine . "
Duyệt 's informal manner caused him difficulties during Minh Mạng 's administration , as the second emperor 's government was more oriented towards classical Confucianism than that of his father . The younger mandarins regarded Duyệt and his southern entourage as uncultured , and the older military officials felt more uncomfortable in the court as time went by . Gia Long was also seen a direct and frank man in his dealings , while Minh Mạng was seen as being vague in expressing his thoughts to his bureaucrats . This was attributed to Gia Long 's dependence on military officers during the war years , which required him to be blunt and assertive , whereas Minh Mạng grew up dealing with court scholars after the establishment of the Nguyễn Dynasty , and was regarded as a quiet and studious monarch . After a visit to the capital in 1824 , Duyệt found the imperial court to be an uncomfortable surrounding and confided in a colleague :
The court recruits civil officials and wants to make a proper ruling system with them . Both of us have rise in the world from a military background . We only know straight expression and quick action , thus violating manners or official rules , sometimes . We are originally different from them . We had better give up our positions ... to avoid possible mistakes .
Duyệt and fellow southern general Le Chat then resigned their positions , but the emperor rejected their offers . Duyệt wanted a post in the capital , but was not given one , in part of suspicions among the court that the general could launch a palace coup , not unlike many insurrections in Vietnam 's past . Duyệt was sent back to southern Vietnam , far from the royal seat .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 3 July 1832 , Duyệt died in the Citadel of Saigon at the age of 68 . He was buried at Bình Hòa , Gia Định ( present day Ho Chi Minh City ) . His tomb was called Lăng Ông Bà Chiểu ( " Tomb of the Marshal in Ba Chieu " ) by the local people .
Duyệt 's death opened the way for Minh Mạng to apply his policies in the south , as the viceroy 's subordinates lacked the influence to defy the court . The emperor also tried to reduce Duyệt 's followers ’ political power by abolishing the post of viceroy and putting the south under his direct rule , thus making Duyệt the last holder of the post . Soon after Duyệt 's death , Minh Mạng 's new appointees arrived and took over the local administration . The new officials then launched an investigation and reported that Duyệt and his aides had engaged in corrupt and abusive practices .
As a result , Bach Xuan Nguyen , who led the investigation , ordered the posthumous humiliation of Duyệt . This resulted in the desecration of his tomb , the execution of sixteen relatives , and the arrests of his colleagues . Minh Mạng 's attitude led Duyet 's adopted son Khoi to break out of prison and start a revolt against the emperor on 10 May 1833 .
After suppressing the revolt , which was supported by a Siamese invasion , lasted three years and briefly took control of the south , the emperor had Duyệt 's tomb desecrated and had a stele with the inscription " Đây chỗ tên lại cái lộng quyền Lê Văn Duyệt chịu phép nước " ( " Here lies the eunuch Lê Văn Duyệt who resisted the law " ) placed over the ruins . The tomb remained in disrepair until the reign of next emperor , Thiệu Trị , who rehabilitated Duyệt and restored his tomb . Then , Emperor Tự Đức turned the tomb into a national monument .
After the establishment of the colony of Cochinchina , Duyệt was continuously venerated despite French policies of dismantling the Vietnamese imperial system and its ritual customs . Duyệt 's yearly celebrations were attended by politicians of Cochinchina . This was allowed to continue despite a legend in southern Vietnam that Duyệt had appeared in the dreams of Nguyen Trung Truc , a fisherman who famously led a peasant army against French colonization , and advised him on how to fight foreigners . In 1937 , thanks to donations from a number of colonial government officials and members of the business elite , Duyệt 's tomb was renovated and extended . Under South Vietnamese rule , Duyệt was considered a great national hero and his image appeared on banknotes , while prominent streets were named after him . In contrast , Duyệt was held in low regard by the current Vietnamese Communist Party government because of his role in the expansion of French influence in Vietnam , in line with the communist designation of the Nguyễn Dynasty as " feudal " and " reactionary " . After the fall of Saigon in 1975 , Duyệt 's tomb became dilapidated because of the lack of state maintenance and streets named in his honour were renamed . This attitude remained unchanged until 2008 , when the current government had Duyệt 's tomb renovated and allowed a play portraying his life to be performed publicly .
Nevertheless , Duyệt is widely regarded by southern Vietnamese people as the most important local hero . Choi described Duyệt 's popularity as follows : " No matter whether they are indigenous Vietnamese or Chinese settlers , Buddhists or Christians , residents of Saigon have long paid enthusiastic tribute to one favorite southern , local hero — Lê Văn Duyệt — whose gorgeous shrine is located on Dinh Tien Hoang Street in Binh Thanh District . You will not able to find any other place in Huế or Hanoi where the residents , regardless of ethnic or religious backgrounds , regard their own local hero with such reverence " .
= = In popular culture = =
Lê Văn Duyệt , along with Nguyen Van Truong , Nguyen Van Nhon , Nguyen Huynh Duc and Truong Tan Buu ( all of them were Nguyễn Ánh 's generals ) was called Ngũ hổ tướng ( " Five Tiger Generals " ) in Vietnamese folk culture . Moreover , people usually regard Duyệt as Đức Tả Quân ( " His Honorable Left Division 's Marshal " ) , following the office of Tả Quân ( " Marshal of Nguyễn Dynasty Army 's Left Division " ) which Duyệt was the holder for a time . Lê Văn Duyệt High School in Saigon was named after him .
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= Schenecker double homicide =
The Schenecker double homicide occurred on January 27 , 2011 ; Calyx and Beau Schenecker were found dead by police at their home in Tampa , Florida . Their mother , Julie Powers Schenecker , was arrested on suspicion of their murder after an alleged confession .
On January 29 , Schenecker was admitted to Tampa General Hospital , but was released the next day . She was charged with two counts of first degree murder and indicted by grand jury on February 9 . Seven days later she entered a plea of not guilty , with her legal team indicating they would pursue a defense on the grounds of insanity . Parker Schenecker divorced his wife in May 2011 and subsequently filed a civil lawsuit for wrongful deaths , following dispute over distribution of the family 's assets .
Julie Schenecker 's criminal trial began on April 28 , 2014 . She was found guilty of first @-@ degree murder and was sentenced to two concurrent life terms in prison on May 15 , 2014 .
= = Schenecker family = =
Julie Powers Schenecker ( born January 13 , 1961 in Muscatine , Iowa ) lived in Tampa , Florida with her husband , U.S. Army Colonel Parker Schenecker , and their two children . The couple met in Germany during the 1980s , where Julie Powers was working as a Russian linguist .
At the time of Calyx and Beau 's deaths , Parker Schenecker was overseas . Their daughter , Calyx , was 16 and son , Beau , was 13 at the time of their deaths . According to the New York Daily News , the children were described as " cheerful and seemingly happy . "
= = = Previous investigation = = =
Police visited the Schenecker home November 6 , 2010 , to investigate an allegation of child abuse made by Calyx . No charges were filed against Schenecker but , according to the police report , Schenecker acknowledged that she had hit her daughter . Calyx told a counselor in her once @-@ a @-@ week therapy appointment that her mother had hit her in the face when they were heading home from cross @-@ country practice November 2 , 2010 , according to the police report . Investigators that visited the home said there were no visible injuries on Calyx when the report was filed four days later . Calyx had told investigators that Schenecker had " hit her with an open hand on her face for approximately 30 seconds " , according to the report .
= = Murder = =
On January 28 , 2011 , police visited the property after receiving a call from Schenecker 's mother , who expressed concern at not being able to reach her daughter . Officers found Beau Schenecker in a sport utility vehicle in the garage and Calyx Schenecker in her bedroom ; both had been shot with a .38 revolver and covered with blankets . Julie Schenecker was found unconscious on the rear porch covered in blood .
Police stated that Schenecker admitted to killing her children because they " talked back and were mouthy " . A police statement said , " She described the crimes in detail . " A note was allegedly found in the house describing a plan to murder her children and commit suicide . According to the arrest affidavit , Beau was shot twice in the head on January 27 while being driven by his mother from soccer practice . Schenecker then drove home and killed Calyx in her room as she was doing her homework on her computer . The revolver had been purchased five days before the killings . Calyx was found on her bed covered by a blanket .
= = = Criminal trial = = =
Police arrested Julie Schenecker at the scene , later that day she was admitted to hospital for a " pre @-@ existing medical condition " . She was released the next day and taken to Hillsborough County Jail , where she was held without bail . On February 9 , 2011 , Schenecker was indicted by a grand jury for first degree murder . Her arraignment was set for February 16 , where she entered a plea of not guilty , with her defense team indicating they would pursue an insanity defense . Prosecutors initially said they would seek the death penalty for Schenecker . , but later declined to do so . In August 2012 , lawyers on both sides said they needed a year to review computer files found on the computer in the Schenecker home before trial . In December 2012 , at a hearing a trial date was set for October 7 , 2013 for Julie Schenecker . In August 2013 , Hillsborough Circuit Judge Emmett Lamar Battles granted a defense motion requesting more time to review evidence and depose expert witnesses . The trial was delayed until April 28 , 2014 .
Julie Schenecker was found guilty of first @-@ degree murder and was sentenced to two concurrent ( to be served at the same time ) life terms in prison on May 15 , 2014 .
= = = Civil lawsuit = = =
The Scheneckers divorced in May 2011 . Following dispute over the distribution of their assets , particularly to limit the money available for use in Julie Schenecker 's legal defense , Parker Schenecker filed a wrongful death lawsuit against his wife .
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= Crash Bandicoot ( video game ) =
Crash Bandicoot is a platform video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation . It was originally released for the PlayStation on August 31 , 1996 , and was included in the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up . In 2007 , it was re @-@ released as a downloadable game on the PlayStation Network , and its remastered version is scheduled to be released for the PlayStation 4 in 2017 .
Crash Bandicoot is the first installment in the Crash Bandicoot series , chronicling the creation of the title character at the hands of the series antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and his henchman Doctor Nitrus Brio . The game 's story follows Crash 's effort to stop Brio and Cortex 's plans for world domination , and to save his girlfriend Tawna , a female bandicoot also evolved by Brio and Cortex .
Crash Bandicoot received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised the game 's graphics and unique visual style , but noted the game 's lack of innovation as a platform game . The game would later go on to become one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation video games .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls Crash Bandicoot , who must traverse several levels in sequence in order to progress . The player is given a certain amount of lives , which are lost when Crash is attacked by an enemy , or falls into water or a pit . If all lives are lost at any point in the game , the " Game Over " screen will appear , at which point the player may continue from the last time they saved their progress .
Crash 's primary abilities are jumping and spinning . Most enemies may be defeated by jumping on them or spinning into them . An enemy that is attacked by Crash 's spin attack can be launched into another enemy that is on @-@ screen at the same time . These same techniques can be used to open the numerous boxes found in each stage . Most boxes in the game contain Wumpa Fruit , which give the player an extra life if 100 of them are collected . Another item found inside crates is the Witch Doctor 's Mask , which shields Crash from one enemy attack . Collecting three of these masks in a row grants Crash temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers . Arrow boxes ( marked with arrows pointing up ) propel Crash further than his ordinary jump can , while TNT boxes explode after a three @-@ second fuse when jumped on . Boxes with an exclamation mark ( ! ) on them cause previously intangible objects in the area to solidify . Check Point boxes allow Crash to return to the point where the first Check Point box has been opened upon losing a life . If more than one Check Point box has been opened in a stage , Crash returns to the last Check Point box that has been opened .
Special tokens can also be found inside boxes . These tokens may feature the likenesses of Tawna , Doctor Neo Cortex or Doctor Nitrus Brio . When three tokens have been collected in one stage , the on @-@ screen action freezes and Crash is immediately teleported to a " Bonus Round " . In the Bonus Round , the player must break open a large number of boxes to earn Wumpa Fruit and special items such as keys to hidden areas . If Crash falls off the screen in the Bonus Round , he is transported back to the level he came from rather than losing a life . He is also transported back to the level if the Bonus Round has been successfully traversed .
If the player can complete an entire level without losing a life after breaking open a Check Point box , a special " Stage Clear " screen appears in which the player is informed of how well they 've done and if any special items have been earned . They are also shown how many boxes ( if any ) have been missed in the level . If a life has been lost during the stage , the player is simply returned to the world map . If the player manages to both complete a level without losing a life after breaking open a Check Point box and break open all of the boxes in that level , they are awarded a gem . Gems allow the player to enter new areas in previously completed levels that were not accessible before .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The playable protagonist character is Crash Bandicoot , a bandicoot who has been mutated by an invention called the Evolvo @-@ Ray . The main antagonist is Doctor Neo Cortex , a mad scientist who was often ridiculed by the scientific community for his outlandish theories and is now motivated to prove his tormentors wrong by creating a mutated army of animals to conquer the world . Cortex 's henchman is Doctor Nitrus Brio , the insecure creator of the Evolvo @-@ Ray . Crash 's love interest is Tawna , a female bandicoot about to undergo experimentation by the doctors . Helping Crash in his journey is an ancient witch doctor spirit by the name of Aku Aku , who has scattered masks of himself throughout the islands to grant Crash special invincibility powers .
The boss characters of the game include Papu Papu , an obese and short @-@ tempered chief of the native village ; Ripper Roo , a demented kangaroo with razor @-@ sharp toenails ; Koala Kong , a muscular but unintelligent koala ; and Pinstripe Potoroo , Doctor Cortex 's tommy gun @-@ wielding bodyguard .
= = = Setting = = =
The game is set on the Wumpa Islands , a group of three fictional Australian islands owned by Doctor Neo Cortex . Levels are typically set in tribesmen 's villages , fortresses or beaches . Some levels on the second island also take place in temple ruins , bridges high above the mountains , and a volcanic mine . Levels on the third island feature much more industrial settings , including a large power plant and a castle .
= = = Story = = =
With the aid of his assistant Doctor Nitrus Brio , Doctor Neo Cortex creates the Evolvo @-@ Ray , which he uses to mutate the various animals living on the islands into beasts with superhuman strength . They experiment on a peaceful bandicoot named Crash , who Cortex intends to be the military leader of his growing army of animal soldiers . Despite warnings from Brio , Cortex subjects Crash to the untested Cortex Vortex in an attempt to put him under his control . The experiment proves to be a failure as the Vortex rejects Crash . After Crash escapes Cortex 's castle by leaping out a window and falling into to the ocean below , Cortex prepares a female bandicoot named Tawna for experimentation .
Having grown attached to Tawna during their time in captivity , Crash resolves to rescue her and defeat Cortex . From the beach of N. Sanity Island , Crash makes his way through the nearby jungle and scales the wall of a giant wooden fortress , which is inhabited by the native tribe . Crash then enters the hut of tribe leader Papu Papu and is forced to defeat him in self @-@ defense after inadvertently waking him from his nap . Riding on the back of a wild hog , Crash escapes the pursuing villagers and climbs over the opposite fortress wall .
From there , Crash crosses to the second of Cortex 's islands . Wumpa Island , hosting a large tree , has been long abandoned and there is nothing more than a jungle , a lizard @-@ infested city , dilapidated bridges high in the mountains , and the ruins of an ancient temple . However , having discovered that Crash was making his way across the islands , Cortex dispatches the deranged Ripper Roo on the island in a temple at the start of a creek . Crash manages to cross the river and , after avoiding contact with his razor @-@ sharp toenails , knocks Ripper Roo out cold beside a waterfall , and successfully makes his way through the city and the temples . Crash also defeats another of Cortex 's mutants , Koala Kong , in a volcanic cave mine before finally crossing to the Cortex Island . Crash then navigates the Cortex Power station , a huge power plant that provides Cortex 's castle with energy while polluting the nearby area . When he reaches the factory core , Crash battles and defeats the CEO of Cortex Power , Pinstripe Potoroo , damaging the power plant .
Unable to enter Cortex 's castle after getting there via bridge , Crash climbs the tower walls , and enters the castle through the window he had previously escaped from . After making his way through the dark hallways and the Castle 's many machines , Crash is confronted by Brio inside his laboratory . Brio uses chemicals to mutate himself into a monster . While Crash is successful in defeating Brio , the castle laboratory catches chemical fire during the struggle . Crash escapes to Cortex 's airship , where he confronts Cortex himself as the castle burns . Cortex attacks him with a plasma gun , but Crash deflects his own projectiles against him and sends Cortex falling out of the air . United with Tawna , they escape the burning castle on Cortex 's airship .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Before presenting Way of the Warrior to Mark Cerny of Universal Interactive Studios , Naughty Dog was signed on to the company for three additional games . In August 1994 , Jason Rubin and Andy Gavin began their move from Boston , Massachusetts to Los Angeles , California . Before leaving , Gavin and Rubin hired Dave Baggett , their first employee and a friend of Gavin 's from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; Baggett would not start working full @-@ time until January 1995 . During the trip , Gavin and Rubin studied arcade games intensely and noticed that racing , fighting and shooting games had begun making a transition into full 3D rendering . Sensing opportunity , they turned to their favorite video game genre , the character @-@ based action @-@ platform game , and asked themselves what a three @-@ dimensional version of such a game would be like . Because the player would be forced to constantly look at the character 's rear , the hypothetical game was jokingly called " Sonic 's Ass Game " . The basic technology for the game and the Crash Bandicoot series as a whole was created somewhere near Gary , Indiana . The rough game theory was designed near Colorado . Soon afterward , Gavin and Rubin threw out their previous game design for Al O. Saurus and Dinestein , a side @-@ scrolling video game based on time travel and scientists genetically merged with dinosaurs .
In August 1994 , Naughty Dog moved into the Universal Interactive Studios backlot and met with Mark Cerny . The group unanimously liked the " Sonic 's Ass Game " idea and debated on what video game system the game would be for . Deciding that the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer , Atari Jaguar , Sega 32X , and Sega Saturn were unsatisfactory options due to poor sales and " clunky " development units , the team chose to develop the game for Sony 's PlayStation due to the console 's " sexy " nature and the company 's lack of an existing competing mascot character . After signing a developer agreement with Sony , Naughty Dog paid $ 35 @,@ 000 for a PlayStation development unit and received the unit in September 1994 . A development budget of $ 1 @.@ 7 million was set for the game .
= = = Character and art design = = =
Before the development of Crash Bandicoot , Naughty Dog wanted to do what Sega and Warner Bros. did while designing their respective characters , Sonic the Hedgehog and the Tasmanian Devil , and incorporate an animal that was " cute , real , and no one really knew about " . The team purchased a field guide on Tasmanian mammals and selected the wombat , potoroo , and bandicoot as options . Gavin and Rubin went with " Willie the Wombat " as a temporary name for the starring character of the game . The name was never meant to be final due both to the name sounding " too dorky " and to the existence of a non @-@ video game property of the same name . The character was effectively a bandicoot by October 1994 , but was still referred to as " Willie the Wombat " as a final name had not been formulated yet . It was decided that the main character would be mute because past voices for video game characters were considered to be " lame , negative , and distracted from identification with them . " The villain of the game was created while Gavin , Rubin , Baggett , and Cerny were eating " mediocre Italian " near the Universal studios . Gavin idealized an " evil genius villain with a big head " who was " all about his attitude and his minions " . Rubin , having become fond of the animated television series Pinky and the Brain , imagined a " more malevolent Brain " with minions resembling the weasel characters in Who Framed Roger Rabbit . After Gavin performed a " silly villain voice " depicting the attitude in mind for the character , the villain 's name , Doctor Neo Cortex , was instantly formulated .
To aid in the visual aspect of production , David Siller recruited Joe Pearson of Epoch Ink , who in turn recommended that Charles Zembillas of American Exitus be brought on board as well . Pearson and Zembillas would meet with Naughty Dog weekly to create the characters and environments of the game . Because the main character was Tasmanian , it was decided that the game would take place on a mysterious island where every possible type of environment could be found , with the added reasoning that an evil genius like Doctor Neo Cortex would require an island stronghold . On creating the levels for the game , Pearson first sketched each environment , designing and creating additional individual elements later . Pearson aimed for an organic , overgrown look to the game and worked to completely avoid straight lines and 90 @-@ degree corners . In January 1995 , Rubin became concerned about the programmer @-@ to @-@ artist ratio and hired Bob Rafei and Taylor Kurosaki as additional artists . A Naughty Dog artist sketched every single background object in the game before it was modeled . Naughty Dog 's artists were tasked with making the best use of textures and reducing the amount of geometry . Dark and light elements were juxtaposed to create visual interest and separate geometry . The artists would squint when sketching , texturing , and playing the levels to make sure they could be played by light value alone . They ensured to use color correctly by choosing mutually accentuating colors as the theme for the " Lost City " and " Sunset Vista " levels . The interior of Cortex 's castle was designed to reflect the inside of his mind .
= = = Graphics = = =
The PlayStation had a 512 x 240 video mode and used up video memory that would normally be used for textures , but was effective in rendering shaded ( if untextured ) polygons . Rubin pointed out that since the polygons on the characters were just a few pixels in size , shaded characters would look better than textured ones . Thus , polygons were emphasized over textures ; this was advantageous in that it allowed the programmers more polygons to work with and allowed them to work around the PlayStation 's lack of texture correction or polygon clipping . To give the game more of a resemblance to an animated cartoon , vertex animation was implemented rather than the standard skeletal animation with " one @-@ joint " weighting ; this allowed the programmers to use the more sophisticated three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ joint weighting available in PowerAnimator . Because the PlayStation was unable to match this at runtime , the location of every vertex was stored in every frame at 30 frames a second . Gavin , Baggett , and Cerny attempted to invent assembly language vertex compressors for this manner of animation ; Cerny 's version was the most successful and the most complicated .
To obtain the graphic details seen in the game , Rubin , Gavin , and Baggett researched visibility calculation in video games that followed Doom and concluded that extensive pre @-@ calculation of visibility would allow the game to render a larger number of polygons . Following experimentation in free @-@ roaming camera control , the team settled with a branching rail camera that would follow along next to , behind , or in front of the character , generally looking at him , moving on a " track " through the world . Because only 800 polygons could be visible on the screen at a time , parts of the game 's landscape would be hidden from view using trees , cliffs , walls , and twists and turns in the environment . Because the production used an entirely Silicon Graphics and IRIX @-@ based tool pipeline , the programmers used $ 100 @,@ 000 Silicon Graphics workstations instead of the $ 3 @,@ 000 personal computers that were the standard at the time . Gavin created an algorithmic texture packer that would deal with the fact that the 512 x 240 video mode left too little texture memory . Meanwhile , Baggett created bidirectional 10x compressors that would reduce the 128 @-@ megabyte levels down to 12 megabytes and allow them to be compatible with the PlayStation 's 2 @-@ megabyte random access memory . The levels proved to be so large that the first test level created could not be loaded into Alias PowerAnimator and had to be cut up into 16 chunks . Each chunk took about 10 minutes to load even on a 256 @-@ megabyte machine . To remedy the situation , Baggett created the DLE , a level design tool where component parts of a level were entered into a text file , with a series of Adobe Photoshop layers indicating how the parts were combined . To code the characters and gameplay of the game , Andy Gavin and Dave Baggett created the programming language " Game @-@ Oriented Object LISP " ( GOOL ) using LISP syntax .
= = = Level design = = =
The first two test levels created for the game did not ship in the final version for being too open and featuring too many polygons . During the summer of 1995 , the team focused on creating levels that were functional as well as fun and used the Cortex factory levels to experiment on this goal ; the mechanical setting allowed the team to forego the complex and organic forest designs and distill the two @-@ axis gameplay in an attempt to make it fun . Their first two successful levels ( " Heavy Machinery " and " Generator Room " ) utilized 2.5D gameplay and featured basic techniques previously used in Donkey Kong Country , such as steam vents , drop platforms , bouncy pads , heated pipes and enemy characters that would move back and forth , all of which would be arranged in progressively more difficult combinations as the level went on . " Willie " ' s jumping , spinning and bonking machanisms were refined in these two levels . The level " Cortex Power " incorporates the original " Sonic 's ass " point of view ( behind the character and over his shoulder ) featured in the two test levels . After working on those three levels , the first successful jungle @-@ themed level ( later titled " Jungle Rollers " ) was created from pieces of the failed first test level arranged into a corridor between trees . From that point forward , two to three levels would be created for each level theme featured , with the first level featuring an introductionary set of challenges and later levels adding new obstacles ( such as dropping and moving platforms in the second jungle @-@ themed level ) to increase the difficulty .
While playing the game during development , Rubin realized that there were many empty areas in the game due to the PlayStation 's inability to process numerous on @-@ screen enemy characters at the same time . Additionally , test players were solving the game 's puzzles too fast . In an attempt to remedy this , the " Wumpa Fruit " pickup was created ( the fruits themselves were rendered in 3D into a series of textures ) , but was not exciting enough on its own . On a Saturday in January 1996 , Gavin coded the " crates " while Rubin modeled a few basic crates and an exploding TNT crate and drew quick textures . The first few crates were placed in the game six hours later , and many more would be placed during the following days .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In September 1995 , Andy Gavin and Taylor Kurosaki took footage from the game and spent two days editing it into a two @-@ minute " preview tape " , which would be deliberately leaked to a friend at Sony Computer Entertainment so that the company may view it . Due to management issues at Sony , it wouldn 't be until March 1996 that Sony would agree to publish the game , which went into the alpha stage in April 1996 . While preparing for the game 's demonstration at the Electronic Entertainment Expo , the team decided to finally rename the title character " Crash Bandicoot " ( the particular name being credited to Dave Baggett and Taylor Kurosaki ) , with his surname being based on his canonical species and his first name stemming from the visceral reaction to the character 's destruction of boxes ( " Dash " , " Smash " , and " Bash " were other potential names ) . The marketing director of Universal Interactive Studios insisted that the game and character be named " Wuzzle / Wez / Wezzy the Wombat " or " Ozzie the Ottsel " . The name Crash Bandicoot prevailed after Naughty Dog threatened to leave the production . The same director also objected to the character of Crash 's love interest Tawna on " basic sexist principles " .
The music of Crash Bandicoot was a last @-@ minute aspect added to the game before its showing at the Electronic Entertainment Expo . The producer of Universal Interactive proposed that rather than conventional music , an " urban chaotic symphony " would be created by Andy Gavin causing random sound effects ( such as bird vocalizations , vehicle horns , grunts , and flatulence ) to be randomly selected and combined . When this proposal was rejected , David Siller introduced the team to the music production company Mutato Muzika and its founder Mark Mothersbaugh . Following this introduction , Mothersbaugh selected Josh Mancell to compose the music for the game based on his previous work on Johnny Mnemonic : The Interactive Movie . Mothersbaugh advised Mancell throughout the soundtrack 's demo stages , after which all composition duties of Crash Bandicoot and Naughty Dog 's subsequent six titles were delegated to Mancell . Mouse on Mars , A Guy Called Gerald , Aphex Twin and Juan Atkins served as influences on Mancell 's " simple but kind of off @-@ kilter " melodies . Dave Baggett served as the soundtrack 's producer . The sound effects were created by Mike Gollom , Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears of Universal Sound Studios . The voices in the game were provided by Brendan O 'Brien .
In a continuing attempt by Universal Interactive to take credit for Crash Bandicoot , Naughty Dog was told that it was not " allowed " to go to the first Electronic Entertainment Expo . In addition , there were leaked copies of the temporary box cover and press materials for the Electronic Entertainment Expo , upon which the Naughty Dog logo , in violation of the contract between Naughty Dog and Universal Interactive , was omitted . In response , Jason Rubin drafted and printed 1 @,@ 000 copies of a document entitled " Naughty Dog , creator and developer of Crash Bandicoot " to hand out in front of the Crash Bandicoot display at the Electronic Entertainment Expo . Beforehand , Rubin passed out the flyers " for review " to Universal Interactive , angering its president . Crash Bandicoot was first shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on May 1996 and was met with enthusiastic reactions .
= = = Japanese distribution = = =
In preparation for presenting Crash Bandicoot to Sony 's Japanese division , Gavin spent a month studying anime and manga , reading English @-@ language books on the subject , watching Japanese films and observing competitive characters in video games . Upon Naughty Dog 's first meeting with the executives of Sony Computer Entertainment Japan , the executives handed Naughty Dog a document that compared Crash with Mario and Nights into Dreams .... Although Crash was rated favorably in the graphics department , the main character and the game 's non @-@ Japanese " heritage " were seen as weak points . The renderings of the character made specifically for the meeting also proved unimpressive . During a break following the initial meeting , Gavin approached Charlotte Francis , the artist responsible for the renderings , and gave her fifteen minutes to adjust Crash 's facial structures . Sony Japan bought Crash for Japanese distribution after being shown the modified printout . Pop @-@ up text instructions given by Aku Aku were added for the Japanese version of the game .
= = Reception = =
Crash Bandicoot received generally favorable reviews from critics , with much of the positive comments going to the graphics . Dave Halverson of GameFan referred to the visuals as " the best graphics that exist in a game " and the design and animations of the title character as " 100 % perfection " . John Scalzo of Gaming Target described the environments as " colorful and detailed " and mentioned the snowy bridge and temple levels as his favorites . However , he noted that the boss characters appeared to be noticeably polygonal compared to the other characters due to their large size . Nevertheless , he added that this flaw was excusable because of the game 's age and that the game 's graphics were near perfect otherwise . A reviewer for Game Revolution singled out the scaling technology for praise and declared it to be " the new standard for Playstation action games the same way SGI did for 16 @-@ bitters after Donkey Kong Country . " Additionally , he described the texture @-@ mapping precision as " awesome " , the shading as " almost too well done " ( the reviewer claimed it made the game more difficult by making the pits appear to be shadows and vice versa ) , the polygon movements as " very smooth and fluid " , the " quirky mannerisms " of the title character as " always refreshing " and the backgrounds as " breathtakingly beautiful ( especially the waterfall stages ) " . However , the reviewer said that the ability to adjust the camera angle even slightly " would have been a definite plus ( at times the ground itself is at 75 degree angle while Crash constantly moves at 90 degrees , putting a slight strain on the eyes ) . " A reviewer for IGN noted that " gorgeous backgrounds and silky smooth animation make this one of the best @-@ looking titles available for the PlayStation .
The gameplay received mixed responses . Both John Scalzo and the Game Revolution reviewer compared the gameplay to Donkey Kong Country , with Scalzo describing the game as having a " familiar , yet unique " quality that he attributed to Naughty Dog 's design , while the Game Revolution reviewer concluded that the game " fails to achieve anything really new or revolutionary " as a platform game . The IGN reviewer said that the game " isn 't a revolution in platform game design . It 's pretty much your standard platform game " . However , he noted the game 's " surprisingly deep " depth of field and use of different perspectives as exceptions to the platforming formula . Jim Sterling of Destructoid.com stated that the game has aged poorly since its initial release and cited the lack of DualShock thumbsticks , a poor camera as well as substandard jumping and spinning controls .
As of November 2003 , Crash Bandicoot has sold over 6 @.@ 8 million units worldwide , making it one of the best selling PlayStation video games of all time . The game 's success lead to its inclusion for the Sony Greatest Hits . Crash Bandicoot was the first non @-@ Japanese game to receive a " Gold Prize " in Japan for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 units . The game spent nearly two years on the NPD TRSTS top 20 PlayStation sales charts before finally dropping off on September 1998 .
= = Sequels = =
Crash Bandicoot was followed by two direct sequels , Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back and Crash Bandicoot : Warped , as well as a kart racing game , Crash Team Racing , all for the PlayStation and all developed by Naughty Dog , with Crash Team Racing the final Crash Bandicoot game developed by the company before moving onto the Jak and Daxter series . After Crash Team Racing , Eurocom developed the final Crash Bandicoot game for the PlayStation , the party game Crash Bash .
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= Bound ( 1996 film ) =
Bound is a 1996 American neo @-@ noir crime thriller film written and directed by The Wachowskis in their feature film directorial debut . Violet ( Jennifer Tilly ) , who longs to escape her relationship with her mafioso boyfriend Caesar ( Joe Pantoliano ) , enters into a clandestine affair with alluring ex @-@ con Corky ( Gina Gershon ) , and the two women hatch a scheme to steal $ 2 million of mafia money .
Bound was the first film directed by the Wachowskis , and they took inspiration from Billy Wilder to tell a noir story filled with sex and violence . Financed by Dino De Laurentiis , the film was made on a tight budget with the help of frugal crew members including cinematographer Bill Pope . The directors initially struggled to cast the lesbian characters of Violet and Corky before securing Tilly and Gershon . To choreograph the sex scenes , the directors employed " sex educator " Susie Bright , who also made a cameo appearance in the film .
Bound received positive reviews from film critics who praised the humor and style of the directors as well as the realistic portrayal of a lesbian relationship in a mainstream film . Detractors of the film criticized the excessive violence and superficiality of the plot . The film won several festival awards .
= = Plot = =
Corky ( Gina Gershon ) , an ex @-@ con who has just finished a five @-@ year jail sentence , arrives at an apartment building to start work as a painter and plumber . On her way up to the apartment , she encounters the couple who live next @-@ door , Violet ( Jennifer Tilly ) and Caesar ( Joe Pantoliano ) . After Caesar has gone out , Violet flirts with Corky and asks her to help retrieve an earring that has fallen down her sink . After Corky extracts the earring , Violet admits she lost it on purpose in order to get closer to Corky , and starts to seduce her . They are interrupted by the arrival of Caesar and Corky goes back to work . When she leaves for the day , Violet follows her to her truck . They go to Corky 's apartment and have sex . The next morning , Violet tells Corky that Caesar is a money launderer for the Mafia and they have been together for five years .
Later , Violet overhears Caesar and his Mafia associates beating and torturing Shelly ( Barry Kivel ) , a man who has been skimming money from the business . Upset by the violence and cruelty , Violet seeks solace from Corky . She tells Corky that she wants to make a new life for herself , but that she needs her help . Knowing that Caesar will find the nearly $ 2 million Shelly took and count it in their apartment , the two women hatch a scheme to steal the money . Corky , already wary of Violet 's intentions , is unsure whether to trust her .
Shelly is shot and killed by Johnnie ( Christopher Meloni ) , the son of Mafia boss Gino Marzzone ( Richard C. Sarafian ) , and Caesar returns to the apartment with a bag of bloody money . Angry at Johnnie for killing Shelly in a fit of rage and splattering blood everywhere , Caesar proceeds to wash , iron and hang the money to dry .
Violet explains to Corky that Caesar and Johnnie hate each other , and that Gino and Johnnie will be coming to pick up the money from Caesar . The plan is as follows : When Caesar has finished counting the money , Violet will get him a drink to relax him before he showers . Corky will be next @-@ door , waiting until she hears Caesar turn on the shower . When he does , Violet will drop the bottle of Scotch that is for Gino and tell Caesar that she is going to buy more . As she leaves the apartment , she will let Corky in , who will steal the money from a briefcase and leave . Violet will then return with the Scotch and tell Caesar that she just saw Johnnie leaving , but that Gino was not with him . Suspicious , Caesar will check the briefcase , find the money gone , and assume Johnnie has taken it . Corky and Violet think Caesar will be forced to skip town because Gino will assume he has been robbed by Caesar , not his son .
Everything goes as planned until Caesar finds the money gone . He realizes that if he runs , Gino will think he took the money . He decides he has to get the money back from Johnnie . Panicking , Violet threatens to leave . Caesar pulls out his gun and forces her to stay , thinking that maybe she and Johnnie have stolen the money and framed him .
Corky waits next @-@ door with the money while Gino and Johnnie arrive . After watching Johnnie flirt with Violet and taunt him , Caesar pulls out a gun and tells Gino that his son stole the money . In an angry panic , he kills both Gino and Johnnie , and Gino 's bodyguard Roy . He tells Violet that they have to find the money , dispose of the bodies , and pretend Gino and Johnnie never arrived , lest their Mafia pals find the money or men missing . Unable to find the money at Johnnie 's apartment , Caesar telephones Mickey ( John P. Ryan ) , a Mafia friend , telling him that Gino has yet to arrive .
After discovering Corky and Violet stole the money , Caesar ties them up , gags them , threatens to torture them , and demands to know where it is . When Mickey arrives to see what is going on , Caesar , panicked , makes a deal with Violet to help him stall . As he prepares to kill Mickey , Violet calls the landline from Johnnie 's cell phone and quickly convinces Caesar to pretend that he 's on the phone with Gino , who 's calling from a hospital to explain that he and Johnnie were in a car accident . Mickey is convinced and leaves for the hospital . Corky tells Caesar where she has hidden the money , and he goes next @-@ door to find it . Violet escapes and makes a phone call to Mickey , telling him that Caesar stole the money and forced her to keep quiet . In the meantime , Corky tries to stop Caesar from taking the money , but he beats her to the ground . Just as he is about to kill her , Violet arrives and pulls a gun on Caesar , telling him that Mickey is on his way and that he should run while he can . Caesar tells Violet that he knows she will not shoot him , to which she replies , " Caesar , you don 't know shit " , before killing him .
Later , Mickey , who believes Violet 's story , tells her that he will find Caesar , and that there is no need to involve the police . Mickey wants Violet to be his girlfriend , but she tells him that she needs a clean break — which she makes by driving off hand @-@ in @-@ hand with Corky .
= = Background and production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Film producer Joel Silver has said that after working as scriptwriters on Assassins , the Wachowskis made Bound as an " audition piece " to prove that they knew what to do on a movie set . Conversely , Lana Wachowski has said Joel " made that up . " The Wachowskis themselves claim they " decided simply to focus on making their own directorial debut . " They had the idea to write a story about how one might see a woman on the street and make assumptions about her sexuality , but how those assumptions might be wrong . They wanted to play with stereotypes and make an entertaining film that contained sex and violence , because those are the kinds of films that they like to watch . Seeing film noir as a genre within which they could tell a contained story and twist conventions , they described Billy Wilder as a big influence .
When executives at some studios read the script , they told the Wachowskis that if they changed the character of Corky to that of a man , they would be interested . The siblings declined , saying " that movie 's been made a million times , so we 're really not interested in it . " Dino De Laurentiis , the executive producer on Assassins , offered to finance Bound and his company produced it , giving them " free rein " with regard to the story . The film 's budget was $ 6 million .
= = = Casting = = =
The Wachowskis struggled to cast the roles of Violet and Corky , seemingly because of the lesbian content of the film . Few actresses were interested . The part of Violet was expected to go to Linda Hamilton , and Jennifer Tilly read for the part of Corky . She loved the role and was looking forward to playing a character very different from previous parts in her career . When the part of Violet became available , and Gina Gershon came in to read for Corky , Tilly agreed that Gershon would make a better Corky . She realized that she identified with the character of Violet , a woman " underestimated by all the men around her " who has to " play the game " . She describes it as the best role she had ever had . Gina Gershon suggested Joe Pantoliano to the Wachowskis for the part of Caesar . His first lead role in a film , he describes it as his favorite .
= = = Filming = = =
Bound was shot in thirty @-@ eight days in Santa Monica , California . The Wachowskis ' original director of photography resigned on the grounds that he could not do the film with the limited budget he had available , nor did he know anyone he believed could . Subsequently cinematographer Bill Pope was hired , who knew " a bunch of cheap guys " . Pope became heavily involved in creating the visual noir style of the film . He and the Wachowskis drew from their love of comics and were influenced by Frank Miller 's neo @-@ noir Sin City series in particular . Pope 's sound counterpart was sound director Dane Davis . One of his ideas was to give Corky a cat @-@ like quality by making a " swishing " sound every time she walks past the camera in the scene where she and Violet plan the theft .
The Wachowskis asked Joe Pantoliano to watch John Huston 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and to focus on Humphrey Bogart 's character in order to prepare the paranoia of Caesar . Gershon 's influences for her role were James Dean , Marlon Brando and Clint Eastwood . Both Gershon and Tilly were nervous about filming the sex scenes and prepared by drinking tequila .
Very little improvisation took place during the filming due to the directors ' extensive planning and clear vision for the film . Not everything went as expected , however , as the physical exchanges in the script caused some injuries . Barry Kivel , whose character Shelly was violently beaten in Caesar 's bathroom , received a head injury from his head being banged against the toilet . In the scenes between Corky and Caesar near the end of the film , Gina Gershon hit her hand so hard when she knocked a gun from Joe Pantoliano 's hand that she required stitches .
= = = Sex scenes = = =
The sex scenes were choreographed by feminist writer and sex educator Susie Bright . The Wachowskis were fans of Bright and sent her a copy of the script with a letter asking her to be an extra in the film . When she read the script she loved it , particularly as it was about women enjoying having sex and not apologizing for it . Disappointed that they never described exactly what was happening in the sex scenes , she asked if she could be a sex consultant for the film and they agreed . The main sex scene set in Corky 's apartment was filmed in one long shot . The Wachowskis believed that this would look more realistic than several shots edited together . Although it should have been a closed set , there were actually many people present , moving the walls of the set in order to allow full movement of the camera around the actors .
Bright appeared as Jesse , the woman Corky tries to talk to in the bar . Comedian Margaret Smith played Jesse 's girlfriend and the extras in the bar scene were Bright 's friends — " real life San Francisco dykes " .
= = Themes = =
The Wachowskis describe several themes present in Bound . They say that the film is about " the boxes people make of their lives " , that it is not only gay people who " live in closets " . They wanted to define all of Bound 's characters by the " sort of trap that they were making out of their lives " . Violet is trapped in her life with Caesar , and in the first scene , Corky is literally inside Violet 's closet , bound and gagged by Caesar . This scene is echoed later in the film when Violet says " I had this image of you inside of me ... " This theme of being trapped is exacerbated by the claustrophobic feeling created by the fact that most of the film takes place in Corky 's apartment , Violet and Casear 's apartment , or the apartment next door where Corky is working .
Susie Bright described some of the specifically lesbian themes of the film . One is the concept of the hand as a sex organ , highlighted by lingering camera shots of Corky and Violet 's hands . Another is the repeated use of water as a symbolic motif to represent women , present for example when Corky is retrieving Violet 's earring from the sink . Bright describes it as a movie that is " wet " ( feminine ) as opposed to " hard " ( masculine ) . She says the scene where Corky and Violet have their first conversation is full of " lesbian signs " . She highlights the fact that Violet , away from Caesar , is wearing jeans and able to be less overtly feminine . Jennifer Tilly says that whenever Violet is talking to men , her voice becomes high @-@ pitched and " girly " — making her seem vulnerable and ensuring she is taken care of . Joe Pantoliano agrees , saying that the result is that " everyone in the film wants to be with Violet " . When she is with Corky , Violet can drop the act and talk at a more natural pitch . According to Bright , the more subtle lesbian themes of the film were noticed and appreciated at the LGBT film festival screenings .
= = Release = =
= = = Rating = = =
Bound was rated by the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) as R for " strong sexuality , violence and language . " To achieve that rating , the directors had to cut part of the first sex scene between Corky and Violet . The MPAA were most concerned with the images of what Lana Wachowski called " hand @-@ sex " . It was rated R in Australia , R18 in New Zealand and 18 in the United Kingdom . In Canada it was rated as R in Manitoba and Ontario , 18 in Nova Scotia and 16 + in Quebec .
= = = Distribution = = =
The film premiered on August 31 , 1996 , at the Venice Film Festival and in September went on to play at the Toronto International Film Festival . It opened in U.S. theaters on October 4 , 1996 distributed by Gramercy Pictures , showing in 261 theaters . It closed after three weeks . It opened in the United Kingdom on February 28 , 1997 .
= = = Box office = = =
Bound grossed $ 3 @,@ 802 @,@ 260 in the United States . In its opening weekend , showing at 261 theaters , it earned $ 900 @,@ 902 , which was 23 @.@ 7 % of its total gross . According to Box Office Mojo , it ranked at 161 for all films released in the United States in 1996 , and at 74 for R @-@ rated films released that year . As of July 2012 , its all @-@ time ranking for LGBT @-@ related films is 59 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave it a " fresh " rating of 92 % based on 37 reviews , while Metacritic gave it a score of 61 / 100 based on 19 reviews . The Wachowskis ' direction was praised , being described as clever , sophisticated and stylish . Roger Ebert said that their skillful film making showed virtuosity and confidence . Marjorie Baumgarten writing for The Austin Chronicle called it an impressive debut saying that the Wachowskis have " style to burn " . James Kendrick called it a darkly comical and stunning film , saying it signalled the arrival of the Wachowskis on the film scene . Detractors of the film included Todd McCarthy for Variety , who said that the directors had no sense of humor and lacked depth , that the film was pretentious , superficial and heavy @-@ handed .
On the release of Bound , the Wachowskis were compared by many to the Coen Brothers . Rita Kempley for The Washington Post went so far as to call them " Coen Brothers clones " . In particular , similarities were drawn between Bound and the Coen Brothers ' first film , 1984 neo @-@ noir Blood Simple . Bryant Frazer for Deep Focus called it an " obvious precursor " . Critics noted resemblances to the films of Quentin Tarantino and Alfred Hitchcock .
Janet Maslin for The New York Times said that the grisly violence in Bound would likely limit its audience and Ebert said that its shocking violence would offend some audiences . Some critics said that the violent behavior of the characters had no moral justification . Rita Kempley for The Washington Post called it " well @-@ nigh unwatchable cruelty for its own sake " . McCarthy , who called the central relationship between the two women unbelievable and unsympathetic , said " just because Violet and Corky fall for each other doesn 't mean they somehow fall into a privileged state of grace in which vile behavior can be forgiven . " Other critics were less concerned , calling the violence " comically excessive " and " Tarantino @-@ like " .
Bound was praised for being perhaps the first mainstream film to have a lesbian relationship at its heart without homosexuality being central to the plot . Despite the presence of " unapologetically gay " lead character Corky , it is not commonly considered a " lesbian movie " . Emanuel Levy said that this is a weakness , that mainstream films with broadening storylines " do not necessarily represent a positive development in the making of gay and lesbian films " and that Bound has " little , if anything , to do with lesbian cinema " . Jonathan Rosenbaum for the Chicago Reader called it a " welcome change " to have a lesbian couple as the main characters in a mainstream film . Sarah Warn for AfterEllen.com called Corky " the closest thing to a realistic and sympathetic butch lesbian we 've seen in a mainstream movie " . Barry Walters for the San Francisco Chronicle praised the film for showing gay characters that have an active sex life . The sex scenes , described as explicit and steamy , were admired for being tasteful , discreet and realistic . Warn called them " some of the best lesbian sex scenes to date in a mainstream movie " .
The three lead actors were complimented for their performances . Ebert said that Gershon and Tilly were electric together , and Frazer said that he would have liked to have seen more of their love story . Some critics , however , described their onscreen relationship as unbelievable and unsympathetic . Gershon was seen to have made a comeback after her role in the less well received 1995 film Showgirls . Tilly 's performance was compared to her Academy Award @-@ nominated part in Bullets Over Broadway . Pantoliano was described as " a lot of fun " and having the " trickiest scenes in the movie " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Bound won the Grand Jury Award — Honorable Mention at the 1996 L.A. Outfest , and in the same year won an Honorable Mention at the Stockholm International Film Festival . At the 1997 Fantasporto festival in Portugal , the Wachowskis were awarded the International Fantasy Film Award for best film , and Jennifer Tilly picked up the award for best actress . Bound won the 1997 GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding ( wide @-@ release ) Film . The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
= = = Home media = = =
Bound was released on Region 1 DVD on November 12 , 1997 by Republic Pictures . It featured the original theatrical trailer and an audio commentary by the directors and stars . It was released on Region 2 DVD on August 25 , 2003 , by Pathé featuring original theatrical trailers , audio commentary by the directors and stars , cast and crew biographies and a production featurette . Its Region 4 DVD release , distributed by Reel and featuring an audio commentary , came on August 14 , 2006 .
= = Music = =
The score , composed by Don Davis , was given a promotional release on November 25 , 1997 by Super Tracks Music Group , but has never been released commercially . Having her character Corky play a jaw harp was Gina Gershon 's idea . The directors ' budget for songs was small ; they had wanted to use " The Girl from Ipanema " and Frank Sinatra songs , but could not afford to . The four songs used in the film were not included on the score release .
" I Never Loved a Man ( The Way I Love You ) " ( Ronny Shannon ) performed by Aretha Franklin
" Hallelujah I Love Her So " ( Ray Charles ) performed by Ray Charles
" Hopeless Faith " performed by The Hail Marys
" She 's a Lady " ( Paul Anka ) performed by Tom Jones
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= Chicago Theatre =
The Chicago Theatre , originally known as the Balaban and Katz Chicago Theatre , is a landmark theater located on North State Street in the Loop area of Chicago , Illinois , in the United States . Built in 1921 , the Chicago Theatre was the flagship for the Balaban and Katz ( B & K ) group of theaters run by A. J. Balaban , his brother Barney Balaban and partner Sam Katz . Along with the other B & K theaters , from 1925 to 1945 the Chicago Theatre was a dominant movie theater enterprise . Currently , Madison Square Garden , Inc. owns and operates the Chicago Theatre as a performing arts venue for stage plays , magic shows , comedy , speeches , and popular music concerts .
The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places June 6 , 1979 , and was listed as a Chicago Landmark January 28 , 1983 . The distinctive Chicago Theatre marquee , " an unofficial emblem of the city " , appears frequently in film , television , artwork , and photography .
= = History = =
= = = Grand opening , growth , and decline = = =
Abe and Barney Balaban , together with Sam and Morris Katz — founders of the Balaban and Katz theater chain , built the Chicago Theatre in 1921 as one of a large chain of opulent motion picture houses . The theater would become the flagship for 28 theaters in the city and over 100 others in the Midwestern United States that B & K operated in conjunction with the Paramount Publix chain . Cornelius W. Rapp and George L. Rapp were primary architects and the final construction cost was $ 4 million ( $ 53 @.@ 1 million in 2016 dollars ) . The Rapp brothers also designed many other B & K properties in Chicago , including the Oriental and Uptown Theatres . Preceded by the now @-@ demolished Tivoli Theatre of Chicago and Capitol Theatre of New York City , the Chicago Theatre was the " ... largest , most costly and grandest of the super deluxe movie palaces " built up to that date and thus now the oldest surviving grand movie palace . The Chicago Theatre was among the earliest theaters in the nation to be built in Rapp and Rapp 's signature Neo @-@ Baroque French @-@ revival style . It is the oldest surviving example of this style in Chicago .
The original 1921 interior decoration of the auditorium included fourteen large romantic French @-@ themed murals surrounding the proscenium by Chicago artist Louis Grell ( 1887 @-@ 1960 ) , a common feature that Rapp and Rapp architects included in their movie palace designs .
When it opened October 26 , 1921 , the 3 @,@ 880 seat theater was promoted as the " Wonder Theatre of the World " . Capacity crowds packed the theater during its opening week for the First National Pictures feature The Sign on the Door starring Norma Talmadge . Other attractions included a 50 @-@ piece orchestra , famed organist Jesse Crawford at the 26 @-@ rank Wurlitzer theatre organ — " Oh , yes , it was mighty , " recalled Orson Welles — and a live stage show . Poet Carl Sandburg , reporting for the Chicago Tribune , wrote that mounted police were required for crowd control . The theater 's strategy of enticing movie patrons with a plush environment and top notch service ( including the pioneering use of air conditioning ) was emulated nationwide .
During its first 40 years of operation , the Chicago Theatre presented premiere films and live entertainment . Throughout its existence , many of the top performers and stars of their day made live appearances at the theater . One of its biggest draws was live jazz , which Balaban and Katz promoted as early as September 1922 in a special event they called " Syncopation Week " . This proved so successful that jazz bands became a mainstay of the Chicago Theatre 's programming through the 1920s and into the 1930s . In preparation for the 1933 World 's Fair in Chicago , the Chicago Theatre was redecorated . Part of the World 's Fair renovation included another commission by Balaban & Katz for Grell to repaint the architecturally enclosed fourteen murals . This time Grell chose Greek / Roman deities as the theme for the large oil on canvas murals which are on public exhibit today in the theatre auditorium . The building has been associated with popular culture occasions . For example , Ronald Reagan announced his engagement to Jane Wyman at the theater . Another modernization occurred in the 1950s when management discontinued stage shows .
During the economic and social changes of the 1970s , business at the theatre slowed for owner Plitt Theatres , affecting ongoing viability . In 1984 , the Chicago Theatre Preservation Group purchased the theater and adjoining Page Brothers Building for $ 11 @.@ 5 million ( $ 26 @.@ 2 million today ) . The group attempted to maintain the venue as a picture theater but was unable to remain viabile and the facility closed September 19 , 1985 .
= = = Restoration = = =
The Chicago Theatre Preservation Group commenced renovation of the buildings which were completed in 1986 at a cost of $ 9 million ( $ 19 @.@ 4 million ) , with $ 4 @.@ 3 million ( $ 9 @.@ 3 million ) spent on the Theatre . The renovation by architects Daniel P. Coffey & Associates , Ltd. and interior design consultants A.T. Heinsbergen & Co. restored the Chicago Theatre to a 1930s appearance and a seating capacity of 3 @,@ 600 . The theatre reopened September 10 , 1986 , with a performance by Frank Sinatra marking the culmination of a four @-@ year historic preservation effort championed by the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois , The gala reopening was also symbolic because Sinatra had performed at the theater in the 1950s . The restoration of the adjoining Page Building , itself a Chicago and National Register landmark , provided office space to support the theatre . The theater , like its neighbor the Joffrey Tower , is an important component of the North Loop / Theatre District revitalization plan . Theatre district revitalization plans go back as far as Mayor Jane Byrne 's 1981 plan .
= = = Revitalized = = =
On April 1 , 2004 , TheatreDreams Chicago , LLC purchased the building for $ 3 million . The Balaban and Katz trademark is now the property of the Balaban and Katz Historical Foundation . New York 's Madison Square Garden Entertainment announced October 11 , 2007 , that it would buy the theater .
Prior to 2008 , the theater hosted the annual opening film of the Chicago International Film Festival until the festivities moved to the nearby Harris Theater . Mayor Richard M. Daley declared July 12 , 2005 " Roger Ebert Day in Chicago " and dedicated a plaque under the marquee in his honor . The theater is featured in the book , The Chicago Movie Palaces of Balaban and Katz , by David Balaban , grandson of the original owner .
As of 2011 , as permitted under the terms of sale dictated by the city , the vertical CHICAGO sign had a logotype for Chase Bank added to indicate sponsorship .
= = Architecture = =
The structure is seven stories tall and fills nearly one half of a city block . The 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) wide by six @-@ story tall triumphal arch motif of the State Street façade has been journalistically compared to the l 'Arc de Triomphe in Paris . The central arch @-@ headed window adapts the familiar motif of Borromini 's false @-@ perspective window reveals of the top floor of Palazzo Barberini , Rome . The coat of arms of the Balaban and Katz chain — two horses holding ribbons of 35 mm film in their mouths outlined by a border of film reels — is set inside a circular Tiffany stained glass window inside the arch . The exterior of the building is covered in off @-@ white architectural terracotta supplied by the Northwestern Terra Cotta Company with Neo @-@ Baroque stucco designs by the McNulty Brothers .
The interior shows French Baroque influence from the Second French Empire . The grand lobby , five stories high and surrounded by gallery promenades at the mezzanine and balcony levels , is influence by the Royal Chapel at Versailles . The grand staircase is patterned from the grand stair of the Paris Opera House and ascends to the various balcony levels . Marshall Field and Company supplied interior decorations including drapes and furniture . The crystal chandeliers and bronze light fixtures fitted with Steuben glass shades were designed and built by Victor Pearlman and Co .
The stage dimensions exceed 60 feet ( 18 m ) in width and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in depth . The orchestra pit is approximately 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below stage level , 54 feet ( 16 m ) wide at the stage lip , with a depth of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) at center . An adjustable pit filler can be used for performances requiring other levels .
At the time of the building 's 1978 application for the National Register of Historic Places designation , the venue 's marquee had been replaced twice . The original marquee was basic and facilitated two lines of text for announcements . The 1922 – 23 marquee had ornate " flashing pinwheels , swirls and garlands of colored lights " . It also included " milk glass letter attraction boards , and CHICAGO in large letters on three sides " . The 1949 replacement was similar to the second marquee , but its attraction boards were larger and the oversized CHICAGO lettering only appeared on the front . Until Balaban and Katz ' 1969 sale to the American Broadcasting Company , their name was on the marqee . The entire marquee was replaced in 1994 , but retains the look of its predecessor . In 2004 , the original marquee was donated to the Smithsonian Institution . The marquee is featured in numerous movies and TV shows set in Chicago , and its neon font was used in the title of the 2002 film Chicago .
= = Organ = =
The theatre is also known for its grand Wurlitzer pipe organ . At the time it was installed it was known as “ The Mighty Wurlitzer ” and could imitate the instruments of an orchestra . Jesse Crawford , a noted Theatre Organ performer , is attributed as the person who " was responsible for the design and choice of sounds " . The organ came from Wurlitzer 's North Tonawanda Barrel Organ Factory in July 1921 with " four manuals and 26 ranks of pipes @-@ Opus 434 " . The American Theatre Organ Society restored the organ in 1970 , which had expanded the organ from 26 to 29 ranks by that time . It is one of the oldest Mighty Wurlitzers still in existence .
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= Love You To =
" Love You To " is a song by the English rock group the Beatles from their 1966 album Revolver . The song was written and sung by George Harrison and features Indian instrumentation such as sitar and tabla . Following Harrison 's introduction of the sitar on " Norwegian Wood " in 1965 , it was the first Beatles song to fully reflect the influence of Indian classical music . The recording was made with minimal participation from Harrison 's bandmates ; instead , he created the track with tabla player Anil Bhagwat and other Indian musicians from the Asian Music Circle in London .
The composition adheres to the pitches of the Indian equivalent of Dorian mode and emulates the khyal vocal tradition of Hindustani classical music . For musical inspiration , Harrison drew from the work of master sitarist Ravi Shankar , who became his sitar tutor shortly after the recording was completed . In its lyrical themes , " Love You To " is partly a love song to Harrison 's wife , Pattie Boyd , while also incorporating philosophical concepts inspired by his experimentation with the hallucinogenic drug LSD . In the context of its release , the song served as one of the first examples of the Beatles expressing an ideology aligned with that of the emerging counterculture .
" Love You To " has been hailed by musicologists and critics as groundbreaking in its presentation of a non @-@ Western musical form to rock audiences , particularly with regard to authenticity and avoidance of parody . Author Jonathan Gould describes the song 's slow sitar introduction as " one of the most brazenly exotic acts of stylistic experimentation ever heard on a popular LP " . Ronnie Montrose , Bongwater , Jim James and Cornershop are among the artists who have covered " Love You To " .
= = Background and inspiration = =
Having added sitar accompaniment to the Beatles ' " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " in October 1965 , George Harrison wrote " Love You To " as a way to showcase the instrument . He said that the composition was also designed to feature the tabla , a pair of Indian hand drums , for the first time . Music critic Richie Unterberger describes the song as the Beatles ' " first all @-@ out excursion " in raga rock , a genre that author Nicholas Schaffner says was " launched " by Harrison 's use of sitar on " Norwegian Wood " .
Harrison wrote the song in early 1966 while the Beatles were enjoying an unusually long period free of professional commitments , due to their inability to find a suitable film project . He used the available time to further explore his interest in Indian classical music and the sitar , which , journalist Maureen Cleave noted in a contemporary article , " has given new meaning to [ his ] life " . Harrison 's activities included receiving sitar tuition from an Indian musician at the Asian Music Circle ( AMC ) in north London , where he also attended music recitals , and seeing Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar perform at the Royal Festival Hall . As reflected in " Love You To " , Harrison continued to immerse himself in recordings by Shankar , who , when the pair met at the AMC 's headquarters in June 1966 , would agree to take Harrison as his student .
Typically of his songs over this period , Harrison was unable to commit to naming the new composition . At the start of the sessions for the Beatles ' Revolver album , Geoff Emerick , the band 's recording engineer , gave the song the working title of " Granny Smith " , after the variety of apple . The song was partly inspired by Harrison 's experimentation with the hallucinogenic drug LSD , which he credited as a catalyst for increased awareness and his interest in Eastern philosophical concepts . Author Ian MacDonald views the subject matter as " part philosophical " and " part love @-@ song " to Pattie Boyd , the English model whom Harrison married in January 1966 .
= = Composition = =
= = = Musical form = = =
" Love You To " is in the key of C and adheres to the pitches of Kafi thaat , the Indian equivalent of Dorian mode . The composition emulates the khyal vocal tradition of Hindustani ( or North Indian ) classical music . Structurally , it comprises an opening alap ; a gat section , which serves as the main portion of the song ; and a short drut ( fast ) gat to close the piece .
The alap consists of sitar played in free tempo , during which the song 's melody is previewed in the style of an Indian raga . Described by Harrison biographer Simon Leng as " essentially an adaptation of a blues lick " , the seven @-@ note motif that closes the alap serves as a recurring motif during the ensuing gat . The change of metre following the alap marks the first such example in the Beatles ' work ; it would shortly be repeated in John Lennon 's composition " She Said , She Said " , which Harrison helped complete by joining together three separate pieces that Lennon had written .
The gat is set in madhya laya ( medium tempo ) and features a driving rock rhythm accentuated by heavy tambura drone . This portion of the composition consists of eight @-@ bar " A " sections and twelve @-@ bar " B " sections , structured in an A @-@ B @-@ A @-@ B pattern . The alap 's lack of a distinct time signature is contrasted with a temporal reference in the lyrics to the opening verse : " Each day just goes so fast / I turn around , it 's past " . Throughout , the vocal line avoids the melodic embellishment typical of khyal , apart from the use of melisma over the last line in each of the A sections . In keeping with the minimal harmonic movement of Indian music , the composition 's only deviation from its I chord of C is a series of implied ♭ VII chord changes , which occur in the B sections .
During the mid @-@ song instrumental passage , the melody line of the sitar incorporates aspects of the alap , raising the melody previewed there by an octave . The song then returns to verses sung over the A and B sections , culminating in the line " I 'll make love to you , if you want me to . " The arrival of the drut gat follows Hindustani convention by ending the composition at an accelerated tempo , although the brevity of this segment marks a departure from the same tradition .
= = = Lyrical interpretation = = =
As with all of the songs written by Harrison or Lennon and recorded by the Beatles in 1966 , the lyrics to " Love You To " marked a departure from the standard love @-@ song themes that had defined the group 's previous work . Harrison presents a worldview that variously reflects cynicism , sardonic humour and a degree of detachment with regard to personal relationships . According to music critic John Harris , the lines " There 's people standing round / Who 'll screw you in the ground / They 'll fill you in with all the sins you 'll see " serve as one of the first examples of the Beatles ' ideology aligning with that of the emerging 1960s counterculture , by highlighting the division between traditional mores and an LSD @-@ inspired perspective . Authors Russell Reising and Jim LeBlanc recognise this and other statements in " Love You To " as part of the Beatles ' espousal of anti @-@ materialism from 1966 onwards , a message that , inspired by the LSD experience , suggested a " psychedelic vision of society " .
Among other commentators discussing the lyrical themes , Mark Hertsgaard writes that Harrison 's " response to the fleetingness of time was to affirm and celebrate life : ' make love all day long / make love singing songs ' " , while Robert Rodriguez describes " Love You To " as " a somewhat oblique expression of love directed toward his bride , along with larger concerns regarding mortality and purpose " . In Ian Inglis ' estimation , the lyrics " remind us that in a world of material dissatisfaction and moral disharmony , there is always the solace of sexual pleasure " .
= = Recording = =
" Love You To " was the third track the Beatles recorded for Revolver , after " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " Got to Get You Into My Life " . Rodriguez comments that " Love You To " " [ made ] explicit the Indian influence implicit throughout the entire album " , as songs such as " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " Got to Get You Into My Life " , together with the non @-@ album single tracks " Paperback Writer " and " Rain " , all incorporate drone sounds or otherwise display the limited harmonic movement that typifies the genre .
The basic track for " Love You To " was taped in London at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios on 11 April 1966 . According to Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn , Harrison initially sang and played acoustic guitar , accompanied by Paul McCartney on backing vocals . By the end of the first session that day , three takes of the song had been made , with Harrison introducing his sitar on the last of these takes . Work resumed at 8 pm , with the participation of some Indian musicians that Harrison had sourced through Patricia Angadi , the co @-@ founder of the Asian Music Circle . These outside contributors included tabla player Anil Bhagwat and uncredited musicians on tambura and sitar .
According to Inglis , " Love You To " is " defined " by the interplay between sitar and tabla . Bhagwat later recalled of his involvement : " George told me what he wanted and I tuned the tabla with him . He suggested I play something in the Ravi Shankar style , 16 @-@ beats , though he agreed that I should improvise . Indian music is all improvisation . "
With take 6 selected as the best performance , a reduction mix was carried out on 13 April , freeing up space for more overdubs on the four @-@ track tape . Harrison added another vocal part onto what was now referred to as take 7 , and Ringo Starr played tambourine . McCartney contributed a high harmony vocal over the words " They 'll fill you in with all their sins , you 'll see " , but this part was omitted from the final mix . Harrison also overdubbed fuzz @-@ tone electric guitar , controlling the output via a volume pedal . Producer Tony Visconti has marvelled at the guitar sounds the Beatles introduced on Revolver , particularly Harrison 's part on " Love You To " , which he says " sounds like a chainsaw cutting down a tree in Vermont " .
Credit for the main sitar part on " Love You To " has traditionally been the subject of debate among commentators . While MacDonald says that , rather than Harrison , it was the sitarist from the AMC who played this part , Rodriguez writes that " others point to [ Harrison 's ] single @-@ minded diligence in mastering the instrument , as well as his study through private lessons , proximity to accomplished musicians , and close listening to pertinent records . " In his official history of the Beatles ' recording career , The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions , Lewisohn states : " George played the sitar but an outside musician , Anil Bhagwat , was recruited to play the tabla . " Musicologist Walter Everett also identifies Harrison as the main sitar player on the recording , as does Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West . Leng comments that , as on " Norwegian Wood " , Harrison " is still playing the sitar like a guitar player [ on the recording ] , using blues and rock ' n ' roll bends rather than the intensely intricate Indian equivalents " .
Final mixing for the song took place on 21 June as the Beatles rushed to complete Revolver before beginning the first leg of their 1966 world tour . Harrison discussed " Love You To " with Shankar when the two musicians met that month , at a social event hosted by the Angadi family . Although he was unaware of the band 's popularity and had yet to hear " Norwegian Wood " , Shankar was impressed with Harrison 's humility as the guitarist downplayed his sitar recordings with the Beatles as merely " experiments " . Soon after this meeting , Shankar gave Harrison his first sitar lesson at Kinfauns , his and Boyd 's home in Surrey , and later , with tablist Alla Rakha , performed a private recital there for Harrison , Lennon and Starr .
= = Release = =
Revolver was released on 5 August 1966 , with " Love You To " sequenced as the fourth track . By that point , the Beatles ' association with Indian music had been further established when , at Harrison 's suggestion , the band stopped over in Delhi on the return flight from their Far East tour . During the highly publicised visit , all four members of the group bought musical instruments from Rikhi Ram & Sons in Connaught Place . Bhagwat 's name appeared on the LP 's back cover , one of the few times that an outside musician received an official credit on a Beatles album .
Among commentators recalling the song 's release , Barry Miles describes " Love You To " as having " sounded astonishing next to the electrifying pop of the Revolver album " . Hertsgaard writes : " what caught most people 's interest was the exotic rhythm track . The opening descent of shimmering harplike notes beckoned even those who resisted Indian music , while the lyrics melded the mysticism of the East ... with the pragmatism of the West , and the hedonism of youth culture . "
In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Schaffner wrote that , next to the dominant Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership , Harrison 's three compositions on Revolver – " Love You To " , " Taxman " and " I Want to Tell You " – " offered ample indication that there were now three prolific songwriting Beatles " . Schaffner also commented that , through his championing of the sitar and Shankar 's music , Harrison came to be seen as " the maharaja of raga @-@ rock " , as other Western musicians began adopting Indian musical stylings . In the Beatles ' 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine , a brief portion of the song is used to introduce Harrison 's character , as a guru @-@ like figure , standing on a hill .
= = Critical reception = =
In a joint album review with Peter Jones for Record Mirror , Richard Green enthused about the song , saying : " Starts like a classical Indian recital ... This is great . So different . Play it again ! Best [ track ] so far . " Allen Evans of the NME lauded Harrison 's sitar playing as " stunning " and " tremendous " before concluding : " Fascinating mixture of minor melody with Indian accompaniment . One of the most striking tracks . " In his role as guest reviewer for Disc and Music Echo , Ray Davies of the Kinks also admired the performance and suggested that Harrison " must have quite a big influence on the group now " .
Writing in the recently launched Crawdaddy ! , Paul Williams " heaped praise " on " Love You To " , according to Rodriguez , while critic Lester Bangs termed it " the first injection of ersatz Eastern wisdom into rock " . The majority of contemporary US reviews were lukewarm towards Revolver , however , in reaction to the publication of Lennon 's statement that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ . An exception was New York critic Richard Goldstein , who praised the album as " a revolutionary record " , and later wrote that the song 's lyrics " exploded with a passionate sutra quality " . While bemoaning the initial lack of recognition for Revolver , KRLA Beat 's reviewer said that Harrison had " created a new extension of the music form which he introduced in Rubber Soul " , and described " Love You To " as " Well done and musically valid . Also musically unrecognized . "
= = Retrospective assessment and legacy = =
Writing in the journal Asian Music , ethnomusicologist David Reck has cited " Love You To " as being revolutionary in Western culture , adding : " One cannot emphasise how absolutely unprecedented this piece is in the history of popular music . For the first time an Asian music was not parodied utilising familiar stereotypes and misconceptions , but rather transferred in toto into a new environment with sympathy and rare understanding . " Reck views it as the first in " a series of finely crafted Indian @-@ based songs " by Harrison that would extend through his solo career , and while admiring the range of authentic Hindustani musical elements in the composition , he concludes : " All of this in a three @-@ minute song ! " Peter Lavezzoli describes " Love You To " as " the first conscious attempt in pop to emulate a non @-@ Western form of music in structure and instrumentation " . Lavezzoli says of the sitar part : " [ Harrison 's ] playing throughout the song is an astonishing improvement over ' Norwegian Wood ' . In fact , ' Love You To ' remains the most accomplished performance on sitar by any rock musician . "
Reviewing Harrison 's musical career in a 2002 issue of Goldmine magazine , Dave Thompson wrote that the song " opened creative doors through which Harrison 's bandmates may not – and [ George ] Martin certainly would not – have ever dreamed of passing " . Rolling Stone contributor Greg Kot pairs " Love You To " with " Taxman " as two " major contributions " that saw Harrison " [ come ] into his own as a songwriter " on Revolver . Kot describes " Love You To " as " a boldly experimental track that Harrison records … as he makes the first full @-@ scale incorporation of Eastern instruments on a Beatles album " . Writing on his music website Elsewhere , Graham Reid views the track as a " classic " due to its standing as " arguably the first [ song ] in Western pop … which owes nothing to pop music traditions . It is an Indian song in its structure and execution . "
AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine considers " Love You To " to be Harrison 's " first and best foray into Indian music " , while Bruce Eder , also writing for AllMusic , views it as " exquisite " . In his song review for the same website , Richie Unterberger is unimpressed with the track ; while acknowledging that " Love You To " was " Undoubtedly ... another indication of the group 's rapidly broadening barriers " , he cites a lead vocal that " drone [ s ] on in a rather lugubrious way " , Harrison 's slightly " disheveled " sitar playing , and lyrics that constitute " a rather muddled mix of free love advocacy , meditations on the transience of life on Earth , and chip @-@ on @-@ the @-@ shoulder wariness of people out to exploit him " . Although he finds the melody " sourly repetitious " , Ian MacDonald writes that the track is " distinguished by the authenticity of its Hindustani classical instrumentation and techniques " , and admires Harrison 's understanding of the genre . In a 2009 review for Paste magazine , Mark Kemp described Revolver as the album on which the Beatles " completed their transformation from the mop tops of three years earlier into bold , groundbreaking experimental rockers " , and added : " Harrison 's ' Love You To ' is pure Indian raga – sitar and tablas punctuated by the occasional luminous guitar riff jolting through the song 's paranoid , drug @-@ fueled lyrics like a blinding ray of sun into a dark forest . "
= = Cover versions = =
The Trypes , an offshoot of the Feelies , covered " Love You To " on their 1984 EP The Explorers Hold . A version by Ronnie Montrose , titled " Love to You " and including a rare vocal performance by the guitarist , appeared on his album Territory in 1986 . The song was covered by experimental rock band Bongwater in 1988 on their debut album Double Bummer .
My Morning Jacket singer Jim James performed " Love You To " on a banjo for his 2009 EP Tribute To , a collection of Harrison songs that James recorded shortly after the former Beatle 's death in November 2001 . In 2011 , Solid Gold covered the song on the Minnesota Beatle Project , Vol . 3 compilation . The following year , Cornershop recorded it for Yellow Submarine Resurfaces , a multi @-@ artist compilation issued by Mojo magazine .
= = Personnel = =
According to Kenneth Womack and Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – lead and backing vocals , acoustic guitar , sitar , rhythm guitar , fuzz @-@ tone lead guitar
Paul McCartney – backing vocal
Ringo Starr – tambourine
Anil Bhagwat – tabla
Unnamed musicians from the Asian Music Circle – sitar , tambura
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= SpaceChem =
SpaceChem is an indie puzzle game developed by Zachtronics Industries , based on principles of automation and chemical bonding . In the game , the player is tasked to produce one or more specific chemical molecules via an assembly line by programming two remote manipulators ( called " waldos " in the game ) that interact with atoms and molecules through a visual programming language . SpaceChem was the developer 's first foray into a commercial title after a number of free Flash @-@ based browser games that feature similar puzzle @-@ based assembly problems .
The game was initially released for Microsoft Windows at the start of 2011 via Zachtronics ' own website . Though it was initially rejected for sale on the Steam platform , Valve later offered to sell the game after it received high praise from game journalists ; further attention came from the game 's release alongside one of the Humble Indie Bundles . The game has since been ported to other computing platforms and mobile devices . Reviewers found the game 's open @-@ ended problem @-@ solving nature as a highlight of the title . SpaceChem was incorporated into some academic institutions for teaching concepts related to both chemistry and programming .
= = Gameplay = =
In SpaceChem , the player takes the role of a SpaceChem Reactor Engineer whose task is to create circuits through which atoms and molecules flow with the aid of waldos to produce particular batches of chemical shipments for each level .
The primary game mode of SpaceChem depicts the internal workings of a Reactor , mapped out to a 10 × 8 regular grid . Each reactor has up to two input and up to two output quadrants , and supports two waldos , red and blue , manipulated through command icons placed on the grid . The player adds commands from an array to direct each waldo independently through the grid . The commands direct the movement of the waldo , to pick up , rotate , and drop atoms and molecules , and to trigger reactor events such as chemical bond formation . The two waldos can also be synchronized , forcing one to wait for the other to reach a synchronization command . The reactors may support specific nodes , set by the player , that act where atomic bonds can be made or broken , where atoms can undergo fission or fusion , or where logic decisions based on atom type can be made . As such , the player is challenged to create a visual program to accept the given inputs , disassemble and reassemble them as necessary , and deliver them to the target output areas to match the required product . The product molecule does not need to match orientation or specific layout of the molecules as long as the molecule is topologically equivalent with respect to atoms , bonds , and bond types ; however , in larger puzzles , these factors will influence the inputs to downstream reactors . While the two waldos can cross over each other without harm , collision of atoms with one another or with the walls of the reactor is not allowed ; such collisions stop the program and force the player to re @-@ evaluate their solution . Similarly , if a waldo delivers the wrong product , the player will need to check their program . The player successfully completes each puzzle by constructing a program capable of repeatedly generating the required output , meeting a certain quota .
In larger puzzles , the player can also guide the formation of chemicals through multiple reactors , which they place out on a larger rectangular grid representing the planet 's surface . From here , the output from one reactor will become the input for another reactor ; the player is often free to determine what intermediate products to produce to send to the next reactor . The player must not only program the individual reactors , often limited in functionality such as one that can only break bonds but not form them , but plan out the location and order of reactors to make the final product .
The game 's puzzles are divided into groups set on different planets . Players generally must complete each puzzle in order to progress to the next one , but the game includes optional harder puzzles . Final boss levels , called out as defense levels , complete each planet ; here , the player must efficiently create chemicals and deliver them in a timely manner , once the reactor systems have been started , to trigger defense systems to ward off attacking enemies before they destroy a control structure .
Upon completion of each puzzle , the player 's performance is compared on a leaderboard based on the number of instructions placed in their reactors , the number of cycles it took to meet the quota , and the number of reactors required to meet the solution . The player also has an option to upload videos of their solution to YouTube . The player , once having cleared a puzzle , can return to previous puzzles to try to improve their solution by reducing the number of instructions , cycles taken , or reactors used . SpaceChem supports downloadable content created by the developers themselves , and user @-@ submitted puzzles through its ResearchNet service . A later addition included an open @-@ ended sandbox mode where players could simply explore the game 's capabilities .
= = Development = =
Prior to SpaceChem , Zach Barth , the designer behind Zachtronics Industries , had created several Flash @-@ based browser games with automation puzzles , including The Codex of Alchemical Engineering where the player had to place and program manipulator arms to construct atoms and molecules following the rules of alchemy . Barth had wanted to expand the ideas in Codex to include more realistic aspects of chemistry , such as more complex molecules , but did not pursue the idea immediately afterwards . About a year after completing Codex , Barth was inspired by the disused chemical plant at Gas Works Park in Seattle , giving him the idea to incorporate pipelines into the basic mechanics of molecule @-@ building from Codex .
SpaceChem took about a year with a team of seven people from around the globe to create : Barth was responsible for design and production , Collin Arnold and Keith Holman handled the programming , Ryan Sumo created the visuals , Evan Le Ny the music , Ken Bowen the sound and Hillary Field created the game 's narrative . The development costs were around $ 4 @,@ 000 , with the team working on the game during their spare time on weekends . Barth considered this a risk @-@ cutting measure ; if the game did not succeed , the team still had their full @-@ time jobs they could continue . The team used the C # language built on the Mono framework for the game which would allow for easy porting to other platforms beyond Microsoft Windows . Initially , they had considered using Microsoft XNA for ease of porting to the Xbox 360 , but later opted to consider other release platforms , requiring them to switch to the more portable Mono framework .
In designing puzzles , Barth wanted to keep puzzles open @-@ ended , allowing the player to come to a solution without funneling them in a specific direction . The team designed puzzles based on general chemistry concepts without envisioning the specific solution that the player would take . They brainstormed a number of puzzles and then eliminated those with similar solutions , and arranged the others into a reasonable learning curve for the game . Despite this , Barth reflected that the tutorials provided to explain the game 's mechanics had mixed responses , from some players who took up the concept easily to others that remained baffled as to the puzzle 's goal even when instructions were set out step by step . In some cases , Barth discovered that players made assumptions on limitations of the game from these tutorials such as the idea that the red and blue waldos must remain in the separate halves of the screen . Based on the feedback that players had made on sites that hosted his previous Flash @-@ based games , Barth designed the global @-@ based histograms to allow players to check their solution without feeling overwhelmed by the top players as would be normally listed on a leaderboard . He also devised the means of sharing solutions through YouTube videos due to similar comments and discussions on the previous games .
Barth had envisioned the game as his first commercial project , and based on feedback from Codex and other games , wanted to include a storyline along with the puzzles . The story missions included " defense " puzzles that typically were considered very hard to solve ; Barth recognized after release that players would stall out at these puzzles and not attempt to complete the game , with only 2 % of the players tracked having reached the final puzzle . Barth would have likely placed the harder puzzles at the end or as part of the ResearchNet add @-@ on . He also tried too much to incorporate a theme based on scientific research , popularized at the time by the success of Portal . He instead found potential players were scared off by the chemistry aspect even though the game had little connection to real chemistry ; a colleague had once suggested to Barth that if the game was named SpaceGems and modeled around alchemy , the game would have sold twice as many copies .
SpaceChem was released on January 1 , 2011 via digital download from the Zachtronics website for Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux computers . They had initially sought to get approval from Valve Corporation to sell the game through Steam , but Valve refused them , and thus opted for sale from their own website . Shortly after its release , the game received several positive reviews including one from Quintin Smith of the gaming website Rock Paper Shotgun . Zachtronics was contacted two days later by Valve Software with an interest to add it to Steam . The game was subsequently made available on Steam by March 4 , 2011 , and later on GamersGate on March 17 , 2011 . The inclusion of the game on Steam was considered by Barth to be the largest boost to sales of the game , outweighing any other distribution method they had .
= = = Post @-@ release support = = =
SpaceChem received a free update in late April 2011 , which added several new features to the game as well as new puzzles . The patch included support for the ResearchNet puzzle creation and sharing system , and for the Steam @-@ enabled version , support for achievements and leaderboards specific for Steam friends . The update for the Steam version also included a small set of puzzles tied in with Team Fortress 2 , which upon completion would reward the player with a decorative item they could use within Team Fortress 2 . The game was included in the Humble Frozen Synapse Bundle charitable sale in early October 2011 .
SpaceChem was ported to the iPad in October 2011 , using touch controls instead of mouse and keyboard to manipulate the visual program . An Android port was released in July 2012 . Both mobile platforms include most of the full game excluding the defense puzzles . The sandbox mode was added at the request of a player who was trying to explore SpaceChem computational abilities . Alongside the sandbox mode , Zactronics offered a contest for the most interesting sandbox creation . This same user was able to demonstrate a brainfuck interpreter within SpaceChem , claiming that the visual programming language was Turing complete . Barth has mentioned the possibility of a sequel in an interview with IndieGamer .
Zachtronics Industries has encouraged the game to be used as a learning tool for programming and chemistry concepts , and offers discounts for schools , though briefly offered the game free @-@ of @-@ charge for educational institutions for a few months after the release of the sandbox mode addition . According to The Independent Games Developers Association , schools in the United Kingdom have started using SpaceChem to teach students fundamental programming concepts . The success of SpaceChem led to several companies contacting Zachtronics to develop educational titles ; the company spent about two years working with Amplify to develop three " edutainment " games for their platform before they returned to work on more direct entertainment titles , but used the opportunity to improve on their in @-@ game teaching mechanics .
On September 30 , 2012 , SpaceChem was the featured game on IndieGameStand , a site which features indie games with a pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want model with a portion of the proceeds going to charity . Zachtronics Industries chose the Against Malaria Foundation as the charity to which 10 % of the proceeds were donated .
On October 25 , 2015 , Zachtronics announced they have dropped all support for SpaceChem on the iOS and OS X platform . The reason they gave was due to the complexity of the Mono package for future support .
= = Reception = =
SpaceChem was generally well received by critics , with an aggregate Metacritic score of 84 out of 100 from its Microsoft Windows release . Quintin Smith of Rock , Paper , Shotgun said " I think we might have just received one of the year 's best indie games in the first week of 2011 " . Gamasutra 's Margaret Robertson praised SpaceChem 's gameplay , contrasting it with other open @-@ ended activities as it offers the opportunity for the player to be as creative as they want to be within the minimal ruleset required of each puzzle . Robertson also found the game to be thrilling , having each puzzle initially appear " so astonishingly dispiriting " to what she had previously learned , but through trial and error coming to a solution that works and giving her the feeling of having " made a creative statement " in her solution . Eurogamer 's John Teti praised the means through which the game introduced new mechanics without excessive reliance on tutorials ; he commented that " the problems become more daunting " through the addition of new elements and commands , the game " is always more accessible than it looks " . Edge said " The triumph of SpaceChem is that overcoming these situations is more a case of inventing a solution than discovering one . "
Team Fortress creator Robin Walker recommended " SpaceChem " on Steam , calling it " Pretty much the greatest game ever made " . Gamasutra named SpaceChem the best indie game of 2011 . Though total sales of the game are unknown , at least 230 @,@ 000 copies were purchases as part of the game 's inclusion in the Humble Indie Bundle . Barth stated that with sales of SpaceChem , he was able to quit his job at Microsoft and run his development company full @-@ time . Ryan Sumo , the freelance artist for the game , gained recognition in the industry and went on to help develop the art for Prison Architect .
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= Randy Orton =
Randal Keith " Randy " Orton ( born April 1 , 1980 ) is an American professional wrestler and actor who is signed with WWE with the SmackDown brand . He is a 12 @-@ time world champion , having held the WWE Championship / WWE World Heavyweight Championship eight times and the World Heavyweight Championship four times , and was the final holder of the World Heavyweight Championship .
Orton is a third @-@ generation professional wrestler ; his grandfather Bob Orton , Sr. , his father " Cowboy " Bob Orton , and his uncle Barry Orton all competed in the professional wrestling business . Before being promoted to the main World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now WWE ) roster , Orton trained in and wrestled for Mid @-@ Missouri Wrestling Association @-@ Southern Illinois Conference Wrestling for a month . He was then sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , where he held the OVW Hardcore Championship twice .
Orton became a member of the stable Evolution shortly after his WWE debut , which quickly led to a Intercontinental Championship reign , his first title with the company . He also acquired the moniker " The Legend Killer " during a storyline where he began disrespecting and then physically attacking WWE Hall of Famers and wrestling veterans . At age 24 , he became the youngest person ever to hold the World Heavyweight Championship . With this win , he departed from Evolution and a feud with his former stablemates began . In 2006 , Orton joined forces with Edge in a tag team known as Rated @-@ RKO . Together , they held the World Tag Team Championship .
After Rated @-@ RKO disbanded in mid @-@ 2007 , Orton gained two WWE Championship reigns in one night , and at 27 , he became the youngest two @-@ time WWE Champion . He formed the group The Legacy with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase in 2008 . It disbanded in 2010 and Orton returned to singles competition . From 2013 to 2015 , Orton was aligned with The Authority , who named him the " face of the WWE " . Overall , he has won 14 total championships in WWE . He is also the winner of the 2009 Royal Rumble match and has headlined many pay @-@ per @-@ view events for the organization , including WrestleManias XXV and XXX .
= = Early life = =
Orton was born in Knoxville , Tennessee , the son of Bob Orton , Jr. and his wife Elaine . He is the grandson of Bob Orton , Sr. and the nephew of wrestler @-@ turned @-@ musician Barry Orton . He has two younger siblings named Nate and Rebecca . Knowing the hardships of life as a professional wrestler , Orton 's parents tried to convince him to stay away from the business , and his father warned him that life in the ring meant a life on the road and away from family . Orton attended Hazelwood Central High School , where he was an amateur wrestler .
= = Military career = =
After graduating from high school in 1998 , Orton enlisted with the United States Marine Corps . At the base , he received a bad conduct discharge a year later after deserting on two separate occasions and disobeying an order from a commanding officer . Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice , Private First Class Orton was tried and convicted under a special court @-@ martial , subsequently spending 38 days in a military prison .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Training ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = =
Orton made his wrestling debut in 2000 at the Mid @-@ Missouri Wrestling Association @-@ Southern Illinois Conference Wrestling ( MMWA @-@ SICW ) in St. Louis , Missouri , an offshoot of the historic St. Louis Wrestling Club headed by Sam Muchnick . There , he was trained by both the promotion and his father , Bob Orton Jr .. He wrestled for the promotion for one month , where he performed with wrestlers such as Ace Strange and Mark Bland . Orton also refereed a few matches with World Organized Wrestling , a promotion where his uncle Barry Orton worked .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
In 2001 , Orton signed a deal with the then World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and was sent to its developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) in Louisville , Kentucky , where he continued his training . During his time in OVW , Orton wrestled the likes of Rico Constantino and The Prototype and teamed with Bobby Eaton during a tag team title tournament . He won the OVW Hardcore Championship on two separate occasions by defeating Mr. Black on February 14 , 2001 , and Flash Flanagan on May 5 , 2001 . On several occasions he faced Rico Constantino on combined WWFE / OVW events , and also lost to The Prototype ( John Cena ) in a tag match on July 28 in Jacksonville , IN . He also began appearing on several WWFE house shows that were unaffiliated with OVW , the first being on May 1 , 2001 when he faced Billy Gunn . After taking the mic and promising to beat Gunn , Orton was defeated . That fall he began appearing regularly on WWFE house shows and dark matches , facing Chuck Palumbo , Steven Richards , and Shawn Stasiak , but mostly wrestling in tag team matches .
= = = = Evolution ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
One of Orton 's first official WWF appearances was March 16 , 2002 at WrestleMania X8 's Fan Axxess , where he was defeated by Tommy Dreamer . Orton 's first televised WWF match was against Hardcore Holly on SmackDown ! on April 25 , 2002 . Soon after , Orton became a fan favorite and was placed in a series of matches with Holly . In September 2002 , Orton was drafted to the Raw brand , where he defeated Stevie Richards in his debut on the show . Within weeks of his debut on the Raw brand , Orton suffered a shoulder injury , leaving him sidelined for months . While recovering , Orton still appeared on Raw in his own Randy News Network segment , a weekly vignette featuring him talking about his condition . The show interrupted other segments of Raw programming , which caused Orton to slowly transition himself into a narcissistic and self @-@ centered villain .
After his injury healed , Orton joined the Evolution stable , which consisted of Ric Flair , Triple H , and relative newcomer , Dave Batista . The group was pushed on Raw from 2003 to 2004 , with the height of their dominance occurring after Armageddon in 2003 when all of the men 's titles on Raw were held by the members of Evolution . In 2003 , Orton spent much of his time helping Triple H overcome challenges for the World Heavyweight Championship . Orton joined Triple H in a six @-@ man Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam , involved primarily to secure Triple H 's title defense , and was eliminated by Goldberg , but the stable managed to fulfill its purpose and Triple H went on to eliminate Goldberg and thus retain his title .
Afterwards , Orton proclaimed himself " The Legend Killer " , a young upstart who was so talented that he touted himself as the future of professional wrestling . He embarked on numerous storyline feuds with " legendary " wrestlers and gained infamy for his blatant disrespect of many older , well @-@ respected names in wrestling history . With the help of his stablemate and mentor Ric Flair , he defeated Shawn Michaels at Unforgiven in the first of many high @-@ profile matches billed as " Legend versus Legend Killer . " Orton then spat in the face of Harley Race on the April 26 , 2004 Raw . During this time , Orton began using the move that would become his signature finisher , the RKO , a jumping cutter named after his initials . Orton soon defeated Rob Van Dam for the Intercontinental Championship at Armageddon on December 14 , 2003 . With this win , Orton started the longest Intercontinental Championship reign in seven years , holding the title for seven months . Orton continued to establish himself as a " Legend Killer " throughout 2004 , challenging the semi @-@ retired wrestler Mick Foley . Famed for his hardcore matches and ability to handle excruciating pain , Foley offered Orton a hardcore " Legend versus Legend Killer " match for his Intercontinental Championship . At Backlash , in a bloody match involving thumbtacks and barbed wire , Orton defeated Foley . Two months later at Bad Blood , he retained the Intercontinental Championship against Shelton Benjamin . In July , at Vengeance , Edge defeated Orton to win the Intercontinental Championship , ending Orton 's seven @-@ month title reign . After losing the Intercontinental Championship , Orton became the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship after winning a 20 @-@ man battle royal on July 26 .
At SummerSlam , Orton defeated Chris Benoit for the championship . Orton became the youngest person ever to hold the title in WWE history at the age of 24 . Benoit congratulated Orton after the match , shaking his hand for showing the ability to " be a man " . The following night , after Orton successfully defended the championship against Benoit in a rematch , Evolution threw Orton a mock celebration , only to reveal that they were not pleased with his new victory . While Batista had Orton propped on his shoulders in elation , Triple H gave him a pleased thumbs up and then abruptly changed it to a thumbs @-@ down , which was followed by Batista 's dropping Orton to the mat . Ric Flair and Batista attacked Orton in the ring as Triple H revealed his jealousy for Orton 's title . He ordered Orton to hand over the championship , but he refused , spitting in Triple H 's face and hitting him with the title belt . Orton 's break @-@ up with Evolution began a new storyline for him as a fan favorite when he continued to feud with his former stablemates . A month later , Orton lost his championship to Triple H at Unforgiven . Seeking revenge , Orton lashed out at Evolution members , catching them by surprise during a show by giving them a large cake as a make @-@ up gift , which he came out of to beat and humiliate the group . At Taboo Tuesday , Orton defeated Ric Flair in a Steel Cage match . After this , Orton experienced another push , becoming General Manager of the Raw brand for a week following a match stipulation at Survivor Series where he picked up the win for his team by last pinning Triple H in a 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 Survivor Series match . He continued to feud with Triple H , using his authority to place his opponents at severe disadvantages during title defenses . Orton was granted another chance at the championship in January 2005 , but lost a six @-@ man championship Elimination Chamber match to Triple H at New Year 's Revolution . On the January 10 Raw , Orton defeated Batista to earn a match against Triple H at the Royal Rumble for the World Heavyweight title . At the Royal Rumble , Triple H defeated Orton to retain the World title .
= = = = The Legend Killer ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
Orton began an on @-@ screen relationship with Stacy Keibler and briefly feuded with Christian in February 2005 . On the February 28 Raw , Superstar Billy Graham made an appearance , in which he advised Orton to " go where no wrestler [ had ] gone before " .
Orton then produced a copy of SmackDown ! magazine , which featured The Undertaker on the cover . Heeding Graham 's advice , Orton claimed he would set himself apart from all other wrestlers by ending The Undertaker 's undefeated streak at WrestleMania . Throughout March 2005 , Orton taunted The Undertaker , claiming he was unafraid of him . On the March 21 Raw , Orton turned into a villain once more after he delivered an RKO to his unsuspecting on @-@ screen girlfriend , Stacy Keibler , knocking her unconscious . During Orton 's promos , he ran for cover whenever signs of The Undertaker 's appearance ( lightning , darkness , or smoke ) occurred . When legendary wrestler Jake Roberts advised Orton not to underestimate The Undertaker , Orton performed an RKO on Roberts as well . In the weeks leading up to WrestleMania , Orton became more defiant and unafraid of The Undertaker , taunting and assaulting him in the ring following distractions from his father , " Cowboy " Bob Orton . At WrestleMania 21 , however , the heavily hyped match was unsuccessful for Orton , as he lost despite his father 's interference .
The following night on Raw , Orton faced Batista , who had become World Heavyweight Champion . Orton stated on @-@ screen that his match with The Undertaker had aggravated a shoulder injury . While sidelined , Orton appeared on Raw and claimed that he was ineligible for the WWE Draft Lottery due to his injury . He was informed by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon that he was indeed a candidate for the draft , leaving a possibility of a return to SmackDown ! . Orton returned to WWE programming for the SmackDown ! brand on June 16 , announcing that he was the second pick in the 2005 draft lottery . He rekindled his feud with The Undertaker , defeating him at SummerSlam following a distraction from his father . Two months later , Orton and his father Bob Orton defeated The Undertaker in a Handicap Casket match , after the match Randy Orton and his father Bob locked the Undertaker in the casket and , in a move similar to Kane at the 1998 Royal Rumble , chopped holes in the top of the casket with an axe , poured gasoline over the casket and set it ablaze , kayfabe killing The Undertaker . The following month , Orton was a participant in the annual elimination match of Team SmackDown against Team Raw at Survivor Series . In the match , Orton was the last remaining wrestler in the match for the third straight year . , as he pinned Shawn Michaels to get the victory for Team SmackDown . At the event , The Undertaker returned by emerging from a flaming casket and attacking the SmackDown superstars who had come to the ring to celebrate Team SmackDown 's victory . On the SmackDown ! after Survivor Series , The Undertaker interfered in a match between Rey Mysterio & the Big Show after Kane interfered . Randy Orton RKO 'd the Undertaker , he then struck the Undertaker with a tire iron and set him on the back of the lowrider Mysterio had driven to the ring , he then reversed the lowrider into the SmackDown set , causing an explosion . The feud was finally settled with a Hell in a Cell match at Armageddon , where The Undertaker offered to retire if he lost . On December 16 , The Undertaker entered the ring to deliver a promo while one of his druids appeared to be standing in the ring . The Undertaker sustained an RKO from Orton in a surprise attack . The druid revealed himself to be Orton 's father , who gave Orton The Undertaker 's urn , which , according to the storyline , allowed whomever held it to control The Undertaker . The Undertaker , however , beat both Ortons in a Hell in a Cell match , ending their nine @-@ month @-@ long feud .
Following Armageddon , Orton entered the 2006 Royal Rumble match as the thirtieth and final wrestler , but he was eliminated by Rey Mysterio . Mysterio won the match and a title shot , and Orton urged him to put the title shot at stake in a match at No Way Out . In the weeks preceding No Way Out , Orton made controversial remarks about Eddie Guerrero , Mysterio 's friend who had died a few months previously , in an attempt to gain villain heat . Many fans felt the comments were highly distasteful so soon after Guerrero 's death in November 2005 . Orton won at No Way Out , earning Mysterio 's title shot for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 22 . General Manager Theodore Long re @-@ added Mysterio to the WrestleMania 22 title match , however , making it a Triple Threat match between Orton , Mysterio , and then @-@ champion , Kurt Angle . On April 2 , at WrestleMania 22 , Orton was pinned by Mysterio , making Mysterio the World Heavyweight Champion and ending their on @-@ screen rivalry .
On April 4 , 2006 , Orton was suspended for sixty days for " unprofessional conduct . " In an interview , Orton stated , " my conduct was unbecoming of a champion , which is what I will be again when I return " . To cover for the suspension , a scripted injury was devised , where Kurt Angle broke Orton 's ankle during a grudge match . Orton returned from his suspension in June to the Raw brand , where he entered a rivalry with Angle , culminating in matches at One Night Stand and Vengeance before engaging in a storyline feud with Hulk Hogan . Orton began cutting promos insulting the aging Hogan and flirted with Hogan 's then @-@ eighteen @-@ year @-@ old daughter Brooke . At SummerSlam , the two met in a " Legend vs. Legend Killer " match , which Hogan won .
After the newly reformed D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) cost Edge the WWE Championship numerous times , Edge approached Orton and asked him to join forces to defeat the team . Orton , whose championship reign had been ended by Triple H in 2004 , agreed , forming the tag team Rated @-@ RKO . The two became the first to defeat DX since their reunion and quickly dominated the Raw brand 's tag team division to become tag team champions . As part of the angle , Rated @-@ RKO attacked Ric Flair with steel chairs to enrage DX on November 27 . At New Year 's Revolution , Rated @-@ RKO faced DX in a title defense , but the match was declared a no @-@ contest when Triple H suffered a legitimate injury during the match . With Triple H out of action , Rated @-@ RKO continued their on @-@ screen rivalry with remaining DX member Shawn Michaels . Michaels teamed with John Cena to defeat Rated @-@ RKO for the tag team championship on January 29 . After losing the tag team titles , both Edge and Orton focused on the WWE Championship , causing friction in the group . They would lose a triple threat match against Shawn Michaels to earn a title match at WrestleMania 23 . They both competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at the same event , but the match was won by Mr. Kennedy . Finally , they faced off in a fatal four way for the title against Cena and Michaels at Backlash , however Cena retained the title . Their alliance was effectively ended once Edge was drafted to Smackdown . Orton then continued his " Legend Killer " persona , attacking Shawn Michaels . Using frequent attacks to the head , including an elevated DDT and a running punt to the face , Orton defeated Michaels at Judgment Day . When the kayfabe wounded and concussed Michaels collapsed in the ring , the referee was forced to stop the match and award Orton the victory . Orton continued his attacks when he engaged himself in feuds with Rob Van Dam , Ric Flair , Dusty Rhodes , and Sgt. Slaughter . During this time the commentators noted how Orton slithers around and stalks his victims like a snake ; this led to " The Viper " becoming a nickname for Orton .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the July 23 Raw , Orton was named number one contender for John Cena 's WWE Championship . Three times before their scheduled bout at SummerSlam , Orton assaulted Cena with the RKO . Orton lost the title match when Cena pinned him after an FU . The next night on Raw , Orton demanded a rematch , but Raw General Manager William Regal denied him . He then appealed to Mr. McMahon , who offered him the shot if he " proved himself " . That night , Orton interfered in Cena 's match , assaulting him before kicking his father , who was at ringside , in the head . McMahon granted Orton his rematch at Unforgiven , which he won by disqualification when Cena refused to stop punching him in the corner . Cena retained the championship because titles cannot change hands by disqualification . After the match , Cena 's father , who was again at ringside , kicked Orton in the head . The next night on Raw , Orton defeated Cena 's father by DQ , then hit him with an RKO , while Cena was handcuffed to the ropes . Before No Mercy , Cena won a match on RAW , but with an injury . Randy Orton then hit Cena with the RKO , gaining a new nickname , The Viper . Orton then threw him outside the ring , and giving him an RKO on the announcer 's table .
At the beginning of No Mercy , Mr. McMahon awarded Orton the WWE Championship after Cena vacated it due to injury the previous week , cutting their feud short . Orton lost the title to Triple H in the opening match . In the main event , Orton defeated Triple H in a Last Man Standing match to regain the title . Orton then restarted his feud with Shawn Michaels , who returned on the October 8 Raw and Superkicked him . Michaels was chosen by fan voting over Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy to meet Orton in a title match at Cyber Sunday . Orton was disqualified when he low blowed Michaels , but retained the title . Orton won a rematch at Survivor Series after hitting Michaels with the RKO . Per stipulation , if Michaels had used Sweet Chin Music , he 'd have lost and never had another chance at the title , and if Orton was disqualified , he would have lost the title . Orton then feuded with Jeff Hardy , and defeated him in a title match at the Royal Rumble . He then restarted his feud with John Cena , who had returned from injury to win the 2008 Royal Rumble match . Instead of taking his title shot at WrestleMania XXIV , as Rumble winners typically do , Cena took it at No Way Out and defeated Orton , who intentionally got himself disqualified to retain the title . At WrestleMania , Orton retained the WWE Championship in a Triple Threat match over Cena and Triple H , by pinning Cena after Triple H Pedigreed him .
The next month , at Backlash , Orton lost the title to Triple H in a Fatal Four @-@ Way Elimination match , also including Cena and John " Bradshaw " Layfield . After failing to win it back at Judgment Day , Orton faced Triple H for it in a Last Man Standing match at One Night Stand , which he lost when Triple H countered an RKO by throwing him over the top rope , breaking his clavicle . During this time , he gained a new entrance theme , " Voices " , performed by the band Rev Theory .
Shortly before he was to return from his injury , Orton was reinjured in a motorcycle accident . He returned to Raw on September 1 , criticizing all the champions , including World Tag Team Champions Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase , who he berated and slapped for letting Cryme Tyme steal their belts . This inspired them to try to gain Orton 's respect . They achieved this at Unforgiven when , with new stablemate Manu , they assaulted World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk , forcing him to vacate his title before his scheduled defense that night . Orton returned to the ring on the November 3 Raw , losing to Punk by disqualification when DiBiase interfered . In retaliation , Orton punted DiBiase in the head . On the December 1 Raw , Orton proposed that he , Rhodes and Manu form an alliance . The stable , called The Legacy , debuted the next week , defeating Batista and Triple H , Orton 's former Evolution stablemates , in a three @-@ on @-@ two handicap match .
Orton began feuding with the McMahon family on the January 19 , 2009 episode of Raw when he confronted both Mr. McMahon and Stephanie , claiming that he was worth more than her , and that she had become " worthless " . This infuriated Mr. McMahon , who demanded that Orton apologize , or he 'd terminate him on the spot . As Mr. McMahon was about to fire him , Orton attacked him and viciously punted him in the head , leading to him being carried out of the arena on a stretcher . On January 25 , Orton won the Royal Rumble match , last eliminating Triple H. The next night on Raw , Orton claimed that he suffered from IED , and that he was not responsible for his actions towards Mr. McMahon , claiming that he suffered a " loss of control " because of the disorder . He also claimed that WWE knew of the condition , but did nothing , and threatened to sue WWE for that reason , and also , if Stephanie were to fire him , threatened a second lawsuit for breach of contract , due to the fact that he was legally entitled to compete at WrestleMania because he won the Royal Rumble . Though Stephanie teased firing Orton , she changed her mind and said she had " bigger plans " , leading to Shane McMahon returning to Raw and viciously attacking Orton . This led to Orton facing Shane in a No Holds Barred match at No Way Out , which he won . The next night on Raw , Orton faced Shane again in an unsanctioned match , which ended in a no @-@ contest when he punted Shane in the head , thus rendering him unable to continue the match . Stephanie then ran down to the ring to tend to her brother , but Orton hit her with an RKO . This drew Triple H into the feud , who claimed that Orton " crossed the line " when he attacked Stephanie , his real @-@ life wife . Later , Orton claimed that everything he had done was part of a plan to get revenge on Triple H after he kicked him out of Evolution ; according to Orton , Triple H " ruined his life " , so Orton was going to do the same and take everything that Triple H cared about away from him . He challenged Triple H for the WWE title at WrestleMania XXV , which he was unsuccessful . He won it the next month at Backlash by pinning Triple H in a special six @-@ man tag match between The Legacy and Triple H , Batista and Shane McMahon . At Extreme Rules , he lost the title to Batista in a Steel Cage match . The following night on Raw , Orton and Legacy attacked Batista and broke his arm , forcing him to vacate the title .
On the June 15 Raw , Orton regained the title in a Fatal Four Way match , over Triple H , John Cena and Big Show . He lost the title to John Cena in an " I Quit " match at Breaking Point . He then regained it from Cena in a Hell in a Cell match at Hell in a Cell . At Bragging Rights , Orton re @-@ lost the title to Cena in a one @-@ hour Iron Man match .
On the January 11 , 2010 Raw , Orton won a Triple Threat match , with help from Rhodes and DiBiase , for the right to challenge Sheamus at the Royal Rumble for the WWE Championship . Orton lost by disqualification when Rhodes interfered . After the match , Orton attacked Rhodes and DiBiase . On the February 15 Raw , Orton was again disqualified in a rematch when The Legacy interfered . Orton and DiBiase both competed in the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber . DiBiase eliminated Orton after hitting him with a pipe Rhodes gave him . The next night on Raw , during a six @-@ man tag match , Orton attacked them in retaliation . At WrestleMania XXVI , Orton , now a face for the first time since 2005 , defeated Rhodes and DiBiase in a Triple Threat match .
After The Legacy disbanded , Orton unsuccessfully challenged Jack Swagger for the World Heavyweight Championship at Extreme Rules in April . During a number one contender 's match for the WWE Championship on RAW , Orton was speared by Edge , costing him the match and setting up a bout at Over the Limit , Orton separated his right shoulder during the match , which ended in a double countout . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way in June , Orton lost a fatal four @-@ way WWE Championship match , also involving champion Cena and Edge , to Sheamus . On the July 19 Raw , he won a number one contender 's match over Edge and Chris Jericho , earning a match against Sheamus at SummerSlam . Sheamus was disqualified for bringing a steel chair into the ring , giving Orton the win , but not the title . Immediately afterward , Orton hit Sheamus with the chair and an RKO .
Orton defeated John Cena , Chris Jericho , Wade Barrett , Edge and Sheamus in a Six @-@ Pack Challenge Elimination Match to become WWE Champion for the sixth time at Night of Champions . After defending the title against Sheamus at Hell in a Cell , Orton feuded with Wade Barrett , who was blackmailing Cena to help him capture the title . Orton defeated Barrett again at Bragging Rights and Survivor Series After one final match on the November 22 episode of Raw , The Miz immediately cashed in his Money in the Bank briefcase and quickly beat Orton for the title . Orton lost to The Miz in a title tables match at TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs and again in a standard match at the Royal Rumble in January 2011 , after The New Nexus interfered , starting a feud between Orton and CM Punk .
The next month at Elimination Chamber , Orton lost the a WWE Championship number @-@ one @-@ contender Elimination Chamber match to Cena . Over the next three weeks , Orton punted and injured all members of The New Nexus , Michael McGillicutty , David Otunga and Mason Ryan . At WrestleMania XXVII , Orton pinned Punk after the RKO . On the April 11 Raw , McGillicutty , Otunga and Ryan returned and cost Orton a number one contender 's match for the WWE Championship . Two weeks later , in the 2011 WWE Draft , Orton was drafted to SmackDown and beat Punk in a Last Man Standing Match at Extreme Rules , ending his feud with The New Nexus .
= = = = World Heavyweight Championship pursuits ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
On the May 6 episode of SmackDown , Orton received a title opportunity against World Heavyweight Champion , Christian . Orton was successful in defeating Christian to win his second World Heavyweight Championship . At Over the Limit and Capitol Punishment , Orton successfully defended his championship against Christian . In July at Money in the Bank , Orton met Christian in a match where , if Orton got himself disqualified , or the referee made a " bad call " , Christian would win the title . Christian spat in Orton 's face , causing him to lose control of his temper , kick Christian in the groin and get disqualified . A month later , at SummerSlam event , Orton regained the title when he defeated Christian in a No Holds Barred match . Orton ended his feud with Christian when he retained the World Championship in a Steel Cage Match on the August 30 SmackDown . Orton then began a feud with Mark Henry after Henry became the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship . Over the next few weeks , Henry regularly attacked Orton . At Night of Champions , Orton lost the World Heavyweight title Henry , and failed to regain it two weeks later at Hell in a Cell . On the October 14 episode of SmackDown , Orton received another title shot against Henry after winning a 41 @-@ man battle royal , he was successful in winning the match by disqualification but failed to win the title after interference from rival Cody Rhodes . He then defeated Rhodes at Vengeance , and on the November 4 SmackDown in a Street Fight .
Orton reignited his feud with Wade Barrett after both were named captain for a traditional 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series elimination match . On the November 11 SmackDown , Orton lost a match to Barrett . On the November 14 Raw , Orton won a rematch by disqualification . His team was defeated at Survivor Series with Barrett and Cody Rhodes being the sole survivors . Barrett then began attacking and distracting Orton during matches . At Tables , Ladders , & Chairs , Orton defeated Barrett in a tables match hitting the RKO mid @-@ air with Barrett landing through the table . Barrett and Orton continued their feud on the December 23 SmackDown , where they brawled backstage and Orton hit Barrett with an RKO onto a car . This led to a Falls Count Anywhere match on December 30 Smackdown , in which Barrett pushed Orton down a flight of stairs , resulting in a herniated disc , which sidelined Orton for four weeks . On the January 27 , 2012 episode of SmackDown , he returned to the ring and attacked Barrett . On the February 3 episode of SmackDown , Orton defeated Barrett in a No Disqualification match to end the feud .
On the February 13 episode of Raw SuperShow , Orton suffered a concussion after World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan smashed Orton over the head with the title belt . Due to the injury , Orton was taken out of his elimination chamber match at Elimination Chamber and was replaced by Santino Marella . Orton returned on the March 2 SmackDown , losing to Bryan by count @-@ out , following interference from Kane , who then attacked Orton after the match . In retaliation , Orton hit Kane with an RKO on the March 5 episode of Raw Supershow , after the latter defeated R @-@ Truth . On the next SmackDown , Orton hit Kane with another RKO before his match . They later brawled as the show ended . At WrestleMania XXVIII , Orton was defeated by Kane in a singles match . Orton defeated Kane on the next SmackDown in a No Disqualification match and at Extreme Rules in a Falls Count Anywhere match to end the feud .
On April 30 Raw , Orton was part of a Beat the Clock challenge to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship match at Over the Limit ; he defeated Jack Swagger in 4 : 16 to beat The Miz 's time by two seconds . Orton 's time was later beaten by Daniel Bryan , thus earning him the title match . On the following Raw SuperShow , Orton was brogue kicked by tag team partner Sheamus during their match against Chris Jericho and Alberto Del Rio , costing them the match . After the match , Orton RKO 'd Sheamus and then he , Jericho , and Del Rio demanded a match for Sheamus ' World Heavyweight Championship at Over the Limit , which they were granted . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Orton failed in his World title pursuit after Sheamus pinned Jericho to retain the title .
On May 30 , WWE announced that they had suspended Orton for 60 days due to his second violation of the company 's Talent Wellness Program . Orton returned on the July 30 Raw , defeating Heath Slater . Orton began feuding with Mr. Money in the Bank Dolph Ziggler , after hitting him with the RKO when trying to cash his contract on a vulnerable Sheamus on the August 24 SmackDown . The following week on SmackDown , the two faced off in a match that was won by Orton . Three days later on Raw , Orton was defeated by Ziggler in a rematch , after Ziggler pinned him while holding his tights . Orton and Ziggler faced each other again at Night of Champions where Orton won . On the September 28 SmackDown , Orton was scheduled to face Big Show in a number one contenders match for the World Heavyweight Championship . However , a pre @-@ match assault from Alberto Del Rio cost Orton the match and started a feud . Orton returned to SmackDown two weeks later , attacking Del Rio and his ring announcer Ricardo Rodriguez . The rivalry built to a singles match on October 28 at Hell in a Cell , where Orton emerged victorious . On the following episode of Main Event , Orton teamed with Rey Mysterio and Sin Cara to face Del Rio and the Prime Time Players ( Darren Young and Titus O 'Neil ) in six @-@ man tag team bout that ended with Orton pinning Del Rio for the win . On the November 6 SmackDown , Orton defeated Del Rio again in a Falls Count Anywhere match , after hitting the RKO onto the ring steps . The two were then on opposing teams for the traditional five @-@ on @-@ five elimination tag match on November 18 at Survivor Series . Del Rio 's team , led by Dolph Ziggler , ended up defeating Orton 's team , led by Mick Foley . The following night on Raw , Orton defeated Del Rio once again in a Two Out of Three Falls match to end the feud .
= = = = Feud with The Shield ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = =
On the December 3 Raw , Orton began a feud with The Shield , after he was attacked by them following a victory over Brad Maddox . On the December 14 SmackDown , Orton was once again assaulted backstage by The Shield . This was used to write him off television due to a shoulder injury . Orton returned on the New Year ’ s Eve Raw , helping Ryback and Sheamus fend off The Shield . On the January 4 SmackDown , Orton announced his entry in the 2013 Royal Rumble match . On the January 11 SmackDown and the January 16 Main Event , Orton was again attacked by The Shield during his matches with Antonio Cesaro . On the February 1 SmackDown , Orton defeated longtime rival Wade Barrett to earn a spot in the Elimination Chamber match . On February 17 at Elimination Chamber , Orton eliminated Mark Henry and Chris Jericho before being the last man eliminated by Jack Swagger . In late February , Orton aligned himself with Sheamus to feud with the Shield . Over the next weeks , Orton and Sheamus saved each other from attacks by The Shield and Big Show . On the March 15 SmackDown , Orton and Sheamus were then allowed to pick a third partner to face the Shield in a six @-@ man tag team match at Wrestlemania 29 an chose Ryback . Three days later on Raw , however , Ryback was booked in another match for the event , leaving the spot open . Later that night , Big Show saved the two from an attack by The Shield and was immediately recruited as their partner . On April 7 at WrestleMania 29 , Orton , Sheamus and Show were defeated by The Shield , after which , both men were knocked out by Show . The following night on Raw , Orton and Sheamus faced off in a match to earn a match with Big Show , however , the match ended in a no contest after Show interfered . Orton and Sheamus then teamed up to defeat Show in two handicap matches , first on the April 12 SmackDown via cont @-@ out , and second on the April 15 Raw via pinfall . On the April 19 SmackDown , Orton and Sheamus were defeated by Big Show and Mark Henry in a tag team match . The feud between Big Show and Orton led to an Extreme Rules match at Extreme Rules , which Orton won . After Extreme Rules , Orton began pairing with Daniel Bryan despite their poor relationship to face a common enemy in the Shield . On the June 14 SmackDown , Orton teamed with Bryan and Kane to end the Shield 's unpinned and unsubmitted streak in televised six @-@ man tag matches . Three days later at Payback , Orton and Bryan 's poor teamwork resulted in an unsuccessful challenge for Roman Reigns and Seth Rollins ' WWE Tag Team Championships . The following night on Raw , Orton and Bryan faced off in a No Disqualification match , that Orton won via referee stoppage after Bryan suffered a legitimate nerve injury . Four days later on SmackDown , Orton was defeated by Bryan in a singles match via count @-@ out . Orton and Bryan faced each other for the third time on the next Raw , but their match ended in a no @-@ contest after both men were counted out . Later that night , Orton was defeated by Bryan in a Street Fight Match after he was forced to submit to the Yes ! Lock with a kindo stick applied to the move .
= = = = The Authority ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
On July 14 at Money in the Bank , Orton defeated Christian , CM Punk , Daniel Bryan , Rob Van Dam , and Sheamus to win the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match , thus earning him an opportunity to challenge for the WWE Championship at a time of his choosing within the next year .
On August 18 at SummerSlam , Orton turned heel for the first time since 2010 after he cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Daniel Bryan , who had just won the WWE Championship and had been subsequently attacked by special guest referee Triple H , who also counted the pinfall to give Orton his seventh WWE title . The following night on Raw , Orton was endorsed as the " face of the company " by Vince McMahon and the newly formed Authority ( Triple H and Stephanie McMahon ) . On September 15 at Night of Champions , Orton lost WWE Championship back to Bryan , however , Triple H stripped Bryan of the title the next night on Raw , due to a fast count by referee Scott Armstrong , but refused to give the championship back to Orton . Orton and Bryan faced off for the vacant title on October 6 at Battleground , but the match ended in a no contest after Big Show interfered and knocked out both men . Orton once again challenged Bryan for the vacant championship at Hell in a Cell , where he was successful in regaining the WWE Championship after the special guest referee Shawn Michaels superkicked Bryan for attacking Triple H.
On November 24 at Survivor Series , after successfully defending the title against Big Show , Orton was confronted by World Heavyweight Champion and long @-@ time rival John Cena . The following night on Raw , Cena suggested that there should only be " one champion " in WWE , so Triple H stated there would be a unification match at the TLC pay @-@ per @-@ view . On December 15 , Orton defeated Cena at TLC to unify both titles , and becoming the first WWE World Heavyweight Champion as well as officially being recognized as the final World Heavyweight Champion . Orton made his first successful title defense as WWE World Heavyweight Champion on January 26 , 2014 , at the Royal Rumble , defeating Cena in a rematch after interference by The Wyatt Family . On February 23 at Elimination Chamber , Orton defeated Cesaro , Christian , Daniel Bryan , John Cena , and Sheamus to retain his WWE World Heavyweight Championship and secure his position in the title bout at WrestleMania XXX against Royal Rumble winner Batista . On April 6 at Wrestlemania XXX , the main event was changed to a triple threat match after Bryan defeated Triple H , and won the match after submitting Batista to end Orton 's reign at 161 days .
The following night on Raw , Orton and Batista were each denied a rematch for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship and instead were forced by The Authority to team together to face WWE Tag Team Champions The Usos for the title , despite their issues with one another . The title match ended in a double count @-@ out after the two united and delivered a beat @-@ down to the champions . Later that night , Batista and Orton , along with Kane , attacked Bryan before he was set to defend his title against Triple H. Before Triple H could defeat Bryan , The Shield interrupted by spearing Triple H and taking out Batista , Orton and Kane , causing Bryan to retain his title via disqualification . On the April 14 episode of Raw , Batista , Triple H and Randy Orton came down to the ring to attack The Shield after their 11 @-@ on @-@ 3 handicap match , using the name and the theme of Evolution . At Extreme Rules and Payback , Evolution lost to The Shield . On the June 9 episode of Raw , The Authority automatically granted Orton a spot in the 2014 Money in the Bank ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship , but he couldn 't regain the title . On the July 21 episode of Raw , Roman Reigns attacked Orton , which cost him another shot at the title , causing Orton to retaliate the following week by viciously attacking Reigns and challenging him to a match at SummerSlam . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Orton was defeated after Reigns kicked out of an RKO , and delivered a spear shortly afterwards , to pick up the victory . At the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view , Orton defeated Chris Jericho in a singles match when he executed an RKO .
On the October 20 episode of Raw , Orton asked The Authority to face the loser of John Cena and Dean Ambrose 's No Holds Barred Contract on a Pole match . That match was won by Ambrose , setting up a Hell in a Cell match between Orton and Cena . On the Raw before the event , Triple H announced that the winner would face Brock Lesnar for a future WWE World Championship match . Later in the night in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap street fight which pitted Orton , Kane , and Seth Rollins against Cena and Ambrose , Orton picked up the win but was immediately Curb Stomped by Rollins . On October 26 at Hell in a Cell , Orton lost the match after Cena pinned him after sending Orton into a table with an AA from the top turnbuckle . The following night on Raw , Orton RKO 'd Rollins thus defying The Authority for not controlling Rollins the previous week beginning a face turn in the process for the first time since 2013 . On the November 3 Raw , after increasing frustration , Orton attacked Rollins during his Intercontinental Championship against Dolph Ziggler , causing Rollins to win by disqualification , and demanded a match with Rollins to settle their dispute , which Triple H granted in order to keep Orton on their side . Rollins got the win with a backside pin , and Orton completed his face turn by attacking The Authority before being Curb Stomped by Rollins . He was then carried on a stretcher after he sustained a scripted injury so he could start filming The Condemned 2 : Desert Prey .
= = = = Various feuds and injuries ( 2015 – present ) = = = =
On February 22 at Fastlane , after The Authority ( Big Show , Seth Rollins , and Kane ) defeated Erick Rowan , Ryback , and Dolph Ziggler , Orton returned and saved Rowan , Ryback , and Ziggler from a post @-@ match beatdown . He later gave an RKO to Jamie Noble and Joey Mercury ( J & J Security ) and Kane . The next night on Raw , The Authority tried to convince Orton to come back to the " family " , but Orton did not give an answer straight away until he saw them backstage . During a tag team match later that night , Orton became frustrated and upset after Rollins tagged himself into the match . After the match , Orton made his way towards Rollins in the ring , but was briefly interrupted by Jamie Noble who got an RKO for his troubles . Then Orton , much to Rollins ' surprise , picked him up and only patted him on the shoulder , leaving his alignment at the time in question . On the March 9 edition of Raw , Orton would verbally insult various members of The Authority , only to pass it off as a joke . During a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 handicap match in which he teamed with Seth Rollins against Roman Reigns , he would abandon Rollins , allowing Reigns to get the victory . Following this , Orton would proceed to viciously beat Rollins , eventually hitting an RKO on the announce table . On the March 16 episode of Raw , a match between the two was made official for WrestleMania 31 on the condition that Orton would meet Rollins later on that same night in the ring . The bout never took place as every member of The Authority made their way to the ring to attack Orton . Their attempt to avenge Rollins was thwarted by Sting , who aided Orton in holding them off . Orton defeated Rollins at the event . After the loss , Rollins cashed in his Money in the Bank contract to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship in the main event .
With Rollins as the new champion , Orton defeated Roman Reigns and Ryback in a triple threat match on the April 6 episode of Raw to become the number one contender to face Rollins at Extreme Rules , but he failed to win the title from Rollins in a steel cage match that saw par the stipulation his RKO banned and Kane as the gatekeeper . At Payback , Orton failed to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship when he was defeated by Rollins in a fatal four @-@ way match that also included Dean Ambrose and Reigns . At Money in the Bank , Orton failed to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship contract ladder match , which was won by Sheamus . Following this , Orton began feuding with Sheamus after both men attacked each other and faced off in various tag @-@ team matches ; Orton defeated Sheamus at Battleground , but lost to Sheamus at SummerSlam . In early September 2015 , Orton started a feud with The Wyatt Family . On the September 7 episode of Raw , Orton defeated Sheamus in a singles match . After the match , The Wyatt Family attacked Orton , leaving him out of action . On the September 21 episode of Raw , Orton returned to save Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns from The Wyatt Family , starting an alliance between Ambrose , Reigns , and Orton . On the next Raw , Orton teamed up with Ambrose to take on The New Day in a losing effort . Before the next Raw , Orton was taken out of the Hell in a Cell match after sustaining a legitimate shoulder injury , putting him out of action for the following months .
= = = = Return from injury ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = = =
Orton is scheduled to return to in @-@ ring competition at SummerSlam to face the also @-@ returning Brock Lesnar .
After a more than 9 @-@ month absence from WWE programming , a promo was shown on the July 18th episode of Raw announcing that Orton will make his return at WWE Battleground . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Orton was drafted to SmackDown . On July 24 at Battleground , Orton returned during Chris Jericho 's Highlight Reel , and proceeded to hit Jericho with the RKO .
= = Other media = =
In 2004 , Orton appeared on the talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! to promote Taboo Tuesday . In March 2007 , he appeared alongside Edge , John Cena , and Bobby Lashley on the game show Deal or No Deal .
A former Marine himself , Orton was cast in the lead role of the action film The Marine 2 ( 2009 ) , but after injuring his collarbone , he was replaced by Ted DiBiase . He had a supporting role as the father of a high school bully in the comedy @-@ drama film That 's What I Am ( 2011 ) . He was set to star in the action film The Marine 3 : Homefront , but was replaced by fellow wrestler The Miz due to Orton 's past as a Marine .
He later starred in the action film 12 Rounds 2 : Reloaded ( 2013 ) .
In October 2014 , Orton became a popular figure on Vine , when a trend began of clips of a superimposed Orton performing his signature RKO move on internet " fail " victims .
= = Personal life = =
Orton resides in St. Charles , Missouri .
In November 2005 , Orton announced his engagement to his girlfriend Samantha Speno . They married on September 21 , 2007 . Their first child , Alanna Marie Orton , was born on July 12 , 2008 . Orton has a tattoo of his daughter 's name on his left forearm , with her birthday initialled beneath in Roman numerals . Orton and Speno divorced in June 2013 , having separated in late 2012 . In July 2015 , Orton announced his engagement to Kimberly Kessler , and they were married on November 14 , 2015 . In May 2016 , Orton 's wife announced on Twitter that the two were expecting their first child together .
Orton has hypermobile shoulders . He had a United States Marine Corps tattoo on his left arm , but covered it up after receiving a bad conduct discharge when he went AWOL twice . He was sent home after serving 38 days in a military prison at Camp Pendleton .
On March 19 , 2007 , Sports Illustrated posted an article on its website as part of its continuing series investigating a steroid and HGH ring used by a number of professional athletes in several sports . That article mentioned several current and former WWE wrestlers , including Orton who was alleged to have obtained clomiphene citrate , anastrozole , and the steroids stanozolol , nandrolone , oxandrolone , and testosterone . WWE has since made a statement on this situation , claiming that the allegations preceded the Talent Wellness program WWE launched in February 2006 .
Upon being medically cleared to wrestle after breaking his collarbone in a last man standing match at One Night Stand against Triple H , Orton re @-@ injured his collarbone in a motorcycle accident . On July 30 , 2013 , he was attacked by a spectator in Cape Town during a WWE tour of South Africa . WWE stated that the attack was not part of the planned events .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Full nelson slam – OVW
O @-@ Zone ( Overdrive ) – 2002 – 2003
RKO ( Jumping cutter , sometimes used at an elevated position or as a sudden counter to a midair opponent , with theatrics ) – 2003 – present
Running punt kick to an opponent 's head – used to cause storyline concussions ; 2007 – present
Signature moves
Corner clothesline
Diving crossbody
Dropkick
Elevated DDT , most often performed on a wrestler hanging from the middle rope
European uppercut
Garvin Stomp – adopted from Ron Garvin
Gutwrench elevated neckbreaker
Inverted headlock backbreaker
Leaping knee drop
Lou Thesz press followed by mounted punches
Multiple suplex variations
Belly @-@ to @-@ back , sometimes onto the barricade
Exploder
Side belly @-@ to @-@ belly
Slingshot
Super – adopted from his father
Olympic slam
Pedigree ( Double underhook facebuster ) – 2015 , parodied from Triple H
Snap scoop powerslam
Swinging neckbreaker
With Batista
Double team finishing moves
Powerbomb ( Batista ) into a jumping neckbreaker ( Orton ) combination
With Edge
Double team finishing moves
Con @-@ chair @-@ to
Double RKO ( Double jumping cutter )
Double team signature moves
Double dropkick
Managers
Ric Flair
Bob Orton
Lita
Stacy Keibler
Stephanie McMahon
Nicknames
" The Legend Killer "
" The Viper "
" The Apex Predator "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
" The Face of the WWE "
Entrance themes
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
" Blasting " by Jim Johnston ( April 25 , 2002 – February 3 , 2003 )
" Evolve " by Jim Johnston ( February 10 , 2003 – June 16 , 2003 )
" Line in the Sand " by Motörhead ( July 14 , 2003 – August 23 , 2004 , April 14 , 2014 – June 2 , 2014 ; used while a part of Evolution )
" Burn in My Light " by Mercy Drive ( August 30 , 2004 – May 5 , 2008 )
" This Fire Burns " by Killswitch Engage ( March 3 , 2006 ; used for one week and eventually became the theme for CM Punk )
" Voices " by Rev Theory ( May 12 , 2008 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Hardcore Championship ( 2 times , last )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. Triple H
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2007 , 2009 )
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2004 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2010 )
Rookie of the Year ( 2001 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2009 , 2010 )
PWI ranked him No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Edge
Royal Rumble ( 2009 )
WWE Championship / WWE World Heavyweight Championship ( 8 times )
WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 1 time )
Money in the Bank ( 2013 – WWE Championship contract )
Slammy Award ( 1 time )
Hashtag of the Year ( 2014 ) – # RKOOuttaNowhere
Seventeenth Triple Crown Champion
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Improved ( 2004 )
Most Overrated ( 2013 )
|
= Linezolid =
Linezolid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of serious infections caused by Gram @-@ positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics . Linezolid is active against most Gram @-@ positive bacteria that cause disease , including streptococci , vancomycin @-@ resistant enterococci ( VRE ) , and methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus ( MRSA ) . The main uses are infections of the skin and pneumonia although it may be use for a variety of other infections .
When administered for short periods , linezolid is a relatively safe antibiotic . It can be used in people of all ages and in people with liver disease or poor kidney function . Common adverse effects of short @-@ term use include headache , diarrhea , and nausea . Long @-@ term use , however , has been associated with serious adverse effects such as bone marrow suppression and low platelet counts , particularly when used for more than two weeks . If used for longer periods still , it may cause sometimes irreversible chemotherapy @-@ induced peripheral neuropathy and optic nerve damage , and lactic acidosis ( a buildup of lactic acid in the body ) , all most likely due to mitochondrial toxicity .
As a protein synthesis inhibitor , it stops the growth of bacteria by disrupting their production of proteins , that is , it is a bacteriostatic agent , not bacteriocidal . Although many antibiotics work this way , the exact mechanism of action of linezolid appears to be unique in that it blocks the initiation of protein production , and not one of the later steps . Bacterial resistance to linezolid has remained very low since it was first detected in 1999 , although it may be increasing . It is a member of the oxazolidinone class of drugs .
Linezolid was discovered in the 1990s by a team at Pharmacia and Upjohn Company and first approved for use in 2000 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medications needed in a basic health system . Linezolid costs approximately US $ 100 per tablet in the United States . Nonetheless , it appears to be more cost @-@ effective than generic alternatives such as vancomycin , mostly because of the possibility of switching from intravenous to oral administration as soon as patients are stable enough , without the need for dose adjustments .
= = Medical uses = =
The main indication of linezolid is the treatment of severe infections caused by Gram @-@ positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics ; it should not be used against bacteria that are sensitive to drugs with a narrower spectrum of activity , such as penicillins and cephalosporins . In both the popular press and the scientific literature , linezolid has been called a " reserve antibiotic " — one that should be used sparingly so that it will remain effective as a drug of last resort against potentially intractable infections .
In the United States , the indications for linezolid use approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) are the treatment of vancomycin @-@ resistant Enterococcus faecium infections , with or without bacterial invasion of the bloodstream ; nosocomial pneumonia ( hospital @-@ acquired ) and community @-@ acquired pneumonia caused by S. aureus or S. pneumoniae ; complicated skin and skin structure infections ( cSSSI ) caused by susceptible bacteria , including diabetic foot infection , unless complicated by osteomyelitis ( infection of the bone and bone marrow ) ; and uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by S. pyogenes or S. aureus . The manufacturer advises against the use of linezolid for community @-@ acquired pneumonia or uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by MRSA . In the United Kingdom , pneumonia and cSSSIs are the only indications noted in the product labeling .
Linezolid appears to be as safe and effective for use in children and newborns as it is in adults .
= = = Skin and soft tissue infections = = =
A large meta @-@ analysis of randomized controlled trials found linezolid to be more effective than glycopeptide antibiotics ( such as vancomycin and teicoplanin ) and beta @-@ lactam antibiotics in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections ( SSTIs ) caused by Gram @-@ positive bacteria , and smaller studies appear to confirm its superiority over teicoplanin in the treatment of all serious Gram @-@ positive infections .
In the treatment of diabetic foot infections , linezolid appears to be cheaper and more effective than vancomycin . In a 2004 open @-@ label study , it was as effective as ampicillin / sulbactam and Amoxicillin / clavulanic acid , and far superior in patients with foot ulcers and no osteomyelitis , but with significantly higher rates of adverse effects . A 2008 meta @-@ analysis of 18 randomized controlled trials , however , found that linezolid treatment failed as often as other antibiotics , regardless of whether patients had osteomyelitis .
Some authors have recommended that combinations of cheaper or more cost @-@ effective drugs ( such as co @-@ trimoxazole with rifampicin or clindamycin ) be tried before linezolid in the treatment of SSTIs when susceptibility of the causative organism allows it .
= = = Pneumonia = = =
No significant difference appears in treatment success rates between linezolid , glycopeptides , or appropriate beta @-@ lactam antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia . Clinical guidelines for the treatment of community @-@ acquired pneumonia developed by the American Thoracic Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend that linezolid be reserved for cases in which MRSA has been confirmed as the causative organism , or when MRSA infection is suspected based on the clinical presentation . The guidelines of the British Thoracic Society do not recommend it as first @-@ line treatment , but rather as an alternative to vancomycin . Linezolid is also an acceptable second @-@ line treatment for community @-@ acquired pneumococcal pneumonia when penicillin resistance is present .
U.S. guidelines recommend either linezolid or vancomycin as the first @-@ line treatment for hospital @-@ acquired ( nosocomial ) MRSA pneumonia . Some studies have suggested that linezolid is better than vancomycin against nosocomial pneumonia , particularly ventilator @-@ associated pneumonia caused by MRSA , perhaps because the penetration of linezolid into bronchial fluids is much higher than that of vancomycin . Several issues in study design have been raised , however , calling into question results that suggest the superiority of linezolid . Regardless , linezolid 's advantages include its high bioavailability ( because it allows easy switching to oral therapy ) , and the fact that poor kidney function is not an obstacle to use ( whereas achieving the correct dosage of vancomycin in patients with renal insufficiency is very difficult ) .
= = = Other = = =
It is traditionally believed that so @-@ called " deep " infections — such as osteomyelitis or infective endocarditis — should be treated with bactericidal antibiotics , not bacteriostatic ones . Nevertheless , preclinical studies were conducted to assess the efficacy of linezolid for these infections , and the drug has been used successfully to treat them in clinical practice . Linezolid appears to be a reasonable therapeutic option for infective endocarditis caused by multi @-@ resistant Gram @-@ positive bacteria , despite a lack of high @-@ quality evidence to support this use . Results in the treatment of enterococcal endocarditis have varied , with some cases treated successfully and others not responding to therapy . Low- to medium @-@ quality evidence is also mounting for its use in bone and joint infections , including chronic osteomyelitis , although adverse effects are a significant concern when long @-@ term use is necessary .
In combination with other drugs , linezolid has been used to treat tuberculosis . The optimal dose for this purpose has not been established . In adults , daily and twice @-@ daily dosing have been used to good effect . Many months of treatment are often required , and the rate of adverse effects is high regardless of dosage . There is not enough reliable evidence of efficacy and safety to support this indication as a routine use .
Linezolid has been studied as an alternative to vancomycin in the treatment of febrile neutropenia in cancer patients when Gram @-@ positive infection is suspected . It is also one of few antibiotics that diffuse into the vitreous humor , and may therefore be effective in treating endophthalmitis ( inflammation of the inner linings and cavities of the eye ) caused by susceptible bacteria . Again , there is little evidence for its use in this setting , as infectious endophthalmitis is treated widely and effectively with vancomycin injected directly into the eye .
= = = = Infections of the central nervous system = = = =
In animal studies of meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , linezolid was found to penetrate well into cerebrospinal fluid , but its effectiveness was inferior to that of other antibiotics . There does not appear to be enough high @-@ quality evidence to support the routine use of linezolid to treat bacterial meningitis . Nonetheless , it has been used successfully in many cases of central nervous system infection — including meningitis — caused by susceptible bacteria , and has also been suggested as a reasonable choice for this indication when treatment options are limited or when other antibiotics have failed . The guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend linezolid as the first @-@ line drug of choice for VRE meningitis , and as an alternative to vancomycin for MRSA meningitis . Linezolid appears superior to vancomycin in treating community @-@ acquired MRSA infections of the central nervous system , although very few cases of such infections have been published ( as of 2009 ) .
= = = = Catheter @-@ related infections = = = =
In March 2007 , the FDA reported the results of a randomized , open @-@ label , phase III clinical trial comparing linezolid to vancomycin in the treatment of catheter @-@ related bloodstream infections . Patients treated with vancomycin could be switched to oxacillin or dicloxacillin if the bacteria that caused their infection was found to be susceptible , and patients in both groups ( linezolid and vancomycin ) could receive specific treatment against Gram @-@ negative bacteria if necessary . The study itself was published in January 2009 .
Linezolid was associated with significantly greater mortality than the comparator antibiotics . When data from all participants were pooled , the study found that 21 @.@ 5 % of those given linezolid died , compared to 16 % of those not receiving it . The difference was found to be due to the inferiority of linezolid in the treatment of Gram @-@ negative infections alone or mixed Gram @-@ negative / Gram @-@ positive infections . In participants whose infection was due to Gram @-@ positive bacteria alone , linezolid was as safe and effective as vancomycin . In light of these results , the FDA issued an alert reminding healthcare professionals that linezolid is not approved for the treatment of catheter @-@ related infections or infections caused by Gram @-@ negative organisms , and that more appropriate therapy should be instituted whenever a Gram @-@ negative infection is confirmed or suspected .
= = = Specific populations = = =
In adults and children over the age of 12 , linezolid is usually given every 12 hours , whether orally or intravenously . In younger children and infants , it is given every eight hours . No dosage adjustments are required in the elderly , in people with mild @-@ to @-@ moderate liver failure , or in those with impaired kidney function . In people requiring hemodialysis , care should be taken to give linezolid after a session , because dialysis removes 30 – 40 % of a dose from the body ; no dosage adjustments are needed in people undergoing continuous hemofiltration , although more frequent administration may be warranted in some cases . According to one study , linezolid may need to be given more frequently than normal in people with burns affecting more than 20 % of body area , due to increased nonrenal clearance of the drug .
Linezolid is in U.S. pregnancy category C , meaning there have been no adequate studies of its safety when used by pregnant women , and although animal studies have shown mild toxicity to the fetus , the benefits of using the drug may outweigh its risks . It also passes into breast milk , although the clinical significance of this ( if any ) is unknown .
= = = Spectrum of activity = = =
Linezolid is effective against all clinically important Gram @-@ positive bacteria — those whose cell wall contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan and no outer membrane — notably Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis ( including vancomycin @-@ resistant enterococci ) , Staphylococcus aureus ( including methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus , MRSA ) , Streptococcus agalactiae , Streptococcus pneumoniae , Streptococcus pyogenes , the viridans group streptococci , Listeria monocytogenes , and Corynebacterium species ( the latter being among the most susceptible to linezolid , with minimum inhibitory concentrations routinely below 0 @.@ 5 mg / L ) . Linezolid is also highly active in vitro against several mycobacteria . It appears to be very effective against Nocardia , but because of high cost and potentially serious adverse effects , authors have recommended that it be combined with other antibiotics or reserved for cases that have failed traditional treatment .
Linezolid is considered bacteriostatic against most organisms — that is , it stops their growth and reproduction without actually killing them — but has some bactericidal ( killing ) activity against streptococci . Some authors have noted that , despite its bacteriostatic effect in vitro , linezolid " behaves " as a bactericidal antibiotic in vivo because it inhibits the production of toxins by staphylococci and streptococci . It also has a post @-@ antibiotic effect lasting one to four hours for most bacteria , meaning that bacterial growth is temporarily suppressed even after the drug is discontinued .
= = = = Gram @-@ negative bacteria = = = =
Linezolid has no clinically significant effect on most Gram @-@ negative bacteria . Pseudomonas and the Enterobacteriaceae , for instance , are not susceptible . In vitro , it is active against Pasteurella multocida , Fusobacterium , Moraxella catarrhalis , Legionella , Bordetella , and Elizabethkingia meningoseptica , and moderately active ( having a minimum inhibitory concentration for 90 % of strains of 8 mg / L ) against Haemophilus influenzae . It has also been used to great effect as a second @-@ line treatment for Capnocytophaga infections .
= = = = Comparable antibiotics = = = =
Linezolid 's spectrum of activity against Gram @-@ positive bacteria is similar to that of the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin , which has long been the standard for treatment of MRSA infections , and the two drugs are often compared . Other comparable antibiotics include teicoplanin ( trade name Targocid , a glycopeptide like vancomycin ) , quinupristin / dalfopristin ( Synercid , a combination of two streptogramins , not active against E. faecalis ) , and daptomycin ( Cubicin , a lipopeptide ) , and some agents still being developed , such as ceftobiprole , dalbavancin , and telavancin . Linezolid is the only one that can be taken by mouth . In the future , oritavancin and iclaprim may be useful oral alternatives to linezolid — both are in the early stages of clinical development .
= = Adverse effects = =
When used for short periods , linezolid is a relatively safe drug . Common side effects of linezolid use ( those occurring in more than 1 % of people taking linezolid ) include diarrhea ( reported by 3 – 11 % of clinical trial participants ) , headache ( 1 – 11 % ) , nausea ( 3 – 10 % ) , vomiting ( 1 – 4 % ) , rash ( 2 % ) , constipation ( 2 % ) , altered taste perception ( 1 – 2 % ) , and discoloration of the tongue ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 % ) . Fungal infections such as thrush and vaginal candidiasis may also occur as linezolid suppresses normal bacterial flora and opens a niche for fungi ( so @-@ called antibiotic candidiasis ) . Less common ( and potentially more serious ) adverse effects include allergic reactions , pancreatitis , and elevated transaminases , which may be a sign of liver damage . Unlike some antibiotics , such as erythromycin and the quinolones , linezolid has no effect on the QT interval , a measure of cardiac electrical conduction . Adverse effects in children are similar to those that occur in adults .
Like nearly all antibiotics , linezolid has been associated with Clostridium difficile @-@ associated diarrhea ( CDAD ) and pseudomembranous colitis , although the latter is uncommon , occurring in about one in two thousand patients in clinical trials . C. difficile appears to be susceptible to linezolid in vitro , and linezolid was even considered as a possible treatment for CDAD .
= = = Long @-@ term use = = =
Bone marrow suppression , characterized particularly by thrombocytopenia ( low platelet count ) , may occur during linezolid treatment ; it appears to be the only adverse effect that occurs significantly more frequently with linezolid than with glycopeptides or beta @-@ lactams . It is uncommon in patients who receive the drug for 14 days or fewer , but occurs much more frequently in patients who receive longer courses or who have renal failure . A 2004 case report suggested that pyridoxine ( a form of vitamin B6 ) could reverse the anemia and thrombocytopenia caused by linezolid , but a later , larger study found no protective effect .
Long @-@ term use of linezolid has also been associated with chemotherapy @-@ induced peripheral neuropathy , a progressive and enduring often irreversible tingling numbness , intense pain , and hypersensitivity to cold , beginning in the hands and feet and sometimes involving the arms and legs . Chemotherapy drugs associated with CIPN include thalidomide , the epothilones such as ixabepilone , the vinca alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine , the taxanes paclitaxel and docetaxel , the proteasome inhibitors such as bortezomib , and the platinum @-@ based drugs cisplatin , oxaliplatin and carboplatin. and optic neuropathy , which is most common after several months of treatment and may also be irreversible . Although the mechanism of injury is still poorly understood , mitochondrial toxicity has been proposed as a cause ; linezolid is toxic to mitochondria , probably because of the similarity between mitochondrial and bacterial ribosomes . Lactic acidosis , a potentially life @-@ threatening buildup of lactic acid in the body , may also occur due to mitochondrial toxicity . Because of these long @-@ term effects , the manufacturer recommends weekly complete blood counts during linezolid therapy to monitor for possible bone marrow suppression , and recommends that treatment last no more than 28 days . A more extensive monitoring protocol for early detection of toxicity in seriously ill patients receiving linezolid has been developed and proposed by a team of researchers in Melbourne , Australia . The protocol includes twice @-@ weekly blood tests and liver function tests ; measurement of serum lactate levels , for early detection of lactic acidosis ; a review of all medications taken by the patient , interrupting the use of those that may interact with linezolid ; and periodic eye and neurological exams in patients set to receive linezolid for longer than four weeks .
The adverse effects of long @-@ term linezolid therapy were first identified during postmarketing surveillance . Bone marrow suppression was not identified during Phase III trials , in which treatment did not exceed 21 days . Although some participants of early trials did experience thrombocytopenia , it was found to be reversible and did not occur significantly more frequently than in controls ( participants not taking linezolid ) . There have also been postmarketing reports of seizures , and , as of 2009 , a single case each of Bell 's palsy ( paralysis of the facial nerve ) and kidney toxicity .
= = Interactions = =
Linezolid is a weak monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) , and should not be used concomitantly with other MAOIs , large amounts of tyramine @-@ rich foods ( such as pork , aged cheeses , alcoholic beverages , or smoked and pickled foods ) , or serotonergic drugs . There have been postmarketing reports of serotonin syndrome when linezolid was given with or soon after the discontinuation of serotonergic drugs , particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as paroxetine and sertraline . It may also enhance the blood pressure @-@ increasing effects of sympathomimetic drugs such as pseudoephedrine or phenylpropanolamine . It should also not be given in combination with pethidine ( meperidine ) under any circumstance due to the risk of serotonin syndrome .
Linezolid does not inhibit or induce the cytochrome P450 ( CYP ) system , which is responsible for the metabolism of many commonly used drugs , and therefore does not have any CYP @-@ related interactions .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
One of the advantages of linezolid is its high bioavailability ( close to 100 % ) when given by mouth : the entire dose reaches the bloodstream , as if it had been given intravenously . This means that people receiving intravenous linezolid may be switched to oral linezolid as soon as their condition allows it , whereas comparable antibiotics ( such as vancomycin and quinupristin / dalfopristin ) can only be given intravenously . Taking linezolid with food somewhat slows its absorption , but the area under the curve is not affected .
Linezolid has low plasma protein binding ( approximately 31 % , but highly variable ) and an apparent volume of distribution at steady state of around 40 – 50 liters . Peak serum concentrations ( Cmax ) are reached one to two hours after administration of the drug . Linezolid is readily distributed to all tissues in the body apart from bone matrix and white adipose tissue . Notably , the concentration of linezolid in the epithelial lining fluid of the lower respiratory tract is at least equal to , and often higher than , that achieved in serum ( some authors have reported bronchial fluid concentrations up to four times higher than serum concentrations ) , which may account for its efficacy in treating pneumonia . Cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) concentrations vary ; peak CSF concentrations are lower than serum ones , due to slow diffusion across the blood – brain barrier , and trough concentrations in the CSF are higher for the same reason . The average half @-@ life is three hours in children , four hours in teenagers , and five hours in adults .
Linezolid is metabolized in the liver , by oxidation of the morpholine ring , without involvement of the cytochrome P450 system . This metabolic pathway leads to two major inactive metabolites ( which each account for around 45 % and 10 % of an excreted dose at steady state ) , one minor metabolite , and several trace metabolites , none of which accounts for more than 1 % of an excreted dose . Clearance of linezolid varies with age and gender ; it is fastest in children ( which accounts for the shorter half @-@ life ) , and appears to be 20 % lower in women than in men .
= = = Mechanism of action = = =
The oxazolidinones are protein synthesis inhibitors : they stop the growth and reproduction of bacteria by disrupting translation of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) into proteins in the ribosome . Although its mechanism of action is not fully understood , linezolid appears to work on the first step of protein synthesis , initiation , unlike most other protein synthesis inhibitors , which inhibit elongation .
It does so by preventing the formation of the initiation complex , composed of the 30S and 50S subunits of the ribosome , tRNA , and mRNA . Linezolid binds to the 23S portion of the 50S subunit ( the center of peptidyl transferase activity ) , close to the binding sites of chloramphenicol , lincomycin , and other antibiotics . Due to this unique mechanism of action , cross @-@ resistance between linezolid and other protein synthesis inhibitors is highly infrequent or nonexistent .
In 2008 , the crystal structure of linezolid bound to the 50S subunit of a ribosome from the archaean Haloarcula marismortui was elucidated by a team of scientists from Yale University and deposited in the Protein Data Bank . Another team in 2008 determined the structure of linezolid bound to a 50S subunit of Deinococcus radiodurans . The authors proposed a refined model for the mechanism of action of oxazolidinones , finding that linezolid occupies the A site of the 50S ribosomal subunit , inducing a conformational change that prevents tRNA from entering the site and ultimately forcing tRNA to separate from the ribosome .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
At physiological pH , linezolid exists in an uncharged state . It is moderately water @-@ soluble ( approximately 3 mg / mL ) , with a logP of 0 @.@ 55 .
The oxazolidinone pharmacophore — the chemical " template " essential for antimicrobial activity — consists of a 1 @,@ 3 @-@ oxazolidin @-@ 2 @-@ one moiety with an aryl group at position 3 and an S @-@ methyl group , with another substituent attached to it , at position 5 ( the R @-@ enantiomers of all oxazolidinones are devoid of antibiotic properties ) . In addition to this essential core , linezolid also contains several structural characteristics that improve its effectiveness and safety . An acetamide substituent on the 5 @-@ methyl group is the best choice in terms of antibacterial efficacy , and is used in all of the more active oxazolidinones developed thus far ; in fact , straying too far from an acetamide group at this position makes the drug lose its antimicrobial power , although weak to moderate activity is maintained when some isosteric groups are used . A fluorine atom at the 3 ′ position practically doubles in vitro and in vivo activity , and the electron @-@ donating nitrogen atom in the morpholine ring helps maintain high antibiotic potency and an acceptable safety profile .
The anticoagulant rivaroxaban ( Xarelto ) bears a striking structural similarity to linezolid ; both drugs share the oxazolidinone pharmacophore , differing in only three areas ( an extra ketone and chlorothiophene , and missing the fluorine atom ) . However this similarity appears to carry no clinical significance .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Linezolid is a completely synthetic drug : it does not occur in nature ( unlike erythromycin and many other antibiotics ) and was not developed by building upon a naturally occurring skeleton ( unlike most beta @-@ lactams , which are semisynthetic ) . Many approaches are available for oxazolidinone synthesis , and several routes for the synthesis of linezolid have been reported in the chemistry literature . Despite good yields , the original method ( developed by Upjohn for pilot plant @-@ scale production of linezolid and eperezolid ) is lengthy , requires the use of expensive chemicals — such as palladium on carbon and the highly sensitive reagents methanesulfonyl chloride and n @-@ butyllithium — and needs low @-@ temperature conditions . Much of the high cost of linezolid has been attributed to the expense of its synthesis . A somewhat more concise and cost @-@ effective route better suited to large @-@ scale production was patented by Upjohn in 1998 .
Later syntheses have included an " atom @-@ economical " method starting from D @-@ mannitol , developed by Indian pharmaceutical company Dr. Reddy 's and reported in 1999 , and a route starting from ( S ) -glyceraldehyde acetonide ( prepared from vitamin C ) , developed by a team of researchers from Hunan Normal University in Changsha , Hunan , China . On June 25 , 2008 , during the 12th Annual Green Chemistry and Engineering Conference in New York , Pfizer reported the development of their " second @-@ generation " synthesis of linezolid : a convergent , green synthesis starting from ( S ) -epichlorohydrin , with higher yield and a 56 % reduction in total waste .
= = Resistance = =
Acquired resistance to linezolid was reported as early as 1999 , in two patients with severe , multidrug @-@ resistant Enterococcus faecium infection who received the drug through a compassionate use program . Linezolid @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus was first isolated in 2001 .
In the United States , resistance to linezolid has been monitored and tracked since 2004 through a program named LEADER , which ( as of 2007 ) was conducted in 60 medical institutions throughout the country . Resistance has remained stable and extremely low — less than one @-@ half of one percent of isolates overall , and less than one @-@ tenth of one percent of S. aureus samples . A similar , worldwide program — the " Zyvox Annual Appraisal of Potency and Spectrum Study " , or ZAAPS — has been conducted since 2002 . As of 2007 , overall resistance to linezolid in 23 countries was less than 0 @.@ 2 % , and nonexistent among streptococci . Resistance was only found in Brazil , China , Ireland , and Italy , among coagulase @-@ negative staphylococci ( 0 @.@ 28 % of samples resistant ) , enterococci ( 0 @.@ 11 % ) , and S. aureus ( 0 @.@ 03 % ) . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , no resistance was found in staphylococci collected from bacteremia cases between 2001 and 2006 , although resistance in enterococci has been reported . Some authors have predicted that resistance in E. faecium will increase if linezolid use continues at current levels or increases .
= = = Mechanism = = =
The intrinsic resistance of most Gram @-@ negative bacteria to linezolid is due to the activity of efflux pumps , which actively " pump " linezolid out of the cell faster than it can accumulate .
Gram @-@ positive bacteria usually develop resistance to linezolid as the result of a point mutation known as G2576T , in which a guanine base is replaced with thymine in base pair 2576 of the genes coding for 23S ribosomal RNA . This is the most common mechanism of resistance in staphylococci , and the only one known to date in isolates of E. faecium . Other mechanisms have been identified in Streptococcus pneumoniae ( including mutations in an RNA methyltransferase that methylates G2445 of the 23S rRNA and mutations causing increased expression of ABC transporter genes ) and in Staphylococcus epidermidis .
= = History = =
The oxazolidinones have been known as monoamine oxidase inhibitors since the late 1950s . Their antimicrobial properties were discovered by researchers at E.I. duPont de Nemours in the 1970s . In 1978 , DuPont patented a series of oxazolidinone derivatives as being effective in the treatment of bacterial and fungal plant diseases , and in 1984 , another patent described their usefulness in treating bacterial infections in mammals . In 1987 , DuPont scientists presented a detailed description of the oxazolidinones as a new class of antibiotics with a novel mechanism of action . Early compounds were found to produce liver toxicity , however , and development was discontinued .
Pharmacia & Upjohn ( now part of Pfizer ) started its own oxazolidinone research program in the 1990s . Studies of the compounds ' structure – activity relationships led to the development of several subclasses of oxazolidinone derivatives , with varying safety profiles and antimicrobial activity . Two compounds were considered drug candidates : eperezolid ( codenamed PNU @-@ 100592 ) and linezolid ( PNU @-@ 100766 ) . In the preclinical stages of development , they were similar in safety and antibacterial activity , so they were taken to Phase I clinical trials to identify any difference in pharmacokinetics . Linezolid was found to have a pharmacokinetic advantage — requiring only twice @-@ daily dosage , while eperezolid needed to be given three times a day to achieve similar exposure — and therefore proceeded to further trials . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) approved linezolid on April 18 , 2000 . Approval followed in Brazil ( June 2000 ) , the United Kingdom ( January 2001 ) , Japan and Canada ( April 2001 ) , Europe ( throughout 2001 ) , and other countries in Latin America and Asia .
As of 2009 , linezolid is the only oxazolidinone antibiotic available . Other members of this class have entered development , such as posizolid ( AZD2563 ) , ranbezolid ( RBx 7644 ) , torezolid ( TR @-@ 701 ) , and radezolid ( RX @-@ 1741 ) .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Economics = = =
Linezolid is quite expensive ; a course of treatment may cost one or two thousand U.S. dollars for the drug alone , not to mention other costs ( such as those associated with hospital stay ) . However , because intravenous linezolid may be switched to an oral formulation ( tablets or oral solution ) without jeopardizing efficacy , patients may be discharged from hospital relatively early and continue treatment at home , whereas home treatment with injectable antibiotics may be impractical . Reducing the length of hospital stay reduces the overall cost of treatment , even though linezolid may have a higher acquisition cost — that is , it may be more expensive — than comparable antibiotics .
Studies have been conducted in several countries with different health care system models to assess the cost @-@ effectiveness of linezolid compared to glycopeptides such as vancomycin or teicoplanin . In most countries , linezolid was more cost @-@ effective than comparable antibiotics for the treatment of hospital @-@ acquired pneumonia and complicated skin and skin structure infections , either due to higher cure and survival rates or lower overall treatment costs .
In 2009 , Pfizer paid $ 2 @.@ 3 billion and entered a corporate integrity agreement to settle charges that it had misbranded and illegally promoted four drugs , and caused false claims to be submitted to government healthcare programs for uses that had not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration . $ 1 @.@ 3 billion was paid to settle criminal charges of illegally marketing the anti @-@ inflammatory valdecoxib , while $ 1 billion was paid in civil fines regarding illegal marketing of three other drugs , including Zyvox .
= = = Brand names = = =
Linezolid is marketed by Pfizer under the trade names Zyvox ( in the United States , United Kingdom , Australia , and several other countries ) , Zyvoxid ( in Europe ) , and Zyvoxam ( in Canada and Mexico ) . Generics are also available , such as Linospan ( in India , by Cipla ) , Nezocin ( in Pakistan , by Brookes ) , Lizomed ( in India , as a dry syrup by Aglowmed ) , and Linzolid ( in Bangladesh , by Incepta ) .
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= Dyslexia =
Dyslexia , also known as reading disorder , is characterized by trouble with reading despite normal intelligence . Different people are affected to varying degrees . Problems may include difficulties in spelling words , reading quickly , writing words , " sounding out " words in the head , pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads . Often these difficulties are first noticed at school . When someone who previously could read loses their ability , it is known as alexia . The difficulties are involuntary and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn .
The cause of dyslexia is believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors . Some cases run in families . It often occurs in people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and is associated with similar difficulties with numbers . It may begin in adulthood as the result of a traumatic brain injury , stroke , or dementia . The underlying mechanisms are problems within the brain 's language processing . Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory , spelling , vision , and reading skills . Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by insufficient teaching ; or either hearing or vision problems .
Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person 's needs . While not curing the underlying problem , it may decrease the degree of symptoms . Treatments targeting vision are not effective . Dyslexia is the most common learning disability , affecting 3 – 7 % of the population ; however , up to 20 % may have some degree of symptoms . While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in men , it has been suggested that it affects men and women equally . Dyslexia occurs in all areas of the world . Some believe that dyslexia should be best considered as a different way of learning , with both benefits and downsides .
= = Classification = =
Dyslexia is thought to have two types of cause , one related to language processing and another to visual processing . It is considered a cognitive disorder , not a problem with intelligence . However , emotional problems often arise because of it . Some published definitions are purely descriptive , whereas others propose causes . The latter usually cover a variety of reading skills and deficits , and difficulties with distinct causes rather than a single condition . The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke definition describes dyslexia as " difficulty with spelling , phonological processing ( the manipulation of sounds ) , or rapid visual @-@ verbal responding " . The British Dyslexia Association definition describes dyslexia as " a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling " and is characterized by " difficulties in phonological awareness , verbal memory and verbal processing speed " .
Acquired dyslexia or alexia may be caused by brain damage due to stroke or atrophy . Forms of alexia include pure alexia , surface dyslexia , semantic dyslexia , phonological dyslexia , and deep dyslexia .
= = = Definition = = =
There is some variability in the definition of dyslexia . Some sources , such as the U.S. National Institutes of Health , define it specifically as a learning disorder . Other sources , however , define it simply as an inability to read in the context of normal intelligence , and distinguish between developmental dyslexia ( a learning disorder ) and acquired dyslexia ( loss of the ability to read caused by brain damage ) . ICD 10 , the manual of medical diagnosis used in much of the world , includes separate diagnoses for " developmental dyslexia " ( 81 @.@ 0 ) and for " dyslexia and alexia " ( 48 @.@ 0 ) . DSM 5 , the manual of psychiatric diagnosis used in the United States , does not specifically define dyslexia , justifying this decision by stating that " the many definitions of dyslexia and dyscalculia meant those terms would not be useful as disorder names or in the diagnostic criteria " . Instead it includes dyslexia in a category called specific learning disorders .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
In early childhood , symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech , difficulty distinguishing left from right , difficulty with direction , and a lack of phonological awareness , as well as being easily distracted by background noise . The reversal of letters or words and mirror writing are sometimes seen in people with dyslexia , but are not considered to be defining characteristics of the disorder .
School @-@ age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words , or counting the number of syllables in words – both of which depend on phonological awareness . They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds or may blend sounds when producing words , indicating reduced phonemic awareness . Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia . People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers , a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia , which depends on orthographic coding .
Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may accompany difficulties with summarizing stories , memorization , reading aloud , or learning foreign languages . Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension , though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words – a measure of phonological awareness .
A common myth about dyslexia is that its defining feature is reading or writing letters or words backwards , but this is true of many children as they learn to read and write .
= = = Language = = =
The orthographic complexity of a language directly impacts how difficult learning to read the language is . English and French have comparatively " deep " phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system , with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels : letter @-@ sound correspondence , syllables , and morphemes . Languages such as Spanish , Italian and Finnish have mostly alphabetic orthographies , which primarily employ letter @-@ sound correspondence – so @-@ called shallow orthographies – which for dyslexics makes them easier to learn . Logographic writing systems , such as Chinese characters , have extensive symbol use , and pose problems for dyslexic learners .
= = = Associated conditions = = =
Dyslexia is often accompanied by several learning disabilities , but it is unclear whether they share underlying neurological causes . These associated , or comorbid , disabilities include :
Dysgraphia – A disorder which primarily expresses itself through difficulties with writing or typing , but in some cases through difficulties associated with eye – hand coordination and direction or sequence @-@ oriented processes such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks . In dyslexia , dysgraphia is often multifactorial , due to impaired letter @-@ writing automaticity , organizational and elaborative difficulties , and impaired visual word forming which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling .
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) – A disorder characterized by problems paying attention , excessive activity , or taking action without forethought . Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together . Either 15 % or 12 – 24 % of people with dyslexia have ADHD . 35 % of people with ADHD have dyslexia .
Auditory processing disorder – A listening disability that affects the ability to process auditory information . This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing . Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems , and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit . Some research indicates that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia .
Developmental coordination disorder – A neurological condition characterized by marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance , fine @-@ motor control , kinesthetic coordination , difficulty in the use of speech sounds , problems with short @-@ term memory , and organization .
= = Causes = =
Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881 . For example , some have tried to associate the common problem among dyslexics of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells .
= = = Neuroanatomy = = =
Modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) and positron emission tomography ( PET ) have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties . Some dyslexics show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading , such as the inferior frontal gyrus , inferior parietal lobule , and the middle and ventral temporal cortex . Over the past decade , brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language . Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short @-@ term memory components have been proposed , with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task @-@ specific ( i.e. functional rather than structural ) . fMRIs in dyslexics have provided important data which point to the interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures .
The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum @-@ controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles , resulting in the fluency problems that are characteristic of some dyslexics . The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks , such as reading . The fact that some dyslexic children have motor task and balance impairments has been used as evidence for a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties . However , the cerebellar theory is not supported by controlled research studies .
= = = Genetics = = =
Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post @-@ autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia . Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias , more rarely , vascular micro @-@ malformations , and microgyrus . The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development was the cause of the abnormalities . Abnormal cell formations in dyslexics have also been reported in non @-@ language cerebral and subcortical brain structures . Several genes have been associated with dyslexia , including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6 , and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15 .
= = = Gene – environment interaction = = =
The contribution of gene – environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies , which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person 's environment and the proportion associated with their genes . Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teacher quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive , rather than less optimal , environments . However , more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized . As environment plays a large role in learning and memory , it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability . Animal experiments and measures of gene expression and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes ; however , both types of study have many limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain .
= = Mechanisms = =
The dual @-@ route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s . This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms , or cognitive routes , are involved in reading aloud . One mechanism is the lexical route , which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone , through a " dictionary " lookup procedure . The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route , which is the process whereby the reader can " sound out " a written word . This is done by identifying the word 's constituent parts ( letters , phonemes , graphemes ) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other , for example , how a string of neighboring letters sound together . The dual @-@ route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages ( e.g. the Spanish language dependence on phonological rules accounts for the fact that Spanish @-@ speaking children show a higher level of performance in non @-@ word reading , when compared to English @-@ speakers ) .
Dyslexia disorder is not caused by mutation in one gene ; in fact , it appears to involve the combined effects of several genes . Studying the cognitive problems associated with other disorders helps to better understand the genotype @-@ phenotype link of dyslexia . Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in dyslexics , thus identifying the effects of certain genes .
= = Diagnosis = =
There are tests that can indicate with high probability whether a person is a dyslexic . If diagnostic testing indicates that a person may be dyslexic , such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder . Tests can be administered by a teacher or computer . Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies .
= = = Central dyslexias = = =
Central dyslexias include surface dyslexia , semantic dyslexia , phonological dyslexia , and deep dyslexia . ICD @-@ 10 reclassified the previous distinction between dyslexia ( 315 @.@ 02 in ICD @-@ 9 ) and alexia ( 315 @.@ 01 in ICD @-@ 9 ) into a single classification as R48.0. The terms are applied to developmental dyslexia and inherited dyslexia along with developmental aphasia and inherited alexia , which are considered synonymous .
= = = = Surface dyslexia = = = =
In surface dyslexia , words with regular pronunciations ( highly consistent with their spelling , e.g. mint ) are read more accurately than words with irregular pronunciation , such as colonel . Difficulty distinguishing homophones is a diagnostic used for some forms of surface dyslexia . This disorder is usually accompanied by surface agraphia and fluent aphasia . Acquired surface dyslexia arises when a previously literate person experiences brain damage , which results in pronunciation errors that indicate impairment of the lexical route .
= = = = Phonological dyslexia = = = =
In phonological dyslexia , sufferers can read familiar words but have difficulty with unfamiliar words , such as invented pseudo @-@ words . Phonological dyslexia is associated with lesions in the parts of the brain supplied with blood by the middle cerebral artery . The superior temporal lobe is often also involved . Furthermore , dyslexics compensate by overusing a front @-@ brain region called Broca 's area , which is associated with aspects of language and speech . The Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program ( LiPS ) is used to treat phonological dyslexia . This system is based on a three @-@ way sensory feedback process , using auditory , visual , and oral skills to learn to recognize words and word patterns . Case studies with a total of three patients found a significant improvement in spelling and reading ability after using LiPS .
= = = = Deep dyslexia = = = =
Individuals with deep dyslexia experience both semantic paralexia ( para @-@ dyslexia ) and phonological dyslexia , which causes the person to read a word and then say a related meaning instead of the denoted meaning . Deep alexia is associated with clear phonological processing impairments . Deep dyslexia is caused by widespread damage to the brain that often includes the left hemisphere . The " continuum " hypothesis claims that deep dyslexia develops from phonological dyslexia .
= = = Peripheral dyslexias = = =
Peripheral dyslexias have been described as affecting the visual analysis of letters as a result of brain injury . Hemianopsia , a visual field loss on the left / right side of the vertical midline , is associated with this condition .
= = = = Pure dyslexia = = = =
Pure , or phonologically @-@ based , dyslexia , also known as agnosic dyslexia , dyslexia without agraphia , and pure word blindness , is dyslexia due to difficulty in recognizing written sequences of letters ( such as words ) , or sometimes even letters . It is considered ' " pure " because it is not accompanied by other significant language @-@ related impairments . Pure dyslexia does not affect speech , handwriting style , language or comprehension impairments . Pure dyslexia is caused by lesions on the visual word form area ( VWFA ) . The VWFA is composed of the left lateral occipital sulcus and is activated during reading . A lesion in the VWFA stops transmission between the visual cortex and the left angular gyrus . It can also be caused by a lesion involving the left occipital lobe or the splenium . It is usually accompanied by a homonymous hemianopsia in the right side of the visual field . Multiple oral re @-@ reading ( MOR ) is a treatment for pure dyslexia . It is considered a top @-@ down processing technique in which affected individuals read and reread texts a predetermined number of times or until reading speed or accuracy improves a predetermined amount .
= = = = Hemianopic dyslexia = = = =
Hemianopic dyslexia is commonly considered to derive from visual field loss due to damage to the primary visual cortex . Sufferers may complain of abnormally slow reading but are able to read individual words normally . This is the most common form of peripheral alexia , and the form with the best evidence of effective treatments .
= = = Neglect dyslexia = = =
In neglect dyslexia , some letters , most commonly those at the beginning or left side of a word , are skipped or misread during reading . This alexia is associated with right parietal lesions . The use of prism glasses has been shown to substantially mitigate this condition .
= = = = Attentional dyslexia = = = =
People with attentional dyslexia complain of letter @-@ crowding or migration , sometimes blending elements of two words into one . Sufferers read better when words are presented in isolation rather than flanked by other words and letters . Using a large magnifying glass may help mitigate this condition by reducing the effects of flanking from nearby words ; however , no trials of this or indeed any other therapy for left parietal syndromes have been published as of 2014 .
= = Management = =
Through the use of compensation strategies , therapy and educational support , dyslexic individuals can learn to read and write . There are techniques and technical aids which help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder . Removing stress and anxiety alone can sometimes improve written comprehension . For dyslexia intervention with alphabet @-@ writing systems , the fundamental aim is to increase a child 's awareness of correspondences between graphemes ( letters ) and phonemes ( sounds ) , and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words . It has been found that reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling yields longer @-@ lasting gains than oral phonological training alone . Early intervention – that done while the language areas of the brain are still developing – is the most successful in reducing the long @-@ term impacts of dyslexia . There is some evidence that the use of specially @-@ tailored fonts may mitigate the effects of dyslexia . These fonts , which include Dyslexie , OpenDyslexic , and Lexia Readable , were created based on the idea that many of the letters of the Latin alphabet are visually similar and may therefore confuse dyslexics . Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic both put emphasis on making each letter more distinctive in order to be more easily identified . Font design can have an effect on reading , reading time , and the perception of legibility of all readers , not only those with dyslexia .
There have been many studies conducted regarding intervention in dyslexia . Among these studies one meta @-@ analysis found that there was functional activation as a result .
= = Prognosis = =
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age . However , there are fonts that can help dyslexics better understand writing . The prognosis , generally speaking , is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family .
= = Epidemiology = =
The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown , but it has been estimated to be as low as 5 % and as high as 17 % of the population . While it is diagnosed more often in males , some believe that it affects males and females equally .
There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world , but despite significant differences in writing systems , dyslexia occurs in different populations . Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds , and Chinese dyslexics may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings . The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic , monographic , non @-@ alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme .
The phonological @-@ processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages . Furthermore , the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography .
= = History = =
Dyslexia was identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881 , but the term dyslexia was coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin , an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart . He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had a severe impairment in learning to read and write , despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects . In 1896 , W. Pringle Morgan , a British physician from Seaford , East Sussex , published a description of a reading @-@ specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled " Congenital Word Blindness " . The distinction between phonological and surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive , and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms . However , studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance .
= = Research and society = =
The majority of currently available dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems , and especially to European languages . However , substantial research is also available regarding dyslexics who speak Arabic , Chinese , Hebrew or other languages .
As is the case with any disorder , society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information . Before the 1980s , dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education , rather than a basic disability . As a result , society often misjudges those with the disorder . There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia . If a dyslexic 's instructors lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition , there is often a negative effect on the student 's learning participation . There is no evidence demonstrating that the use of music education is effective in improving dyslexic adolescents ' reading skills .
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= M @-@ 18 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 18 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs for 77 @.@ 530 miles ( 124 @.@ 772 km ) through the central region of the state connecting US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) near North Bradley with M @-@ 72 in rural Crawford County near the community of Luzerne . In between , the roadway connects several smaller communities while running through woodlands in both state and national forest areas . Two segments of M @-@ 18 run along sections of county boundaries , and one part of the highway forms a component of the business loop for the village of Roscommon .
When the highway was first designated in the late 1910s , it extended farther south than it does today and ended well short of its current northern terminus . The southern end was added to another state highway , truncating M @-@ 18 's length to roughly its current southern terminus in 1926 . The northern end was also simultaneously extended for the first time with these revisions to the highway 's routing . In the 1940s , the northern extension was reversed and then reinstated . M @-@ 18 's course was last changed with the opening of three different freeways in the area in the 1960s and 1970s . The last extension in 1973 supplanted the M @-@ 144 designation from Roscommon north to Luzerne .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 18 begins about 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Mount Pleasant at the North Bradley interchange on US 10 in rural Midland County . The highway runs due north through woodlands that are a part of the Au Sable State Forest and into Gladwin County . The trunkline enters the community of Beaverton and turns northwest to cross the section of the Tobacco River known as Ross Lake . Continuing northwesterly , the road runs along a section of the lake and then turns back due northerly . North of Beaverton , M @-@ 18 runs through some farm fields as it approaches the county seat of Gladwin . The highway runs through the southwestern outskirts of town near a golf course as it approaches a junction with M @-@ 61 . M @-@ 18 merges with , and runs concurrently along , M @-@ 61 eastward into town on Cedar Avenue . At Silverleaf Street , M @-@ 18 turns back north near the airport . M @-@ 18 continues northward out of town back into farm country .
The highway turns westward along Wirtz Road and past the southern terminus of county road F @-@ 97 in the northern part of Gladwin County . Near a crossing with the Cedar River , M @-@ 18 turns north along Bard Road and then west again along Renas Road . The highway returns to its northerly course when it turns to run along Clarwin Road , which runs along the Clare – Gladwin county line . The roadway angles to the northwest briefly , cutting across the extreme northeast corner of Clare County as the highway crosses into Roscommon County . Through the southern portion of the county , the road runs through the Roscommon forest management unit of the Au Sable State Forest as it approaches Prudenville . In that community , M @-@ 18 turns northeasterly and runs along M @-@ 55 along the eastern shore of Houghton Lake . The two highways separate on the eastern edge of town , and M @-@ 18 turns northward , intersecting the northern end of M @-@ 157 . M @-@ 18 continues north , parallel to Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) near Higgins Lake ; M @-@ 18 crosses I @-@ 75 at exit 239 south of Roscommon .
North of this freeway interchange , M @-@ 18 is also the route of Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) . The combined BL I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 18 runs north near the Roscommon Conservation Airport and turns northeasterly into town . In the middle of Roscommon , BL I @-@ 75 turns northwest along Old 76 Road , and M @-@ 18 continues northeasterly across a line of the Lake State Railway . The highway continues independently to the northwest over the South Branch of the Au Sable River and out of town . It then turns due east along the Roscommon – Crawford county line . This section of the county line also forms the southern boundary of the Huron National Forest . M @-@ 18 curves to the northeast off the county line into the national forest territory where it meets F @-@ 97 for a second time . At this junction , F @-@ 97 merges with M @-@ 18 and the two roads run due north to a junction with M @-@ 72 west of Luzerne . At this intersection , F @-@ 97 continues north and M @-@ 18 terminates in rural Crawford County .
M @-@ 18 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like all other state trunkline highways . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the traffic volumes along the roads under its jurisdiction using a measurement called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a metric for the level of traffic along a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT calculated that 14 @,@ 017 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 18 along the M @-@ 61 concurrency , the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 18 . The lowest AADT was found along the highway in Crawford County in the 2009 surveys . Commercial traffic varied between the 50 trucks daily in Crawford County and the 214 trucks a day north of Gladwin . No section of M @-@ 18 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
By July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 18 was first designated on a routing that ran between M @-@ 46 west of Merrill through Edenville to M @-@ 14 ( later US 27 ) in Prudenville . The highway south of Beaverton was realigned to run due south a new terminus at North Bradley along the new US 10 in late 1926 . The former routing between Beaverton and M @-@ 30 north of Edenville was redesignated M @-@ 80 , and the highway from the M @-@ 30 junction south to M @-@ 46 became an extended M @-@ 30 . At the same time , the north end was extended along US 27 to end at M @-@ 76 in Roscommon . The northern extension was scaled back in 1941 to Prudenville .
When the new alignment for US 27 was opened in early 1949 , M @-@ 18 was re @-@ extended north from Prudenville to Roscommon , where it turned northwesterly with M @-@ 76 to end at US 27 south of Grayling . The completion of two freeways in the state shifted the termini of M @-@ 18 slightly in 1961 . The southern terminus was moved north about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the new US 10 freeway , and the northern terminus was also shifted north about a mile to the new I @-@ 75 / US 27 freeway . The Michigan State Highway Department completed a freeway segment in 1970 in the Roscommon area for the modern I @-@ 75 ; in a temporary assignment they moved M @-@ 18 / M @-@ 76 onto that freeway . When the remainder of the freeway for I @-@ 75 was completed between Roscommon and West Branch in 1973 , M @-@ 18 was rerouted at Roscommon to run northeasterly over the routing of M @-@ 144 , a highway that had existed since 1940 . Part of the former M @-@ 18 / M @-@ 76 routing on the northwestern side of Roscommon was used for BL I @-@ 75 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Nigel Kneale =
Thomas Nigel Kneale ( 18 April 1922 – 29 October 2006 ) was a British screenwriter . He wrote professionally for more than 50 years , was a winner of the Somerset Maugham Award , and was twice nominated for the British Film Award for Best Screenplay . In 2000 , he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Horror Writers Association .
Predominantly a writer of thrillers that used science @-@ fiction and horror elements , he was best known for the creation of the character Professor Bernard Quatermass . Quatermass was a heroic scientist who appeared in various television , film and radio productions written by Kneale for the BBC , Hammer Film Productions and Thames Television between 1953 and 1996 . Kneale wrote original scripts and successfully adapted works by writers such as George Orwell , John Osborne , H. G. Wells and Susan Hill .
He was most active in television , joining BBC Television in 1951 ; his final script was transmitted on ITV in 1997 . Kneale wrote well @-@ received television dramas such as The Year of the Sex Olympics ( 1968 ) and The Stone Tape ( 1972 ) in addition to the Quatermass serials . He has been described as " one of the most influential writers of the 20th century , " and as " having invented popular TV . "
= = Early life and career = =
Kneale was born Thomas Nigel Kneale in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , England . His family came from the Isle of Man , and returned to live there in 1928 , when Kneale was six years old . He was raised in the island 's capital , Douglas , where his father was the owner and editor of the local newspaper , The Herald . He was educated at St Ninian 's High School , Douglas , and after leaving studied law , training to become an advocate at the Manx Bar . He also worked in a lawyer 's office , but became bored with his legal training and eventually abandoned the profession . At the beginning of the Second World War Kneale attempted to enlist in the British Army , but was deemed medically unfit for service owing to photophobia , from which he had suffered since childhood .
On 25 March 1946 Kneale made his first broadcast on BBC Radio , performing a live reading of his own short story " Tomato Cain " in a strand entitled Stories by Northern Authors on the BBC 's North of England Home Service region . Later that year he left the Isle of Man and moved to London , where he began studying acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) . He made further radio broadcasts in the 1940s , including a reading of his story Zachary Crebbin 's Angel on the BBC Light Programme , broadcast nationally on 19 May 1948 . He also had further short stories published in magazines such as Argosy and The Strand . He began using the name " Nigel Kneale " for these professional credits , but continued to be known as " Tom " to his family and friends up until his death .
After graduating from RADA , Kneale worked for a short time as a professional actor performing in small rôles at the Stratford Memorial Theatre in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . He continued to write in his spare time and in 1949 a collection of his work , entitled Tomato Cain and Other Stories , was published . The book sufficiently impressed the writer Elizabeth Bowen that she wrote a foreword for it , and in 1950 the collection won the Somerset Maugham Award . ( His son , Matthew Kneale , would later win the same award in 1988 for his novel Whore Banquets . )
Following this success , Kneale gave up acting to write full @-@ time . He did take small voice @-@ over roles in some of his 1950s television productions , such as the voice heard on the factory loudspeaker system in Quatermass II ( 1955 ) , for which he also narrated most of the recaps shown at the beginning of each episode . Kneale 's publisher was keen for him to write a novel , but Kneale himself was more interested in writing for television . A keen cinema @-@ goer , he believed that the audience being able to see human faces was an important factor in storytelling .
His first professional script writing credit came when he wrote the radio drama The Long Stairs , broadcast by the BBC on 1 March 1950 and based on an historical mining disaster on the Isle of Man . In 1951 he was recruited as one of the first staff writers to be employed by BBC Television ; before he started working for the BBC , Kneale had never seen any television . Kneale was initially a general @-@ purpose writer , working on adaptations of books and stage plays and even writing material for light entertainment and children 's programmes . The following year , Michael Barry became the Head of Drama at BBC Television , and spent his entire first year 's script budget of £ 250 to hire Kneale as a full @-@ time writer for the drama department . Kneale 's first credited role in adult television drama was providing " additional dialogue " for the play Arrow to the Heart , broadcast on 20 July 1952 . This play was adapted and directed by the Austrian television director Rudolph Cartier , who had also joined the staff of the BBC drama department in 1952 . It was the beginning of a successful working relationship between the pair , that would lead to some of Kneale 's best known work .
= = BBC staff screenwriter = =
Neither Kneale nor Cartier were impressed with the state in which they found BBC television drama . At his initial job interview with Michael Barry , Cartier had criticised the department 's output as being too sedate and theatrical , while Kneale was frustrated at what he saw as the slow and boring styles of television drama production then employed , which he felt wasted the potential of the medium . Together they would help to revolutionise British television drama and establish it as an entity separate from its theatre and radio equivalents ; the television historian Lez Cooke wrote in 2003 that " Between them , Kneale and Cartier were responsible for introducing a completely new dimension to television drama in the early to mid @-@ 1950s . " Jason Jacobs , a lecturer in film and television studies at the University of Warwick , wrote in his 2000 history of early British television drama that " It was the arrival of Nigel Kneale ... and Rudolph Cartier ... that challenged the intimate drama directly ... Kneale and Cartier shared a common desire to invigorate television with a faster tempo and a broader thematic and spatial canvas , and it was no coincidence that they turned to science @-@ fiction in order to get out of the dominant stylistic trend of television intimacy . "
The science @-@ fiction production to which Jacobs referred was The Quatermass Experiment , broadcast in six half @-@ hour episodes in July and August 1953 . The serial told the story of Professor Bernard Quatermass of the British Experimental Rocket Group , and the consequences of his sending the first manned mission into space when a terrible fate befalls the crew and only one returns . The Quatermass Experiment was the first adult television science @-@ fiction production , held a large television audience gripped across its six weeks , and has been described by the Museum of Broadcast Communications as dramatising " a new range of gendered fears about Britain 's postwar and post @-@ colonial security . " Kneale was inspired in choosing the character 's unusual surname by the fact that many Manx surnames began with " Qu " ; the actual name itself was picked from a London telephone directory . The Professor 's first name was chosen in honour of the astronomer Bernard Lovell .
The BBC recognised the success of the serial , particularly in the context of the impending arrival of commercial television to the UK . Controller of Programmes Cecil McGivern wrote in a memo that : " Had competitive television been in existence then , we would have killed it every Saturday night while [ The Quatermass Experiment ] lasted . We are going to need many more ' Quatermass Experiment ' programmes . " Like all of Kneale 's television work for the BBC in the 1950s , The Quatermass Experiment was transmitted live . Only the first two episodes were telerecorded and survive in the BBC 's archives .
Kneale and Cartier next collaborated on an adaptation of Wuthering Heights ( broadcast 6 December 1953 ) and then on a version of George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 12 December 1954 ) . Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four was a particularly notable production ; many found it shocking , and questions were asked in Parliament about whether some of the scenes had been suitable for television . There was also prominent support for the play ; the Duke of Edinburgh made it known that he and the Queen had watched and enjoyed the programme , and the second live performance on 16 December gained the largest television audience since her coronation the previous year . The Guardian newspaper 's obituary of Kneale in 2006 claimed that the adaptation had " permanently revived Orwell 's reputation , " while the British Film Institute included it in their list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century in 2000 .
The Creature — an original script by Kneale concerning the legend of the abominable snowman — was his next collaboration with Cartier , broadcast on 30 January 1955 , followed by an adaptation of Peter Ustinov 's play The Moment of Truth ( 10 March 1955 ) , before Kneale was commissioned to write Quatermass II . Specifically designed by the BBC to combat the threat of the new ITV network , which launched just a month before Quatermass II was shown , the serial was even more successful than the first , drawing audiences of up to nine million viewers . Kneale was inspired in writing the serial by contemporary fears over secret UK Ministry of Defence research establishments such as Porton Down , as well the fact that as a BBC staff writer he had been required to sign the Official Secrets Act .
Almost simultaneously with the transmission of Quatermass II in the autumn of 1955 , Hammer Film Productions released The Quatermass Xperiment , their film adaptation of the first serial . Kneale was not pleased with the film , and particularly disliked the casting of Brian Donlevy as Quatermass , as he explained in a 1986 interview . " [ Donlevy ] was then really on the skids and didn 't care what he was doing . He took very little interest in the making of the films or in playing the part . It was a case of take the money and run . Or in the case of Mr Donlevy , waddle . "
Quatermass II was Kneale 's final original script for the BBC as a staff writer . He left the corporation when his contract expired at the end of 1956 ; " Five years in that hut was as much as any sane person could stand , " he later told an interviewer . But he continued to write for the BBC on a freelance basis .
= = Freelance film and television work = =
The same year that he left the BBC , Kneale wrote his first feature film screenplay , adapting Quatermass II for Hammer Film Productions along with producer Anthony Hinds and director Val Guest . Hinds and Guest had overseen the first Quatermass film , upon which Kneale had been unable to work due to his BBC staff contract . Kneale was disappointed that Brian Donlevy also returned in the role of Quatermass . The film premiered at the end of May 1957 , and was reviewed positively in The Times : " The writer of the original story , Mr. Nigel Kneale , and the director , Mr. Val Guest , between them keep things moving at the right speed , without digressions . The film has an air of respect for the issues touched on , and this impression is confirmed by the acting generally . " 1957 also saw the release of another cinematic collaboration between Kneale and Guest , when Kneale adapted his 1955 BBC play The Creature into The Abominable Snowman ; in this case , Hammer retained the star of the BBC version , Peter Cushing .
In May 1957 , Kneale was contracted by the BBC to write a third Quatermass serial , and this was eventually transmitted as Quatermass and the Pit across six weeks in December 1958 and January 1959 . On this occasion Kneale was inspired by the racial tensions that had recently been seen in the United Kingdom , and which came to a head while the serial was in pre @-@ production when the Notting Hill race riots occurred in August and September 1958 . Drawing audiences of up to 11 million , Quatermass and the Pit has been referred to by the BBC 's own website as " simply the first finest thing the BBC ever made . " It was also included in the British Film Institute 's " TV 100 " list in 2000 , where it was praised for the themes and subtexts it explored . " In a story which mined mythology and folklore ... under the guise of genre it tackled serious themes of man 's hostile nature and the military 's perversion of science for its own ends . "
Despite the success of the serial , Kneale felt that he had now taken the character of Quatermass as far as he could . " I didn 't want to go on repeating because Professor Quatermass had already saved the world from ultimate destruction three times , and that seemed to me to be quite enough , " he said in 1986 . It was also his final new collaboration with Rudolph Cartier , although the director did later handle a new version of Kneale 's 1953 adaptation of Wuthering Heights for the BBC in 1962 .
In 1958 , Kneale 's play Mrs Wickens in the Fall , transmitted by the BBC the previous year , was remade by the CBS network in the United States , retitled The Littlest Enemy . Broadcast on 18 June as part of The United States Steel Hour anthology series , the script was severely cut back in length . It was Kneale 's only involvement with American television , and he was not pleased with the result . " I made up my mind I would never ever again have anything done on a television network in America , " he later commented .
For the next few years , Kneale concentrated mostly on film screenplays , adapting plays and novels for the cinema . Described by The Independent as " one of the few writers not to fall out with John Osborne , " Kneale adapted Osborne 's plays Look Back in Anger and The Entertainer in 1958 and 1960 respectively , both for director Tony Richardson . Kneale knew Richardson through having previously adapted a Chekhov short story for the BBC , which Richardson had directed . Kneale was nominated for the British Film Award ( later known as a BAFTA ) for Best Screenplay for both films . Film producer Harry Saltzman , who had produced the two Osborne adaptations , approached Kneale about scripting a project he was working on to adapt Ian Fleming 's James Bond novels for the cinema ; Kneale was not a fan of Fleming 's work and turned the offer down . Further adaptations Kneale did work on were H.M.S. Defiant ( 1962 , from the novel Mutiny by Frank Tilsley ) and First Men in the Moon ( 1964 , from the novel by H. G. Wells ) .
Less successfully during this period , Kneale completed screenplays for adaptations of the novels Lord of the Flies by William Golding and Brave New World by Aldous Huxley . Neither of these scripts ever saw production , as the companies making them went out of business — Kneale commented in a 2003 interview that " I reckon I closed down at least two film companies . " Another screenplay that went unproduced was a Kneale original , a drama involving a wave of teenage suicides called The Big Giggle , or The Big , Big Giggle . Written in 1965 while Kneale was suffering from a mystery illness and forced to stay in bed for a long period , the concept started life as a drama serial for the BBC , before the corporation had second thoughts about the nature of the storyline and the possibility of copycat suicides ; Kneale later agreed that they were probably right not to make it for television . The production was nearly made as a film by 20th Century Fox , but John Trevelyan , Chief Executive of the British Board of Film Censors , forbade the script 's production .
In 1966 Kneale worked again for Hammer Film Productions when he adapted Norah Lofts 's 1960 novel The Devil 's Own into the horror film The Witches . Kneale had first worked on the screenplay for the adaptation in 1961 , the same year in which he had begun to adapt Quatermass and the Pit for Hammer . Like The Witches , the film version of Quatermass and the Pit took several years to reach the screen , eventually being released in 1967 . Roy Ward Baker directed , with Andrew Keir starring as Quatermass . Kneale was much happier with this version than the previous Hammer Quatermass adaptations , and the film was described by The Independent in 2006 as " one of the best ever Hammer productions . " Quatermass and the Pit was Kneale 's final credited film work ; 1979 's The Quatermass Conclusion was only released to cinemas in overseas markets after having been made for television in the UK , and he had his name removed from the credits of Halloween III : Season of the Witch ( 1982 ) .
Kneale had returned to writing for television with the BBC for the first time since Quatermass and the Pit when his play The Road was broadcast in September 1963 . The play concerned the population of an 18th @-@ century village who become haunted by visions of a future nuclear war , and was followed by several further one @-@ off dramas for the BBC over the following decade , including two entries into BBC1 's The Wednesday Play anthology strand . During this period he was regarded as one of the finest writers working for the BBC . Kneale did his first work for the ITV network during this time , writing one @-@ off play The Crunch for the ATV company in 1964 .
A particular critical success was The Year of the Sex Olympics , broadcast as part of BBC2 's Theatre 625 series in July 1968 . Kneale 's first television work to be made in colour — although only a black @-@ and @-@ white copy now survives — the story was based in a future where the majority of the population are kept in a docile state by constant broadcasts of pornography and other low @-@ brow reality television programming . The Live Life Show , in which a family are watched twenty @-@ four hours a day as they struggle to live on an isolated rural island , becomes a massive success , especially when a murderer is introduced into the set @-@ up .
The Year of the Sex Olympics has been praised for its foreshadowing of the rise of reality television programmes such as Big Brother ( 1999 – present ) and Celebrity Love Island ( 2005 – 2006 ) . The critic Nancy Banks @-@ Smith wrote in 2003 that : " In The Year of the Sex Olympics [ Kneale ] foretold the reality show and , in the scramble for greater sensation , its logical outcome ... This is satire from a TV insider , but it mutates into something far more desolate and disorientating . " The island locations scenes for the production were filmed on the Isle of Man , Kneale 's homeland .
In 1965 Kneale had been approached by the producer of the BBC2 science @-@ fiction anthology series Out of the Unknown to write a new one @-@ off 75 @-@ minute Quatermass story for the programme . Nothing came of this , but seven years later he was commissioned by the BBC to write a new four @-@ part Quatermass serial , based in a dystopian near future world overrun with crime , apathy , martial law and youth cults . The serial was announced as a forthcoming production by the BBC in November 1972 , and some model filming was even begun in June 1973 , but eventually budgetary problems and the unavailability of Stonehenge — a central location in the scripts — led to the project 's cancellation . " It lingered through the summer and slowly died as a project , " he later commented .
Kneale 's next script for the BBC was The Stone Tape , a scientific ghost story broadcast on Christmas Day 1972 . Lez Cooke praised the production , when writing in 2003 , describing it as " one of the most imaginative and intelligent examples of the horror genre to appear on British television , a single play to rank alongside the best of Play for Today . " His final BBC work was an entry into a series called Bedtime Stories , adapting traditional fairy tales into adult dramas . Kneale 's script , Jack and the Beanstalk , was transmitted on 24 March 1974 , and marked the end of his BBC writing career .
= = ITV and Hollywood = =
Kneale 's remaining television work was written for ITV . His first script for ITV was the one @-@ off play Murrain , made by the network 's Midlands franchise holders Associated TeleVision ( ATV ) in 1975 . The play , a horror piece based around witchcraft , led the following year to a series called Beasts , a six @-@ part anthology where Kneale created six different character @-@ based tales of horror and the macabre . It featured some well @-@ known actors such as Martin Shaw , Pauline Quirke and Bernard Horsfall , but did not gain a full network run on ITV ; different regions transmitted the episodes in different timeslots and some in different sequences .
In the mid @-@ 1970s , Kneale made his only attempt at writing a stage play . Called Crow , it was based upon the memoirs of real @-@ life Manx slaver Captain Hugh Crow . Kneale was unable to find backing to produce the play for the stage , but sold the script to ATV who put it into pre @-@ production for television . However , shortly before filming it was cancelled by order of ATV 's managing director , Lew Grade — Kneale was never told why .
Following the cancellation of Crow , Kneale moved to work for another of the ITV companies , Thames Television , who in 1977 commissioned the production of the scripts of Kneale 's previously abandoned fourth Quatermass serial , to be produced by their Euston Films subsidiary film company . The production was structured to work both as a four @-@ episode serial for transmission in the UK , and a 100 @-@ minute film version for cinema release overseas — something Kneale later regretted agreeing to . Starring John Mills as Quatermass and with a budget of over £ 1 million — more than fifty times the budget of Quatermass and the Pit in 1958 — the serial was not as critically successful as its predecessors . " Thematically no less awesome than Mr Kneale 's earlier science @-@ fiction essays for BBC Television , his ITV debut has proved only a so @-@ so affair , " was the verdict of The Times when previewing the final episode . Tying in with the series , Kneale returned to prose fiction when he wrote his only full @-@ length novel , Quatermass , a novelisation of the serial .
Kneale 's next television series was a departure from his usual style — Kinvig , his sole attempt at writing a sitcom , produced by London Weekend Television and broadcast on ITV in the autumn of 1981 . Although his first out @-@ and @-@ out comedy , Kneale was keen to stress that there had always been elements of humour present throughout his scripts , and some of the press reaction to Kinvig was positive . " If you like the idea of the Hitch @-@ Hiker 's Guide but found its realization tiresomely hysterical you may well prefer Kneale 's relaxed wit . Cast splendid , direction deft , " was The Times 's preview of the first episode . However , the series was not a success , although Kneale later remained personally pleased with it .
In 1982 , Kneale made another one @-@ off diversion from his usual work when he wrote his only produced Hollywood movie script , Halloween III : Season of the Witch . Kneale had initially been approached by the director John Landis to work on the screenplay for a remake of Creature from the Black Lagoon , and he and his wife spent some time living at the Sheraton Hotel in Hollywood while Kneale worked on the project . The Black Lagoon script never went into production , but while in America Kneale met the director Joe Dante , who invited him to script the third film in the Halloween series , on which Dante was working . Kneale agreed , on the proviso that it would be a totally new concept unrelated to the first two films , which he had not seen and he did not like what he had heard about them .
Kneale 's treatment for the film met with the approval of John Carpenter , the producer of the Halloween series , although Kneale was required to write the script in only six weeks . Kneale got on well with the director assigned to the film , Tommy Lee Wallace , but when one of the film 's backers , Dino De Laurentiis , insisted upon the inclusion of more graphic violence and a rewrite of the script from Wallace , Kneale became displeased with the results and had his name removed from the film .
He returned to writing scripts for British television , including Gentry with Roger Daltrey for ITV in 1987 , and the 1989 adaptation of Susan Hill 's novel The Woman in Black for transmission on ITV on Christmas Eve . Lynne Truss , reviewing a repeat broadcast of the production on Channel 4 for The Times in 1994 , wrote that : " Clip @-@ clop is not usually a noise to get upset about . But it will be an interesting test , today , to go up behind people and whisper ' clip @-@ clop ' , to find out whether they saw The Woman in Black last night . People who made the bold decision to watch this excellent drama will respond to any ' clip @-@ clop ' by gratifyingly leaping in the air and grabbing the backs of their necks . " The adaptation nearly went unmade ; Kneale had written the script in ten days but been advised by his agent to wait before submitting it to the producers Central Independent Television so that they would not think he had rushed it . When he did submit the script three weeks later , he discovered that Central had been about to cancel the production as they had assumed that Kneale , then 67 , had not been able to complete the work due to his age .
Susan Hill herself did not like some of the changes that Kneale had made to The Woman in Black . It has been observed that Kneale on some occasions operated a double @-@ standard with adaptations ; being unhappy when others made changes to his stories , but willing to make changes to stories he was adapting into script form . Referring to The Woman in Black adaptation , the writer and critic Kim Newman noted that : " He was very offended at the notion of Susan Hill using the name of Kipps from HG Wells as the hero of The Woman in Black , and so he decided not to use it and to change the hero 's name to Kidd . I 'm sure if somebody thought that Quatermass was a silly name and changed it , he 'd be furious ! " However , Kneale 's adaptations were by no means always unpopular with the original author . In 1991 , a four @-@ part version he wrote of Kingsley Amis 's novel Stanley and the Women , met with approval from the original author , with Amis regarding it as the most successful adaptation of any of his work .
Kneale also adapted Sharpe 's Gold for ITV in 1995 , as part of their series of adaptations of Bernard Cornwell 's Sharpe novels . This was an assignment that surprised his agent ; " We didn 't think he 'd want to bother with them but he did . That was probably because he liked the producer . " He returned to writing for radio for the first time since the 1950s in 1996 , when he wrote the drama @-@ documentary The Quatermass Memoirs for BBC Radio 3 . Partly composed of Kneale looking back at the events that led to the writing of the original three Quatermass serials and using some archive material , there was also a dramatised strand to the series , set just before the ITV Quatermass serial and featuring Andrew Keir , star of the Hammer version of Quatermass and the Pit , as the Professor .
While recording an audio commentary for that film in 1997 , Kneale speculated about a possible Quatermass prequel set in 1930s Germany . According to The Independent , Kneale conceived a storyline involving the young Quatermass becoming involved in German rocketry experiments in the 1930s , and helping a young Jewish woman to escape the country during the 1936 Berlin Olympics .
Kneale was invited to write for the successful American science @-@ fiction series The X @-@ Files ( 1993 – 2002 ) , but declined the offer . His final professional work was an episode of the ITV legal drama Kavanagh QC , starring John Thaw . Kneale 's episode , " Ancient History " , was about a Jewish woman who during the Second World War had been subjected to horrific experiments in a concentration camp . Transmitted on 17 January 1997 and cited as one of the programme 's finest episodes , it brought Kneale 's writing career to a close after more than fifty years .
He continued to appear as an interview subject in various television documentaries , and also recorded further audio commentaries for the release of some of his productions on DVD . In 2005 , he acted as a consultant when the digital television channel BBC Four produced a live remake of The Quatermass Experiment . He lived in Barnes , London , until his death on 29 October 2006 at the age of 84 , following a series of small strokes .
= = Legacy = =
The writer and actor Mark Gatiss , paying tribute to Kneale on the BBC News Online website shortly after his death , indicated that he was among the first rank of British television writers , but that this had been overlooked . " He is amongst the greats — he is absolutely as important as Dennis Potter , as David Mercer , as Alan Bleasdale , as Alan Bennett , but I think because of a strange snobbery about fantasy or sci @-@ fi it 's never quite been that way . " Similarly , his obituary in The Guardian commented that :
Kneale was by no means the only author to have been largely wasted by television , and to have seen his status overtaken by soap opera hacks . But his place is secure , alongside Wells , Arthur C. Clarke , John Wyndham and Brian Aldiss , as one of the best , most exciting and most compassionate English science fiction writers of his century .
Writing about The Year of the Sex Olympics in 2003 , Nancy Banks @-@ Smith felt that Kneale was one of the few television writers whose work was particularly memorable .
Once upon a time , Lord Hailsham , proceeding to the chamber of the House in black stockings and full @-@ bottomed wig as Lord High Chancellor , spotted a friend and cried lustily , " Neil ! " They say a whole party of American tourists fell to their knees . At the name of Kneale , I feel , every knee should bow . How much TV do you remember from last night ... last year ... last century ? Quite . Curiously , I can remember clearly the first time I saw The Year of the Sex Olympics by Nigel Kneale . It was 35 years ago .
Kneale was admired by the film director John Carpenter , who hired Kneale to write the screenplay Halloween III . Carpenter wrote the screenplay for his 1987 film Prince of Darkness under the pseudonym " Martin Quatermass " , a reference to Kneale 's work . The horror fiction writer Stephen King has cited Kneale as an influence , and Kim Newman suggested in 2003 that King had " more or less rewritten Quatermass and the Pit in The Tommyknockers . " Other writers have acclaimed Kneale as an influence on their work including comics writer Grant Morrison and television screenwriter Russell T Davies , who described the Beasts episode " Baby " as " the most frightening thing I 've ever seen ... Powerful stuff . " Film screenwriter and director Dan O 'Bannon was also an admirer of Kneale 's writing , and in 1993 wrote a potential remake of The Quatermass Experiment , of which Kneale approved , but the film was never made .
High @-@ profile entertainment industry figures have publicly expressed admiration for Kneale 's work , including The Beatles ' drummer Ringo Starr , members of the rock group Pink Floyd and Monty Python 's Flying Circus writer / performer Michael Palin .
Kneale never saw himself as a science @-@ fiction writer , and was often critical of the genre . He particularly disliked the BBC series Doctor Who ( 1963 – 89 ; 1996 ; 2005 – present ) , for which he had once turned down an offer to write . " It sounded a terrible idea and I still think it was , " he commented in 1986 . " The fact that it 's lasted a long time and has a steady audience doesn 't mean much . So has Crossroads and that 's a stinker " . He also slammed Blake 's 7 , which he described as the lowest point of British television science @-@ fiction : " I think the low point for me would be the very few bits I 've seen of a thing called Blake 's 7 which I found paralytically awful . The dialogue / characterisation seemed to consist of a kind of childish squabbling " and Doomwatch : " I was approached to write Doomwatch . That didn 't seem to be much good either . " Doctor Who was heavily influenced by Kneale 's Quatermass serials , in some cases even using specific storylines that were very similar to those from Quatermass .
In a January 2015 , BBC Radio 2 gave an interview with Hammer Films CEO Simon Oaks with news of developing a new Quatermass series for television .
= = Family = =
In the early 1950s Kneale met fellow BBC screenwriter Judith Kerr , a Jewish refugee , in the BBC canteen . They married on 8 May 1954 and had two children ; Matthew , who later became a successful novelist , and Tacy , an actress and later a special effects designer who worked on the popular Harry Potter series of films . Kerr became a successful children 's writer , with the Mog series of books and When Hitler Stole Pink Rabbit , which was based on her own experiences of fleeing Nazi Germany in her youth . Kneale worked with Kerr on an adaptation of When Hitler Stole Pink Rabbit in the 1970s , but the eventual makers of the film version disregarded their script . Similarly , in 1995 Kneale scripted a four @-@ part adaptation of one of Kerr 's sequels to the book , A Small Person Far Away , but this also went unproduced .
Kneale was proud of his son 's success as a writer . When his novel English Passengers won the Whitbread Book of the Year award in 2001 , his father commented that : " Matthew 's much better than I am . I just wrote screenplays . "
Kneale 's younger brother is the renowned artist and sculptor Bryan Kneale , who was Master and then Professor of Sculpture at the Royal Academy from 1982 to 1990 . Bryan Kneale painted the covers for the Quatermass script books released by Penguin Books in 1959 and 1960 . He was also responsible for a painting of a lobster from which special effects designers Bernard Wilkie and Jack Kine drew their inspiration for the Martian creatures they constructed for the original television version of Quatermass and the Pit .
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= Molly Brant =
Molly Brant ( c.1736 – April 16 , 1796 ) , also known as Mary Brant , Konwatsi 'tsiaienni , and Degonwadonti , was a Mohawk woman who was influential in the era of the American Revolution . Living in the Province of New York , she was the consort of Sir William Johnson , the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs , with whom she had eight children . Joseph Brant , who became a Mohawk leader , was her younger brother .
After Johnson 's death in 1774 , Brant and her children returned to her native village of Canajoharie on the Mohawk River . A Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War , she fled to British Canada , where she worked as an intermediary between British officials and the Iroquois . After the war , she settled in what is now Kingston , Ontario . In recognition of her service to the Crown , the British government gave Brant a pension and compensated her for her wartime losses .
Since 1994 , Brant has been honored as a Person of National Historic Significance in Canada . She was long ignored or disparaged by historians of the United States , but scholarly interest in her increased in the late 20th century . She has sometimes been controversial , criticized for being pro @-@ British at the expense of the Iroquois . A devout Anglican , she is commemorated on April 16 in the calendar of the Anglican Church of Canada and the Episcopal Church ( USA ) . No portraits of her are known to exist ; an idealized likeness is featured on a statue in Kingston and on a Canadian stamp issued in 1986 .
= = Early life = =
Little is known for certain about Molly Brant 's early life . Named Mary , but commonly known as " Molly " , she was born around 1736 , possibly in the Mohawk village of Canajoharie , or perhaps further west in the Ohio Country . Her parents were Christian Mohawks . She may have been the child named Mary who was christened at the chapel at Fort Hunter , near the Lower Castle , another Mohawk village , on April 13 , 1735 . If so , her parents were named Margaret and Cannassware . Most historians believe that her father was named Peter . Joseph Brant , born in 1743 , was Molly 's brother or half @-@ brother .
One of Molly 's Mohawk names , perhaps her birth name , was Konwatsi 'tsiaienni , which means " Someone Lends Her a Flower " . Her other Mohawk name , given to her at adulthood , was Degonwadonti , meaning " Two Against One " . Her Mohawk names have been spelled in a variety of ways in historical records .
The Mohawk are one of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League . At the time of the American Revolutionary War , they lived primarily in the Mohawk River valley in what is now upstate New York . At some point , either before or after her birth , Molly 's family moved west to the Ohio Country , which was used as an Iroquois hunting ground .
After Molly 's father died , her family moved back to Canajoharie . On September 9 , 1753 , Molly 's mother married Brant Kanagaradunkwa , a Mohawk sachem of the Turtle clan . Possibly to reinforce their connection to Brant Kanagaradunkwa , who was a prominent leader , Molly and Joseph took their stepfather 's name as a surname , which was unusual for that time .
Molly Brant was raised in a Mohawk culture that was highly anglicized . In Canajoharie , the Brants lived in a substantial colonial @-@ style frame house and used many European household goods . The family attended the Church of England . Molly was fluent in Mohawk and English . It is not clear whether she was formally educated or whether she could read and write . There are several letters signed " Mary Brant " , but these may have been dictated by Molly and written by someone else . A letter from 1782 is signed with " her mark " , indicating that she may have been only semi @-@ literate .
In 1754 , Molly accompanied her stepfather and a delegation of Mohawk elders to Philadelphia , where the men were to discuss a fraudulent land sale with colonial leaders . The party traveled to Albany , where an English officer , Captain Staats Long Morris , nephew of Governor Lewis Morris of Pennsylvania , met and fell in love with Brant . She was then about nineteen years old and described as " pretty likely " , meaning " good looking " .
= = Consort of Sir William = =
When General Sir William Johnson , Superintendent for Northern Indian Affairs , visited Canajoharie , he always stayed at the house of his friend , Molly 's stepfather Brant Kanagaradunkwa . Johnson and Molly Brant became intimate ; in September 1759 , she gave birth to his son , Peter Warren Johnson , named for Sir William 's early patron and uncle , Admiral Sir Peter Warren . Brant lived with Johnson at Fort Johnson , and then Johnson Hall after 1763 , becoming effectively Sir William 's common @-@ law wife or consort . The couple had nine children together , eight of whom lived past infancy . They included the following :
Peter Warren Johnson ( named after William Johnson 's uncle ) ;
Six daughters , Elizabeth , Magdalene , Margaret , Mary , Susanna , and Ann ( also known as Nancy ) . Elizabeth married Dr. Robert Kerr , a British physician and magistrate . Magdalene married John Ferguson , who became a member of the Legislature of Upper Canada for Kingston . Ann ( also known as Nancy ) married a naval officer , Captain Hugh Early for whom Earl Street in Kingston is named after today . Margaret married captain George Farley of the 24th Regiment in Kingston . Mary remained single , although she also lived in Kingston with her sister , Magdalene , after the war . Susanna who married Lieutenant Henry Lemoine of the famous 60th American Foot regiment .
George Johnson .
In Johnson 's will , Molly is referred to as his " housekeeper " , which at the time meant that she ran the household , served as hostess , and supervised the female servants and slaves . According to the historian Barbara Graymont , " Mary Brant presided over Johnson 's household with intelligence , ability , grace , and charm , and she effectively managed the estate during Johnson 's many and prolonged absences . " Johnson and Brant 's relationship was public ; she received gifts and thank @-@ you notes from prominent visitors such as Lord Adam Gordon . Johnson used his connection with Brant to further his public and private dealings with the Iroquois . Brant 's role as Johnson 's domestic and political partner was well known . " Before the age of forty , " writes Feister and Pulis , " she was already a legendary figure .... "
William Johnson died in July 1774 . In his will he left land , money , and slaves to Brant and her children ; He left Johnson Hall to John Johnson , his eldest son by his first common @-@ law wife , Catherine Weisenberg , a Palatine German immigrant . Molly returned to Canajoharie with her children , personal belongings , and slaves . There she lived a comfortable life in a large house , and prospered as a trader .
= = American Revolution = =
Brant supported the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War . From her home in Canajoharie , she provided food and assistance to Loyalists who were fleeing from New York to Canada . Despite harassment from local Patriots , she remained at Canajoharie for the first two years of the war .
A turning point came in 1777 when British forces invaded New York from Canada and laid siege to Patriots in Fort Stanwix . In August , when Brant learned that a large body of Patriot militia was on its way to relieve the fort , she sent Mohawk runners to alert the British commander of the danger . This information enabled a British , Mohawk , and Seneca force to ambush the Patriots and their Oneida allies in the Battle of Oriskany . After this battle , in which Iroquois warriors fought on both sides , the war in the Mohawk Valley became particularly brutal . The Oneida and Americans retaliated against Brant by pillaging Canajoharie . Brant fled with her children to Onondaga , the Iroquois capital . Her departure was so precipitate that she had to leave most of her belongings behind .
At Onondaga , the Iroquois held a council to discuss what course to take . Most Iroquois favored assisting the British , but after the Battle of Saratoga , it seemed unlikely that the British could win . Sayenqueraghta , a Seneca chief , urged the Iroquois to withdraw from the war . Brant criticized Sayenqueraghta 's advice , invoking the memory of Sir William to convince the council to remain loyal to the Crown . According to Daniel Claus , a British Indian agent and Sir William 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Brant was " in every respect considered and esteemed by them [ the Iroqouis ] as Sir William 's Relict [ i.e. widow ] , and one word from her is more taken notice of by the Five Nations than a thousand from any white man without exception " .
Much of Brant 's influence came from her connections to Sir William Johnson and her stepfather Brant Kanagaradunkwa . Additional influence came from the fact that women in matrilineal Iroquois society had more political influence than women in patriarchal societies . Because Brant 's ancestry is unclear , historians have apparently disagreed about whether she was born into an influential clan . Brant has been described as the " head of the Six Nations matrons " , although historian Robert Allen writes that " there is no substantive evidence to suggest that Molly was ever a clan matron or mother within the Iroquois matrilineal society " . Fiester and Pulis write that " although not born to the position , she became one of the Mohawk matrons " .
In late 1777 , Brant relocated to Fort Niagara at the request of Major John Butler , who wanted to make use of her influence among the Iroquois . At Niagara , Brant worked as an intermediary between the British and the Iroquois , rendering , according to Graymont , " inestimable assistance there as a diplomat and stateswoman " . Meanwhile , in November 1777 Brant 's son Peter Johnson was killed in the Philadelphia campaign while serving in the British 26th Regiment of Foot .
In 1779 , Brant visited Montreal , where some of her children attended school , but headed back when the Americans began their invasion of Iroquoia that year . Because of the war , she could only get as far as the British post at Carleton Island , where many Iroquois refugees had fled from the Americans . There she continued her work as an intermediary . The British commander considered Brant 's influence " far superior to that of all their Chiefs put together " . Brant was unhappy with having to live in an army barracks with her children . Hoping to keep her favor , the British built her a house on the island in 1781 , where she lived with her children and four slaves for the remainder of the war . Throughout the war , Brant played important roles as a negotiator , mediator , liaison , and advocate for Mohawk and Iroquois peoples at Fort Niagara , Montreal , and Carleton Island .
= = Final years and legacy = =
When Carleton Island was largely abandoned in 1783 , Brant moved to Cataraqui , now Kingston , Ontario , where the government built her a house and gave her an annual pension of £ 100 . The property that she was assigned was Farm Lot A in Kingston Township , along the northern limit of the town . It was only 116 acres instead of the standard 200 acres because it was encroached upon by the Clergy Reserve . Brant and her family received compensation from the British government for their losses in the American Revolution . Hoping to make use of her influence , the United States offered Brant compensation if she would return with her family to the Mohawk Valley , but she refused .
Brant lived in Kingston for the remainder of her life , a respected member of the community and a charter member of the local Anglican Church . Her son George Johnson , known as " Big George " among Natives , married an Iroquois woman and became a farmer and teacher ; her daughters married prominent white men . She died in Kingston on April 16 , 1796 , at about age 60 , and was buried in St. Paul 's Churchyard , Kingston 's original burial ground , now the site of St. Paul 's Anglican Church . The exact location of her grave is unknown .
Brant 's legacy is varied . Since 1994 , she has been honored as a Person of National Historic Significance in Canada . Brant was long ignored or disparaged by historians of the United States , but scholarly interest in her increased in the late 20th century . The Johnson Hall State Historic Site in New York now interprets her public and private roles for visitors . She has sometimes been controversial , criticized for being pro @-@ British at the expense of the Iroquois . According to Feister and Pulis , " She made choices for which she is sometimes criticized today ; some have seen her as having played a large part in the loss of Iroquois land in New York State . " Brant saw the Mohawk and Iroquois ' best chance of survival as lying with the British . When history is painted in EuroAmerican terms of British versus American , it is easy to see Brant as a traitor . However , Brant saw herself as Mohawk and Iroquois woman first , and she made strategic choices that she believed would best benefit her peoples .
Brant is commemorated on April 16 in the calendar of the Anglican Church of Canada , as well as the Episcopal Church . No portraits of her are known to exist ; an idealized likeness is featured on a statue in Kingston and on a Canadian stamp issued in 1986 .
= = Archaeology = =
In 1988 , archaeological testing was conducted at the site of the former home of Molly Brant in Kingston , Ontario , in preparation for a construction project . Salvage excavations were carried out in 1989 . Much of the original site of the Brant homestead had been disturbed by industrial activities .
The area had been the location of the Kiwanis Playing Field , and was not disturbed until Imperial Oil bought the property in 1938 . At this time , the below @-@ ground remains of the structures were likely removed . Excavations revealed the remains of a privy , which contained over 5 @,@ 000 artifacts of domestic and personal items from the 19th century .
= = Recognition in Kingston = =
On August 25 , 1996 the City of Kingston proclaimed Molly Brant Commemoration Day . The Mohawk Nation - Bay of Quinte , the Corporation of the City of Kingston , the City of Kingston Historical Board , Mr. John Boxtel ( Molly Brant Sculptor ) and the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada agreed to commemorate her life with the creation of a bust representing Molly Brant along with an historic monument at the front entrance of Rideaucrest Home on Rideau Street in Kingston . The memorial sculpture was unveiled at Rideaucrest on Molly Brant Commemoration Day . The commemoration began with a service at St. George 's Cathedral , a tobacco burning and wreath laying ceremony at St. Paul 's Anglican Church and a reception at Rideaucrest where the sculpture of Molly Brant was unveiled in the eastern courtyard .
The Molly Brant Foundation was established in 2005 in honour of Molly Brant . It focuses its not @-@ for @-@ profit work on urban Aboriginal research in the Kingston area .
The Molly Brant One Woman Opera , composed by Augusta Cecconi @-@ Bates , was first performed at St. George 's Cathedral in Kingston on April 25 , 2003 under the aegis Cataraqui Archaeological Research Foundation . It has since evolved into a four @-@ act opera which grew out of the original one @-@ woman opera of 2003 . The 2003 production was sung by Kingston soprano Rhona Gale , with Carrie Wyatt , flute , and the composer at the piano .
On June 17 , 2015 , Limestone District School Board trustees selected Molly Brant as the name for a new elementary public school located on Lyons Street on Queen Elizabeth Collegiate property . Scheduled to open for the 2016 – 17 school year , the 49 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot building will educate students from First Avenue and Frontenac Public Schools .
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= Hello Goodbye ( Ugly Betty ) =
" Hello Goodbye " is the series finale of the television comedy @-@ drama series , Ugly Betty . The episode serves as the 20th and final episode of the fourth season . It was written by series creator and executive producer Silvio Horta , and was directed by Victor Nelli , Jr . It first aired on ABC in the United States on April 14 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Bryan Batt , Neal Bledsoe , Grant Bowler , Alec Mapa , Ryan McGinnis , Matt Newton and Adam Rodríguez .
The episode focuses on Betty Suarez ( America Ferrera ) struggling to tell her friend and boss , Daniel Meade ( Eric Mabius ) about her new job in London . At the same time , Betty 's sister , Hilda ( Ana Ortiz ) tries to keep their father from finding out she is moving to Manhattan . Wilhelmina Slater ( Vanessa Williams ) recovers from being shot by Tyler ( Neal Bledsoe ) and Amanda Tanen ( Becki Newton ) finally finds her father .
" Hello Goodbye " has received critical acclaim from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 43 million viewers during its original broadcast , which was a season high . It received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Betty ( America Ferrera ) is worried about how Daniel ( Eric Mabius ) will take the news that she is leaving MODE for a new job in London . Marc St. James ( Michael Urie ) overhears Betty talking about her new job and sends a mass text to everyone in the building . Daniel reveals to Betty that he knows about her new job and tells her he is fine about it . However , he later burns her contract release form and tells her that he is angry that she is leaving . Daniel then offers Betty a promotion , which she turns down . Daniel does not turn up to her farewell party and Betty says goodbye to her family .
At the same time , Wilhelmina ( Vanessa Williams ) is in a coma from being shot by Tyler ( Neal Bledsoe ) . Claire Meade ( Judith Light ) is the only witness and a possible suspect . When she wakes up , she is visited by Connor Owens ( Grant Bowler ) , who tells her that he cannot live without her . Upon leaving the hospital , Wilhelmina holds a press conference and tells the reporters that she shot herself accidentally . Claire thanks her for not mentioning Tyler and Wilhelmina tells her that they are now good . Daniel later tells Wilhelmina that he is stepping down as editor of MODE and gives her his job .
Hilda ( Ana Ortiz ) and Bobby ( Adam Rodríguez ) tell Betty that they are looking for an apartment in Manhattan , but Hilda worries that their father , Ignacio ( Tony Plana ) will be lonely without them . Bobby eventually tells him that he and Hilda are moving out and Ignacio reassures them that he is happy to live alone . Marc receives a promotion and a second chance with Troy ( Matt Newton ) . Amanda ( Becki Newton ) finds out that Spencer ( Bryan Batt ) is her father and confronts him . Spencer tells Amanda that he knew she was his daughter when he hired her to be his stylist and they embrace .
Betty is shown enjoying her new life in London and she later runs into Daniel in Trafalgar Square . They talk and Daniel apologizes for not saying goodbye , before asking Betty out to dinner . Betty then jokingly asks if he needs something to do , she is looking for a new assistant and Daniel tells her that he might submit his resume . As Betty then heads off to work across Trafalgar Square , the series title is superimposed onto the scene ; after a moment , Ugly disappears .
= = Production = =
" Hello Goodbye " was written by Ugly Betty creator and executive producer Silvio Horta and directed by Victor Nelli Jr . The episode originally aired on April 14 , 2010 on ABC as the twentieth episode of the series ' fourth season and 85th overall .
This episode marks the end of Ugly Betty . ABC announced in January 2010 that the series ' fourth season was to be the last , following falling ratings . In a joint statement Silvio Horta and ABC Entertainment president Steve McPherson said " We 've mutually come to the difficult decision to make this Ugly Betty 's final season . " The network cut the episode order from 22 to 20 , but gave the writers enough time to create a satisfying conclusion that was to air on April 14 . On what he was set out to accomplish with the series finale , Horta said " Primarily , I wanted it to be about Betty 's journey , about Betty making it in her professional life , first and foremost , overcoming the obstacles in her past and really succeeding " . Vanessa Williams said the cancellation of Ugly Betty was " devastating " for the cast . She said " Our cast was one of those rare opportunities where we love each other . It was a real shocker , and really devastating when it all ended " .
For the final scenes of the episode , the cast and crew travelled to London to film around a variety of the city 's landmarks . This episode featured a guest appearance from former Mad Men star Bryan Batt , who continued his role as soap opera star Spencer Cannon from the previous episode . It was announced in March 2010 that Batt would star in the final season of Ugly Betty , as a potential love interest for Marc St. James ( Michael Urie ) . Batt is the second Mad Men actor to appear in the final season of the series , following Rich Sommer 's appearance in " Fire and Nice " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings , " Hello Goodbye " was viewed by 5 @.@ 43 million viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States . This was an increase of 29 percent from the previous episode , " The Past Presents the Future " , which was watched by 4 @.@ 0 million American viewers . It earned a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Hello Goodbye " became the highest viewed episode of the season and number one in its hour .
Since airing , the episode has received critical acclaim from critics . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode calling it " A super @-@ sweet end to a super @-@ sweet series ! " Mrs. Northman of television website , TV Fanatic said " Overall , " Hello Goodbye " did wrap up each of our beloved characters lives in a nice pretty bow " , they added " We wanted MORE ! " The day after the episode 's U.S. airing , a reporter for the British newspaper Daily Mail praised Betty 's transformation saying " Gone were the thick @-@ rimmed glasses and braces that once defined America Ferrera 's character , and in its place a professional career woman signalling the completion of a four @-@ year metamorphosis . " However , some critics felt the ending of the episode was not enough . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald gave the episode a mixed review saying it was " like one long hug with loved ones you don 't want to leave , " but added the conclusion was " unsatisfying " . New York magazine said " The cast of Ugly Betty damn well earned a happy ending — and that 's exactly what creator Silvio Horta gave them last night on the series finale " . However , they also found the conclusion to be unsatisfying saying " The one @-@ hour finale easily could have been longer , meaning some plotlines went unresolved . " Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post said " Last night , Ugly Betty attempted to earn a place in TV history , but I fear their last episode will be quickly forgotten by the fans " . Wieselman also added " On a show that always favored high drama and cool camp , I was saddened to see everyone get such an expected ending " . Wieselman , however , did enjoy the final scene calling it " pitch @-@ perfect " .
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= Ibuki @-@ class cruiser =
The Ibuki @-@ class ( 伊吹型 , Ibuki @-@ gata ) cruisers were the last class of heavy cruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) . In order to save design time , the ships were essentially repeats of the earlier Mogami class . Begun during World War II , only the lead ship , Ibuki , was launched , but was in the process of being converted into a light aircraft carrier when construction was suspended in 1945 . She was scrapped beginning in 1946 . The unnamed second ship was scrapped less than a month after being laid down in order to clear her slipway for an aircraft carrier .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Ibuki class was a minor improvement over the last pair of the Mogami class after those ships had been upgraded during the late 1930s . The main improvement was the replacement of the triple torpedo tube mounts in the older ships with quadruple mounts . They cost 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 yen each and had a crew of 54 officers and 822 enlisted men .
The ships had a length of 200 @.@ 6 meters ( 658 ft 2 in ) overall . They had a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 04 meters ( 19 ft 10 in ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 220 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 030 long tons ) at standard load and 14 @,@ 828 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 594 long tons ) at ( full load ) .
They were fitted with four Kampon geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 113 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving a 3 @.@ 9 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) propeller . Steam was provided by eight Kampon Ro Gō @-@ type three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers that operated at a pressure of 22 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 157 kPa ; 313 psi ) and temperature of 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . The ships had a designed speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . They carried 2 @,@ 163 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 129 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them an estimated range of 6 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 700 km ; 7 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Electrical power was supplied by three 300 @-@ kilowatt ( 400 hp ) turbo generators and two 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) diesel generators .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Ibuki class was intended to be ten 50 @-@ caliber 20 cm 3rd Year Type No. 2 guns mounted in twin turrets , three forward and two aft of the superstructure , numbered one through five from the bow to the stern . The first two forward turrets were on the same level , but the third turret could superfire over the first two . The guns could depress to − 5 ° and had a maximum elevation of 55 ° . They fired 125 @.@ 85 @-@ kilogram ( 277 @.@ 5 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 840 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . They had a maximum range of 29 @,@ 400 yd ( 26 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 45 ° and the ship carried 128 rounds per gun . The secondary armament was to consist of eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts . They fired 23 @.@ 45 @-@ kilogram ( 51 @.@ 7 lb ) projectiles at a rate between 8 and 14 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of 700 – 725 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) ; at 45 ° , this provided a maximum range of 14 @,@ 800 meters ( 16 @,@ 200 yd ) , and a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 400 meters ( 30 @,@ 800 ft ) . The ships were also intended to be equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns abreast the funnel . They fired .25 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 55 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; at 50 ° , this provided a maximum range of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 8 @,@ 202 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . Two twin 13 @.@ 2 mm Type 93 machine gun mounts were supposed to be mounted on the bridge with 2 @,@ 000 rounds per gun .
The Ibuki @-@ class ships were intended to be armed with four rotating quadruple 61 cm ( 24 in ) Type 92 torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . The ship carried 24 Type 93 torpedoes , 16 in the tubes and 8 in reserve . Quick @-@ reloading gear was installed for every mount that allowed the reserve torpedoes to be loaded in three to five minutes in ideal conditions . The Type 93 torpedo , fueled by compressed oxygen and widely referred to in post @-@ war literature as the " Long Lance " , had three range / speed settings . It had a range of 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at a speed of 48 knots ( 89 km / h ; 55 mph ) , 32 @,@ 000 meters ( 35 @,@ 000 yd ) at 40 knots ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) , or 40 @,@ 000 meters ( 44 @,@ 000 yd ) at a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Before Ibuki was launched , one proposal was made to replace the aircraft and their equipment with five quintuple Type 0 torpedo tube mounts . Two of these would be mounted on each side and the last on the centerline , but nothing was done .
= = = Fire control , sensors and aircraft = = =
Two Type 94 fire @-@ control directors , one atop the bridge and the other abaft the funnel , were going to be fitted to control the main guns . They used range data received from three 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) coincidence rangefinders . Two of these were to be installed in turrets Nos. 3 and 4 while the primary rangefinder was mounted above the bridge . A pair of Type 94 high @-@ angle directors , one on each side of the bridge , were intended to control the Type 89 guns . Each director was fitted with a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . The 25 mm guns would have been controlled by two Type 95 directors mounted on the bridge .
Early warning would have been provided by a Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radar mounted at the top of the foremast . A Type 93 passive hydrophone system would have been fitted in the bow . The ships were designed to carry three aircraft on a platform between the funnel and the mainmast . These would have consisted of one three @-@ seat Aichi E13A and two two @-@ seat Yokosuka E14Y floatplanes . They would have been launched by a pair of Kure Type 2 aircraft catapults , one on each side of the aircraft platform . The ships would have carried a total of 122 powder charges for the catapults as well as four 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bombs for the aircraft .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' armor scheme was only slightly modified from the Mogami @-@ class cruisers . Their waterline armoured belt extended all the way down to the double bottom . It extended from the forward to the rear magazines below the fore and aft turrets and was angled inwards at the top 20 ° from the vertical to improve its resistance to horizontal shellfire . Over the machinery spaces , it was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick at the top and tapered to 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bottom . The outer ends of the fore and aft machinery compartments was protected by a 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) transverse bulkhead . On the sides of the magazines , the belt was 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick and tapered to 30 mm at the bottom . The magazines were protected by fore and aft transverse bulkheads 95 – 140 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick . The steering gear and the rudder compartments had sides that consisted of 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) plates and their ends were protected by 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor .
The deck above the steering gear and rudders was 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The thickness of the armored deck ranged from 35 – 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) on the flat and 60 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) on the slope . The sides of the conning tower were 100 millimeters thick while its roof was 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 25 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) of armor on all sides and on the roof . The barbette armor ranged from 25 to 100 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) in thickness . The ammunition hoists for the secondary armament were protected by 75 to 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . The funnel uptakes were provided with 70 to 95 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 in ) of armor . There was no separate anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead as that function was performed by the lower extension of the belt armor .
= = Ships = =
The two Ibuki @-@ class cruisers were ordered in November 1941 as part of the IJN 's Rapid Naval Armaments Supplement Programme ( マル急計画 , 出師準備第一着作業建艦計画 Maru Kyū Keikaku , Suishi @-@ Junbi Dai @-@ Ichi Chakusagyō Kenkan Keikaku ? ) . Both ships were laid down without names , just as Warships No. 300 and No. 301 , but the former was named Ibuki on 5 April 1943 .
No. 301 was ordered scrapped less than a month after she was laid down in order to clear her slipway for the carrier Amagi which was laid down on 1 October 1942 . After her launch , the construction of Ibuki was suspended in July 1943 while her fate was discussed . A possible conversion to a fast oiler was considered until the Navy decided on 25 August to convert her to a light aircraft carrier at Sasebo Naval Arsenal . Work on the conversion did not begin until the incomplete hull was towed to Sasebo on 21 December . It was originally intended to complete her in March 1945 , but this was extended until August . Construction was suspended on 16 March , when the ship was about 80 % complete , to allow for the construction of small submarines . Ibuki was scrapped at Sasebo from 22 November 1946 to 1 August 1947 .
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= Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States =
The demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States encompass the gender , ethnicity , and religious , geographic , and economic backgrounds of the 112 people who have been appointed as justices to the Supreme Court . Certain of these characteristics have been raised as an issue since the Court was established in 1789 . For its first 180 years , justices were almost always white male Protestants . Prior to the 20th century , a few Roman Catholics were appointed , but concerns about diversity of the Court were mainly in terms of geographic diversity , to represent all geographic regions of the country , as opposed to ethnic , religious , or gender diversity . The 20th century saw the first appointment of a Jewish justice ( Louis Brandeis , 1916 ) , an African @-@ American ( Thurgood Marshall , 1967 ) , an Italian @-@ American ( Antonin Scalia , 1986 ) , and a woman ( Sandra Day O 'Connor , 1981 ) . The 21st century saw the first appointment of a Hispanic justice ( Sonia Sotomayor , 2009 ) if Benjamin Cardozo , 1932 , is excluded ( see the discussion below ) .
In spite of the interest in the Court 's demographics and the symbolism accompanying the inevitably political appointment process , and the views of some commentators that no demographic considerations should arise in the selection process , the gender , race , educational background or religious views of the justices has played little role in their jurisprudence . For example , the opinions of the two African @-@ American justices have reflected radically different judicial philosophies ; William Brennan and Antonin Scalia shared Catholic faith and a Harvard Law School education , but shared little in the way of jurisprudential philosophies . The court 's first two female justices voted together no more often than with their male colleagues , and historian Thomas R. Marshall writes that no particular " female perspective " can be discerned from their opinions .
= = Geographic background = =
For most of the existence of the Court , geographic diversity was a key concern of presidents in choosing justices to appoint . This was prompted in part by the early practice of Supreme Court justices also " riding circuit " — individually hearing cases in different regions of the country . In 1789 , the United States was divided into judicial circuits , and from that time until 1891 , Supreme Court justices also acted as judges within those individual circuits . George Washington was careful to make appointments " with no two justices serving at the same time hailing from the same state " . Abraham Lincoln broke with this tradition during the Civil War , and " by the late 1880s presidents disregarded it with increasing frequency " .
Although the importance of regionalism declined , it still arose from time to time . For example , in appointing Benjamin Cardozo in 1929 , President Hoover was as concerned about the controversy over having three New York justices on the Court as he was about having two Jewish justices . David M. O 'Brien notes that " [ f ] rom the appointment of John Rutledge from South Carolina in 1789 until the retirement of Hugo Black [ from Alabama ] in 1971 , with the exception of the Reconstruction decade of 1866 – 1876 , there was always a southerner on the bench . Until 1867 , the sixth seat was reserved as the ' southern seat ' . Until Cardozo 's appointment in 1932 , the third seat was reserved for New Englanders . " The westward expansion of the U.S. led to concerns that the western states should be represented on the Court as well , which purportedly prompted William Howard Taft to make his 1910 appointment of Willis Van Devanter of Wyoming .
Geographic balance was sought in the 1970s , when Nixon attempted to employ a " Southern strategy " , hoping to secure support from Southern states by nominating judges from the region . Nixon unsuccessfully nominated Southerners Clement Haynsworth of South Carolina and G. Harrold Carswell of Georgia , before finally succeeding with the nomination of Harry Blackmun of Minnesota . The issue of regional diversity was again raised with the 2010 retirement of John Paul Stevens , who had been appointed from the midwestern Seventh Circuit , leaving the Court with all but one Justice having been appointed from states on the East Coast .
As of 2014 , the Court has a majority from the Northeastern United States , with seven justices coming from states to the north and east of Washington , D.C. including four justices born or raised in New York City . The remaining two justices come from Georgia and California . Contemporary Justices may be associated with multiple states . Many nominees are appointed while serving in states or districts other than their hometown or home state . Chief Justice John Roberts , for example , was born in New York , but moved to Indiana at the age of five , where he grew up . After law school , Roberts worked in Washington , D.C. while living in Maryland . Thus , three states may claim his domicile .
Despite the efforts to achieve geographic balance , nineteen states have never produced a Supreme Court Justice . Some states have been over @-@ represented ( although partly because there were fewer states from which early justices could be appointed ) , with New York producing fifteen justices , Ohio producing ten , Massachusetts nine , Virginia eight , six each from Pennsylvania and Tennessee , and five from Kentucky , Maryland , and New Jersey . A handful of justices were born outside the United States , mostly from among the earliest justices on the Court . These included James Wilson , born in Fife , Scotland ; James Iredell , born in Lewes , England ; and William Paterson , born in County Antrim , Ireland . Justice David Josiah Brewer was born farthest from the U.S. , in Smyrna , in the Ottoman Empire , ( now İzmir , Turkey ) . George Sutherland was born in Buckinghamshire , England . The last foreign @-@ born Justice , and the only one of these for whom English was a second language , was Felix Frankfurter , born in Vienna , Austria . The Constitution imposes no citizenship requirement on federal judges .
= = Ethnicity = =
All Supreme Court justices were white and of European heritage until the appointment of Thurgood Marshall , the first African American Justice , in 1967 . Since then , only two other non @-@ white Justices have been appointed , Marshall 's African @-@ American successor , Clarence Thomas in 1991 , and Sonia Sotomayor in 2009 .
= = = White justices = = =
The vast majority of white justices have been of Northern European and Northwestern European descent . Up to the 1980s , only six justices of " central , eastern , or southern European derivation " had been appointed , of which five " were of Germanic background , which includes Austrian , German @-@ Bohemian , and Swiss origins ( John Catron , Samuel F. Miller , Louis Brandeis , Felix Frankfurter , and Warren Burger ) , while one justice was of Iberian descent ( Benjamin N. Cardozo ) . " Justice Antonin Scalia ( appointed in 1986 ) and Justice Samuel Alito ( appointed in 2006 ) are the first justices of Italian descent to be appointed to the Supreme Court . Cardozo , appointed to the Court in 1932 , was the first Justice known to have non @-@ northern European ancestry .
= = = African American justices = = =
No African @-@ American candidate was given serious consideration for appointment to the Supreme Court until the election of John F. Kennedy , who weighed the possibility of appointing William H. Hastie of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit . Hastie had been the first African @-@ American elevated to a Court of Appeals when Harry S. Truman had so appointed him in 1949 , and by the time of the Kennedy Administration , it was widely anticipated that Hastie might be appointed to the Supreme Court . That Kennedy gave serious consideration to making this appointment " represented the first time in American history that an African American was an actual contender for the high court " .
The first African American appointed to the Court was Thurgood Marshall , appointed by Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967 . The second was Clarence Thomas , appointed by George H. W. Bush to succeed Marshall in 1991 .
Johnson appointed Marshall to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice Tom C. Clark , saying that this was " the right thing to do , the right time to do it , the right man and the right place . " Marshall was confirmed as an Associate Justice by a Senate vote of 69 – 11 on August 31 , 1967 . Johnson confidently predicted to one biographer , Doris Kearns Goodwin , that a lot of black baby boys would be named " Thurgood " in honor of this choice ( in fact , Kearns 's research of birth records in New York and Boston indicates that Johnson 's prophecy did not come true ) .
Bush initially wanted to nominate Thomas to replace William Brennan , who stepped down in 1990 , but he then decided that Thomas had not yet had enough experience as a judge after only months on the federal bench . Bush therefore nominated New Hampshire Supreme Court judge David Souter instead . The selection of Thomas to instead replace Marshall preserved the existing racial composition of the court .
= = = Hispanic and Latino justices = = =
The words " Latino " and " Hispanic " are sometimes given distinct meanings , with " Latino " referring to persons of Latin American descent , and " Hispanic " referring to persons having an ancestry , language or culture traceable to Spain or to the Iberian Peninsula as a whole , although the term " Lusitanic " usually refers to persons having an ancestry , language or culture traceable to Portugal specifically .
Sonia Sotomayor — nominated by President Barack Obama on May 26 , 2009 , and sworn in on August 8 — is the first Supreme Court Justice of Latin American descent . Born in New York City of Puerto Rican parents , she has been known to refer to herself as a " Nuyorican " . Sotomayor is also generally regarded as the first Hispanic justice , although some sources claim that this distinction belongs to former Justice Benjamin N. Cardozo .
It has been claimed that " only since the George H. W. Bush administration have Hispanic candidates received serious consideration from presidents in the selection process " , and that Emilio M. Garza ( considered for the vacancy eventually given to Clarence Thomas ) was the first Hispanic judge for whom such an appointment was contemplated . Subsequently , Bill Clinton was reported by several sources to have considered José A. Cabranes for a Supreme Court nomination on both occasions when a Court vacancy opened during the Clinton presidency . The possibility of a Hispanic Justice returned during the George W. Bush Presidency , with various reports suggesting that Emilio Garza , Alberto Gonzales , and Consuelo M. Callahan were under consideration for the vacancy left by the retirement of Sandra Day O 'Connor . O 'Connor 's seat eventually went to Samuel Alito , however . Speculation about a Hispanic nomination arose again after the election of Barack Obama . In 2009 , Obama appointed Sonia Sotomayor , a woman of Puerto Rican descent , to be the first unequivocally Hispanic Justice . Both the National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials and the Hispanic National Bar Association count Sotomayor as the first Hispanic justice .
Some historians contend that Cardozo — a Sephardic Jew believed to be of distant Portuguese descent — should also be counted as the first Hispanic Justice . Schmidhauser wrote in 1979 that " [ a ] mong the large ethnic groupings of European origin which have never been represented upon the Supreme Court are the Italians , Southern Slavs , and Hispanic Americans . " The National Hispanic Center for Advanced Studies and Policy Analysis wrote in 1982 that the Supreme Court " has never had an Hispanic Justice " , and the Hispanic American Almanac similarly reported in 1996 that " no Hispanic has yet sat on the U.S. Supreme Court " . However , Segal and Spaeth state : " Though it is often claimed that no Hispanics have served on the Court , it is not clear why Benjamin Cardozo , a Sephardic Jew of Spanish heritage , should not count . " They identify a number of other sources that present conflicting views as to Cardozo 's ethnicity , with one simply labeling him " Iberian . " In 2007 , the Dictionary of Latino Civil Rights History also listed Cardozo as " the first Hispanic named to the Supreme Court of the United States . "
The nomination of Sonia Sotomayor , widely described in media accounts as the first Hispanic nominee , drew more attention to the question of Cardozo 's ethnicity . Cardozo biographer Andrew Kaufman questioned the usage of the term " hispanic " during Cardozo 's lifetime , commenting : " Well , I think he regarded himself as Sephardic Jew whose ancestors came from the Iberian Peninsula . " However , " no one has ever firmly established that the family 's roots were , in fact , in Portugal " . It has also been asserted that Cardozo himself " confessed in 1937 that his family preserved neither the Spanish language nor Iberian cultural traditions " . By contrast , Cardozo made his own translations of authoritative legal works written in French and German .
= = = Ethnic groups that have never been represented = = =
Many ethnic groups have never been represented on the Court . There has never been a Justice with any Asian , Native American , or Pacific Islander heritage , and no person having such a heritage was publicly considered for an appointment until the 21st century . Legal scholar Viet D. Dinh , of Vietnamese descent , was named as a potential George W. Bush nominee . During the presidency of Barack Obama , potential nominees have included Harold Hongju Koh , of Korean descent , and former Idaho attorney general Larry EchoHawk , a member of the Pawnee tribe .
= = = Public opinion on ethnic diversity = = =
Public opinion about ethnic diversity on the court " varies widely depending on the poll question 's wording " . For example , in two polls taken in 1991 , one resulted in half of respondents agreeing that it was " important that there always be at least one black person " on the Court while the other had only 20 % agreeing with that sentiment , and with 77 % agreeing that " race should never be a factor in choosing Supreme Court justices " . It is claimed that the Presidents who have appointed Justices to the Supreme Court in recent years have taken race and religion into account , causing it to be unrepresentative of the U.S. population in general . At the current time , no white Protestant serves on the Court , despite the fact that white Protestants are the largest single demographic group in the United States .
= = Gender = =
Of the 112 justices , 108 ( 96 @.@ 4 % ) have been men . All Supreme Court justices were males until 1981 , when Ronald Reagan fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise to place a woman on the Court , which he did with the appointment of Sandra Day O 'Connor . O 'Connor was later joined on the Court by Ruth Bader Ginsburg , appointed by Bill Clinton in 1993 . After O 'Connor retired in 2006 , Ginsburg would be joined by Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan , who were successfully appointed to the Court in 2009 and 2010 , respectively , by Barack Obama . The only other woman to be nominated to the Court was Harriet Miers , whose nomination to succeed O 'Connor by George W. Bush was withdrawn under fire .
Substantial public sentiment in support of appointment of a woman to the Supreme Court has been expressed since at least as early as 1930 , when an editorial in the Christian Science Monitor encouraged Herbert Hoover to consider Ohio justice Florence E. Allen or assistant attorney general Mabel Walker Willebrandt . Franklin Delano Roosevelt later appointed Allen to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit — making her " one of the highest ranking female jurists in the world at that time " . However , neither Roosevelt nor his successors over the following two decades gave strong consideration to female candidates for the Court . Harry Truman considered such an appointment , but was dissuaded by concerns raised by justices then serving that a woman on the Court " would inhibit their conference deliberations " , which were marked by informality .
President Richard Nixon named Mildred Lillie , then serving on the Second District Court of Appeal of California , as a potential nominee to fill one of two vacancies on the Court in 1971 . However , Lillie was quickly deemed unqualified by the American Bar Association , and no formal proceedings were ever set with respect to her potential nomination . Lewis Powell and William Rehnquist were then successfully nominated to fill those vacancies .
= = = Public opinion on gender diversity = = =
In 1991 , a poll found that 53 % of Americans felt it " important that there always be at least one woman " on the Court . However , when O 'Connor stepped down from the court , leaving Justice Ginsburg as the lone remaining woman , only one in seven persons polled found it " essential that a woman be nominated to replace " O 'Connor .
= = Marital status and sexual orientation = =
= = = Marital status = = =
All but a handful of Supreme Court justices have been married . Frank Murphy , Benjamin Cardozo , and James McReynolds were all lifelong bachelors . In addition , retired justice David Souter and current justice Elena Kagan have never been married . William O. Douglas was the first Justice to divorce while on the Court , and also had the most marriages of any Justice , with four . Justice John Paul Stevens divorced his first wife in 1979 , marrying his second wife later that year . Sonia Sotomayor was the first female justice to be appointed as an unmarried woman , having divorced in 1983 , long before her nomination in 2009 .
Several justices have become widowers while on the bench . The 1792 death of Elizabeth Rutledge , wife of Justice John Rutledge , contributed to the mental health problems that led to the rejection of his recess appointment . Roger B. Taney survived his wife , Anne , by twenty years . Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. resolutely continued working on the Court for several years after the death of his wife . William Rehnquist was a widower for the last fourteen years of his service on the Court , his wife Natalie having died on October 17 , 1991 after suffering from ovarian cancer . With the death of Martin D. Ginsburg in June 2010 , Ruth Bader Ginsburg became the first woman to be widowed while serving on the Court .
= = = Sexual orientation = = =
With regards to sexual orientation , no Supreme Court justice has identified himself or herself as anything other than heterosexual , and no incontrovertible evidence of a justice having any other sexual orientation has ever been uncovered . However , the personal lives of several justices and nominees have attracted speculation .
G. Harrold Carswell was unsuccessfully nominated by Richard Nixon in 1970 , and was convicted in 1976 of battery for making an " unnatural and lascivious " advance to a male police officer working undercover in a Florida men 's room . Some therefore claim him as the only gay or bisexual person nominated to the Court thus far . If so , it is unlikely that Nixon was aware of it ; White House Counsel John Dean later wrote of Carswell that " [ w ] hile Richard Nixon was always looking for historical firsts , nominating a homosexual to the high court would not have been on his list " .
Speculation has been recorded about the sexual orientation of a few justices who were lifelong bachelors , but no unambiguous evidence exists that they were gay . Perhaps the greatest body of circumstantial evidence surrounds Frank Murphy , who was dogged by " [ r ] umors of homosexuality [ ... ] all his adult life " .
For more than 40 years , Edward G. Kemp was Frank Murphy 's devoted , trusted companion . Like Murphy , Kemp was a lifelong bachelor . From college until Murphy 's death , the pair found creative ways to work and live together . [ ... ] When Murphy appeared to have the better future in politics , Kemp stepped into a supportive , secondary role .
As well as Murphy 's close relationship with Kemp , Murphy 's biographer , historian Sidney Fine , found in Murphy 's personal papers a letter that " if the words mean what they say , refers to a homosexual encounter some years earlier between Murphy and the writer . " However , the letter 's veracity cannot be confirmed and a review of all the evidence led Fine to conclude that he " could not stick his neck out and say [ Murphy ] was gay " .
Speculation has also surrounded Benjamin Cardozo , whose celibacy suggests repressed homosexuality or asexuality . The fact that he was unmarried and was personally tutored by the writer Horatio Alger ( alleged to have had sexual relations with boys ) led some of Cardozo 's biographers to insinuate that Cardozo was homosexual , but no real evidence exists to corroborate this possibility . Constitutional law scholar Jeffrey Rosen noted in a New York Times Book Review of Richard Polenberg 's book on Cardozo :
Polenberg describes Cardozo 's lifelong devotion to his older sister Nell , with whom he lived in New York until her death in 1929 . When asked why he had never married , Cardozo replied , quietly and sadly , I never could give Nellie the second place in my life . Polenberg suggests that friends may have stressed Cardozo 's devotion to his sister to discourage rumors that he was sexually dysfunctional , or had an unusually low sexual drive or was homosexual . But he produces no evidence to support any of these possibilities , except to note that friends , in describing Cardozo , used words like beautiful , exquisite , sensitive or delicate .
Andrew Kaufman , author of Cardozo , a biography published in 2000 , notes that " Although one cannot be absolutely certain , it seems highly likely that Cardozo lived a celibate life " . Judge Learned Hand is quoted in the book as saying about Cardozo : " He [ had ] no trace of homosexuality anyway " .
More recently , when David Souter was nominated to the Court , " conservative groups expressed concern to the White House ... that the president 's bachelor nominee might conceivably be a homosexual " . Similar questions were raised regarding the sexual orientation of unmarried nominee Elena Kagan . However , no evidence was ever produced regarding Souter 's sexual orientation , and Kagan 's apparent heterosexuality was attested by colleagues familiar with her dating history .
= = Religion = =
When the Supreme Court was established in 1789 , the first members came from among the ranks of the Founding Fathers and were almost uniformly Protestant . Of the 112 justices who have been appointed to the court , 91 have been from various Protestant denominations , 12 have been Catholics ( one other justice , Sherman Minton , converted to Catholicism after leaving the Court ) , eight have been Jewish and one , David Davis , had no known religious affiliation . Three of the 17 chief justices have been Catholics , and one Jewish justice , Abe Fortas , was unsuccessfully nominated to be chief justice .
The table below shows the religious affiliation of each of the justices sitting as of February 2016 :
= = = Protestant justices = = =
Most Supreme Court justices have been Protestant Christians . These have included 33 Episcopalians , 18 Presbyterians , nine Unitarians , five Methodists , three Baptists , and lone representatives of various other denominations . William Rehnquist was the Court 's only Lutheran . Noah Swayne was a Quaker . Some 15 Protestant justices did not adhere to a particular denomination . Baptist denominations and other evangelical churches have been underrepresented on the Court , relative to the population of the United States . Conversely , mainline Protestant churches historically were overrepresented .
Following the retirement of John Paul Stevens in June 2010 , the Court had an entirely non @-@ Protestant composition for the first time in its history .
= = = Catholic justices = = =
The first Catholic justice , Roger B. Taney , was appointed chief justice in 1836 by Andrew Jackson . The second , Edward Douglass White , was appointed as an associate justice in 1894 , but also went on to become chief justice . Joseph McKenna was appointed in 1898 , placing two Catholics on the Court until White 's death in 1921 . This period marked the beginning of an inconsistently observed " tradition " of having a " Catholic seat " on the court .
Other Catholic justices included Pierce Butler ( appointed 1923 ) and Frank Murphy ( appointed 1940 ) . Sherman Minton , appointed in 1949 , was a Protestant during his time on the Court . To some , however , his wife 's Catholic faith implied a " Catholic seat " . Minton joined his wife 's church in 1961 , five years after he retired from the Court . Minton was succeeded by a Catholic , however , when President Eisenhower appointed William J. Brennan to that seat . Eisenhower sought a Catholic to appoint to the Court — in part because there had been no Catholic justice since Murphy 's death in 1949 , and in part because Eisenhower was directly lobbied by Cardinal Francis Spellman of the Archdiocese of New York to make such an appointment . Brennan was then the lone Catholic justice until the appointment of Antonin Scalia in 1986 , and Anthony Kennedy in 1988 .
Like Sherman Minton , Clarence Thomas was not a Catholic at the time he was appointed to the Court . Thomas was raised Catholic and briefly attended Conception Seminary College , a Roman Catholic seminary , but had joined the Protestant denomination of his wife after their marriage . At some point in the late 1990s , Thomas returned to Catholicism . In 2005 , John Roberts became the third Catholic Chief Justice and the fourth Catholic on the Court . Shortly thereafter , Samuel Alito became the fifth on the Court , and the eleventh in the history of the Court . Alito 's appointment gave the Court a Catholic majority for the first time in its history . Besides Thomas , at least one other Justice , James F. Byrnes , was raised as a Roman Catholic , but converted to a different branch of Christianity prior to serving on the Court .
In contrast to historical patterns , the Court has gone from having a " Catholic seat " to being what some have characterized as a " Catholic court . " The reasons for that are subject to debate , and are a matter of intense public scrutiny . That the majority of the Court is now Catholic , and that the appointment of Catholics has become accepted , represents a historical ' sea change . ' It has fostered accusations that the court has become " a Catholic boys club " ( particularly as the Catholics chosen tend to be politically conservative ) and calls for non @-@ Catholics to be nominated .
In May 2009 , President Barack Obama nominated a Catholic woman , Sonia Sotomayor , to replace retiring Justice David Souter . Her confirmation raised the number of Catholics on the Court to six , compared to three non @-@ Catholics ( all Jewish ) . With Antonin Scalia 's death in February 2016 , the number of Catholic Justices went back to five .
All of the Catholic justices have been members of the " Roman " ( Latin ) rite within the Catholic Church .
= = = Jewish justices = = =
In 1853 , President Millard Fillmore offered to appoint Louisiana Senator Judah P. Benjamin to be the first Jewish justice , and the New York Times reported ( on February 15 , 1853 ) that " if the President nominates Benjamin , the Democrats are determined to confirm him " . However , Benjamin declined the offer , and ultimately became Secretary of State for the Confederacy during the Civil War . The first Jewish nominee , Louis Brandeis , was appointed in 1916 , after a tumultuous hearing process . The 1932 appointment of Benjamin Cardozo raised mild controversy for placing two Jewish justices on the Court at the same time , although the appointment was widely lauded based on Cardozo 's qualifications , and the Senate was unanimous in confirming Cardozo .
Brandeis was succeeded by Protestant William O. Douglas , but Cardozo was succeeded by another Jewish Justice , Felix Frankfurter . Negative reaction to the appointment of the early Jewish justices did not exclusively come from outside the Court . Justice James Clark McReynolds , a blatant anti @-@ semite , refused to speak to Brandeis for three years following the latter 's appointment and when Brandeis retired in 1939 , did not sign the customary dedicatory letter sent to Court members on their retirement . During Benjamin Cardozo 's swearing in ceremony McReynolds pointedly read a newspaper muttering " another one " and did not attend that of Felix Frankfurter , exclaiming " My God , another Jew on the Court ! "
Frankfurter was followed by Arthur Goldberg and Abe Fortas , each of whom filled what became known as the " Jewish Seat " . After Fortas resigned in 1969 , he was replaced by Protestant Harry Blackmun . No Jewish justices were nominated thereafter until Ronald Reagan nominated Douglas H. Ginsburg in 1987 , to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Lewis F. Powell ; however , this nomination was withdrawn , and the Court remained without any Jewish justices until 1993 , when Ruth Bader Ginsburg ( unrelated to Douglas Ginsburg ) was appointed to replace Byron White . Ginsburg was followed in relatively quick succession by the appointment of Stephen Breyer , also Jewish , in 1994 to replace Harry Blackmun . In 2010 , the confirmation of President Barack Obama 's nomination of Elena Kagan to the Court ensured that three Jewish justices would serve simultaneously . Prior to this confirmation , conservative political commentator Pat Buchanan stated that , " If Kagan is confirmed , Jews , who represent less than 2 percent of the U.S. population , will have 33 percent of the Supreme Court seats " . At the time of his remarks , 6 @.@ 4 percent of justices had been Jewish in the history of the court . On March 16 , 2016 , President Obama nominated Merrick Garland to fill the Supreme Court vacancy created by the death of Antonin Scalia .
= = = The shift to a Catholic majority , and non @-@ Protestant Court = = =
At the time of Breyer 's appointment in 1994 , there were two Roman Catholic justices , Antonin Scalia and Anthony Kennedy , and two Jewish justices , Stephen Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg . Clarence Thomas , who had been raised as a Roman Catholic but had attended an Episcopal church after his marriage , returned to Catholicism later in the 1990s . At this point , the four remaining Protestant justices — Rehnquist , Stevens , O 'Connor , and Souter — remained a plurality on the Court , but for the first time in the history of the Court , Protestants were no longer an absolute majority .
The first Catholic plurality on the Court occurred in 2005 , when Chief Justice Rehnquist was succeeded in office by Chief Justice John Roberts , who became the fourth sitting Catholic justice . On January 31 , 2006 , Samuel Alito became the fifth sitting Catholic justice , and on August 6 , 2009 , Sonia Sotomayor became the sixth . By contrast , there has been only one Catholic U.S. President , John F. Kennedy ( unrelated to Justice Kennedy ) , and one Catholic U.S. Vice President , Joe Biden , and there has never been a Jewish U.S. President or Vice President .
At the beginning of 2010 , Justice John Paul Stevens was the sole remaining Protestant on the Court . In April 2010 , Justice Stevens announced his retirement , effective as of the Court 's 2010 summer recess . Upon Justice Stevens ' retirement , which formally began on June 28 , 2010 , the Court lacked a Protestant member , marking the first time in its history that it was exclusively composed of Jewish and Catholic justices .
This development has led to some comment . Law school professor Jeffrey Rosen wrote that " it 's a fascinating truth that we 've allowed religion to drop out of consideration on the Supreme Court , and right now , we have a Supreme Court that religiously at least , by no means looks like America " .
= = = Religions that have never been represented = = =
A number of sizable religious groups , each less than 2 % of the U.S. population , have had no members appointed as justices . These include Orthodox Christians , Mormons , Pentecostals , Muslims , Hindus , Buddhists , and Sikhs . George Sutherland has been described as a " lapsed Mormon " because he was raised in the LDS Church , his parents having immigrated to the United States during Sutherland 's infancy to join that church . Sutherland 's parents soon left the LDS Church and moved to Montana . Sutherland himself also disaffiliated with the faith , but remained in Utah and graduated from Brigham Young Academy in 1881 , the only non @-@ Mormon in his class . In 1975 , Attorney General Edward H. Levi had listed Dallin H. Oaks , a Mormon who had clerked for Earl Warren and was then president of Brigham Young University , as a potential nominee for Gerald Ford . Ford " crossed Oaks 's name off the list early on , noting in the margin that a member of the LDS Church might bring a ' confirmation fight ' " .
No professing atheist has ever been appointed to the Court , although some justices have declined to engage in religious activity , or affiliate with a denomination . As an adult , Benjamin Cardozo no longer practiced his faith and identified himself as an agnostic , though he remained proud of his Jewish heritage .
= = Age = =
Unlike the offices of President , U.S. Representative , and U.S. Senator , there is no minimum age for Supreme Court justices set forth in the United States Constitution . However , justices tend to be appointed after having made significant achievements in law or politics , which excludes many young potential candidates from consideration . At the same time , justices appointed at too advanced an age will likely have short tenures on the Court .
The youngest justice ever appointed was Joseph Story , 32 at the time of his appointment in 1812 ; the oldest was Charles Evans Hughes , who was 67 at the time of his appointment as Chief Justice in 1930 . ( Hughes had previously been appointed to the Court as an associate justice in 1910 , at the age of 48 , but had resigned in 1916 to run for president ) . Story went on to serve for 33 years , while Hughes served 11 years after his second appointment . The oldest justice at the time of his initial appointment was Horace Lurton , 65 at the time of his appointment in 1909 . Lurton died after only four years on the Court . The oldest sitting justice to be elevated to Chief Justice was Hughes ' successor , Harlan Fiske Stone , who was 68 at the time of his elevation in 1941 . Stone died in 1946 , only five years after his elevation . The oldest nominee to the court was South Carolina senator William Smith , nominated in 1837 , then aged around 75 ( it is known that he was born in 1762 , but not the exact date ) . The Senate confirmed Smith 's nomination by a vote of 23 – 18 , but Smith declined to serve .
Of the justices currently sitting , the youngest at time of appointment was Clarence Thomas , who was 43 years old at the time of his confirmation in 1991 . As of the beginning of the 2014 – 15 term , Elena Kagan was the youngest justice sitting , at 54 years of age . The oldest person to have served on the Court was Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr . , who stepped down two months shy of his 91st birthday . John Paul Stevens , second only to Holmes , left the court in June 2010 , two months after turning 90 .
The average age of the Court as a whole fluctuates over time with the departure of older justices and the appointment of younger people to fill their seats . The average age of the Court is 70 years , 7 months . Just prior to the death of Chief Justice Rehnquist in September 2005 , the average age was 71 . After Sonia Sotomayor was appointed in August 2009 , the average age at which current justices were appointed was about 53 years old .
The longest period of time in which one group of justices has served together occurred from August 3 , 1994 , when Stephen Breyer was appointed to replace the retired Harry Blackmun , to September 3 , 2005 , the death of Rehnquist , totaling 11 years and 31 days . From 1789 until 1970 , justices served an average of 14 @.@ 9 years . Those who have stepped down since 1970 have served an average of 25 @.@ 6 years . The retirement age had jumped from an average of 68 pre @-@ 1970 to 79 for justices retiring post @-@ 1970 . Between 1789 and 1970 there was a vacancy on the Court once every 1 @.@ 91 years . In the next 34 years since the two appointments in 1971 , there was a vacancy on average only once every 3 @.@ 75 years . The typical one @-@ term president has had one appointment opportunity instead of two .
Commentators have noted that advances in medical knowledge " have enormously increased the life expectancy of a mature person of an age likely to be considered for appointment to the Supreme Court " . Combined with the reduction in responsibilities carried out by modern justices as compared to the early justices , this results in much longer potential terms of service . This has led to proposals such as imposing a mandatory retirement age for Supreme Court justices and predetermined term limits .
= = Educational background = =
Although the Constitution imposes no educational background requirements for federal judges , the work of the Court involves complex questions of law — ranging from constitutional law to administrative law to admiralty law — and consequently , a legal education has become a de facto prerequisite to appointment on the Supreme Court . Every person who has been nominated to the Court has been an attorney .
Before the advent of modern law schools in the United States , justices , like most attorneys of the time , completed their legal studies by " reading law " ( studying under and acting as an apprentice to more experienced attorneys ) rather than attending a formal program . The first justice to be appointed who had attended an actual law school was Levi Woodbury , appointed to the Court in 1846 . Woodbury had attended Tapping Reeve Law School in Litchfield , Connecticut , the most prestigious law school in the United States in that day , prior to his admission to the bar in 1812 . However , Woodbury did not earn a law degree . Woodbury 's successor on the Court , Benjamin Robbins Curtis , who received his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1832 , and was appointed to the Court in 1851 , was the first Justice to bear such a credential .
Associate Justice James F. Byrnes , whose short tenure lasted from June 1941 to October 1942 , was the last justice without a law degree to be appointed ; Stanley Forman Reed , who served on the Court from 1938 to 1957 , was the last sitting justice from such a background . In total , of the 112 justices appointed to the Court , 47 have had law degrees , an additional 18 attended some law school but did not receive a degree , and 47 received their legal education without any law school attendance .
The table below shows the college and law school from which each of the justices sitting as of February 2015 graduated :
= = Professional background = =
Not only have all justices been attorneys , nearly two thirds had previously been judges . As of 2010 , eight of the nine sitting justices previously served as judges of the United States Courts of Appeals , while the most recent appointment , Justice Elena Kagan , served as Solicitor General , the attorney responsible for representing the federal government in cases before the Court . Few justices have a background as criminal defense lawyers , and Thurgood Marshall is reportedly the last justice to have had a client in a death penalty case .
Historically , justices have come from some tradition of public service ; only George Shiras , Jr. had no such experience . Relatively few justices have been appointed from among members of Congress . Six were members of the United States Senate at the time of their appointment , while one was a sitting member of the House of Representatives . Six more had previously served in the Senate . Three have been sitting governors . Only one , William Howard Taft , had been President of the United States . The last justice to have held elected office was Sandra Day O 'Connor , who was elected twice to the Arizona State Senate after being appointed there by the governor .
= = Financial means = =
The financial position of the typical Supreme Court Justice has been described as " upper @-@ middle to high social status : reared in nonrural but not necessarily urban environment , member of a civic @-@ minded , politically active , economically comfortable family " . Charles A. Beard , in his An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States , profiled those among the justices who were also drafters of the Constitution .
James Wilson , Beard notes , " developed a lucrative practice at Carlisle " before becoming " one of the directors of the Bank of North America on its incorporation in 1781 " . A member of the Georgia Land Company , Wilson " held shares to the amount of at least one million acres " . John Blair was " one of the most respectable men in Virginia , both on account of his Family as well as fortune " . Another source notes that Blair " was a member of a prominent Virginia family . His father served on the Virginia Council and was for a time acting Royal governor . His granduncle , James Blair , was founder and first president of the College of William and Mary . " John Rutledge was elected Governor of South Carolina at a time when the Constitution of that state set , as a qualification for the office , ownership of " a settled plantation or freehold ... of the value of at least ten thousand pounds currency , clear of debt " . Oliver Ellsworth " rose rapidly to wealth and power in the bar of his native state " with " earnings ... unrivalled in his own day and unexampled in the history of the colony " , developing " a fortune which for the times and the country was quite uncommonly large " . Bushrod Washington was the nephew of George Washington , who was at the time of the younger Washington 's appointment the immediate past President of the United States and one of the wealthiest men in the country .
" About three @-@ fifths of those named to the Supreme Court personally knew the President who nominated them " . There have been exceptions to the typical portrait of justices growing up middle class or wealthy . For example , the family of Sherman Minton went through a period of impoverishment during his childhood , resulting from the disability of his father due to a heat stroke .
In 2008 , seven of the nine sitting justices were millionaires , and the remaining two were close to that level of wealth . Historian Howard Zinn , in his 1980 book A People 's History of the United States , argues that the justices cannot be neutral in matters between rich and poor , as they are almost always from the upper class . Chief Justice Roberts is the son of an executive with Bethlehem Steel ; Justice Stevens was born into a wealthy Chicago family ; and Justices Kennedy and Breyer both had fathers who were successful attorneys . Justices Alito and Scalia both had educated ( and education @-@ minded ) parents : Scalia 's father was a highly educated college professor and Alito 's father was a high school teacher before becoming " a long @-@ time employee of the New Jersey state legislature " . Only Justices Thomas and Sotomayor have been regarded as coming from a lower @-@ class background . One authority states that " Thomas grew up in poverty . The Pin Point community he lived in lacked a sewage system and paved roads . Its inhabitants dwelled in destitution and earned but a few cents each day performing manual labor " . The depth of Thomas ' poverty has been disputed by suggestions of " ample evidence to suggest that Thomas enjoyed , by and large , a middle @-@ class upbringing " .
= = = Financial disclosures = = =
Beginning in 1979 , the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 required federal officials , including the justices , to file annual disclosures of their income and assets . These disclosures provide a snapshot into the wealth of the justices , reported within broad ranges , from year to year since 1979 . In the first such set of disclosures , only two justices were revealed to be millionaires : Potter Stewart and Lewis F. Powell , with Chief Justice Warren Burger coming in third with about $ 600 @,@ 000 in holdings . The least wealthy Justice was Thurgood Marshall .
The 1982 report disclosed that newly appointed Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor was a millionaire , and the second @-@ wealthiest Justice on the Court ( after Powell ) . The remaining justices listed assets in the range of tens of thousands to a few hundred @-@ thousand , with the exception of Thurgood Marshall , who " reported no assets or investment income of more than $ 100 " . The 1985 report had the justices in relatively the same positions , while the 1992 report had O 'Connor as the wealthiest member of the Court , with Stevens being the only other millionaire , most other justices reporting assets averaging around a half million dollars , and the two newest justices , Clarence Thomas and David Souter , reporting assets of at least $ 65 @,@ 000 . ( In 2011 , however , it was revealed that Thomas had misstated his income going back to at least 1989 . )
The 2007 report was the first to reflect the holdings of John Roberts and Samuel Alito . Disclosures for that year indicated that Clarence Thomas and Anthony Kennedy were the only justices who were clearly not millionaires , although Thomas was reported to have signed a book deal worth over one million dollars . Other justices reported holdings within the following ranges :
The financial disclosures indicate that many of the justices have substantial stock holdings . This , in turn , has affected the business of the Court , as these holdings have led justices to recuse themselves from cases , occasionally with substantial impact . For example , in 2008 , the recusal of John Roberts in one case , and Samuel Alito in another , resulted in each ending in a 4 @-@ 4 split , which does not create a binding precedent . The Court was unable to decide another case in 2008 because four of the nine justices had conflicts , three arising from stock ownership in affected companies .
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= Pieter Nuyts =
Pieter Nuyts or Nuijts ( 1598 – 11 December 1655 ) was a Dutch explorer , diplomat , and politician .
He was part of a landmark expedition of the Dutch East India Company in 1626 – 27 which mapped the southern coast of Australia . He became the Dutch ambassador to Japan in 1627 , and he was appointed Governor of Formosa in the same year . Later he became a controversial figure because of his disastrous handling of official duties , coupled with rumours about private indiscretions . He was disgraced , fined and imprisoned , before being made a scapegoat to ease strained Dutch relations with the Japanese . He returned to the Dutch Republic in 1637 , where he became the mayor of Hulster Ambacht and of Hulst .
He is chiefly remembered today in the place names of various points along the southern Australian coast , named for him after his voyage of 1626 – 27 . During the early 20th century , he was vilified in Japanese school textbooks in Taiwan as an example of a " typical arrogant western bully " .
= = Early life = =
Pieter Nuyts was born in 1598 in the town of Middelburg in Zeeland , Dutch Republic to Laurens Nuyts , a merchant , and his wife Elisabeth Walraents , wealthy Protestant immigrants from Antwerp . After studying at the University of Leiden and gaining a doctorate in philosophy , he returned to Middelburg to work in his father 's trading company .
In 1613 , Pieter Nuyts , who was staying in Leiden with the famous Orientalist Erpenius , is known to have met with the Moroccan envoy in the Low Countries Al @-@ Hajari . Al @-@ Hajari wrote for him an entry in Pieter 's Album Amicorum stating :
The excellent young man Peter Niutsius has asked me to write something for him , so I say to him : Be obedient to the commands of the almighty God and do not worship anyone but him , and be obedient to your parents and humble towards them ( ... )
In 1620 , Pieter married Cornelia Jacot , also a child of Antwerp émigrés , who was to bear four of his children — Laurens ( born around 1622 ) , Pieter ( 1624 ) and the twins Anna Cornelia and Elisabeth ( 1626 ) . In 1626 he entered service with the Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) and was seen as one of their rising stars .
= = Australian expedition = =
On 11 May 1626 the VOC ship ' t Gulden Zeepaert ( The Golden Seahorse ) departed from Amsterdam with Nuyts and his eldest son Laurens aboard . Deviating from the standard route to the VOC 's East Asian Batavia headquarters , the ship continued east and mapped around 1 @,@ 500 km of the southern coast of Australia from Albany , Western Australia to Ceduna , South Australia . The captain of the ship , François Thijssen , named the region ′ t Landt van Pieter Nuyts ( Pieter Nuyts ' Land ) after Nuyts , who was the highest @-@ ranking official on the ship . Today several areas in the state of South Australia still bear his name , such as Nuyts 's Reef , Cape Nuyts and the Nuyts Archipelago ; names given by the British navigator and cartographer Matthew Flinders . Later Nuytsia floribunda , the Western Australian Christmas Tree , was also named for him .
= = Ambassador to Japan = =
On 10 May 1627 , a month after completing his Australian voyage , Nuyts was simultaneously appointed both Governor of Formosa ( Taiwan ) and ambassador to Japan for the Dutch East India Company , travelling in this capacity to the court of the shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu , ruler of Japan . At the same time Hamada Yahei , a Japanese trader based in Nagasaki with frequent business in Formosa , had taken a group of sixteen native Formosans to Japan and had them pose as rulers of Formosa . His plan was to have the Formosans grant sovereignty over Taiwan to the shogun , while Nuyts was in Japan to assert rival Dutch claims on the island . Both embassies were refused an audience with the shogun ( the Dutch failure being variously attributed to Nuyts 's " haughty demeanour and the antics of his travel companions " and " Hamada 's machinations at the court " ) .
= = Governor of Formosa = =
On returning from his unsuccessful mission to Japan , Nuyts took up his position as the third Governor of Formosa , with his residence in Fort Zeelandia in Tayouan ( modern @-@ day Anping ) . One of his early aims was to force an opening for the Dutch to trade in China — something which had eluded them since they arrived in East Asia in the early 17th century . To further this goal , he took the Chinese trade negotiator Zheng Zhilong hostage and refused to release him until he agreed to give the Dutch trading privileges . More than thirty years later it was to be Zheng 's son Koxinga who ended the reign of the Dutch on Formosa .
Nuyts acquired some notoriety while Governor for apparently taking native women to his bed , and having a translator hide under the bed to interpret his pillow @-@ talk . He was also accused of profiting from private trade , something which was forbidden under company rules . Some sources claim that he officially married a native Formosan woman during this time , but as he was still legally married to his first wife Cornelia , this seems unlikely .
His handling of relations with the natives of Formosa too was a cause for concern , with the residents of Sinkan contrasting his harsh treatment with the " generous hospitality of the Japanese " . Nuyts had a low opinion of the natives , writing that they were " a simple , ignorant people , who know neither good nor evil " . In 1629 he narrowly escaped death when after being feted at the aboriginal village of Mattau , the locals took advantage of the relaxed and convivial atmosphere to slaughter sixty off @-@ guard Dutch soldiers — Nuyts was spared by having left early to return to Zeelandia . This incident was later used as a justification for the Pacification Campaign of 1635 – 36 .
It was during Nuyts ' tenure as Governor that the Spanish established their presence on Formosa in 1629 . He was greatly concerned by this development , and wrote to Batavia urgently requesting an expedition to dislodge the Spanish from their strongholds in Tamsuy and Kelang . In his letter he stressed the potential for the Spanish to interfere with Dutch activities and the trade benefits the Dutch could gain by taking the north of the island . The colonial authorities ignored his request , and took no action against the Spanish until 1641 .
= = = Hostage crisis = = =
The already troubled relations with Japanese merchants in Tayouan took a turn for the worse in 1628 when tensions boiled over . The merchants , who had been trading in Taiwan long before the Dutch colony was established , refused to pay Dutch tolls levied for conducting business in the area , which they saw as unfair . Nuyts exacted revenge on the same Hamada Yahei who he blamed for causing the failure of the Japanese embassy by impounding his ships and weapons until the tolls were paid . However , the Japanese were still not inclined to pay taxes , and the affair came to a head when Hamada took Nuyts hostage at knifepoint in his own office . Hamada 's demands were for the return of their ships and property , and for safe passage to return to Japan . These requests were granted by the Council of Formosa ( the ruling body of Dutch Formosa ) , and Nuyts ' son Laurens was taken back to Japan as one of six Dutch hostages . Laurens died in Omura prison on 29 December 1631 . During the Japanese era in Taiwan ( 1895 – 1945 ) , school history textbooks retold the hostage @-@ taking as the Nuyts Incident ( ヌィッチ事件 , noitsu jiken ) , portraying the Dutchman as a " typical arrogant western bully who slighted Japanese trading rights and trod on the rights of the native inhabitants " .
= = Extradition to Japan = =
The Dutch were very keen to resume the lucrative trade with Japan which had been choked off in the wake of the dispute between Nuyts and Hamada at the behest of the Japanese authorities in Edo . All their overtures to the Japanese court failed , until they decided to extradite Pieter Nuyts to Japan for the shogun to punish him as he saw fit . This was an unprecedented step , and was representative of both the extreme official displeasure with Nuyts in the Dutch hierarchy and the strong desire to recommence Japanese trade .
A measure of the upset he caused to the Dutch authorities can be gauged by the contents of a letter from VOC Governor @-@ General Anthony van Diemen to VOC headquarters in Amsterdam in 1636 , expressing his concern about plans to send a highly paid lawyer to Batavia to draw up a legal code :
I wonder whether these highly intelligent people do not perform more disservices than services in these quarters , witness the cases of Martinus Sonck , Pieter Nuyts , Pieter Vlack , Antonio van den Heuvel , and others , who have been used to the great disadvantage of the Company [ ... ] The Company can draw better resources from experienced , vigilant merchants with alert minds .
Nuyts was held under house arrest by the Japanese from 1632 until 1636 , when he was released and sent back to Batavia . During this period he passed the time by mining his collection of classical Latin texts by writers such as Cicero , Seneca , and Tacitus to write treatises on subjects such as the elephant and the Nile Delta , exercises which were designed to display rhetorical flair and high style . He also further annoyed Dutch authorities by spending lavish sums on clothing and food , things for which the VOC had to foot the bill .
Nuyts was released from captivity in 1636 , most likely due to the efforts of François Caron , who knew Nuyts from serving as his interpreter during the unsuccessful Japanese embassy of 1627 . On returning from Japan , Nuyts was fined by the VOC , before being dishonorably dismissed from the company and sent back to the Netherlands .
= = Return to the Dutch Republic = =
On returning to his home country he first went back to his city of birth Middelburg , before starting a career as a local administrator in Zeelandic Flanders , and settling in Hulst shortly after the town had been wrested from the Spanish in 1645 . He eventually rose to be three times mayor of Hulster Ambacht and twice mayor of Hulst . Thanks to powerful allies in the Middelburg chamber of the VOC he was able to successfully appeal for the cancellation of the fines placed on him , and the money was returned . In 1640 he married Anna van Driel , who died that same year while giving birth to Nuyts ' third son , also called Pieter . In 1649 he married his third ( or perhaps fourth ) and final wife , Agnes Granier , who was to outlive him .
= = = Death = = =
Nuyts died on 11 December 1655 and was buried in a churchyard in Hulst . The tombstone remained until 1983 , when it was destroyed during renovations of the church . After his funeral it was discovered that he had collected more taxes from his estates than he had handed over to the authorities ; his son Pieter eventually repaid his father 's debts . It was the younger Pieter who also arranged the posthumous publication of his father 's treatise Lof des Elephants , in 1670 — a single known copy of which still exists , in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek in The Hague .
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= Elementary School Musical ( The Simpsons ) =
" Elementary School Musical " is the season premiere of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ second season . It aired on the Fox Network in the United States on September 26 , 2010 . In this episode , Krusty the Clown invites Homer to the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony in Oslo , Norway . Later turning out to be a hoax , Krusty is sued by the International Court of Justice for his many instances of public indecency . Meanwhile , Marge takes Lisa to a performing arts camp for a week .
The episode was written by Tim Long and directed by Mark Kirkland . Upon airing , it was met with mixed reception from television . " Elementary School Musical " was viewed by 7 @.@ 8 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 7 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode features guest appearances from Lea Michele , Amber Riley , Cory Monteith , Jemaine Clement , Bret McKenzie , Ira Glass , and Stephen Hawking , as well as several recurring voice actors and actresses for the series .
= = Plot = =
As Homer , Lisa , and her friends watch the announcement of the year 's Nobel Prize winners , they are astounded to hear that Krusty the Clown has won the Peace Prize . Krusty picks Homer to accompany him to Oslo for the awards ceremony , and Homer decides to take Bart with him . Their plane lands in The Hague , and it is revealed that the Peace Prize announcement was a ruse to bring Krusty there so he could be tried by the International Court of Justice for his deplorable public behavior over the years , such as dropping a monkey from the Eiffel Tower in Paris , and stealing the act from a local clown in The Hague . Homer and Bart search desperately for any evidence to show that Krusty has made a genuine contribution to humanity , and eventually argue that his refusal to perform at Sun City because he wanted potato chips led directly to the South African government 's decision to release Nelson Mandela from prison . Even though it is obvious that these two incidents are not connected in any way , the court accepts this argument and frees Krusty , who immediately seeks out the nearest place to buy marijuana — the courthouse cafeteria .
Meanwhile , Marge surprises Lisa by sending her to a performing arts camp for a week . She eagerly immerses herself there in music and theater , meeting several campers who love to break into song and two guitar @-@ playing hipster counselors , Ethan and Kurt . When Marge takes her home at the end of the week , Lisa has trouble readjusting to normal life and looks for a chance to express her newly awakened creative side . She runs away from home and seeks out Ethan and Kurt in " Sprooklyn " , described by the counselors as the " artistic hotbed of Springfield " . However , she soon learns that they have grossly exaggerated the area , which is really a run @-@ down slum , and that they actually work at a sandwich shop . They sing a song about the difficulties of being an artist , during which Krusty gets beaten up for accidentally announcing he is the prison snitch . Ethan and Kurt encourage her to return to her family and think about trying to make an artistic name for herself when she is older . As Marge arrives to take Lisa home , Ethan and Kurt show off a mural that they have painted in her honor , which takes up an entire side of a building .
= = Production = =
" Elementary School Musical " was written by Tim Long and directed by Mark Kirkland . The episode features guest appearances from Lea Michele , Cory Monteith , and Amber Riley from the Fox series Glee . The three previously revealed their appearances on Twitter in February 2010 . Physicist Stephen Hawking also made an appearance . Flight of the Conchords members Jemaine Clement and Bret McKenzie first rehearsed their lines over the phone with Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , before flying to the United States to record their parts for the show . Clement , a fan of the show since it first aired as shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show , said that he and McKenzie would play new characters , rather than themselves . He continued :
Yeah , we were over the moon . We don 't play ourselves , because most people won 't know who we are , but they 'll look like yellow versions of ourselves . We play counsellors at an arts camp that Lisa 's going to . It 's pretty fun . We just went to a studio and recorded it , but , yeah , we were really flattered .
The opening sequence features Otto Mann in a Partridge Family @-@ like bus , while the chalkboard gag makes a reference to the film Inception . The Glee cast members sing a version of " Good Vibrations " by the Beach Boys . Krusty the Clown had a Super Bowl " nip slip " , appeared on The Electric Company and was seen using a child as a human shield in a similar manner to the character Greg Stillson from The Dead Zone . Lisa listens to This American Life , a public radio program voiced by Ira Glass . Also , Ethan and Kurt have a map of Middle Earth on the wall of their apartment . Krusty 's comment that " I ain 't gonna play Sun City " is a reference to Steven van Zandt 's famous protest song .
= = Reception = =
" Elementary School Musical " was initially broadcast on September 26 , 2010 in the United States as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was succeeded by episodes of The Cleveland Show and Family Guy . Upon airing , the episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 8 million households , despite airing simultaneously with 60 Minutes on CBS , Extreme Makeover : Home Edition on ABC , and a match between the New York Jets and the Miami Dolphins as part of the 2010 NFL season on NBC . " Elementary School Musical " garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings . Ratings and total viewership for the episode declined 14 % from the previous season premiere , " Homer the Whopper " , which attained 8 @.@ 31 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 3 / 12 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . However , opposite results were shown when compared to the previous episode , " Judge Me Tender " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 72 million viewers and achieved a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings . " Elementary School Musical " ranked twenty @-@ third in the 18 – 49 demographic for the week .
Television critics were polarized with " Elementary School Musical " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a ' C + ' grade . Although he expressed satisfaction towards many aspects of the episode , such as the character development of Lisa Simpson , VanDerWerff criticized the songs performed in the episode . In response to the appearance of Jemaine Clement and Bret McKenzie of the Flight of the Conchords , he stated : " I have no idea if the writers wrote new songs for the two guys in Flight of the Conchords to sing [ ... ] but the songs they sang were pretty weak . " Similarly , VanDerWerff was critical of the guest appearances of Michele , Riley , and Monteith , and stated : " Bringing in the Glee kids to sing a take on " Good Vibrations " that was , frankly , awful mostly just felt like an attempt to have guest stars in nothing parts so they could be promoted . In contrast , Brad Trechak of TV Squad felt that the " Elementary School Musical " was an enjoyable start to the twenty @-@ second season of the series , and retorted that the appearances of Clement and McKenzie was the highlight of the episode . Similarly , Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic wrote , " We actually loved Bret and Jemaine doing what they do best last night : playing characterized versions of themselves . Unlike the Glee kids , our favorite duo from New Zealand were given decent songs and some pretty great lines . " Hochberger gave the episode a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
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= Change ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" Change " is a song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . Swift self @-@ penned the song and co @-@ produced it alongside Nathan Chapman . The song was released on August 8 , 2008 , with all proceeds being donated to the United States Olympic team . " Change " was written about Swift 's hopes and aspirations in regards to succeeding , although being signed to the smallest record label in Nashville , Tennessee . The track was later chosen as one of the themes for the 2008 Summer Olympics and was included on the AT & T Team USA Soundtrack , which was released August 7 , 2008 . The song was later included on Swift 's second studio album Fearless , which was released in November 2008 . " Change " is musically pop rock and uses divergent string instruments . Lyrically , it speaks of overcoming obstacles and achieving victory .
It received mixed reviews from music critics and was able to debut and peak at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Swift 's first song to reach the top ten on the chart . The music video for " Change " was directed by Shawn Robbins and features Swift performing with a band in a ballroom . An alternate version of the video features footage of the United States Olympic team at the 2008 Summer Olympics . The song was performed during Swift 's first headlining tour , the Fearless Tour in 2009 .
= = Background = =
When Swift was first signed to Big Machine Records , it was a new and extremely small record label , the smallest in Nashville , Tennessee , that consisted of approximately twelve employees and her as the only signed artist . At some point , Swift realized that it would be more difficult for her to achieve success through a small label , than in a larger label , constricting their contacts and making it nearly impossible to embark on concert tours and have presenter or performer slots on award shows . In addition , as the only signed artist , she could not ask for favors and only had herself to encourage the hope that scenarios would eventually change . Swift described the scenario as an " uphill climb " and said , " There was this moment where I sat there and was like , ‘ When are we going to get a fighting chance ? We ’ re the smallest record label in Nashville , but we want this really bad . ’ " After reassuring to herself that it would be different in the future , she wrote the beginning of " Change " . She let the track sit for a while , waiting for a remarkable event to trigger its completion . She then completed the track the day after she won the Horizon Award at the 2007 Country Music Association Awards and saw Scott Borchetta , the president of Big Machine Records , crying . " That ’ s when I finished [ it ] , because I knew I couldn ’ t finish it until something like that happened . It was absolutely the most amazing night of my life , getting to see the emotion of all the people who worked so hard for me . "
The song was recorded in December 2007 , when she recognized it applied to more scenarios and had a " bigger meaning " than originally . American television network National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) had asked Swift to perform at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . However , an appearance could not be scheduled because Swift was touring at the time . Instead , Swift 's father suggested using " Change " as a theme for the event . Therefore , " Change " was used during NBC 's daily video highlights in August 2008 , prior to the release of Fearless . " I wrote the song ‘ Change ’ as an underdog story . It ’ s kind of crazy to think that the Olympics chose this as one of the songs to play during the Olympic Games " , Swift commented . It was included on the AT & T Team USA Soundtrack ( 2008 ) . The song was released as a promotional single on the iTunes Store on August 8 , 2008 . All proceeds were donated to the United States Olympic team .
= = Composition = =
The duration of " Change " is four minutes and forty six seconds . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian described the song 's genre as a " kind of orthodontically perfect pop rock " . He said the most country part of the song were lyrics that referenced Catholicism with the word " hallelujah " . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 100 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from F3 to B ♭ 4 . They were described to have a nasal tone when using her voice above mezzo forte . It follows the chord progression F – F / E – Dm – B ♭ . " Change " relies on a string @-@ swathed instrumentation .
The lyrics of " Change " speak of overcoming obstacles and achieving triumph , while instilling hope in oneself . It centers around the concept of surpassing others ' expectations and the limitations they set out . The song turns the notion of fearlessness into a movement that is not specified . Dave Heaton of PopMatters noted the lyric " I believe in whatever you do " meant Swift was unconcerned with the specifics of the cause . He presumed it was a universal message or was about changing the traditions of country music sound and defying the expectations of what country artists can achieve with their careers . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone believed the lyrics addressed political issues .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received generally mixed reviews from contemporary critics . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine was unimpressed by Swift 's vocals , describing them as unpleasant and thin . Keefe added that her voice often cracked and , therefore , prevented the song from becoming an anthem . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine considered the track to be vague . Dave Heaton of PopMatters compared " Change " and Swift 's " Long Live " , both which ended Fearless and Speak Now ( 2010 ) , respectively . He stated , " There ’ s something really generic about the song [ s ] , but that quality becomes the cornerstone of an anthem . " Heaton also commented that the song was appealing to multiple audiences , as long as they felt restrained by any scenario .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending August 30 , 2008 , " Change " debuted at its peak position of number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling over 131 @,@ 000 digital downloads , making it Swift 's best @-@ charting song at the time and first top ten appearance . In the following week , the song descended to number forty and then number one @-@ hundred on the Billboard Hot 100 , marking its third and last week on the chart . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . " Change " also peaked at number fifty @-@ seven on the Hot Country Songs chart on the week ending August 30 , 2008 . The track also peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the now @-@ defunct Pop 100 chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Change " was directed by Shawn Robbins . It was filmed at the ballroom in the Scottish Rite Cathedral in Indianapolis , Indiana . The video commences with a shot of a stained glass window . It then transitions to Swift , clothed by a white cocktail dress and black cowboy boots , performing alongside a backup band in an empty ballroom . The band members dressed semi @-@ casual and played the instruments bass , drums , and various guitars . As the video progresses , Swift is seeing singing and dancing . Cut @-@ scenes feature close @-@ ups of Swift in another setting , clothed by another white cocktail dress and surrounded by hot pink , white , and blue twinkling lights in a black background . The video concludes with Swift turning back and walking toward the backup band . An alternate version of the video features footage from United States Olympic team at the 2008 Summer Olympics . Both versions of the music video premiered on NBC.com in August 2008 . To date , the video has over 37 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Swift has performed the track on the AOL Sessions . Since , Swift has performed the track at the Studio 330 Sessions , the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , and the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief . Swift 's first televised performance of " Change " was at the 2010 Academy of Country Music Awards , where she , donning a sparkly evening gown , sang on an elevator suspended from the crowd . She then came down , where she was joined by a teenage choir , and finished the performance by surfing the crowd . Swift performed " Change " on the first North American leg of the Fearless Tour . During the performances , Swift wore a sparkly silver and black dress with black , leather boots . She noted , " It 's been a tough year " , and commenced singing throughout the stage as images of victims of economic and natural disasters were projected on the video screens . As the song approximated , its last refrain , she said , " Things turn back around . " Then , scenes of triumph appeared on the video screens . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter attended the May 22 , 2009 concert in Los Angeles , California at the Staples Center and commented , " It was overly simplistic and a bit naive , but still hard not to be moved . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times said Swift offered the audience with optimistic thinking with the performance in the August 27 , 2009 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City .
= = Track listings = =
Digital Download
" Change " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 43
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Japanese battleship Hatsuse =
Hatsuse ( 初瀬 , Hatsuse ) was a Shikishima @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy by the British firm of Armstrong Whitworth in the late 1890s . The ship participated in the early stages of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . She was involved in the subsequent operations until she struck two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904 . The second mine detonated one of her magazines and Hatsuse sank almost immediately afterwards with the loss of over half her crew .
= = Description = =
Hatsuse was 438 feet ( 133 @.@ 5 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 feet 9 inches ( 23 @.@ 4 m ) . She had a full @-@ load draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) and normally displaced 14 @,@ 850 long tons ( 15 @,@ 090 t ) and had a crew of 849 officers and enlisted men when serving as a flagship . The ship was powered by two Humphrys Tennant vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and were designed to reach a top speed of around 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Hatsuse , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 11 knots ( 35 @.@ 39 km / h ; 21 @.@ 99 mph ) from 16 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 018 kW ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 643 long tons ( 1 @,@ 669 t ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the superstructure . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included 20 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns , eight 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns and ten 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with four submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . Hatsuse 's waterline armour belt consisted of Harvey armour and was 4 – 9 inches ( 102 – 229 mm ) thick . The armour of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 10 in ( 254 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 4 inches ( 64 to 102 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
Hatsuse , named after the Hase @-@ dera temple , which was famous for its maple trees , was ordered as part of the 10 Year Naval Expansion Programme and paid for from the £ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 indemnity paid by China after losing the Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 1895 . The ship was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at their Elswick shipyard on 10 January 1898 . She was launched on 27 June 1896 and completed on 18 January 1901 . Before sailing to Japan , she represented the Meiji Emperor at Queen Victoria 's funeral .
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hatsuse , commanded by Captain Yu Nakao , was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected his surprise night attack on the Russians by his destroyers to be much more successful than it actually was and anticipated that they would be badly disorganized and weakened , but the Russians had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the cruiser Boyarin which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage of significance on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although a large number of ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered only 17 while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged . Hatsuse was hit twice during the battle , losing seven crewmen killed and 17 wounded .
Hatsuse participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , he turned back for Port Arthur and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , Makarov one of the 677 killed . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , Admiral Nashiba put to sea with the battleships Hatsuse ( flag ) , Shikishima , and Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . On the following morning , the squadron encountered a minefield laid by the Russian minelayer Amur . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering at 10 : 50 a.m. and Yashima struck another when moving to assist Hatsuse . At 12 : 33 p.m. , the latter drifted onto another mine that detonated one of her magazines , killing 496 of her crew , and sinking the ship at 38 ° 37 ′ N 121 ° 20 ′ E. Tatsuta and Kasagi managed to save the Admiral and Captain Nakao with 334 other officers and enlisted men . Yashima 's flooding could not be controlled and she foundered about eight hours later , after her crew had abandoned ship .
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= Geographia Neoteriki =
Geographia Neoteriki ( Greek : Γεωγραφία Νεωτερική Modern Geography ) is a geography book written in Greek by Daniel Philippidis and Grigorios Konstantas and printed in Vienna in 1791 . It focused on both the physical and human geography features of the European continent and especially on Southeastern Europe , and is considered one of the most remarkable works of the modern Greek Enlightenment . The authors of the Geographia Neoteriki adopted new geographical methodologies for that time , which were primarily based on personal examination of the described areas and used as sources a number of contemporary European handbooks .
The work , written in a vernacular language , also described the contemporary social developments and expressed ideas that were considered revolutionary and anticlerical , and addressed the political and economic decay of the Ottoman Empire . Geographia Neoteriki was welcomed with enthusiasm by western intellectual circles , especially in France , but on the other hand , it was largely neglected by Greek scholars .
= = Background = =
A category of historical and geographical literature , focused on regional history and geography , emerged during the 18th century among Greek scholars . This kind of literature combined the collection of ethnographic data with a conviction in geography 's moral and religious purpose . Major representatives of this field were two scholars and clerics , Daniel Philippidis and Grigorios Konstantas . They came from the village of Milies in Thessaly , modern Greece , and were nicknamed Dimitrieis , from the ancient name of their birthplace ( Dimitrias ) . Both scholars were active members of the Greek diaspora in the Danubian Principalities , in modern Romania , where they studied and taught at the courts of the Greek Orthodox Phanariot and the Princely Academies of Bucharest and Iaşi . This environment offered in general a special attraction for ambitious and educated Greek people from the Ottoman Empire , contributing to the enlightenment of their nation . Philippidis ' and Konstantas ' work Geographia Neoteriki , published in Vienna in 1791 , belongs to a body of contemporary texts which strove to map out the European parts of the Ottoman Empire and Greece in particular .
= = Content = =
This work was the first and only volume by Daniel Philippidis and Grigorios Konstantas , and their intention was not only to define and describe the lands that were populated by Greeks , but also to describe the current social developments in the wider region . With this work they gave a precise delimitation of European Hellas ( Greece ) of that time , a few decades before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence ( 1821 ) . According to their description this area would not only include present @-@ day Greece , but also Albania , the Republic of Macedonia and the southern half of Bulgaria , an area that included all the areas ruled by the Macedonian Kings , in addition to those of classical Greece incorporating most of the Orthodox populations of the Balkan peninsula , which was during that time under Ottoman rule .
They concluded that the ' Greek lands ' are located in a privileged geographic location at the crossroads of three continents : Europe , Asia and Africa , however , as the Ottoman administration was incapable of reinforcing the rule of law , economic activity couldn 't flourish . Thus , they addressed the political and economic instability of the Ottoman Empire that struggled to maintain control over different ethnicities and huge territories . As a consequence of that lack of control , many Greeks were impelled to seek protection outside the Ottoman Empire , while the ones that had not abandoned their lands , suffered under a terrible Ottoman regime , and had no educational rights .
Reflecting a new revolutionary era in the European history after the outbreak of the French Revolution , the authors expressed sharp social criticism , castigating the corruption of the church authorities , the idleness of the monasticism , and popular superstition . They also appealed for reform of the language , education , and change to the social mores as a way to overcome backwardness and to renew people 's mentality with a more western view . They claimed that Greece is positioned within a Europe defined by the dynamics of political reforms from old and corrupt monarchical regimes to new republican communities . The modern innovative spirit of Geographia Neoteriki was also expressed in the use of a lively and malleable vernacular ( Demotic ) language with very few ties to the katharevousa , a more archaich form of Greek , which was commonly used by most Greek scholars of that time .
The book introduced a number of new ideas in the field of human geography and social organization models , that had been developed in the western world during the 18th century . Among the sources that the authors used to compose Geographia Neoteriki , were the Géographie Moderne by Nicolle de La Croix , the Géographie Ancienne , and the Géographie Moderne , which were part of the Encyclopédie Méthodique by Charles @-@ Joseph Panckoucke . Additionally , the authors had personally examined the areas described in the work . This element served both as the work 's primary organizing mode as well as the basis for their historical approach .
= = Popularity = =
In general , Geographia Neoteriki , was welcomed with enthusiasm by western intellectual circles . Jean @-@ Baptiste d 'Ansse de Villoison , professor of modern Greek in the Ecole des Langues Orientales Vivantes , used it as a textbook for his students . French geographer Barbie du Bocage published a review after the book 's publication along with a translated passage . Moreover , travellers who published accounts during the early 19th century , frequently cited the text . François Pouqueville , William Martin Leake , Henry Holland , and Lord Byron mentioned this work , and used it as a source of information . The book also enjoyed some popularity in the non Greek regions of the Balkan peninsula , while 19th century Bulgarian authors of geographic textbooks used it as a model .
On the other hand , especially due to the vernacular language used , this work was largely neglected among the Greek scholars , especially by Adamantios Korais and Dimitrios Katartzis , and was never used as an academic work , or even as a school textbook . It was also negatively received by the Church hierarchy , as well as conservative Greek scholars , due to the vernacular language it used and the liberal views it expressed . It is worth noting that the work ’ s linguistic form disappointed even Dimitrios Katartzis , the intellectual mentor of the two authors , while Philippidis himself , never used such vernacular style language again in his future works . However , Geographia Neoteriki inspired a number of similar geographical works published in Greece during the 19th century .
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= Tik Tok =
" Tik Tok " ( stylized as " TiK ToK " ) is the debut single by American recording artist Kesha . The song was produced by Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco and co @-@ written by Kesha , Dr. Luke and Blanco . It was released on August 7 , 2009 as the lead single from Kesha 's debut studio album , Animal . The opening line of the song came from an experience where Kesha woke up surrounded by beautiful women , to which she imagined Diddy being in a similar scenario . The experience triggered the writing of the song which she later brought to her producer , Dr. Luke , who was then contacted by Diddy in hopes of a collaboration ; he came to the studio the same day and recorded his lines and the song was completed .
According to Kesha , the song 's lyrics are representative of her and based on her life ; the song has a carefree message and talks about not letting anything bring you down . The song is an electropop song with dance @-@ pop elements that uses a minimalist video @-@ game beat interspersed with handclaps and synths . The song 's verses use a rap @-@ sing vocal style while the chorus is sung ; throughout the song the use of Auto @-@ Tune is prominent . Musically , the song has been compared to the works of Lady Gaga , Uffie , and Fergie .
The song achieved commercial success by topping the charts in eleven countries . In the United States , the song broke the record for the biggest single @-@ week sum of all time for a female artist selling 610 @,@ 000 digital downloads in one week . " Tik Tok " was certified 5 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold over six million copies in the United States . The song was the best @-@ selling single worldwide in 2010 , selling 12 @.@ 8 million copies in that year alone , and by 2012 , 14 million copies were sold , making it the third best @-@ selling single in the digital history , after " Call Me Maybe " by Carly Rae Jepsen , and " I Gotta Feeling " by The Black Eyed Peas . The song was listed 56th on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of All @-@ time .
= = Background and development = =
In 2005 , Lukasz Gottwald ( Dr. Luke ) had just finished producing tracks for Kelly Clarkson 's album Breakaway ( 2004 ) and was looking to expand further on his writing and producing credits . Luke solicited around to different people in the music business asking for demos from unknown artists . Two of the demos he received were from Katy Perry and Kesha . He was particularly taken with Kesha 's demos which consisted of a self @-@ penned country ballad and trip @-@ hop track . The latter of the demos caught Luke off guard when she ran out of lyrics and started to rap , " I 'm a white girl / From the ' Ville / Nashville , bitch . Uhh . Uhhhhh . " The improvisation made her stand out from other artists that Luke had listened to , which he recalled : " That 's when I was like , ' OK , I like this girl 's personality . When you 're listening to 100 CDs , that kind of bravado and chutzpah stand out . " Following this , at the age of eighteen , Kesha signed to Luke 's label , Kemosabe Records , and his publishing company , Prescription Songs .
After being signed to Luke 's label she also signed to David Sonenberg 's DAS management company . While at the label she worked with record producer Greg Wells , which she attributes to developing her sound on her first record , Animal ( 2010 ) . Although she was signed to Luke and his label , Kesha never took priority as he was busy with other projects at the time . It was not until 2008 when Luke was working with Flo Rida on " Right Round " that he pulled Kesha in to contribute , giving her the female hook . Within a few months the song became a worldwide number one . The event lead to different labels sparking interest in signing her , including RCA Records , to which she eventually signed .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Tik Tok " was written by Ke $ ha , alongside Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco and was co @-@ produced by Luke and Blanco . Ke $ ha said the inspiration behind the song came from coming home half @-@ drunk and stumbling after a night out of partying . She would then write down a few words to a song , then the following morning she would wake up with the story waiting to be told . The opening line came from an experience where she woke up surrounded by " beautiful women " , leading to her imagining P. Diddy being in a similar scenario . She then proceeded to bring the song to her producer Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco and the song was written . Four hours later , Diddy called Luke and said that they should do a song together . Diddy came to the studio later that day to contribute his lines and the collaboration was completed .
Engineering of the song was done by Emily Wright and Sam Holland at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . While Ke $ ha was in the studio with Dr. Luke and Blanco , she took three takes to get the song correct as she jokingly " white @-@ girl rapped " over the beat . At one point in the song 's production , she had wanted to re @-@ write the verses of the song because she did not think that they were " funny or clever " , feeling that they " kind of sucked . " She elaborated , " I thought it was just another song , I thought it was just like all the other ones I 'd written . I didn 't even know if it was very good . I wanted to rewrite the verses , I didn 't think it was funny or clever . I thought it kind of sucked . But everyone else liked it . " Ke $ ha ultimately did not end up rewriting any of the song 's lyrics . She further described the theme of the song in an interview , emphasizing that it embodied her own lifestyle ,
We 're [ Ke $ ha and her friends ] all young and broke and it doesn 't matter . We can find clothes on the side of the street and go out and look fantastic , and kill it . If we don 't have a car that doesn 't stop us , because we 'll take the bus . If we can 't afford drinks , we 'll bring a bottle in our purse . It 's just about not letting anything bring you down .
= = Composition = =
" Tik Tok " is an upbeat electropop song that incorporates elements of dance @-@ pop and bitpop in its production and beats . It utilizes a minimalist " video @-@ game beat " interspersed with handclaps and synths . In the beginning , Kesha says , " Wake up in the morning feeling like P. Diddy " , Kesha uses a spoken word rap style on the verses while the chorus is sung . Throughout the song Kesha 's vocals are enhanced by Auto @-@ Tune in some places . The song also features two lines by Diddy ( " Hey , what up girl ? " and " Let 's go ! " ) Lyrically , the song speaks about " excess pleasures , from drinking ( ' Ain 't got a care in the world but I got plenty of beer ' ) to men ( ' We kick ' em to the curb unless they look like Mick Jagger ' ) . " According to Kesha the lyrics are representative of herself , stating , " It 's about my life . It 's 100 percent me . "
Kesha uses a rap vocal delivery which was influenced by the Beastie Boys . She claims that the track 's creation would not have happened if it was not for their influence on her music . While the song was being crafted she took a different vocal approach to the song than in her earlier records , explaining that : " I ’ ve done the country , done the pop @-@ rock , done the super @-@ hard electro , ... I was like , whatever , throw some rap in there , why not ? " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a moderate beat rate of 120 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of D minor . It has the sequence of B ♭ – C – Dm as its chord progression and Kesha 's vocals in the song span from the note of D3 to the note of D5 . Musically , the song has been compared to Lady Gaga 's debut single , " Just Dance " , for their similar composition and lyrical context and to Fergie for their similar rap style .
= = Release and promotion = =
In July 2009 , the song was offered as a free download on Kesha 's MySpace page for over a month before its official sale release . The song was later released to iTunes on August 7 , 2009 , and on August 25 , 2009 , in the United States . Barry Weiss of RCA / Jive Label Group relied on a similar marketing scheme to that of Britney Spears ' in 1999 when choosing to give the song away for free . The song 's marketing relied heavily on radio once she had achieved a strong online interest , but its radio release was delayed until October in order to capitalize on social media 's interest in her . After spreading the song quickly topped iTunes charts .
To promote the single , Kesha made several television appearances and performances across the world . The first televised performance of the song was on a part of MTV Push , a program broadcast on MTV Networks worldwide , where she performed the song alongside her other tracks " Blah Blah Blah " and " Dinosaur " . She performed the song alongside " Blah Blah Blah " , " Take It Off " , " Your Love Is My Drug " and " Dirty Picture " in a set for BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend . On May 29 , 2010 , Kesha performed " Tik Tok " alongside " Your Love Is My Drug " at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan .
Kesha has also made appearances on It 's On with Alexa Chung , The Wendy Williams Show , Lopez Tonight , Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien and The Ellen DeGeneres Show to perform the song . This song was also performed on Saturday Night Live on April 17 , 2010 . On August 13 , 2010 Kesha performed " Tik Tok " on Today . On November 7 , 2010 Kesha performed the song at the MTV Europe Music Awards . Throughout the performance she was seen wearing a leotard with day @-@ glow makeup . The performance featured a backing consisting of flashing lights and background dancers . The song 's bridge was changed during the performance and featured a more " amping house music vibe " .
= = Critical reception = =
Kelsey Paine of Billboard called the song " a love letter to DJs everywhere , with hand claps that build to a crescendo of pure , infectious dance @-@ pop . " Paine , referring to her appearance on " Right Round " , wrote that she " offers her own fun and frivolous ode to a wild night out " as she sings about drinking and men . The review was concluded with the consensus the Kesha 's debut " reveals a knack for getting the party started . " Jim Farber of the New York Daily News called the song " a vintage lick of dance candy too tooth @-@ rottingly sweet to resist " that featured a " stabbing synthesizer hook " . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC , giving the single four out of a possible five stars , called it a " dirty little ditty " that had " ' hit ' written all over it " . McAlpine noted its similarities to Lady Gaga 's " Just Dance " for their partying subject matter , but concedes that " she does make it sound kinda fun though . " Billy Johnson , Jr. of Yahoo ! compared " Tik Tok " to the 1980s L 'Trimm hit " Cars That Go Boom " and notes that Kesha has " take [ n ] on L 'Trimm 's vocal styling for her own hit . "
Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , he spoke of the song giving Kesha a " hussy image " but described the lyrics in a positive manner . Levine said the use of auto @-@ tune was " fun " and described Dr. Luke 's backing track as " bouncy " and " bubblegummy " . The review highlighted the song 's chorus with Levine calling it " stonking great " and " completely trashy in the best possible way . " David Jeffries of Allmusic called the track " fun " , listing it as one of the album 's best tracks . David Renshaw of Drowned in Sound felt that the song was effective in what it was trying to do , writing : " Trashy and rambunctious , it ’ s a brash summer anthem about getting drunk and partying hard . World rocking it might not be , but as a piece of disposable pop it captures a moment and boasts a huge hook which , really , is all you need to rule the radio , TV and ringtone airwaves . " Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly listed the song as the recommended download off of Animal , writing that " her Valley Girl sneer with electro @-@ glam arrangements that make brushing one 's teeth ' with a bottle of Jack ' sound like an awesome way to kill the morning @-@ after blues . "
Jonah Weiner of Slate Magazine gave the song a negative review saying that " the song sets up ship on the fault line between charmingly daft and deeply irritating . " He then compared the song to work by other artists , stating that " the rapped verses are sub @-@ Fergie @-@ grade , proudly stuffed with groaners and to @-@ hell @-@ with @-@ the @-@ expiration @-@ date slang . " Weiner echoed the sentiment that the plotline seemed like " a sequel " to " Just Dance " , summing it up as " girl wakes up drunk , stays drunk , finds a dance floor and ( spoiler alert ) gets even drunker . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the song as " a zippy and salacious celebration of late nights and mornings @-@ after . " He noted that " some have compared Kesha , unfavorably , to Uffie , who is signed to the influential French electronic music label Ed Banger and whose sass @-@ rap predated Kesha ’ s by a couple of years . " However , he thought that " if anyone should feel fleeced by ' Tik Tok ' , though , it ’ s Lady Gaga , who probably hears significant chunks of her hit ' Just Dance ' in its melody and subject matter . "
= = Chart performance = =
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , on the week ending October 24 , 2009 , " Tik Tok " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ nine . The song steadily climbed the chart and became the first number one of the new decade . On the week ending December 27 , 2009 , " Tik Tok " broke the record in the United States for the highest single week sales , selling 610 @,@ 000 digital downloads , the highest ever by a female artist since tracking began in 2003 and second highest overall , behind " Right Round " which sold 636 @,@ 000 copies on the chart dated February 28 , 2009 . The record would later be surpassed by Taylor Swift 's single " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " when it sold 623 @,@ 000 digital copies in its debut week in the week ending September 1 , 2012 . On the week ending February 6 , 2010 , the song topped the Billboard Pop Songs radio airplay chart registering 11 @,@ 224 spins , becoming , at the time , the most played song in the charts seventeen @-@ year history , breaking the record set of 10 @,@ 859 spins just a week earlier by Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . The song topped the chart for a total of nine consecutive weeks and at the end of 2010 , " Tik Tok " was named the Hot 100 song of the year . It was also the seventh most played song on radio in the country and the eighth most downloaded song that year . The song has received 5 × Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of 5 million units . As of March 2016 , " Tik Tok " had sold over 6 @.@ 8 million downloads in the US .
The song made its first ever chart appearance in Canada , where the song debuted at number sixty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 . It ascended the chart for numerous weeks before attaining the number one position on the week ending November 21 , 2009 . The song remained atop the chart for two weeks before falling to the number two position , being dethroned by Lady Gaga 's , " Bad Romance " . " Tik Tok " regained the number one position weeks later on January 2 , 2010 , and held the top spot for seven weeks , giving the single nine weeks atop the chart in total . In 2009 the song was the year 's seventy @-@ sixth best charting song and it was 2010 's second best charting song on the Canadian Hot 100 Year End Charts . The single has been certified 7 × Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for sales of 560 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Europe and Asia = = =
In Europe , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ eight in Sweden on the issue dated October 23 , 2009 , and managed to peak at number three . The song debuted at thirty @-@ nine in Denmark and peaked at number three . In Norway , the song debuted at number eleven and peaked at number three . In the United Kingdom , " Tik Tok " debuted on the official UK Singles Chart at number six on November 8 , 2009 , and over a period of just under three months climbed to a peak of number four on January 3 , 2010 . In 2010 , The UK Official Charts Company ranked " Tik Tok " at 100 on their list of the best @-@ selling singles of the 21st century .
By the end of 2010 , " Tik Tok " had become the best selling song by a foreign artist at 1 @,@ 412 @,@ 653 downloads in South Korea .
= = = Oceania = = =
" Tik Tok " made its chart debut on the official New Zealand Singles Chart at number seven on the issue dated October 5 , 2009 . The following week it moved up to number one where it held the top spot for a total of five consecutive weeks . The song has since been certified 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales of 30 @,@ 000 units . In Australia the song debuted on the ARIA Charts at number twenty @-@ eight , and reached number one on its third week on the chart . The song was listed atop the chart for a total of eight weeks and in 2009 it was listed at position nine on the Australian Singles Year End Chart . ; the following year the song was listed at position twelve on the 2010 year end chart . It has since been certified 5 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 350 @,@ 000 units . The song sold 12 @.@ 8 million digital copies worldwide in 2010 , making it the best selling single of the year , trumping the previous year 's song by more than three million downloads . As of 2012 , it has sold around 14 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Tik Tok " was directed by Syndrome . It was shot in Kesha 's old neighborhood and the car featured in the video belongs to her . Kesha explained the experience saying , " the video I 'm excited about because I actually got to shoot it in my old neighborhood and the guy driving my gold car is a friend of mine " . The video 's party scene was shot in her friend 's house , which they refer to as the " drunk tank " . The singer said " the last party scene is in this house called the drunk tank , which is one of my friend 's houses that we all go party at . So I like it cause its super @-@ honest and genuine . " The video begins with Kesha waking in a bathtub in a home as she stumbles out and begins to look for a toothbrush in the restroom . She makes her way down a staircase looking at the pictures lining the wall . Kesha makes her way to the kitchen and walks in on a family who are having breakfast , startling them . She shrugs and then leaves the home as the family gets up and follows her . When she arrives at the sidewalk , she picks up a gold bicycle lying against a fallen fence and rides off . Kesha meets a group of children and trades the bicycle for their boombox . The video cuts to another scene where she rejects a guy and is picked up by a man portrayed by Simon Rex who drives her in a gold 1978 Trans Am . They are pulled over by the police , who handcuff Kesha . The scene then pans to her singing while standing in the T @-@ top as she dangles the handcuffs hanging from her left arm . The next scene shows Kesha in an empty room filled with glitter . She then attends a party with Rex for the final scene . The video comes to an end with Kesha lying in a different bathtub from the one she woke up in . The official music video has received over 250 million views on YouTube as of September 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Cover versions and parodies = = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic included the chorus in his polka medley " Polka Face " from his 2011 album Alpocalypse . The song was parodied by British comedy group The Midnight Beast . The parody discusses youthful subjects such as attempting to view the nude bodies of women and dodging parents ' anger . After Kesha discovered the parody , she left a message on her Twitter account : " holy. shit. this is better than my version . " Released to iTunes on January 15 , 2010 , the song peaked at number four on the Australian Singles Chart , and at thirty @-@ nine on the Irish Singles Chart . Comedian Julie Brown parodied the song with the single " Another Drunk Chick " on her album Smell the Glamour ( 2011 ) . Jarett Wiselman of The New York Post stated it was " one of the year 's best comedy albums . " Avril Lavigne performed an acoustic version of the song in her setlist for BBC 's Radio 1 .
In 2009 , American metalcore band , Woe , Is Me , covered the song , making it one of the earliest releases from the band .
Another parody of " Tik Tok " which is called " Go Cops ! " has reached over 11 million views on YouTube and became viral rapidly . This parody was made by a Comedy Music Artist and Comedian from Detroit called Rucka Rucka Ali .
Another parody came about when Israel Defense Forces soldiers created IDF Tik Tok in 2010 , a viral dance video that opens with six infantry soldiers on patrol in Hebron , walking cautiously down a deserted street , armed and wearing full combat gear , when " Tik Tok " begins to play , and the soldiers break into choreographed dance moves . " Tik Tok " was used in the opening sequence for The Simpsons episode " To Surveil with Love " , in which the entire cast lip @-@ synced to the song .
The cast of FOX musical series Glee performed this song on the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " , with Heather Morris ' character , Brittany Pierce , taking the lead . The episode revolved around teen drinking and its dangers . The members of Glee Club are asked to perform at the school 's alcohol awareness assembly , in which " Tik Tok " is one of the songs performed . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that the song 's inclusion in the episode was superfluous , stating that it was just an excuse to get a Kesha song on Glee . VanDerWerff however , wrote that he " REALLY liked Heather Morris ' " rendition of the song . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly praised Brittany 's choreography and overall performance in " Tik Tok " , writing , " The huge star of this number was clearly Brittany , who more and more every week proves that she needs to be moved to the forefront of this show 's big performances and storylines . " Gonzalez gave the cover version of " Tik Tok " a B , calling it " pure , fun entertainment up until we got to the part straight out of the mind of Gordie LaChance . So even though the purple vomit was a bit too much for this weak viewer , the performance made me add a Ke $ ha song to my iTunes , which I never thought would happen . " Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone gave the cover version of " Tik Tok " a mostly positive review , writing , " Love Brittany as we do , we wish Rachel or Mercedes stepped up to the mic . The performance is less risqué than their Pep Rally " Push It " but winds up causing more controversy when Brittany pukes on Rachel and Santana also vomits up grey slush . It 's a fitting end to the song , and the episode . "
In 2012 , British girl band Little Mix covered this song with single Push It on X Factor .
= = = Media = = =
" Tik Tok " was used in several episodes of TV USA : The Hills , The Simpsons ( used the opening ) , Glee ( covered by Heather Morris ) , and TV Chilean : Otra vez papa , Gordis , Proyecto Miss Chile . The song was also used in a TV spot of the 2010 live @-@ action comedy film Marmaduke . The song was used in a Chilean commercial shopping La Polar in January 2011 and was featured in a promo of Chilean La Red international release America 's Next Top Model in April 2010 . This song is also used in the 2011 comedy film Diary of a Wimpy Kid : Rodrick Rules .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Conway Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Animal , Dynamite Cop Music / Where Da Kasz at BMI .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Wife selling ( English custom ) =
Wife selling in England was a way of ending an unsatisfactory marriage by mutual agreement that probably began in the late 17th century , when divorce was a practical impossibility for all but the very wealthiest . After parading his wife with a halter around her neck , arm , or waist , a husband would publicly auction her to the highest bidder . Wife selling provides the backdrop for Thomas Hardy 's novel The Mayor of Casterbridge , in which the central character sells his wife at the beginning of the story , an act that haunts him for the rest of his life , and ultimately destroys him .
Although the custom had no basis in law and frequently resulted in prosecution , particularly from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards , the attitude of the authorities was equivocal . At least one early 19th @-@ century magistrate is on record as stating that he did not believe he had the right to prevent wife sales , and there were cases of local Poor Law Commissioners forcing husbands to sell their wives , rather than having to maintain the family in workhouses .
Wife selling persisted in England in some form until the early 20th century ; according to the jurist and historian James Bryce , writing in 1901 , wife sales were still occasionally taking place during his time . In one of the last reported instances of a wife sale in England , a woman giving evidence in a Leeds police court in 1913 claimed that she had been sold to one of her husband 's workmates for £ 1 .
= = Legal background = =
Wife selling in its " ritual form " appears to be an " invented custom " that originated at about the end of the 17th century , although there is an account from 1302 of someone who " granted his wife by deed to another man " . With the rise in popularity of newspapers , reports of the practice become more frequent in the second half of the 18th century . In the words of 20th @-@ century writer Courtney Kenny , the ritual was " a custom rooted sufficiently deeply to show that it was of no recent origin " . Writing in 1901 on the subject of wife selling , James Bryce stated that there was " no trace at all in our [ English ] law of any such right " , but he also observed that " everybody has heard of the odd habit of selling a wife , which still occasionally recurs among the humbler classes in England " .
= = = Marriage = = =
Until the passing of the Marriage Act of 1753 , a formal ceremony of marriage before a clergyman was not a legal requirement in England , and marriages were unregistered . All that was required was for both parties to agree to the union , so long as each had reached the legal age of consent , which was 12 for girls and 14 for boys . Women were completely subordinated to their husbands after marriage , the husband and wife becoming one legal entity , a legal status known as coverture . As the eminent English judge Sir William Blackstone wrote in 1753 : " the very being , or legal existence of the woman , is suspended during the marriage , or at least is consolidated and incorporated into that of her husband : under whose wing , protection and cover , she performs everything " . Married women could not own property in their own right , and were indeed themselves the property of their husbands . But Blackstone went on to observe that " even the disabilities the wife lies under are , for the most part , intended for her protection and benefit . So great a favourite is the female sex of the laws of England " .
= = = Separation = = =
Five distinct methods of breaking up a marriage existed in the early modern period of English history . One was to sue in the ecclesiastical courts for separation from bed and board ( a mensa et thoro ) , on the grounds of adultery or life @-@ threatening cruelty , but it did not allow a remarriage . From the 1550s , until the Matrimonial Causes Act became law in 1857 , divorce in England was only possible , if at all , by the complex and costly procedure of a private Act of Parliament . Although the divorce courts set up in the wake of the 1857 Act made the procedure considerably cheaper , divorce remained prohibitively expensive for the poorer members of society . An alternative was to obtain a " private separation " , an agreement negotiated between both spouses , embodied in a deed of separation drawn up by a conveyancer . Desertion or elopement was also possible , whereby the wife was forced out of the family home , or the husband simply set up a new home with his mistress . Finally , the less popular notion of wife selling was an alternative but illegitimate method of ending a marriage . The Laws Respecting Women , As They Regard Their Natural Rights ( 1777 ) observed that , for the poor , wife selling was viewed as a " method of dissolving marriage " , when " a husband and wife find themselves heartily tired of each other , and agree to part , if the man has a mind to authenticate the intended separation by making it a matter of public notoriety " .
Although some 19th @-@ century wives objected , records of 18th @-@ century women resisting their sales are non @-@ existent . With no financial resources , and no skills on which to trade , for many women a sale was the only way out of an unhappy marriage . Indeed , the wife is sometimes reported as having insisted on the sale . A wife sold in Wenlock Market for 2s . 6d. in 1830 was quite determined that the transaction should go ahead , despite her husband 's last @-@ minute misgivings : " ' e [ the husband ] turned shy , and tried to get out of the business , but Mattie mad ' un stick to it . ' Er flipt her apern in ' er gude man 's face , and said , ' Let be yer rogue . I wull be sold . I wants a change ' . "
For the husband , the sale released him from his marital duties , including any financial responsibility for his wife . For the purchaser , who was often the wife 's lover , the transaction freed him from the threat of a legal action for criminal conversation , a claim by the husband for restitution or damage to his property , in this case his wife .
= = Sale = =
It is unclear when the ritualised custom of selling a wife by public auction first began , but it seems likely to have been some time towards the end of the 17th century . In November 1692 " John , ye son of Nathan Whitehouse , of Tipton , sold his wife to Mr. Bracegirdle " , although the manner of the sale is unrecorded . In 1696 , Thomas Heath Maultster was fined for " cohabiteing in an unlawful manner with the wife of George ffuller of Chinner ... haueing bought her of her husband at 2d.q. the pound " , and ordered by the peculiar court at Thame to perform public penance , but between 1690 and 1750 only eight other cases are recorded in England . In an Oxford case of 1789 wife selling is described as " the vulgar form of Divorce lately adopted " , suggesting that even if it was by then established in some parts of the country it was only slowly spreading to others . It persisted in some form until the early 20th century , although by then in " an advanced state of decomposition " .
In most reports the sale was announced in advance , perhaps by advertisement in a local newspaper . It usually took the form of an auction , often at a local market , to which the wife would be led by a halter ( usually of rope but sometimes of ribbon ) around her neck , or arm . Often the purchaser was arranged in advance , and the sale was a form of symbolic separation and remarriage , as in a case from Maidstone , where in January 1815 John Osborne planned to sell his wife at the local market . However , as no market was held that day , the sale took place instead at " the sign of ' The Coal @-@ barge , ' in Earl Street " , where " in a very regular manner " , his wife and child were sold for £ 1 to a man named William Serjeant . In July the same year a wife was brought to Smithfield market by coach , and sold for 50 guineas and a horse . Once the sale was complete , " the lady , with her new lord and master , mounted a handsome curricle which was in waiting for them , and drove off , seemingly nothing loath to go . " At another sale in September 1815 , at Staines market , " only three shillings and four pence were offered for the lot , no one choosing to contend with the bidder , for the fair object , whose merits could only be appreciated by those who knew them . This the purchaser could boast , from a long and intimate acquaintance . "
Although the initiative was usually the husband 's , the wife had to agree to the sale . An 1824 report from Manchester says that " after several biddings she [ the wife ] was knocked down for 5s ; but not liking the purchaser , she was put up again for 3s and a quart of ale " . Frequently the wife was already living with her new partner . In one case in 1804 a London shopkeeper found his wife in bed with a stranger to him , who , following an altercation , offered to purchase the wife . The shopkeeper agreed , and in this instance the sale may have been an acceptable method of resolving the situation . However , the sale was sometimes spontaneous , and the wife could find herself the subject of bids from total strangers . In March 1766 , a carpenter from Southwark sold his wife " in a fit of conjugal indifference at the alehouse " . Once sober , the man asked his wife to return , and after she refused he hanged himself . A domestic fight might sometimes precede the sale of a wife , but in most recorded cases the intent was to end a marriage in a way that gave it the legitimacy of a divorce . In some cases the wife arranged for her own sale , and even provided the money for her agent to buy her out of her marriage , such as an 1822 case in Plymouth .
Such " divorces " were not always permanent . In 1826 John Turton sold his wife Mary to William Kaye at Emley Cross for five shillings . But after Kaye 's death she returned to her husband , and the couple remained together for the next 30 years .
= = = Mid @-@ 19th century = = =
It was believed during the mid @-@ 19th century that wife selling was restricted to the lowest levels of labourers , especially to those living in remote rural areas , but an analysis of the occupations of husbands and purchasers reveals that the custom was strongest in " proto @-@ industrial " communities . Of the 158 cases in which occupation can be established , the largest group ( 19 ) was involved in the livestock or transport trades , 14 worked in the building trade , 5 were blacksmiths , 4 were chimney @-@ sweeps , and 2 were described as gentlemen , suggesting that wife selling was not simply a peasant custom . The most high @-@ profile case was that of Henry Brydges , 2nd Duke of Chandos , who is reported to have bought his second wife from an ostler in about 1740 .
Prices paid for wives varied considerably , from a high of £ 100 plus £ 25 each for her two children in a sale of 1865 ( equivalent to about £ 12 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) to a low of a glass of ale , or even free . The lowest amount of money exchanged was three farthings ( three @-@ quarters of one penny ) , but the usual price seems to have been between 2s . 6d. and 5 shillings . According to authors Wade Mansell and Belinda Meteyard , money seems usually to have been a secondary consideration ; the more important factor was that the sale was seen by many as legally binding , despite it having no basis in law . Some of the new couples bigamously married , but the attitude of officialdom towards wife selling was equivocal . Rural clergy and magistrates knew of the custom , but seemed uncertain of its legitimacy , or chose to turn a blind eye . Entries have been found in baptismal registers , such as this example from Perleigh in Essex , dated 1782 : " Amie Daughter of Moses Stebbing by a bought wife delivered to him in a Halter " . A jury in Lincolnshire ruled in 1784 that a man who had sold his wife had no right to reclaim her from her purchaser , thus endorsing the validity of the transaction . In 1819 a magistrate who attempted to prevent a sale at Ashbourne , Derby , but was pelted and driven away by the crowd , later commented :
Although the real object of my sending the constables was to prevent the scandalous sale , the apparent motive was that of keeping the peace ... As to the act of selling itself , I do not think I have a right to prevent it , or even oppose any obstacle to it , because it rests upon a custom preserved by the people of which perhaps it would be dangerous to deprive them by any law for that purpose .
In some cases , like that of Henry Cook in 1814 , the Poor Law authorities forced the husband to sell his wife , rather than have to maintain her and her child in the Effingham workhouse . She was taken to Croydon market and sold for one shilling , the parish paying for the cost of the journey and a " wedding dinner " .
= = = Venue = = =
By choosing a market as the location for the sale , the couple ensured a large audience , which made their separation a widely witnessed fact . The use of the halter was symbolic ; after the sale , it was handed to the purchaser as a signal that the transaction was concluded , and in some instances , those involved would often attempt further to legitimate the sale by forcing the winning bidder to sign a contract , recognising that the seller had no further liability for his wife . In 1735 , a successful wife sale in St Clements was announced by the common cryer , who wandered the streets ensuring that local traders were aware of the former husband 's intention not to honour " any debts she should contract " . The same point was made in an advertisement placed in the Ipswich Journal in 1789 : " no person or persons to intrust her with my name ... for she is no longer my right " . Those involved in such sales sometimes attempted to legalise the transaction , as demonstrated by a bill of sale for a wife , preserved in the British Museum . The bill is contained in a petition presented to a Somerset Justice of the Peace in 1758 , by a wife who about 18 months earlier had been sold by her husband for £ 6 6s " for the support of his extravagancy " . The petition does not object to the sale , but complains that the husband returned three months later to demand more money from his wife and her new " husband " .
In Sussex , inns and public houses were a regular venue for wife @-@ selling , and alcohol often formed part of the payment . For example , when a man sold his wife at the Shoulder of Mutton and Cucumber in Yapton in 1898 , the purchaser paid 7s . 6d . ( £ 40 in 2016 ) and 1 imperial quart ( 1 @.@ 1 l ) of beer . A sale a century earlier in Brighton involved " eight pots of beer " and seven shillings ( £ 30 in 2016 ) ; and in Ninfield in 1790 , a man who swapped his wife at the village inn for half a pint of gin changed his mind and bought her back later .
Public wife sales were sometimes attended by huge crowds . An 1806 sale in Hull was postponed " owing to the crowd which such an extraordinary occurrence had gathered together " , suggesting that wife sales were relatively rare events , and therefore popular . Estimates of the frequency of the ritual usually number about 300 between 1780 and 1850 , relatively insignificant compared to the instances of desertion , which in the Victorian era numbered in the tens of thousands .
= = = Distribution and symbolism = = =
Wife selling appears to have been widespread throughout England , but relatively rare in neighbouring Wales , where only a few cases were reported , and in Scotland where only one has been discovered . The English county with the highest number of cases between 1760 and 1880 was Yorkshire , with 44 , considerably more than the 19 reported for Middlesex and London during the same period , despite the French caricature of Milord John Bull " booted and spurred , in [ London 's ] Smithfield Market , crying ' à quinze livres ma femme ! ' [ £ 15 for my wife ] , while Milady stood haltered in a pen " .
In his account , Wives for Sale , author Samuel Pyeatt Menefee collected 387 incidents of wife selling , the last of which occurred in the early 20th century . Historian E. P. Thompson considered many of Menefee 's cases to be " vague and dubious " , and that some double @-@ counting had taken place , but he nevertheless agreed that about 300 were authentic , which when combined with his own research resulted in about 400 reported cases .
Menefee argued that the ritual mirrored that of a livestock sale — the symbolic meaning of the halter ; wives were even occasionally valued by weight , just like livestock . Although the halter was considered central to the " legitimacy " of the sale , Thompson has suggested that Menefee may have misunderstood the social context of the transaction . Markets were favoured not because livestock was traded there , but because they offered a public venue where the separation of husband and wife could be witnessed . Sales often took place at fairs , in front of public houses , or local landmarks such as the obelisk at Preston ( 1817 ) , or Bolton 's " gas pillar " ( 1835 ) , where crowds could be expected to gather .
There were very few reported sales of husbands , and from a modern perspective , selling a wife like a chattel is degrading , even when considered as a form of divorce . Nevertheless , most contemporary reports hint at the women 's independence and sexual vitality : " The women are described as ' fine @-@ looking ' , ' buxom ' , ' of good appearance ' , ' a comely @-@ looking country girl ' , or as ' enjoying the fun and frolic heartily ' " .
Along with other English customs , settlers arriving in the American colonies during the late 17th and early 18th century took with them the practice of wife selling , and the belief in its legitimacy as a way of ending a marriage . In 1645 " The P 'ticular Court " of Hartford , Connecticut , reported the case of Baggett Egleston , who was fined 20 shillings for " bequething his wyfe to a young man " . The Boston Evening @-@ Post reported on 15 March 1736 an argument between two men " and a certain woman , each one claiming her as his Wife , but so it was that one of them had actually disposed of his Right in her to the other for Fifteen Shillings " . The purchaser had , apparently , refused to pay in full , and had attempted to return " his " wife . He was given the outstanding sum by two generous bystanders , and paid the husband — who promptly " gave the Woman a modest Salute wishing her well , and his Brother Sterling much Joy of his Bargain . " An account in 1781 of a William Collings of South Carolina records that he sold his wife for " two dollars and half [ a ] dozen bowls of grogg " .
= = Changing attitudes = =
Towards the end of the 18th century , some hostility towards wife selling began to manifest itself amongst the general population . One sale in 1756 in Dublin was interrupted by a group of women who " rescued " the wife , following which the husband was given a mock trial and placed in the stocks until early the next morning . In about 1777 , a wife sale at Carmarthenshire produced in the crowd " a great silence " , and " a feeling of uneasiness in the gathering " . When a labourer offered his wife for sale on Smithfield market in 1806 , " the public became incensed at the husband , and would have severely punished him for his brutality , but for the interference of some officers of the police . "
Reports of wife selling rose from two per decade in the 1750s , to a peak of 50 in the 1820s and 1830s . As the number of cases increased so did opposition to the practice . It became seen as one of a number of popular customs that the social elite believed it their duty to abolish , and women protested that it represented " a threat and insult to their sex " . JPs in Quarter Sessions became more active in punishing those involved in wife selling , and some test cases in the central law courts confirmed the illegality of the practice . Newspaper accounts were often disparaging : " a most disgusting and disgraceful scene " was the description in a report of 1832 , but it was not until the 1840s that the number of cases of wife selling began to decline significantly . Thompson discovered 121 published reports of wife sales between 1800 and 1840 , as compared to 55 between 1840 and 1880 .
Lord Chief Justice William Murray , 1st Earl of Mansfield , considered wife sales to be a conspiracy to commit adultery , but few of those reported in the newspapers led to prosecutions in court . The Times reported one such case in 1818 , in which a man was indicted for selling his wife at Leominster market , for 2s . 6d . In 1825 a man named Johnson was charged with " having sung a song in the streets describing the merits of his wife , for the purpose of selling her to the highest bidder at Smithfield . " Such songs were not unique ; in about 1842 John Ashton wrote " Sale of a Wife " . The arresting officer claimed that the man had gathered a " crowd of all sorts of vagabonds together , who appeared to listen to his ditty , but were in fact , collected to pick pockets . " The defendant , however , replied that he had " not the most distant idea of selling his wife , who was , poor creature , at home with her hungry children , while he was endeavouring to earn a bit of bread for them by the strength of his lungs . " He had also printed copies of the song , and the story of a wife sale , to earn money . Before releasing him , the Lord Mayor , judging the case , cautioned Johnson that the practice could not be allowed , and must not be repeated . In 1833 the sale of a woman was reported at Epping . She was sold for 2s . 6d . , with a duty of 6d . Once sober , and placed before the Justices of the Peace , the husband claimed that he had been forced into marriage by the parish authorities , and had " never since lived with her , and that she had lived in open adultery with the man Bradley , by whom she had been purchased " . He was imprisoned for " having deserted his wife " .
The return of a wife after 18 years results in Michael Henchard 's downfall in Thomas Hardy 's novel Mayor of Casterbridge . A bad @-@ tempered , impulsive and cruel husband , feeling burdened by his wife , Henchard sells her to a stranger for five guineas . He becomes a successful businessman and rises to the position of mayor , but the return of his wife many years later prompts his fall back into penury . The custom was also referred to in the 19th @-@ century French play , Le Marché de Londres . Commenting on the drama and contemporary French attitudes on the custom , in 1846 the writer Angus B. Reach complained : " They reckon up a long and visionary list of our failings [ ... They ] would as readily give up their belief in the geographical and physical existence of London , as in the astounding fact that in England a husband sells his wife exactly as he sells his horse or his dog . " Such complaints were still commonplace nearly 20 years later ; in The Book of Days ( 1864 ) , author Robert Chambers wrote about a case of wife selling in 1832 , and noted that " the occasional instances of wife @-@ sale , while remarked by ourselves with little beyond a passing smile , have made a deep impression on our continental neighbours , [ who ] constantly cite it as an evidence of our low civilisation . " Embarrassed by the practice , a legal handbook of 1853 enabled English judges to dismiss wife selling as a myth : " It is a vulgar error that a husband can get rid of his wife by selling her in the open market with a halter round her neck . Such an act on his part would be severely punished by the local magistrate . " Originally published in 1869 , Burn 's Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer states that " publicly selling or buying a wife is clearly an indictable offence ... And many prosecutions against husbands for selling , and others for buying , have recently been sustained , and imprisonment for six months inflicted " .
Another form of wife selling was by deed of conveyance . Although initially much less common than sale by auction , the practice became more widespread after the 1850s , as popular opinion turned against the market sale of a wife . The issue of the commonly perceived legitimacy of wife selling was also brought to the government . In 1881 , Home Secretary William Harcourt was asked to comment on an incident in Sheffield , in which a man sold his wife for a quart of beer . Harcourt replied : " no impression exists anywhere in England that the selling of wives is legitimate " , and " that no such practice as wife selling exists " , but as late as 1889 , a member of the Salvation Army sold his wife for a shilling in Hucknall Torkard , Nottinghamshire , and subsequently led her by the halter to her buyer 's house , the last case in which the use of a halter is mentioned . The most recent case of an English wife sale was reported in 1913 , when a woman giving evidence in a Leeds police court during a maintenance case claimed that her husband had sold her to one of his workmates for £ 1 ( equivalent to about £ 90 in 2016 ) . The manner of her sale is unrecorded .
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 8 ) =
The eighth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from March 26 , 2011 to December 6 , 2012 , and contained 26 episodes , beginning with the episodes " A Friendly Game " and " Oral Report " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg and writer Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the showrunner .
The show itself received several recognition , including the 2011 and 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon . The series was also nominated in various international Kids ' Choice Awards ceremonies for the same category . At the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards the show received four nominations — including Outstanding Children 's Animated Program , Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program , Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program for Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles , and Outstanding Sound Editing -Animation . At the 40th Daytime Emmy Awards , the series was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing - Animation . The show won the BAFTA Children 's Awards for the International category . The episode " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was well received at the 40th Annie Awards , being nominated for three categories , including a successful win for Dan Driscoll for the Character Animation in an Animated Television or other Broadcast Venue Production category . In 2012 , it was reported that the show was receiving a decline in ratings . The Wall Street Journal pointed to a few possible problems : It could be too old , or it may be shown on TV too often . Another issue could be its licensing to Netflix , an on @-@ demand Internet streaming media , the previous year . As a result , Netflix CEO Reed Hastings announced not to renew their existing deal with Viacom , owner of the SpongeBob trademark . Since then , Viacom 's deal with Netflix expired , removed its shows such as SpongeBob , and Dora the Explorer , and moved its programmings to Amazon.com , Netflix 's top competitor .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete Eighth Season DVD was released in Region 1 on March 12 , 2013 , Region 2 on October 28 , 2013 , and Region 4 on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the series ' showrunner . Due to the success of the show , the New York Daily News reported that Nickelodeon picked up SpongeBob SquarePants for an eighth season on December 14 , 2009 , during the year which the show was celebrating its tenth anniversary on television . Brown Johnson , president of animation for Nickelodeon and MTVN Kids & Family Group , announced the renewal of the series . The season was ordered with 26 episodes , that would bring the total number of episodes for the series to 178 . With its episode count of 178 , SpongeBob SquarePants surpassed Rugrats in episodes to claim the spot as the Nickelodeon series with most episodes . Johnson said " After a decade on our air , SpongeBob has emerged as one of the most beloved and popular characters in television history . Audiences of all ages have fallen in love with this show and we 're delighted to be serving up additional original episodes to our viewers for many years . "
Nickelodeon President Cyma Zarghami said " There are a bunch of different theories about SpongeBob . You can 't dismiss the fact that it is a creatively excellent property . It 's a character of good , positive energy . It came at a time when people wanted something more positive . " On March 26 , 2011 , the season premiered with the episode " A Friendly Game " and " Oral Report " . The episode " A Friendly Game " was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas and Steven Banks , with Tom Yasumi serving as animation director . The episode " Oral Report " was written by Alexander , Cervas and Dani Michaeli , and was directed by Alan Smart .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . In 2012 , Nickelodeon produced and debuted " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " , the first full @-@ length episode of the series that was produced in stop motion animation . Mark Caballero , Seamus Walsh , and Christopher Finnegan of Screen Novelties animated it , and Caballero and Walsh also served as its directors . Production on the episode began in October 2011 at Los Angeles , California . According to Finnegan , it took about five months to shoot , with a couple of months on either end for research and development and post . Animation directors credited with episodes in the eighth season included Caballero , Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , Walsh , and Tom Yasumi . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Alexander , Banks , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Marc Ceccarelli , Cervas , Sean Charmatz , Andrew Goodman , Derek Iversen , Mr. Lawrence , Michaeli , Richard Pursel , Aaron Springer , Paul Tibbitt , and Vincent Waller . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Brookshier , Cash , Ceccarelli , Cervas , Charmatz , Springer , and Waller .
= = Cast = =
The eighth season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " Ghoul Fools " , American actor and comedian Chris Elliott guest starred in the episode as Lord Poltergeist , ghost pirate who runs a " haunted house boat . " Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned in the episode " Mermaid Man Begins " , reprising their roles as SpongeBob and Patrick 's favorite superheroes , Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . They reappeared in " Super Evil Aquatic Villain Team Up is Go ! " , voicing their respective roles . In " Pet Sitter Pat " , Marion Ross voiced her recurring role as Grandma SquarePants , SpongeBob 's grandmother . In " The Way of the Sponge " , comedian Rich Fulcher guest starred as Fuzzy Acorns , Sandy 's karate instructor . John Goodman guest starred in the special episode " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " as Santa Claus . In " Hello Bikini Bottom " , Andy Samberg voiced the character of Colonel Carper , a concert manager who wants to become SpongeBob and Squidward 's band manager . Samberg said " I 've been a SpongeBob fan for years , so I was honored to be asked . It 's one of the few shows ever that 's just as funny for kids as it is for adults . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its peak years in early 2000 , SpongeBob SquarePants received enormous ratings and number of viewers . By 2012 , it was reported that the series ' ratings were declining . The average number of viewers aged 2 to 11 watching SpongeBob at any given time dropped 29 % in the first quarter from a year earlier , according to Nielsen . Wall Street Journal business writer John Jannarone suggested that the age of the series and oversaturation of the show might be contributing to the decline of the series ' ratings , and might also be directly responsible for the decline in Nickelodeon 's overall ratings . Media analyst Todd Juenger , directly attributes the decline in Nickelodeon 's ratings to the availability of streaming video content on services like Netflix , a provider of on @-@ demand Internet streaming media . Philippe Dauman , the president and CEO of Viacom , contradicted the notion saying he did not think " the limited amount of Nick library content on Netflix [ ... ] has had a significant impact " . A Nickelodeon spokesman says SpongeBob is performing consistently well and remains as the number one rated animated series in all of children 's television . He added " there is nothing that we have seen that points to SpongeBob as a problem . " Dauman blamed the drop on " some ratings systemic issues " at Nielsen , citing extensive set @-@ top @-@ box data that " does in no way reflect " the Nielsen data .
Juenger also notes that SpongeBob could affect the ratings of other Nickelodeon programming because children often change channels to find their favorites program , then stay tuned into that network . Nickelodeon recently reduced its exposure in television . In the first quarter of 2012 , the network cut back on the number of episodes it aired by 16 % compared with a year earlier .
On April 22 , 2013 , Netflix CEO Reed Hastings announced not to renew their existing deal with Viacom . Since then , Viacom 's deal with Netflix expired and removed its shows such as SpongeBob , and Dora the Explorer . However , SpongeBob is still available to stream on Netflix in Canada . On June 4 , 2013 , Viacom announced a multi @-@ year licensing agreement moving its programmings , such as SpongeBob and Dora the Explorer , to Amazon.com , Netflix 's top competitor . Amazon agreed to pay more than $ 200 million to Viacom for the license , its largest subscription streaming transaction ever .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
At the 39th Annie Awards , Dani Michaeli , Sean Charmatz , Nate Cash , Luke Brookshier and Paul Tibbitt were nominated for Best Writing in an Animated Television Production for the episode " Patrick 's Staycation " . Moreover , directors Mark Caballero and Seamus Walsh also received a nomination at the 40th Annie Awards for Directing in an Animated Television or other Broadcast Venue Production for the episode " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " . Nominated for the same episode , Dan Driscoll won the Character Animation in an Animated Television or other Broadcast Venue Production category . Savelen Forrest received the same nomination for his work on the episode , but lost . The episode was also nominated at the 2013 Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing - Sound Effects , Foley , Dialogue and ADR Animation in Television . " It 's a SpongeBob Christmas ! " was nominated at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival for Special Award for a TV Series .
The show itself received several recognition . At the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards the show received four nominations — including Outstanding Children 's Animated Program , Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program , Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program for Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles , and Outstanding Sound Editing - Animation . At the 40th Daytime Emmy Awards , the series was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing - Animation . The show was nominated at the Producers Guild of America for the Children 's Program category . At the BAFTA Children 's Awards , the show won the International category . At the 2011 and 2012 ASCAP Film and Television Awards , SpongeBob SquarePants won the Top Television Series category . Furthermore , at the 2011 Kids ' Choice Awards , the show won the Favorite Cartoon category . The series also won the succeeding year 's Kids ' Choice Awards and the 2011 Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards for the same category . SpongeBob SquarePants also received Favorite Cartoon nominations at the Kids ' Choice Awards Argentina 2011 and 2012 , and at the 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards Mexico . At the TP de Oro , the show won the Best Children and Youth Program category .
The season received positive reviews from media critics . In his review for The Boston Globe , Tom Russo was positive on the season DVD set . Russo praised the episode that " topped the shortlist " , " Plankton 's Good Eye " , writing " the micro @-@ antagonist clones one of SpongeBob 's eyeballs for himself , and suddenly develops a more bubbly worldview . " Author Richard Reitsma cited a scene in " Squidward 's School for Grown @-@ Ups " , in which SpongeBob tries to win back Patrick 's friendship by dressing as the operatic Brünnhilde ( just as Bugs Bunny did in the classic 1957 cartoon What 's Opera , Doc ? ) , as an example of the supposed gay subtext in the series , claimed to exist by some critics of the show and denied by its creator .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD boxset for season eight was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in March 2013 , three months after it had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials .
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= City at the End of Time =
City at the End of Time is a 2008 science fiction novel by American writer Greg Bear . It was published in August 2008 by Del Rey in the United States , and Gollancz in the United Kingdom . The story follows three drifters in present @-@ day Seattle who are tormented by strange dreams of the Kalpa , a city one hundred trillion years in the future . The Kalpa is attempting to ward off the Typhon , an inexplicable entity that has consumed the rest of the ancient universe and broken down the laws of physics .
The novel belongs to the Dying Earth subgenre . It is rooted in hard science fiction , but also incorporates several other genres , including fantasy and horror . Bear called it science fiction " stretched to the nth degree " . He said that in the novel he honors those writers who changed the face of science fiction and fantasy , including William Hope Hodgson and Arthur C. Clarke , and pays homage to Hodgson 's 1912 novel , The Night Land , with which City at the End of Time shares a number of plot elements .
The novel received a mixed reception from critics . Some reviewers were impressed by the novel 's scope and grandiosity , while others felt that the characters were underdeveloped and the story was difficult to follow . New Scientist described the first half of the book as " a gripping , original tale " , but complained that in the second half Bear over @-@ complicates the story with " too many ideas , images , mythologies and distractions " . City at the End of Time was nominated for the Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel and the John W. Campbell Memorial Award in 2009 .
= = Plot summary = =
City at the End of Time is about the Kalpa , the last city on Earth , one hundred trillion years in the future . The novel 's backstory describes how the aging universe continued expanding and its spacetime fabric weakened . With the galaxies burnt out , humanity dispersed across the cosmos , where they encountered the Typhon , an inexplicable entity that was destroying the decaying universe . It consumed matter and replaced space @-@ time with emptiness and inconsistencies beyond the laws of physics . The resulting Chaos spread rapidly , driving some humans back to ancient Earth with its rekindled sun . In an attempt to fend off the approaching Typhon , leaders of the dying Earth sent for Polybiblios , a human living with the Shen , an ancient alien race . Polybiblios returned to Earth with his adopted daughter , Ishanaxade , a being he had constructed from " fate @-@ logs " of intelligent species collected by the Shen . After the Shen system fell , and the Chaos surrounded Earth , its leaders instructed everybody to convert themselves from primordial ( real ) matter to noötic ( virtual ) mass . As each city fell , its inhabitants retreated to the last remaining cities , the Kalpa and Nataraja . Using knowledge he had gleaned from the Shen , Polybiblios built reality generators to protect the Kalpa . Nataraja , which had rebelled against the instruction to convert to noötic matter , was left to fend for itself .
The novel alternates between the Kalpa and present @-@ day Seattle , where three drifters , Ginny , Jack and Daniel are in possession of sum @-@ runners , small stone @-@ like talismans that give them " fate @-@ shifting " abilities , whereby they can jump between fate @-@ lines ( world lines in a multiverse ) . Ginny and Jack also have disturbing dreams of the Kalpa , and are inexplicably connected to Jebrassy and Taidba , two " breeds " living in the future city . Fate @-@ shifters and their sum @-@ runners are hunted by " collectors " working for the Chalk Princess , an entity controlled by the Typhon from the future . These hunters place adverts in local newspapers inviting " dreamers " to contact them for " help " .
In the future , the Typhon is destroying history and world @-@ lines are being broken , merging the past and the present . With the Chaos closing in on the Kalpa , the inhabitants ( all noötic ) are unable to venture outside the city walls . Under Ishanaxade 's instructions , they create " breeds " , copies of ancient humans , using primordial matter . They send them in groups into the Chaos to find out if Nataraja still stands , but none return . Ishanaxade herself ventures out , but is not heard from again . As the Typhon starts breaching the Kalpa , the last batch of breeds , including Jebrassy and Taidba , leave the city in search of help . Armed with portable reality generators , they slowly progress through the unreal landscape in search of the rebel city .
Meanwhile , the Chaos has reached all the way back to the present @-@ day , and an event called the Terminus hits Seattle : the past , present and future collide and world @-@ lines are severed . Ginny , Jack and Daniel , having evaded the hunters , trek across a degenerating Seattle . Protected by their sum @-@ runners , they are drawn to Nataraja , where Ishanaxade is waiting . While still in the Kalpa , Ishanaxade had instructed Polybiblios to create the sum @-@ runners containing " fragmented Babels " , and in the Chaos she had sent them back to the " beginning of time " . The sum @-@ runners were programmed to lead the bearers to Ishanaxade when the expected Terminus occurred . The breeds , programmed to see Ishanaxade as their " mother " , are also drawn to Nataraja , and Jebrassy and Taidba find their counterparts Jack and Ginny in the ruined city . The Kalpa falls to the Chaos , but in Nataraja , the sum @-@ runners and their Babel fragments are united and history is recreated , causing the Typhon , now a failed god , to implode .
= = Background = =
Greg Bear is an award @-@ winning science fiction writer from Seattle . He has won three Nebula Awards , including the 1995 Award for Best Novel for Moving Mars , and two Hugo Awards , including the 1983 Award for Best Novelette for Blood Music . City at the End of Time was his first novel since Quantico , which was first published in 2005 . Bear 's early influences included science fiction authors Robert A. Heinlein , Isaac Asimov and Poul Anderson .
Bear called City at the End of Time his " longest and most ambitious science fiction novel " he has written for a while . He said it is a " significant departure " from any of his previous works , and that it has a future history unlike anything he had tackled before . In an interview with Andromeda Spaceways Inflight Magazine in September 2008 , Bear said that what inspired him to write City at the End of Time was the question , " What if we 're still primitive in our thinking [ about physics and cosmology ] ? " , and this led to the idea for a story of " a Universe that goes on and on and on , and how reality might have to be changed by that circumstance . "
Bear told Locus magazine in August 2008 that he had found what appears to be a " continuity " in British science fiction : H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine ( 1895 ) , Arthur C. Clarke 's The City and the Stars ( 1956 ) , and Hodgson 's The House on the Borderland ( 1908 ) and The Night Land ( 1912 ) , all speculate on the evolution of humankind in the deep future . Bear said that these works , and their author 's imagination , were a big influence on City at the End of Time .
= = Analysis and genre = =
Science fiction critic John Clute said " City at the End of Time is an example of a novel in dialogue with past works of SF . " He said that Bear pays homage to William Hope Hodgson 's 1912 novel , The Night Land , with which City at the End of Time shares a number of plot elements . Both books include characters who dream of cities in the far future ( the Kalpa , and the Last Redoubt in The Night Land ) which are surrounded by encroaching chaos . The Kalpa also draws on Arthur C. Clarke 's future city , Diaspar in his 1956 novel , The City and the Stars . Influences of other past works on City at the End of Time include H. P. Lovecraft 's novella The Shadow Out of Time ( 1936 ) , in which people exchange personalities in dreams across time , and Olaf Stapledon 's Last and First Men ( 1930 ) , in which the last of humanity in the deep future mentally contact people from the past . Lovecraft 's The Shadow Out of Time was in turn also influenced by The Night Land , which Lovecraft is said to have thought highly of .
Bear admired Hodgson 's imagination which , in The Night Land , had created the Last Redoubt as a " technological preserve " in the far future to keep out monsters that humanity had previously created , and which had evolved over long periods of time . But Bear 's interpretation of The Night Land is that this future landscape is a " metaphysical place " , and the monsters are " not creatures of this Earth " . For Bear , this explanation broadens the novel 's scope , and opens the door to other interpretations .
Another influence on City at the End of Time are the short stories , " The Universal Library " ( 1901 ) by Kurd Lasswitz and " The Library of Babel " ( 1941 ) by Jorge Luis Borges , which science fiction and mystery author Peter Heck believes is intentional . Books feature prominently in the novel in both present @-@ day Seattle and the Kalpa in the future , and Heck sees it as " a metaphor that anyone whose life is built around books — whether as a writer , reader , or bookseller — can readily empathize with . "
Clute notes that the Kalpa is not , as the title suggests , the last city ; they believe they are , but the last city is Nataraja , " the city beyond the city at the end of time " . Clute says that the Typhon is " a kind of god and a kind of quasi @-@ animate principle of destruction " that is attempting to destroy the universe because it " cannot tolerate being told " or " observed " . The creation and evolution of the universe is observed and recorded , and the Typhon will not tolerate this telling . In the Kalpa , Polybiblios creates Babel fragments ( " Borgesian libraries that do not end " ) that , when brought together , will form a " backstory " that retells the history of the universe and overwhelms the Typhon .
City at the End of Time is rooted in hard science fiction , but includes several other genres . SFF World said the novel is similar to Stephen King 's Dark Tower , where " an ultimate destination that defies both space and time are at the heart " of both stories . But whereas King focuses on " fantastical elements " , Bear adopts a " scientific approach " . SFF World described City at the End of Time as " an Epic Science Fiction novel [ with ] elements of thriller and horror with some downright creepy characters . " Kirkus Reviews called the book an " eschatological fantasy " , and science fiction critic Paul Kincaid says the novel has " plotting and language [ that ] seem to have been borrowed wholesale from fantasy " . Bear himself said the novel could be fantasy or horror , but called it science fiction " stretched to the nth degree " . City at the End of Time is generally referred to as a " Dying Earth " story , and is categorized under the Dying Earth subgenre .
= = Reception = =
A review in Publishers Weekly described City at the End of Time as a " complex , difficult and beautifully written tale [ that ] will appeal to sophisticated readers who prefer thorny conundrums to fast @-@ paced action " . A reviewer for the Library Journal said the novel " plung [ es ] readers into a visceral experience of cosmological theory and the big creation stories of mythology " . A review in New Scientist described the first half of the book as " a gripping , original tale " with the portrayal of the fate @-@ shifters 's talents as " nothing short of brilliant " , but complained that in the second half Bear over @-@ complicates the story with " too many ideas , images , mythologies and distractions " . The reviewer said that a promising story " whips itself up into a virtually incomprehensible final act " . Science fiction critic John Clute described the book as " cosmological [ science fiction ] without a net " , and complained that Bear rushes through the story too quickly and does not dwell long enough on locations like the Kalpa to make it memorable . He said that the flight to the future of Ginny , Jack and Daniel " gets a touch Frodo @-@ in @-@ Mordor at places " .
Writing in a review in Asimov 's Science Fiction , science fiction and mystery author Peter Heck called City at the End of Time a " big , sweeping , heavily symbolic tale " , and " one of Bear 's most ambitious " . He said that while the story could have focused more on the future city , " in the end , the plotlines come together , and the complexities merge into a satisfying unity " . Speculative fiction writer Simon Petrie writing in Andromeda Spaceways Inflight Magazine was impressed by the book 's " grandiosity to the total synthesis of cosmology and myth " , and Bear 's " ability to encapsulate a universal future history in just the one book " , but found the mix of science , fantasy , horror , mythology and religion a little " incongruous " at times . Petrie also felt that the use of so many " viewpoint characters " results in these characters being underdeveloped , and tends to " [ blunt ] the pathos as the plot edges towards climax " .
In a review in the online speculative fiction magazine Strange Horizons , Tony Keen was critical of Bear 's novel , saying that the present and future passages " do not mesh terribly well " , and that it is " too long " with " too many ideas " . He complained that the book was difficult to follow and that Bear keeps " moving the goalposts as it suits his narrative " . Keen said that for a science fiction novel , he was surprised at its " lack of consistency " , and called it more a work of fantasy than science fiction . He said the " revelations " at the end still did not help explain what had happened , but that " by this point , it was for me hard to care " . A review in the Oakland Tribune complained that Bear , who it felt is not strong on " crafting memorable characters " , " struggles " with the novel 's multiple viewpoints . The review added that while he " takes a long time to get there , and arrives with a palpable scent of anticlimax , [ Bear ] does deliver at the end " , although with not enough to satisfy the reviewer .
Science fiction critic Paul Kincaid had mixed feelings about the novel . In a review at the SF Site webzine he criticized the characterisation saying that he could not always separate the main characters . Kincaid questioned the need for the supernatural entity , the Typhon , which is never developed . He described the " end of time " sequence as " the most powerful science fictional moment in this entire book " , saying that he found it " far more scary , far more gripping , than any supernatural intervention " . Kincaid said that while he found the book " ambitious " and " intellectually satisfying " , " somehow the whole feels less than the sum of its parts " .
In another review at the SF Site , Greg L. Johnson wrote that while City at the End of Time provides plenty of " wonder , awe , and a sense of humanity in the face of an implacable universe " , he feels that Bear does not quite succeed with this ambitious story of the fate of reality and the universe at large . Johnson described it as " an immensely complicated story " that unfolds by means of " hints and allusions " . He said that even the book 's ending only hints at what the gathered role players had achieved . Johnson wrote that while Bear 's depictions of events on a grand scale , like the decay of Seattle , are good , his portrayal of the key players against this backdrop is not as strong .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = = Work cited = = =
Bear , Greg ( August 5 , 2008 ) . City at the End of Time ( e @-@ book ) . Random House Digital , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 44839 @-@ 2 .
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= Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! =
Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! is the eleventh studio album by American hip hop group Insane Clown Posse . Released on September 1 , 2009 by Psychopathic Records , it was the group 's second album with producer Mike E. Clark since his return to Psychopathic Records , and the first album to focus on the Dark Carnival since the conclusion of the group 's original " Joker 's Cards " series . The character is the first of a set of six new Joker 's Cards .
The album 's title refers to a character within the Dark Carnival described as a large , continuing explosion which clears evil souls from the carnival grounds . Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! peaked at number four in the Billboard Top 200 . Critics praised Clark 's production and the return to the Dark Carnival concept . In 2010 , Psychopathic Records released a " Nuclear Edition " of the album , which featured previously unreleased material . The music video for the song " Miracles " , produced for the reissue , became viral , and was the subject of a Saturday Night Live parody which was praised by the group . It is the group 's 26th overall release .
= = Production = =
Mike E. Clark produced much of Insane Clown Posse 's discography until the group 's sixth and seventh albums , Bizzar and Bizaar . After Clark nearly died from a collapsed lung , he became less active in the music industry , his studio not being used for much of the early decade , and the group worked with Mike Puwal on their eighth and ninth albums , The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit . In 2006 , Clark returned to Psychopathic Records and produced the group 's tenth studio album , The Tempest in 2007 , but did not work with the group directly . Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was the first album which Clark worked on directly with Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler since Bizaar . Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was recorded between September 2008 and July 2009 at Clark 's Fun House Studio . Bruce listened to music by the progressive rock band Gong for inspiration . In order to ensure the quality of their vocal recordings , Bruce and Utsler drank tea before every take and didn 't smoke cannabis while recording . Much material was recorded for the album ; some songs left off the initial release appeared on the " Nuclear Edition " reissue , while another song intended for Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! , " If I Ate Your Brains " , was released as part of a single for the 2009 Hallowicked concert .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Bruce , the goal was to produce an album that was " very much a part of the Dark Carnival , without it being the seventh Joker 's Card " . Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was the first album to focus on this concept since Hell 's Pit . The album was later revealed to be the first Joker 's Card of a " second deck . " Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! is a character within the Dark Carnival which Bruce describes as a " continuous explosion that stomps his way through the crowd blowing [ ... ] evil souls [ ... ] to Hell " . The album features a series of skits in which rednecks , pedophiles , and husbands who abuse their wives receive phone calls inviting them to the Dark Carnival , where they are promised US $ 100 @,@ 000 for arriving .
According to Bruce , " In Yo Face " was originally titled " Pie in Yo Face " , but it was decided that the final title sounded better . " The Bone " features surf rock @-@ influenced guitars . According to Bruce , " Mike 's beat for this was so fuckin ' crazy sounding I had no idea what the fuck to do with it . " " To Catch a Predator " was written during the mixing process , when the group realized that the album needed a song " that attacks an evil " . Inspired by the television series To Catch a Predator , the song 's lyrics describe Violent J luring pedophiles into his house to violently murder them . According to Bruce , " I could easily see myself killing pedophiles in real life and having no guilt . The only reason I don ’ t do it is because I 'd probably get caught . So its nice to live it out through my music . " " Boing Boing " , a comedic sex @-@ oriented rap , samples audio from a pornographic film which had previously been sampled by the group on their Tunnel of Love EP . Bruce says that the song was intended as a joke . Some fans interpreted the song as Bruce and Utsler calling themselves ugly , while others believed that they were bragging about how many women they have sex with . Bruce commented " We 're not sex symbols , especially not me . If there are girls , they ’ re there to see Shaggy . "
" I Found a Body " features lyrics similar to the plot of Weekend at Bernie 's , and incorporates Bruce 's singing , concluding with a " Pearl Jam style yell " . " Fonz Pond " was inspired by a series of bicycle trails and paths leading to what had once been a pond , but had dried out , and was filled with garbage and rusted junk . Rumors spread about kids that died trying to pass the curve surrounding the area . Clark created a beat which sounded unlike what Bruce had initially expected , leading him to write a song about a haunted pond hidden in the woods . Bruce describes the production of " Imma Kill U " as similar to that of early albums by Ice Cube and Public Enemy . Bruce states that Utsler initially hated " Juggalo Island " when they began recording it , and said that it was " too soft " for Insane Clown Posse . Bruce maintained his confidence in the song , but promised Utsler that if he still felt the same way after the song was completed , it would be left off the album . As the recording continued , Utsler began to like the track more , and later praised the song in a phone conversation .
The lyrics of " Miracles " focus on the extraordinary events humans experience in life which often go unacknowledged , and encourages listeners to take time to look at the world and reevaluate their life . The song 's music is built around an ascending synthesizer melody , and climaxes with an electric guitar solo performed by Mike E. Clark , and beatboxing by Joseph Utsler . " Chop Chop Slide " was inspired by the " Cha Cha Slide " .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album 's title was first announced in the liner notes of Bruce 's solo album The Shining . Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was initially announced as having an April release . Bruce and Utsler participated in a three @-@ day photo shoot for the album 's promotional images . The album 's release was preceded with a nationwide in @-@ store tour beginning in August , and followed by a 64 @-@ day tour , including the group 's annual Halloween performance in Detroit . The album was released in three different color variations of the cover : red , blue , and green . Each version features its own unique introduction and hidden track . A sampler for the album was released , featuring a decoder piece for finding hidden messages in the album 's artwork .
A special edition of the album , dubbed the " Nuclear Edition " , was released on April 6 , 2010 . It features a gold cover and bonus material from each version of the album , three previously unreleased tracks , the sampler , two music videos and the documentary A Family Underground . The first music video from the album , " In Yo Face " , was released on December 18 , 2009 . The second music video from the album , " Miracles " , premiered as part of the " Nuclear Edition " reissue . A third music video from the album , " Juggalo Island " , was filmed at the 2008 Gathering of the Juggalos . A fourth music video from the album , " Fonz Pond " , has also been released . A fifth music video , " It 's All Over " was released in December 2011 .
= = Reception = =
Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! received positive reviews . Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries gave the album three out of five stars , calling it " a formulaic album from the kings of slaughterhouse rap @-@ rock , but fans will appreciate the extra enthusiasm from the duo , the bounty of filth , and maybe most of all , the reviving of the Dark Carnival mythos . " The Detroit News music critic Adam Graham gave the album a B rating , describing it as " the best material the Clowns have touched since 1999 's The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . "
Kik Axe Music reviewer Matt Molgaard gave the album a four out of five rating , writing that " even if you ’ re not a huge fan of the ' commercial ' sound [ ... ] there 's plenty of grim tracks to appease the appetite of new and old fans alike . " Another writer for the website , James Zahn , gave the " Nuclear Edition " reissue 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 .
Washington City Paper writer Andrew Noz gave the album " three and a half 20 oz . Faygo bottles out of five " . Consequence of Sound reviewer David Buchanan notes the change to a more positive sound as universally appealing while also noting the comeback of Dark Carnival references as a selling point for long @-@ time fans , giving the album 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 . Mike E. Clark received praise for the album 's production , which David Jeffries described as " inventive " , and Adam Graham described as being " packed with enough hooks , chants and stellar riffs to tide the Juggalo Nation over through a year 's supply of Faygo . "
= = Chart performance = =
Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! debuted at number 1 on the Billboard Top Independent Albums chart and number 4 on the Billboard 200 selling 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In 2010 , the " Nuclear Edition " charted at No. 55 on the Billboard 200 , following the release of the " Miracles " music video . By February 2010 , the album had sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . By October 8 , 2010 , the album had surpassed the group 's previous release , The Tempest , in sales by almost 50 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Legacy = =
The music video for " Miracles " has become viral . On April 17 , 2010 Saturday Night Live aired a sketch which parodied the video . In the sketch , fictional personalities DJ Supersoak and Lil ' Blaster debuted a fictional music video by the Thrilla Killa Klownz called " Magical Mysteries " as part of Under Underground Records ' " Underground Rock Minute " . The fictional video featured Ryan Phillippe and Bobby Moynihan rapping about things such as " where the sun hides at night " and blankets . Saturday Night Live had previously parodied Psychopathic Records in 2009 . Insane Clown Posse called the " Miracles " parody " a huge honor . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Original version = = =
= = = Nuclear edition = = =
= = Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! Tour = =
Insane Clown Posse promoted the tour for Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! in the pamphlet of the album . The first part of the tour kicked off on September 15 , 2009 and concluded on October 31 , 2009 at ICP 's annual Hallowicked Show . The second part of the tour kicked off on November 7 , 2009 and concluded on December 18 , 2009 . Hed pe , The Dayton Family and Knotheads were the supporting artists on the tour .
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= Obsessed ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Obsessed " is a song by American singer Mariah Carey from her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . The song was written and produced by Carey , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , and was released as the album 's lead single on June 16 , 2009 by Island Records . The song draws musical influences from R & B and hip hop music , and is built around a thumping bass line . Additionally , the song is accentuated by hand claps , while Carey 's voice is processed with Auto @-@ Tune . Lyrically , the song describes Mariah 's dilemma regarding constant claims of a prior relationship from rapper Eminem , although he is not specifically mentioned .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics who highlighted it as a stand @-@ out track from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel . Many reviewers complimented its clever lyrics and strong beat , while others criticized the song 's usage of auto @-@ tune on Carey 's vocals . At the time of the song 's release , " Obsessed " was the center of controversy , as critics and the media suggested Carey was aiming it at American rapper Eminem , who had negatively referenced her several times in songs . Eminem released a song called " The Warning " in response .
" Obsessed " peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Carey 's 27th top @-@ ten hit on the chart . In terms of total top @-@ ten chart entries among all artists in the chart 's history , Carey tied for fifth place after the song 's peak , with Janet Jackson and Elton John . Internationally , the song was not released throughout parts of Europe , as Island Records decided to give priority to the album 's second single , Carey 's cover of Foreigner 's classic " I Want to Know What Love Is " . " Obsessed " peaked within the top 10 in France and Italy , and in the top 20 in Australia , Belgium , Canada and Japan .
The song 's music video was directed by film @-@ maker Brett Ratner , who Carey has previously worked with on other music videos . Throughout the video , Carey plays both herself and the character of the male stalker , dressed in a bellhop uniform , as well as a gray hoodie and sweatpants . Two videos were shot for " Obsessed " , one for the original version , and one for the remixed version , which features rapper Gucci Mane . The video was shot predominantly at the Plaza Hotel , and on the streets of New York City . After several photographs of Carey dressed as the stalker were leaked , tabloids immediately compared Carey 's costume to Eminem 's usual attire . Carey performed the song live on the fourth season of America 's Got Talent , The Today Show , and throughout her Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background = =
In 2008 , Carey had suddenly cancelled a concert tour supporting her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² . There was heavy speculation in the media that Carey had become pregnant , and had abandoned the plans for a tour as a result . The singer had later admitted that she was pregnant during that time period , and had suffered a miscarriage , leading to the cancellation of the tour .
Carey then opted to record a new album , that would be released during the summer of 2009 . During the later stages of the project , Carey released the title , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , that would serve as the singer 's twelfth studio album . She explained how plans for a ballad to be released were put on hold , because a new song she had written " needed to be heard " . On June 9 , 2009 , she wrote on her official Twitter account : " Seriously , this is one of my favorite songs ever . I love the whole album . I 'm completely immersed in it . I can 't wait for you to hear it " , and announced its title as " Obsessed " . Later that week , The @-@ Dream , who co @-@ wrote the song with Carey , claimed that the song was definitely aimed at someone in particular , and that it would upset them greatly . The song was transmitted digitally to radio stations on June 16 , 2009 for immediate airplay and made its debut on Chicago radio station B96 at 2 : 00 pm . An official remix of the song , featuring rapper Gucci Mane , premiered on the same day .
= = Artwork = =
The single cover artwork for " Obsessed " features Carey leaning against a dirty concrete wall . She is shown wearing black underwear and a matching sheer top , with a black bra visible through the shirt . Carey 's hair is featured in a long and wet style , cascading over her shoulders and right breast . The word " Obsessed " is written in large white letters over Carey 's body . An anonymous writer for MTV described it as " wet and raunchy " , while writing , " As you can see here the star has chosen a sexy shot to launch material from her next album . Mariah is shown busting out of a revealing black top and wearing black underwear . "
= = Controversy = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2001 , Carey decided to venture into the film industry with her debut acting role , Glitter . It was a critical and commercial flop , which led to Carey 's $ 100 million recording contract being bought out by Virgin Records , who paid her $ 49 million to part ways . Carey also had personal life conflicts and erratic behavior in public appearances , leading to the singer being hospitalized . During this period in Carey 's personal life , American rapper Eminem claimed to date Carey for six months . After this Eminem referred to Carey in several of his songs in a negative light , feeling angered by her disowning their relationship . The back @-@ and @-@ forth through songs continued with " Clown " on Carey 's album Charmbracelet , her voice recordings being played at Eminem 's Anger Management Tour . After playing the excerpt , Eminem would pretend to be sick before launching into his song " Puke " .
On May 12 , 2009 , Eminem released his sixth studio effort , Relapse , which included a song titled " Bagpipes from Baghdad " . The song 's lyrics suggested Eminem was still in love with Carey , and that he " wanted her back " : " I want another crack at ya " and " Nick Cannon better back the fuck up . I 'm not playing , I want her back , you punk . " After the song 's release , Cannon went on his website , defending Carey and expressing his disgust at his comments . Following Cannon 's comments , Eminem responded sarcastically . He clarified that the song was actually " wishing the couple the best " , and that it was a misunderstanding . In an interview with BBC Radio , Eminem clarified that although contained a " harsh " line , he meant well . He later commented that he respected Cannon for his response , and that he expected him to stand up for his wife .
= = = Aftermath = = =
After Carey premiered " Obsessed " on June 16 , 2009 , the media frenzied and began speculating the song was targeting at Eminem , due to its lyrics and overall message . Following the song 's accompanying music video , which featured Carey playing a role that resembled the rapper , critics considered it Carey 's response to Eminem 's " Bagpipes from Baghdad " . Soon after both the song and video 's release , the rapper released another song , titled " The Warning " on July 30 , 2009 , which he claimed to be a retaliation . The song 's lyrics allude to his supposed relationship with the singer , the music video for " Obsessed " , and pictures and proof he claims to have of the couple . The song begins " Only reason I dissed you in the first place is because you denied seeing me . Now I 'm pissed off " , before describing Carey 's impersonation of him in her video , " Oh gee , is that supposed to be me in the video with the goatee ? / Wow Mariah , didn 't expect ya to go balls out . " Eminem continues describing a near @-@ sexual encounter with the singer , threatening to release voice @-@ mails and pictures he still has in his possession . Additionally , the song features a female 's voice , unknown whether or not Carey 's , where she calls herself Mary Poppins , as well as several intervals of her laughter . In the aftermath of the releases , Cannon was questioned regarding the inspiration of " Obsessed " , and whether it was ever directed at Eminem :
She 's Mariah Carey . She 's not beefin ' , she 's a vegetarian . People keep saying [ ' Obsessed ' ] was directed at certain people . To be completely honest , she did the record ' cause she 's a huge fan of this movie Mean Girls , and there 's a line in the movie where one of the girls is like , ' Why are you so obsessed with me ? ' She says that at the beginning of the song , and that 's where the concept came from . But , you know , art imitates life .
= = Composition = =
" Obsessed " draws influences from the R & B and hip hop music genres . The song is built around a " thumping bass line " , and features a " distorted wordless vocal hook " as its instrumentation . Additionally , the song is accentuated by hand claps , while Carey 's voice is set with auto @-@ tune . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle described the song 's production as " an auto @-@ tune orgy of come @-@ hither vocals and cutesy Mariah @-@ isms . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Obsessed " is set in common time with a tempo of 84 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of C3 to the high @-@ note of C7 . Written and produced by Carey , The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , the song follows in the chord progression of Bm7 – Am7 – Gmaj7 . Lyrically , the song describes the protagonists dilemma regarding a stalker , and finds her asking him regarding his obsession .
After the song 's release , critics heavily compared its lyrics to Eminem , and suggested Carey alluded to him and his ' obsession ' with her . " Obsessed " never mentions the rapper 's name , although reviewers felt it to be very obvious . The song begins with " I was like , ' Why are you so obsessed with me ? ' " , before the music begins . As the first verse begins , Carey describes the tracks ' subjects constant lies : " All up in the blogs sayin ' we met at a bar / When I don 't even , know who you are / Sayin ' you up in my house sayin ' you up in my car / When you in L.A. and I 'm at Jermaine 's " . Additionally , the song suggests the stalker is under the influence of drugs : It must be the weed , it must be the E / ' Cause you be poppin ' , you get it poppin ' . " During the chorus , Carey confronts her stalker , asking : Why are you so obsessed with me / Boy I wanna know / Lying that you 're sexing me / When everybody knows / It 's clear that you 're upset with me / Oh , Oh , Oh , finally found a girl that you couldn 't impress / If you you were the last man on earth still couldn 't hit this . " During the song 's second verse , critics complimented Carey 's lyrics , highlighting phrases such as : You 're a mom & pop , I 'm a corporation / I 'm a press conference , you 're a conversation " , " suggesting the rapper isn 't a worthy suitor " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Obsessed " received generally positive reviews from music critics . While most reviewers complimented the song 's lyrics and production , some criticized Carey for her usage of auto @-@ tune . Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone stated that " the biting mid @-@ tempo track is already more musically and lyrically engrossing than E = MC ² ' s singles . " The A.V. Club 's Michaelangelo Matos complimented the song 's clever lyrics , and called it a " wicked dis of an unnamed Eminem for spreading rumors about their involvement . " Though criticizing Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel for being full of mid @-@ tempo numbers , James Reed from The Boston Globe felt " Obsessed " " stood out of the goo " , due to its witty lyrics and strong beat production . Monica Herrera of Billboard gave the song a positive review , describing it as a " gem of a dis record that coasts , even over its sputtering moans and synth jabs . " Additionally , Herrera complimented Carey 's lyrics , calling them " bity and funny " . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt described the track as a " brash synth kiss @-@ off " , while Alex Macpherson from The Guardian called it " jaunty " and " wisecracking " . On " Obsessed " , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt the " attitude is sexy " , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times felt the song was a stand @-@ out track from the album , which he felt was " dated " . He described that although the entire album was produced by Carey , The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , which he described as " masters of compensation , helping elevate mediocre singers — like The @-@ Dream himself or Rihanna , on ' Umbrella ' — to something sublime " , " Obsessed " sounded " Dr. Dre @-@ esque , and felt it was a notable exception from the rest of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel .
Los Angeles Times 's Ann Powers described it as an " aggressive track " , while Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald wrote " Carey 's musical stiff @-@ arm ends with some vocal acrobatics to let us know she 's still got it . Expect to get ' Obsessed ' this summer . " MTV News rated the song as one of the contenders for the " best of the summer " , writing " Mimi returns , this time with an Auto @-@ Tuned kiss @-@ off to wannabe lotharios ( and Eminem ? ) that will probably be the soundtrack to a million summer hookups and just as many public @-@ intoxication collars . Glossy , flossy and decidedly " urban " , Mariah strikes back . Your radio has been warned . AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine chose the song as a " top pick " from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , while Amos Barshad of The New York Times listed it as the fifth top song of the summer . In contrast , " Obsessed " received a mixed review from the Los Angeles Times writer , Todd Martens , who wrote that although " its feistier Mimi than [ they ] ' re used to " , she ultimately " has been molded to fit current trends " and that the single " again sells out the songbird to her producers . " At the ASCAP 27th Annual Pop Music Awards , " Obsessed " won " Most Performed Song " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Obsessed " debuted at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 119 @,@ 266 digital downloads , making it Carey 's highest debut in over a decade , since " My All " ( 1998 ) . This marked her 40th entry on the Hot 100 , making her just the eighth woman in the chart 's history to make 40 or more appearances . The song peaked at number seven on the Hot 100 , making it her 27th top 10 hit , the second greatest amount among female artists , and tying her achievements to those of Janet Jackson . The song stayed in the top 40 for 20 weeks , longer than her number @-@ one hit " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) . In terms of total top 10 chart entries amongst all artists in the chart 's history , Carey is now tied for fifth place with Jackson and Elton John . The song made an early debut at number 52 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and has since peaked at number 12 , marking Carey 's 40th chart entry and placing her in second place for most charted songs among women in the 1990s and 2000s ( decade ) ( the first being Mary J. Blige ) . Carey made her 29th appearance on the Pop Songs / Mainstream Top 40 radio chart , with " Obsessed " debuting at number 39 , and peaking at eight . The arrival extends her lead for the most overall chart entries in the tally 's nearly 17 @-@ year history . She is now three titles ahead of the second @-@ place Madonna ( 26 ) .
On August 11 , 2009 , it was announced that the single would be released as a CD single at Wal @-@ Mart store locations in the United States , her first commercial single release physically since 2002 in the country . The CD single was released early at various Wal @-@ Mart store locations , however selling enough copies an entire week before its release date to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart , where it remained for four consecutive weeks on the chart . On October 15 , 2009 , " Obsessed " was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over one million units . This marked Carey 's 12th platinum single , more than any other female artist in history . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Obsessed " has sold over 1 @,@ 742 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of July 2013 . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song peaked at number 20 , and spent only four weeks within the singles chart .
Internationally , the song achieved moderate charting due to its limited release . It was not released commercially throughout Europe , in order to give way for the album 's second single , Carey 's cover of Foreigner 's classic " I Want to Know What Love Is " . On July 26 , 2009 , the song debuted at number 26 on the Australian Singles Chart . " Obsessed " peaked at number 13 in the following weeks , placing higher than " Touch My Body " ( # 17 in 2008 ) , and spent a total of 13 weeks on the chart . " Obsessed " was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . In France , " Obsessed " debuted at its peak position of number eight , during the week dated September 26 , 2009 . The song charted for a total of 23 weeks , before dropping out on February 27 , 2010 . Similarly , the song peaked at number six on the Italian Singles Chart on July 16 , as well as number 61 on the Dutch Top 40 on September 5 , 2009 . On both the Japan Hot 100 and New Zealand Singles Chart , " Obsessed " peaked at numbers 16 and 21 , while spending four weeks on both charts , respectively . In the United Kingdom , " Obsessed " was lined up to be released in August before the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , but was pushed back several times and was ultimately cancelled in October , despite receiving heavy radio and video airplay . After the album was released , the song peaked at number 52 from downloads alone .
= = Remix = =
On June 16 , 2009 , an accompanying remix featuring rapper Gucci Mane was released alongside the original . The song kept to its original arrangement and vocals , only adding ad libs throughout the song , as well as replacing the bridge with a new verse by Mane . Two days before the remix 's release , Jasmine Dotiwala , Carey 's longtime friend tweeted regarding it , saying " Listening to ' Obsessed ' remix on repeat , -guest rapper @-@ cant tell u who it is but he put the G in Ghetto ! Sick combo @-@ hotness . " In an interview with MTV News , Mane described the remix as his " biggest collaboration yet " :
Shout @-@ out to Mariah Carey and her whole squad and my boy Chris Lighty . He got me and Mariah together . I appreciate it . He put me on there as well as her . Both of them are smart for doing that . The song came out hard . Mariah knew I wanted to do a song with her . It finally happened , and it turned out hard . I just flew up there to New York , went in the studio with her . I flew right out and went back on the road . When I do a song with people , I like to really get in the studio with them so I could feel they swag and they could feel mine . The music comes out better .
Aside from the primary remix , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel included four additional remixes that were released on a separate CD along with the original . It was packaged in a separate sleeve , and included the remix featuring Mane , and versions done by Jump Smokers , Tim Cahill , Seamus Haji and Friscia & Lamboy .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The song 's music video was directed by Brett Ratner , who had previously worked with Carey on six other music videos , and was shot from June 28 to 29 , 2009 . Throughout the video , Carey plays herself and a male stalker , dressed as both a bellhop and a man wearing a gray hoodie and sweatpants . Two videos were shot for " Obsessed " , one for the original version , and one for the remixed version , which features Gucci Mane . The video was shot predominantly at the Plaza Hotel , and on the streets of New York City . After several photographs of Carey dressed as the stalker were leaked , critics and bloggers immediately compared Carey 's costume to Eminem 's usual attire , and many wrote that aside from the goatee , the pair looked alike . Carey tweeted " I am not at any point in the video playing a specific person . I 'm dressed as a ' stalker ' in 3 different ensembles . " Carey also revealed that the music video would reference several of her favorite films , such as Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , with the line " Why are you so obsessed with me ? " , as well as The Devil Wears Prada ( 2006 ) .
In an interview with MTV News , Carey described going under @-@ cover as the stalker role : " Well , we had a lot of people outside . I 'm walking up to the Plaza [ Hotel ] , and when I was dressed as Mariah Carey , there were a lot of people just standing there taking pictures , and the street was closed down , and it was a whole rigmarole . It is what it is . So , basically , I went into costume as the stalker , and I told my bodyguard , ' I don 't want you to walk with me . ' So , a friend of mine was there , and I was like , ' Let 's walk together . ' " After reports continued to speculate regarding the video 's subject , Ratner explained that the main inspiration behind the video was the 1983 film , The King of Comedy . On July 10 , 2009 , Carey announced through her Twitter account that the video would premiere on the talent competition program , America 's Got Talent , which was hosted by Cannon . The full version premiered two days later on 106 & Park . Carey was present at the show and discussed the making of the video .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Carey at a photoshoot in a private room at the Plaza Hotel , speaking the line , " And I was like , why are you so obsessed with me ? " Next , a Rolls @-@ Royce Phantom is shown pulling up to the hotel , with Carey stepping out of the vehicle . As she gets out of the car , Carey dressed as a bellhop , assists her to the ramp where she is walking and greeting fans . The next scene finds Carey walking into the hotel , and waving to everyone , with the camera zooming to the bellhops face to reveal him intently staring at her . As the first verse begins , Carey is shown at the photo @-@ shoot in the hotel , with a cameo by Patrick Demarchelier as the photographer . The bellhop , now dressed in a gray hoodie and sweatpants , is shown holding a hair @-@ blower at Carey , apparently assisting with the shoot . As the shoot continues , scenes of the bellhop are shown in his room , where he has dolls of Carey on the wall , as well as quilts with the cover of her 2005 album , The Emancipation of Mimi .
The video progresses as Carey , now on the streets of New York , is walking towards the hotel . As she begins to notice the bellhop , dressed in the sweats , pursuing her , she turns around in haste and begins jolting back to the hotel while holding several shopping bags . Additionally , scenes of the stalker 's home are shown again , this time more elaborately , with his walls covered with portraits of the singer , as well as album covers and lights around a large photo of her . As the video comes to an end , she waits for her limousine to arrive at the hotel . However , before she gets inside , she notices the stalker attempting to take a picture of her . She then looks directly into his camera and gives a smile . The video then shows him again , still attempting to take a picture , right before a bus hits him . Carey gasps in shock after witnessing the incident . The remix video for the song features the same story @-@ line and footage , only showing inter @-@ cut scenes of Carey dressed in a white ensemble , while laying on a vintage wooden table . As Gucci Mane stands next to her in a white suit , he pours her champagne and hands her the glass .
= = = Reception = = =
At the time of the video 's release , several critics took notice of the similarities in Eminem 's attire and Carey 's stalker . Nick Levine from Digital Spy wrote : " It isn 't quite as ridiculous as we were hoping , and Mariah 's insisting the male stalker she plays isn 't meant to be a ' specific person ' , but there 's still plenty to enjoy in the ' Obsessed ' video . There is a lot of MC cleavage , a not entirely convincing fake beard and a neat Mean Girls reference towards the end . " Newsday 's Corris Little described it as " genius ! " and continued , " Move over Eminem , I 'm officially obsessed with Mariah Carey . Who isn 't ? She can sing , she 's pretty and she has really fun music videos . " A writer from the Evening Standard called the video " shocking " , and felt that Carey 's disguise was so convincing , she should assume the role more often if she wants to travel incognito . The New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman described it as " human butterfly embrac [ ing ] her macho side " , and concluded his review with " I 'm guessing the video involves Mariah 's butch bellhop becoming a little infatuated with the singer , or something . Basically it 's another way to give her double the screentime – much like that Mariah @-@ on @-@ Mariah fight in ' Heartbreaker ' ! " New York Daily News writer Chris Baud joked about Eminem going one step further , writing : " It 's great that Mariah seems to be having fun with this whole ' Miminem ' thing , but we 're afraid of the conflict going any further , because no one wants to see the next step : Eminem in drag . " Jennifer Armstrong from Entertainment Weekly complimented Carey for " going after " Eminem , and concluded " I like Mariah with a sense of humor , and I love the idea of her turning the tables on the king of celebrity @-@ mocking videos . "
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Obsessed " on several televised appearances since its release . On August 5 , 2009 , Carey performed the song live for the first time on the fourth season of the talent competition , America 's Got Talent . Carey , appearing in jeans and a black top , was accompanied by several male dancers and three back @-@ up singers . As she performed the song , the dancers hoisted her into the air several times , and carried her to several areas on the stage . During the performance , several white lights flashed , while monitors behind the dancers showed images of Carey and the video . Breanne Heldman from E ! Entertainment Television criticized several aspects of the performance . She described the lighting as " anxiety inducing " , and wrote , " That said , no one is doubting the singer 's impressive set of pipes , but — frighteningly jarring lighting and quick edits aside — did she actually utilize them on ' America 's Got Talent ' last night ? " Aside from questioning the singers live vocals , she also felt Carey seemed " robotic " , and didn 't show effort or interest in the performance . A reviewer from Idolator also was critical on the performance , asking if there was " anything good about [ it ] " . He claimed Carey was lip @-@ syncing , and described it as " lackadaisical " , and wrote , " the backup dancers ’ moves would have probably received a big red ' X ' from at least one of the judges . "
In the United States , on October 2 , 2009 , Carey began promotion of the album on Today , in the form of a four piece outdoor concert . Wearing a " black leather trench coat and accessorized with a glittery microphone " , Carey performed " Obsessed " , " I Want to Know What Love Is " , " H.A.T.E.U. " and her 1991 single , " Make It Happen " . The performance of " Obsessed " featured similar choreography as on America 's Got Talent , in which Carey was carried around by her dancers several times . Carey performed " Obsessed " live on Lopez Tonight on December 16 , 2009 , alongside another song from the album , " It 's A Wrap " . At the Fashion Rocks ceremony in 2009 , Carey performed " Touch My Body " and " Obsessed " , as well as the remix to her 1995 song " Fantasy " . During the short set list , Carey was accompanied by six men in black tie and suits , who hoisted her into the air in front of over 6 @,@ 000 people during " Obsessed " , and rigorous dance routines throughout " Touch My Body " . Following the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , she held four concerts at the Pearl Concert Theater , where she included the song on the set @-@ list . Similar to the performance at the Fashion Rocks ceremony , Carey was hoisted into the air several times by four to six male dancers , each of whom circled her with intricate dancing throughout the song . Carey featured similar choreography for the song during her Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , where it was included throughout the entire span of the tour .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from the Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals
Terius Nash – songwriting , producer
Christopher Stewart – songwriting , producer
Victor Alexander – producer
Brian Garter – recording
Brian Thomas – recording
Jaysen @-@ Joshua Fowler – audio mixing
Dave Pensado – audio mixing
Bernie Grundman – mastering
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Geology Hall =
Geology Hall , formerly Geological Hall , is a building located in the historic Queens Campus section of Rutgers , The State University of New Jersey 's College Avenue Campus in New Brunswick , New Jersey , United States . As part of the Queen 's Campus , Geology Hall was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . When Rutgers was selected as New Jersey 's only land grant college in 1864 , the college began to expand its curriculum to include instruction in science and agriculture . Rutgers president William Henry Campbell raised funds to construct a building to accommodate this expansion , and Geology Hall , designed by architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh , was built in 1872 .
At present , the building houses administrative offices and the university 's geological museum . The museum , one of the oldest collegiate geology collections in the United States , was founded by state geologist and Rutgers professor George Hammell Cook in 1872 . Its exhibits showcase the natural history of New Jersey ; focusing geology , paleontology , and anthropology . Exhibits include fluorescent zinc minerals from Franklin and Ogdensburg , a mastodon from Salem County , a dinosaur trackway discovered in Towaco , and a Ptolemaic era Egyptian mummy .
= = History = =
In 1864 the State of New Jersey named Rutgers College as their sole land grant college . Pursuant to the Morrill Act of 1862 , this designation gave federal lands to the state that the state could then sell to raise money to develop practical education in agriculture , science , military science and engineering .
George Hammell Cook ( 1818 @-@ 1889 ) , a professor of chemistry and natural sciences , influenced the state to select Rutgers over the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) . Cook was appointed state geologist in 1864 and later became the college 's vice president . With the college 's land grant status and new funding for scientific studies , Cook expanded his research and teaching into geology and agriculture .
Six years later , the college 's board of trustees decided to erect a building to house the college 's new scientific programs . At this time , Rutgers was celebrating the centennial anniversary of its second charter ( 1770 ) and college president William Henry Campbell ( 1808 – 1890 ) solicited donations from alumni and other supporters in an extensive fundraising effort aimed at supporting these new programs . With these funds , the trustees commissioned a design for a Geological Hall from Henry Janeway Hardenbergh ( 1847 – 1918 ) , a young architect from New Brunswick . Hardenbergh received these contracts through family connections , as several members of his family were graduates , trustees , or associated with the school . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , the Rev. Jacob Rutsen Hardenbergh ( 1736 – 1790 ) , was Rutgers ' first president and one of its founders , and his grandfather , Rev. Jacob Janeway served as vice president of the college and had turned down the post of president in 1840 .
Hardenbergh 's design was described as employing both Gothic elements and classical forms that preceded the extreme eclecticism that was to mark a later Victorian Gothic Revival period . The original plans called for the building to be constructed out of red brick , but the final execution was mostly in sandstone quarried in Connecticut , with some examples of stone from Newark . Geology Hall , built on the south side of Old Queens , was the second of three projects that Hardenberg designed for the college , following an addition to a building ( now Alexander Johnston Hall ) that housed the college 's grammar school ( now Rutgers Preparatory School ) the year before . The third project , Kirkpatrick Chapel ( 1873 ) , was designed to complement the simple Gothic Revival style of Geology Hall and was erected on the north side of Old Queens .
The building was completed in 1872 at a cost of US $ 63 @,@ 201 @.@ 54 ( 2013 : US $ 1 @,@ 215 @,@ 365 ) . Geology Hall 's first floor provided the college with rooms for laboratory and lecture instruction and housed the college 's armory . The first @-@ floor classrooms would accommodate the college 's physics , military science , and geology departments . Geology Hall also provided instruction space for courses in agriculture , chemistry and engineering for several years , until Rutgers built New Jersey Hall ( 1889 ) to house the Agricultural Experiment Station , and buildings for the Chemistry and Engineering departments ( 1909 and 1910 respectively ) across Hamilton Street on land that became the college 's Voorhees Mall . Geology Hall 's second floor was designed to provide sufficient space to house the college 's natural history artefacts and geological specimens as a museum .
Today , Geology Hall houses some of the offices of the university 's administration and the Rutgers Geology Museum . Previously , it housed the offices of the Rutgers geology department , now called the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences , from 1872 until 1979 , when it moved to the university 's Busch Campus in Piscataway . This was the last of the university 's science department to move across the Raritan River to the Busch campus . In 1973 , Geology Hall was included with six other buildings on Rutgers ' Queen 's Campus on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Rutgers Geology Museum = =
Cook established the university 's geology museum in 1872 with specimens collected during the New Jersey Geological Survey which he directed as New Jersey 's state geologist . Since then , the museum has operated on the building 's second floor , offering free tours to small groups , schools , and to the general public . The museum 's collections , of which only a small portion is on display , feature exhibits on geology , natural history , paleontology , and anthropology , with an emphasis on the natural history of New Jersey .
The museum 's earliest collections began to coalesce in 1836 through the work of Lewis C. Beck ( 1798 – 1853 ) , a physician , botanist , entomologist , chemist and geologist , who taught at Rutgers in the mid @-@ nineteenth century from 1830 until his death in 1853 . Many of the exhibits feature items that are unique to New Jersey , including Native American artifacts , minerals , and fossils . These exhibits include a set of fossilized dinosaur tracks believed to belong to the carnivorous Grallator , from the Jurassic @-@ period discovered near Towaco in Morris County , and the skeleton of a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ year old mastodon ( Mammut americanum ) discovered in Salem County in 1869 . The mastodon , found in a marl pit near Mannington , was sold by a local farmer to a travelling circus before it was acquired by Rutgers for display .
A collection of around 2 @,@ 400 specimens ( including some fluorescent minerals ) was donated to the museum in October 1940 by George Rowe , a mine captain with the New Jersey Zinc Company . The collection is rich in rare minerals , many of which found during twentieth @-@ century zinc mining operations in Franklin , New Jersey . This museum 's holdings were augmented with the donation of 6 @,@ 000 fluorescent mineral specimens collected by Anne and Milton Hershhorn . This exhibit opened to the public in October 2002 .
The museum displays a 2 @,@ 400 @-@ year @-@ old female Egyptian mummy on loan from the New Brunswick Theological Seminary . The mummy , which dates to 320 or 330 B.C. in the Ptolemaic era , was discovered in Northern Egypt and brought back to the United States by a Dutch Reformed missionary who served there in the early 1700s . Little else is known about the mummy 's origins , but it was stored in a closet at the seminary until 1968 when it was first put on display .
In 2013 , rumors suggested that the university administration was planning to place the museum 's exhibits in permanent storage , close the museum and renovate Geology Hall for use as an auditorium . A letter @-@ writing campaign from alumni and the general public persuaded the administration to commit towards continuing the museum and expanding its mission .
= = Gallery = =
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= Last Exit to Springfield =
" Last Exit to Springfield " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 11 , 1993 . It was directed by Mark Kirkland and was the last episode written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . The episode 's plot revolves around Homer Simpson becoming president of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's trade union and leading the workers of the plant in a strike in order to get their dental plan back . Dr. Joyce Brothers guest stars as herself .
The episode considers several visual sequences , and references a variety of films including The Godfather Part II , Yellow Submarine , Citizen Kane and How the Grinch Stole Christmas . " Last Exit to Springfield " received widespread acclaim from both fans and critics and has frequently been cited as one of the best episodes of the series .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns sits in his office awaiting the union leader , who mysteriously disappeared after promising to clean up the union , so that they can discuss the proposed union contract . While perusing the contract , Burns becomes disgusted with the union demands and reminisces about simpler times in which disgruntled workers were simply walled up in coke ovens . Burns then decides to take on the union , and revokes their dental plan .
Meanwhile , at Painless Dentistry , the Simpson children are getting their teeth checked . It is discovered Lisa needs braces . When Marge informs Homer , he tells her not to worry about the cost , as the union had won a dental plan during a previous strike . Later , at a meeting of the local chapter of International Brotherhood of Jazz Dancers , Pastry Chefs and Nuclear Technicians , Carl announces that the newest contract requires the union to give up their dental plan in exchange for a free keg of beer for their meeting . Homer slowly comprehends that giving up their dental plan would require him to pay for Lisa 's braces and jumps into action , reminding everyone how their dental plan has helped them all .
Carl proposes Homer be the new union president and he is promptly elected by a nearly unanimous vote . Mr. Burns watches Homer on his hidden camera , and is intimidated by his energy . Burns invites Homer to his office with the intent of bribing him , but Homer misconstrues Burns 's sly innuendos as sexual advances . Homer quickly gets to his feet , saying he does not go for those " back door shenanigans " and promptly leaves , a series of events which establishes the idea in Burns 's mind that Homer is honest and incorruptible .
Mr. Burns sends hired goons to the Simpson house in order to take Homer back to Burns ' Manor to negotiate . While Burns is setting the agenda for the discussion , Homer is struck by the urgent need to use the rest room . Homer asks Burns where the rest room is and immediately leaves , leading Burns to conclude that Homer is a tough negotiator who is unwilling to even hear him out . At a later union meeting , Homer tries to resign , tired of meeting with Mr. Burns . The union misunderstands his frustration , and the members nearly unanimously decide to strike . Mr. Burns is undeterred by the strike and tries several methods of breaking it up , but fails . On an edition of Kent Brockman 's talk show Smartline , Burns is allowed an opening tirade and he threatens dire events if the strike is not concluded .
Later , Burns and Smithers march to a secret room in the Power Plant and turn off the power for the entire town . The strikers do not lose hope and begin to sing . Burns , confident he has broken the union 's spirit , steps out on his balcony to hear their reaction but is disarmed by their unity and optimism . Burns finally calls a meeting with Homer to concede to their demands on one condition : that Homer resign as union president . Homer celebrates madly , leading Burns to finally realize that Homer is not the " brilliant tactician " he thought he was . With the Simpson family insured again , Lisa gets her perfect new braces and she , the Simpson family , and the dentist gather and laugh as the episode comes to a close .
= = Production = =
The idea for this episode came from Mike Reiss , who thought it would be funny if the plant went on strike . The writers of the episode , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , would later add the dental plan aspect of the plot . In several scenes , Mr. Burns is portrayed as the Devil who is tempting Homer and showing him what he could have . During the production of this episode , an ABC camera crew was allowed into the rewrite room , which Al Jean says he regrets because they were working on stage direction , and they came off as not being very funny .
The producers originally asked Anthony Hopkins and Clint Eastwood to provide the voice of the dentist , Dr. Wolfe , but they both turned the role down . Anthony Perkins was later asked to fulfill the role and he agreed , but died before the role could be recorded . In the end , the role went to Simpsons regular Hank Azaria . As well , the original panelist on Smartline was supposed to be O. J. Simpson , but he turned it down , much to the relief of the writers when Simpson was later tried for murder .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a homage to Hubert Selby Jr . ' s novel Last Exit to Brooklyn , one subplot of which involves the corruption and downfall of a union leader during a strike . The body of the union president is seen buried under a football field , a homage to the mystery surrounding the whereabouts of Jimmy Hoffa and his alleged burial at New Jersey 's Giants Stadium . Mr. Burns ' outfit in the flashback to his childhood is based on Buster Brown . Homer 's imagination of a life of organized crime is based on Don Fanucci 's first appearance in The Godfather Part II , accepting donuts rather than a necklace and an orange .
Lisa has a nitrous oxide @-@ induced hallucination that echoes The Beatles film Yellow Submarine , which Al Jean says had to be changed slightly for legal reasons . This included changing the name of the short sequence to " purple submersible " ; George Harrison calls her " Lisa in the Sky " , while Paul McCartney notes " no diamonds though " . The scene where Lisa acquires her monstrous braces and breaks her mirror is based on a scene from the 1989 Tim Burton film Batman where Jack Napier discovers his transformation into the Joker .
When Homer is escorted by the hired goons into what appears to be Burns ' conservatory , a Burns @-@ headed bird is sitting in front of the screen , which then flies away . This is a reference to the cockatoo in Citizen Kane . The episode features an incidental music , a sample of " Classical Gas " by Mason Williams on a request from Lenny . Before Mr. Burns shuts off the power to the town in response to the strike , he says , " From Hell 's heart I stab at thee " which is a reference to Captain Ahab 's curse , from the novel Moby @-@ Dick . The workers ' resistance to the power outage , and Mr. Burns 's response , is a parody of How the Grinch Stole Christmas .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Last Exit to Springfield " finished 19th in ratings for the week of March 8 – 14 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 8 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating COPS .
This episode is generally ranked as being one of the best of all time and is on a number of Top 10 lists ; the BBC stated it is " frequently cited as the show 's best @-@ ever episode " . An Entertainment Weekly article from January 2003 looking back at the top 25 episodes of the series chose this episode as the show 's greatest episode , saying " this episode is virtually flawless , the product of a series at the height of its creative powers -- when the satire was savage and relevant " and " the stuff of syndication legend : Burns facing down brilliant labor kingpin Homer Simpson ; Homer Simpson facing down his own brain ( DENTAL PLAN ! / Lisa needs braces ! ) ; Grampa rattling on about wearing onions on his belt . Last Exit is a glorious symphony of the high and the low , of satirical shots at unions . " In his book , Planet Simpson , Chris Turner calls it the best episode of the series , saying " Episode 9F15 of The Simpsons should be taught in schools , in history , economics , social studies , literature and art class . It 's flawless " . He also called it " the funniest half @-@ hour in TV history " , and provided a full analysis of the episode , only criticizing the chalkboard and couch gags . He maintains that he chose the episode as best ever before Entertainment Weekly 's list was published .
In 2003 , to celebrate the show 's 300th episode , USA Today published a top 10 chosen by the webmaster of The Simpsons Archive , which had this episode in first place . The BBC website says , " This fine episode contains several of our favourite sequences ... A classic , and the series ' most marked expedition into the surreal - up to this point . " MSNBC , who listed the episode as their favorite , stated , " This is the episode that every self @-@ respecting Simpsons geek must be able to recite verbatim . " Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the sixth best in the show 's history .
Director Mark Kirkland considers this episode to be one of the most surreal episodes that he has worked on because it has a lot of story crammed into it , lots of parodies and contains several visual sequences . Al Jean has also called this one of the " craziest " episodes . Homer 's line " uh ... Yeah " after being asked if he found the bathroom is one of Jay Kogen 's favorite Simpsons jokes . The episode 's parody of Batman was named the 30th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film
The scene in the episode in which Mr. Burns shows his room with a thousand monkeys working at a thousand typewriters , a reference to the infinite monkey theorem , has inspired a real @-@ life experiment about the theorem . The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . "
After negotiating with Burns , Homer celebrates by lying on his side and spinning in a circle . West Ham United soccer player Michail Antonio imitated this routine after scoring a goal in 2016 .
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= Washington State Route 22 =
State Route 22 ( SR 22 ) is a 35 @.@ 84 @-@ mile ( 57 @.@ 68 km ) long state highway spanning Yakima and Benton counties in the US state of Washington . Existing since at least 1937 , the highway serves to connect several small communities that have been bypassed by Interstate 82 ( I @-@ 82 ) / U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) . Except for the section through Toppenish and the southeastern bypass of Prosser , the highway is lightly traveled passing mainly through rural farmland . The highway parallels a BNSF Railway line for a majority of its route , with the rail line predating the highway by at least 27 years .
Three digit highway numbers in Washington indicate auxiliary routes of their parent route , giving SR 22 five auxiliary routes : SR 220 , SR 221 , SR 223 , SR 224 , and SR 225 . SR 220 was decommissioned during the 1991 legislative session , and is no longer maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation .
= = Route description = =
SR 22 begins at exit 50 on the concurrent I @-@ 82 / US 12 as a hybrid diamond – partial cloverleaf interchange The route heads south through farmland towards the town of Toppenish in Yakima County , which is also part of the Yakama Indian Reservation . While in Toppenish , the highway passes over double track belonging to BNSF Railway . On the south end of town , SR 22 intersects US 97 , turning southeast as US 97 heads south . Traveling southeast , SR 22 passes through more farmland , passing the small census @-@ designated place of Satus and an interchange with SR 223 . The city of Mabton is located just north of the highway , and is accessible by turning onto SR 241 . The highway leaves the reservation and turns southwest after passing the Sunnyside Wildlife Recreation Area , and crosses the Yakima – Benton county line , continuing through farmland until approaching the outskirts of Prosser , the county seat of Benton County . SR 22 serves as a bypass of Prosser , turning north until intersecting Wine Country Road and the Desert Wind Winery on the east side of Prosser before turning back southwest on Wine Country Road and terminating at a folded diamond interchange , exit 82 , on I – 82 .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 1 @,@ 100 cars traveled through the intersection with Bus Road just west of the Sunnyside Wildlife Recreation Area , and as many as 10 @,@ 000 cars passed through the town of Toppenish before the interchange with US 97 .
The segment of highway between its western terminus at I @-@ 82 and US 97 is listed on both the WSDOT List of Highways of Statewide Significance , which marks this portion of the highway as a critical to connecting major communities in the state , and the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .
= = History = =
A roadway has existed since before 1926 , connecting Toppenish and Prosser near the current alignment of SR 22 , however the roadway was incomplete , with a gap existing between Satus and Mabton . The gap in the roadway was completed by 1933 , and the segment between Toppenish and Prosser was numbered Secondary State Highway 3A ( SSH 3A ) by 1939 , while the segment between the current I @-@ 82 and US 97 was originally numbered as part of Primary State Highway 8 ( PSH 8 ) . These designations remained until the 1964 state highway renumbering , when SSH 3A and the small segment of PSH 8 were renumbered SR 22 . Before the completion of I @-@ 82 through the area , SR 22 continued into the town of Buena , however now that the interstate has been completed , SR 22 has been truncated to the interstate .
The rail line that the highway parallels between Toppenish and just west of Prosser has existed since at least 1910 . It originally belonged to the Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway , and it is now part of BNSF Railway as part of their Yakima Valley Subdivision .
In Spring 2011 , WSDOT began a $ 4 @.@ 63 million construction project to build wider lanes and shoulders on SR 22 between I @-@ 82 and the city of Toppenish , because of a number of collisions along the roadway . Other improvements included installing new sidewalks with ADA @-@ compliant curbs and access ramps , as well as adding turn lanes to side roads . The project was completed in June 2012 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
Three digit state highway numbers are considered auxiliary routes of their one or two digit parent route , thus SR 22 has four current , and one decommissioned , auxiliary routes .
= = = SR 220 = = =
State Route 220 was a 27 @.@ 42 @-@ mile ( 44 @.@ 13 km ) long state highway located entirely in the Yakama Indian Reservation , Yakima County . The highway linked Fort Simcoe State Park in the west to White Swan and Toppenish in the east .
= = = SR 221 = = =
State Route 221 is a 25 @.@ 95 @-@ mile ( 41 @.@ 76 km ) long state highway located entirely within Benton County . The highway serves to connect the unincorporated community of Paterson to the county seat Prosser .
= = = SR 223 = = =
State Route 223 is a 3 @.@ 81 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 13 km ) long state highway located entirely in Yakima County . It serves the role of connecting the city of Granger to the county seat , Yakima via I @-@ 82 and to SR 22 .
= = = SR 224 = = =
State Route 224 is a 10 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 33 km ) long state highway located entirely in Benton County . The highway serves to connect SR 225 to I @-@ 82 , and to link Benton City to West Richland and Richland .
= = = SR 225 = = =
State Route 225 is an 11 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 22 km ) long two @-@ lane state highway located entirely in Benton County . The highway travels over the Benton City – Kiona Bridge over the Yakima River and connects Benton City to I @-@ 82 via SR 224 . The bridge is listed on the Washington Heritage Register and National Register of Historic Places .
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= Beat of My Heart =
" Beat of My Heart " is a song recorded by American singer Hilary Duff for her first compilation album , Most Wanted ( 2005 ) . It was written by Duff and the Dead Executives , a record production team consisting of Jason Epperson , Joel and Benji Madden . Along with the three other new songs on Most Wanted , " Beat of My Heart " was crafted with the intention of having a " totally different sound " from Duff 's previous material . It is an up @-@ tempo new wave @-@ inspired electropop song that incorporates elements of bubblegum pop and dance music in its production . Lyrically , " Beat of My Heart " can be interpreted in many different ways . For Duff , it tells the story of a woman " com [ ing ] out of her shell again " after a bad break @-@ up .
Following the success of " Wake Up " , " Beat of My Heart " was issued as the second international single from Most Wanted . It was released in Australia by Festival Mushroom Records on December 11 , 2005 and in several European countries on March 6 , 2006 , by Angel Records . The single was a moderate commercial success . It managed to chart in four different countries , reaching its highest position in Italy , where it peaked at number eight . In addition , it reached the top twenty in Australia and Spain and the low @-@ end of the chart in Switzerland . Critical reaction to " Beat of My Heart " was generally mixed , with many criticizing the song for being repetitive and childish , while others gave it credit for presenting an easy @-@ to @-@ listen @-@ to sound .
The music video for " Beat of My Heart " was directed by Phil Harder . The video , which paid homage to bond girls , debuted a " more mature " image of Duff . It emulates the title sequences of James Bond films from the 1960s to present @-@ day , high @-@ tech 3D designs . Duff has performed " Beat of My Heart " live on all of her concert tours since its inception . A pre @-@ recorded performance of the song was played during the 2006 edition of Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , which would later become a regular feature during future editions of the program . The song and video were parodied on the American sketchy comedy series Mad TV . The parody satirizes Duff 's thinness and Hollywood 's obsession with body image .
= = Background and development = =
On May 20 , 2005 , MTV News reported that Hilary Duff would be releasing a new album in August , comprising previously released tracks and four new recordings . The following month , in an interview with MTV News , Duff said that she had been working with brothers Joel and Benji Madden , of the American rock band Good Charlotte , and Jason Epperson ( together known under the production name the Dead Executives ) to write and produce new songs for the compilation . She said that " ... they 're three of my favorite songs I 've ever done . ... It was really fun being in the studio with them . " Described by Duff as the first time when " all the responsibility was on [ her ] " , she went into the recording studio without the guidance of her record label or management .
According to Duff , she did not tell anyone at her record label that she was working with the Dead Executives . Joel , whom Duff had been dating at the time , was aware that she needed new material for a compilation album , and knew that she wanted a " totally different sound " . Together , the Dead Executives went into the recording studio and worked on new music for Duff , before bringing her into the studio to collectively work on them . Duff described working with them as pleasant , and the music as a new milestone in her career , stating that working with " people you 're close with makes a world of difference when you 're recording and being creative . " At the same time , Duff was also nervous about how her fans would react to the new music . Duff recorded four tracks for the album , three of which were co @-@ written and produced with the Dead Executives .
For Duff , who stated that the song can be interpreted in many different ways , " Beat of My Heart " tells the story of a heterosexual relationship , in which the woman was in love with the man , but he was not " as into her as she was him " . After the couple break @-@ up , she found herself in a place where she " wasn 't herself " . She then " comes out of her shell again " , which Duff described as : " Coming out again , dancing again , smiling again , having fun and seeing everything in a brighter light . " The Dead Executives were instrumental in the instrumentation of " Beat of My Heart " , performing on the bass and guitars . They also mixed and engineered the song ; the latter was also conducted by Todd Parker and Grant Conway and assisted by Allan Hessler . It was mixed and recorded at the Foxy Studio in Los Angeles , California . The drums featured on the track was performed by Dean Butterworth while Monique Powell and The Fruit performed backing vocals . The song was then mastered by Joe Gastwirt .
= = Composition = =
" Beat of My Heart " is an up @-@ tempo new wave @-@ inspired electropop song that incorporates elements of bubblegum pop and dance music in its production . It contains a " soft electronic pop " sound and has the heart beat sound as its base , as well as guitar strums at a " feverish pace " throughout the song . Spence D. of IGN described " Beat of My Heart " as a " glorious uninhibited slab of Euro pop as filtered through the vocal chords of a warm @-@ blooded American girl . "
" Beat of My Heart " opens with the sound of a beating heart . In the pre @-@ chorus , Duff 's vocals are made distant by the song 's use of guitars and synth keyboards . She sings that she is going to follow her own interests : " To the beat of my / To the beat of my / To the beat of my heart " . In the first verse , a disinterested Duff sings that she is eager to speak her mind and " yield to her every desire " . In the chorus , she sings that her confidence has strained her relationships with her friends . In the second verse , she sings of being over her depression . An " angry guitar " and a " goth piano " interrupts the song in its bridge . Duff sings that she is only listening to herself from now on . According to Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine , the line " beat of my heart " is repeated forty @-@ four times in the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Beat of My Heart " received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics wrote that Duff sounds like she is bored and " going through the motions " on the song . She further stated that Duff has " lost her sauciness and ironically , her spunk " in the song . Avoledo concluded her review by calling " the bland electro pop " song an " insult to the genre . It 's like spilling ramen on a Vivenne Westwood evening gown . " A reviewer from CBBC Newsround commented that the song is so repetitive that you will feel like " you 've listened to it 20 times after just one play " . The reviewer praised the heartbeat present on the track , writing that it " make it a bit of a foot @-@ tapper " , but deemed the lyrics to be " meaningless " . The reviewer concluded that : " You 'll find yourself humming it but will be hard pushed to remember what on earth she was singing about ! " Spence D. of IGN wrote that " Beat of My Heart " does not try for subtlety as it utilizes the " much overused heartbeat " for the " foundation rhythm " of the song .
A reviewer for Billboard noted that the song " seems to toss her back to her Disney days " . They concluded that : " Pop music is always appreciated , but this is a kiddie anthem , plain and simple [ ... ] it is hardly a contender for contemporary radio " . Bill Lamb of About.com found the song , along with " Break My Heart " , to be " disappointing cookie cutter copies " of Avril Lavigne 's " Sk8er Boi " . He stated that although the songs are " easy to listen " , they " break no new ground " . Gabriel Leong of MTV Asia stated that " Beat of My Heart " sounds " very much like " songs that Debbie Gibson , Tiffany and Bananarama would have recorded in 1980s , a direction that suits Duff " much better than the whole budding rock chick image she 's been trying out . We don 't want a squabble with Ashlee [ Simpson ] now , do we Hil ? "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Beat of My Heart " was a moderate commercial success . The single managed to chart in four different countries , reaching its highest position in Italy , where it peaked at number eight on the week ending on April 6 , 2006 , after debuting at number ten . In Australia , " Beat of My Heart " outperformed " Wake Up " by reaching number 13 ; it stayed on the chart for a total 14 weeks . The song gained lower positions in Spain , where it managed to peak inside the top twenty by reaching number 17 ; and in Switzerland , where it reached number 89 . In 2006 , " Beat of My Heart " was placed at number 90 on the Australian year @-@ end singles chart , and at number 74 on the year @-@ end Australian Physical Singles chart .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Beat of My Heart " was shot in Los Angeles , California on the week of September 26 , 2005 . It was directed by Phil Harder for Harder / Fuller Films , who is best known for his mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s videos for seminal indie rock acts Low , the Red House Painters and The Afghan Whigs , as well as his videos for The Barenaked Ladies . The video , which pays homage to bond girls , contains " that hip sensibility " of James Bond films and presents a " more mature " image of Duff . A representative for Duff 's record label said that : " She 's always been a huge James Bond fan . She watched those movies with her sister growing up , and she loved the Bond girls , because they were always so stylish , and she 's stylish . " The music video was made available to purchase on the iTunes Store from November 2 , 2005 . It later made its on @-@ air premiere on MTV 's Total Request Live a week later , on November 9 .
The music video emulates the title sequences of Bond films from the 1960s to present @-@ day , high @-@ tech 3D designs . In the opening sequence , one of the graphics turns into a wire frame of a beating electronic heart , which " pulls out " with each beat . As the camera zooms , the heart grows in size and " weaves " to become Duff . According to MTV News , while she doesn 't " take on " Pussy Galore , Plenty O 'Toole , Holly Goodhead , or any other Bond girl , she becomes a " Bond girl in spirit " , switching from era to era with different looks , with her hair blowing and flying around in graphic silhouettes . Instead of cutting from image to image , the shots evolve in a Bond @-@ like style " as shapes take on different forms to reveal something else " . Duff performs in silhouette , with a microphone , " where a gun would otherwise be " . In another shot , her band is a silhouette . The edition of the video is matched to the beat of the song , " zapping the view in and out , until a lull in the song , when the view travels back into her eyes , through her skin and back to her beating heart . "
= = = Live performances = = =
Duff premiered " Beat of My Heart " as part of the set list of the Still Most Wanted Tour , which commenced on July 12 , 2005 in Los Angeles . She co @-@ hosted the 2006 edition of Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . A pre @-@ recorded performance of " Beat of My Heart " was played during the program . The event also featured a live performance from Times Square by Mariah Carey — the first in the show 's history . These live performances would become a regular feature during future editions of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . Duff performed the song as part of the set list of the Dignity World Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of " Beat of My Heart " CD single .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Interferometry =
Interferometry is a family of techniques in which waves , usually electromagnetic , are superimposed in order to extract information about the waves . Interferometry is an important investigative technique in the fields of astronomy , fiber optics , engineering metrology , optical metrology , oceanography , seismology , spectroscopy ( and its applications to chemistry ) , quantum mechanics , nuclear and particle physics , plasma physics , remote sensing , biomolecular interactions , surface profiling , microfluidics , mechanical stress / strain measurement , velocimetry , and optometry .
Interferometers are widely used in science and industry for the measurement of small displacements , refractive index changes and surface irregularities . In analytical science , interferometers are used in continuous wave Fourier transform spectroscopy to analyze light containing features of absorption or emission associated with a substance or mixture . An astronomical interferometer consists of two or more separate telescopes that combine their signals , offering a resolution equivalent to that of a telescope of diameter equal to the largest separation between its individual elements .
= = Basic principles = =
Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves . This works because when two waves with the same frequency combine , the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two waves — waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference . Waves which are not completely in phase nor completely out of phase will have an intermediate intensity pattern , which can be used to determine their relative phase difference . Most interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic wave .
Typically ( see Fig . 1 , the well @-@ known Michelson configuration ) a single incoming beam of coherent light will be split into two identical beams by a beam splitter ( a partially reflecting mirror ) . Each of these beams travels a different route , called a path , and they are recombined before arriving at a detector . The path difference , the difference in the distance traveled by each beam , creates a phase difference between them . It is this introduced phase difference that creates the interference pattern between the initially identical waves . If a single beam has been split along two paths , then the phase difference is diagnostic of anything that changes the phase along the paths . This could be a physical change in the path length itself or a change in the refractive index along the path .
As seen in Fig . 2a and 2b , the observer has a direct view of mirror M1 seen through the beam splitter , and sees a reflected image M ' 2 of mirror M2 . The fringes can be interpreted as the result of interference between light coming from the two virtual images S ' 1 and S ' 2 of the original source S. The characteristics of the interference pattern depend on the nature of the light source and the precise orientation of the mirrors and beam splitter . In Fig . 2a , the optical elements are oriented so that S ' 1 and S ' 2 are in line with the observer , and the resulting interference pattern consists of circles centered on the normal to M1 and M ' 2 . If , as in Fig . 2b , M1 and M ' 2 are tilted with respect to each other , the interference fringes will generally take the shape of conic sections ( hyperbolas ) , but if M1 and M ' 2 overlap , the fringes near the axis will be straight , parallel , and equally spaced . If S is an extended source rather than a point source as illustrated , the fringes of Fig . 2a must be observed with a telescope set at infinity , while the fringes of Fig . 2b will be localized on the mirrors .
Use of white light will result in a pattern of colored fringes ( see Fig . 3 ) . The central fringe representing equal path length may be light or dark depending on the number of phase inversions experienced by the two beams as they traverse the optical system . ( See Michelson interferometer for a discussion of this . )
= = Categories = =
Interferometers and interferometric techniques may be categorized by a variety of criteria :
= = = Homodyne versus heterodyne detection = = =
In homodyne detection , the interference occurs between two beams at the same wavelength ( or carrier frequency ) . The phase difference between the two beams results in a change in the intensity of the light on the detector . The resulting intensity of the light after mixing of these two beams is measured , or the pattern of interference fringes is viewed or recorded . Most of the interferometers discussed in this article fall into this category .
The heterodyne technique is used for ( 1 ) shifting an input signal into a new frequency range as well as ( 2 ) amplifying a weak input signal ( assuming use of an active mixer ) . A weak input signal of frequency f1 is mixed with a strong reference frequency f2 from a local oscillator ( LO ) . The nonlinear combination of the input signals creates two new signals , one at the sum f1 + f2 of the two frequencies , and the other at the difference f1 − f2 . These new frequencies are called heterodynes . Typically only one of the new frequencies is desired , and the other signal is filtered out of the output of the mixer . The output signal will have an intensity proportional to the product of the amplitudes of the input signals .
The most important and widely used application of the heterodyne technique is in the superheterodyne receiver ( superhet ) , invented by U.S. engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong in 1918 . In this circuit , the incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed with a signal from a local oscillator ( LO ) and converted by the heterodyne technique to a lower fixed frequency signal called the intermediate frequency ( IF ) . This IF is amplified and filtered , before being applied to a detector which extracts the audio signal , which is sent to the loudspeaker .
Optical heterodyne detection is an extension of the heterodyne technique to higher ( visible ) frequencies .
= = = Double path versus common path = = =
A double path interferometer is one in which the reference beam and sample beam travel along divergent paths . Examples include the Michelson interferometer , the Twyman @-@ Green interferometer , and the Mach @-@ Zehnder interferometer . After being perturbed by interaction with the sample under test , the sample beam is recombined with the reference beam to create an interference pattern which can then be interpreted .
A common path interferometer is a class of interferometer in which the reference beam and sample beam travel along the same path . Fig . 4 illustrates the Sagnac interferometer , the fibre optic gyroscope , the point diffraction interferometer , and the lateral shearing interferometer . Other examples of common path interferometer include the Zernike phase contrast microscope , Fresnel 's biprism , the zero @-@ area Sagnac , and the scatterplate interferometer .
= = = Wavefront splitting versus amplitude splitting = = =
A wavefront splitting interferometer divides a light wavefront emerging from a point or a narrow slit ( i.e. spatially coherent light ) and , after allowing the two parts of the wavefront to travel through different paths , allows them to recombine . Fig . 5 illustrates Young 's interference experiment and Lloyd 's mirror . Other examples of wavefront splitting interferometer include the Fresnel biprism , the Billet Bi @-@ Lens , and the Rayleigh interferometer .
In 1803 , Young 's interference experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light . If white light is used in Young 's experiment , the result is a white central band of constructive interference corresponding to equal path length from the two slits , surrounded by a symmetrical pattern of colored fringes of diminishing intensity . In addition to continuous electromagnetic radiation , Young 's experiment has been performed with individual photons , with electrons , and with buckyball molecules large enough to be seen under an electron microscope .
Lloyd 's mirror generates interference fringes by combining direct light from a source ( blue lines ) and light from the source 's reflected image ( red lines ) from a mirror held at grazing incidence . The result is an asymmetrical pattern of fringes . Interestingly , the band of equal path length , nearest the mirror , is dark rather than bright . In 1834 , Humphrey Lloyd interpreted this effect as proof that the phase of a front @-@ surface reflected beam is inverted .
An amplitude splitting interferometer uses a partial reflector to divide the amplitude of the incident wave into separate beams which are separated and recombined . Fig . 6 illustrates the Fizeau , Mach – Zehnder and Fabry – Pérot interferometers . Other examples of amplitude splitting interferometer include the Michelson , Twyman – Green , Laser Unequal Path , and Linnik interferometer .
The Fizeau interferometer is shown as it might be set up to test an optical flat . A precisely figured reference flat is placed on top of the flat being tested , separated by narrow spacers . The reference flat is slightly beveled ( only a fraction of a degree of beveling is necessary ) to prevent the rear surface of the flat from producing interference fringes . Separating the test and reference flats allows the two flats to be tilted with respect to each other . By adjusting the tilt , which adds a controlled phase gradient to the fringe pattern , one can control the spacing and direction of the fringes , so that one may obtain an easily interpreted series of nearly parallel fringes rather than a complex swirl of contour lines . Separating the plates , however , necessitates that the illuminating light be collimated . Fig 6 shows a collimated beam of monochromatic light illuminating the two flats and a beam splitter allowing the fringes to be viewed on @-@ axis .
The Mach – Zehnder interferometer is a more versatile instrument than the Michelson interferometer . Each of the well separated light paths is traversed only once , and the fringes can be adjusted so that they are localized in any desired plane . Typically , the fringes would be adjusted to lie in the same plane as the test object , so that fringes and test object can be photographed together . If it is decided to produce fringes in white light , then , since white light has a limited coherence length , on the order of micrometers , great care must be taken to equalize the optical paths or no fringes will be visible . As illustrated in Fig . 6 , a compensating cell would be placed in the path of the reference beam to match the test cell . Note also the precise orientation of the beam splitters . The reflecting surfaces of the beam splitters would be oriented so that the test and reference beams pass through an equal amount of glass . In this orientation , the test and reference beams each experience two front @-@ surface reflections , resulting in the same number of phase inversions . The result is that light traveling an equal optical path length in the test and reference beams produces a white light fringe of constructive interference .
The heart of the Fabry – Pérot interferometer is a pair of partially silvered glass optical flats spaced several millimeters to centimeters apart with the silvered surfaces facing each other . ( Alternatively , a Fabry – Pérot etalon uses a transparent plate with two parallel reflecting surfaces . ) As with the Fizeau interferometer , the flats are slightly beveled . In a typical system , illumination is provided by a diffuse source set at the focal plane of a collimating lens . A focusing lens produces what would be an inverted image of the source if the paired flats were not present ; i.e. in the absence of the paired flats , all light emitted from point A passing through the optical system would be focused at point A ' . In Fig . 6 , only one ray emitted from point A on the source is traced . As the ray passes through the paired flats , it is multiply reflected to produce multiple transmitted rays which are collected by the focusing lens and brought to point A ' on the screen . The complete interference pattern takes the appearance of a set of concentric rings . The sharpness of the rings depends on the reflectivity of the flats . If the reflectivity is high , resulting in a high Q factor ( i.e. high finesse ) , monochromatic light produces a set of narrow bright rings against a dark background . In Fig . 6 , the low @-@ finesse image corresponds to a reflectivity of 0 @.@ 04 ( i.e. unsilvered surfaces ) versus a reflectivity of 0 @.@ 95 for the high @-@ finesse image .
Michelson and Morley ( 1887 ) and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether , used monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment , always switching to white light for the actual measurements . The reason is that measurements were recorded visually . Monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern . Lacking modern means of environmental temperature control , experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even though the interferometer might be set up in a basement . Since the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations by passing horse traffic , distant thunderstorms and the like , it would be easy for an observer to " get lost " when the fringes returned to visibility . The advantages of white light , which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern , far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its low coherence length . This was an early example of the use of white light to resolve the " 2 pi ambiguity " .
= = Applications = =
= = = Physics and astronomy = = =
In physics , one of the most important experiments of the late 19th century was the famous " failed experiment " of Michelson and Morley which provided evidence for special relativity . Recent repetitions of the Michelson – Morley experiment perform heterodyne measurements of beat frequencies of crossed cryogenic optical resonators . Fig 7 illustrates a resonator experiment performed by Müller et al. in 2003 . Two optical resonators constructed from crystalline sapphire , controlling the frequencies of two lasers , were set at right angles within a helium cryostat . A frequency comparator measured the beat frequency of the combined outputs of the two resonators . As of 2009 , the precision by which anisotropy of the speed of light can be excluded in resonator experiments is at the 10 − 17 level .
Michelson interferometers are used in tunable narrow band optical filters and as the core hardware component of Fourier transform spectrometers .
When used as a tunable narrow band filter , Michelson interferometers exhibit a number of advantages and disadvantages when compared with competing technologies such as Fabry – Pérot interferometers or Lyot filters . Michelson interferometers have the largest field of view for a specified wavelength , and are relatively simple in operation , since tuning is via mechanical rotation of waveplates rather than via high voltage control of piezoelectric crystals or lithium niobate optical modulators as used in a Fabry – Pérot system . Compared with Lyot filters , which use birefringent elements , Michelson interferometers have a relatively low temperature sensitivity . On the negative side , Michelson interferometers have a relatively restricted wavelength range and require use of prefilters which restrict transmittance .
Fig . 8 illustrates the operation of a Fourier transform spectrometer , which is essentially a Michelson interferometer with one mirror movable . ( A practical Fourier transform spectrometer would substitute corner cube reflectors for the flat mirrors of the conventional Michelson interferometer , but for simplicity , the illustration does not show this . ) An interferogram is generated by making measurements of the signal at many discrete positions of the moving mirror . A Fourier transform converts the interferogram into an actual spectrum .
Fig . 9 shows a doppler image of the solar corona made using a tunable Fabry @-@ Pérot interferometer to recover scans of the solar corona at a number of wavelengths near the FeXIV green line . The picture is a color @-@ coded image of the doppler shift of the line , which may be associated with the coronal plasma velocity towards or away from the satellite camera .
Fabry @-@ Pérot thin @-@ film etalons are used in narrow bandpass filters capable of selecting a single spectral line for imaging ; for example , the H @-@ alpha line or the Ca @-@ K line of the Sun or stars . Fig . 10 shows an Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope ( EIT ) image of the Sun at 195 Ångströms , corresponding to a spectral line of multiply @-@ ionized iron atoms . EIT used multilayer coated reflective mirrors that were coated with alternate layers of a light " spacer " element ( such as silicon ) , and a heavy " scatterer " element ( such as molybdenum ) . Approximately 100 layers of each type were placed on each mirror , with a thickness of around 10 nm each . The layer thicknesses were tightly controlled so that at the desired wavelength , reflected photons from each layer interfered constructively .
The Laser Interferometer Gravitational @-@ Wave Observatory ( LIGO ) uses two 4 @-@ km Michelson @-@ Fabry @-@ Pérot interferometers for the detection of gravitational waves . In this application , the Fabry – Pérot cavity is used to store photons for almost a millisecond while they bounce up and down between the mirrors . This increases the time a gravitational wave can interact with the light , which results in a better sensitivity at low frequencies . Smaller cavities , usually called mode cleaners , are used for spatial filtering and frequency stabilization of the main laser . The first observation of gravitational waves occurred on September 14 , 2015 .
The Mach @-@ Zehnder interferometer 's relatively large and freely accessible working space , and its flexibility in locating the fringes has made it the interferometer of choice for visualizing flow in wind tunnels , and for flow visualization studies in general . It is frequently used in the fields of aerodynamics , plasma physics and heat transfer to measure pressure , density , and temperature changes in gases .
Mach @-@ Zehnder interferometers are also used to study one of the most counterintuitive predictions of quantum mechanics , the phenomenon known as quantum entanglement .
An astronomical interferometer achieves high @-@ resolution observations using the technique of aperture synthesis , mixing signals from a cluster of comparatively small telescopes rather than a single very expensive monolithic telescope .
Early radio telescope interferometers used a single baseline for measurement . Later astronomical interferometers , such as the Very Large Array illustrated in Fig 11 , used arrays of telescopes arranged in a pattern on the ground . A limited number of baselines will result in insufficient coverage . This was alleviated by using the rotation of the Earth to rotate the array relative to the sky . Thus , a single baseline could measure information in multiple orientations by taking repeated measurements , a technique called Earth @-@ rotation synthesis . Baselines thousands of kilometers long were achieved using very long baseline interferometry .
Astronomical optical interferometry has had to overcome a number of technical issues not shared by radio telescope interferometry . The short wavelengths of light necessitate extreme precision and stability of construction . For example , spatial resolution of 1 milliarcsecond requires 0 @.@ 5 µm stability in a 100 m baseline . Optical interferometric measurements require high sensitivity , low noise detectors that did not become available until the late 1990s . Astronomical " seeing " , the turbulence that causes stars to twinkle , introduces rapid , random phase changes in the incoming light , requiring kilohertz data collection rates to be faster than the rate of turbulence . Despite these technical difficulties , roughly a dozen astronomical optical interferometers are now in operation offering resolutions down to the fractional milliarcsecond range . Fig . 12 shows a movie assembled from aperture synthesis images of the Beta Lyrae system , a binary star system approximately 960 light @-@ years ( 290 parsecs ) away in the constellation Lyra , as observed by the CHARA array with the MIRC instrument . The brighter component is the primary star , or the mass donor . The fainter component is the thick disk surrounding the secondary star , or the mass gainer . The two components are separated by 1 milli @-@ arcsecond . Tidal distortions of the mass donor and the mass gainer are both clearly visible .
The wave character of matter can be exploited to build interferometers . The first examples of matter interferometers were electron interferometers , later followed by neutron interferometers . Around 1990 the first atom interferometers were demonstrated , later followed by interferometers employing molecules .
Electron holography is an imaging technique that photographically records the electron interference pattern of an object , which is then reconstructed to yield a greatly magnified image of the original object . This technique was developed to enable greater resolution in electron microscopy than is possible using conventional imaging techniques . The resolution of conventional electron microscopy is not limited by electron wavelength , but by the large aberrations of electron lenses .
Neutron interferometry has been used to investigate the Aharonov – Bohm effect , to examine the effects of gravity acting on an elementary particle , and to demonstrate a strange behavior of fermions that is at the basis of the Pauli exclusion principle : Unlike macroscopic objects , when fermions are rotated by 360 ° about any axis , they do not return to their original state , but develop a minus sign in their wave function . In other words , a fermion needs to be rotated 720 ° before returning to its original state .
Atom interferometry techniques are reaching sufficient precision to allow laboratory @-@ scale tests of general relativity .
Interferometers are used in atmospheric physics for high @-@ precision measurements of trace gases via remote sounding of the atmosphere . There are several examples of interferometers that utilize either absorption or emission features of trace gases . A typical use would be in continual monitoring of the column concentration of trace gases such as ozone and carbon monoxide above the instrument .
= = = Engineering and applied science = = =
Newton ( test plate ) interferometry is frequently used in the optical industry for testing the quality of surfaces as they are being shaped and figured . Fig . 13 shows photos of reference flats being used to check two test flats at different stages of completion , showing the different patterns of interference fringes . The reference flats are resting with their bottom surfaces in contact with the test flats , and they are illuminated by a monochromatic light source . The light waves reflected from both surfaces interfere , resulting in a pattern of bright and dark bands . The surface in the left photo is nearly flat , indicated by a pattern of straight parallel interference fringes at equal intervals . The surface in the right photo is uneven , resulting in a pattern of curved fringes . Each pair of adjacent fringes represents a difference in surface elevation of half a wavelength of the light used , so differences in elevation can be measured by counting the fringes . The flatness of the surfaces can be measured to millionths of an inch by this method . To determine whether the surface being tested is concave or convex with respect to the reference optical flat , any of several procedures may be adopted . One can observe how the fringes are displaced when one presses gently on the top flat . If one observes the fringes in white light , the sequence of colors becomes familiar with experience and aids in interpretation . Finally one may compare the appearance of the fringes as one moves ones head from a normal to an oblique viewing position . These sorts of maneuvers , while common in the optical shop , are not suitable in a formal testing environment . When the flats are ready for sale , they will typically be mounted in a Fizeau interferometer for formal testing and certification .
Fabry @-@ Pérot etalons are widely used in telecommunications , lasers and spectroscopy to control and measure the wavelengths of light . Dichroic filters are multiple layer thin @-@ film etalons . In telecommunications , wavelength @-@ division multiplexing , the technology that enables the use of multiple wavelengths of light through a single optical fiber , depends on filtering devices that are thin @-@ film etalons . Single @-@ mode lasers employ etalons to suppress all optical cavity modes except the single one of interest .
The Twyman – Green interferometer , invented by Twyman and Green in 1916 , is a variant of the Michelson interferometer widely used to test optical components . The basic characteristics distinguishing it from the Michelson configuration are the use of a monochromatic point light source and a collimator . It is interesting to note that Michelson ( 1918 ) criticized the Twyman @-@ Green configuration as being unsuitable for the testing of large optical components , since the light sources available at the time had limited coherence length . Michelson pointed out that constraints on geometry forced by limited coherence length required the use of a reference mirror of equal size to the test mirror , making the Twyman @-@ Green impractical for many purposes . Decades later , the advent of laser light sources answered Michelson 's objections . ( A Twyman @-@ Green interferometer using a laser light source and unequal path length is known as a Laser Unequal Path Interferometer , or LUPI . ) Fig . 14 illustrates a Twyman @-@ Green interferometer set up to test a lens . Light from a monochromatic point source is expanded by a diverging lens ( not shown ) , then is collimated into a parallel beam . A convex spherical mirror is positioned so that its center of curvature coincides with the focus of the lens being tested . The emergent beam is recorded by an imaging system for analysis .
Mach @-@ Zehnder interferometers are being used in integrated optical circuits , in which light interferes between two branches of a waveguide that are externally modulated to vary their relative phase . A slight tilt of one of the beam splitters will result in a path difference and a change in the interference pattern . Mach @-@ Zehnder interferometers are the basis of a wide variety of devices , from RF modulators to sensors to optical switches .
The latest proposed extremely large astronomical telescopes , such as the Thirty Meter Telescope and the European Extremely Large Telescope , will be of segmented design . Their primary mirrors will be built from hundreds of hexagonal mirror segments . Polishing and figuring these highly aspheric and non @-@ rotationally symmetric mirror segments presents a major challenge . Traditional means of optical testing compares a surface against a spherical reference with the aid of a null corrector . In recent years , computer @-@ generated holograms ( CGHs ) have begun to supplement null correctors in test setups for complex aspheric surfaces . Fig . 15 illustrates how this is done . Unlike the figure , actual CGHs have line spacing on the order of 1 to 10 µm . When laser light is passed through the CGH , the zero @-@ order diffracted beam experiences no wavefront modification . The wavefront of the first @-@ order diffracted beam , however , is modified to match the desired shape of the test surface . In the illustrated Fizeau interferometer test setup , the zero @-@ order diffracted beam is directed towards the spherical reference surface , and the first @-@ order diffracted beam is directed towards the test surface in such a way that the two reflected beams combine to form interference fringes . The same test setup can be used for the innermost mirrors as for the outermost , with only the CGH needing to be exchanged .
Ring laser gyroscopes ( RLGs ) and fibre optic gyroscopes ( FOGs ) are interferometers used in navigation systems . They operate on the principle of the Sagnac effect . The distinction between RLGs and FOGs is that in a RLG , the entire ring is part of the laser while in a FOG , an external laser injects counter @-@ propagating beams into an optical fiber ring , and rotation of the system then causes a relative phase shift between those beams . In a RLG , the observed phase shift is proportional to the accumulated rotation , while in a FOG , the observed phase shift is proportional to the angular velocity .
In telecommunication networks , heterodyning is used to move frequencies of individual signals to different channels which may share a single physical transmission line . This is called frequency division multiplexing ( FDM ) . For example , a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency , so they don 't interfere with one another . Continuous wave ( CW ) doppler radar detectors are basically heterodyne detection devices that compare transmitted and reflected beams .
Optical heterodyne detection is used for coherent Doppler lidar measurements capable of detecting very weak light scattered in the atmosphere and monitoring wind speeds with high accuracy . It has application in optical fiber communications , in various high resolution spectroscopic techniques , and the self @-@ heterodyne method can be used to measure the linewidth of a laser .
Optical heterodyne detection is an essential technique used in high @-@ accuracy measurements of the frequencies of optical sources , as well as in the stabilization of their frequencies . Until a relatively few years ago , lengthy frequency chains were needed to connect the microwave frequency of a cesium or other atomic time source to optical frequencies . At each step of the chain , a frequency multiplier would be used to produce a harmonic of the frequency of that step , which would be compared by heterodyne detection with the next step ( the output of a microwave source , far infrared laser , infrared laser , or visible laser ) . Each measurement of a single spectral line required several years of effort in the construction of a custom frequency chain . Currently , optical frequency combs have provided a much simpler method of measuring optical frequencies . If a mode @-@ locked laser is modulated to form a train of pulses , its spectrum is seen to consist of the carrier frequency surrounded by a closely spaced comb of optical sideband frequencies with a spacing equal to the pulse repetition frequency ( Fig . 16 ) . The pulse repetition frequency is locked to that of the frequency standard , and the frequencies of the comb elements at the red end of the spectrum are doubled and heterodyned with the frequencies of the comb elements at the blue end of the spectrum , thus allowing the comb to serve as its own reference . In this manner , locking of the frequency comb output to an atomic standard can be performed in a single step . To measure an unknown frequency , the frequency comb output is dispersed into a spectrum . The unknown frequency is overlapped with the appropriate spectral segment of the comb and the frequency of the resultant heterodyne beats is measured .
One of the most common industrial applications of optical interferometry is as a versatile measurement tool for the high precision examination of surface topography . Popular interferometric measurement techniques include Phase Shifting Interferometry ( PSI ) , and Vertical Scanning Interferometry ( VSI ) , also known as scanning white light interferometry ( SWLI ) or by the ISO term Coherence Scanning Interferometry ( CSI ) , CSI exploits coherence to extend the range of capabilities for interference microscopy . These techniques are widely used in micro @-@ electronic and micro @-@ optic fabrication . PSI uses monochromatic light and provides very precise measurements ; however it is only usable for surfaces that are very smooth . CSI often uses white light and high numerical apertures , and rather than looking at the phase of the fringes , as does PSI , looks for best position of maximum fringe contrast or some other feature of the overall fringe pattern . In its simplest form , CSI provides less precise measurements than PSI but can be used on rough surfaces . Some configurations of CSI , variously known as and Enhanced VSI ( EVSI ) , high @-@ resolution SWLI or Frequency Domain Analysis ( FDA ) , use coherence effects in combination with interference phase to enhance precision .
Phase Shifting Interferometry addresses several issues associated with the classical analysis of static interferograms . Classically , one measures the positions of the fringe centers . As seen in Fig . 13 , fringe deviations from straightness and equal spacing provide a measure of the aberration . Errors in determining the location of the fringe centers provide the inherent limit to precision of the classical analysis , and any intensity variations across the interferogram will also introduce error . There is a trade @-@ off between precision and number of data points : closely spaced fringes provide many data points of low precision , while widely spaced fringes provide a low number of high precision data points . Since fringe center data is all that one uses in the classical analysis , all of the other information that might theoretically be obtained by detailed analysis of the intensity variations in an interferogram is thrown away . Finally , with static interferograms , additional information is needed to determine the polarity of the wavefront : In Fig . 13 , one can see that the tested surface on the right deviates from flatness , but one cannot tell from this single image whether this deviation from flatness is concave or convex . Traditionally , this information would be obtained using non @-@ automated means , such as by observing the direction that the fringes move when the reference surface is pushed .
Phase shifting interferometry overcomes these limitations by not relying on finding fringe centers , but rather by collecting intensity data from every point of the CCD image sensor . As seen in Fig . 17 , multiple interferograms ( at least three ) are analyzed with the reference optical surface shifted by a precise fraction of a wavelength between each exposure using a piezoelectric transducer ( PZT ) . Alternatively , precise phase shifts can be introduced by modulating the laser frequency . The captured images are processed by a computer to calculate the optical wavefront errors . The precision and reproducibility of PSI is far greater than possible in static interferogram analysis , with measurement repeatabilities of a hundredth of a wavelength being routine . Phase shifting technology has been adapted to a variety of interferometer types such as Twyman @-@ Green , Mach – Zehnder , laser Fizeau , and even common path configurations such as point diffraction and lateral shearing interferometers . More generally , phase shifting techniques can be adapted to almost any system that uses fringes for measurement , such as holographic and speckle interferometry .
In coherence scanning interferometry , interference is only achieved when the path length delays of the interferometer are matched within the coherence time of the light source . CSI monitors the fringe contrast rather than the phase of the fringes . Fig . 17 illustrates a CSI microscope using a Mirau interferometer in the objective ; other forms of interferometer used with white light include the Michelson interferometer ( for low magnification objectives , where the reference mirror in a Mirau objective would interrupt too much of the aperture ) and the Linnik interferometer ( for high magnification objectives with limited working distance ) . The sample ( or alternatively , the objective ) is moved vertically over the full height range of the sample , and the position of maximum fringe contrast is found for each pixel . The chief benefit of coherence scanning interferometry is that systems can be designed that do not suffer from the 2 pi ambiguity of coherent interferometry , and as seen in Fig . 18 , which scans a 180μm x 140μm x 10μm volume , it is well suited to profiling steps and rough surfaces . The axial resolution of the system is determined in part by the coherence length of the light source . Industrial applications include in @-@ process surface metrology , roughness measurement , 3D surface metrology in hard @-@ to @-@ reach spaces and in hostile environments , profilometry of surfaces with high aspect ratio features ( grooves , channels , holes ) , and film thickness measurement ( semi @-@ conductor and optical industries , etc . ) .
Fig . 19 illustrates a Twyman – Green interferometer set up for white light scanning of a macroscopic object .
Holographic interferometry is a technique which uses holography to monitor small deformations in single wavelength implementations . In multi @-@ wavelength implementations , it is used to perform dimensional metrology of large parts and assemblies and to detect larger surface defects .
Holographic interferometry was discovered by accident as a result of mistakes committed during the making of holograms . Early lasers were relatively weak and photographic plates were insensitive , necessitating long exposures during which vibrations or minute shifts might occur in the optical system . The resultant holograms , which showed the holographic subject covered with fringes , were considered ruined .
Eventually , several independent groups of experimenters in the mid @-@ 60s realized that the fringes encoded important information about dimensional changes occurring in the subject , and began intentionally producing holographic double exposures . The main Holographic interferometry article covers the disputes over priority of discovery that occurred during the issuance of the patent for this method .
Double- and multi- exposure holography is one of three methods used to create holographic interferograms . A first exposure records the object in an unstressed state . Subsequent exposures on the same photographic plate are made while the object is subjected to some stress . The composite image depicts the difference between the stressed and unstressed states .
Real @-@ time holography is a second method of creating holographic interferograms . A holograph of the unstressed object is created . This holograph is illuminated with a reference beam to generate a hologram image of the object directly superimposed over the original object itself while the object is being subjected to some stress . The object waves from this hologram image will interfere with new waves coming from the object . This technique allows real time monitoring of shape changes .
The third method , time @-@ average holography , involves creating a holograph while the object is subjected to a periodic stress or vibration . This yields a visual image of the vibration pattern .
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar ( InSAR ) is a radar technique used in geodesy and remote sensing . Satellite synthetic aperture radar images of a geographic feature are taken on separate days , and changes that have taken place between radar images taken on the separate days are recorded as fringes similar to those obtained in holographic interferometry . The technique can monitor centimeter- to millimeter @-@ scale deformation resulting from earthquakes , volcanoes and landslides , and also has uses in structural engineering , in particular for the monitoring of subsidence and structural stability . Fig 20 shows Kilauea , an active volcano in Hawaii . Data acquired using the space shuttle Endeavour 's X @-@ band Synthetic Aperture Radar on April 13 , 1994 and October 4 , 1994 were used to generate interferometric fringes , which were overlaid on the X @-@ SAR image of Kilauea .
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry ( ESPI ) , also known as TV holography , uses video detection and recording to produce an image of the object upon which is superimposed a fringe pattern which represents the displacement of the object between recordings . ( see Fig . 21 ) The fringes are similar to those obtained in holographic interferometry .
When lasers were first invented , laser speckle was considered to be a severe drawback in using lasers to illuminate objects , particularly in holographic imaging because of the grainy image produced . It was later realized that speckle patterns could carry information about the object 's surface deformations . Butters and Leendertz developed the technique of speckle pattern interferometry in 1970 , and since then , speckle has been exploited in a variety of other applications . A photograph is made of the speckle pattern before deformation , and a second photograph is made of the speckle pattern after deformation . Digital subtraction of the two images results in a correlation fringe pattern , where the fringes represent lines of equal deformation . Short laser pulses in the nanosecond range can be used to capture very fast transient events . A phase problem exists : In the absence of other information , one cannot tell the difference between contour lines indicating a peak versus contour lines indicating a trough . To resolve the issue of phase ambiguity , ESPI may be combined with phase shifting methods .
A method of establishing precise geodetic baselines , invented by Yrjö Väisälä , exploited the low coherence length of white light . Initially , white light was split in two , with the reference beam " folded " , bouncing back @-@ and @-@ forth six times between a mirror pair spaced precisely 1 m apart . Only if the test path was precisely 6 times the reference path would fringes be seen . Repeated applications of this procedure allowed precise measurement of distances up to 864 meters . Baselines thus established were used to calibrate geodetic distance measurement equipment , leading to a metrologically traceable scale for geodetic networks measured by these instruments . ( This method has been superseded by GPS . )
Other uses of interferometers have been to study dispersion of materials , measurement of complex indices of refraction , and thermal properties . They are also used for three @-@ dimensional motion mapping including mapping vibrational patterns of structures .
= = = Biology and medicine = = =
Optical coherence tomography ( OCT ) is a medical imaging technique using low @-@ coherence interferometry to provide tomographic visualization of internal tissue microstructures . As seen in Fig . 22 , the core of a typical OCT system is a Michelson interferometer . One interferometer arm is focused onto the tissue sample and scans the sample in an X @-@ Y longitudinal raster pattern . The other interferometer arm is bounced off a reference mirror . Reflected light from the tissue sample is combined with reflected light from the reference . Because of the low coherence of the light source , interferometric signal is observed only over a limited depth of sample . X @-@ Y scanning therefore records one thin optical slice of the sample at a time . By performing multiple scans , moving the reference mirror between each scan , an entire three @-@ dimensional image of the tissue can be reconstructed . Recent advances have striven to combine the nanometer phase retrieval of coherent interferometry with the ranging capability of low @-@ coherence interferometry .
Phase contrast and differential interference contrast ( DIC ) microscopy are important tools in biology and medicine . Most animal cells and single @-@ celled organisms have very little color , and their intracellular organelles are almost totally invisible under simple bright field illumination . These structures can be made visible by staining the specimens , but staining procedures are time @-@ consuming and kill the cells . As seen in Figs . 24 and 25 , phase contrast and DIC microscopes allow unstained , living cells to be studied . DIC also has non @-@ biological applications , for example in the analysis of planar silicon semiconductor processing .
Angle @-@ resolved low @-@ coherence interferometry ( a / LCI ) uses scattered light to measure the sizes of subcellular objects , including cell nuclei . This allows interferometry depth measurements to be combined with density measurements . Various correlations have been found between the state of tissue health and the measurements of subcellular objects . For example , it has been found that as tissue changes from normal to cancerous , the average cell nuclei size increases .
Phase @-@ contrast X @-@ ray imaging ( Fig . 26 ) refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of a coherent x @-@ ray beam to image soft tissues . ( For an elementary discussion , see Phase @-@ contrast x @-@ ray imaging ( introduction ) . For a more in @-@ depth review , see Phase @-@ contrast X @-@ ray imaging . ) It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range of biological and medical studies . There are several technologies being used for x @-@ ray phase @-@ contrast imaging , all utilizing different principles to convert phase variations in the x @-@ rays emerging from an object into intensity variations . These include propagation @-@ based phase contrast , talbot interferometry , moiré @-@ based far @-@ field interferometry , refraction @-@ enhanced imaging , and x @-@ ray interferometry . These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption @-@ contrast x @-@ ray imaging , making it possible to see smaller details . A disadvantage is that these methods require more sophisticated equipment , such as synchrotron or microfocus x @-@ ray sources , x @-@ ray optics , or high resolution x @-@ ray detectors .
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= Beorhtwulf of Mercia =
Beorhtwulf ( pronounced [ beorxtwulf ] , meaning " bright wolf " ; also spelled Berhtwulf ; died 852 ) was King of Mercia , a kingdom of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , from 839 or 840 to 852 . His ancestry is unknown , though he may have been connected to Beornwulf , who ruled Mercia in the 820s . Almost no coins were issued by Beorhtwulf 's predecessor , Wiglaf , but a Mercian coinage was restarted by Beorhtwulf early in his reign , initially with strong similarities to the coins of Æthelwulf of Wessex , and later with independent designs . The Vikings attacked within a year or two of Beorhtwulf 's accession : the province of Lindsey was raided in 841 , and London , a key centre of Mercian commerce , was attacked the following year . Another Viking assault on London in 851 " put Beorhtwulf to flight " , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ; the Vikings were subsequently defeated by Æthelwulf . This raid may have had a significant economic impact on Mercia , as London coinage is much reduced after 851 .
Berkshire appears to have passed from Mercian to West Saxon control during Beorhtwulf 's reign . The Welsh are recorded to have rebelled against Beorhtwulf 's successor , Burgred , shortly after Beorhtwulf 's death , suggesting that Beorhtwulf had been their overlord . Charters from Beorthwulf 's reign show a strained relationship with the church , as Beorhtwulf seized land and subsequently returned it .
Beorhtwulf and his wife , Sæthryth , may have had two sons , Beorhtfrith and Beorhtric . Beorhtric is known from witnessing his father 's charters , but he ceased to do so before the end of Beorhtwulf 's reign . Beorhtfrith appears in later sources which describe his murder of Wigstan , the grandson of Wiglaf , in a dispute over Beorhtfrith 's plan to marry Wigstan 's widowed mother Ælfflæd . Beorhtwulf 's death is not recorded in any surviving sources , but it is thought that he died in 852 .
= = Background and sources = =
For most of the 8th century , Mercia was the dominant Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom . Mercian influence in the south @-@ eastern kingdoms of Kent , East Anglia , and Essex continued into the early 820s under Coenwulf of Mercia . However , Coenwulf 's death in 821 marked the beginning of a period in which Mercia suffered from dynastic conflicts and military defeats that redrew the political map of England . Four ( possibly five ) kings , from what appear to be four different kin @-@ groups , ruled Mercia throughout the next six years . Little genealogical information about these kings has survived , but since Anglo @-@ Saxon names often included initial elements common to most or all members of a family , historians have suggested that kin @-@ groups in this period can be reconstructed on the basis of the similarity of their names . Three competing kin @-@ groups are recognizable in the charters and regnal lists of the time : the C , Wig and B groups . The C group , which included the brothers Coenwulf , Cuthred of Kent , and Ceolwulf I , was dominant in the period following the deaths of Offa of Mercia and his son Ecgfrith in 796 . Ceolwulf was deposed in 823 by Beornwulf , perhaps the first of the B group , who was killed fighting against the East Anglians in 826 . He was followed by Ludeca , not obviously linked to any of the three groups , who was killed in battle the following year . After Ludeca 's death , the first of the Wig family came to power : Wiglaf , who died in 839 or 840 . Beorhtwulf , who succeeded to the throne that year , is likely to have come from the B group , which may also have included the ill @-@ fated Beornred who " held [ power ] a little while and unhappily " after the murder of King Æthelbald in 757 .
An alternative model of Mercian succession is that a number of kin @-@ groups may have competed for the succession . The sub @-@ kingdoms of the Hwicce , the Tomsæte , and the unidentified Gaini are examples of such power @-@ bases . Marriage alliances could also have played a part . Competing magnates — those called in charters " dux " or " princeps " ( that is , leaders ) — may have brought the kings to power . In this model , the Mercian kings are little more than leading noblemen .
An important source for the period is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals in Old English narrating the history of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The Chronicle was a West Saxon production , however , and is sometimes thought to be biased in favour of Wessex . Charters dating from Beorhtwulf 's reign have survived ; these were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen and were witnessed by the kings who had the authority to grant the land . A charter might record the names of both a subject king and his overlord on the witness list appended to the grant . Such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma , for example , where Æthelric , son of king Oshere of the Hwicce , is described as a " subregulus " , or subking , of Æthelbald of Mercia .
= = Accession and coinage = =
It is possible that Beorhtwulf is the same person as the Beorhtwulf who witnessed a charter of Wiglaf 's in 836 . If so , this is Beorhtwulf 's first appearance in the historical record . His accession to the throne of Mercia is usually thought to have occurred in about 840 . The date is not given directly in any of the primary sources , but it is known from regnal lists that he succeeded Wiglaf as king . Historian D. P. Kirby suggests that Wiglaf 's death occurred in 839 , basing this date on the known chronology of the reigns of Beorhtwulf and Burgred , the next two Mercian kings . It is possible that Wigmund , the son of Wiglaf , was king briefly between Wiglaf and Beorhtwulf . The evidence for this possibility comes only from a later tradition concerning Wigmund 's son , Wigstan , so it is uncertain whether he actually did so .
Almost no Mercian coins are known from the 830s , after Wiglaf regained Mercia from Egbert of Wessex . Beorhtwulf restarted a Mercian coinage early in his reign , and the extended gap in the 830s has led to the suggestion that Wiglaf 's second reign was as a client king of Egbert 's , without permission to mint his own coinage . Beorhtwulf 's coinage would then indicate his independence of Mercia . However , it is more usually thought that Wiglaf took Mercia back by force . An alternative explanation for Beorhtwulf 's revival of the coinage is that it was part of a plan for economic regeneration in the face of the Viking attacks . The Viking threat may also account for the evident cooperation in matters of currency between Mercia and Wessex which began in Beorhtwulf 's reign and lasted until the end of the independent Mercian kingdom on the death of King Ceolwulf II in the years around 880 .
The earliest of Beorhtwulf 's coins were issued in 841 – 842 , and can be identified as the work of a Rochester die @-@ cutter who also produced coins early in the reign of Æthelwulf of Wessex . After ten years without any coinage , Beorhtwulf would have had to go outside Mercia to find skilled die @-@ cutters , and Rochester was the closest mint . Hence the link to Rochester probably does not indicate that the coins were minted there ; it is more likely that they were produced in London , which was under Mercian control . Subsequent coins of Beorhtwulf 's are very similar to Æthelwulf 's . One coin combines a portrait of Beorhtwulf on the reverse side with a design used by Æthelwulf on the obverse ; this has been interpreted as indicating an alliance between the two kingdoms , but it is more likely to have been the work of a forger or an illiterate moneyer reusing the design of a coin of Æthelwulf 's . A different coinage appears later in the 840s , and was probably ended by the Viking attacks of 850 – 851 . There are also coins without portraits that are likely to have been produced at the very end of Beorhtwulf 's reign .
= = Reign = =
Beorhtwulf 's kingship began auspiciously . In the battle of Catill or Cyfeiliog , he killed King Merfyn Frych of Gwynedd and later sources imply ( see below ) that he was able to subjugate the northern Welsh after this .
However , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records Viking raids in 841 against the south and east coasts of Britain , including the Mercian province of Lindsey , centred on modern Lincoln . The city of London , chief centre of Mercia 's trade , was attacked the following year . The Chronicle states that there was " great slaughter " in London , and large coin hoards were buried in the city at this time .
Berkshire appears to have passed out of Mercian hands and become a part of the kingdom of Wessex at some point during the late 840s . In 844 Ceolred , the bishop of Leicester , granted Beorhtwulf an estate at Pangbourne , in Berkshire , so the area was still in Mercian hands at that date . Asser , writing in about 893 , believed that King Alfred the Great was born between 847 and 849 at Wantage in Berkshire . The implication is that Berkshire had previously come under the control of Wessex , though it is also possible the territory was divided between the two kingdoms , possibly even before Beorhtwulf 's accession . Whatever the nature of the change , there is no record of how it occurred . It appears that the Mercian ealdorman Æthelwulf remained in office afterwards , implying a peaceful transition .
In 853 , not long after Beorhtwulf 's death , the Welsh rebelled against Burgred and were subdued by an alliance between Burgred and Æthelwulf .
= = Charters = =
The synod at Croft held by Wiglaf in 836 , which Beorhtwulf may have attended , was the last such conclave called together by a Mercian king . During Beorhtwulf 's reign and thereafter , the kingdom of Wessex had more influence than Mercia with the Archbishop of Canterbury . A charter of 840 provides evidence of a different kind concerning Beorhtwulf 's relations with the church . The charter concerns lands that had originally been granted by Offa to the monastery of Bredon in Worcestershire . The lands had come under the control of the church in Worcester , but Beorhtwulf had seized the land again . In the charter Beorhtwulf acknowledges the church 's right to the land , but forces a handsome gift from the bishop in return : " four very choice horses and a ring of 30 mancuses and a skilfully wrought dish of three pounds , and two silver horns of four pounds ... [ and ] ... two good horses and two goblets of two pounds and one gilded cup of two pounds . " This is not an isolated case ; there are other charters that show Mercian kings of the time disputing property with the church , such as a charter of 849 in which Beorhtwulf received a lease on land from the bishop of Worcester , and promised in return that he would be " more firmly the friend of the bishop and his community " and , in the words of historian Patrick Wormald , " would not rob them in future " . Wormald suggests that this ruthless behaviour may be explained by the fact that landed estates were becoming harder to find , as so much land had been granted to monasteries . The problem had been mentioned over a century before by Bede , who in a letter to Egbert , the Archbishop of York , had complained of " a complete lack of places where the sons of nobles and of veteran thegns can receive an estate " . Beorhtwulf 's concession of wrongdoing suggests that he could not rely on his nobles to support him in such a disagreement , and may indicate that his hold on the throne was insecure .
Holders of land were under an obligation to the king to support the king 's household , though exemptions could be obtained . A charter of the late 840s released the monastery of Breedon on the Hill from the requirement to supply food and lodging to Beorhtwulf 's servants and messengers , including " the royal hawks , huntsmen , horses , and their attendants " . The exemption cost a substantial sum , and did not release the monastery from every burden ; the obligation to feed messengers from neighbouring kingdoms or from overseas was excluded from the exemption .
= = End of reign = =
In 851 , a Viking army landed at Thanet , then still an island , and over @-@ wintered there . A second Viking force of 350 ships is reported by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to have stormed Canterbury and London , and to have " put to flight Beorhtwulf , king of Mercia , with his army " . The Vikings were defeated by Æthelwulf and his sons , Æthelstan and Æthelbald , but the economic impact appears to have been significant , as Mercian coinage in London was very limited after 851 .
No surviving contemporary source records Beorhtwulf 's death , but according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle his successor , Burgred , reigned for twenty @-@ two years and was driven from his throne by the Vikings in 874 , implying that Beorhtwulf died in 852 . From Burgred 's charters it is known that his reign began before 25 July 852 . It has been suggested that an otherwise unknown king named Eanred may have reigned briefly between Beorhtwulf and Burgred ; the evidence for this consists of a single silver penny inscribed " EANRED REX " , which has similarities to some of Beorhtwulf 's and Æthelwulf 's pennies and hence is thought to have been produced after 850 . The only recorded King Eanred ruled in Northumbria and is thought to have died in 840 , though an alternative chronology of the Northumbrian kings has been proposed that would eliminate this discrepancy . Generally the penny is considered to belong to " an unknown ruler of a southern kingdom " , and it cannot be assumed that an Eanred succeeded Beorhtwulf .
= = Family = =
Beorhtwulf was married to Sæthryth , apparently a figure of some importance in her own right as she witnessed all of his charters between 840 and 849 , after which she disappears from the record . Beorhtwulf is said to have had two sons , Beorhtfrith and Beorhtric . Beorhtric is known from witnessing his father 's charters , but he ceased to do so before the end of Beorhtwulf 's reign .
The story of Beorhtwulf 's other known son , Beorhtfrith , is told in the Passio sancti Wigstani , which may include material from a late 9th @-@ century source , with some corroboration in the chronicle of John of Worcester . Beorhtfrith wished to marry the royal heiress Ælfflæd , King Ceolwulf 's daughter , widow of Wiglaf 's son Wigmund and mother of Wigstan . Wigstan refused to allow the marriage , since Beorhtfrith was a kinsman of Wigmund 's and was also Wigstan 's godfather . In revenge , Beorhtfrith murdered Wigstan , who was subsequently venerated as a saint . The story , though of late origin , is regarded as plausible by modern historians .
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= A Rush of Blood to the Head =
A Rush of Blood to the Head is the second studio album by the British alternative rock band Coldplay . Released on 26 August 2002 in the UK through the label Parlophone , the album was produced by the band and British record producer Ken Nelson . Recording started after the band became popular worldwide with the release of their debut album , Parachutes , and one of its singles in particular , " Yellow " . The album makes greater use of electric guitar and piano than its predecessor .
The album was made available in August 2002 , two months after its original planned release date . It was released on 27 August in the United States through Capitol Records . Capitol released a remastered version of the album in 2008 on a 180 @-@ gram vinyl record as part of the " From the Capitol Vaults " series . The album debuted and continued their huge commercial legacy , an ongoing pattern that began with Parachutes which made Coldplay one of the best @-@ selling bands worldwide . It topped the UK Albums Chart upon its first week of release in the United Kingdom , and became the eighth biggest @-@ selling album of the 21st century in the UK . The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album 9 × Platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2 @.@ 8 million units in the UK and this album sold 20 million worldwide . The album spawned the hit singles " In My Place " , " The Scientist " , and " Clocks " . " God Put a Smile upon Your Face " was also released , but was significantly less successful .
A Rush of Blood to the Head has been critically acclaimed , and the band won the 2003 Grammy for Best Alternative Album for the second year in a row , and the 2004 Grammy for Record of the Year for the song " Clocks " . In 2012 it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . It was also voted the best album of all time by the listeners of BBC Radio 2 in a poll conducted in 2013 .
= = Background = =
= = = Recording = = =
The band started recording the album in London a week after the September 11 attacks in the United States , during which their " poignant songs ... garnered larger audiences " . Coldplay had never stayed in London for an extended period before and were bombarded by problems focusing on the production process . They decided to relocate to Liverpool , where they had recorded some of the songs on Parachutes . Vocalist Chris Martin said that once there they " became obsessed with recording " . " In My Place " was the first song recorded for the album and the one that the band released as the album 's lead single " because it was the song that made us want to do a second album . It kept us going and made us think we could still write songs " , following " a strange period of not really knowing what we were doing " three months after the success of Parachutes .
The band wrote more than 20 songs for the album and some of those new tracks , including " In My Place " and " Animals " , were performed live during the tours promoting Parachutes . The album 's title was revealed through a post on the band 's official website .
During initial recording sessions in Liverpool , vocalist Chris Martin and guitarist Jonny Buckland worked alone , and only on weekends . Each Monday , they would present the song ideas that they had developed to their bandmates . With A Rush of Blood to the Head nearly completed , Martin went into the studio late one night and wrote a piano riff that he has stated " just came out " . The band recognised that this early version of the song , that would become " Clocks " , was special the first time Martin played it to them . Reasoning that it was too late to include the song on the album , they recorded a demo version and included it on a CD marked " Songs for # 3 " , featuring unfinished tracks they intended to work on for their third studio album .
By June 2002 , the band had completed A Rush of Blood to the Head , but thought their output sounded " rubbish " and reached an agreement with the label to postpone the release of the album until they were completely satisfied . Subsequently , many songs were discarded because they sounded like they could have been on Parachutes . Martin has claimed that it would have been uninteresting : " It would have shown that we 're happy to sit back on what we 'd done , and we 're not . For us , it was important to progress and try to improve upon our abilities as musicians . " Such ambitions put the band under strain : " sometimes practice sessions ended abruptly with one or more members of Coldplay threatening to quit " .
After headlining the 2002 Glastonbury Festival , Coldplay returned to the studio and worked on some tracks from the " Songs for # 3 " they had produced earlier . Phil Harvey , the band 's manager , heard " Clocks " and urged them to rework it immediately : " No , you must do that song now ' cause you 're going on [ in the lyrics ] about urgency , and you 're talking about keeping this song back . That doesn 't make sense . "
= = = Cover art = = =
The album cover for A Rush of Blood to the Head was designed by photographer Sølve Sundsbø . Sundsbø had been hired by fashion magazine Dazed & Confused in the late 1990s to produce something with a " technological feel , something all white " . As an artist , he tried to do " stuff that hasn 't been done before , which is virtually impossible " ; he suggested taking shots using a three @-@ dimensional scanning machine .
The model for the shot wore an all @-@ white makeup because it produces the " best results " ; for the image , the model wore a twill @-@ coloured cape . The computer could not read the colours so it was replaced with spikes , and the head in the image was chopped because the machine only scanned 30 centimetres . The editor of the magazine liked the image and eventually featured it in one of their publications . Martin saw the image in the magazine and approached Sundsbø for permission to use the image as the cover of A Rush of Blood to the Head . For the album 's singles , Martin asked Sundsbø what he could do ; the latter suggested scanning the head of each member of the band ( Sundsbø also did artwork duties for the Live 2003 home video ) .
The booklet contains only two photos ; One with Coldplay in a location that was rumoured to be a forest , and one with the same band in the studio . The album cover was among the ten chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of " Classic Album Cover " postage stamps issued in January 2010 .
= = Composition = =
Recording the album after 11 September attacks gave the band a fresh perspective : " The new songs are reflective of new attitudes . [ They tell listeners ] not to be frightened . Anybody can achieve whatever they want to . " Most of the song lyrics are about urgency . Martin has commented that previous songs were more relaxed since they were in a comfortable state of mind : " Perhaps there 's a bit more urgency on some of these songs . And that 's born from all the places we 've been and the things we 've experienced . " Martin has explained , in relation to the theme of urgency , that the album 's title means " doing something on impulse " . Several songs on the album are about relationships . These tracks are based on reality , but according to Martin , they were written with a fictional twist : " Songs are like fairy tales : they have a beginning and an end and you can make it all work perfectly . Real life doesn 't work like that " .
The album includes ballads and acoustic songs featuring extensive use of guitar and piano . The U2 @-@ esque " epic rock " of the album 's opening track " Politik " , the piano @-@ driven " Clocks " , the loud guitars of " A Whisper " and the Crowded House @-@ inspired guitar in " Warning Sign " were seen as an extension of the band 's musical range . Chris Martin has stated that the album 's title track is an homage to American singer @-@ songwriter Johnny Cash , whom he considered one of " the greatest ... men with just guitars " .
The song " Green Eyes " was written by Chris Martin for two people : an " American friend " and bandmate , Jonny Buckland .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon release , A Rush of Blood to the Head received universal acclaim from contemporary critics . Review aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised score of 80 % based on 25 reviews . Many felt that it built upon their previous album , Parachutes . Alexis Petridis of the newspaper The Guardian wrote that the band 's " new assurance is everywhere ... the timidity of Parachutes is nowhere to be found " . He concludes , " It sounds like an album ready to take on the world , and win . "
Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times praised the album , commenting that it is " one of the year 's best albums " and describing it as " sparser , stranger and even catchier than its predecessor " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Rob Sheffield , said that " A Rush of Blood to the Head is a nervier , edgier , thoroughly surprising album " , adding , " where Parachutes was the clumsy diary of a high @-@ strung kid , A Rush of Blood sounds more like a band with the confidence to test its own limits . " Ted Kessler of NME lauded the album , calling it " an album of outstanding natural beauty , an organic , wholesome work . " MacKenzie Wilson of AllMusic echoed the above comments , saying that it is a " strong album " . Wilson , who compliments Martin for his " sharpened " falsetto and refined " haunting delivery " and Buckland for his " riveting guitar work " , notes that " regardless of the band still being in their mid @-@ twenties , they 've made an amazing record " . Emma Pearse of the American newspaper The Village Voice has the same sentiments , stating that it is " a little edgier , trancier , and more conversational " compared to Parachutes . Robert Christgau gave the album a one @-@ star honourable mention ( ) and quipped , " Let Green Eyes dump him for real and we 'll see how long he hums in the void . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
A Rush of Blood to the Head made an entrance into the UK Albums Chart upon its debut week , entering at number 1 and moving 273 @,@ 924 copies . The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album eight times platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2 @.@ 4 million copies . With the subsequent release of " Clocks " and " The Scientist " , the album spent over one year on the chart . A Rush of Blood to the Head has been placed at number seven on the list of United Kingdom 's 20 biggest @-@ selling albums of the 21st century , published by the British trade paper Music Week . In July 2011 , A Rush of Blood to the Head climbed from No. 176 back to No. 44 in the album 's 250th charting week there . As of May 2014 , the album had sold 2 @,@ 875 @,@ 980 copies in the UK , making it Coldplay 's best @-@ selling album . As of March 2015 , it is the tenth best @-@ selling album of the 21st century .
In the United States , A Rush of Blood was Coldplay 's first venture into the top 5 with 144 @,@ 000 copies sold initially , stronger than its predecessor , Parachutes , which debuted at number 189 in December 2000 . It has since been certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and it has sold sales 4 @,@ 925 @,@ 000 copies as of July 2014 . It has been certified seven times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , having accumulated shipments of over 490 @,@ 000 units , and four times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
A Rush of Blood to the Head has earned the band several awards from both the domestic and international music press . In 2002 it was awarded Best Album at the Q Awards . In the same year , the band won two Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for the song " In My Place " . In 2003 A Rush of Blood to the Head won Best British Album at the BRIT Awards , and the following year the band earned their first Grammy Award for Record of the Year for the song " Clocks " for a total of 3 Grammys for this album . The band won 3 VMAS at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Group Video , Breakthrough Video and Best Direction in a Video for " The Scientist " and its music video on YouTube has over 90 million views . The same year , they won the awards best NME album of the year , and best album of the year at the NME awards .
The album was chosen in 2002 as Billboard magazine 's Critics ' Choice . Kludge included it on their list of best albums of 2002 . In 2012 , it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . It was also ranked 21st on Rolling Stone 's list of top 100 albums of the 2000s . In 2007 The National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame released a list of what they term " The Definitive 200 Albums of All Time " ; A Rush of Blood to the Head ranks at number 65 on the list . The album was nominated for the BRITs Album of 30 Years at the 2010 BRIT Awards .
In a BBC Radio poll in 2013 , the album topped the list ahead of Hopes and Fears by Keane , Rio by Duran Duran and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Chris Martin , Jonny Buckland , Guy Berryman , and Will Champion .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= John Whittle =
John Woods Whittle , VC , DCM ( 3 August 1882 – 2 March 1946 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and British Commonwealth armed forces . Whittle was serving as a sergeant in the First World War when he was decorated with the Victoria Cross following two separate actions against German forces during their retreat to the Hindenburg Line in 1917 . In the latter action , he attacked a machine gun crew , killing the group and seizing the gun .
Born in Tasmania , Whittle completed twelve months active service during the Second Boer War , before returning to Australia and enlisting in the Royal Navy where he served for five years as a stoker . Re @-@ enlisting in the army , he was posted to the Army Service Corps , artillery , and Tasmanian Rifle Regiment prior to the outbreak of the First World War . Transferring to the Australian Imperial Force in 1915 , Whittle joined the 12th Battalion in Egypt and embarked for the Western Front the following year . During an attack on the village of La Barque , Whittle rushed a German trench and forced the men from the position ; he was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal as a result .
Wounded three times during the war , Whittle was the subject of two courts @-@ martial due to his unruly behaviour . In October 1918 , he returned to Australia at the invitation of the Prime Minister of Australia to assist in recruitment . Discharged from the military in December 1918 , he later moved to Sydney . In 1934 , Whittle was presented with a Certificate of Merit after saving a drowning boy . He died in 1946 at the age of 63 .
= = Early life = =
Whittle was born on 2 August 1882 at Huon Island , Tasmania , to Henry Whittle , a labourer , and his wife Catherine ( née Sullivan ) . He grew up in Hobart , and was living there when he enlisted as a private in the 4th Tasmanian ( 2nd Imperial Bushman ) Contingent during 1899 , for service in the Second Boer War . The unit embarked for South Africa on 27 March 1901 , and arrived four weeks later . The contingent spent the following twelve months on active duty , which included action in the Cape Colony , before returning to Australia on 25 June 1902 .
Soon after his return to Australia , Whittle enlisted in the Royal Navy as a stoker . He spent five years as a sailor , during which time he was attached to various ships on the Australia Station , including HMS Challenger and HMAS Pioneer . Discharged from the navy in 1907 , Whittle joined the Australian Army and was posted to the Army Service Corps ; he was to serve in this position for three and a half years . During this time , Whittle married Emily Margaret Roland in a Catholic ceremony at the archbishop 's house , Hobart , on 23 July 1909 .
Following his marriage , Whittle transferred briefly to the artillery , serving with the 31st Battery , Australian Field Artillery . He was then posted to the Tasmanian Rifle Regiment , and remained with this unit until the outbreak of the First World War .
= = First World War = =
= = = Early war service = = =
On 6 August 1915 , Whittle transferred to the Australian Imperial Force in order to see active service overseas during the war . Allotted as a reinforcement to the 26th Battalion as a private , he embarked from Melbourne on 27 October aboard HMAT Ulysses bound for Egypt . Appointed acting corporal soon after arrival , he was reallocated to the 12th Battalion with the rank of private on 1 March 1916 , following a period of divisional reorganisation and expansion to the Australian forces which were now stationed in Egypt . Whittle was promoted to the substantive rank of corporal two weeks later .
Embarking for the Western Front , the 12th Battalion joined the British Expeditionary Force upon arrival in France on 7 April 1916 . Eight days later , Whittle was promoted to lance sergeant . Posted to the Fleurbaix sector of France , the 12th Battalion was engaged in minor operations until July . During this time , Whittle was wounded on 18 June , suffering a gunshot wound to his right arm . Initially admitted to the 3rd Field Ambulance , the injury necessitated treatment in England and Whittle was transferred to the 1st Auxiliary Hospital , Harefield . He rejoined the 12th Battalion on 16 September following recuperation .
Following its involvement at Pozières from July to September 1916 , the 12th Battalion moved to the Ypres sector in Belgium , where Whittle was promoted to sergeant on 14 October . In late November , Whittle was admitted to hospital suffering from an illness ; on 18 December , he rejoined his unit , which had returned to action on the Somme .
During the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line , Whittle took part in the 12th Battalion 's attack on the villages of La Barque and Ligny @-@ Thilloy as a member of Captain James Newland 's A Company on 26 – 27 February 1917 . At Bark Trench , a position on the north side of the centre of La Barque , the company encountered a German strongpoint and Newland was wounded . Rallying his men , Whittle rushed the post and started bombing the occupants with grenades . He then chased the Germans as they began to retreat down the trench line , before they were forced from the position . For his efforts during the assault , Whittle was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal , the recommendation of which cited his " ... conspicuous gallantry in the presence of the enemy " . The announcement of the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 26 April 1917 .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
By early April 1917 , three German @-@ held outpost villages remained between the area to the south of the I Anzac Corps position and the Hindenburg Line . An attack to capture the villages of Boursies , Demicourt and Hermies by the 1st Australian Division was formulated to commence on 9 April , the day the British offensive opened at Arras . For his gallantry in two separate actions during this engagement , Whittle was awarded the Victoria Cross .
On 8 April , the 12th Battalion was tasked with the capture of the village of Boursies . The attack was to act as a feint in order to mislead the German forces on the direction from which Hermies was to be assaulted . Whittle had been placed in command of the left platoon in Newland 's A Company for the attack , which commenced at 03 : 00 . Advancing , the company was subjected to heavy machine gun fire from a derelict mill approximately 400 metres ( 440 yd ) short of the village and began to suffer heavy casualties . Gathering a party of men , Newland led a bombing attack which was able to dislodge the Germans from the position and secure the area . Continuing their advance , the company was able to reach its objectives , where Whittle was placed in command of a post just beyond the mill .
Throughout the day , the Australians came under heavy shellfire from the Germans . At 22 : 00 , the German forces launched a severe counter @-@ attack against the mill under the cover of an intense barrage of artillery and bombs . Advancing down the main road , they managed to enter the trench Whittle was holding . Gathering all available men , Whittle charged the Germans and was able to restabilise the position . Newland arrived soon after , and the two men worked together until the position was re @-@ established . The 12th Battalion was relieved on 10 April by the 11th Battalion , having succeeded in capturing Boursies at the cost of 240 casualties , of which 70 were killed or missing .
Following a four @-@ day reprieve away from the frontline , the 12th Battalion relieved the 9th Battalion at Lagnicourt on 14 April . Around dawn the following day , the Germans launched a fierce counter @-@ attack against the 1st Australian Division 's line . Breaking through the Australian line , the Germans forced back the 12th Battalion 's D Company , which was to the left of Newland 's A Company . Soon surrounded and under attack on three sides , Newland withdrew the company to a sunken road which had been held by Captain Percy Cherry during the capture of the village three weeks earlier , and lined the depleted company out in a defensive position on both banks . Establishing his platoon in position , Whittle noticed a group of Germans moving a machine gun into position to enfilade the road . As the gunners began to set up the weapon , Whittle , under heavy rifle fire , jumped from the road and single @-@ handedly rushed the crew . Using his bombs , he succeeded in killing the entire group before collecting the gun and taking it back to A Company 's position .
As reinforcements from the 9th Battalion began to arrive , Newland was able to repulse a third attack by the Germans . Reorganising the 9th and 12th Battalions , a combined counter @-@ attack was able to be launched and the line recaptured by approximately 11 : 00 . The 12th Battalion had suffered 125 casualties during the engagement , with 66 killed or missing . Whittle and Newland were both subsequently awarded a Victoria Cross for their actions that day ; the pair were the only two permanent members of the Australian military to receive the decoration during the war .
The full citation for Whittle 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 8 June 1917 , reading :
War Office , 8th June , 1917 .
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : —
No. 2902 Sjt . John Woods Whittle , Inf . Bn . , Aus . Imp . Force .
For conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty on two occasions .
When in command of a platoon the enemy , under cover of an intense artillery barrage , attacked the small trench he was holding . Owing to weight of numbers the enemy succeeded in entering the trench , and it was owing to Sjt . Whittle personally collecting all available men and charging the enemy that the position was regained .
On a second occasion when the enemy broke through the left of our line Sjt . Whittle 's own splendid example was the means of keeping the men well in hand . His platoon were suffering heavy casualties and the enemy endeavoured to bring up a machine gun to enfilade the position . Grasping the situation he rushed alone across the fire @-@ swept ground and attacked the hostile gun crew with bombs before the gun could be got into action .
He succeeded in killing the whole crew and in bringing back the machine gun to our position .
= = = Later war service = = =
In late April 1917 , Whittle spent three days in a field hospital receiving treatment for psoriasis , before embarking for England on attachment to a training battalion . Joining the unit on 6 May , he once again underwent an eight @-@ day furlough in a military hospital later in the month . During this time , Whittle attended an investiture ceremony in the forecourt of Buckingham Palace on 21 July , where he was decorated by King George V with his Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal .
Re @-@ embarking for France on 25 August , Whittle rejoined the 12th Battalion which had subsequently moved to Belgium in preparation for another offensive at Ypres . On 1 October , he was the subject of a General Court Martial in the field , charged with two offences committed on 27 September : 1 . Drunkenness while on active service ; 2 . Conduct to the prejudice of good order and Military Discipline while on active service , in that when the commanding officer was addressing a parade he called out words to the effect of : " But we are good soldiers though " . He was found guilty of both offences , and sentenced to be reduced to the rank of corporal . Following four days detention during the trial , Whittle re @-@ joined the 12th Battalion on 8 October .
The 12th Battalion spent the next two months engaged in minor operations in Belgium , before once again transferring to the trenches in France during December . During this time , Whittle was re @-@ promoted to the rank of sergeant . With the commencement of the German Spring Offensive of 1918 , the 12th Battalion assisted in repulsing the assault in the months of March and April . While engaged in this operation , Whittle was wounded on 19 March and admitted to a field hospital suffering shrapnel wounds to his right hand . Recovering from the wound , he returned to the 12th Battalion in April . Later that month , Whittle was charged with conduct to the prejudice of good order and Military Discipline a second time for mutilating his pay book ; he was reprimanded by the battalion 's commanding officer as a result .
In June 1918 , Whittle was posted to the 2nd Army Central School for a five @-@ week stint . Returning to the 12th Battalion in mid @-@ July , Whittle was wounded in action for the third time ; suffering shrapnel wounds to his right elbow , he was admitted to the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance on 25 July . Evacuated to England , he was admitted to the Central Military Hospital , Eastbourne , before transferring to the 3rd Australian Auxiliary Hospital , Dartford , two weeks later . During this time , Billy Hughes , as Prime Minister of Australia , invited several of Australia 's Victoria Cross recipients of the war to return to Australia and assist in a recruiting drive ; Whittle was among a group of ten who accepted the offer . The party embarked aboard HMAT Medic on 24 August , bound for Melbourne . Arriving seven weeks later , Whittle returned to Tasmania and assisted with recruiting on the island during the last few weeks of the war . Following the Armistice , he was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 15 December 1918 .
= = Later life = =
After his discharge from the Australian Imperial Force , Whittle re @-@ settled in Hobart with his family . He briefly re @-@ enlisted in the 40th Battalion during 1921 , before moving to Sydney , New South Wales , where he gained employment as an inspector on the staff of an insurance company . Whittle later worked in several other jobs , including a period of service with Tooth 's Brewery in Sydney . On 11 November 1929 , he attended the New South Wales Dinner for recipients of the Victoria Cross in Sydney , before briefly re @-@ enlisting in the Australian Army once again the following year .
On 7 February 1934 , Whittle was walking through University Park when he was accosted by a small boy who said that his younger brother had fallen into the lake . Rushing to the area , Whittle dived into the weed @-@ choked lake and began searching for the boy . Finding him unconscious , Whittle brought the boy to the bank and applied artificial respiration for approximately half an hour ; the child later came around and was taken to hospital . Whittle left the scene and proceeded home in a taxi without leaving his name , but his identity was subsequently discovered and he was presented with a Certificate of Merit by the Royal Life Saving Society . Whittle himself was ill for a fortnight due to swallowing some of the foul water in the ornamental lake .
During the Second World War , Whittle 's son , Ivan Ernest , served as a private in the 2 / 33rd Australian Infantry Battalion . He was killed when the B @-@ 24 Liberator aircraft he was travelling in crashed into a marshalling yard at Port Moresby , New Guinea , on 7 September 1943 . At his home in Glebe on 2 March 1946 , John Whittle died of a cerebral haemorrhage at the age of 63 . Survived by his wife , a son and three daughters , he was buried in Rookwood Cemetery .
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= Salamander =
Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by a lizard @-@ like appearance , with slender bodies , blunt snouts , short limbs projecting at right angles to the body , and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults . All present @-@ day salamander families are grouped together under the scientific name Urodela . Salamander diversity is most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere and most species are found in the Holarctic ecozone , with some species present in the Neotropical zone .
Salamanders never have more than four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs , but some species have fewer digits and others lack hind limbs . Their permeable skin usually makes them reliant on habitats in or near water or other cool , damp places . Some salamander species are fully aquatic throughout their lives , some take to the water intermittently , and others are entirely terrestrial as adults . Unique among vertebrates , they are capable of regenerating lost limbs , as well as other damaged parts of their bodies . Members of the family Salamandridae are mostly known as newts and lack the costal grooves along the sides of their bodies typical of other groups . The skin of some species contains the powerful poison tetrodotoxin and these salamanders tend to be slow @-@ moving and have bright warning coloration to advertise their toxicity . Salamanders typically lay eggs in water and have aquatic larvae , but great variation occurs in their lifecycles . In some species and some harsh environments , salamanders reproduce while still in the larval state .
In literature and legend , the salamander is associated with fire , being supposedly unharmed by the flames , while clothes made from its skins or ' wool ' were believed to be incombustible . More plausibly , salamanders were said to be intensely poisonous . Despite this , salamander brandy , a drink prepared by dunking live salamanders in fermenting fruit juices , is reputed to have hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac properties . The salamander 's ability to regenerate lost body parts is being investigated and research is ongoing into any applications this may have for human medicine .
= = Description = =
The skin lacks scales and is moist and smooth to the touch , except in newts of the Salamandridae , which may have velvety or warty skin , wet to the touch . The skin may be drab or brightly colored , exhibiting various patterns of stripes , bars , spots , blotches , or dots . Male newts become dramatically colored during the breeding season . Cave species dwelling in darkness lack pigmentation and have a translucent pink or pearlescent appearance .
Salamanders range in size from the minute salamanders , with a total length of 2 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) , including the tail , to the Chinese giant salamander which reaches 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and weighs up to 65 kg ( 143 lb ) . Most , however , are between 10 and 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length .
= = = Trunk , limbs and tail = = =
An adult salamander generally resembles a small lizard , having a basal tetrapod body form with a cylindrical trunk , four limbs , and a long tail . Except in the family Salamandridae , the head , body , and tail have a number of vertical depressions in the surface which run from the mid @-@ dorsal region to the ventral area and are known as costal grooves . Their function seems to be to help keep the skin moist by channeling water over the surface of the body .
Some aquatic species , such as sirens and amphiumas , have reduced or absent hind limbs , giving them an eel @-@ like appearance , but in most species , the front and rear limbs are about the same length and project sidewards , barely raising the trunk off the ground . The feet are broad with short digits , usually four on the front feet and five on the rear . Salamanders do not have claws , and the shape of the foot varies according to the animal 's habitat . Climbing species have elongated , square @-@ tipped toes , while rock @-@ dwellers have larger feet with short , blunt toes . The tree @-@ climbing salamander ( Bolitoglossa sp . ) has plate @-@ like webbed feet which adhere to smooth surfaces by suction , while the rock @-@ climbing Hydromantes species from California have feet with fleshy webs and short digits and use their tails as an extra limb . When ascending , the tail props up the rear of the body , while one hind foot moves forward and then swings to the other side to provide support as the other hind foot advances .
In larvae and aquatic salamanders , the tail is laterally flattened , has dorsal and ventral fins , and undulates from side to side to propel the animal through the water . In the families Ambystomatidae and Salamandridae , the male 's tail , which is larger than that of the female , is used during the amplexus embrace to propel the mating couple to a secluded location . In terrestrial species , the tail moves to counterbalance the animal as it runs , while in the arboreal salamander and other tree @-@ climbing species , it is prehensile . The tail is also used by certain plethodontid salamanders that can jump , to help launch themselves into the air . The tail is used in courtship and as a storage organ for proteins and lipids . It also functions as a defense against predation , when it may be lashed at the attacker or autotomised when grabbed . Unlike frogs , an adult salamander is able to regenerate limbs and its tail when these are lost .
= = = Skin = = =
The skin of salamanders , in common with other amphibians , is thin , permeable to water , serves as a respiratory membrane , and is well @-@ supplied with glands . It has highly cornified outer layers , renewed periodically through a skin shedding process controlled by hormones from the pituitary and thyroid glands . During moulting , the skin initially breaks around the mouth , and the animal moves forwards through the gap to shed the skin . When the front limbs have been worked clear , a series of body ripples pushes the skin towards the rear . The hind limbs are extracted and push the skin farther back , before it is eventually freed by friction as the salamander moves forward with the tail pressed against the ground . The animal often then eats the resulting sloughed skin .
Glands in the skin discharge mucus which keeps the skin moist , an important factor in skin respiration and thermoregulation . The sticky layer helps protect against bacterial infections and molds , reduces friction when swimming , and makes the animal slippery and more difficult for predators to catch . Granular glands scattered on the upper surface , particularly the head , back , and tail , produce repellent or toxic secretions . Some salamander toxins are particularly potent . The rough @-@ skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) produces the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin , the most toxic nonprotein substance known . Handling the newts does no harm , but ingestion of even a minute fragment of skin is deadly . In feeding trials , fish , frogs , reptiles , birds , and mammals were all found to be susceptible .
Mature adults of some salamander species have " nuptial " glandular tissue in their cloacae , at the base of their tails , on their heads or under their chins . Some females release chemical substances , possibly from the ventral cloacal gland , to attract males , but males do not seem to use pheromones for this purpose . In some plethodonts , males have conspicuous mental glands on the chin which are pressed against the females ' nostrils during the courtship ritual . They may function to speed up the mating process , reducing the risk of its being disrupted by a predator or rival male . The gland at the base of the tail in Plethodon cinereus is used to mark fecal pellets to proclaim territorial ownership .
= = = Senses = = =
Olfaction in salamanders plays a role in territory maintenance , the recognition of predators , and courtship rituals , but is probably secondary to sight during prey selection and feeding . Salamanders have two types of sensory areas that respond to the chemistry of the environment . Olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity picks up airborne and aquatic odors , while adjoining vomeronasal organs detect nonvolatile chemical cues , such as tastes in the mouth . In plethodonts , the sensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organs extends to the nasolabial grooves , which stretch from the nostrils to the corners of the mouth . These extended areas seem to be associated with the identification of prey items , the recognition of conspecifics , and the identification of individuals .
The eyes of most salamanders are adapted primarily for vision at night . In some permanently aquatic species , they are reduced in size and have a simplified retinal structure , and in cave dwellers such as the Georgia blind salamander , they are absent or covered with a layer of skin . In amphibious species , the eyes are a compromise and are nearsighted in air and farsighted in water . Fully terrestrial species such as the fire salamander have a flatter lens which can focus over a much wider range of distances . To find their prey , salamanders use trichromatic color vision extending into the ultraviolet range , based on three photoreceptor types that are maximally sensitive around 450 , 500 , and 570 nm . The larvae , and the adults of some highly aquatic species , also have a lateral line organ , similar to that of fish , which can detect changes in water pressure .
All salamanders lack middle ear cavity , eardrum and eustachian tube , but have an opercularis system like frogs , and are still able to detect airborne sound . The opercularis system consists of two ossicles : the columella ( equivalent to the stapes of higher vertebrates ) which is fused to the skull , and the operculum . An opercularis muscle connects the latter to the pectoral girdle , and is kept under tension when the animal is alert . The system seems able to detect low @-@ frequency vibrations ( 500 – 600 Hz ) which may be picked up from the ground by the fore limbs and transmitted to the inner ear . These may serve to warn the animal of an approaching predator .
Salamanders are usually considered to have no voice and do not use sound for communication in the way frogs do ; however , some species can make quiet ticking or popping noises , perhaps by the opening and closing of valves in the nose . The California giant salamander can produce a bark or rattle , and a few species can squeak by contracting muscles in the throat . The arboreal salamander can squeak using a different mechanism ; it retracts its eyes into its head , forcing air out of its mouth . The ensatina salamander occasionally makes a hissing sound , while the sirens sometimes produce quiet clicks , and can resort to faint shrieks if attacked . Vocalization in salamanders has been little studied and the purpose of these sounds is presumed to be the startling of predators .
= = = Respiration = = =
Respiration differs among the different species of salamanders , and can involve gills , lungs , skin , and the membranes of mouth and throat . Larval salamanders breathe primarily by means of gills , which are usually external and feathery in appearance . Water is drawn in through the mouth and flows out through the gill slits . Some neotenic species such as the mudpuppy ( Necturus maculosus ) retain their gills throughout their lives , but most species lose them at metamorphosis . The embryos of some terrestrial lungless salamanders , such as Ensatina , that undergo direct development , have large gills that lie close to the egg 's surface .
When present in adult salamanders , lungs vary greatly among different species in size and structure . In aquatic , cold @-@ water species like the southern torrent salamander ( Rhyacotriton variegatus ) , the lungs are very small with smooth walls , while species living in warm water with little dissolved oxygen , such as the lesser siren ( Siren intermedia ) , have large lungs with convoluted surfaces . In the terrestrial lungless salamanders ( family Plethodontidae ) , no lungs or gills are present , and gas exchange mostly takes place through the skin , supplemented by the tissues lining the mouth . To facilitate this , these salamanders have a dense network of blood vessels just under the skin and in the mouth .
In the Amphiumas , metamorphosis is incomplete , and they retain one pair of gill slits as adults , with fully functioning internal gills . Some species that lack lungs respire through gills . In most cases , these are external gills , visible as tufts on either side of the head . Some terrestrial salamanders have lungs used in respiration , although these are simple and sac @-@ like , unlike the more complex organs found in mammals . Many species , such as the olm , have both lungs and gills as adults .
= = Feeding and diet = =
Salamanders are opportunistic predators . They are generally not restricted to specific foods , but feed on almost any organism of a reasonable size . Large species such as the Japanese giant salamander ( Andrias japonicus ) eat crabs , fish , small mammals , amphibians , and aquatic insects . In a study of smaller dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus ) in the Appalachian Mountains , their diet included earthworms , flies , beetles , beetle larvae , leafhoppers , springtails , moths , spiders , grasshoppers , and mites . Cannibalism sometimes takes place , especially when resources are short or time is limited . Tiger salamander tadpoles in ephemeral pools sometimes resort to eating each other , and are seemingly able to target unrelated individuals . Adult blackbelly salamanders ( Desmognathus quadramaculatus ) prey on adults and young of other species of salamanders , while their larvae sometimes cannibalise smaller larvae .
Most species of salamander have small teeth in both their upper and lower jaws . Unlike frogs , even the larvae of salamanders possess these teeth . Although larval teeth are shaped like pointed cones , the teeth of adults are adapted to enable them to readily grasp prey . The crown , which has two cusps ( bicuspid ) , is attached to a pedicel by collagenous fibers . The joint formed between the bicuspid and the pedicel is partially flexible , as it can bend inward , but not outward . When struggling prey is advanced into the salamander 's mouth , the teeth tips relax and bend in the same direction , encouraging movement toward the throat , and resisting the prey 's escape . Many salamanders have patches of teeth attached to the vomer and the palatine bones in the roof of the mouth , and these help to retain prey . All types of teeth are resorbed and replaced at intervals throughout the animal 's life .
A terrestrial salamander catches its prey by flicking out its sticky tongue in an action that takes less than half a second . In some species , the tongue is attached anteriorly to the floor of the mouth , while in others , it is mounted on a pedicel . It is rendered sticky by secretions of mucus from glands in its tip and on the roof of the mouth . High @-@ speed cinematography shows how the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) positions itself with its snout close to its prey . Its mouth then gapes widely , the lower jaw remains stationary , and the tongue bulges and changes shape as it shoots forward . The protruded tongue has a central depression , and the rim of this collapses inward as the target is struck , trapping the prey in a mucus @-@ laden trough . Here it is held while the animal 's neck is flexed , the tongue retracted and jaws closed . Large or resistant prey is retained by the teeth while repeated protrusions and retractions of the tongue draw it in . Swallowing involves alternate contraction and relaxation of muscles in the throat , assisted by depression of the eyeballs into the roof of the mouth . Many lungless salamanders of the family Plethodontidae have more elaborate feeding methods . Muscles surrounding the hyoid bone contract to store elastic energy in springy connective tissue , and actually " shoot " the hyoid bone out of the mouth , thus elongating the tongue . Muscles that originate in the pelvic region and insert in the tongue are used to reel the tongue and the hyoid back to their original positions .
An aquatic salamander lacks muscles in the tongue , and captures its prey in an entirely different manner . It grabs the food item , grasps it with its teeth , and adopts a kind of inertial feeding . This involves tossing its head about , drawing water sharply in and out of its mouth , and snapping its jaws , all of which tend to tear and macerate the prey , which is then swallowed .
Though frequently feeding on slow @-@ moving animals like snails , shrimps and worms , sirenids are unique among salamanders for having developed speciations towards herbivory , such as beak @-@ like jaw ends and extensive intestines . They feed on algae and other soft @-@ plants in the wild , and easily eat offered lettuce .
= = Defense = =
Salamanders have thin skins and soft bodies , and move rather slowly , and at first sight might appear to be vulnerable to opportunistic predation . However , they have several effective lines of defense . Mucus coating on damp skin makes them difficult to grasp , and the slimy coating may have an offensive taste or be toxic . When attacked by a predator , a salamander may position itself to make the main poison glands face the aggressor . Often , these are on the tail , which may be waggled or turned up and arched over the animal 's back . The sacrifice of the tail may be a worthwhile strategy , if the salamander escapes with its life and the predator learns to avoid that species of salamander in future .
= = = Aposematism = = =
Skin secretions of the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) fed to rats have been shown to produce aversion to the flavor , and the rats avoided the presentational medium when it was offered to them again . The fire salamander ( Salamandra salamandra ) has a ridge of large granular glands down its spine which are able to squirt a fine jet of toxic fluid at its attacker . By angling its body appropriately , it can accurately direct the spray for a distance of up to 80 cm ( 31 in ) .
The Iberian ribbed newt ( Pleurodeles waltl ) has another method of deterring aggressors . Its skin exudes a poisonous , viscous fluid and at the same time , the newt rotates its sharply pointed ribs through an angle between 27 and 92 ° , and adopts an inflated posture . This action causes the ribs to puncture the body wall , each rib protruding through an orange wart arranged in a lateral row . This may provide an aposematic signal that makes the spines more visible . When the danger has passed , the ribs retract and the skin heals .
= = = Camouflage and mimicry = = =
Although many salamanders have cryptic colors so as to be unnoticeable , others signal their toxicity by their vivid coloring . Yellow , orange , and red are the colors generally used , often with black for greater contrast . Sometimes , the animal postures if attacked , revealing a flash of warning hue on its underside . The red eft , the brightly colored terrestrial juvenile form of the eastern newt ( Notophthalmus viridescens ) , is highly poisonous . It is avoided by birds and snakes , and can survive for up to 30 minutes after being swallowed ( later being regurgitated ) . The red salamander ( Pseudotriton ruber ) is a palatable species with a similar coloring to the red eft . Predators that previously fed on it have been shown to avoid it after encountering red efts , an example of Batesian mimicry . Other species exhibit similar mimicry . In California , the palatable yellow @-@ eyed salamander ( Ensatina eschscholtzii ) closely resembles the toxic California newt ( Taricha torosa ) and the rough @-@ skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) , whereas in other parts of its range , it is cryptically colored . A correlation exists between the toxicity of Californian salamander species and diurnal habits : relatively harmless species like the California slender salamander ( Batrachoseps attenuatus ) are nocturnal and are eaten by snakes , while the California newt has many large poison glands in its skin , is diurnal , and is avoided by snakes .
= = = Autotomy = = =
Some salamander species use tail autotomy to escape predators . The tail drops off and wriggles around for a while after an attack , and the salamander either runs away or stays still enough not to be noticed while the predator is distracted . The tail regrows with time , and salamanders routinely regenerate other complex tissues , including the lens or retina of the eye . Within only a few weeks of losing a piece of a limb , a salamander perfectly reforms the missing structure .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Salamanders split off from the other amphibians during the mid- to late Permian , and initially were similar to modern members of the Cryptobranchoidea . Their resemblance to lizards is the result of symplesiomorphy , their common retention of the primitive tetrapod body plan , and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals . Their nearest relatives are the frogs and toads , within Batrachia . The earliest known salamander fossils have been found in geological deposits in China and Kazakhstan , dated to the middle Jurassic period around 164 million years ago .
Salamanders are found only in the Holarctic and Neotropical regions , not reaching south of the Mediterranean Basin , the Himalayas , or in South America the Amazon Basin . They do not extend north of the Arctic tree line , with the northernmost Asian species , Salamandrella keyserlingii occurring in the Siberian larch forests of Sakha and the most northerly species in North America , Ambystoma laterale , reaching no farther north than Labrador and Taricha granulosa not beyond the Alaska Panhandle . They had an exclusively Laurasian distribution until Bolitoglossa invaded South America from Central America , probably by the start of the Early Miocene , about 23 million years ago . They also lived on the Caribbean Islands during the early Miocene epoch , confirmed by the discovery of Palaeoplethodon hispaniolae , found trapped in amber in the Dominican Republic . However , possible salamander fossils have been found on the Australian sites of Riversleigh and Murgon .
There are about 655 living species of salamander . One @-@ third of the known salamander species are found in North America . The highest concentration of these is found in the Appalachian Mountains region , where the Plethodontidae are thought to have originated in mountain streams . Here , vegetation zones and proximity to water are of greater importance than altitude . Only species that adopted a more terrestrial mode of life have been able to disperse to other localities . The northern slimy salamander ( Plethodon glutinosus ) has a wide range and occupies a habitat similar to that of the southern gray @-@ cheeked salamander ( Plethodon metcalfi ) . The latter is restricted to the slightly cooler and wetter conditions in north @-@ facing cove forests in the southern Appalachians , and to higher elevations above 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) while the former is more adaptable , and would be perfectly able to inhabit these locations , but some unknown factor seems to prevent the two species from co @-@ existing .
= = Reproduction and development = =
Salamanders are not vocal and in most species the sexes look alike , so they use olfactory and tactile cues to identify potential mates , and sexual selection does occur . Pheromones play an important part in the process and may be produced by the abdominal gland in males and by the cloacal glands and skin in both sexes . Males are sometimes to be seen investigating potential mates with their snouts . In Old World newts , Triturus spp . , the males are sexually dimorphic and display in front of the females . Visual cues are also thought to be important in some Plethodont species .
In about 90 % of all species , fertilisation is internal . The male typically deposits a spermatophore on the ground or in the water according to species , and the female picks this up with her vent . The spermatophore has a packet of sperm supported on a conical gelatinous base , and often an elaborate courtship behavior is involved in its deposition and collection . Once inside the cloaca , the spermatozoa move to the spermatheca , one or more chambers in the roof of the cloaca , where they are stored for sometimes lengthy periods until the eggs are laid . In the most primitive salamanders such as the Asiatic salamanders and the giant salamanders , external fertilization occurs , instead . In these species , the male releases sperm onto the egg mass in a reproductive process similar to that of typical frogs .
Three different types of egg deposition occur . Ambystoma and Taricha spp. spawn large numbers of small eggs in quiet ponds where many large predators are unlikely . Most dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus ) and Pacific giant salamanders ( Dicamptodon ) lay smaller batches of medium @-@ sized eggs in a concealed site in flowing water , and these are usually guarded by an adult , normally the female . Many of the tropical climbing salamanders ( Bolitoglossa ) and lungless salamanders ( Plethodontinae ) lay a small number of large eggs on land in a well @-@ hidden spot , where they are also guarded by the mother . Some species such as the fire salamanders ( Salamandra ) are ovoviviparous , with the female retaining the eggs inside her body until they hatch , either into larvae to be deposited in a water body , or into fully formed juveniles .
In temperate regions , reproduction is usually seasonal and salamanders may migrate to breeding grounds . Males usually arrive first and in some instances set up territories . Typically , a larval stage follows in which the organism is fully aquatic . The tadpole has three pairs of external gills , no eyelids , a long body , a laterally flattened tail with dorsal and ventral fins and in some species limb @-@ buds or limbs . Pond @-@ type larvae may have a pair of rod @-@ like balancers on either side of the head , long gill filaments and broad fins . Stream @-@ type larvae are more slender with short gill filaments , narrower fins and no balancers , but instead have hind limbs already developed when they hatch . The tadpoles are carnivorous and the larval stage may last from days to years , depending on species . Sometimes this stage is completely bypassed , and the eggs of most lungless salamanders ( Plethodontidae ) develop directly into miniature versions of the adult without an intervening larval stage .
By the end of the larval stage , the tadpoles already have limbs and metamorphosis takes place normally . In salamanders , this occurs over a short period of time and involves the closing of the gill slits and the loss of structures such as gills and tail fins that are not required as adults . At the same time , eyelids develop , the mouth becomes wider , a tongue appears , and teeth are formed . The aqueous larva emerges onto land as a terrestrial adult .
Not all species of salamanders follow this path . Neoteny , also known as paedomorphosis , has been observed in all salamander families , and may be universally possible in all salamander species . In this state , an individual may retain gills or other juvenile features while attaining reproductive maturity . The changes that take place at metamorphosis are under the control of thyroid hormones and in obligate neotenes such as the axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum ) , the tissues are seemingly unresponsive to the hormones . In other species , the changes may not be triggered because of underactivity of the hypothalamus @-@ pituitary @-@ thyroid mechanism which may occur when conditions in the terrestrial environment are too inhospitable . This may be due to cold or wildly fluctuating temperatures , aridity , lack of food , lack of cover , or insufficient iodine for the formation of thyroid hormones . Genetics may also play a part . The larvae of tiger salamanders ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) , for example , develop limbs soon after hatching and in seasonal pools promptly undergo metamorphosis . Other larvae , especially in permanent pools and warmer climates , may not undergo metamorphosis until fully adult in size . Other populations in colder climates may not metamorphose at all , and become sexually mature while in their larval forms . Neoteny allows the species to survive even when the terrestrial environment is too harsh for the adults to thrive on land .
= = Conservation = =
A general decline in living amphibian species has been linked with the fungal disease chytridiomycosis . A higher proportion of salamander species than of frogs or caecilians are in one of the at @-@ risk categories established by the IUCN . Salamanders showed a significant diminution in numbers in the last few decades of the 20th century , although no direct link between the fungus and the population decline has yet been found . The IUCN made further efforts in 2005 as they established the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan ( ACAP ) , which was subsequently followed by Amphibian Ark ( AArk ) , Amphibian Specialist Group ( ASG ) , and finally the umbrella organization known as the Amphibian Survival Alliance ( ASA ) . Researchers also cite deforestation , resulting in fragmentation of suitable habitats , and climate change as possible contributory factors . Species such as Pseudoeurycea brunnata and Pseudoeurycea goebeli that had been abundant in the cloud forests of Guatemala and Mexico during the 1970s were found by 2009 to be rare . However , few data have been gathered on population sizes over the years , and by intensive surveying of historic and suitable new locations , it has been possible to locate individuals of other species such as Parvimolge townsendi , which had been thought to be extinct . Currently , the major lines of defense for the conservation of Salamanders includes both in situ and ex situ conservation methods.There are efforts in place for certain members of the Salamander family to be conserved under a conservation breeding program ( CBP ) but it is important to note that there should be research done ahead of time to determine if the Salamander species is actually going to value from the CBP , as researchers have noted that some species of amphibians completely fail in this environment .
Various conservation initiatives are being attempted around the world . The Chinese giant salamander , at 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) the largest amphibian in the world , is critically endangered , as it is collected for food and for use in traditional Chinese medicine . An environmental education programme is being undertaken to encourage sustainable management of wild populations in the Qinling Mountains and captive breeding programmes have been set up . The hellbender is another large , long @-@ lived species with dwindling numbers and fewer juveniles reaching maturity than previously . Another alarming finding is the increase in abnormalities in up to 90 % of the hellbender population in the Spring River ( Arkansas ) watershed . Habitat loss , silting of streams , pollution and disease have all been implicated in the decline and a captive breeding programme at Saint Louis Zoo has been successfully established . Of the 20 species of minute salamanders ( Thorius spp . ) in Mexico , half are believed to have become extinct and most of the others are critically endangered . Specific reasons for the decline may include climate change , chytridiomycosis , or volcanic activity , but the main threat is habitat destruction as logging , agricultural activities , and human settlement reduce their often tiny , fragmented ranges . Survey work is being undertaken to assess the status of these salamanders , and to better understand the factors involved in their population declines , with a view to taking action .
Ambystoma mexicanum , an aquatic salamander , is a species protected under the Mexican UMA ( Unit for Management and conservation of wildlife ) as of April 1994 . However , there are a number of factors that work against their preservation and conservation methods . The most profound factors are that the waters in which they are endemic are severely polluted and that even if they were found in the wild again they would be fished up for either research or exotic animal sells on the black market . Another detrimental factor is that the axolotl lost their role as a top predator since the introduction of locally exotic species such as Nile tilapia and carp . Tilapia and carp directly compete with axolotls by consuming their eggs , larvae , and juveniles . Climate change has also immensely affected axolotls and their populations throughout the southern Mexico area . Due to its proximity to Mexico City , officials are currently working on programs at Lake Xochimilco to bring in tourism and educate the local population on the restoration of the natural habitat of these creatures . This proximity is a large factor that has impacted the survival of the axolotl , as the city has expanded to take over the Xochimilco region in order to make use of its resources for water and provision and sewage . However , the axolotl has the benefit of being raised in farms for the purpose of research facilities . So there is still a chance that they may be able to return to their natural habitat . The recent decline in population has substantially impacted genetic diversity among populations of axolotl , making it difficult to further progress scientifically . It is important to note that although there is a level of limited genetic diversity due to Ambystoma populations , such as the axolotl , being paedeomorphic species , it does not account for the overall lack of diversity . There is evidence that points towards a historical bottlenecking of Ambystoma that contributes to the variation issues . Unfortunately , there is no large genetic pool for the species to pull from unlike in historical times.Thus there is severe concern for inbreeding due to lack of gene flow . One way researchers are looking into maintaining genetic diversity within the population is via cryopreservation of the spermatophores from the male axolotl . It is a safe and non @-@ invasive method that requires the collection of the spermatophores and places them into a deep freeze for preservation . Most importantly , they have found that there in only limited damage done to the spermatophores upon thawing and thus it is a viable option . As of 2013 , it is a method that is being used to save not only the axolotl but also numerous other members of the salamander family .
Research is being done on the environmental cues that have to be replicated before captive animals can be persuaded to breed . Common species such as the tiger salamander and the mudpuppy are being given hormones to stimulate the production of sperm and eggs , and the role of arginine vasotocin in courtship behaviour is being investigated . Another line of research is artificial insemination , either in vitro or by inserting spermatophores into the cloacae of females . The results of this research may be used in captive @-@ breeding programmes for endangered species .
= = Taxonomy = =
Disagreement exists between different authorities as to the definition of the terms Caudata and Urodela . Some maintain that the Urodela should be restricted to the crown group , with the Caudata being used for the total group . Others restrict the name Caudata to the crown group and use Urodela for the total group . The former approach seems to be most widely adopted and is used in this article .
The 10 families belonging to the Urodela are divided into three suborders . The clade Neocaudata is often used to separate the Cryptobranchoidea and Salamandroidea from the Sirenoidea .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians ( gymnophionans , urodeles and anurans ) is a matter of debate . A 2005 molecular phylogeny , based on rDNA analysis , suggested that the first divergence between these three groups took place soon after they had branched from the lobe @-@ finned fish in the Devonian ( around 360 million years ago ) , and before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea . The briefness of this period , and the speed at which radiation took place , may help to account for the relative scarcity of amphibian fossils that appear to be closely related to lissamphibians . However , more recent studies have generally found more recent ( Late Carboniferous to Permian ) age for the basalmost divergence among lissamphibians .
The first known fossil salamanders are Kokartus honorarius from the Middle Jurassic of Kyrgyzstan and two species of the apparently neotenic , aquatic Marmorerpeton from England of a similar date . They looked superficially like robust modern salamanders but lacked a number of anatomical features that developed later . Karaurus sharovi from the Upper Jurassic of Kazakhstan resembled modern mole salamanders in morphology and probably had a similar burrowing lifestyle .
The Cryptobranchoidea ( primitive salamanders ) and the Salamandroidea , also known as Diadectosalamandroidei , ( advanced salamanders ) are believed to be sister groups . Both seem to have appeared before the end of the Jurassic , the former being exemplified by Chunerpeton tianyiensis , Pangerpeton sinensis , Jeholotriton paradoxus , Regalerpeton weichangensis , Liaoxitriton daohugouensis and Iridotriton hechti , and the latter by Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis . By the Upper Cretaceous , most or all of the living salamander families had probably appeared .
Cladogram from Darren Naish . The position of the Sirenidae is disputed ; the position shown is considered by Naish to explain the data best .
= = In human society = =
= = = Myth and legend = = =
Legends have developed around the salamander over the centuries , many related to fire . This connection likely originates from the tendency of many salamanders to dwell inside rotting logs . When placed into a fire , the salamander would attempt to escape from the log , lending to the belief that salamanders were created from flames . The mythical ruler Prester John , supposedly had a robe made from salamander hair , the " Emperor of India " possessed a suit made from a thousand skins , Pope Alexander III had a tunic which he valued highly and William Caxton ( 1481 ) wrote : " This Salemandre berithe wulle , of which is made cloth and gyrdles that may not brenne in the fyre . " The salamander was said to be so toxic that by twining around a tree , it could poison the fruit and so kill any who ate them and by falling into a well , could kill all who drank from it .
The association of the salamander with fire appeared first in Ancient Greece , where Pliny the Elder writes in his Natural History that " A salamander is so cold that it puts out fire on contact . It vomits from its mouth a milky liquid ; if this liquid touches any part of the human body it causes all the hair to fall off , and the skin to change color and break out in a rash . " The ability to put out fire is repeated by Saint Augustine in the fifth century and Isidore of Seville in the seventh century .
In Hermetic teachings , there are four orders of elements and each has a ruling elemental over it :
Spirits of Earth - Gnomes
Spirits of Air - Sylphs
Spirits of Water - Undines
Spirits of Fire - Salamanders
The Japanese giant salamander has been the subject of legend and artwork in Japan , in the ukiyo @-@ e work by Utagawa Kuniyoshi . The well @-@ known Japanese mythological creature known as the kappa may be inspired by this salamander . A newt plays a key role in Roald Dahl 's children 's book Matilda when , in the chapter ' The First Miracle ' , the eponymous heroine Matilda Wormwood slips a newt into the headmistress Miss Trunchbull 's water , and tips it over by telekinesis .
= = = Limb regeneration as applied to humans = = =
Salamanders ' limb regeneration has long been the focus of interest among scientists . Researchers have been trying to find out the conditions required for the growth of new limbs and hope that such regeneration could be replicated in humans using stem cells . Axolotls have been used in research and have been genetically engineered so that a fluorescent protein is present in cells in the leg , enabling the cell division process to be tracked under the microscope . It seems that after the loss of a limb , cells draw together to form a clump known as a blastema . This superficially appears undifferentiated , but cells that originated in the skin later develop into new skin , muscle cells into new muscle and cartilage cells into new cartilage . It is only the cells from just beneath the surface of the skin that are pluripotent and able to develop into any type of cell . Researchers from the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute have found that when macrophages were removed , salamanders lost their ability to regenerate and instead formed scar tissue . If the processes involved in forming new tissue can be reverse engineered into humans , it may be possible to heal injuries of the spinal cord or brain , repair damaged organs and reduce scarring and fibrosis after surgery .
= = = Salamander brandy = = =
A 1995 article in the Slovenian weekly magazine Mladina publicized Salamander brandy , a liquor supposedly indigenous to Slovenia . It was said to combine hallucinogenic with aphrodisiac effects and is made by putting several live salamanders in a barrel of fermenting fruit . Stimulated by the alcohol , they secrete toxic mucus in defense and eventually die . Besides causing hallucinations , the neurotoxins present in the brew were said to cause extreme sexual arousal .
Later research by Slovenian anthropologist Miha Kozorog ( University of Ljubljana ) paints a very different picture — Salamander in brandy appears to have been traditionally seen as an adulterant , one which caused ill health . It was also used as a term of slander .
= = = Regional lists = = =
California Salamanders
Salamanders of North Carolina
Salamanders of Texas
= = = Media = = =
Salamander Video
Salamander feeding movies in slow motion
Living Underworld salamander images
Caudata @-@ database : Images of newts and salamanders
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= U.S. Route 11 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from New Orleans , Louisiana to Rouses Point , New York . In Maryland , the federal highway runs 12 @.@ 83 miles ( 20 @.@ 65 km ) from the West Virginia state line at the Potomac River in Williamsport north to the Pennsylvania state line near Maugansville . US 11 is the primary north – south surface highway in central Washington County , connecting Hagerstown with Williamsport to the south and Hagerstown Regional Airport to the north . The federal highway was once a major long @-@ distance highway , but that role has been assumed by Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) , which parallels US 11 not only in Maryland but for most of its course from Tennessee to Upstate New York . US 11 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration except for the municipally @-@ maintained portions within the corporate limits of Williamsport and Hagerstown .
US 11 is the descendant of a trail blazed through the Great Appalachian Valley in the 18th century . In the 19th century , this trail was upgraded to a pair of turnpikes , one from Williamsport to Hagerstown and the second from Hagerstown to the Pennsylvania state line . The highway was constructed in its modern form in the early 20th century , with the bridge across the Potomac River constructed in 1909 and the old turnpikes paved as all @-@ weather roads by the nascent Maryland State Roads Commission in the 1910s . These highways and the streets of Hagerstown and Williamsport were designated Maryland 's portion of US 11 in 1926 . The federal highway was improved outside of the towns in the years surrounding 1930 and again around 1950 . Since the completion of I @-@ 81 in two sections in the late 1950s and mid @-@ 1960s removed long @-@ distance traffic from the highway , US 11 has seen its two major relocations : one that removed the highway from downtown Hagerstown and another required by expansion at Hagerstown Regional Airport .
= = Route description = =
US 11 begins at the West Virginia state line on the south bank of the Potomac River . The highway crosses the Potomac River on a two @-@ lane bridge just south of its confluence with Conococheague Creek . The bridge passes over Potomac Park and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park . At the east end of the bridge , US 11 enters the town of Williamsport , where the highway is municipally @-@ maintained . The federal highway makes a turn to the north , then makes a sharp turn to the east onto Potomac Street adjacent to the Williamsport Visitor Center of the historical park . Within the Williamsport Historic District , US 11 intersects MD 68 ( Conococheague Street ) and MD 63 . MD 63 joins MD 68 in a concurrency on Conococheague Street to the south and US 11 on Potomac Street east to Artizan Street , where MD 63 heads north out of town . US 11 veers northeast and heads through a more suburban area of Williamsport . The federal highway leaves the town of Williamsport and becomes state @-@ maintained immediately before expanding to a four @-@ lane divided highway for its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 81 ( Maryland Veterans Memorial Highway ) .
US 11 continues northeast as Virginia Avenue , a two @-@ lane highway through residential subdivisions . The federal highway passes close to the historic home Tammany and intersects Governor Lane Boulevard , which heads south through an industrial park . US 11 passes under I @-@ 70 with no access and enters the suburb of Halfway , where the highway crosses the Winchester and Western Railroad at @-@ grade and at an angle . The federal highway intersects both Massey Boulevard and Halfway Boulevard , which head northwest toward the Valley Mall . US 11 continues into the city of Hagerstown , where the highway becomes municipally @-@ maintained and enters an industrial area . The federal highway crosses Norfolk Southern Railway 's Hagerstown District rail line immediately before its intersection with Wilson Boulevard , which heads east . Virginia Avenue , the old alignment of US 11 , continues north toward downtown Hagerstown , passing through the South Prospect Street Historic District and passing by Hagerstown City Park , which contains the Hager House and the Washington County Museum of Fine Arts .
US 11 turns west onto Burhans Boulevard and immediately crosses over the Norfolk Southern rail line again . The federal highway curves to the north , paralleling the rail line , then crosses over the Winchester and Western rail line as its junction with the Norfork Southern line . US 11 continues north through a residential neighborhood before passing by the Hagerstown Roundhouse Museum and passing under CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision just east of its wye with the Norfolk Southern line . At the intersection with Elgin Boulevard and Lanvale Street , US 11 turns east to remain on Burhans Boulevard and starts to parallel the CSX rail line . The federal highway and railroad curve to the north , where the highway intersects US 40 on the opposite side of the tracks from downtown Hagerstown . US 40 consists of a one @-@ way pair , Washington Street eastbound and Franklin Street westbound . Between the two directions of US 40 , US 11 passes the historic Western Maryland Railway Station , which is now the headquarters of the Hagerstown Police Department . North of US 40 , US 11 intersects Salem Avenue , crosses Norfolk Southern Railway 's Lurgan Branch , and curves north away from CSX 's Hanover Subdivision , which turns to the east . Burhans Boulevard reaches its northern end at an oblique three @-@ way intersection with Pennsylvania Avenue .
US 11 continues north on Pennsylvania Avenue , passing North Hagerstown High School . State maintenance of the federal highway resumes and the highway 's name changes to Middleburg Pike at Haven Road just before the highway leaves the city of Hagerstown . US 11 continues north past residential subdivisions in the suburbs of Fountain Head and Orchard Hills . The federal highway passes a Volvo manufacturing plant and intersects Maugans Avenue , which heads west to Maugansville . North of the intersection with Showalter Road , US 11 adjoins the property of Hagerstown Regional Airport . The federal highway curves to the northeast and passes through a tunnel under the airport 's east – west runway . The federal highway curves back to the northwest through an industrial area before resuming its northward course to the Pennsylvania state line . US 11 enters Pennsylvania just south of the federal highway 's intersection with PA 163 ( Mason Dixon Road ) .
= = History = =
US 11 is the descendent of a trail blazed from Pennsylvania following the establishment of Evan Watkins 's ferry across the Potomac River at the mouth of Conococheague Creek in 1744 . This trail became part of the Great Wagon Road from Philadelphia south through the Great Appalachian Valley to Virginia and North Carolina . In the center of the Hagerstown Valley along the trail , German immigrant Jonathan Hager laid out his namesake town in 1762 . In the 19th century , the Hagerstown and Middleburg Turnpike was constructed between Hagerstown and Middleburg , a settlement on the Pennsylvania side of the state line . In addition. the Williamsport and Hagerstown Turnpike was constructed between the town that sprung up at the Potomac River crossing and the county seat of Washington County . Starting in 1896 , the Hagerstown Railway Company of Washington County operated an interurban between Williamsport and Hagerstown adjacent to the turnpike . The streetcar suburb of Halfway developed along the turnpike and trolley line at the midpoint between the two municipalities .
The first portion of modern US 11 to be constructed was the bridge over the Potomac River at Williamsport , which was financed and constructed by Washington County and completed in 1909 . The new bridge , which became the only crossing between Cumberland and Washington , D.C. to survive the flood of March 1936 , charged tolls from a tollgate at the West Virginia end of the bridge . The Maryland State Roads Commission later purchased the bridge in 1954 and removed the tolls in 1958 . Both the Williamsport Pike and Middleburg Pike , their right @-@ of @-@ way now owned by the Maryland State Roads Commission , were paved by 1921 . Those highways as well as Potomac Street in the town of Williamsport and the streets connecting the two former turnpikes within the city of Hagerstown — Virginia Avenue , Jonathan Street , and Pennsylvania Avenue — were designated Maryland 's portion of US 11 in 1926 .
The first upgrades to US 11 occurred when Williamsport Pike and Middleburg Pike were rebuilt and widened in the late 1920s and early 1930s , respectively . Williamsport Pike was rebuilt again in 1948 , with the highway widened using the right @-@ of @-@ way of the Williamsport – Hagerstown interurban that had ceased service in 1947 . By 1950 , US 11 in Hagerstown followed a one @-@ way pair : the northbound direction followed Summit Avenue and Jonathan Street between Virginia Avenue and Pennsylvania Avenue and the southbound direction used Prospect Street through the downtown area . The first relief from long @-@ distance traffic came to US 11 when the first section of I @-@ 81 was completed from US 40 to the Pennsylvania state line in 1958 . Following the completion of I @-@ 81 from US 40 south to the Potomac River in 1966 , US 11 became a highway mainly for local traffic . US 11 's bridge across the Potomac River was rebuilt in 1979 . In addition , the highway 's name south of Hagerstown was changed from Williamsport Pike to Virginia Avenue around 1995 .
Despite the construction of I @-@ 81 , another bypass of downtown Hagerstown , Burhans Boulevard , was constructed in the 1960s . Burhans Boulevard was named for Winslow F. Burhans , the mayor of Hagerstown from 1953 to 1965 who was instrumental in elevating the tracks of the Western Maryland Railway on the west side of downtown Hagerstown to eliminate a series of grade crossings . The boulevard was started in 1960 between Salem Avenue and Pennsylvania Avenue . Construction was underway on the section between Virginia Avenue and Elgin Boulevard by 1962 . Both sections were completed by 1965 . Burhans Boulevard was completed around 1968 from Elgin Boulevard to Washington Street , from which the boulevard continued north paralleling the Western Maryland tracks along what had formerly been Foundry Street . At the southern end of Hagerstown , Burhans Boulevard , Virginia Avenue , and Wilson Boulevard were relocated to eliminate two grade crossings with the Norfolk Southern Railway tracks in 1983 . Burhans Boulevard remained a regular municipal street until US 11 was rerouted away from downtown Hagerstown around 1987 .
The other major relocation of US 11 occurred around Hagerstown Regional Airport . Due to the airport 's east – west runway being extended eastward , US 11 was relocated by Washington County in 1964 , resulting in a wide curve in what had been a straight highway . The portion of highway between Showalter Road and the Pennsylvania state line was subsequently county @-@ maintained until 1972 . Another extension of the east – west runway occurred between 2004 and 2007 . For this extension , US 11 was relocated to a tunnel underneath the extended runway along the curved alignment in 2006 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Washington County .
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= Frances McConnell @-@ Mills =
Frances Mary McConnell @-@ Mills ( July 9 , 1900 – December 28 , 1975 ) was an American toxicologist . She was the first woman to be appointed Denver 's city toxicologist , the first female toxicologist in the Rocky Mountains , and probably the first female forensic pathologist in the United States .
McConnell was raised in Colorado and after studying chemistry she became a high school teacher . She later attended medical school at the University of Colorado Denver , graduating in 1925 . She specialized in the fields of toxicology and forensic pathology , which led her to testify in many high @-@ profile criminal cases throughout her career . In addition to working as Denver 's city toxicologist , she held positions in multiple hospitals and administrative boards . After battling lifelong health problems , including rheumatic heart disease and a leg amputation , McConnell died in 1975 . She was posthumously inducted into the Colorado Women 's Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
McConnell @-@ Mills was born Frances Mary McConnell in 1900 in Monument , Colorado . Her father was a physician and a pharmacist , and often took Frances with him when he made house calls to patients . She was sent to live with her aunt and grandfather so that she could attend Colorado Springs High School ; she graduated at the age of 15 and was awarded a full scholarship to the University of Denver . She received a bachelor 's degree from the university in 1918 , aged 17 , and graduated again with a master 's degree in chemistry when she was 19 , making her the university 's youngest graduate with a master 's degree at the time . In 1919 , she began work as a teacher of chemistry , biology , geometry and trigonometry at Englewood High School .
McConnell applied to the University of Colorado School of Medicine in 1920 and was accepted . Although her father had previously paid for 17 men to attend medical school , he refused to pay for Frances ' tuition because he deemed medicine to be " too hard a life for a woman " . She therefore supported herself through medical school by working as a musician in local bars and theaters , as a tutor , and as a laboratory assistant . In November 1925 , she married David L. Mills , a lawyer , and gave birth to a daughter the year after . Although McConnell hyphenated her name to McConnell @-@ Mills , she continued to use her maiden name for her professional career to avoid drawing attention to her children .
= = Career = =
McConnell graduated from the University of Colorado as a Doctor of Medicine in 1925 and completed an internship at Denver General Hospital . She subsequently took on a position as a toxicologist in the coroner 's offices at the same hospital , making her the first female toxicologist in the Rocky Mountains area . She was appointed Denver 's city toxicologist in 1926 and became an assistant pathologist in 1927 , working alongside deputy coroner George Bostwick and city pathologist W. S. Dennis . Her appointment to city toxicologist made her the first woman to hold the position .
McConnell 's work mainly focused on poison and blood analysis , and she testified in many criminal cases as an expert witness . Her work often involved determining the cause of death when poisoning was suspected . In 1930 , she investigated the death of a ten @-@ year @-@ old Denver girl ; the case was referred to at the time as the city 's " most famous and controversial murder case " . Although she initially suspected the girl had been poisoned , McConnell discovered crushed glass in the girl 's stomach and blood stains in the family car ; her testimony led to the sentencing of the girl 's stepmother for murder . In 1936 , McConnell testified against suspected rapist and murderer Joe Arridy after finding fibers from the bedspread at the murder scene under the suspect 's fingernails . ( Although Arridy was convicted of murder and executed in 1939 , he was granted a posthumous pardon in 2011 . ) McConnell also discovered that murder victim Georg Obendoerfer had been killed with a lethal dose of arsenic , which led to further investigations confirming that Anna Marie Hahn had killed Obendoerfer , as well as other men in the same way . McConnell testified at Hahn 's trial in Cincinnati and Hahn was subsequently convicted and executed . After she was called to Raton , New Mexico as a key witness in a murder trial in 1935 , a court reporter for the Raton Range wrote that McConnell " has gained a national reputation ... in her blood analysis work " . Additionally , she is thought to be the United States ' first female forensic pathologist . Despite working on numerous high @-@ profile , widely publicized cases , McConnell kept her life as private as possible and only ever gave one interview during her career .
Outside of toxicology , McConnell did extensive laboratory work . In the 1930s and 1940s she undertook personal research into passive immunity and developed serums for scarlet fever , polio , the common cold and acne for use on family members . While working for otolaryngologist Harry Baum , she invented a hair rinse which Baum called " Noreen " that was produced until the 1990s . In 1941 , she was appointed director of the laboratory department of the Colorado State Board of Health , and she later founded Denver General Hospital 's School for Medical Technologists in order to train new workers , especially women . She enrolled in an advanced serology training program at the University of Michigan in 1941 and went on to study surgical pathology at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago in 1943 . Following her term at Cook County , she resigned from the Board of Health and accepted a role at St. Luke 's Hospital in Denver as a laboratory director and pathologist . She was forced to leave St. Luke 's in 1944 due to illness , and after recovering she returned to Denver General Hospital as its laboratory director . She continued to work on criminal cases between other jobs until 1948 .
In the 1950s , McConnell joined physician and public health activist Florence R. Sabin to create an examination on behalf of the Colorado State Board of Basic Sciences for granting licenses to applicants who wished to practice health science . McConnell was appointed to the Board in 1956 , making her the only female member at the time , and served until 1975 .
= = Health problems and death = =
McConnell battled with health problems throughout her life , after contracting rheumatic fever at the age of 20 which subsequently progressed to rheumatic heart disease . In 1944 she contracted appendicitis which required an emergency appendectomy ; she developed deep vein thrombosis in her right leg after the surgery and her leg was subsequently amputated above the knee . She was given a prosthetic leg which she named " Matilda " but later became wheelchair @-@ bound .
Following the death of her husband in 1967 , McConnell lived alone . She kept working until the last two weeks of her life , filling various roles on the Board of Basic Sciences , in an allergy practice , and as a consultant for the Denver Poison Center . She died in December 1975 in St. Luke 's Hospital , Denver , at the age of 75 .
= = Legacy = =
A year before her death , in December 1974 , McConnell received an award from the University of Colorado Medical School which recognized her as a 50 @-@ year graduate of the school and as one of only two Coloradoan women at the time who had practiced medicine for 50 years .
She was inducted into the Colorado Women 's Hall of Fame in 1996 . In 1999 , her daughter Jeanne Varnell published a book titled Women of Consequence : The Colorado Women 's Hall of Fame , which contains the biographies of McConnell and 58 other inductees of the Hall of Fame . The project began when Varnell set out to write a biography of her mother , but was urged by her editor to do the same for all 59 of the women in the Hall of Fame at the time , and compile them into a book .
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= Highlanders ( rugby union ) =
The Highlanders ( known as the Pulse Energy Highlanders for sponsorship reasons and formerly known as the Otago Highlanders ) are a New Zealand professional rugby union team based in Dunedin that compete in Super Rugby . The team represents the North Otago , Otago and Southland unions . The Highlanders take their name from the Scottish immigrants that helped found the Otago , North Otago , and Southland regions in the 1840s and 1850s . Their main ground through the 2011 Super Rugby season was Carisbrook in Dunedin , with home games occasionally being played in Invercargill and Queenstown . The Highlanders moved into Carisbrook 's replacement , Forsyth Barr Stadium at University Plaza , for the 2012 season ; the stadium opened in time for the 2011 Rugby World Cup , but after the Super Rugby season .
The team was formed in 1996 to represent the lower South Island in the newly formed Super 12 competition . They finished the inaugural season eighth , and the following season finished last after winning only three of eleven matches . However , in the 1998 , 1999 and 2000 seasons they qualified for semi @-@ finals ; hosting the 1999 competition final against fellow South Island team the Crusaders . They lost the match 24 – 19 , and the following year were again knocked out by the Crusaders — this time in their semi @-@ final . In the following fifteen seasons they would only finish in the top four once more , in 2002 . But in 2015 , they were crowned Super Rugby champions .
Former Highlander , Anton Oliver has played a record 127 games for the Highlanders , and thirteen other players have played over 50 games for the team . The Highlanders ' highest career points scorer is Tony Brown with 857 points , and highest career try scorer is Jeff Wilson with 35 . They are currently coached by Jamie Joseph and are co @-@ captained by Shane Christie and Ben Smith .
= = History = =
The Highlanders ' franchise was created as one of five New Zealand teams in the Super 12 . Originally named the Otago Highlanders , the Highlanders ' franchise area encompassed the lower South Island of New Zealand , and was formed from the North Otago , Otago , and Southland provincial rugby unions .
The 1996 team was captained by John Leslie and coached by Gordon Hunter . Their first Super 12 match was against the Queensland Reds at Carisbrook on 3 March 1996 , whom they defeated 57 – 17 . After three matches the Highlanders were undefeated and leading the competition . However the following week at Loftus Versfeld Stadium in South Africa they were defeated 59 – 29 by Northern Transvaal . They only won two more games that season , against Natal at Carisbrook and against the Canterbury Crusaders at Lancaster Park , and they finished the season eighth on the table .
1997 was the least successful season ever for the Highlanders . They finished last in the competition , and managed only three wins . They were now coached by Glenn Ross and captained by Taine Randell . Their eight defeats that season included a 75 – 43 loss to Natal in Durban . The points scored by Natal included 50 points by Gavin Lawless – a competition record . Following their last place in the 1997 season , Tony Gilbert was appointed as coach . Their first game under his guidance was an upset 26 – 19 win over the Queensland Reds . The Highlanders eventually became the first New Zealand side to defeat all four South African teams in one season . After defeating the Bulls at Loftus Versfeld they needed the Queensland Reds not to defeat the Brumbies by a large margin . Queensland were defeated by the Brumbies 23 – 16 and the Highlanders finished fourth , thus qualifying for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ final , they faced defending champions the Auckland Blues at Eden Park . The Blues were leading 20 – 16 at halftime , and were leading 30 – 26 before a controversial try to Adrian Cashmore pushed the Blues to a 37 – 26 lead . Joeli Vidiri had illegally taken out Highlander Stanley off the ball .
The following season in 1999 the Highlanders improved on their 1997 season record by reaching and hosting the tournament final . They opened their season with a 19 – 13 victory over the Auckland Blues at Carisbrook . This was followed by a victory over the Northern Bulls , the Stormers at Carisbrook , and the Cats , before their first loss of the season to the Sharks . They returned to New Zealand to defeat the Waikato Chiefs and then the Crusaders . After defeating the Reds , the Highlanders lost to the New South Wales Waratahs at Carisbrook . The next week they defeated the Brumbies at the same venue . In their next match , despite leading the Wellington Hurricanes 14 – 3 at half time , the Highlanders lost when Hurricanes half back Jason Spice scored in the corner to give the Hurricanes a 21 – 19 victory . Had the Highlanders won they would have finished top of the table and hosted a semi @-@ final at Carisbrook . Instead they then had to travel to South Africa where they defeated the Stormers 33 – 18 . The Highlanders travelled back to Dunedin for the 1999 Super 12 Final , which was against South Island rivals the Canterbury Crusaders , and was billed as " the party at Tony Brown 's house " after Highlanders first five @-@ eighth Tony Brown . The Highlanders scored first , and led 14 – 9 at half time . However the decisive try was to Crusaders wing Afato So 'oalo , who chipped the ball then out @-@ sprinted All Blacks winger Jeff Wilson to collect the ball and score . Although the Highlanders scored a try to Isitolo Maka with three minutes remaining , the Crusaders won 24 – 19 .
The Highlanders opened their 2000 season with a 50 – 13 victory over the Queensland Reds at Carisbrook . They won their next three matches , against the Sharks , Hurricanes and Cats . However they then lost their following three ; against the Crusaders , Brumbies , and Blues . They played the Crusaders at Jade Stadium in their semi @-@ final , and were defeated 37 – 15 after Marika Vunibaka scored two tries for the Crusaders in the last 20 minutes . The next season opened with a 23 – 8 victory over the Blues . Their 39 – 20 defeat of the Waratahs at Carisbrook on 7 April was the first defeat of New South Wales by an Otago @-@ based side since the Otago provincial team defeated New South Wales 5 – 0 in 1901 . The Highlanders narrowly lost to the Hurricanes in Napier 35 – 33 before defeating the Brumbies at Carisbrook on 20 April . Although the Highlanders went undefeated at home for a second consecutive season , they finished fifth with six wins that season .
Laurie Mains had returned from South Africa to coach Otago in the 2001 National Provincial Championship ( NPC ) , and was appointed the Highlanders coach for 2002 . Their season started with a narrow 30 – 28 loss to the Crusaders at Jade Stadium . That year the Highlanders also achieved a win over all four South African teams . The Gordon Hunter Memorial Trophy was also introduced that season to be contested between the Highlanders and Blues . Gordon Hunter had coached both teams before dying from cancer in 2001 . The match was played at Eden Park , and the Highlanders were ahead 15 – 3 at half time , and eventually won 20 – 13 . Their last home match of the season was against the Reds at Carisbrook . The Highlanders ' 40 – 26 win meant that they had gone three seasons undefeated at Carisbrook . The Highlanders finished fourth and played the Crusaders in Christchurch where they lost 34 – 23 , although Jeff Wilson did score a try in his last match for the franchise .
The 2003 season started with a 29 – 16 win over the Chiefs in Hamilton . They then defeated the Stormers and Bulls before losing to the Cats in Johannesburg . Their second loss occurred when the Crusaders defeated them 17 – 16 at Carisbrook . The Highlanders had gone three seasons , 2000 , 2001 and 2002 , and 16 games unbeaten at Carisbrook before that loss . The Highlanders then defeated the Blues 22 – 11 to retain the Gordon Hunter Memorial Trophy . In April that year it was revealed a rift had developed between coach Laurie Mains and some of the senior players in the squad . Anton Oliver was branded the ringleader by Mains , and after their final game of the season Mains resigned and was replaced by his assistant Greg Cooper .
In contrast to their previous season , in 2004 the Highlanders conceded 44 tries , twelve more than in 2003 , but scored nine more tries then in 2003 . Not only did they have a new head coach , but also thirteen new players in their squad . This all contributed to them finishing the season ninth that season . The Highlanders ' 2005 season started with a loss to the Blues at Carisbrook . Following this the side won six games consecutively , the first time the franchise had ever done so . After a draw with the Stormers and a bye , the Highlanders had gone unbeaten for eight weeks . Three weeks from the end of the round robin they were third , but after losing their remaining three matches fell to eighth for the season .
After ten years the Super 12 was expanded to include two extra teams ; the Western Force from Australia , and the Central Cheetahs from South Africa . The expanded competition was renamed the Super 14 . The Highlanders continued under Cooper in 2006 . After losing their first match of 2006 to the Crusaders , they then won their next three . After only won two of their last six games , they finished the season ranked ninth . The 2007 ended with a similar result to 2006 . The Highlanders again finished ninth on the table , and worst of the New Zealand teams . They finished the season with five wins and eight losses from their thirteen matches .
While the fortunes of the franchise had been declining for a few years , they would bottom out with a player exodus following the 2007 Rugby World Cup . The squad 's entire All Black front row of Carl Hayman , Anton Oliver , and Clarke Dermody left for lucrative contracts in Europe , while star first @-@ five Nick Evans moved north to Auckland to play for the Blues , and hugely talented young lock James Ryan was forced to retire at age 24 due to injury problems . Joining the exodus were several other veteran starters , along with coach Greg Cooper who left the franchise to take up an assistant coaching position with the Blues . The coach for the 2008 season , Glenn Moore , was appointed 28 August 2007 .
Moore was left with a weak side of young and inexperienced players which would stumble to a franchise @-@ worst record of only 3 wins against 10 losses during the 2008 Super 14 season , and finished as the lowest @-@ placed New Zealand team on the table . Jimmy Cowan , one of the team 's few bright spots through this period , was appointed team captain for 2009 , but things would improve little over the following two seasons as the team again limped to the worst record of the New Zealand clubs . When Moore was released as coach following the 2010 season , the franchise had compiled a record of only 10 wins against 29 losses in three seasons under his leadership .
Former All Black Jamie Joseph was hired as coach for the 2011 Super Rugby season , while Jamie Mackintosh replaced Cowan as team captain . The campaign would prove to be the franchise 's most successful in several years , as they raced out to a 3 – 0 start including a monumental away win over the Bulls in Pretoria . They remained in playoff contention for almost the entire season , sitting 8 – 4 at one juncture , before slumping under an injury cloud at the end of the year to finish 8th on the table .
Highlanders won the 2015 Super Rugby season defeating the Hurricanes 21 – 14 in Wellington . Phil Gifford called the win the " greatest Super Rugby comeback this century " .
= = Name and colours = =
The name Highlanders was chosen after the early Scottish settlers in the lower South Island . These Scottish settlers were the founders of Dunedin — known as the " Edinburgh of the South " , and the city where the Highlanders are based . According to the Highlanders official website : " The name and image of the Highlander conjures up visions of fierce independence , pride in one 's roots , loyalty , strength , kinship , honesty , and hard work . "
The colours of the Highlanders formerly encompassed the provincial colours of North Otago , Otago , and Southland ; yellow , blue and maroon . Blue is also the predominant colour of the Flag of Scotland , and is used by many sports teams in that country .
On 3 June 2011 , the Highlanders introduced — controversially — a new predominantly lime green home kit . It was debuted in the Highlanders ' final home match of the 2011 Super Rugby season .
Despite the resounding negative feedback from fans , this kit was initially confirmed for the 2012 season . On 6 September 2011 , however , the club announced a change of heart — they would be returning to their traditional blue strip for home matches , and using the lime green kit for away matches during the 2012 Super Rugby season .
= = Franchise area = =
The Highlanders ' franchise area consists of the region controlled by the North Otago , Otago and Southland Rugby Unions . Both Otago and Southland compete in the semi @-@ professional ITM Cup ( formerly the Air New Zealand Cup ) , and North Otago in the amateur Heartland Championship . However , given Otago and Southland 's lack of success in the ITM Cup , the Highlanders have often looked further afield to sign players from . This is a reflection of Otago 's historically large influx of people from distant lands during the early settlement period , particularly from the Celtic countries of Scotland and Ireland .
= = Grounds = =
Starting with the 2012 season , the Highlanders moved into the Forsyth Barr Stadium , opened in August 2011 . It was built to replace their original home of Carisbrook , which was no longer suitable for international rugby , or as a venue for the 2011 Rugby World Cup . The Carisbrook Stadium Trust was established in 2006 to manage the planning and construction of a new stadium . The new stadium is not on the current Carisbrook site , but instead near the University of Otago and Otago Harbour . It is a roofed , all weather stadium with a rectangular configuration , and permanent seating capacity of 25 @,@ 000 that could be expanded to 30 @,@ 748 if necessary .
The Highlanders ' original home ground was the 29 @,@ 000 capacity Carisbrook in Dunedin . Carisbrook is also known as " The Brook " , or as " The House of Pain " due to its reputation as a difficult venue to visit . The stadium was also well known for Dunedin 's large student population ( known as " Scarfies " ) that occupied the terraces — an uncovered concrete embankment at the eastern end of the ground .
The Highlanders usually play at least one regular season match outside of Dunedin , at either Rugby Park in Invercargill or the Queenstown Events Centre in Queenstown . Prior to 2007 the regular season match was usually played at Rugby Park , however in 2007 they played a match at the Queenstown Events Centre . The Highlanders have also played pre @-@ season matches at Centennial Park in Oamaru and at the Showgrounds in Balclutha .
On 28 March 2009 , the Highlanders played a home game at FMG Stadium in Palmerston North against the Bulls . This game attracted a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 ; one of the Highlanders ' biggest of the 2009 season .
= = Development team = =
The Highlanders have fielded a development team in competitions such as the Pacific Rugby Cup and in matches against other representative teams for several seasons . Known as the Highlanders Development XV , the squad is selected from the best emerging rugby talent in the Highlanders catchment area and is composed of Highlanders contracted players , wider training group members , under 20s , and selected club players .
= = Records and achievements = =
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Team records = = =
The 2014 season set several new records for the team , that had stood since the 1998 and 1999 seasons . They scored their most ever points ( 425 ) , and most ever tries ( 42 ) in a season . Lima Sopoaga set a franchise record for most points in a season with 178 , becoming just the third Highlander to score 25 points in a game . The 2000 year saw perhaps their greatest victory ever with their 65 – 23 win against the Bulls , setting several records ; most points in a match , most tries in a match with nine , and largest winning margin of 42 .
Former first five @-@ eighth Tony Brown holds the record for most career points with 857 . His 857 career points included 144 conversions , 183 penalties , and six drop @-@ goals . The most points in a single match is held by former fullback Ben Blair who scored 28 against the Sharks in 2005 . Most career tries is held by former player Jeff Wilson with 35 . Wilson and Blair also share the record for most tries in a single match with three along with Israel Dagg , Doug Howlett , Ryan Nicholas , Jeremy Stanley , and To 'o Vaega .
= = = Honours = = =
Champions ( 1 )
2015
Runners @-@ up ( 1 )
1999
Playoff Appearances ( 6 )
1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2002 , 2014 , 2015
= = = Current squad = = =
The squad for the 2016 Super Rugby season :
= = = Current internationally capped players = = =
Ben Smith is also the vice captain of the 2016 All Blacks
= = Notable players = =
Players who have played over 50 games for the Highlanders :
Josh Blackie
John Blaikie
Tony Brown
Jimmy Cowan
Tom Donnelly
Carl Hayman
Carl Hoeft
Byron Kelleher
Chris King
Josh Kronfeld
Filipo Levi
Simon Maling
Seilala Mapusua
Kelvin Middleton
Craig Newby
Anton Oliver
Taine Randell
Romi Ropati
Alando Soakai
Ben Smith
Lima Sopoaga
Adam Thomson
Jeff Wilson
= = Coaches and management = =
In their first season the Highlanders were coached by Gordon Hunter before he joined the All Blacks selection panel . Glen Ross took over in 1997 , and was not reappointed for the 1998 season . Tony Gilbert was appointed for the 1998 season , and again coached the team in 1999 before being appointed co @-@ coach for the All Blacks . Peter Sloane was appointed Gilbert 's successor for the 2000 season , and also coached them in 2001 before moving to coach the Blues . Laurie Mains returned to New Zealand from South Africa to replace Sloane for the 2002 season . Mains resigned following the 2003 season after a rift between him and senior players . Greg Cooper replaced Mains and coached the team from 2003 until 2007 , when he left the franchise to take up the assistant coaches position with the Blues . Glenn Moore coached the club from 2008 through until 2010 , when he was relieved of his duties after the club posted only 10 wins against 29 losses in his three years in charge . His replacement was former All Black flanker Jamie Joseph , who has been coach since the start of the 2011 season . In 2013 Tony Brown was appointed the job as attack coach after two seasons being the head coach of Otago and leading them to finals fixtures .
Head coach
Jamie Joseph
Assistant coaches
Jon Preston
Scott McLeod
Kees Meeuws
Tony Brown
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= Mellotron =
The Mellotron is an electro @-@ mechanical , polyphonic tape replay keyboard originally developed and built in Birmingham , England , in 1963 . It evolved from a similar instrument , the Chamberlin , but could be mass @-@ produced more effectively . The instrument works by pulling a section of magnetic tape across a head . Different portions of the tape can be played to access different sounds .
The original models were designed to be used in the home , and contained a variety of sounds , including automatic accompaniments . Bandleader Eric Robinson and television personality David Nixon were heavily involved in the instrument 's original publicity . A number of other celebrities such as Princess Margaret were early adopters .
The Mellotron became more popular after the Beatles used it on several tracks . It was subsequently adopted by the Moody Blues , Genesis and King Crimson , and became a notable instrument in progressive rock . Later models such as the M400 , the best selling model , dispensed with the accompaniments and some sound selection controls in order to be used by touring musicians . The instrument became less popular in the 1980s due to the introduction of polyphonic synthesizers and samplers , despite a number of high profile uses from Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and XTC .
Production of the Mellotron ceased in 1986 , but it regained popularity in the 1990s , and was used by several notable bands . This led to the resurrection of the original manufacturer , Streetly Electronics . In 2007 , Streetly produced the M4000 , which combined the layout of the M400 with the bank selection of earlier models .
= = Operation = =
The Mellotron has a similar behaviour to a sampler , but generates its sound via audio tape . When a key is pressed , a tape connected to it is pushed against a playback head , like a tape recorder . While the key remains depressed , the tape is drawn over the head , and a sound is played . When the key is released , a spring pulls the tape back to its original position . A variety of sounds are available on the instrument . On earlier models , the instrument is split into " lead " and " rhythm " sections . There is a choice of six " stations " of rhythm sounds , each containing three rhythm tracks and three fill tracks . The fill tracks can also be mixed together . Similarly , there is a choice of six lead stations , each containing three lead instruments which can be mixed . In the centre of the Mellotron , there is a tuning button that allows a variation in both pitch and tempo . Later models do not have the concept of stations and have a single knob to select a sound , along with the tuning control . However , the frame containing the tapes is designed to be removed , and replaced with one with different sounds .
Although the Mellotron was designed to reproduce the sound of the original instrument , replaying a tape creates minor fluctuations in pitch ( wow and flutter ) , and amplitude , so a note sounds slightly different each time it is played . Pressing a key harder allows the head to come into contact under greater pressure , to the extent that the Mellotron responds to aftertouch .
Another factor in the Mellotron 's sound is that the individual notes were recorded in isolation . For a musician accustomed to playing in an orchestral setting , this was unusual , and meant that they had nothing against which to intonate . Noted cellist Reginald Kirby refused to downtune his cello to cover the lower range of the Mellotron , and so the bottom notes are actually performed on a double bass . According to Mellotron author Nick Awde , one note of the string sounds contains the sound of a chair being scraped in the background .
The original Mellotrons were intended to be used in the home or in clubs , and were not designed for touring bands . Even the later M400 , which was designed to be as portable as possible , weighed over 122 pounds ( 55 kg ) . Smoke , and variations in temperature , and humidity were also detrimental to the instrument 's reliability . Moving the instrument between cold storage rooms and brightly lit stages could cause the tapes to stretch and stick on the capstan . Leslie Bradley recalls receiving some Mellotrons in for a repair " looking like a blacksmith had shaped horseshoes on top . " Pressing too many keys at once caused the motor to drag , resulting in the notes sounding flat . Robert Fripp stated that " Tuning a Mellotron doesn 't " . Dave Kean , an expert Mellotron repairer , recommends that older Mellotrons should not be immediately used after a period of inactivity , as the tape heads can become magnetized in storage and destroy the recordings on them if played .
= = History = =
Although tape samplers had been explored in research studios , the first commercially available keyboard @-@ driven tape instruments were built and sold by California @-@ based Harry Chamberlin . The concept of the Mellotron originated when Chamberlin 's sales agent , Bill Fransen , brought two of Chamberlin 's Musicmaster 600 instruments to England in 1962 to search for someone who could manufacture 70 matching tape heads for future Chamberlins . He met Frank , Norman and Les Bradley of tape engineering company Bradmatic Ltd , who said they could improve on the original design . The Bradleys subsequently met bandleader Eric Robinson , who agreed to help finance the recording of the necessary instruments and sounds . Together with the Bradleys and television celebrity David Nixon , they formed a company , Mellotronics , in order to market the instrument . Robinson was particularly enthusiastic about the Mellotron , because he felt it would revitalise his career , which was then on the wane . He arranged the recording sessions at IBC Studios in London , which he co @-@ owned with George Clouston .
The first model to be commercially manufactured was the Mk I in 1963 . An updated version , the Mk II , was released the following year which featured the full set of sounds selectable by banks and stations . The instrument was expensive , costing £ 1 @,@ 000 , at a time when a typical house cost £ 2 @,@ 000 – £ 3 @,@ 000 .
Fransen failed to explain to the Bradleys that he was not the owner of the concept , and Chamberlin was unhappy with the fact that someone overseas was copying his idea . After some acrimony between the two parties , a deal was stuck between them in 1966 , whereby they would both continue to manufacture instruments independently . Bradmatic renamed themselves Streetly Electronics in 1970 .
In 1970 , the model M400 was released , which contained 35 notes ( G – F ) and a removable tape frame . It sold over 1 @,@ 800 units . By the early 1970s , hundreds of the instruments were assembled and sold by EMI under exclusive licence . Following a financial and trademark dispute through a U.S. distribution agreement , the Mellotron name was acquired by American @-@ based Sound Sales . Streetly @-@ manufactured instruments after 1976 were sold under the name Novatron . The American Mellotron distributor , Sound Sales , produced their own Mellotron model , the 4 @-@ Track , in the early 1980s . At the same time Streetly Electronics produced a road @-@ cased version of the 400 – the T550 Novatron . By the mid @-@ 1980s , both Sound Sales and Streetly Electronics suffered severe financial setbacks , losing their market to synthesizers and solid @-@ state electronic samplers , which rendered the Mellotron essentially extinct . The company folded in 1986 , and Les Bradley threw most of the manufacturing equipment into a skip .
Streetly Electronics was subsequently reactivated by Les Bradley 's son John and Martin Smith . After Les Bradley 's death in 1997 , they decided to resume full @-@ time operation as a support and refurbishment business . By 2007 , the stock of available instruments to repair and restore was diminishing , so they decided to build a new model , which became the M4000 . The instrument combined the features of several previous models , and featured the layout and chassis of an M400 but with a digital bank selector that emulated the mechanical original in the Mk II .
= = Notable users = =
The first notable musician to use the Mellotron was variety pianist Geoff Unwin , who was specifically hired by Robinson in 1962 to promote the use of the instrument . He toured with a Mk II Mellotron and made numerous appearances on television and radio . Unwin claimed that the automatic backing tracks on the Mk II 's left hand keyboard allowed him to provide more accomplished performances than his own basic skills on the piano could provide .
The earlier 1960s Mk II units were made for the home and the characteristics of the instrument attracted a number of celebrities . Among the early Mellotron owners were Princess Margaret , Peter Sellers , King Hussein of Jordan and Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard ( whose Mellotron is now installed in the Church of Scientology 's head UK office at Saint Hill Manor ) . According to Robin Douglas @-@ Home , Princess Margaret " adored it ; he ( Lord Snowdon ) positively loathed it . "
After Mellotronics had targeted them as a potential customer , the BBC Radiophonic Workshop became interested in the possibilities of the instrument , hoping it would allow them to increase throughput . The corporation used two custom @-@ made models that employed recorded sound effects throughout 1963 and 1964 , but had problems with fluctuating tape speed and found the sound wasn 't up to professional broadcast quality . The Mellotron was eventually dropped in favour of electronic oscillators and synthesizers .
British multi @-@ instrumentalist Graham Bond is considered the first rock musician to record with a Mellotron , beginning in 1965 . The first hit song to feature a Mellotron Mk II was " Baby Can It Be True " , which Bond performed live with the machine in televised performances , using solenoids to trigger the tapes from his Hammond organ .
Mike Pinder worked at Streetly Electronics for 18 months in the early 1960s as a tester , and was immediately excited by the possibilities of the instrument . After trying piano and Hammond organ , he settled on the Mellotron as the instrument of choice for his band , The Moody Blues , purchasing a second @-@ hand model from Fort Dunlop Working Men 's Club in Birmingham and using it extensively on every album from Days of Future Passed ( 1967 ) to Octave ( 1978 ) . Pinder claims to have introduced John Lennon and Paul McCartney to the Mellotron , and convinced each of them to buy one . The Beatles hired a machine and used it on their single " Strawberry Fields Forever " , recorded in various takes between November and December 1966 . Though producer George Martin was unconvinced by the instrument , describing it " as if a Neanderthal piano had impregnated a primitive electronic keyboard " , they continued to compose and record with various Mellotrons for the albums Magical Mystery Tour ( 1967 ) and The Beatles ( 1968 , The White Album ) . McCartney used the Mellotron sporadically in his solo career , and his wife Linda played one while touring with Wings . The Rolling Stones ' Brian Jones played a Mellotron on some studio tracks , including " She 's a Rainbow " and " Jigsaw Puzzle " .
The Mellotron became a key instrument in progressive rock . King Crimson bought two Mellotrons when forming in 1969 . They were aware of Pinder 's contributions to the Moody Blues and didn 't want to sound similar , but concluded there was no other way of generating the orchestral sound . The instrument was originally played by Ian McDonald , and subsequently by Robert Fripp on McDonald 's departure . Later member David Cross recalled he didn 't particularly want to play the Mellotron , but felt that it was simply what he needed to do as a member of the band . Tony Banks bought a Mellotron from Fripp in 1971 , which he claimed was previously used by King Crimson , to use with Genesis . He decided to approach the instrument in a different way to a typical orchestra , using block chords , and later stated that he used it in the same manner as a synth pad on later albums . His unaccompanied introduction to " Watcher of the Skies " on the album Foxtrot ( 1972 ) , played on a Mk II with combined strings and brass , became significant enough that Streetly Electronics provided a " Watcher Mix " sound with the M4000 . Banks claims to still have a Mellotron in storage , but doesn 't feel inclined to use it as he generally prefers to use up @-@ to @-@ date technology . Barclay James Harvest 's Woolly Wolstenholme bought an M300 primarily to use for string sounds , and continued to play the instrument live into the 2000s as part of a reformed band .
The Mellotron was used by German electronic band Tangerine Dream through the 1970s , on albums such as : Atem ( 1973 ) , Phaedra ( 1974 ) , Rubycon ( 1975 ) , Stratosfear ( 1976 ) , and Encore ( 1977 ) . In 1983 , the band 's Christopher Franke asked Mellotronics if they could produce a digital model , as the group migrated towards using samplers .
Though the Mellotron was not extensively used in the 1980s , a number of bands featured it as a prominent instrument . One of the few UK post @-@ punk bands to do so was Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark , who featured it heavily on their platinum @-@ selling 1981 album Architecture & Morality . Andy McCluskey has stated they used the Mellotron because they were starting to run into limitations of the cheap monophonic synthesizers they had used up to that point . He bought a second @-@ hand M400 and was immediately impressed with the strings and choir sounds . XTC 's Dave Gregory recalls seeing bands using Mellotrons when growing up in the 1970s , and thought it would be an interesting addition to the group 's sound . He bought a second @-@ hand model in 1982 for £ 165 , and first used it on the album Mummer ( 1983 ) . IQ 's Martin Orford bought a second hand M400 and used it primarily for visual appeal rather than musical quality or convenience .
The Mellotron received notable publicity in 1995 for its use on Oasis ' album ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? The instrument was played by both Noel Gallagher and Paul Arthurs on several tracks , but a particularly prominent use was the cello sound on the hit single " Wonderwall " , played by Arthurs . Radiohead asked Streetly Electronics to restore and repair a model for them in 1997 , and recorded with it on several tracks for their album OK Computer ( 1997 ) .
Spock 's Beard 's Ryo Okumoto is a noted fan of the Mellotron , saying it characterises the sound of the band . Porcupine Tree 's Steven Wilson has acquired one of King Crimson 's old Mellotrons and in 2013 gave a demonstration of the instrument in celebration of its 50th anniversary .
More recently , the Mellotron has been regularly used by Brian Jonestown Massacre 's Anton Newcombe , in recordings he produced with his band and also his solo project with Tess Parks .
= = Competitors = =
Alternative versions of the Mellotron were manufactured by competitors in the early to mid @-@ 1970s . The Mattel Optigan was a toy keyboard designed to be used in the home , which played back sounds using optical discs . This was followed by the Vako Orchestron in 1975 , which used a more professional @-@ sounding version of the same technology . Its most notable user was Patrick Moraz .
= = List of models = =
Mk I ( 1963 ) – double manual ( 35 notes on each ) . Very similar to the Chamberlin Music Master 600 . About 10 were made .
Mk II ( 1964 ) – double manual . 18 sounds on each manual . Organ @-@ style cabinet , two 12 @-@ inch internal speakers and amp . Weight 160 kg . About 160 were made .
FX console ( 1965 ) – double manual with sound effects . Designed to be quieter than the Mk II , with a different DC motor and a solid @-@ state power amplifier .
M300 ( 1968 ) – 52 @-@ note single manual , some with pitch wheel @-@ control , and some without . About 60 were made .
M400 ( 1970 ) – 35 @-@ note single manual . The most common and portable model . About 1 @,@ 800 units were made . It has three different sounds per frame .
EMI M400 ( 1970 ) – a special version of the M400 manufactured by EMI music company in Britain under licence from Mellotronics . 100 of this model were made .
Mark V ( 1975 ) – double @-@ manual mellotron , with the internals of two M400s plus additional tone and control features . Around nine were made .
Novatron Mark V ( 1977 ) – the same as the Mellotron Mark V , but under a different name .
Novatron 400 ( 1978 ) – as above ; a Mellotron M400 with a different name @-@ plate .
T550 ( 1981 ) – a flight @-@ cased version of Novatron 400 .
4 Track ( 1980 ) – very rare model ; only about five were ever made .
Mark VI ( 1999 ) – an improved version of the M400 . The first Mellotron to be produced since Streetly Electronics went out of business in 1986 .
Mark VII – basically an upgraded Mark V. Like the Mark VI , produced on the new factory in Stockholm .
Skellotron ( 2005 ) – an M400 in a transparent glass case . Only one was made .
M4000 ( 2007 ) – one manual , 24 sounds . An improved version of the Mk II with cycling mechanism . Made by Streetly Electronics .
= = = Related products = = =
M4000D ( 2010 ) – a single @-@ manual digital product that does not feature tapes . Made at the Mellotron factory in Stockholm .
Electro @-@ Harmonix M9 Tape Replay Machine ( 2016 )
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= Calostoma cinnabarinum =
Calostoma cinnabarinum is a species of gasteroid fungus in the family Sclerodermataceae , and is the type species of the genus Calostoma . It is known by several common names , including stalked puffball @-@ in @-@ aspic and gelatinous stalked @-@ puffball . The fruit body has a distinctive color and overall appearance , featuring a layer of yellowish jelly surrounding a bright red , spherical head approximately 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter atop a red or yellowish brown spongy stipe 1 @.@ 5 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 in ) tall . The innermost layer of the head is the gleba , containing clear or slightly yellowish elliptical spores , measuring 14 – 20 micrometers ( µm ) long by 6 – 9 µm across . The spore surface features a pattern of small pits , producing a net @-@ like appearance . A widely distributed species , it grows naturally in eastern North America , Central America , northeastern South America , and East Asia . C. cinnabarinum grows on the ground in deciduous forests , where it forms mycorrhizal associations with oaks .
Despite its appearance and common name , C. cinnabarinum is not related to the true puffballs or to species in the genus Podaxis ( also commonly called " stalked puffballs " ) . It is also unrelated to earthstars and stinkhorns . However , C. cinnabarinum has had a complex taxonomic history that at various times confused it with each of those groups , until the advent of molecular phylogenetics . Although eaten or used in folk medicine in some areas , it is typically considered inedible .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Calostoma cinnabarinum has a long taxonomic history . Leonard Plukenet illustrated a " dusty fungus from Virginia , an elegant twisted work with a coral @-@ red stipe " in his 1692 Phytographia that was later recognized as this species . In 1809 , Christiaan Persoon provided the first modern scientific description , as Scleroderma callostoma , and suggested that the species might be distinctive enough to warrant the creation of a new genus . Later that year , Nicaise Desvaux did just that , creating the genus Calostoma . To avoid a tautonymous name , he renamed the type species C. cinnabarinum .
In 1811 , Louis Bosc did not mention the earlier works when describing it as Lycoperdon heterogeneum , although he also suggested it should be placed in its own genus . Jean Poiret transferred Persoon 's S. callostoma to Lycoperdon in 1817 , while including Bosc 's L. heterogeneum separately . In the same year , Nees von Esenbeck noted Bosc 's belief that the species deserved its own genus and created Mitremyces , without referencing Desvaux 's prior assignment to Calostoma . An 1825 paper by Edward Hitchcock referred to the species with the entirely novel binomial name Gyropodium coccineum ; although Hitchcock claimed this name was established by Lewis Schweinitz , he admitted that no such description had been previously published , and the name and its claimed origin are considered doubtful .
Schweinitz assigned Bosc 's Lycoperdon heterogeneum to Mitremyces under the name M. lutescens in 1822 . He revisited the genus a decade later , describing M. cinnabarinum as a novel species , but incomplete descriptions and mislabelled specimens caused confusion . August Corda separated them more clearly , providing new descriptions , and assigning cinnabarinum to Calostoma based on the descriptions of Desvaux and Persoon , while maintaining lutescens in Mitremyces . George Massee 's 1888 monograph of Calostoma discounted the distinction entirely , arguing that Schweinitz 's two species were actually the same species at different stages of development . In 1897 , Charles Edward Burnap published a new description of C. lutescens , making a clear division between the two similar species that has not been substantially revised since . References to this species as " C. cinnabarina " are common but incorrect .
The specific epithet cinnabarinum is derived from the Ancient Greek word kinnábari ( κιννάβαρι ) , and refers to its " cinnabar @-@ red " color , like that of dragon 's blood . Its names in the English vernacular include " stalked puffball @-@ in @-@ aspic " , " red slimy @-@ stalked puffball " , " aspic puffball " , " gelatinous @-@ stalked puffball " , and " hot lips " . In central Mexico , it is known as " orchid fungus " in both Spanish ( hongo orquídea ) and Nahuatl ( huang noono ) .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
The relationships and evolutionary origins of Calostoma were a matter of considerable historical debate . Based on various morphological features , 19th @-@ century mycologists viewed it as a relative of , variously , Scleroderma , Clathrus , Geastrum , or Tulostoma . The advent of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century confirmed that the Gasteromycetales order was polyphyletic because gasteroid fungi do not form a single clade . Efforts to use nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequencing to resolve the proper taxonomic placement of these fungi revealed that Calostoma cinnabarinum was not closely related to true puffballs , stinkhorns , most earthstars , or gasteroid agarics such as Tulostoma or Podaxis , but instead belonged within the Boletales . Further research organized a group of mostly gasteroid fungi , including Calostoma , into the newly named suborder Sclerodermatineae . This analysis confirmed that C. cinnabarinum and C. ravenelii are distinct species , and identified their closest relatives outside the genus as Gyroporus , Astraeus , and Scleroderma . A subsequent multigene ( nuc @-@ ssu , nuc @-@ lsu , 5.8S , atp6 , and mt @-@ lsu ) study redrew the Sclerodermatineae cladogram slightly , making Pisolithus the closest relatives of Calostoma .
Calostoma cinnabarinum 's physical dissimilarity to many other species in Boletales corresponds to a higher rate of genetic drift than average for the order . This trait is shared with other members of the Sclerodermatineae , which as a group have undergone more rapid evolutionary change than the order as a whole .
= = = Chemotaxonomy = = =
The assignment of Calostoma to the Boletales placed it in an order whose biochemistry has been the topic of research . Most members of the Boletales are characterized by compounds produced by the shikimate @-@ chorismate pathway , including several distinctive pigments . Gertraud Gruber and Wolfgang Steglich were not able to detect these compounds in C. cinnabarinum , but isolated a novel polyene pigment . This compound , named calostomal , is responsible for the orange @-@ red color of the fruit bodies . The methyl ester of calostomal was subjected to NMR spectroscopy and was identified as all @-@ trans @-@ 16 @-@ oxohexadeca @-@ 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 @,@ 10 @,@ 12 @,@ 14 @-@ heptaenoic acid . Chemically related pigments , the boletocrocins , had been isolated from the brightly colored Boletus laetissimus and B. rufoaureus . It is not yet clear if the results of this chemotaxonomic investigation will mandate changes to Boletales cladistics .
= = Description = =
The appearance of the fruit bodies has been compared to amphibian eggs or " small red tomato [ es ] surrounded by jelly " . They consist of a bright red , globose head atop a net @-@ like stipe , covered in a thick gelatinous layer . These fruit bodies are initially hypogeous , but emerge from the ground as the stipe continues to expand .
The head is up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter and typically nearly round , although in some populations , it is visibly oval and may be slightly smaller or larger . The internal structure of the head is complex , sometimes described as an exoperidium and endoperidium that each possess sublayers , and sometimes as distinct layers . The outermost is a yellowish , translucent coating of jelly @-@ like material 4 to 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , somewhat similar to a gelatinous universal veil . Below this coating is a thin , cinnabar @-@ red membrane . As the mushroom ages , these outer layers break down and fall away from the head . Pieces of the red membrane become embedded in the remaining gelatinous material , giving them the appearance of small red seeds . This process reveals the endoperidium , a tough , non @-@ gelatinous layer that does not break apart . When first revealed , it has a powdery , bright red surface that weathers to orange or pale yellow as the powder wears away . Bright red apical ridges or rays form a peristome . North American specimens typically have four to five such ridges , but Asian populations have been described with as many as seven . Contained inside the endoperidium is the gleba , or spore mass , which is white when young but buff or yellow in older specimens .
Like the head , the stipe is covered in a gelatinous outer layer . The stipe itself consists of a number of anastomosing gelatinous strands , giving the structure a reticulate or spongy appearance . These strands vary in color from red to yellow @-@ brown , and fade with age . The stipe is 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick and 1 @.@ 5 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 in ) long , although some or all of this length may remain buried .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
When viewed in mass , as in a spore print , the spores generally appear yellow , although a Korean population with a light pink spore mass has been observed . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are hyaline or pale yellow , elliptical , and visibly pitted . Electron microscopy or atomic force microscopy reveals the pits , or pores , to be an elaborate net @-@ like structure called a reticulum . There are two to three such pores per micrometer , each approximately 400 nanometers deep . Most spores are 14 – 20 by 6 – 9 µm , but some may be as long as 24 or 28 µm ; specimens from a Korean population were reported with slightly smaller spores . Unlike others in the genus , C. cinnabarinum does not use nurse cells to supply food material to spores . The basidia are 40 – 50 by 15 – 20 µm , broadly obovate , club @-@ shaped or sometimes cylindrical , with five to twelve spores distributed evenly or irregularly over the surface . The gleba also contains branching hyphae , 3 – 4 µm thick with frequent clamp connections . The capillitium formed by these connections is present only when the mushroom is young and disintegrates thereafter .
= = = Similar species = = =
At least in North America , Calostoma cinnabarinum is distinctive and easily recognizable . Two other species of Calostoma also occur in the eastern United States . C. lutescens has a thinner gelatinous layer and a predominately yellow middle layer , or mesoperidium , with the red color confined to the peristome . It also possesses a well @-@ defined collar at the base of the spore case , a longer stipe , and globose , pitted spores . C. ravenelii is not gelatinous , but instead has warts adorning the spore case , and is smaller than C. cinnabarinum . It also has a reddish peristome but is otherwise clay @-@ colored . Unlike C. lutescens , the spores of C. ravenelii cannot be distinguished from those of C. cinnabarinum except through the use of atomic force microscopy .
More representatives of the genus are present in Asia . At least nine species have been recorded from mainland India , some of which also overlap C. cinnabarinum 's range in Indonesia , Taiwan , or Japan . Many of these species can be readily distinguished by macroscopic features . C. japonicum is pinkish orange and lacks a gelatinous outer layer , while both C. jiangii and C. junghuhnii are brown . However , others require microscopic features of spore shape and ornamentation for identification . Unlike the uniformly elongated spores of C. cinnabarinum , C. guizhouense possesses both elliptical and globose spores . C. pengii differs primarily in the pattern of ornamentation on its spore surface .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Widely distributed , Calostoma cinnabarinum can be found from Massachusetts south to Florida in the United States . Its range extends at least as far west as Texas , with possible populations in the Southwest , but is most common in the Appalachian Mountains where it becomes more frequent with increasing elevation . It is also present in Eastern Mexico , where it grows in the subtropical cloud forests of Veracruz and Hidalgo . In Central America , it is known from Belize 's Chiquibul National Park , the cloud forests of Baja Verapaz and El Quiché in Guatemala , and Panama . The species is also recorded in South America , from Colombia as far southeast as Brazil , where it is described as rare . It has also been collected from a disjunct population in Asia , where it has been recorded from seven provinces in mainland China , mostly in the southeast , as well as from Indonesia , Taiwan , Japan , and Jirisan in South Korea .
Calostoma cinnabarinum was thought to be saprotrophic , and has been described in this manner in both scholarly and popular discussions of the species . However , this classification was the result of its taxonomic history and comparisons with saprotrophic fungi that are not closely related . After its assignment to the Sclerodermatineae , a suborder whose members are ectomycorrhizal , its ecological role came into question . In 2007 , Andrew Wilson and David Hibbett of Clark University and Eric Hobbie of the University of New Hampshire employed isotopic labeling , DNA sequencing , and morphological analysis to determine that this species is also ectomycorrhizal . Like all mycorrhizal fungi , C. cinnabarinum establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of trees , allowing the fungus to exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of the tree . This association is especially beneficial to the host , as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree . The only host trees identified for C. cinnabarinus are Quercus oaks , although related members of Calostoma have been observed to associate with other trees in the Fagaceae family , such as beech .
In addition to its required association with oaks , C. cinnabarinum appears to be restricted to wetter forests . Early descriptions of its habitat found it in " rather moist situations " and in " damp woods " , and David Arora has more recently described its preference for the humid forests of the southern Appalachians . In contrast , it has not been detected in the dry oak forests of California and is likely also absent from the dry tropical forests of western Costa Rica . In Brazil it has been observed in the sandy soil and drier conditions of the Caatinga and cerrado , although only after periods of heavy rainfall . Its outer layer may provide protection from desiccation . Fruit bodies are most common in the late summer and fall , although spring occurrences are known .
Squirrels have been known to feed on C. cinnabarinum , although its gelatinous coating deters insect predation .
= = Uses = =
As with all members of its genus , C. cinnabarinum is generally considered inedible by field guides . Because the fruit bodies begin development underground , they are too tough for consumption by the time they are visible , and their appearance may be considered unappetizing . A study of the cultural practices of mestizo descendants of the Otomi people in Tenango de Doria , Mexico , reported that immature specimens of C. cinnabarinum , known locally as yemitas , were frequently eaten raw in the past , especially by children . Consumption of the species was no longer commonplace , with only five of the 450 locals interviewed familiar with the practice . The gleba of C. cinnabarinum has been described as having a mild taste and , despite a local recollection to the contrary , is not sweet . C. cinnabarinum has also been used in traditional medicine . A 1986 ethnomycological study of native traditions in Veracruz identified this use of huang noono , which locals roasted , then consumed as a powder with mineral water to treat gastrointestinal distress . Unlike these Mexican traditions , Hunan folk beliefs hold that the mushroom is poisonous on account of its bright color .
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= Nagato @-@ class battleship =
The Nagato @-@ class battleships ( 長門型戦艦 , Nagato @-@ gata senkan ) were a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War I , although they were not completed until after the end of the war . Nagato , the lead ship of the class , frequently served as a flagship . Both ships carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 . They were modernized in 1933 – 36 with improvements to their armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . Nagato and her sister ship Mutsu briefly participated in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 and Nagato was the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 that began the Pacific War .
The sisters participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 , although they did not see any combat . Mutsu saw more active service than her sister because she was not a flagship and participated in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August before returning to Japan in early 1943 . One of Mutsu 's aft magazines detonated in June , killing 1 @,@ 121 crew and visitors and destroying the ship . The IJN conducted a perfunctory investigation into the cause of her loss and concluded that it was the work of a disgruntled crewmember . They dispersed the survivors in an attempt to conceal the sinking to keep up morale in Japan . Much of the wreck was salvaged after the war and many artifacts and relics are on display in Japan .
Nagato spent most of the first two years of the war training in home waters . She was transferred to Truk in mid @-@ 1943 , but did not see any combat until the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 when she was attacked by American aircraft . Nagato did not fire her main armament against enemy vessels until the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 . She was lightly damaged during the battle and returned to Japan the following month for repairs . The IJN was running out of fuel by this time and decided not to fully repair her . Nagato was converted into a floating anti @-@ aircraft platform and assigned to coastal defense duties . After the war , the ship was a target for U.S. nuclear weapon tests during Operation Crossroads in mid @-@ 1946 . She survived the first test with little damage , but was sunk by the second test .
= = Background = =
The IJN considered a battle fleet of eight modern battleships and eight modern armored cruisers necessary for the defense of Japan , and the government adopted that policy in 1907 . This was the genesis of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program , the development of a cohesive battle line of 16 capital ships less than eight years old . Advances in naval technology like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought and the battlecruiser HMS Invincible forced the IJN to several times re @-@ evaluate the ships that it counted as modern . By 1910 , the IJN considered none of its current ships to be modern and restarted the program in 1911 with orders for the Fusō @-@ class dreadnoughts and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers . By 1915 , the IJN was halfway to its goal and wanted to order four more dreadnoughts , but the Diet rejected its plan , and the 1916 budget authorized only one dreadnought , later named Nagato , and two battlecruisers . Later that year , American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans for 10 additional battleships and six battlecruisers , and the following year the Diet authorized three more dreadnoughts in response , one of which would later be named Mutsu .
= = Design = =
Allocated project number A @-@ 102 , the Nagato class was designed before Commander Yuzuru Hiraga was reassigned to the Navy Technical Department ( NTD ) responsible for ship design , although Hiraga is often credited with the design of these ships . In contrast to earlier designs , the Nagato class used the American " all or nothing " armor scheme that maximized the armor thickness protecting the core of the ship by eliminating armor elsewhere . The design had two armored decks of medium thickness rather than the single thicker deck used formerly . The ships also used a new type of underwater protection system that successfully resisted penetration by 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) torpedo warheads in full @-@ scale trials . It consisted of a deep water @-@ tight compartment adjacent to the hull , backed by a thick torpedo bulkhead that connected to the side and deck armor plates , with a deep fuel oil tank behind it .
Although the United States Navy planned to arm its Colorado class with 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns before the Nagato class was designed , Nagato 's 410 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) guns made her the first dreadnought that was launched armed with guns larger than 15 inches ( 381 mm ) .
On 12 June 1917 , well before Mutsu was laid down , Hiraga proposed a revised design for the ship that reflected the lessons from the Battle of Jutland that had occurred the previous year , and incorporated advances in boiler technology . Given project number A @-@ 125 , his design added an extra twin main @-@ gun turret , using space and weight made available by the reduction of the number of boilers from 21 to 12 , while the power remained the same . He reduced the secondary armament from 20 guns to 16 , although they were raised in height to improve their ability to fire during heavy weather and to improve their arcs of fire . To increase the ship 's protection he proposed angling the belt armor outwards to improve its resistance to horizontal fire , and increasing the thickness of the lower deck armor and the torpedo bulkhead . Hiraga also planned to add anti @-@ torpedo bulges to improve underwater protection . He estimated that his ship would displace as much as Nagato , although it would cost about a million yen more . Hiraga 's changes would have considerably delayed Mutsu 's completion and were rejected by the Navy Ministry .
= = Description = =
The ships had a length of 201 @.@ 17 meters ( 660 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars and 215 @.@ 8 meters ( 708 ft 0 in ) overall . They had a beam of 29 @.@ 02 meters ( 95 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 08 meters ( 29 ft 9 in ) . The Nagato @-@ class ships displaced 32 @,@ 720 metric tons ( 32 @,@ 200 long tons ) at standard load and 39 @,@ 116 metric tons ( 38 @,@ 498 long tons ) at full load . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 333 officers and enlisted men as built and 1 @,@ 368 in 1935 . In 1944 , the crew totaled around 1 @,@ 734 men .
The Nagato class was equipped with a unique heptapodal ( seven @-@ legged ) mast designed to maximize rigidity for range @-@ finding purposes and survivability under shellfire . It consisted of a thick vertical leg in the center surrounded by six outer legs . The central leg was large enough to accommodate an electric elevator running between the foretop and main deck . In November 1944 , the tops of Nagato 's mainmast and funnel were removed to improve the arcs of fire for her anti @-@ aircraft guns .
In 1927 , Mutsu 's bow was remodeled to reduce the amount of spray produced when steaming into a head sea . This increased her overall length by 1 @.@ 59 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) to 217 @.@ 39 meters ( 713 ft 3 in ) . This proved successful and her sister 's bow was rebuilt in 1930 . During their 1934 – 36 reconstruction , the ships ' sterns were lengthened by 7 @.@ 55 meters ( 24 @.@ 8 ft ) to improve their speed and their forward superstructures were rebuilt into a pagoda mast . They were given torpedo bulges to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment . These changes increased their overall length to 224 @.@ 94 m ( 738 @.@ 0 ft ) , their beam to 34 @.@ 6 m ( 113 ft 6 in ) and their draft to 9 @.@ 49 meters ( 31 ft 2 in ) . Their displacement increased over 7 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 900 long tons ) to 46 @,@ 690 metric tons ( 45 @,@ 950 long tons ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were equipped with four Gihon geared steam turbines , each of which drove one 4 @.@ 191 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 9 in ) propeller . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 21 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers ; 15 of these were oil @-@ fired while the remaining half @-@ dozen used fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . The boilers had a working pressure of 286 psi ( 1 @,@ 972 kPa ; 20 kgf / cm2 ) .
The ships had a stowage capacity of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 626 t ) of coal and 3 @,@ 400 long tons ( 3 @,@ 455 t ) of oil , giving them a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Nagato exceeded her designed speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 26 @.@ 7 knots ( 49 @.@ 4 km / h ; 30 @.@ 7 mph ) at 85 @,@ 500 shp ( 63 @,@ 800 kW ) and Mutsu reached the same speed with 87 @,@ 500 shp ( 65 @,@ 200 kW ) . The US Navy did not learn their actual speed capability until about 1937 ; previously it had believed that the ships were capable of only 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) .
During refits in 1923 – 25 , the fore funnel was rebuilt in a serpentine shape in an unsuccessful effort to prevent smoke interference with the bridge and fire @-@ control systems . The rebuilt fore funnel was eliminated during the ships ' 1930s reconstructions when their boilers were replaced by 10 oil @-@ fired Kampon boilers , which had a working pressure of 313 psi ( 2 @,@ 158 kPa ; 22 kgf / cm2 ) and temperature of 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . The turbines were also replaced by lighter , more modern , units and their propellers were replaced by larger 4 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 1 in ) ones . When the ships conducted their post @-@ reconstruction trials , they reached a speed of 24 @.@ 98 knots ( 46 @.@ 26 km / h ; 28 @.@ 75 mph ) with 82 @,@ 300 shp ( 61 @,@ 400 kW ) . Additional fuel oil was stored in the bottoms of the newly added torpedo bulges , which increased their capacity to 5 @,@ 560 long tons ( 5 @,@ 650 t ) and thus their range to 8 @,@ 560 nmi ( 15 @,@ 850 km ; 9 @,@ 850 mi ) at 16 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Nagato @-@ class ships consisted of eight 45 @-@ caliber 41 @-@ centimeter guns , mounted in two pairs of twin @-@ gun , superfiring turrets fore and aft . Numbered one through four from front to rear , the hydraulically powered turrets gave the guns an elevation range of − 2 to + 35 degrees . The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute . Their turrets were replaced in the mid @-@ 1930s using the turrets stored from the unfinished Tosa @-@ class battleships . While in storage they were modified to increase their range of elevation to − 3 to + 43 degrees , which increased the gun 's maximum range from 30 @,@ 200 to 37 @,@ 900 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 to 41 @,@ 400 yd ) .
By World War II , the guns used Type 91 armor @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 780 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . Also available was a 936 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 064 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use .
The ships ' secondary armament of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ centimeter guns was mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull and in the superstructure . The latter guns had a maximum elevation of + 20 degrees and the former could elevate to + 25 degrees which gave them ranges of 15 @,@ 800 meters ( 17 @,@ 300 yd ) and 17 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 000 yd ) respectively . Each gun could fire a 38 @-@ kilogram ( 84 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by four 40 @-@ caliber 3rd Year Type 3 @-@ inch AA guns in single mounts . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) high @-@ angle guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ship was also fitted with eight 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , four on each broadside , two above water and two submerged . They used the 6th Year Type torpedo which had a 203 @-@ kilogram ( 448 lb ) warhead of Shimose powder . It had three settings for range and speed : 15 @,@ 500 meters ( 17 @,@ 000 yd ) at 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) at 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , or 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 7 @,@ 700 yd ) at 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) .
Around 1926 , the four above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed and the ships received three additional 76 @-@ millimeter AA guns that were situated around the base of the foremast . They were replaced by eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in 1932 , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . Two twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Vickers 2 @-@ pounder light AA guns were also added to the ship that same year . They had a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute .
When the ships were reconstructed in 1934 – 36 , the remaining torpedo tubes and the two forward 14 @-@ centimeter guns were removed from the hull . All of the remaining 14 @-@ centimeter guns had their elevation increased to + 35 degrees which increased their range to 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) . An unknown number of license @-@ built 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in twin mounts were also added . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was 700 – 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 770 – 1 @,@ 640 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
The 2 @-@ pounders were replaced in 1939 by 20 license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in a mixture of twin @-@ gun and single mounts . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . As far as is known , no additional AA guns were installed aboard Mutsu before her loss . Additional 25 @-@ millimeter guns were installed aboard Nagato during the war ; on 10 July 1944 , she was reported to have 98 guns on board . An additional 30 guns were added during a refit in Yokosuka in November . Two more twin 127 @-@ millimeter gun mounts were added at the same time abreast the funnel and all of her 14 @-@ centimeter guns were removed as she was now a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery .
= = = Armor = = =
The Nagato @-@ class ships ' waterline armor belt was made from Vickers cemented armor and protected 137 @.@ 14 meters ( 449 @.@ 9 ft ) of the hull between the barbettes of the end turrets . The lower strake was 305 mm ( 12 in ) thick , 2 @.@ 7 meters ( 8 ft 10 in ) high , and tapered to a thickness of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) at its bottom edge ; above it was a strake of 229 mm ( 9 in ) armor that was 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) high . Approximately 1 @.@ 77 meters ( 5 ft 10 in ) of the armor belt was below the waterline . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 305 mm on the face , 230 – 190 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) on the sides , and 152 – 127 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 0 in ) on the roof . The barbettes were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 140 mm guns were protected by 25 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 369 mm ( 14 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
The main deck armor consisted of three layers of high @-@ tensile steel ( HTS ) 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) thick that connected to the top of the upper strake of side armor . The flat portion of the lower deck had one layer of Ducol steel 25 mm thick with two layers of HTS of equal thickness above it . About 3 meters ( 9 ft 10 in ) from the side of the hull , this deck , now composed of three layers of HTS , totaling 75 mm ( 3 in ) in thickness , sloped downwards where it met a short horizontal armored ( three layers of HTS with a total thickness of 66 mm ( 3 in ) ) deck that connected to the main armored belt and the torpedo bulkhead . This was also made up of three 25 mm layers of HTS and curved up and outwards to meet the short horizontal armored deck . It enclosed a water @-@ tight compartment that was 3 @.@ 05 meters ( 10 ft 0 in ) from the side of the ship . It was backed by fuel oil tanks 3 @.@ 13 meters ( 10 ft 3 in ) deep . The outermost void was designed to allow the explosive force of a torpedo 's warhead to dissipate as much as possible while the oil tank was supposed to stop any fragments from penetrating the innermost bulkhead protecting the ship 's vital areas .
The new 41 cm turrets installed during their reconstruction were more heavily armored than the original ones . Face armor was increased to 460 mm ( 18 in ) , the sides to 280 mm ( 11 in ) , and the roof to 230 – 250 mm ( 9 – 10 in ) . The armor over the machinery and magazines was increased by 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) on the upper deck and 25 mm on the upper armored deck . The torpedo bulges added at the same time were 13 @.@ 5 meters ( 44 ft 3 in ) high and 2 @.@ 84 meters ( 9 ft 4 in ) deep . They were divided into four compartments , the lower two of which were filled with oil and the others remained empty . These additions increased the weight of each ship 's armor to 13 @,@ 032 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 826 long tons ) , 32 @.@ 6 percent of their displacement . In early 1941 , as a preparation for war , the uppermost compartment of the bulges was filled with sealed steel crushing tubes and the barbette armor of both ships was reinforced with 100 mm armor plates above the main deck and 215 mm ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) plates below it .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
The Nagato @-@ class ships were fitted with a 10 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinder in the forward superstructure ; six @-@ meter ( 19 ft 8 in ) and three @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) anti @-@ aircraft rangefinders were added in the early 1920s . The rangefinders in the two superfiring turrets were replaced by 10 @-@ meter units in 1932 – 33 .
They were initially fitted with a Type 13 fire @-@ control system derived from Vickers equipment received during World War I , but this was replaced by an improved Type 14 system around 1925 . It controlled the main and secondary guns ; no provision was made for anti @-@ aircraft fire until the Type 31 fire @-@ control director was introduced in 1932 . A modified Type 14 fire @-@ control system was tested aboard Nagato in 1935 , and later approved for service as the Type 34 . A new anti @-@ aircraft director , designated the Type 94 , used to control the 127 mm AA guns , was introduced in 1937 , although it is unknown when they were installed on the ships . The 25 mm AA guns were controlled by a Type 95 director that was also introduced in 1937 .
As far as is known , no radars were installed aboard Mutsu before her loss . While in drydock in May 1943 , a Type 21 air @-@ search radar was installed aboard Nagato on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . On 27 June 1944 , two Type 22 surface @-@ search radars were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radars were fitted on her mainmast .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Nagato was briefly fitted with an 18 @-@ meter ( 59 ft 1 in ) aircraft flying @-@ off platform on No. 2 turret in August 1925 . Yokosuka Ro @-@ go Ko @-@ gata and Heinkel HD 25 floatplanes were tested from it before it was removed early the following year . An additional boom was added to the mainmasts of both ships in 1926 to handle the Yokosuka E1Y then assigned to them . A Hansa @-@ Brandenburg W.33 floatplane was tested aboard Nagato that same year . A catapult was fitted between the mainmast and No. 3 turret in mid @-@ 1933 , a collapsible crane was installed in a portside sponson , and the ships were equipped to operate two or three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The sisters began to operate Nakajima E4N2 biplanes until they were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 . A more powerful catapult was installed in November 1938 to handle heavier aircraft like the one Kawanishi E7K that was added in 1939 – 40 . Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns on 11 February 1943 .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
While Mutsu was still fitting out , the American government decided to call a conference in Washington , D.C. to forestall the massively expensive naval arms race between the United States , the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan that was developing . The Washington Naval Conference convened on 12 November , and the Americans proposed to scrap virtually every capital ship under construction or fitting out among the participating nations . Mutsu was specifically listed among those to be scrapped even though she had been commissioned a few weeks earlier . This was unacceptable to the Japanese delegation and they agreed to a compromise that allowed them to keep Mutsu in exchange for scrapping the obsolete dreadnought Settsu and a similar arrangement for several American Colorado @-@ class dreadnoughts that were fitting out .
Upon commissioning , the sister ships were assigned to the 1st Battleship Division , although Nagato became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sōjirō Tochinai , a role she often fulfilled during her career . The ships hosted Edward , Prince of Wales , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp Lieutenant Louis Mountbatten in 1922 during the prince 's visit to Japan . After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , both ships loaded supplies from Kyushu for the victims on 4 September . They sank the hulk of the obsolete battleship Satsuma on 7 September 1924 during gunnery practice in Tokyo Bay in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty . Nagato became flagship of the Combined Fleet on 1 December 1925 , flying the flag of Admiral Keisuke Okada . The sisters were placed in reserve several times during the 1920s while they were being modernized . Mutsu served as flagship of Emperor Hirohito during the 1927 naval maneuvers and fleet review and again in 1933 .
The ships were reconstructed from late 1933 to mid @-@ 1936 . In August 1937 , the sisters transported 3 @,@ 749 men of the 11th Infantry Division to Shanghai during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . Their floatplanes bombed targets in Shanghai on 24 August before they returned to Sasebo the following day . Nagato became a training ship on 1 December 1937 until she again became the flagship of the Combined Fleet on 15 December 1938 . The ship participated in an Imperial Fleet Review on 11 October 1940 . The sisters were refitted in 1941 in preparation for war , which included the fitting of external degaussing coils and additional armor for their barbettes .
= = = World War II = = =
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the code phrase " Niitaka yama nobore " ( Climb Mount Niitaka ) on 2 December 1941 from Nagato at anchor at Hashirajima to signal the 1st Air Fleet ( Kido Butai ) to proceed with its attack on Pearl Harbor . When Japan began the Pacific War on 8 December , the sisters sortied for the Bonin Islands , along with the four ships of Battleship Division 2 and the light carrier Hōshō as distant cover for the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . Yamamoto transferred his flag to the new battleship Yamato on 12 February 1942 .
In June 1942 , Mutsu and Nagato were assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway , together with Yamato , Hōshō , the light cruiser Sendai and nine destroyers . Following the loss of all four fleet carriers of the " Kido Butai " on 4 June , Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island , and into a night engagement with his surface forces , but the American forces withdrew and Mutsu saw no action . After rendezvousing with the remnants of the Striking Force on 6 June , over half of the survivors from the sunken aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet were transferred to Mutsu and Nagato . They arrived at Hashirajima on 14 June .
On 14 July , both ships were reassigned to Battleship Division 2 and Nagato became the flagship of the 1st Fleet . She remained in Japanese waters training until August 1942 . Mutsu was transferred to the Advance Force of the 2nd Fleet on 9 August , and departed Yokosuka two days later to support operations during the Guadalcanal Campaign . She arrived at Truk on 17 August . On 20 August , while sailing from Truk to rendezvous with the main body of Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's 3rd Fleet , Mutsu , the heavy cruiser Atago , and escorting destroyers unsuccessfully attempted to locate the escort carrier USS Long Island in response to a flying boat detection of the American ship .
During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 27 August , Mutsu , assigned to the Support Force , fired four shells at enemy reconnaissance aircraft during what was her first , and only , action of the war . On 7 January 1943 , Mutsu returned to Japan together with the carrier Zuikaku , the heavy cruiser Suzuya and four destroyers . The ship prepared to sortie on 13 April to reinforce the Japanese garrisons in the Aleutian Islands in response to the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , but the operation was cancelled the next day and Mutsu resumed training .
= = = = Mutsu 's loss = = = =
On 8 June 1943 , Mutsu was moored at Hashirajima when the magazine of her No. 3 turret exploded at 12 : 13 , cutting the ship in half . The forward section capsized almost immediately , but the rear section remained afloat until the early morning of the next day . Nearby ships were able to rescue 353 survivors from the 1 @,@ 474 crew members and visitors aboard Mutsu , meaning that 1 @,@ 121 men were killed in the explosion . To avert the potential damage to morale from the loss of a battleship , Mutsu 's loss was declared a state secret . To further prevent rumors from spreading , many survivors were reassigned to various garrisons in the Pacific Ocean .
The IJN convened a commission three days after the sinking to investigate the loss . It issued its preliminary conclusions on 25 June , well before the investigation of the wreck was completed , and decided that the explosion was the result of a disgruntled seaman . The commission failed to consider the possibility of fire , which historian Mike Williams considers to be a possible cause , as a number of observers noted smoke coming from the vicinity of No. 3 turret . The truth , however , will never be known .
= = = = Nagato = = = =
Nagato transferred to Truk in the Caroline Islands in August 1943 . Together with the bulk of the 1st Fleet , she sortied in September and October in unsuccessful searches for American carriers . On 1 February 1944 , Nagato departed Truk to avoid an American air raid , and arrived at Palau three days later . The ship arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island , near Singapore , and she became the flagship of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki , commander of Battleship Division 1 , on 25 February until he transferred his flag to Yamato on 5 May . Nagato remained at Lingga until 11 May when she was transferred to Tawitawi on 12 May , and assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa .
Battleship Division 1 rendezvoused with Ozawa 's main force on 16 June near the Mariana Islands , and Nagato escorted three aircraft carriers during the Battle of the Philippine Sea . She was only lightly engaged during the battle , was not damaged , and suffered no casualties . After the battle , the ship returned to Japan where she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns . Nagato loaded a regiment of the 28th Infantry Division and delivered them at Okinawa on 11 July before continuing on to Lingga .
In October 1944 , the ship took part in " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , an attack on the Allied landings on Leyte . Assigned to Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita 's 1st Diversion Force ( also known as the Center Force ) , Nagato was attacked by multiple waves of American dive bombers and fighters during the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October en route to Leyte Gulf . She was struck twice by bombs that killed 52 crewmen , but was not seriously damaged .
The next morning , the 1st Diversion Force attacked the American forces supporting the invasion in the Battle off Samar . Nagato engaged the escort carriers and destroyers of Task Group 77 @.@ 4 @.@ 3 , codenamed " Taffy 3 " . She opened fire on three escort carriers , the first time she had fired her guns at an enemy ship , but missed . One of the defending destroyers fired a spread of torpedoes that missed their intended target and headed for Yamato and Nagato which were on a parallel course . The two battleships were forced to turn away north to avoid the torpedoes , and were 10 miles ( 16 km ) away from the engagement before the torpedoes ran out of fuel . Turning back , Nagato engaged the American ships , claiming damage to one cruiser . Later in the day , Nagato was hit in the bow by two bombs , but the damage was not severe .
The ship returned to Japan for repairs in mid @-@ November . Lack of fuel and materials meant that she could not be brought back into service and she was turned into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery . Her funnel and mainmast were removed to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns , which were increased by two Type 89 mounts and nine triple 25 mm gun mounts . Her forward secondary guns were removed in compensation . A coal @-@ burning donkey boiler was installed on the pier for heating and cooking purposes and a converted submarine chaser was moored alongside to provide steam and electricity ; her anti @-@ aircraft guns lacked full power and were only partially operational . On 20 April Nagato was reduced to reserve . In June 1945 , all of her secondary guns and about half of her anti @-@ aircraft armament was moved ashore , together with her rangefinders and searchlights . Her crew was therefore reduced to less than 1 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men . On 18 July 1945 , the heavily camouflaged ship was attacked by carrier @-@ based fighter bombers and torpedo bombers . Nagato was hit by two bombs and a rocket that killed 35 men and damaged four 25 mm guns . On 30 August , a few days before the formal surrender , American sailors took control of the ship .
= = After the war = =
Nagato was selected to participate as a target ship in Operation Crossroads , a series of U.S. nuclear weapon tests held at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 . In mid @-@ March , Nagato departed Yokosuka for Eniwetok , but her hull had not been repaired from the underwater damage sustained during the attack on 18 July and she leaked enough that her pumps could not keep up . The ship had a list of seven degrees to port by the time tugboats from Eniwetok arrived . She reached the atoll on 4 April and Bikini in May .
Operation Crossroads began with the first blast ( Test Able ) , an air burst on 1 July 1946 ; Nagato was not close to ground zero and was only lightly damaged . For Test Baker , an underwater explosion , the ship was positioned closer to ground zero . Nagato rode out the tsunami of water from the explosion with little apparent damage ; she had a slight starboard list of two degrees after the tsunami dissipated . A more thorough assessment could not be made because she was dangerously radioactive . Her list gradually increased over the next five days and she capsized during the night of 29 / 30 July . Opened to divers in 1996 , The Times has named Nagato as one of the top 10 wreck diving sites in the world .
In 1970 , salvage operations began on Mutsu 's wreck that lasted until 1978 and recovered about 75 % of the ship . The salvagers recovered bodies of 849 crewmen killed during the explosion . In 1995 , the Mutsu Memorial Museum declared that no further salvage operations were planned . The only significant portion of the ship that remains is a 35 @-@ meter ( 114 ft 10 in ) long section running from the bridge structure forward to the vicinity of No. 1 turret . The highest portion of the ship is 12 meters ( 39 ft 4 in ) below the surface . Many , but not all , artifacts are displayed at the Mutsu Memorial Museum in Tōwa @-@ Cho . Since 1963 , a memorial service has been held there every year on 8 June in honor of the crew .
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= Kenny McCormick =
Kenneth " Kenny " McCormick ( sometimes spelled as McKormick ) is a main character in the animated adult television series South Park , along with his friends Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , and Eric Cartman . His oft @-@ muffled and indiscernible speech — the result of his parka hood covering his mouth — is provided by co @-@ creator Matt Stone . He debuted on television when South Park first aired on August 13 , 1997 , after having first appeared in The Spirit of Christmas shorts created by Stone and long @-@ time collaborator Trey Parker in 1992 ( Jesus vs. Frosty ) and 1995 ( Jesus vs. Santa ) .
Kenny is a third , later fourth @-@ grade student who commonly has extraordinary experiences not typical of conventional small @-@ town life in his hometown of South Park , Colorado , where he lives with his impoverished family . Kenny is animated by computer to look as he did in the show 's original method of cutout animation . He also appears in the 1999 full @-@ length feature film South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , in which his true appearance and voice was first revealed , and various South Park merchandise .
In a running gag most prevalent during the first five seasons of the series , Kenny would suffer an excruciating death before returning alive and well in the next episode with little or no definitive explanation given . Stan would frequently use the catchphrase " Oh my God ! They killed Kenny ! " Followed by Kyle exclaiming " ... You bastards ! " . Media commentators have published their interpretations of the many aspects of the running gag from philosophical and societal viewpoints . Since the show began its sixth season in 2002 , the practice of killing Kenny has been seldom used by the show 's creators . Various episodes have set up the gag , sometimes presenting a number of explanations for Kenny 's unacknowledged reappearances .
= = Role in South Park = =
Kenny attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison 's fourth grade class . During the first 58 episodes , Kenny and the other main child characters were in the third grade . Kenny comes from a poor household , presided over by his violent , alcoholic and unemployed Irish / Scottish father , Stuart McCormick . His mother Carol McCormick has a job washing dishes at the Olive Garden . Kenny has an older brother named Kevin . He also has a younger sister , shown with his family in the season nine episode " Best Friends Forever " , but does not make another appearance until the 15th season episode " The Poor Kid " , in which her name is revealed to be Karen , whom he loves unconditionally . Kenny is friends with Stan and Kyle , and has indicated that he maintains a friendship with Eric Cartman solely out of pity . Kenny is regularly teased for living in poverty , particularly by Cartman .
Kenny 's superhero alter ego , Mysterion , first appeared in the Season 13 episode " The Coon " , as a rival to Eric Cartman 's eponymous superhero alter ego . He unmasks himself at the end of the episode , but his identity is left intentionally ambiguous . He is not revealed to be Kenny until the Season 14 episode " Mysterion Rises " , the character 's third appearance as part of a story arc .
= = Deaths = =
Prior to season six , Kenny died in almost every episode . The nature of the deaths were often gruesome and portrayed in a comically absurd fashion , and usually followed by Stan and Kyle respectively yelling " Oh my God ! They killed Kenny ! " and " You bastard ( s ) ! " . Shortly afterward , rats would commonly appear and begin picking at his corpse . In a following episode , Kenny would reappear alive and well , usually without any explanation . Most characters appear oblivious or indifferent to the phenomenon , although occasionally one will acknowledge an awareness of it . In " Cherokee Hair Tampons " , Kenny gets irritated and offended when Stan laments Kyle 's critical condition while utterly ignoring Kenny 's past demises . Eric Cartman commented on Kenny 's deaths in the episode " Cartmanland " , when he is being sued for unsafe rides insisting to attorneys representing his family that " Kenny dies all the time ! "
Near the end of the production run of the show 's fifth season , Parker and Stone contemplated having an episode in which Kenny was killed off permanently . The reasoning behind the idea was to genuinely surprise fans , and to allow an opportunity to provide a major role for Butters Stotch , a breakout character whose popularity was growing with the viewers and creators of the show . In the episode " Kenny Dies " , Kenny dies after developing terminal muscular dystrophy , while Parker and Stone claimed that Kenny would not be returning in subsequent episodes . The duo insisted they grew tired of upholding the tradition of having Kenny die in each episode . Stone stated that thinking of humorous ways to kill the character was initially fun , but became more mundane as the series progressed . When they determined that it would be too difficult to develop the character because he was too much of a " prop " , Parker and Stone finally decided to kill off Kenny permanently .
[ " Kenny Dies " ] was the one episode where [ all the characters ] cared [ he was dying ] for once . After that , we said , ' Why doesn 't he just stay dead ? ' And it was like , ' Okay , let 's just do that . ' It was that easy of a decision . I think a lot of people probably haven 't noticed . I couldn 't care less . I am so sick of that character .
— Matt Stone , from a 2002 article in the Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel
For much of season six , Kenny remained dead , though both Stone and Parker entertained the idea of eventually bringing the character back . According to Stone , only a small minority of fans were significantly angered by Kenny 's absence to threaten a boycott of the cable channel Comedy Central , on which South Park is aired . For most of the season , Stan , Kyle , and Cartman fill the void left by Kenny by allowing the characters Butters Stotch and Tweek Tweak into their group , paving the way for those characters to receive more focus on the show . Nevertheless , Kenny returned from the year @-@ long absence in the season six finale " Red Sleigh Down " , and has remained a main character since , and has been given larger roles in episodes . His character no longer dies each week , and has only been killed occasionally in episodes following his return .
The first explanation given for Kenny 's deaths and reappearances was given in " Cartman Joins NAMBLA " , wherein the McCormicks have a baby exactly like Kenny , including the characteristic orange parka , shortly after the former Kenny dies . Mr. McCormick exclaims , " God , this must be the fiftieth time this has happened " , to which Mrs. McCormick quickly replies , " Fifty @-@ second " . This explanation is expanded upon in the Season 14 episodes " Coon 2 : Hindsight " , " Mysterion Rises " and " Coon vs. Coon and Friends " , in which Kenny , while playing superheroes with his friends , claims his " super power " is immortality . He actually dies several times during these episodes — even committing suicide more than once — reawakening in his bed each time . He is annoyed and angry that no one can remember him dying every time he regenerates , and longs to know the source of his power . Unbeknownst to him , his parents were previously connected to a Cthulhu @-@ worshipping death cult . After Kenny shoots himself the second time , Mrs. McCormick awakes with a scream , shrieks " It 's happening again ! " , and minutes later , is shown gently placing a newborn Kenny in his bed . " We should never have gone to that stupid cult meeting , " she grouses as she and her husband return to bed .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
When developing the character , the show 's creators had observed that most groups of childhood friends in small middle @-@ class towns always included " the one poor kid " and decided to portray Kenny in this light .
An unnamed precursor to Kenny first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty , created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado . The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion . When tasked three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends , Parker and Stone created another similarly @-@ animated The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Santa . In this short , Kenny is given his first name , and first appears as he does in the series . Kenny next appeared on August 13 , 1997 , when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " .
In tradition with the show 's animation style , Kenny is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors . He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand @-@ drawn characters ; his character is mostly shown from only one angle , and his movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion . Ever since the show 's second episode , " Weight Gain 4000 " ( season one , 1997 ) , Kenny , like all other characters on the show , has been animated with computer software , though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique .
The effect of Kenny 's speech is achieved by Stone mumbling into his own hand as he provides Kenny 's lines , while the recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools , and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader . As the technique of Kenny 's muzzled enunciation frequently implies , many of his lines are indeed profane and sexually explicit , the lengthier of which are mostly improvised by Stone .
He first appeared unobscured by his hood in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , where it was revealed that he had messy golden hair . In a cameo appearance during this moment in the film , Mike Judge provided the voice for Kenny 's one line of uninsulated dialogue : " Goodbye , you guys . " On a few occasions during episodes that have originally aired since the film 's release , he has been seen without the parka ; however , unlike in Bigger , Longer & Uncut his entire face has been only seen once in the television series without being partially obscured or otherwise altered , this being in The Losing Edge . He also speaks unmuffled during some of these instances , in which case co @-@ producer Eric Stough provides Kenny 's voice . During " The Coon " episodes of seasons 13 and 14 , Kenny has his first major speaking role as the character Mysterion .
= = = Personality and traits = = =
While most child characters on the show are foul @-@ mouthed , Kenny is often even more risqué with his dialogue . Parker and Stone state that they depict Kenny and his friends in this manner in order to display how young boys really talk when they are alone . While Kenny is often cynical and profane , Parker notes that there nonetheless is an " underlying sweetness " aspect to the character , and Time magazine described Kenny and his friends as " sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence " . He is amused by toilet humor and bodily functions , and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip , a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show revolve substantially around fart jokes . Kenny is shown to desire intercourse in the episode " The Ring " , when Kenny gets a girlfriend and is overjoyed to find out that she has a reputation as a slut . Kenny is also lecherous , and often portrayed as being eager to do and say disgusting things in an attempt to impress others or earn money . Conversely , his alter @-@ ego Mysterion is seemingly mature , principled , and serious @-@ minded , the only exception being one instance in " Mysterion Rises " in which he takes delight in irritating Cartman . As Mysterion he convinces his parents to take better care of themselves and their children , as seen by their reaction when he questions them about the cult of Cthulhu . He also uses his disguise to protect his sister Karen ( who refers to Mysterion as her " guardian angel " ) , as revealed in " The Poor Kid . " Despite his character flaws in all of his guises Kenny is usually depicted as being uncommonly selfless , even dying for the sake of others .
When role @-@ playing , Kenny has been shown to prefer playing as the female hero . This was first discovered in the episode " Black Friday " and continued through the next two sequel episodes called " A Song of Ass and Fire " and its follow @-@ up , " Titties and Dragons " . Throughout the three episodes , Kenny cross @-@ dresses as a fantasy @-@ style princess with a wig and dress similar to the video game character Princess Zelda , and becomes a Japanese @-@ speaking moe anime character at one point . When Cartman complains , " You 're never going to be a real princess " , Princess Kenny responds ( via her translator , Stan ) angrily to Cartman , calling him a " ball @-@ licking lesbian " . This portrayal continues in the video game South Park : The Stick of Truth where Cartman notes that playing a " chick " is " just how [ Kenny ] seems to be rolling right now " . Kenny 's sister also refers to Kenny by female pronouns if you talk to her in the McCormick house . Throughout the game , Kenny posts ' status updates ' referring to him / herself as " the cutest of them all " and refers to him / herself with female pronouns .
= = Cultural impact = =
Kenny 's deaths are well known in popular culture , and was one of the things viewers most commonly associated with South Park during its earlier seasons . The exclamation of " Oh my God ! They killed Kenny ! " quickly became a popular catchphrase , while both Kenny and the phrase have appeared on some of the more popular pieces of South Park merchandise , including shirts , bumper stickers , calendars and baseball caps , and inspired the rap song " Kenny 's Dead " by Master P , which was featured on Chef Aid : The South Park Album .
The running gag of Kenny 's deaths in earlier seasons was incorporated into the season 9 ( 2005 ) episode " Best Friends Forever " when Kenny , in a vegetative state , is kept alive by a feeding tube while a media circus erupted over whether the tube should be removed and allow Kenny to die . The episode received much attention as it served to provide commentary on the Terri Schiavo case , originally airing just one day before Schiavo died . The episode earned South Park its first Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program .
Kenny 's deaths have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world . In the book South Park and Philosophy : Bigger , Longer , and More Penetrating , an essay by Southern Illinois University philosophy professor Dr. Randall Auxier , entitled " Killing Kenny : Our Daily Dose of Death " , suggests that the fashion of the recurring gag serves to help the viewer become more comfortable with the inevitability of their own death . In the book South Park and Philosophy : You Know , I Learned Something Today , University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point professor Karin Fry wrote an essay concerning the parallels between Kenny 's role in the show and the different concepts of existentialism .
When Sophie Rutschmann of the University of Strasbourg discovered a mutated gene that causes an adult fruit fly to die within two days after it is infected with certain bacteria , she named the gene " Kenny " in honor of the character .
= = In other media = =
Kenny had a major role in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , the full @-@ length film based on the series , and appeared on the film 's soundtrack singing ( albeit muffled ) several lines of the song " Mountain Town " from the film . As a tribute to the Dead Parrot sketch , a short that features Kenny as a " dead friend " being returned by Cartman to a shop run by Kyle aired during a 1999 BBC television special commemorating the 30th anniversary of Monty Python 's Flying Circus . Kenny was also featured in the documentary film The Aristocrats , listening to Cartman tell his version of the film 's titular joke , and in the " The Gauntlet " , a short spoofing both Gladiator and Battlefield Earth that aired during the 2000 MTV Movie Awards .
Kenny also appears in five South Park @-@ related video games : In South Park , Kenny is controlled by the player through the first person shooter mode who attempts to ward off enemies from terrorizing the town of South Park . In South Park : Chef 's Luv Shack , a user has the option of playing as Kenny when participating in the game 's several " minigames " based on other popular arcade games . In the racing game South Park Rally , a user can race as Kenny against other users playing as other characters , while choosing to place him in any of a variety of vehicles . In South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! , Kenny can be selected as a playable character used to establish a tower defense against the game 's antagonists . In South Park : The Stick of Truth , Kenny can be selected as a companion over the course of much of the game .
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= French battleship Carnot =
Carnot was an ironclad battleship of the French Navy . She was laid down in July 1891 , launched in July 1894 , and completed in July 1897 . She was a member of a group of five broadly similar battleships , along with Charles Martel , Jauréguiberry , Bouvet , and Masséna , which were ordered in response to the British Royal Sovereign class . Like her half @-@ sisters , she was armed with a main battery of two 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and two 274 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in individual turrets . She had a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Carnot had a fairly uneventful career . She spent the majority of her service life in the Northern and Mediterranean Squadrons of the French fleet , where she participated in extensive , annual maneuvers . She was withdrawn from service by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , and so did not see action during the conflict . She remained in the French Navy 's inventory until 1922 , when she was stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Carnot was the second member of a group of five battleships built to a broadly similar design , but different enough to be considered unique vessels . The first ship was Charles Martel , which formed the basis for Carnot and three other ships . Design specifications were identical for each of the ships , but different engineers designed each vessel . The ships were based on the previous battleship Brennus , but instead of mounting the main battery all on the centerline , the ships used the lozenge arrangement of the earlier vessel Magenta , which moved two of the main battery guns to single turrets on the wings . The five ships were built in response to the British Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Carnot was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars , and had a beam of 21 @.@ 4 m ( 70 ft 3 in ) and a draught of 8 @.@ 36 m ( 27 ft 5 in ) . She had a displacement of 11 @,@ 954 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 765 long tons ) . Her bridge was cut down compared to Charles Martel to save weight , and she was equipped with lighter pole masts instead of the heavy fighting masts used on her half @-@ sister . She had a crew of 647 officers and enlisted men .
Carnot had two vertical triple expansion engines each driving a single screw , with steam supplied by twenty @-@ four Lagrafel d 'Allest water @-@ tube boilers . Her propulsion system was rated at 16 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 200 kW ) , which allowed the ship to steam at a speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) . As built , she could carry 680 t ( 670 long tons ; 750 short tons ) of coal , though additional space allowed for up to 980 t ( 960 long tons ; 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) in total .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Carnot 's main armament consisted of two Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . She also mounted two Canon de 274 mm Modèle 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one amidships on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . Her secondary armament consisted of eight Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1888 guns , which were mounted in single turrets at the corners of the superstructure . She also carried four 9 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing guns , twelve 3 @-@ pounders , and eight 1 @-@ pounder revolving cannons . Her armament suite was rounded out by two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , which were submerged in the ship 's hull .
The ship 's armor was constructed with nickel steel . The main belt was 460 mm ( 18 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at the lower edge . On either end of the central citadel , the belt was reduced to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) at the waterline and 250 mm on the lower edge ; the belt extended for the entire length of the hull . Above the belt was 101 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) thick side armor . The main battery guns were protected with 380 mm ( 15 in ) of armor , and the secondary turrets had 101 mm thick sides . The main armored deck was 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The conning tower had 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides .
= = History = =
Carnot was laid down in Toulon in July 1891 and launched three years later in July 1894 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed another three years after that , in July 1897 , and the ship was commissioned into the French Navy .
Carnot spent the majority of her active career alternating between the Northern and Mediterranean Squadrons . The newer battleships typically served in the Mediterranean , while older vessels were assigned to the Northern Squadron . In January 1900 , she was assigned to the Northern Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Ménard , replacing the Charlemagne . The Northern Squadron conducted annual training exercises in June 1901 ; the following month , they joined the Mediterranean Squadron for combined fleet maneuvers .
By 1902 , Carnot had been transferred to the Reserve Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron , alongside the old battleships Charles Martel , Brennus , and Hoche . The Reserve Squadron was commanded by Rear Admiral Besson , who flew his flag in Brennus . The entire French fleet , including Carnot , conducted extensive maneuvers in the Mediterranean in July and August of that year .
Carnot had been transferred to the Northern Squadron by 1906 , and participated in the annual summer maneuvers in June – July 1906 . The following year , Carnot was back in the Mediterranean , in the Second Squadron . She remained in the Second Squadron through 1909 .
By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Carnot had been laid up in the port of Brest , along with Charles Martel . Both ships were retained on the effective list , however , pending the completion of the new Normandie @-@ class battleships . Carnot was ultimately stricken from the naval register in 1922 and sold for scrapping that year .
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= Sydney Leroux =
Sydney Rae Leroux Dwyer ( born May 7 , 1990 ) is a Canadian American professional soccer player and Olympic gold medalist . As a forward , she is currently signed by FC Kansas City in the National Women 's Soccer League ( NWSL ) . After representing Canada at various youth levels , she chose to play for the United States women 's national under @-@ 20 soccer team starting in 2008 and later began playing for the U.S. senior national team in 2012 . Leroux has earned over 50 caps with the senior national team and was part of the Americans ' winning squads at the 2012 London Olympics and 2015 Women 's World Cup .
Leroux played collegiate soccer for the UCLA Bruins and at the semi @-@ professional level for the Vancouver Whitecaps . She made her debut for the Whitecaps at the age of fifteen , becoming the youngest player ever to play for the team . Leroux was the number one pick by the Atlanta Beat during the 2012 WPS Draft on January 13 , 2012 . Following the suspension of the league in early 2012 , she played for the Seattle Sounders Women during the summer of the same year . In 2013 , she made her professional debut for the Boston Breakers in the NWSL during the league 's inaugural season . She was later traded to Seattle Reign FC in 2014 , Western New York Flash for the 2015 season and FC Kansas City prior to the 2016 season .
= = Early life = =
Leroux was born in Surrey , British Columbia to a Canadian mother , Sandi Leroux , and an American father , Ray Chadwick . Her mother played third base for the Canadian national softball team . Her father was a professional baseball player who pitched briefly for the California Angels in 1986 . Coming from a family of baseball players , Sydney played baseball for Whalley Little League from 1994 – 2004 . Leroux was raised primarily by her mother after her parents split when her mother was three months pregnant with Sydney .
During her freshman and sophomore year of high school , Leroux attended Johnston Heights Secondary School in Surrey where she was the leading scorer on the soccer team . Also a track and field athlete , she won Provincials in the 4 × 100 metres relay with her team . Leroux played three seasons of club soccer with Coquitlam City Wild , helping the team to Provincial Cup Championships in 2003 , 2004 and 2005 . Leroux 's prolific goalscoring helped the team win the under @-@ 14 national championship in 2003 . She secured a bronze medal in helping the team finish third at the under @-@ 16 national tournament in 2005 . Leroux became the youngest player to play for the Vancouver Whitecaps of the W @-@ League at the age of 15 . She also won a championship as part of a British Columbia select team at the Canada Games in 2005 .
Leroux stated that at a very early age , she knew she wanted to play for the United States women 's national soccer team . To pursue her goal , she moved to Scottsdale , Arizona at the age of 15 and attended Horizon High School during her junior and senior years while living with multiple host families . Despite having a challenging time adjusting to life without her family and friends , she helped lead Sereno Soccer Club to state titles in 2007 and 2008 . Of her move to the United States , she said , " It was not easy . It was probably one of the most difficult things I ever had to do , move away from everything that I knew and was comfortable with to something that I had no idea about . Not having any family around . Doing it on my own . As a 15 @-@ year @-@ old , that 's kind of hard . I had to grow up really fast [ ... ] But I guess it 's all worth it . Now I have a chance to prove myself , and that 's what I enjoy , and that 's why I did what I did . "
= = College career = =
Leroux played collegiate soccer for UCLA from 2008 to 2011 , under head coaches Jill Ellis ( 2008 – 10 ) and B. J. Snow ( 2011 ) . During her freshman season , she started 18 of the 19 games in which she played . She was the sixth @-@ highest scorer on the team with five goals and six assists for a total of 16 points on the season , and was named to the All @-@ Freshman Team in the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ( Pac @-@ 10 ) . During her second year , she led UCLA in scoring with 48 points ( 23 goals , two assists ) and was a semi @-@ finalist for the Hermann Trophy . Her 23 goals ranked second in the Pac @-@ 10 and tied with teammate Lauren Cheney for a new single @-@ season record at UCLA . Leroux earned Soccer America MVP second team , Second @-@ team All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 , and 2009 NCAA All @-@ Tournament Team honors the same year . During the first round of the NCAA Division I Women 's Soccer Tournament , she tied the school 's record for most goals scored in a single match after scoring four during the team 's 7 – 1 defeat of Boise State .
As a junior , Leroux ranked fifth in UCLA history for career points ( 91 ) as well as fourth in goals ( 41 ) and game @-@ winning goals ( 15 ) . She ranked third in the Pac @-@ 10 for goals ( 13 ) and second in game @-@ winning goals ( 6 ) earning her First @-@ team Soccer America MVP , Third @-@ team NSCAA All @-@ American , First @-@ team NSCAA All @-@ Pacific Region , and First @-@ team All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 honors the same year . During the Bruins ' first game of her junior season in 2010 , she scored four goals against Cal Poly Pomona helping her team win 7 – 0 . She was subsequently named Pac @-@ 10 Player of the Week . Leroux scored the game @-@ winning goal during the second round of the 2010 NCAA Tournament helping the Bruins defeat the UCF Knights 2 – 1 and advance to the third round where they lost to Stanford .
During her final year with the Bruins in 2011 , she led the team in scoring for the third straight season with 16 goals and three assists for a total of 35 points . She was named First @-@ team NSCAA All @-@ American , Soccer America 's MVP First Team , and was a semi @-@ finalist for the Hermann Trophy . She scored eight game @-@ winning goals , more than any other player in the newly renamed Pac @-@ 12 Conference . She scored her first hat trick of the season ( the third of her collegiate career ) in 21 minutes during a 6 – 1 win over Arizona State in October 2011 . At the Bruins ' next game against Colorado , Leroux scored another hat trick helping her team win 8 – 0 . She finished her collegiate career ranked fourth in UCLA 's record books for points ( 126 ) , goals ( 57 ) , and game @-@ winning goals ( 23 ) .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = = Vancouver Whitecaps , 2005 and 2011 = = = =
Leroux played for the Vancouver Whitecaps during the 2005 W @-@ League season , becoming the youngest player to ever play for the team aged 15 years and seven days . She returned to the Whitecaps for the 2011 season . She ranked second in the league for goals scored with 11 finishing the regular season with 24 points in 11 appearances . After helping the Whitecaps advance to the W @-@ League Championship Final Four with a goal during the team 's 4 – 3 defeat of Santa Clarita Blue Heat in the Western Conference Final , Leroux was named to the All @-@ Western Conference team . Post @-@ season , she was named 2011 W @-@ League Rookie of the Year .
= = = = WPS Draft and Seattle Sounders Women , 2012 = = = =
Leroux was the number one pick by the Atlanta Beat in the 2012 WPS Draft , though the league folded before she could play for the team . During the summer of 2012 , Leroux joined fellow U.S. national team players , Hope Solo , Alex Morgan , Stephanie Cox , and Megan Rapinoe on the Seattle Sounders Women in the W @-@ League . Sounders Women head coach , Michelle French , said of the signing , " Sydney is the consummate goal scorer with an incredible attacking attitude . She not only shows tireless effort on the offensive side of the ball , but she is very unique in that she prides herself on her defensive recovery and ability to win the ball back . She makes an impact no matter where she plays on the field . " Due to her national team commitments and preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics , Leroux made only two regular season appearances for the club . She scored two goals and served one assist in her 168 minutes on the pitch . With the national teammates ' presence on the team , the Sounders sold out nine of their ten home matches at the 4 @,@ 500 capacity Starfire Stadium . Average attendance during the 2012 season for the Sounders Women was four times higher than the next closest team .
= = = = Boston Breakers , 2013 = = = =
In January 2013 , Heather O 'Reilly , Heather Mitts and Leroux were the three United States national team players allocated to the Boston Breakers for the inaugural season of the National Women 's Soccer League ( NWSL ) . She scored her first goal of the season in the 91st minute of the Breakers ' season opener against the Washington Spirit , tying the game 1 – 1 in stoppage time . Leroux scored the league 's first ever hat trick during the Breakers ' 4 – 1 win against the Chicago Red Stars on May 4 and was subsequently named NWSL Player of the Week . On July 3 , she scored another equalizer against the Seattle Reign FC , resulting in a 1 – 1 draw . A few days later on July 6 , she scored two goals against the Portland Thorns FC resulting in a 2 – 0 win for the Breakers in front of 12 @,@ 436 fans at Jeld @-@ Wen Field .
Leroux 's 11 goals scored during the season tied for second with national teammate Abby Wambach of the Western New York Flash . Lauren Holiday of FC Kansas City was in first place with 12 . The Breakers finished the 2013 season fifth in the league with an 8 – 6 – 8 record .
= = = = Seattle Reign FC , 2014 = = = =
On November 18 , 2013 , it was announced that Leroux had been traded to the Seattle Reign FC for the 2014 NWSL season in exchange for Kristie Mewis , Michelle Betos and the Reign 's first two picks in the 2015 draft . Ebullient Reign FC head coach Laura Harvey hailed the signing of Leroux : " One of the world 's best forwards . She is a young , extraordinary talent with unlimited upside . Sydney will be the consistent goal @-@ scoring threat that we struggled to find last season . "
During the 2014 season , the Reign set a league record unbeaten streak of 16 games during the first part of the season . During the 16 game stretch , the Reign compiled a 13 – 0 – 3 record . The Reign finished first in the regular season clinching the NWSL Shield for the first time . After defeating the Washington Spirit 2 – 1 in the playoff semi @-@ finals , the Reign were defeated 2 – 1 by FC Kansas City during the championship final . Leroux finished the 2014 season with five goals in 22 games played . In March 2015 , it was announced that she was traded to Western New York Flash .
= = = = FC Kansas City = = = =
On January 13 , 2016 , Leroux was traded to FC Kansas City . Leroux announced later that month that she is pregnant , and she is expected to miss the 2016 NWSL season .
= = = = Club summary = = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = = Youth national teams = = = =
By virtue of her parents ' nationalities , Leroux was eligible to represent either Canada or the United States . Playing for Canada at the age of 14 , she was the youngest individual to participate in the 2004 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Cup , held in Thailand . She served as captain of Canada 's under @-@ 15 team that traveled to Germany in 2005 .
Leroux received clearance from FIFA to change her allegiance to the United States in 2008 and went on to help the under @-@ 20 national team win the 2008 FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup in Santiago , Chile . She scored in the first half of the final against North Korea . She represented the United States at the 2010 FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup and ended her under @-@ 20 career as the country 's all @-@ time leading scorer in Under @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup play with 10 goals . At the under @-@ 20 level , she is among the country 's most capped players with 36 games and is the all @-@ time leading scorer for the U.S. with 30 goals . In 2012 , she was named the 2011 U.S. Soccer Young Female Athlete of the Year , playing for both the senior and under @-@ 23 national teams .
= = = = U.S. senior national team = = = =
Leroux played at the 2012 CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament as a member of the United States senior national team . In her second cap for the senior side , Leroux scored five goals in a CONCACAF Olympic qualifying match between the U.S. and Guatemala ; the final score of the match was 13 – 0 . Leroux 's performance tied the record for goals scored in a single match by one player in a CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying Tournament . She also tied the single @-@ game record for the national team , equaling previous performances by her teammates Amy Rodriguez and Abby Wambach in 2012 and 2004 respectively .
In 2012 , Leroux set a new team scoring record as a reserve on the team with 12 goals scored off the bench in one year . The previous record of nine goals was set by Debbie Keller in 1998 .
= = = = = From Algarve to the London Olympics , 2012 = = = = =
During the 2012 Algarve Cup in Portugal , Leroux scored the team 's fifth goal in the 93rd minute of the U.S. ' first group stage match against Denmark , in which the U.S. won 5 – 0 . During the team 's second group stage match , she scored the game @-@ winning goal against Norway in the 81st minute . After losing to Japan in the third group stage match , the team defeated Sweden 4 – 0 to clinch third place at the tournament .
Leroux was the youngest player and a goal @-@ scoring member of the Olympic gold medal @-@ winning team at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . She scored the second goal against New Zealand during the quarter final match of the tournament helping the U.S. win 2 – 0 .
= = = = = Algarve Cup , Controversy in Toronto , 2013 = = = = =
During the team 's second group stage match at the 2013 Algarve Cup , Leroux opened the scoring for the U.S. when she netted a goal in the 13th minute . Her goal was followed by four others from her teammates resulting in a 5 – 0 win over China . The U.S. went on to win the tournament after defeating Germany 2 – 0 in the final .
While playing in a sold @-@ out friendly match against Canada at BMO Field in Toronto , Ontario in June 2013 , Leroux was booed by Canadian fans throughout the match . After scoring during stoppage time to bring the score to 3 – 0 in favor of the U.S. , Leroux celebrated her goal by hushing the crowd and pointing to the U.S. emblem on her jersey which further inflamed many fans in the crowd . After the game , she stated via Twitter , " When you chant racial slurs , taunt me and talk about my family don 't be mad when I shush you and show pride in what I represent . # america . " The U.S. Soccer Federation announced that Leroux had " endured abuse both verbally and in social media " since switching to the U.S. national soccer team in 2008 ; however , Leroux later clarified that no such incidents took place at BMO Field . " My tweet from this morning wasn 't in response to anything from yesterday 's match at BMO Field . In fact , the atmosphere at the stadium was a positive step forward for women 's soccer . Unfortunately , the type of abuse I have received in the past and via social media for my decision to play for the United States is a step backwards . That is what prompted my response in the heat of the moment . "
During a friendly against Mexico in September 2013 , Leroux scored a hat trick in nine minutes , helping the U.S. win 7 – 0 .
= = = = = 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = = = =
Leroux was on the roster of the United States team for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . She saw action in four of the seven games , recording an assist to a Christen Press goal in the opening game against Australia . She did not play in the Final against Japan
= = = = = International goals = = = = =
= = Honors = =
NWSL Player of the Week : 2013
= = Personal life = =
Leroux holds dual citizenship in Canada and the United States . Her nickname is " Syd the Kid " . Her chihuahua , " Boss Leroux " , has thousands of Twitter followers and is often featured in the media along with Sydney . Leroux has been in a relationship with English @-@ born MLS player Dom Dwyer since 2014 . On February 14 , 2015 ( Valentine 's Day , or 2 / 14 ; her USWNT jersey number is 2 and Dwyer 's is 14 ) , it was announced that she and Dwyer had wed in January 2015 in a private ceremony . On January 25 , 2016 , Sydney announced on social media that she 's expecting the couple 's first child in September 2016 . On March 13 , 2016 , Sydney and Dom announce on social media that they are having a son .
= = Endorsements = =
Leroux has appeared in several advertisements and promotional pieces for Nike . In December 2013 , she and national teammate Alex Morgan were featured in Nike 's " Winning in a Winter Wonderland " commercial along with other professional athletes including Robinson Cano , Justin Tuck , and Julia Mancuso . In June 2014 , she signed an endorsement deal with Nestle Nesquik . The same month , she made a cameo appearance in a commercial for Beats by Dre in preparation for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In June 2014 , she became the first female endorser for the sports drink company BODYARMOR , joining fellow professional athletes Richard Sherman , Kevin Love , and James Harden .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Television and video = = =
Leroux was the focus of an ESPN feature entitled Living Her Dream , which profiled her evolution as an international soccer player . She was a guest on Canada 's Breakfast Television in August 2012 following the 2012 Olympics . In October 2013 , she was interviewed by Grete Eliassen for an ESPNW short feature , Q & A With Sydney Leroux . The same month , she was profiled in Fox Soccer Exclusive : Sydney Leroux for Fox Soccer Channel . In December 2013 , Leroux was featured in episode 9 of AOL 's online series , My Ink .
= = = Magazines = = =
Leroux was one of 21 professional athletes featured in ESPN 's The Body Issue in 2013 . She appeared semi @-@ nude on one of eight covers for the magazine . Of the experience she said ,
I think a lot of females struggle with the way they look , and I wanted to show that everyone 's body is different . I think it 's a big deal to be an athlete and feel confident in your body and show it off . I 'm not going to say I 've never struggled with how I look , but I 've reached a point in my life where I 'm happy with who I am .
In May 2015 , Leroux was featured on the cover of ESPN Magazine with teammates Abby Wambach and Alex Morgan .
= = = Video Games = = =
Leroux was featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports ' FIFA video game series in FIFA 16 , the first time women players were included in the game .
= = = Ticker Tape Parade and White House Honor = = =
Following the United States ' win at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Leroux and her teammates became the first women 's sports team to be honored with a Ticker tape parade in New York City . Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio . In October of the same year , the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House .
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= Secrets ( The Walking Dead ) =
" Secrets " is the sixth episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . In this episode , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) tells Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) that Lori Grimes ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) is pregnant and there are numerous walkers in the Greene barn . Dale confronts Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) about hoarding walkers in his barn . Meanwhile , Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) attempts to teach Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) how to use weapons and Lori agonizes over the decision to terminate her pregnancy or keep the baby .
The episode was written by Angela Kang and directed by David Boyd . " Secrets " touches on various themes , including abortion , romance , and confession . In preparation for filming , producers initially converted a vacant building in downtown Sharpsburg , Georgia into a temporary pharmacy in July 2011 . Principal photography for the episode occurred a month later in August .
" Secrets " attained mostly positive reception from critics , who praised the character development and the storyline progression . The episode attracted criticism from political commentators , who denounced the show for its misleading perception of emergency contraception . Upon airing , " Secrets " garnered 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It became the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , as well as the fourth most @-@ viewed cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) , who has fully recovered from his injuries , helping his mother Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) feed chickens on the Greene farm . Meanwhile Patricia ( Jane McNeill ) breaks the legs of several chickens , puts them into a potato sack , and carries them to the barn to feed the walkers who are being kept there .
Maggie ( Lauren Cohan ) begs Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) , already struggling with being the only one to know about Lori 's pregnancy , to keep secret the presence of walkers in the barn . Dale ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) quickly notices Glenn 's nervousness who , after being questioned , blurts out both secrets . He checks on Lori and promises her that he will not tell anyone about her pregnancy . Afterwards , Dale confronts Hershel about the walkers in the barn . Hershel asserts that all walkers are still people , and that they are just ill . He explains that among the walkers in the barn are his wife and stepson . Dale argues that they are not human beings , and explains that they are too dangerous to be kept alive based on what he has seen . Hershel however considers killing the walkers to be atrocious . Rick ( Andrew Lincoln ) and Lori argue about how to tell the group of Hershel 's ( Scott Wilson ) refusal to let them stay on the farm once they get back on their feet . Meanwhile Rick , Shane and T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) give gun training to Jimmy , Carl and the women on the farm . Shane decides to take Andrea for advanced training lessons after she impresses him with her shooting skills . Despite her previous prowess she proves unable to shoot a moving target . Shane attempts to motivate Andrea by mentioning Amy , Andrea 's late sister , but instead upsets her and she storms off .
Glenn and Maggie go off to the pharmacy to pick up additional medical supplies for Lori . Glenn , like Dale , expresses his opinion that the walkers need to be killed . Maggie is annoyed at his use of the word " walker " , saying that she knows those in the barn by their real names , as they were her friends and family . In the pharmacy , Maggie is attacked and nearly bitten while retrieving the supplies — she narrowly escapes after Glenn kills the walker . After returning to the farm , angry Maggie confronts Lori , who she blames for the near @-@ death of Glenn and her . After he intervenes , Maggie tells him that she does care about him and that the rest of the group do not respect him , only using him as " walker bait " . Glenn , however , tells Lori that he is her friend , and again urges her to tell Rick about the pregnancy . Unwilling to bring a child into a world that she sees as without joy , Lori takes the morning after pills Glenn gave her , but immediately goes away from the camp and throws them up . At the same time Rick enters the tent and finds the pills , then goes to find her . She ultimately confesses her previous affair with Shane ( Jon Bernthal ) to her husband , who reveals that he already knew .
Andrea and Shane then go off to town after Shane finds a lead on the missing Sophia , but find it overrun by walkers . They escape after Andrea rediscovers her shooting abilities , and the two subsequently begin an affair . Upon returning however , Dale quickly guesses that something has happened between them . Feeling protective , he warns Shane to stay away from her , and tells him that he witnessed Shane aim his shotgun at Rick in the woods near their old camp outside Atlanta , as well as raising suspicions as to what happened to Otis while he and Shane went searching for medical supplies . Shane denies ever intending to kill his best friend , but threatens Dale , hinting he would kill him should he make any more " wild accusations " .
= = Production = =
" Secrets " was directed by David Boyd and written by Angela Kang . It features recurring appearances from Lauren Cohan , Scott Wilson , IronE Singleton , Emily Kinney , Jane McNeill , and James Allen McCune . Principal photography for the episode commenced in downtown Sharpsburg , Georgia in August 2011 . Preparation for filming began in July 2011 , when producers renovated an empty building into a temporary drug store . Herb Bridges , who owned the building at the time , was initially contacted by producers of the series ' in January 2011 , and again four months later in May . Bridges informed them that the space would be rented by a woman who would open a children 's store there ; however , she had not moved into the space yet .
The topic of abortion is a prominent theme in " Secrets " . After discovering that she is pregnant , Lori asks Glenn to retrieve with emergency contraception pills from the pharmacy . Upon returning , an infuriated Maggie hands Lori her pills . Dale gently confronts her about her pregnancy when he sees that she becomes nauseated at the smell of cooking meat , and Lori explains that Rick is the biological father of the child . Writer Robert Kirkman opined that such assertions were " wishful thinking " . " She was with those two men very close to each other . There was not a large span of time between her time with Shane and then Rick 's return and her time with Rick . It 's definitely up in the air and it ’ s not like there 's a lot of paternity tests floating around out there . " Kirkman felt that he had to responsibly approach controversial issues from a neutral standpoint and insisted that abortion should warrant discussion , considering the circumstances . He stated : " As far as the abortion stuff goes , it ’ s really just a matter of being realistic . These are the kinds of issues that people deal with in real life and in this situation I think that that is the kind of thought process that Lori Grimes would be going through . "
In the concluding sequence of the episode , Lori admits to Rick that she had an affair with Shane in the belief that her husband was dead . Kirkman stated that the writers wanted to " wrap up to a certain extent " , and opined that such revelations would add more tension between the characters .
It was something we wanted to wrap up to a certain extent . It 's a disservice to Rick 's character to make him look like he 's completely clueless . But this isn 't really a resolution per se . It makes things a little bit more tense , moving into this next episode . Seeing Rick interact with Shane will have an extra level of tension because now the audience has one up on Shane as opposed to one up on Rick . It ’ s going to be fun waiting for the other shoe to drop , when Rick may or may not confront Shane with this information .
In an interview with MTV News , Bernthal stated that Walsh was suffering from the " loneliness you feel when you 're right there with them and you can 't be with them in the way you want . " Bernthal applauded the writers for such changes , and felt that the storyline never devitalized . " The people that Shane loved more than anyone else in the world before the apocalypse are still very much alive and still very much with him , but he 'll never be with them in the way he wants to and the way he once was . Every relationship — Shane / Carl , Shane / Lori and Shane / Rick — it 's tainted and fractured . When you suffer from that kind of loneliness , it brings out the worst in you . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Secrets " initially aired in the United States on November 20 , 2011 on AMC . Upon airing , the episode acquired 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It was the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , having been beaten by a stock car racing event as part of the 2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . " Secrets " became the fourth most @-@ watched program of the week , as well as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports cable program of the week . Total viewership and ratings slightly declined from the previous episode , " Chupacabra " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 12 million viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode received 561 @,@ 000 viewers and became the highest @-@ rated television program on FX for the week dated November 27 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Secrets " was well received by television critics . Gina McIntyre of the Los Angeles Times concluded that the episode " dispensed with almost every hidden truth the survivors have been keeping from one another . " Scott Meslow of The Atlantic described the episode as one focused on love and relationships . IGN 's Eric Goldman evaluated the episode as " satisfying " , and added that its character development was executed strongly . Ultimately , he issued " Secrets " an eight out of ten , signifying a " great " rating . Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal echoed synonymous sentiments ; " Viewers tuning in each week in the hope of watching pulse @-@ quickening battles between overmatched humans and armies of the undead are sure to be frustrated . Things are static in an action sense , but the show ’ s admirably nuanced characters are changing and reacting to the world in surprising and complicated ways . " Writing for Cinema Blend , Nick Venable stated that the characters became more distinguishable .
Not all reviewers were as enthusiastic about " Secrets " as the general consensus . Starlee Kine of New York stated that despite having high hopes in the beginning of " Secrets " , the episode overall failed to meet her expectations . The A.V. Club 's Zach Halden opined that despite containing solid scenes , the episode harbored several issues . Halden cited the pace of the storyline progression and the execution of the character development as weaknesses . Concluding his review , he gave the episode a B grade . Although Andrew Conrad of The Baltimore Sun touted the character development , he pointed out that there was very little action . The Portland Mercury 's Steven Humphrey panned the episode , describing it as " boring " .
The opening segment of " Secrets " was widely lauded by critics . Halden thought that it was a great start to the episode , and Kine felt that the show returned to form following the sequence . She wrote : " This week 's opening functioned like an adrenaline shot to my weary heart . At the sight of all those undead relatives in the barn , I , too , briefly , came to life . "
Critics were polarized with the characters ' reaction to Lori opting for an abortion . Halden criticized the character 's opposing views on the matter , and stated that their reasonings were invalid . Halden wrote . " I 'm not even sure it would be possible for her to abort the pregnancy at this point , but the show 's working on the assumption that having a child in a world where death literally lurks around every corner is an unequivocal good . The only person who ’ s been anti @-@ pregnancy is Lori , and the show hasn 't managed to cast her in a very good light , so it ’ s not like her arguments hold much water — which is also ridiculous , because ultimately , her opinion is the only one that matters . " HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall reflected similar thoughts , and stated that Rick 's arguments against Lori 's attempts were obsolete .
The love triangle involving Lori , Rick , and Shane was cited as an episode highlight . Meslow felt that the interactions between Lori and Rick possessed " as much rawness and honesty as could be hoped for . " Kine criticized the emotion during the interactions between Shane and Rick , and summated that it was a " standard Walking Dead attempt at trying to convince us that Grimes and Shane are friends by way of showing us their casual , good @-@ old @-@ boy @-@ tinged banter . " Ritkoff expressed that the episode 's conclusion was a rational and level @-@ headed resolution to the storyline ; " Whatever jealousy he might feel , it would have been absurd for Rick to punish the woman he loves most in the world for post @-@ apocalyptic infidelity under these circumstances . " Sepinwall commended Rick 's reaction to Lori 's confessions , and Goldman felt that their interaction was well acted and perfectly scripted . Venable appraised the segment as " very engaging " , and applauded Lincoln 's performance . He wrote , " Andrew Lincoln delivered these lines of pitiable understanding as well as anyone could . " CNN 's Henry Hanks opined : " If you thought Rick and Shane had blow @-@ ups before , you ain 't seen nothing yet . "
Critics applauded the growing relationship between Andrea and Shane , as well as Dale 's confrontation with Shane . Despite describing them as an " unlikely pairing " , Meslow asserted that it was superior to the storyline between Andrea and Dale . " There 's something to be said for the occasional post @-@ apocalyptic tryst , which allows two characters who 've experienced almost nothing but misery to have , even for a moment , something that resembles joy , " he articulated . Meslow retorted that it was wise to underplay the tryst between Shane and Andrea , which he predicted would not lead to anything serious . Venable wrote : " Dale ’ s lack of personality traits , beyond being the wise sage who gets in everyone ’ s business , makes him an unpredictable foe in my book , and could be as interesting as Shane ’ s violent selfishness . " Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy avouched that Shane continued to be an interesting character ; " Just as we were beginning to like him again , he murdered Otis in cold blood . And it seems like his downward spiral is set to continue — he 's threatening poor Dale and embarking on an ill @-@ advised affair with Andrea . "
The progressing relationship between Maggie Greene and Glenn was well received by critics . Nate Rawlings of Time asserted that their interactions carried the most emotional poignance . Rawlings opined : " She 's forced to confront , perhaps for the first time , that these creatures are slobbering monsters . Before her attack , she yelled at Dale [ sic ] for calling them Walkers ; to her they 're mom , her brother , the neighbors . After her attack , her mind might be changed . "
= = = = Abortion controversy = = = =
" Secrets " attracted criticism from political commentators for its " potentially misleading perception " of emergency contraception . Shawn Rhea of Planned Parenthood cited that the morning @-@ after pills do not induce abortion , as the episode implies . Erin Gloria Ryan of Jezebel wrote : " Lori would have been better off sending the men off to loot a shop that sells herbal remedies and brewing herself some pennyroyal tea or climbing a tree and jumping out in hopes that the impact would end the pregnancy . Both of those things are dangerous and might not work , but they 're about as effective as OD 'ing on levonorgestrel . " Ryan prescribed that actual abortion pills are administered by medical professionals and are not available at pharmacies . Danielle Aronson of ACLU summated that the effectiveness of terminating a pregnancy with emergency contraception would be equivalent to " cutting a zombie 's finger off to kill it . " Similarly , Slate 's Amanda Marcotte opined : " The problem with this storyline , outside the tedious fear of getting letters from irate anti @-@ choicers that dictates TV 's near @-@ absolute approach to unintended pregnancy , is simple : Morning @-@ after pills are not abortion . " Marcotte asserted that abortion pills , commonly RU @-@ 486 , were only provided by medical personnel . " Morning @-@ after pills are contraception , and they work by stifling ovulation before any sperm can make their way toward the Fallopian tubes . "
This prompted showrunner Glen Mazzara to respond to such criticism . In his interview with The Daily Beast , he stated : " The producers and writers of The Walking Dead are fully aware that the morning @-@ after pill would not induce an abortion or miscarriage , we exercised our artistic creative license to explore a storyline with one of our characters , not to make any pro @-@ life or pro @-@ choice political statement . We sincerely hope that people are not turning to the fictional world of The Walking Dead for accurate medical information . " The episode itself does not , in fact , claim the morning after pills will work , as Glenn questions Lori over that fact , to which she replies that she does not know .
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= Cheddar , Somerset =
Cheddar is a large village and civil parish in the Sedgemoor district of the English county of Somerset . It is situated on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills , 9 miles ( 14 km ) north @-@ west of Wells . The civil parish includes the hamlets of Nyland and Bradley Cross . The village , which has its own parish council , has a population of 5 @,@ 755 and the parish has an acreage of 8 @,@ 592 acres ( 3 @,@ 477 ha ) as of 1961 .
Cheddar Gorge , on the northern edge of the village , is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom and includes several show caves including Gough 's Cave . The gorge has been a centre of human settlement since Neolithic times including a Saxon palace . It has a temperate climate and provides a unique geological and biological environment that has been recognised by the designation of several Sites of Special Scientific Interest . It is also the site of several limestone quarries . The village gave its name to Cheddar cheese and has been a centre for strawberry growing . The crop was formerly transported on the Cheddar Valley rail line , which closed in the late 1960s but is now a cycle path . The village is now a major tourist destination with several cultural and community facilities , including the Cheddar Show Caves Museum .
The village supports a variety of community groups including religious , sporting and cultural organisations . Several of these are based on the site of The Kings of Wessex Academy , which is the largest educational establishment .
= = History = =
The name Cheddar comes from the Old English word ceodor , meaning deep dark cavity or pouch .
There is evidence of occupation from the Neolithic period in Cheddar . Britain 's oldest complete human skeleton , Cheddar Man , estimated to be 9 @,@ 000 years old , was found in Cheddar Gorge in 1903 . Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era ( 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found . There is some evidence of a Bronze Age field system at the Batts Combe quarry site . There is also evidence of Bronze Age barrows at the mound in the Longwood valley , which if man @-@ made it is likely to be a field system . The remains of a Roman villa have been excavated in the grounds of the current vicarage .
The village of Cheddar had been important during the Roman and Saxon eras . There was a royal palace at Cheddar during the Saxon period , which was used on three occasions in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot . The ruins of the palace were excavated in the 1960s . They are located on the grounds of The Kings of Wessex Academy , together with a 14th century chapel dedicated to St. Columbanus . Roman remains have also been uncovered at the site . Cheddar was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Ceder , meaning " Shear Water " , from the Old English scear and Celtic dwr . An alternate spelling in earlier documents , common through the 1850s is Chedder . As early as 1130 AD , the Cheddar Gorge was recognised as one of the " Four wonders of England " . Historically , Cheddar 's source of wealth was farming and cheese making for which it was famous as early as 1170 AD . The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred .
The manor of Cheddar was deforested in 1337 and Bishop Ralph was granted a licence by the King to create a hunting forest .
As early as 1527 there are records of watermills on the river . In the 17th and 18th centuries , there were several watermills which ground corn and made paper , with 13 mills on the Yeo at the peak , declining to seven by 1791 and just three by 1915 . In the Victorian era it also became a centre for the production of clothing . The last mill , used as a shirt factory , closed in the early 1950s . William Wilberforce saw the poor conditions of the locals when he visited Cheddar in 1789 . He inspired Hannah More in her work to improve the conditions of the Mendip miners and agricultural workers . In 1801 , 4 @,@ 400 acres ( 18 km2 ) of common land were enclosed under the Inclosure Acts .
Tourism of the Cheddar gorge and caves began with the opening of the Cheddar Valley Railway in 1869 .
Cheddar , its surrounding villages and specifically the gorge has been subject to flooding . In the Great Flood of 1968 the flow of water washed large boulders down the gorge , washed away cars , and damaged the cafe and the entrance to Gough 's Cave .
= = Government = =
Cheddar is recognised as a village . The adjacent settlement of Axbridge , although only about a third the population of Cheddar , is a town . This apparently illogical situation is explained by the relative importance of the two places in historic times . While Axbridge grew in importance as a centre for cloth manufacturing in the Tudor period and gained a charter from King John , Cheddar remained a more dispersed mining and dairy @-@ farming village . Its population grew with the arrival of the railways in the Victorian era and the advent of tourism .
The parish council , which has 15 members who are elected for four years , is responsible for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council 's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The parish council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The village is in the ' Cheddar and Shipham 'electoral ward . After including Shipham the total population of the ward taken at the 2011 census is 6 @,@ 842 .
The village falls within the non @-@ metropolitan district of Sedgemoor , which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 . It was previously part of Axbridge Rural District . Sedgemoor is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , the library , roads , public transport , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning , although fire , police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service , Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service .
It is also part of the Wells county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election , and is part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = International relations = =
Cheddar is twinned with Felsberg , Germany and Vernouillet , France , and it has an active programme of exchange visits . Initially , Cheddar twinned with Felsberg in 1984 . In 2000 , Cheddar twinned with Vernouillet , which had also been twinned with Felsberg . Cheddar also has a friendship link with Ocho Rios in Saint Ann Parish , Jamaica .
= = Geography = =
The area is underlain by Black Rock slate , Burrington Oolite and Clifton Down Limestone of the Carboniferous Limestone Series , which contain ooliths and fossil debris on top of Old Red Sandstone , and by Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Keuper . Evidence for Variscan orogeny is seen in the sheared rock and cleaved shales . In many places weathering of these strata has resulted in the formation of immature calcareous soils .
= = = Gorge and caves = = =
Cheddar Gorge , which is located on the edge of the village , is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom . The gorge is the site of the Cheddar Caves , where Cheddar Man was found in 1903 . Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era ( 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found . The caves , produced by the activity of an underground river , contain stalactites and stalagmites . Gough 's Cave , which was discovered in 1903 , leads around 400 m ( 437 yd ) into the rock @-@ face , and contains a variety of large rock chambers and formations . Cox 's Cave , discovered in 1837 , is smaller but contains many intricate formations . A further cave houses a children 's entertainment walk known as the " Crystal Quest " .
Cheddar Gorge , including Cox 's Cave , Gough 's Cave and other attractions , has become a tourist destination , attracting about 500 @,@ 000 visitors per year . In a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers , following its appearance on the 2005 television programme Seven Natural Wonders , Cheddar Gorge was named as the second greatest natural wonder in Britain , surpassed only by the Dan yr Ogof caves .
= = = Sites of Special Scientific Interest = = =
There are several large and unique Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) around the village .
Cheddar Reservoir is a near @-@ circular artificial reservoir operated by Bristol Water . Dating from the 1930s , it has a capacity of 135 million gallons ( 614 @,@ 000 cubic metres ) . The reservoir is supplied with water taken from the Cheddar Yeo , which rises in Gough 's Cave in Cheddar Gorge and is a tributary of the River Axe . The inlet grate for the 54 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) water pipe that is used to transport the water can be seen next to the sensory garden in Cheddar Gorge . It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) due to its wintering waterfowl populations .
Cheddar Wood and the smaller Macall 's Wood form a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest from what remains of the wood of the Bishops of Bath and Wells in the 13th century and of King Edmund the Magnificent 's wood in the 10th . During the 19th century , its lower fringes were grubbed out to make strawberry fields . Most of these have been allowed to revert to woodland . The wood was coppiced until 1917 . This site compromises a wide range of habitats which include ancient and secondary semi @-@ natural broadleaved woodland , unimproved neutral grassland , and a complex mosaic of calcareous grassland and acidic dry dwarf @-@ shrub heath . Cheddar Wood is one of only a few English stations for Starved Wood @-@ sedge ( Carex depauperata ) . Purple Gromwell ( Lithospermum purpurocaeruleum ) , a nationally rare plant , also grows in the wood . Butterflies include Silver @-@ washed Fritillary ( Argynnis paphia ) , Dark Green Fritillary ( Argynnis aglaja ) , Pearl @-@ bordered Fritillary ( Boloria euphrosyne ) , Holby Blue ( Celastrina argiolus ) and Brown Argus ( Aricia agestis ) . The slug ( Arion fasciatus ) , which has a restricted distribution in the south of England , and the Soldier beetle ( Cantharis fusca ) also occur .
By far the largest of the SSSIs is called Cheddar Complex and covers 441 @.@ 3 hectares ( 1 @,@ 090 @.@ 5 acres ) of the gorge , caves and the surrounding area . It is important because of both biological and geological features . It includes four SSSIs , formerly known as Cheddar Gorge SSSI , August Hole / Longwood Swallet SSSI , GB Cavern Charterhouse SSSI and Charterhouse on @-@ Mendip SSSI . It is partly owned by the National Trust who acquired it in 1910 and partly managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust .
= = = Quarries = = =
Close to the village and gorge are Batts Combe quarry and Callow Rock quarry , two of the active Quarries of the Mendip Hills where limestone is still extracted . Operating since the early 20th century , Batts Combe is owned and operated by Hanson Aggregates . The output in 2005 was around 4 @,@ 000 tonnes of limestone per day , one third of which was supplied to an on @-@ site lime kiln , which closed in 2009 ; the remainder was sold as coated or dusted aggregates . The limestone at this site is close to 99 percent carbonate of calcium and magnesium ( dolomite ) .
The Chelmscombe Quarry finished its work as a limestone quarry in the 1950s and was then used by the Central Electricity Generating Board as a tower testing station . During the 1970s and 1980s it was also used to test the ability of containers of radioactive material to withstand impacts and other accidents .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Cheddar has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea , which moderates temperature . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high @-@ pressure system affects the south @-@ west of England . Convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine ; annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which are most active during those seasons . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall per year is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Demography = =
The parish has a population of 5 @,@ 093 , with a mean age of 43 years . Residents live in 2 @,@ 209 households . The vast majority of households ( 2 @,@ 183 ) give their ethnic status as white .
= = Economy = =
The village gave its name to Cheddar cheese , which is the most popular type of cheese in the United Kingdom . The cheese is now made and consumed worldwide , and only one producer remains in the village .
Since the 1880s , Cheddar 's other main produce has been the strawberry , which is grown on the south @-@ facing lower slopes of the Mendip hills . As a consequence of its use for transporting strawberries to market , the since @-@ closed Cheddar Valley line became known as The Strawberry Line after it opened in 1869 . The line ran from Yatton to Wells . When the rest of the line was closed and all passenger services ceased , the section of the line between Cheddar and Yatton remained open for goods traffic . It provided a fast link with the main markets for the strawberries in Birmingham and London , but finally closed in 1964 , becoming part of the Cheddar Valley Railway Nature Reserve .
Cheddar Ales is a small brewery based in the village , producing beer for local public houses . Tourism is a significant source of employment . Around 15 percent of employment in Sedgemoor is provided by tourism , but within Cheddar it is estimated to employ as many as 1 @,@ 000 people . The village also has a youth hostel , and a number of camping and caravan sites .
= = Culture and community = =
Cheddar has a number of active service clubs including Cheddar Vale Lions Club , Mendip Rotary and Mendip Inner Wheel Club . The clubs raise money for projects in the local community and hold annual events such as a fireworks display , duck races in the Gorge , a dragon boat race on the reservoir and concerts on the grounds of the nearby St Michael 's Cheshire Home .
Several notable people have been born or lived in Cheddar . Musician Jack Bessant , the bass guitarist with the band Reef grew up on his parents ' strawberry farm , and Matt Goss and Luke Goss , former members of Bros , lived in Cheddar for nine months as children . Trina Gulliver , eight @-@ time World Professional Darts Champion , currently lives in Cheddar . The comedian Richard Herring grew up in Cheddar . His 2008 Edinburgh Festival Fringe show , The Headmaster 's Son is based on his time at The Kings of Wessex School , where his father Keith was the headmaster . The final performance of this show was held at the school in November 2009 . He also visited the school in March 2010 to perform his show Hitler Moustache . In May 2013 , a community radio station called Pulse was launched .
= = Landmarks = =
The market cross in Bath Street dates from the 15th century , with the shelter having been rebuilt in 1834 . It has a central octagonal pier , a socket raised on four steps , a hexagonal shelter with six arched four @-@ centred openings , shallow two @-@ stage buttresses at each angle , and an embattled parapet . The shaft is crowned by an abacus with figures in niches , probably from the late 19th century , although the cross is now missing . It was rebuilt by Thomas , Marquis of Bath . It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument ( Somerset County No 21 ) and Grade II * listed building . In January 2000 , the cross was seriously damaged in a traffic accident . By 2002 , the cross had been rebuilt and the area around it was redesigned to protect and enhance its appearance . The cross was badly damaged again in March 2012 , when a taxi crashed into it late at night demolishing two sides . Repair work , which included the addition of wooden @-@ clad steel posts to protect against future crashes , was completed in November 2012 at a cost of £ 60 @,@ 000 .
Hannah More , a philanthropist and educator , founded a school in the village in the late 18th century for the children of miners . Her first school was located in a 17th @-@ century house . Now named " Hannah More 's Cottage " , the Grade II @-@ listed building is used by the local community as a meeting place .
= = Transport = =
The village is situated on the A371 road which runs from Wincanton , to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . It is approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the route of the M5 motorway with around a 10 miles ( 16 km ) drive to junction 21 or 22 .
It was on the Cheddar Valley line , a railway line that was opened in 1869 and closed in 1963 . It became known as The Strawberry Line because of the large volume of locally @-@ grown strawberries that it carried . It ran from Yatton railway station through Cheddar to Wells ( Tucker Street ) railway station and joined the East Somerset Railway to make a through route via Shepton Mallet ( High Street ) railway station to Witham . Sections of the now @-@ disused railway have been opened as the Strawberry Line Trail , which currently runs from Yatton to Cheddar . The Cheddar Valley line survived until the " Beeching Axe " . Towards the end of its life there were so few passengers that diesel railcars were sometimes used . The Cheddar branch closed to passengers on 9 September 1963 and to goods in 1964 . The line closed in the 1960s , when it became part of the Cheddar Valley Railway Nature Reserve , and part of the National Cycle Network route 26 . The cycle route also intersects with the West Mendip Way and various other footpaths .
= = Education = =
Cheddar has three schools belonging to the Cheddar Valley Group of Schools , twelve schools that provide Cheddar Valley 's three @-@ tier education system . Cheddar First School has ten classes for children between 4 and 9 years . Fairlands Middle School , a middle school categorised as a middle @-@ deemed @-@ secondary school , has 510 pupils between 9 and 13 . Fairlands takes children moving up from Cheddar First School as well as other first schools in the Cheddar Valley . The Kings of Wessex Academy , a coeducational comprehensive school , has been rated as " outstanding " by Ofsted . It has 1 @,@ 182 students aged 13 to 18 , including 302 in the sixth form . Kings is a faith school linked to the Church of England . It was awarded the specialist status of Technology College in 2001 , enabling it to develop its Information Technology ( IT ) facilities and improve courses in science , mathematics and design technology . In 2007 it became a foundation school , giving it more control over its own finances . The academy owns and runs a sports centre and swimming pool , Kings Fitness & Leisure , with facilities that are used by students as well as residents . Community education project I.T. for the Terrified , which was originally set up in Wedmore in 1999 , is based in an old cow shed on the school 's grounds .
= = Religious sites = =
The Church of St Andrew dates from the 14th century . It was restored in 1873 by William Butterfield . It is a Grade I listed building and contains some 15th century stained glass and an altar table of 1631 . The chest tomb in the chancel is believed to contain the remains of Sir Thomas Cheddar and is dated 1442 . The tower , which rises to 100 feet ( 30 m ) , contains a bell dating from 1759 made by Thomas Bilbie of the Bilbie family .
There are also churches for Roman Catholic , Methodist and other denominations , including Cheddar Valley Community Church , who not only meet at The Kings of Wessex School on Sunday , but also have their own site on Tweentown for meeting during the week . The Baptist chapel was built in 1831 .
= = Sport = =
Kings Fitness & Leisure , situated on the grounds of The Kings of Wessex School , provides a venue for various sports and includes a 20 @-@ metre swimming pool , racket sport courts , a sports hall , dance studios and a gym . A youth sports festival was held on Sharpham Road Playing Fields in 2009 . In 2010 a skatepark was built in the village , funded by the Cheddar Local Action Team .
Cheddar Football Club , founded in 1892 and nicknamed " The Cheesemen " , play in the Somerset County Football League Premier Division . In 2009 plans were revealed to move the club from its present home at Bowdens Park on Draycott Road to a new larger site .
Cheddar Cricket Club was formed in the late 19th century and moved to Sharpham Road Playing Fields in 1964 . They now play in the West of England Premier League Somerset Division . Cheddar Rugby Club , who own part of the Sharpham playing fields , was formed in 1836 . The club organises an annual Cheddar Rugby Tournament . Cheddar Lawn Tennis Club , was formed in 1924 , and play in the North Somerset League and also has social tennis and coaching . Cheddar Running Club organised an annual half marathon until 2009 .
The village is both on the route of the West Mendip Way and Samaritans Way South West .
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= Ave Maria ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Ave Maria " is a song by American R & B recording artist Beyoncé Knowles from her third studio album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench and Makeba Riddick wrote the song in collaboration with its producers Knowles and production duo Stargate . As stated by Ghost , " Ave Maria " was inspired by Knowles ' and her own respective marriages . The song is a re @-@ write of Franz Schubert 's " Ave Maria " . It is instrumentally complete with a piano and strings . Throughout the ballad , Knowles sings in a lower register with an operatic soprano . Lyrically , it speaks about being surrounded by friends but still feeling alone .
Critical reception towards the song was mixed . Many contemporary critics praised its balladry and Knowles ' vocals while others dubbed it as merely a normal take on the original . Following the release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , " Ave Maria " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 150 on November 29 , 2008 , based on downloads alone . The song was a part Knowles ' set list during her I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) where she sang it dressed in a wedding dress and veil . " Ave Maria " was subsequently included on her live album , I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . Knowles also performed the song as a tribute to Michael Jackson during the 2009 BET Awards .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , together under the stage name Stargate , wrote and produced the song with additional writing by Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench and Makeba Riddick . The song was written in Bangladesh , Patchwerk and Silent Sound Studios in Atlanta , Georgia in 2008 . Knowles worked with Amanda Ghost to re @-@ write Franz Schubert 's " Ave Maria " after having co @-@ written " Disappear " in London . She stated that the song was one of the most personal on the album . Ghost told The Daily Telegraph that Knowles ' references to rapper Jay @-@ Z are usually unclear and open to interpretation , yet her music , including " Ave Maria " , " is the one place she can be incredibly expressive " . Knowles and Ghost both liked Schubert 's song and walked down the aisle to the song during their respective weddings . The marriages of the artists inspired them to write their own version of the recording . She further discussed the lyrics and inspiration :
[ T ] he lyric is very much about her . She talks about being surrounded by friends but she 's alone : ' How can the silence seem so loud ? ' and then ' There 's only us when the lights go down ' . I think that 's probably the most personal line on the whole album about her and Jay , because they are very real , and they 're very much in love , and it must be pretty tough to have that love when you 're incredibly famous .
" Ave Maria " is present on the I Am ... disc of the double album I Am ... Sasha Fierce , as it is a ballad that shows Knowles ' insecurities about love , and the person she is " underneath all the makeup , underneath the lights and underneath all the exciting star drama " . Knowles has said that she loves singing ballads because , " the music and the emotion in the story is told [ sic ] so much better . It 's a better connection because you can hear it and it 's not all these other distractions . I really wanted people to hear my voice and hear what I had to say . " During an interview , Knowles revealed that " Ave Maria " was the most personal song to her on the whole album .
= = Composition = =
" Ave Maria " is a ballad that runs for 3 minutes and 42 seconds . The Village Voice 's Nana Ekua Brew @-@ Hammond described the song as being " opera @-@ tinted " . According to the sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing , it is written in the key of C Major with a slow tempo of 75 beats per minute and it is set in common time . The song samples Franz Schubert 's " Ave Maria " , however as noted by Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly , even though it " does riff on the classic aria , it 's not an actual cover " . The main instruments in " Ave Maria " include a piano and strings . Throughout the song , Knowles ' voice shows restraint as she sings in a lower register with an operatic soprano that gives her more vocal power , as commented by Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News . Her vocal range spans from the music note of B3 to E5 . Lyrically , " Ave Maria " is about being surrounded by friends but still feeling alone , as conveyed by the lines , " How can the silence seem so loud ? " and " There 's only us when the lights go down " . This view was echoed by Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle , who wrote that the song weaves " a vivid tale of a desperate woman " .
= = Critical reception = =
Contemporary music critics received the " Ave Maria " with mixed reception . While some praised Knowles ' emotion @-@ filled vocals , others stated that her version as merely a normal take on the original . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle commended the open @-@ hearted emotion and the soft vocals that Knowles adopts on " Ave Maria " , before adding that it is " a clever riff on the classic aria " and " a unique risk that pays off " . Likewise , the Hartford Courant 's Eric R. Danton , praised the rework of the classic aria , adding that Knowles ' lyrics were an " elegant take on the timeless melody " . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media commented that Knowles ' twist on the song is " vocally impeccable , but it reads more like recital fodder rather than a true confessional . " Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly wrote that on the I Am disc there were some " lovely ballads " including " Disappear " , the " soaring ' Halo ' and ' Ave Maria ' " . Matos Michaelangelo of The A.V. Club wrote that " Beyoncé has a real flair for grandeur " and the " big , wide melodies of ' Halo ' and ' Ave Maria ' give her enough to work with that . " Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune commented that " Ave Maria " offers a " rare moment of comfort " and added that it " come [ s ] off as delicate as [ Knowles ' ] emotions . " Jim Farber of Daily News praised the song with its " operatic flourishes ... [ and ] heavenly élan " . In another review , he noted that the song was " by far her most melodically sure , and musically diverse , work " . USA Today 's Elysa Gardner chose " Ave Maria " as one of the songs to download from the album . While reviewing I Am ... Sasha Fierce , a critic from People magazine noted that " the classically tinged ' Ave Maria , ' ... shows even more range [ than ' If I Were a Boy ' ] . "
Spence D. of IGN Music praised " Ave Maria " , writing that it shows Knowles in " crystal clear form " due to the mellow accompaniment that highlighted her " often captivating " voice . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , noted that Knowles " draws on the classic composition for this sweeping number " and echoes a similar line to John Lennon 's quote : " Life is what happens to you while you 're busy making other plans . " Talia Kraines of BBC Online called the song " very strange , but wonderful " . In his consumer guide , Robert Christgau wrote , " But me , I 'm a hater , and thus I 'm something like outraged , by not just those two pimp @-@ outs but an ' Ave Maria ' lacking even the dumbstruck literalism of Pink 's rendition or the grotesque conversion of ' Umbrella ' into ' Halo . ' " Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that the song was " pompous and frankly embarrassing " . Colin McGuire of PopMatters commented that " Ave Maria " is a " pretty normal take , a piece that has simply been done too many times before to think [ Knowles ] would even have a shot at putting her stamp on it . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian described the song as " dreary " . According to James Reed of The Boston Globe , the song is " an intriguing proposition torpedoed by a soggy arrangement " . Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times gave a negative review for the song , writing that the high notes included on " Ave Maria " , " should have remained a secret between Beyonce and her producers " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the song at number ten on their list of ten best Knowles ' songs . They further added , " The new classic kicks off with the plucking off some light strings and you know by the end you 'll be singing through tears . "
= = Live performances = =
" Ave Maria " was a part of the set list during Knowles ' I Am ... Tour ( 2009 @-@ 2010 ) , where she performed the song dressed in a wedding dress and blended it into Sarah McLachlan 's " Angel " ( 1998 ) . The wedding dress Knowles wore during the tour , was originally designed as a black dress and was designed by Thierry Mugler . Her mother and designer , Tina Knowles , made the dress stage @-@ appropriate so Knowles could dance in it . When Knowles performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , animated graphics of turntables , faders , and other club gear throbbed behind her and her musicians . Knowles was accompanied by her two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three backup vocalists called the Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . According to Parke Puterbaugh from News & Record , the strangest moment of the concert was Knowles ' " unironic delivery " of " Ave Maria " , for which she was attired in a wedding dress and veil .
Following Knowles ' performance of the ballad at The O2 Arena in London , a writer for the newspaper Irish Independent commented that " an Irish audience surely cannot sit through the old convent staple ' Ave Maria ' ... without feeling something cold squeeze the heart . " Alice Jones of The Independent felt that the performance was an " exceedingly odd segment " during the tour . While reviewing Knowles ' performance at the Madison Square Garden , a writer of People magazine compared her look with Madonna 's . While reviewing another concert by Knowles , Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times also compared the performance with " pop 's ultimate alpha female " Madonna at the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards . She also compared " Ave Maria " with the singer 's 1989 song " Like a Prayer " because they both used religious imagery to elevate a romantic connection . A writer of Evening Chronicle praised the performance of the song during the tour , saying that it showed off Knowles ' " incredible " vocals . A critic of Daily Mail , noted that Knowles performed " near operatic heights " during " Ave Maria " . MTV News ' Jayson Rodriguez commented that Knowles uses her softer side while performing the ballad . Jim Farber of the Daily News praised the performance of the song , saying that " Beyoncé hit notes with a new delicacy , then moved seamlessly into the final operatic crescendo " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer was negative about the performance of " Ave Maria " during the I Am ... Tour , comparing it with Challenge Anneka and bridezilla . She described it as " nonsense ... [ it ] has no place in a Beyoncé show " .
Knowles performed " Ave Maria " in Burswood Entertainment Complex , Perth , Western Australia , on September 25 , 2009 . Jay Hanna , writing for The Sunday Times , described the performance as " stunning " . Jay Lustig of New Jersey On @-@ Line described the same performance as " operatic " . Holly Byrnes of The Daily Telegraph while reviewing another stop during the concert tour of Knowles in Australia wrote that her performance of the ballad " guaranteed to have raised the sails of the Sydney Opera House " , while Patrick Emery of The Australian described her performance during another stop in the same country as " soaring " . A live performance of " Ave Maria " is featured on Knowles ' 2010 live album , I Am ... World Tour . Andy Gill of The Independent , while reviewing the DVD , gave a negative review for the performance of the song , writing that " if her grotesque over @-@ emoting on ' Ave Maria ' is anything to go by , legibility could make things a lot worse . " On December 3 , 2008 , Knowles ' performance of " Ave Maria " at the Rockefeller Center , in New York , was broadcast on NBC . A writer from People magazine described her performance as " rousing " . Knowles sang the song as a tribute to Michael Jackson at the 2008 Essence Music Festival . She later performed the song during the 2009 BET Awards , where she blended it with Sarah McLachlan 's song " Angel " in honor to Michael Jackson , following his death . Knowles appeared in an angelic Balmain mini white dress , and according to a writer from The Daily Telegraph and Daily Mail , she performed a " moving version " of " Ave Maria " . A writer for the newspaper The Hindu commented that the performance of the song was " simultaneously sexy and angelic " .
= = Cover versions = =
On May 12 , 2012 , Molly Rainford , a contestant of the sixth season of Britain 's Got Talent , sang " Ave Maria " during the show 's final . Digital Spy 's Daniel Sperling noted that Rainford sang a " pimped @-@ up version " of the song which he called " incredible " . A writer of BBC Online described her rendition as " moving " . On May 28 , 2012 , Fatai Veamatahau sang " Ave Maria " on The Voice ( Australia ) . Simon Holt of The Sydney Morning Herald noted that " she has a voice which brought tears to many eyes " , including coach and mentor Seal 's . Coach Joel Madden said : " I have to be respectful . That was a very spiritual performance . I 'm not sure what it was like for people at home , but that felt electric in here " . A reviewer for Take 40 Australia called it a " rousing version " . Veamatahau 's version peaked at number 25 on the Australian Singles Chart for the week of June 10 , 2012 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from I Am ... Sasha Fierce liner notes .
Beyoncé Knowles – songwriter , vocals
Amanda Ghost – songwriter
Ian Dench – songwriter , guitar
Makeba Riddick – songwriter
Mikkel S.Eriksen – songwriter , producer , recorder , other instrumentation
Tor Erik Hermansen – songwriter , production , other instrumentation
Mark " Spike " Stent – audio mixing
Matt Green – audio mixing assistant
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York
Mixed at Record Plant , Los Angeles , California
= = Charts = =
Following the album 's digital release , " Ave Maria " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 150 on November 29 , 2008 . It also charted on the Portuguese Ringtone Chart in 2010 at number 16 .
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= Commit This to Memory =
Commit This to Memory is the second studio album by American rock band Motion City Soundtrack . Produced by Mark Hoppus , the album was released on June 7 , 2005 , in the United States by Epitaph Records . Motion City Soundtrack , formed in 1997 , had first found success with their debut album , I Am the Movie ( 2002 ) . The band toured in the interim years , creating positive word @-@ of @-@ mouth . In 2004 , the band joined Blink @-@ 182 on the road for a string of shows , which led to their bassist , Mark Hoppus , joining the band in the studio for his first producing effort .
Recorded over six weeks in late 2004 , Commit This to Memory was created largely at Seedy Underbelly Studios , a suburban home converted into a studio in Los Angeles ' Valley Village region . The album was written partially in their hometown of Minneapolis and partially in Los Angeles , during a period in which frontman Justin Pierre was seeking treatment for alcohol abuse . He hoped for his lyricism to better emphasize storytelling , inspired by the lyrics of Tom Waits , Ben Folds and John K. Samson . Hoppus mainly worked with the band on completing song arrangements .
The album became the band 's breakthrough , with lead single " Everything Is Alright " becoming the band 's signature song . The album peaked at number two on Billboard 's Independent Albums chart . The singles ' music videos achieved rotation on cable channel MTV2 while the band toured alongside Fall Out Boy and Panic ! at the Disco on the Nintendo Fusion Tour , later also joining the Warped Tour for a stint . In 2014 , The A.V. Club referred to the album as a classic of pop punk , " full of hook @-@ laden , keyboard @-@ assisted songs whose bright melodies don ’ t mask the despair and self @-@ loathing lurking beneath them . "
= = Background = =
Motion City Soundtrack formed in 1997 in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The band signed to Epitaph Records in 2003 after recording I Am the Movie , their debut , independently and selling copies of it out of the back of their tour van for a year . Motion City became part of a slew of Epitaph signings , including Matchbook Romance , Scatter the Ashes and From First To Last , amid concerns the Southern California label had strayed too far from its roots , and seemed " a little too emo . " By the time the band began production on their sophomore record , I Am the Movie had sold nearly 62 @,@ 000 copies . The group had accumulated significant buzz , and were regarded as a " must @-@ see " act on the Warped Tour 2004 .
Mark Hoppus ' involvement stems from when an Atticus Clothing employee played him I Am the Movie . He was so taken with it that he raved about the band in Rolling Stone , inviting them to open for his group , Blink @-@ 182 on their 2004 European tour . On the trek , he became good friends with the musicians . He told them that he had purchased an abundance of recording gear and amplifiers for the previous Blink @-@ 182 album and told the band of his interest in recording music from a production standpoint . At the final show of the tour , guitarist Joshua Cain went to Hoppus ' dressing room and asked him to produce their next record . Although Hoppus had never produced anything before , he was excited to be a part of the album and accepted the offer .
= = Recording and production = =
The band first began writing songs at their rehearsal space in their hometown of Minneapolis , which they nicknamed the " Dungeon " , due to its ability to " suck the life and energy out of the band . " For Pierre , the album came at the brink of a transitional period for him , in which he began to seek treatment for alcohol abuse . He left the band during the writing stages for Los Angeles where he moved in with Epitaph founder Brett Gurewitz and began attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . Afterwards , the band rejoined Pierre in Los Angeles to begin recording demos for a month ; the change of scenery brought about new energy for the group , according to Pierre . Commit This to Memory would be the first album by the band to feature material crafted by each musician in the group , as previous releases had featured songs written in the years prior to each member joining . In addition , the band had more time and funds to spend time working on the album . " It was also the first time we had a lot more time and money to go in and feel like we were making a real record this time , whereas I Am the Movie was recorded in little segments here and there and eventually pieced together , " said drummer Tony Thaxton .
Recording sessions for Commit This to Memory , which were booked by Hoppus , were scheduled over six weeks at Seedy Underbelly Studios in Valley Village , a district of Los Angeles , California , which was actually a rented house that had once belonged to Jeff Porcaro , the drummer for Toto . The band had , according to Hoppus , " a million ideas and a lot of energy and enthusiasm to make a great record " . Pierre strove for the record to have a sound that resembled the bands Braid , Superchunk , Jawbox and the Pixies . Living in a suburb , the neighbors had called police to the band and Hoppus several times for being too loud at night time , especially when Hoppus brought a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine outside to work on a song late at night . According to Pierre , Hoppus was not interested in putting his own stamp on the music , but rather bringing out the best in what he saw in the group . Hoppus generally modeled his production after Jerry Finn ( a longtime producer of Blink @-@ 182 ) , and therefore it involved much watching and listening . " Mark kept telling us , ' Your name is going to be a lot bigger on the front than mine is on the back ' , " recalled Justin Pierre , " So he would throw suggestions out there but always say , ' Feel free to turn these down . ' And we would ! "
Pierre characterized Hoppus as both " very involved and not involved , " with his job as producer mainly giving notes on the sound of the instruments and offering suggestions to improve songs . Hoppus mostly worked with the band on arrangements , believing the songs were too packed and " needed to breathe " . Hoppus mentioned that label politics had hindered the creativity of Blink 's Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) , and did not want to see the same fate befall the band . He was " meticulous " in his approach , partially due to the fact that it was his first production job . Hoppus was the one who advised the band to merge two previously unrelated songs — a slower , softer song and a pulsating drum track — into one , which became " Time Turned Fragile " . The frontman of Fall Out Boy , Patrick Stump , contributed guest vocals to " Everything Is Alright " , and Hoppus to " Hangman " . With production completed , Hoppus was very excited for the band that he felt was on the cusp of " great things " , recalling , " After six weeks of these guys living all together in two rooms of this house with a studio attached they created this amazingly beautiful and honest album . Justin 's lyrics are so brutally truthful . " The group completed recording in November 2004 , and judged final mixes over the interim months . Pierre later called Commit This to Memory his personal favorite album by the band .
= = Music = =
In a 2015 interview , Pierre notes that fans have told him that they find Commit This to Memory a " winter album , " to which he agrees , noting the unintentional mention of the new year in several songs . His lyricism on Commit This to Memory centralizes around change and , in his words , " being a complete fuckup , yet , at the same time , being somewhat successful " . On the record , he " addresses the themes of substance abuse , psychological disorders and failing relationships . " Pierre penned " Everything Is Alright " as a summary of his OCD ( Obsessive – compulsive disorder ) tendencies . He intended to utilize his social anxiety and fears in the song 's form , which he has since employed in numerous other compositions . " I don ’ t think the [ phrase ] " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " is correct , but it ’ s something where the verses are one thing and then the chorus is another , but it 's sort of like giving yourself a pep talk , " said Pierre . The song 's lyrics include hating such mundane things as " theme parks , flying , strangers , [ and ] waiting in line , " things that Pierre genuinely disliked at the time of the song 's writing . For the record , he intended to simplify his lyrics to enhance storytelling and he drew inspiration from Tom Waits , Ben Folds and John K. Samson 's writing styles . Keeping in the Waits / Folds inspiration , Pierre strove to write from another person 's point of view ; in the case of " Time Turned Fragile " , it is sung from the perspective of his father .
Pierre has in retrospect labeled half of the album 's writing as being completed while inebriated and the other half while getting sober . For example , he penned the lyrics to " Attractive Today " and " Time Turned Fragile " while drunk in his apartment , in a " sad and lonely place . " In this approach , words mostly " just came out , " and were not substantially revised . In addition , he was listening to the 2003 album Reconstruction Site by the Weakerthans , and found himself inspired by the songwriting of frontman John K. Samson . Pierre would often take lyrics from other bands songs for song titles ; " Time Turned Fragile " is lifted from a lyric in Limbeck 's " Julia " , while " Together We 'll Ring in the New Year " was pulled from the Tom Waits song " Please Wake Me Up " . " L.G. FUAD " grew out of a night on Motion City Soundtrack 's 2003 UK tour with The All @-@ American Rejects , in which the latter band 's merchandise manager was severely inebriated . He stood on the merchandise stand and shouted the song 's central thesis — " Let 's Get Fucked Up and Die " . All involved found great humor in the " mantra " , which went on to be printed on business cards as a joke . " Hold Me Down " was inspired by a former roommate of Pierre 's . After she had moved out , Pierre found a portion of her math homework in a couch cushion , leading to him imagining a scenario of finding a letter from a departed lover .
The album has been called definitive of pop punk . Joshua Cain dismissed this label , remarking , " I definitely wouldn 't consider us a pop @-@ punk band . Our influences are more based on ' 90s bands like Superchunk and early Weezer . "
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , Commit This to Memory received general acclaim from music critics . Scott Heisel of Alternative Press wrote that " Memory is an inspired , mature sophomore disc chock full of catchy , intelligent pop @-@ rock . " Allmusic 's Johnny Loftus considered the band more intelligent and sophisticated than their Warped Tour peers : " Motion City Soundtrack [ ' s ] wistful memories , tales of breaking up , and frantic searches for answers [ are ] realer than the next pop @-@ punk combo on the quadruple summertime bill . " Jennifer Maerz of Entertainment Weekly ended her review with the note that " MCS ' slick , soaring anthems ultimately unite the spirits of those who see themselves , like Pierre , as ' lifeless corners of this empty frame . ' " Mark Griffiths of Kerrang ! wrote , " It 's a bright and invigorating affair [ ... ] and is , in short , fantastic . " The Washington Post 's Marianne Meyer opined that the record " nimbly moves from skittish rhythms to genuinely tender sentiment . " Jessica Grose of Spin favorably compared it to Blink @-@ 182 's Enema of the State ( 1999 ) . Tony McMenamin of Blender deemed it the publication 's album of the month , calling it " a charged mix of instantly catchy pop @-@ punk lashings and somber acoustic wailings . "
The album was leaked to file sharing websites within a day of the final mastering and months before its official release . It debuted on the Billboard 200 in the issue dated June 25 , 2005 at position 72 , selling 16 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week . It charted better on the magazine 's Independent Albums chart , where it peaked at number two . The last official estimate placed it at 285 @,@ 000 albums sold in the U.S. , but Pierre said in 2015 interview that the number is closer to 500 @,@ 000 . The band 's music videos found regular rotation on networks such as MTV2 , and the band also performed on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . Rolling Stone 's Lauren Gilton considered the album a sleeper hit . Nevertheless , the band ’ s breakthrough brought naysayers , and the group became targets for critics of pop punk : " [ the band was ] frequently characterized as the sort of ultra @-@ commercial punk poseurs who water down the genre to the point of drowning it . "
Subsequent reviews of the album have continued to be positive . In 2014 , The A.V. Club referred to the album as a classic of pop punk , " full of hook @-@ laden , keyboard @-@ assisted songs whose bright melodies don ’ t mask the despair and self @-@ loathing lurking beneath them . " Reyan Ali of Cincinnati CityBeat wrote that Commit This to Memory " absolutely bleeds charm , " commenting , " Even with all the dire thematic matter Pierre ’ s lyrics covered , [ ... ] the band framed the words with music that sparkled , owing to spunky , inspired hooks , full @-@ sounding record production and ample doses of Moog . " Alternative Press 's Tyler Sharp deemed the record a " classic , " while Taylor Morgan of OC Weekly called it " the soundtrack of millennial youth , reminiscent of breakups , making out , goofing off , and growing up . " BuzzFeed included the album at number 21 on their " 36 Pop Punk Albums You Need To Hear Before You F — — ing Die " list . NME listed the album as one of " 20 Pop Punk Albums Which Will Make You Nostalgic " .
= = Touring = =
During the recording of the album , the band embarked on their first headlining tour , The Sub @-@ Par Punk Who Cares Tour 2004 . After recording , the band set out on the inaugural Epitaph Tour , alongside Matchbook Romance and From First to Last , with appearances by the Matches and Scatter the Ashes on select dates . The tour visited every major US city , and ran from February 2 to March 19 , 2005 . The band played to larger crowds on the tours supporting the album , including over 9000 fans on a Chicago date in 2005 . The group " toured incessantly , " including dates on the Warped Tour 2005 . Afterwards , the band joined the Nintendo Fusion Tour with Fall Out Boy , Panic ! at the Disco , and The Starting Line , which was their largest nationwide tour to that point . The group had been friends with Fall Out Boy for many years prior , having both played side @-@ by @-@ side before either group found their respective success .
The band embarked on a tour celebrating the tenth anniversary of the album between January and February 2015 , playing the album in its entirety . " It doesn 't feel like ten years ago , but then it also feels like a lifetime ago , " said Pierre . The group later extended this anniversary tour , and further toured the album between June and August 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Motion City Soundtrack .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Bessie Braddock =
Elizabeth Margaret " Bessie " Braddock ( née Bamber ; 24 September 1899 – 13 November 1970 ) was a British Labour Party politician who served as Member of Parliament ( MP ) for the Liverpool Exchange division from 1945 to 1970 . She was a member of Liverpool County Borough Council from 1930 to 1961 . Although she never held office in government , she won a national reputation for her forthright campaigns in connection with housing , public health and other social issues .
Braddock inherited much of her campaigning spirit from her mother , Mary Bamber , an early socialist and trade union activist . After some years in the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) , Braddock joined the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) on its foundation in 1920 , but quickly became disillusioned with the party 's dictatorial tendencies . She left the CPGB in 1924 and later joined the Labour Party . Before the Second World War , alongside her husband Jack Braddock , she established a reputation as a crusading left @-@ wing councillor , frequently at odds with her party while pursuing an agenda of social reform . During the war she worked in Liverpool 's ambulance service , before winning the Exchange division for Labour in the 1945 general election .
With her formidable physique and outspoken manner , Braddock was a pugnacious presence in parliament , and a keen supporter of the 1945 – 51 Attlee ministry 's reform agenda , particularly the establishment of the National Health Service in 1948 . She served on Labour 's National Executive Committee between 1947 and 1969 . Her combative style led to a brief suspension from parliament in 1952 . For most of her parliamentary career she remained a member of Liverpool 's council , and was a central figure in the controversy that arose in the 1950s over the city 's decision to acquire and flood the Tryweryn Valley in Wales for the construction of a reservoir .
Between 1953 and 1957 Braddock served on the Royal Commission for Mental Health which led to the Mental Health Act 1959 . From the early 1950s she moved steadily to the right wing of her party , and was increasingly acerbic in her judgements of her former colleagues on the left . When Labour won the 1964 general election she refused office on the grounds of age and health ; thereafter her parliamentary contributions dwindled as her health worsened . Towards the end of her life she became Liverpool 's first woman freeman . After her death in 1970 her Guardian obituarist hailed her as " one of the most distinctive political personalities of the century " .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
= = = = Childhood = = = =
Elizabeth Bamber was born on 24 September 1899 at 23 Zante Street , Liverpool , the eldest daughter of Hugh Bamber , a bookbinder , and his wife Mary , née Little . Mary had come to Liverpool as a child when her father , a well @-@ to @-@ do Edinburgh lawyer , abandoned his family after his descent into alcoholism and poverty . Liverpool in the late 19th century suffered extremes of poverty , and had the highest infant mortality rate in the country . Mary became a trade union organiser and campaigner against poverty , and established a reputation as an outstanding platform speaker . She was the dominant early influence on her daughter Elizabeth , who formed a lifelong determination to represent and fight for the disadvantaged .
In 1902 the Bamber family relocated to Smollett Street in nearby Bootle , one of several moves that caused Elizabeth 's formal education to be divided among several schools . Alongside her normal schooling her political education began at the Marmaduke Street Socialist Sunday School , and through the medium of her mother 's campaigning activities . One of Elizabeth 's early memories was of the soup kitchen for the destitute which Mary helped to run on St George 's Plateau : " I remember the faces of the unemployed when the soup ran out ... I remember blank , hopeless stares , day after day , week after week , all through the hard winter of 1906 – 07 " .
At the age of 11 Elizabeth left the Sunday School and joined the youth section of the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) , where she studied socialism alongside a busy programme of social activities . She later described herself at this time as " strong , agile , fond of walking and eating " . By this time Mary Bamber was working as an organiser for the Warehouse Workers ' Union ; Elizabeth assisted her mother , sometimes acting as a steward at meetings . Mother and daughter were both present at St George 's Plateau on 13 August 1911 , when a baton charge by police and troops broke up a rally in support of Liverpool 's striking transport workers . Hundreds were injured , and in the disturbances that followed , two demonstrators were shot dead . The day became enshrined in Liverpool 's working @-@ class history as " Bloody Sunday " .
= = = = ILP years = = = =
Elizabeth left school in 1913 , and began work filling seed packets for five shillings a week . The job was too monotonous to engage her for long , and after a few months she found a post in the drapery department of the Walton Road Co @-@ operative store . At her mother 's insistence she became a member of the Shopworkers ' Union . Meanwhile , she attended classes run by the Workers ' Educational Association and the Plebs ' League : " They told me how the capitalists controlled money , business and the land , and ... hung on to them " .
Within the group of young socialists who gathered regularly at the ILP 's local headquarters there were three Elizabeths . To avoid confusion , lots were drawn to decide who should be known respectively as Elizabeth , Betty , or Bessie . By this means Elizabeth Bamber took the name Bessie , which she retained for the rest of her life . Among the other ILP activists at Kensington was Sydney Silverman , four years older than Bessie , the son of a poor draper . Silverman was a considerable influence on the youthful Bessie ; he would be her future colleague , both in the Liverpool council chamber and the House of Commons . When the First World War began in August 1914 , the ILP opposed it as " an appalling crime upon the nations " who had been " stampeded by fear and panic " . On the introduction of conscription in 1916 , Silverman and others adopted positions of uncompromising pacifism , and were imprisoned . The ILP welcomed news of the Russian Revolution of 1917 , and vigorously opposed allied intervention in the civil war that followed it . Bessie played a leading role in a TUC " Hands Off Russia " rally in Liverpool 's Sheil Park , where she and others resisted the efforts of the British Empire Union to capture the ILP 's red flag .
At the end of the war in 1918 , Bessie left the Co @-@ op and took a clerical post with the Warehouse Workers ' Union . In the course of her ILP activities she met and befriended John " Jack " Braddock , a wagon builder and union activist with a reputation as a firebrand . He had arrived in Liverpool from Dewsbury in 1915 , hoping to emigrate to Canada , but had stayed in the port and immersed himself in left @-@ wing politics and the fight to improve working conditions . He and Bessie became very close ; in 1919 they helped Mary Bamber to fight for a Liverpool council seat , as the ILP 's candidate in the Everton district . The election campaign was bitter and at times violent , but resulted in Bamber 's victory by the slim margin of 13 votes .
= = = Communist activist = = =
By 1920 Mary Bamber , Bessie and Jack Braddock had become disillusioned with the ILP , which seemed to them to lack the necessary radicalism to march with the times . At the time , Sylvia Pankhurst 's Workers ' Socialist Federation , the British Socialist Party and other socialist organisations were increasingly coordinating their activities , and in 1920 merged to form the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) . Under Mary Bamber 's influence , both Bessie and Jack Braddock left the ILP to become members of the new party . Within the CPGB the young couple became acquainted with Wal Hannington , leader of the National Unemployed Workers Committee Movement . They joined his " work or maintenance " campaign which aimed to raise the levels of Poor Law relief to what they considered a proper subsistence level . The couple did not endear themselves to the CPGB hierarchy when , on egalitarian grounds , they opposed the levels of salary which the party wanted to pay to its full @-@ time officials .
In the joint autobiography written with Jack , The Braddocks ( 1963 ) , Bessie cites the formative experience of police violence on " Bloody Sunday " in 1911 as a motivating factor for her CPGB activities . On 12 September 1921 , again at St George 's Plateau , she attended a rally for the city 's jobless , organised by the Liverpool Unemployed Workers ' Committee . Again there was police intervention ; Jack and Mary Bamber were charged with unlawful assembly and received a token one day 's imprisonment . In 1922 Bessie and other party members provided comfort and shelter to Hannington 's hunger marchers , as the columns of unemployed passed through Lancashire on their way to London . Bessie combined her party roles — she was treasurer of the Liverpool branch — with her full @-@ time union post ; Jack , meanwhile , was only intermittently in work , as his incendiary reputation meant that employers were reluctant to give him a job . He had been living for some time at the Bambers ' home when , in February 1922 , the couple were married at Brougham Terrace registry office , during the course of a working day . After a brief reception they returned to their respective duties — Bessie to her union job and Jack to his volunteer work for the CPGB .
The Braddocks were not comfortable as CPGB members . They objected to the lack of autonomy afforded to local branches by the party 's central " Political Bureau " , and to what they perceived as the leadership 's unquestioning subservience to the Soviet Union . Mary Bamber , after a visit to Russia , opined that there were as many true communists in Liverpool as in Moscow . In 1924 , increasingly convinced that communist rule would lead to the enslavement rather than the liberation of workers , the entire leadership of the Liverpool CPGB branch , including both Braddocks , resigned from the party .
= = = Liverpool council = = =
After leaving the CPGB , the Braddocks continued their socialist activism in Liverpool . Jack 's role in the Merseyside Council of Action ( an impromptu militant action group ) during the 1926 General Strike made employers even less willing to engage him . He was rescued by the action of Sir Benjamin Johnson , a liberal @-@ minded industrialist , who lent him the money to purchase a Co @-@ operative Insurance Society agency . Jack and Bessie were now determined to pursue their political aims by democratic methods , and in 1926 they joined the Fairfeld ward of the Liverpool Labour Party . In the 1929 Liverpool council elections , Jack was returned unopposed as the Labour councillor for the Everton ward . A year later Bessie joined him , elected in the St Anne 's ward .
St Anne 's , one of the most deprived areas of the city , contained a closed workhouse at Brownlow Hill , which the Conservative @-@ controlled council had decided to sell to the Roman Catholic Church , as the potential site for a cathedral . The Labour group 's official policy was to delay the sale for several years , so that the empty workhouse buildings could be used as temporary housing during slum clearance and rebuilding . The issue split Labour on religious lines ; nearly all the Catholic members of the Labour group defied party policy and voted for an immediate sale . Among the rebels was the sitting St Anne 's councillor , Olive Hughes . She was thereupon deselected by the St Anne 's ward , which chose Bessie as their candidate for the 1930 election . Bessie faced a difficult task , since Hughes chose to stand against her as an Independent Socialist , with the support of leading local Catholics in a ward where the electorate was 85 per cent Catholic . An intense campaign , during which Bessie claimed to have visited every street in the ward , brought her success .
This victory did not delay the workhouse 's fate ; the site was duly sold to the Catholic Church for £ 110 @,@ 000 , and demolition began in January 1931 . Nevertheless , Bessie , who had been appalled by the housing conditions in the ward , helped to instigate a slum clearance campaign which slowly brought improvements . As a member of the council 's Port Sanitary and Hospitals Committee , which controlled all the city 's hospitals and residential homes for the elderly , Bessie discovered that the hospitals were generally verminous , drably decorated and poorly ventilated , with inadequate cooking facilities . Patients ' record @-@ keeping systems were rudimentary , with little or no communication between hospitals . She became involved in the reform , reorganisation and modernisation of many of the city 's health facilities , in particularly those related to mothers and children . From 1934 she was chairman of the Maternity and Child Welfare subcommittee , and in June 1936 worked with other women 's groups to organise a national conference on maternity and child welfare issues .
The Labour group on the council remained divided . The group 's leader was Luke Hogan ( 1885 – 1954 ) , of Irish stock and closely identified with the Catholic caucus . He enjoyed the strong support of around two @-@ thirds of the Labour councillors ; the Braddocks , and from 1932 Sydney Silverman , were part of the smaller leftist wing of the group . Clashes between the two sides were frequent , the main contention being the supposed attempts by Hogan and his followers to " catholicise " the local party . When in 1936 Hogan tried to block the renewal of a grant to a local birth control clinic , Bessie led a cross @-@ party rebellion of councillors which ensured that the grant was maintained . She argued that most of the 87 women who had died in childbirth the previous year might have survived with access to contraception .
Mostly , Bessie was uncompromising in her attitude towards the council 's ruling Conservatives ; on one occasion she was ejected from the council chamber by the police , after she had called the Housing Committee chairman a liar and refused the mayor 's order to withdraw the remark . She justified this behaviour on the grounds that " if you didn 't do something outrageous , nobody would take any notice of you " . She had earlier resorted to using a two @-@ foot megaphone in a council meeting , to demand action over housing conditions and slums .
Inspired by her colleague Silverman , who in the 1935 general election became MP for Nelson and Colne , Bessie determined to seek a parliamentary career of her own . This ambition contrasted with that of Jack , who turned down the chance to be Labour 's candidate in the Everton constituency to concentrate on his local government role . In 1936 Bessie was selected as Labour candidate for Liverpool Exchange . This inner @-@ city division had long been held by the Conservatives , mainly because of a substantial " business vote " which , before the abolition of plural voting in 1948 , gave owners of businesses an extra vote in the constituency where their business operated . In the recent election the seat had been held by the Conservative , Sir John Shute , with a majority of 4 @,@ 412 . Bessie was then 36 years old ; she would have to wait for nearly 10 years before she could fight her seat , as the general election that would normally have been held in 1939 or 1940 was postponed by the Second World War .
In the years immediately before the war Bessie was concerned at the extent of recruitment in the city by the British Union of Fascists . She was outspoken in her attacks on fascist groups , and in her defence of those who attacked their parades . The death of her mother Mary Bamber in June 1938 , at the age of 63 , was a considerable personal blow to Bessie , and was widely mourned within Liverpool 's socialist community .
= = = Second World War = = =
On the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Bessie left her union post and joined G Division of the Liverpool Ambulance Service , as a driver . Initially her main job was to train other drivers , mostly young women . She became a section leader and then a deputy leader of G Division , an administrative post that should have kept her at headquarters . However , she records that she drove her ambulance through all the 68 major air raids that struck Liverpool during the war years . It was dangerous work ; on a single day , 3 May 1941 , 14 drivers lost their lives . Bessie remained with the ambulance service almost until the end of the war in 1945 .
In 1942 Bessie and Jack moved to what would be their home for the remainder of their lives , a suburban semi @-@ detached house in ZigZag Road , in Liverpool 's West Derby district . They remained active members of Liverpool council , and in 1943 Jack became deputy leader of the Labour group . Two years later the Braddocks healed the rift with Hogan by proposing and seconding his appointment as the city 's Lord Mayor for the year 1945 – 46 ; Jack succeeded him as leader of the Labour group on the council , a post he held until his death in 1963 . Bessie became honorary president of the Liverpool Trades Council and Labour Party ( LTCLP ) , the body that had been formed in 1921 when the Liverpool Trades Council merged with the newly formed local Labour Party to form a united labour front .
= = = Labour MP = = =
= = = = Labour government 1945 – 51 = = = =
Despite some opinion polls indicating a Labour lead , most commentators expected that Winston Churchill 's prestige would ensure a comfortable Conservative victory in the July 1945 general election . Before polling day , The Manchester Guardian surmised that " the chances of Labour sweeping the country and obtaining a clear majority ... are pretty remote " . The News of the World predicted a working Conservative majority , while in Glasgow a pundit forecast the result as Conservatives 360 , Labour 220 , Others 60 . The expectations of a Labour victory in Liverpool Exchange were not high , but Bessie 's chances were boosted by the poor local record of the sitting member , Colonel Shute , and she herself was confident . Defying most forecasts , across the country Labour won 393 seats , and with an overall majority of 146 , Clement Attlee formed the first majority Labour government . Bessie won Liverpool Exchange with a majority of 665 from 16 @,@ 000 votes cast .
In an assessment of the new MPs , the Daily Express described Bessie as " a character among the Labour women . Very forthright in her speech , strong in her Labour faith ... never hesitates to call a spade a spade " . Physically imposing — she admitted to weighing 15 stone ( 210 pounds , 95 kg ) — she made an impact with her maiden speech , on 17 October 1945 , during a debate on the national housing shortage . After taunting the Conservative opposition for having " filched " the Exchange seat — " the prize Division of the [ Liverpool ] Tory Party " — she made an impassioned plea to the new Minister of Health , Aneurin Bevan , for immediate measures to improve the slum housing conditions in Liverpool , and throughout the country : " Particularly in industrial areas , people are living in flea @-@ ridden , bug @-@ ridden , rat @-@ ridden , lousy hell @-@ holes " . She ended her speech with a promise that she and other Labour back @-@ benchers would continue to agitate until the conditions in which many were forced to live , " as a result of having been represented for so long by the Conservative Party " , were removed .
Bessie 's aggressive anti @-@ Toryism was frequently in evidence during her first years in parliament , especially when she could attribute to them the economic miseries of her Liverpool constituents . In a Commons debate on 28 March 1946 she welcomed the government 's decision to close the Liverpool Cotton Association , which she denounced as " the bulwark of the Tory administration in Liverpool " , nothing more than a group of financiers who gambled with the industry in order to make profits for themselves . On 1 May 1947 The Manchester Guardian , reporting the chaotic Commons scenes during the divisions following a debate on the nationalisation of the railways , recorded that " Mrs E.M. Braddock ... danced a jig as she moved over to the Opposition benches where she occupied the seat usually used by Mr Churchill . " When the Bolton Evening News called her performance " nauseating , a sorry degradation of democratic discussion " she sued the newspaper for defamation . She lost the case , and a subsequent appeal was unsuccessful .
In 1947 Bessie was elected to the Labour Party 's National Executive Committee ( NEC ) . She was generally identified with the left wing of the party , and was for a time associated with a grouping known as the " Socialist Fellowship " , which espoused a programme of colonial freedom , workers ' control and reduced arms expenditure . She resigned from the Fellowship in 1950 , along with fellow @-@ MPs Fenner Brockway and Ellis Smith , when it condemned the United Nations intervention in the Korean War . She continued her wholehearted campaigning on behalf of the poorest in the country , pleading with parliament to " remember the queues outside the Poor Relief offices " , and castigating the " New Look " fashion of 1948 as wasteful , " the ridiculous whim of idle people " . Bessie 's fiery reputation did not harm her electorally ; in the February 1950 general election , with the Exchange constituency greatly increased by boundary changes , her majority rose to 5 @,@ 344 . Nationally Labour lost 76 seats , and its parliamentary majority was reduced to five . Attlee 's second government was short @-@ lived ; in the October 1951 general election Bessie increased her personal majority again , to 6 @,@ 834 , but nationally Labour was defeated by the Conservatives and went into opposition .
Outside her political duties Bessie , a keen fan of boxing , accepted the honorary presidency of the Professional Boxers ' Association , and was a passionate defender of the sport . Her enthusiasm arose in part from her experiences as a juvenile court magistrate ; she believed that the sport fostered character and mutual respect . She was frequently at odds with her parliamentary colleague Edith Summerskill , a medical doctor who wrote the anti @-@ boxing tract The Ignoble Art , and campaigned for the sport 's abolition .
= = = = 1950s : Rightward shift = = = =
After leaving Socialist Fellowship , Bessie moved steadily towards the centre and right of her party , distancing herself from colleagues with whom she had earlier found common cause . She did not support Aneurin Bevan when he resigned from the government in April 1951 over the introduction of National Health Service charges , and later asserted that , by making dissidence fashionable , Bevan had " weakened the [ Labour ] National Executive to the point where it could no longer deal effectively with infiltrating Trotskyists and Communists " . In 1955 her opposition to the Bevanite faction was such that she supported efforts by Hugh Gaitskell and Herbert Morrison to have Bevan expelled from the party . She regularly attacked the Labour left at party conferences , and in 1952 was involved in scuffles with other delegates after the unexpected success of Bevanite candidates in the NEC elections .
Also in 1952 , Bessie 's volatile temperament caused her to become the first woman member to be suspended from the House of Commons , after she repeatedly protested to the Deputy Speaker for failing to call her during a debate on the textile industry , a matter of great concern to her constituents . In general , her forthright attitude won her cross @-@ party respect , and in 1953 she was appointed by Churchill ( who had returned as prime minister in 1951 ) to the Royal Commission on Mental Health , otherwise known as the Percy Commission , whose work led to the Mental Health Act 1959 .
Bessie 's increasingly centrist stance troubled party members in Liverpool Exchange , where the Bevanite faction was generally popular . In 1954 the local party passed a motion requesting that she step down before the next general election . This was rejected by the NEC , who believed that Bessie was a national electoral asset . Shortly before the May 1955 general election the Exchange party tried again , and voted by 40 to 39 to deselect her . Bessie , convinced that this vote had been rigged , appealed to the NEC , who set the decision aside and imposed her on the constituency . These party machinations had no effect on Bessie 's popularity with the voters ; in the election on 26 May , despite the intervention of a left @-@ wing Independent Socialist candidate , she increased her majority to 7 @,@ 186 . Nevertheless , the Conservatives retained power with an increased parliamentary majority . In the municipal elections held that same month , Labour won control of Liverpool 's council for the first time ; Jack Braddock became council leader . Bessie gave up her St Anne 's ward seat , after 25 years , but remained on the council as a co @-@ opted alderman .
= = = = Campaigns and controversies , 1956 – 59 = = = =
In May 1956 Bessie 's concerns about the treatment of prisoners in Walton Prison led to an investigation by Sir Godfrey Russell Vick , which revealed numerous instances of violence by members of the prison staff , and brought about reforms . In July that year , during a home affairs debate , Bessie demanded tougher regulations on the supply and licensing of air pistols , which under the existing law were readily available to juveniles . She alarmed the house by brandishing two such pistols which , she explained , she had confiscated in the course of her duties as a juvenile court magistrate . When rebuked by the Deputy Speaker , she replied that she had deliberately used shock tactics , reprising her earlier council chamber argument that " no one takes any notice unless someone does something which is out of order , or is unusual " . She also campaigned for the rights of larger women to obtain fashionable clothes ; using her substantial 50 " – 40 " – 50 " measurements to advantage , she took part in a fashion show aimed at the larger @-@ than @-@ average woman .
In 1956 , as part of a Liverpool council delegation , the Braddocks visited the Soviet Union at the invitation of the mayor of Odessa , a city with which Liverpool had informal fraternal links . Her overall impression of the country was of drabness and oppression , with welfare provision generally well below British levels , although she conceded that medical facilities were excellent . Before returning home she informed the mayor of Odessa that " after forty years of socialism ... you haven 't achieved half of what we have in Britain " .
In the later 1950s an issue arose which tarnished the reputations of both Braddocks in the eyes of much of Liverpool 's Welsh community and the people of Wales . In 1955 Liverpool council applied for the compulsory purchase of land in the Tryweryn Valley , Merionethshire , North Wales , for the construction of a reservoir to serve Liverpool 's increasing needs for water — some 65 million gallons a day . The proposal would mean the flooding of the small village of Llyn Celyn , and several farms . On 7 November a deputation led by the Plaid Cymru president Gwynfor Evans sought to address the council in a plea for a change in policy . According to Bessie 's biographer Ben Rees , while Evans was speaking , Bessie banged on the table and joined other councillors in insulting Evans and demanding that he " go back to Wales " . In July 1957 , when the enabling legislation reached its second House of Commons reading , Bessie described the scheme as regional rather than local , and claimed that some parts of Wales would benefit from it . The land to be flooded in the Tryweryn Valley was not , she said , of high agricultural value , and " nothing was done that was not agreed to by the tenants in the area " . The bill became law , and construction began in 1959 , but protests and demonstrations continued until the reservoir 's opening in 1965 . The slogan Cofia Dryerwyn ( " Remember Tryweryn " ) was coined by nationalists , says Rees , as " a reminder of Liverpool 's greed and lack of sensitivity " . In October 2015 , on the 50th anniversary of the reservoir 's completion , protestors demonstrated around the statue of Bessie at Liverpoool 's Lime Street Station .
In the October 1959 general election the Conservatives , now led by Harold Macmillan , increased their majority in parliament to 100 seats . In Liverpool Exchange Bessie defied the national swing , and increased her proportion of the vote . On a reduced turnout her personal majority fell slightly , to 6 @,@ 971 .
= = = = Later career , 1960 – 68 = = = =
In 1961 Bessie 's aldermanic term on Liverpool 's council expired . That year , the Conservatives briefly took control of the council , and used their majority to block her reappointment . This ended 31 years ' service on the council . In 1963 , when Labour regained control , she did not seek re @-@ instatement . The year 1963 saw the publication of The Braddocks , in which Bessie made a sustained attack on communism and Trotskyism : " The purpose of this book is to bring home to the rank and file how wide that influence is ... unless positive steps are taken by the workers themselves ... democracy will be dead " . Reviewing the book for the Socialist Standard , Lawrence Weidberg thought it gave a useful picture of early 20th century working @-@ class life in Liverpool , but concluded that " from the evidence of this book the Braddocks qualified fully for the role of blind leaders of the blind " .
On 12 November 1963 Jack Braddock died of a heart attack , at the age of 71 , while attending an official function in Liverpool . The October 1964 general election brought Labour a narrow victory under Harold Wilson , while in Liverpool Exchange , Bessie achieved her best personal majority to date , 9 @,@ 746 . She did not take a post in the new government ; according to The Guardian she was offered a job , but declined on the grounds of health and age . Although she fought the next election , in March 1966 , and held Liverpool Exchange easily , for the final six years of her parliamentary life she was relatively inactive and often absent through illness . Her last contribution in the House was on 27 January 1969 , a question regarding facilities for disabled drivers .
= = = Final years and death = = =
In 1968 Bessie became vice chairman ( and therefore chairman @-@ elect ) of the Labour Party . However , in February 1969 she collapsed with exhaustion and was hospitalised . In August she resigned from the NEC on health grounds , thus forgoing her succession to the party chairmanship . In September she announced that she did not intend to contest the next general election , and would retire from politics , a decision which shocked and disappointed her constituents . In April 1970 she was awarded the freedom of the City of Liverpool , the first woman thus honoured . Bessie formally left parliament at the dissolution before the June 1970 general election ; on 13 November 1970 she died in Liverpool 's Rathbone Hospital , at the age of 71 . At her funeral service held a few days later at Anfield Crematorium , in the course of his tribute , Harold Wilson summed her up thus : " She was born to fight for the people of the docks , of the slums , of the factories and in every part of the city where people needed help " .
= = Appraisal = =
At the time of her death , commentators described Bessie as one of the most notable political personalities of her time , and perhaps the best @-@ known woman in Britain after the Queen . She was especially appreciated in Liverpool , where much of her campaigning zeal for better housing and healthcare was concentrated . Widely known and remembered as " Battling Bessie " , thirty years after her death she was placed eighth in a BBC poll of " great Merseysiders " .
Bessie was renowned for the sharpness of her tongue , either in pursuit of her campaigns or in denouncing her enemies . She frequently used inflammatory , colourful language , once describing an opposing councillor as a " blasted rat " , and another time telling the Tory majority that she was willing " to take a machine gun to the lot of you " . In contrast to this aggressive public , Bessie 's private life was unostentatious . She did not smoke or drink , dressed conventionally and holidayed modestly in Scarborough . Nevertheless , she enjoyed the company of many glamorous friends from the worlds of show business and boxing .
Towards perceived adversaries , Bessie showed neither patience nor respect , especially those with whom she had once shared common ground on the far left . Apart from her attacks on Bevan , she displayed particular scorn for the future Labour Party leader Michael Foot , whose practice in the 1950s of writing articles attacking the Labour leadership for right @-@ wing newspapers was , she thought , disloyal . A much reported exchange between her and Churchill has her accusing him of being drunk , and him concurring but adding : " My dear you are ugly , but tomorrow I shall be sober and you will still be ugly " — or similar words . There is no reliable evidence that any such exchange took place ; despite its popularity , commentators are generally sceptical . According to the columnist Simon Hoggart , similar stories involving other figures had been circulating for years ; he concluded : " If it sounds true , if it echoes something we feel about the politician , then it will cling to him or her as if bonded with superglue " .
In 1984 , Radio City , an independent Liverpool radio station , broadcast a 4 @-@ part dramatisation of Jack and Bessie Braddock 's lives . Bessie Braddock is commemorated in Liverpool by the statue in Lime Street Station , and by a blue plaque erected at her modest home in ZigZag Road . In a 2014 Fabian Society essay the Labour MP Lisa Nandy wrote that Bessie " brought her experiences of life in the slums of Liverpool right into the heart of Westminster . Now , more than ever , we need the voices of working women to be heard in parliament " .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Newspapers and journals = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
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= Rochus Misch =
Rochus Misch ( 29 July 1917 – 5 September 2013 ) was a German Oberscharführer ( sergeant ) in the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( LSSAH ) . He was badly wounded during the Polish campaign during the first month of World War II in Europe . After recovering , from 1940 to April 1945 , he served in the Führerbegleitkommando ( Führer Escort Command ; FBK ) as a bodyguard , courier , and telephone operator for German dictator Adolf Hitler . He was widely reported in the media as being the last surviving occupant of the Führerbunker when he died in September 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Rochus Misch was born on 29 July 1917 in Alt @-@ Schalkowitz near Oppeln ( Opole ) in the Province of Silesia ( now Stare Siołkowice , Poland ) . His father , a construction worker , died of wounds sustained in World War I. His widowed mother died of pneumonia when he was two and a half , and he grew up with his grandparents . His older brother Bruno died after a swimming accident in May 1922 .
Over the objections of the school director , his grandfather took him out of school after eight years as he thought Rochus needed to learn a trade . After several years , Misch moved to Hoyerswerda and became an apprentice with the firm of Schmüller & Model . There he trained as a painter . In 1935 , after working as a journeyman painter , Misch attended the Masters ' School for Fine Arts in Cologne . After six months , he returned to Hoyerswerda to continue his training . Misch met Gerda , his wife @-@ to @-@ be , in July 1938 . They later married on New Year 's Eve , 1942 . They had a daughter , Brigitta Jacob @-@ Engelken who after the war supported Jewish causes .
= = Military service = =
In 1937 , Misch received a call up notice for military service . In Offenberg , he joined the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe ( SS @-@ VT ) , the predecessor to the Waffen @-@ SS , instead of the German Army as the SS @-@ VT did not require Reichsarbeitsdienst ( National Labour Service ) time . Along with eleven others , he was selected for Hitler 's personal bodyguard unit , the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( LSSAH ) . In August 1939 , he was promoted to the rank of SS @-@ Rottenführer .
= = = World War II = = =
For the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , his regiment was attached to the XIII Army Corps , a part of the 8th Army . Near Warsaw on 24 September , he was one of four men selected by his company commander , then SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Wilhelm Mohnke to negotiate the surrender of Polish troops during the Battle of Modlin . He was picked because of his ability , although very limited , to speak Polish . After the negotiations failed , the Germans headed back to their lines . When they were about 80 metres from the fort , firing began . Several rounds hit Misch , who then fell down and lost consciousness . Some German soldiers carried him to an aid station . Later , he was transferred to two different hospitals . Thereafter , he spent six weeks at a convalescent home . For his actions , Misch was awarded the Iron Cross , Second Class . As Misch was the last living member of his Lower Silesian family , Mohnke recommended him for the Führerbegleitkommando ( Führer Escort Command ; FBK ) . This was made up of SS members , including men from the LSSAH , who no longer had to serve on the front lines .
Misch was transferred to the FBK in early May 1940 . As a junior member of Hitler 's permanent bodyguard , Misch travelled with Hitler throughout the war . When not serving as bodyguards , Misch and the others in the unit served as telephone operators , couriers , orderlies , valets , and waiters . When on duty , the FBK members were the only armed men Hitler allowed to be near him . They never had to surrender their weapon and were never searched when they were with Hitler . It did cause Misch some concern that they were armed only with Walther PPK 7 @.@ 65 pistols .
On 16 January 1945 , following the Wehrmacht 's defeat in the Battle of the Bulge , Misch and the rest of Hitler 's personal staff moved into the Führerbunker and Vorbunker under the Reich Chancellery garden in Berlin . His FBK commanding officer , Franz Schädle , appointed Misch to be the bunker telephone operator . Misch handled all of the direct communication from the bunker . He did not leave it for any significant period of time until the war ended in May 1945 . On 22 April 1945 , Schädle called him on the phone and told him there was a place reserved for his wife and young daughter on one of the last planes out of Berlin . Misch was temporarily released from duty and drove to pick up his family to take them to the aircraft . However , his wife refused to take their daughter and leave him and her parents in Berlin . Upon returning to the Reich Chancellery , Misch learned that Hitler was releasing most of the remaining staff to leave Berlin . By that date , as the Red Army was entering Berlin , propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels and his wife Magda brought their six young children to stay in the Vorbunker . Joseph Goebbels moved into the room next to Misch 's telephone exchange in the lower level of the Führerbunker . The Goebbels children would play in the corridor around Misch 's post .
On 30 April , the Soviets were less than 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from the bunker . That afternoon , Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide fewer than 40 hours after they were married . Misch witnessed the discovery of the bodies of Hitler and Braun . He followed Otto Günsche and Hitler 's chief valet Heinz Linge to the door of Hitler 's private room . After the door was opened , Misch only took a quick " glance " . He saw Eva , with her legs drawn up , to Hitler 's left on the sofa . Her eyes were open and she was dead . Hitler was also dead . He was either sitting on the sofa or in the armchair by it ; his head " had fallen forward slightly " . Misch started to leave to report the events to Schädle , but then stopped and returned to the door of Hitler 's study . By then Misch observed that Hitler 's corpse had been removed from inside the study and wrapped in a blanket . Several men then picked it up and carried it past him . Misch left and reported the events to Schädle , who instructed him to return to his duty station . After returning to the telephone exchange , Misch later recalled Unterscharführer Retzbach proclaiming " So they 're burning the boss now ! " Retzbach asked Misch if he was going upstairs to watch the events , but Misch declined to go . Thereafter , Günsche came down and told Misch that the corpses of Hitler and Braun had been burned in the garden of the Reich Chancellery .
Misch was present in the bunker complex when Magda Goebbels poisoned her six children and then committed suicide with her husband Joseph on 1 May 1945 . According to Misch , this act by the Goebbels ' of murdering their children was most unsettling . Years later he stated that event was the " most dreadful thing " he experienced in the bunker .
Prior to his suicide , Joseph Goebbels finally released Misch from further service ; he was free to leave . Misch and mechanic Johannes Hentschel were two of the last people remaining in the bunker . They exchanged letters to their wives in case anything happened to either of them . Misch then went upstairs through the cellars of the Reich Chancellery to where Schädle had his office to report one last time . According to Hentschel , by that time Schädle 's shrapnel leg wound had turned gangrenous . Misch told Schädle that Goebbels had released him . Schädle told Misch of the route he should take to try to get through the Soviet encirclement of the area . After helping Misch , Schädle shot himself . Misch fled the bunker in the early morning of 2 May , only hours before the Red Army seized it . He met up with some other soldiers and they travelled north through the U @-@ Bahn tunnels . However , they were captured shortly thereafter and taken prisoner . Misch was brought to Lubyanka Prison in Moscow , where he was tortured by Soviet NKVD officers in an attempt to extract information regarding Hitler 's last days . Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was extremely interested in learning of Hitler 's fate and theories about possible escape . Misch spent eight years in Soviet forced labour camps .
= = Later life = =
After his release from captivity in 1953 , Misch returned to what was then West Berlin . He arrived home on New Year 's Eve 1953 to the house which was 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) from the Führerbunker . At the time , Misch 's wife worked as a teacher in Neukölln . Misch struggled for several years with what to do with his life after captivity . He was offered various odd jobs , among others as a porter in a hospital and as a driver . Most of these job offers were through his wartime contacts , and required moving away from Berlin , which his wife refused to do . He finally obtained a loan backed by wealthy German philanthropists to buy out a painting and interior decorating shop from a retiree in Berlin . He ran this modest business successfully , and during the early Allied occupation of Berlin also became involved in the making of peanut butter for American troops . The business had been started by Misch 's old friend , Adolf Kleinholdermann . This sideline business became so successful that Misch considered leaving his shop . His wife convinced him to remain in the painting and interior decorating business . In 1975 , Gerda was elected to the parliament of West Berlin in which she served for several years . Years later Gerda developed Alzheimer 's and died in 1998 . Misch continued to manage his shop until his retirement at age 68 in 1985 . His memoir in German , Der letzte Zeuge ( The Last Witness ) , was published in 2008 . The English edition was published in 2014 with an introduction by historian Roger Moorhouse .
With the deaths of Bernd von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven on 27 February 2007 , Armin Lehmann on 10 October 2008 , and Siegfried Knappe on 1 December 2008 , Misch was said to be the last survivor of the Führerbunker . Misch was loyal to Hitler to the end , stating in Nazi apologia , " He was no brute . He was no monster . He was no superman " , " ... very normal . Not like what is written " , and " [ h ] e was a wonderful boss " . Misch 's daughter , Brigitta , learned through her maternal grandmother that Gerda was of Jewish descent . However , Gerda never mentioned it and her father refused to acknowledge it . Brigitta became an architect and has supported Jewish causes .
After the release of the 2004 German film Downfall ( Der Untergang ) in France , French journalist Nicolas Bourcier interviewed Misch on multiple occasions during 2005 . The resulting biography was published in French as J 'étais garde du corps d 'Hitler 1940 – 1945 ( I was Hitler 's bodyguard 1940 – 1945 ) in March 2006 , ISBN 2253121541 . Translations were released in South America , Japan , Spain , Poland , Turkey , and Germany in 2006 and 2007 . Misch served as consultant to writer Christopher McQuarrie on the 2008 film Valkyrie , a Hollywood depiction of the 20 July plot .
Misch lived in Berlin in the same house he moved into when he was released by the Soviets . The house is in the district of Rudow in South Berlin . Misch regularly received visitors who wished to speak to or interview him . Misch died in Berlin on 5 September 2013 at the age of 96 .
= = Books = =
J 'étais garde du corps d 'Hitler 1940 – 1945 ( I was Hitler 's bodyguard 1940 – 1945 ) , with Nicolas Bourcier . Le Cherche Midi 2006 , ISBN 978 @-@ 2749105055 .
Rochus Misch : Der letzte Zeuge . Ich war Hitlers Telefonist , Kurier und Leibwächter . Mit einem Vorwort von Ralph Giordano . 11 . Auflage , Piper @-@ Verlag 2013 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 492 @-@ 25735 @-@ 0 .
Hitler 's Last Witness : The Memoirs of Hitler 's Bodyguard . Frontline Books 2014 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1848327498 .
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= Rosetta @ home =
Rosetta @ home is a distributed computing project for protein structure prediction on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing ( BOINC ) platform , run by the Baker laboratory at the University of Washington . Rosetta @ home aims to predict protein – protein docking and design new proteins with the help of about sixty thousand active volunteered computers processing at over 110 teraFLOPS on average as of November 20 , 2015 . Foldit , a Rosetta @ Home videogame , aims to reach these goals with a crowdsourcing approach . Though much of the project is oriented towards basic research on improving the accuracy and robustness of the proteomics methods , Rosetta @ home also does applied research on malaria , Alzheimer 's disease and other pathologies .
Like all BOINC projects , Rosetta @ home uses idle computer processing resources from volunteers ' computers to perform calculations on individual workunits . Completed results are sent to a central project server where they are validated and assimilated into project databases . The project is cross @-@ platform , and runs on a wide variety of hardware configurations . Users can view the progress of their individual protein structure prediction on the Rosetta @ home screensaver .
In addition to disease @-@ related research , the Rosetta @ home network serves as a testing framework for new methods in structural bioinformatics . These new methods are then used in other Rosetta @-@ based applications , like RosettaDock and the Human Proteome Folding Project , after being sufficiently developed and proven stable on Rosetta @ home 's large and diverse collection of volunteer computers . Two particularly important tests for the new methods developed in Rosetta @ home are the Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction ( CASP ) and Critical Assessment of Prediction of Interactions ( CAPRI ) experiments , biannual experiments which evaluate the state of the art in protein structure prediction and protein – protein docking prediction , respectively . Rosetta @ home consistently ranks among the foremost docking predictors , and is one of the best tertiary structure predictors available .
= = Computing platform = =
Both the Rosetta @ home application and the BOINC distributed computing platform are available for the Microsoft Windows , Linux and Macintosh platforms ( BOINC also runs on several other platforms , e.g. FreeBSD ) . Participation in Rosetta @ home requires a central processing unit ( CPU ) with a clock speed of at least 500 MHz , 200 megabytes of free disk space , 512 megabytes of physical memory , and Internet connectivity . As of July 20 , 2016 , the current version of the Rosetta Mini application is 3 @.@ 73 . The current recommended BOINC program version is 7 @.@ 6 @.@ 22 . Standard HTTP ( port 80 ) is used for communication between the user 's BOINC client and the Rosetta @ home servers at the University of Washington ; HTTPS ( port 443 ) is used during password exchange . Remote and local control of the BOINC client use port 31416 and port 1043 , which might need to be specifically unblocked if they are behind a firewall . Workunits containing data on individual proteins are distributed from servers located in the Baker lab at the University of Washington to volunteers ' computers , which then calculate a structure prediction for the assigned protein . To avoid duplicate structure predictions on a given protein , each workunit is initialized with a random number seed . This gives each prediction a unique trajectory of descent along the protein 's energy landscape . Protein structure predictions from Rosetta @ home are approximations of a global minimum in a given protein 's energy landscape . That global minimum represents the most energetically favorable conformation of the protein , i.e. its native state .
A primary feature of the Rosetta @ home graphical user interface ( GUI ) is a screensaver which shows a current workunit 's progress during the simulated protein folding process . In the upper @-@ left of the current screensaver , the target protein is shown adopting different shapes ( conformations ) in its search for the lowest energy structure . Depicted immediately to the right is the structure of the most recently accepted . On the upper right the lowest energy conformation of the current decoy is shown ; below that is the true , or native , structure of the protein if it has already been determined . Three graphs are included in the screensaver . Near the middle , a graph for the accepted model 's free energy is displayed , which fluctuates as the accepted model changes . A graph of the accepted model 's root mean square deviation ( RMSD ) , which measures how structurally similar the accepted model is to the native model , is shown far right . On the right of the accepted energy graph and below the RMSD graph , the results from these two functions are used to produce an energy vs. RMSD plot as the model is progressively refined .
Like all BOINC projects , Rosetta @ home runs in the background of the user 's computer using idle computer power , either at or before logging into an account on the host operating system . Rosetta @ home frees resources from the CPU as they are required by other applications so that normal computer usage is unaffected . To minimize power consumption or heat production from a computer running at sustained capacity , the maximum percentage of CPU resources that Rosetta @ home is allowed to use can be specified through a user 's account preferences . The times of day during which Rosetta @ home is allowed to do work can also be adjusted , along with many other preferences , through a user 's account settings .
Rosetta , the software that runs on the Rosetta @ home network , was rewritten in C + + to allow easier development than that offered by its original version , which was written in Fortran . This new version is object @-@ oriented , and was released on February 8 , 2008 . Development of the Rosetta code is done by Rosetta Commons . The software is freely licensed to the academic community and available to pharmaceutical companies for a fee .
= = Project significance = =
With the proliferation of genome sequencing projects , scientists can infer the amino acid sequence , or primary structure , of many proteins that carry out functions within the cell . To better understand a protein 's function and aid in rational drug design , scientists need to know the protein 's three @-@ dimensional tertiary structure .
Protein 3D structures are currently determined experimentally through X @-@ ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectroscopy . The process is slow ( it can take weeks or even months to figure out how to crystallize a protein for the first time ) and comes at high cost ( around $ 100 @,@ 000 USD per protein ) . Unfortunately , the rate at which new sequences are discovered far exceeds the rate of structure determination – out of more than 7 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 protein sequences available in the NCBI non @-@ redundant ( nr ) protein database , fewer than 52 @,@ 000 proteins ' 3D structures have been solved and deposited in the Protein Data Bank , the main repository for structural information on proteins . One of the main goals of Rosetta @ home is to predict protein structures with the same accuracy as existing methods , but in a way that requires significantly less time and money . Rosetta @ home also develops methods to determine the structure and docking of membrane proteins ( e.g. , GPCRs ) , which are exceptionally difficult to analyze with traditional techniques like X @-@ ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy , yet represent the majority of targets for modern drugs .
Progress in protein structure prediction is evaluated in the biannual Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction ( CASP ) experiment , in which researchers from around the world attempt to derive a protein 's structure from the protein 's amino acid sequence . High scoring groups in this sometimes competitive experiment are considered the de facto standard @-@ bearers for what is the state of the art in protein structure prediction . Rosetta , the program on which Rosetta @ home is based , has been used since CASP5 in 2002 . In the 2004 CASP6 experiment , Rosetta made history by being the first to produce a close to atomic @-@ level resolution , ab initio protein structure prediction in its submitted model for CASP target T0281 . Ab initio modeling is considered an especially difficult category of protein structure prediction , as it does not use information from structural homology and must rely on information from sequence homology and modeling physical interactions within the protein . Rosetta @ home has been used in CASP since 2006 , where it was among the top predictors in every category of structure prediction in CASP7 . These high quality predictions were enabled by the computing power made available by Rosetta @ home volunteers . Increasing computational power allows Rosetta @ home to sample more regions of conformation space ( the possible shapes a protein can assume ) , which , according to Levinthal 's paradox , is predicted to increase exponentially with protein length .
Rosetta @ home is also used in protein docking prediction , which determines the structure of multiple complexed proteins , or quaternary structure . This type of protein interaction affects many cellular functions , including antigen – antibody and enzyme – inhibitor binding and cellular import and export . Determining these interactions is critical for drug design . Rosetta is used in the Critical Assessment of Prediction of Interactions ( CAPRI ) experiment , which evaluates the state of the protein docking field similar to how CASP gauges progress in protein structure prediction . The computing power made available by Rosetta @ home 's project volunteers has been cited as a major factor in Rosetta 's performance in CAPRI , where its docking predictions have been among the most accurate and complete .
In early 2008 , Rosetta was used to computationally design a protein with a function never before observed in nature . This was inspired in part by the retraction of a high @-@ profile paper from 2004 which originally described the computational design of a protein with improved enzymatic activity compared to its natural form . The 2008 research paper from David Baker 's group describing how the protein was made , which cited Rosetta @ home for the computational resources it made available , represented an important proof of concept for this protein design method . This type of protein design could have future applications in drug discovery , green chemistry , and bioremediation .
= = Disease @-@ related research = =
In addition to basic research in predicting protein structure , docking and design , Rosetta @ home is also used in immediate disease @-@ related research . Numerous minor research projects are described in David Baker 's Rosetta @ home journal . As of February 2014 , information on recent publications and a short description of the work are being updated on the forum .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
A component of the Rosetta software suite , RosettaDesign , was used to accurately predict which regions of amyloidogenic proteins were most likely to make amyloid @-@ like fibrils . By taking hexapeptides ( six amino acid @-@ long fragments ) of a protein of interest and selecting the lowest energy match to a structure similar to that of a known fibril forming hexapeptide , RosettaDesign was able to identify peptides twice as likely to form fibrils as are random proteins . Rosetta @ home was used in the same study to predict structures for amyloid beta , a fibril @-@ forming protein that has been postulated to cause Alzheimer 's disease . Preliminary but as yet unpublished results have been produced on Rosetta @-@ designed proteins that may prevent fibrils from forming , although it is unknown whether it can prevent the disease .
= = = Anthrax = = =
Another component of Rosetta , RosettaDock , was used in conjunction with experimental methods to model interactions between three proteins — lethal factor ( LF ) , edema factor ( EF ) and protective antigen ( PA ) — that make up anthrax toxin . The computational model accurately predicted docking between LF and PA , helping to establish which domains of the respective proteins are involved in the LF – PA complex . This insight was eventually used in research resulting in improved anthrax vaccines .
= = = Herpes simplex virus 1 = = =
RosettaDock was used to model docking between an antibody ( immunoglobulin G ) and a surface protein expressed by the cold sore virus , herpes simplex virus 1 ( HSV @-@ 1 ) which serves to degrade the antiviral antibody . The protein complex predicted by RosettaDock closely agreed with the particularly difficult @-@ to @-@ obtain experimental models , leading researchers to conclude that the docking method has potential in addressing some of the problems that X @-@ ray crystallography has with modeling protein – protein interfaces .
= = = HIV = = =
As part of research funded by a $ 19 @.@ 4 million grant by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , Rosetta @ home has been used in designing multiple possible vaccines for human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) .
= = = Malaria = = =
In research involved with the Grand Challenges in Global Health initiative , Rosetta has been used to computationally design novel homing endonuclease proteins , which could eradicate Anopheles gambiae or otherwise render the mosquito unable to transmit malaria . Being able to model and alter protein – DNA interactions specifically , like those of homing endonucleases , gives computational protein design methods like Rosetta an important role in gene therapy ( which includes possible cancer treatments ) .
= = Development history and branches = =
Originally introduced by the Baker laboratory in 1998 as an ab initio approach to structure prediction , Rosetta has since branched into several development streams and distinct services . The Rosetta platform derives its name from the Rosetta Stone , as it attempts to decipher the structural " meaning " of proteins ' amino acid sequences . More than seven years after Rosetta 's first appearance , the Rosetta @ home project was released ( i.e. announced as no longer beta ) on October 6 , 2005 . Many of the graduate students and other researchers involved in Rosetta 's initial development have since moved to other universities and research institutions , and subsequently enhanced different parts of the Rosetta project .
= = = RosettaDesign = = =
RosettaDesign , a computational approach to protein design based on Rosetta , began in 2000 with a study in redesigning the folding pathway of Protein G. In 2002 RosettaDesign was used to design Top7 , a 93 @-@ amino acid long α / β protein that had an overall fold never before recorded in nature . This new conformation was predicted by Rosetta to within 1 @.@ 2 Å RMSD of the structure determined by X @-@ ray crystallography , representing an unusually accurate structure prediction . Rosetta and RosettaDesign earned widespread recognition by being the first to design and accurately predict the structure of a novel protein of such length , as reflected by the 2002 paper describing the dual approach prompting two positive letters in the journal Science , and being cited by more than 240 other scientific articles . The visible product of that research , Top7 , was featured as the RCSB PDB 's ' Molecule of the Month ' in October 2006 ; a superposition of the respective cores ( residues 60 – 79 ) of its predicted and X @-@ ray crystal structures are featured in the Rosetta @ home logo .
Brian Kuhlman , a former postdoctoral associate in David Baker 's lab and now an associate professor at the University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , offers RosettaDesign as an online service .
= = = RosettaDock = = =
RosettaDock was added to the Rosetta software suite during the first CAPRI experiment in 2002 as the Baker laboratory 's algorithm for protein – protein docking prediction . In that experiment , RosettaDock made a high @-@ accuracy prediction for the docking between streptococcal pyogenic exotoxin A and a T cell @-@ receptor β @-@ chain , and a medium accuracy prediction for a complex between porcine α @-@ amylase and a camelid antibody . While the RosettaDock method only made two acceptably accurate predictions out of seven possible , this was enough to rank it seventh out of nineteen prediction methods in the first CAPRI assessment .
Development of RosettaDock diverged into two branches for subsequent CAPRI rounds as Jeffrey Gray , who laid the groundwork for RosettaDock while at the University of Washington , continued working on the method in his new position at Johns Hopkins University . Members of the Baker laboratory further developed RosettaDock in Gray 's absence . The two versions differed slightly in side @-@ chain modeling , decoy selection and other areas . Despite these differences , both the Baker and Gray methods performed well in the second CAPRI assessment , placing fifth and seventh respectively out of 30 predictor groups . Jeffrey Gray 's RosettaDock server is available as a free docking prediction service for non @-@ commercial use .
In October 2006 , RosettaDock was integrated into Rosetta @ home . The method used a fast , crude docking model phase using only the protein backbone . This was followed by a slow full @-@ atom refinement phase in which the orientation of the two interacting proteins relative to each other , and side @-@ chain interactions at the protein – protein interface , were simultaneously optimized to find the lowest energy conformation . The vastly increased computational power afforded by the Rosetta @ home network , in combination with revised " fold @-@ tree " representations for backbone flexibility and loop modeling , made RosettaDock sixth out of 63 prediction groups in the third CAPRI assessment .
= = = Robetta = = =
The Robetta server is an automated protein structure prediction service offered by the Baker laboratory for non @-@ commercial ab initio and comparative modeling . It has participated as an automated prediction server in the biannual CASP experiments since CASP5 in 2002 , performing among the best in the automated server prediction category . Robetta has since competed in CASP6 and 7 , where it did better than average among both automated server and human predictor groups .
In modeling protein structure as of CASP6 , Robetta first searches for structural homologs using BLAST , PSI @-@ BLAST , and 3D @-@ Jury , then parses the target sequence into its individual domains , or independently folding units of proteins , by matching the sequence to structural families in the Pfam database . Domains with structural homologs then follow a " template @-@ based model " ( i.e. , homology modeling ) protocol . Here , the Baker laboratory 's in @-@ house alignment program , K * sync , produces a group of sequence homologs , and each of these is modeled by the Rosetta de novo method to produce a decoy ( possible structure ) . The final structure prediction is selected by taking the lowest energy model as determined by a low @-@ resolution Rosetta energy function . For domains that have no detected structural homologs , a de novo protocol is followed in which the lowest energy model from a set of generated decoys is selected as the final prediction . These domain predictions are then connected together to investigate inter @-@ domain , tertiary @-@ level interactions within the protein . Finally , side @-@ chain contributions are modeled using a protocol for Monte Carlo conformational search .
In CASP8 , Robetta was augmented to use Rosetta 's high resolution all @-@ atom refinement method , the absence of which was cited as the main cause for Robetta being less accurate than the Rosetta @ home network in CASP7 .
= = = Foldit = = =
On May 9 , 2008 , after Rosetta @ home users suggested an interactive version of the distributed computing program , the Baker lab publicly released Foldit , an online protein structure prediction game based on the Rosetta platform . As of September 25 , 2008 , Foldit has over 59 @,@ 000 registered users . The game gives users a set of controls ( e.g. " shake " , " wiggle " , " rebuild " ) to manipulate the backbone and amino acid side chains of the target protein into more energetically favorable conformations . Users can work on solutions individually as " soloists " or collectively as " evolvers " , accruing points under either category as they improve their structure predictions . Users can also individually compete with other users through a " duel " feature , in which the player with the lowest energy structure after 20 moves wins .
= = Comparison to similar distributed computing projects = =
There are several distributed computed projects which have study areas similar to those of Rosetta @ home , but differ in their research approach :
= = = Folding @ home = = =
Of all the major distributed computing projects involved in protein research , Folding @ home is the only one not to use the BOINC platform . Both Rosetta @ home and Folding @ home study protein misfolding diseases such as Alzheimer 's disease , but Folding @ home does so much more exclusively . Folding @ home almost exclusively uses all @-@ atom molecular dynamics models to understand how and why proteins fold ( or potentially misfold , and subsequently aggregate to cause diseases ) . In other words , Folding @ home 's strength is modeling the process of protein folding , while Rosetta @ home 's strength is computational protein design and prediction of protein structure and docking .
Some of Rosetta @ home 's results are used as the basis for some Folding @ home projects . Rosetta provides the most likely structure , but it is not definite if that is the form the molecule takes or whether or not it is viable . Folding @ home can then be used to verify Rosetta @ home 's results , but can also provide additional atomic @-@ level information , as well as details into how the molecule changes shape .
The two projects also differ significantly in their computing power and host diversity . Averaging about 6 @,@ 650 teraFLOPS from a host base of CPUs , GPUs and PS3s , Folding @ home has nearly 108 times more computing power than Rosetta @ home .
= = = World Community Grid = = =
Both Phase I and Phase II of the Human Proteome Folding Project ( HPF ) , a subproject of World Community Grid , have used the Rosetta program to make structural and functional annotations of various genomes . Although he now uses it to create databases for biologists , Richard Bonneau , head scientist of the Human Proteome Folding Project , was active in the original development of Rosetta at David Baker 's laboratory while obtaining his PhD . More information on the relationship between the HPF1 , HPF2 and Rosetta @ home can be found on Richard Bonneau 's website .
= = = Predictor @ home = = =
Like Rosetta @ home , Predictor @ home specialized in protein structure prediction . While Rosetta @ home uses the Rosetta program for its structure prediction , Predictor @ home used the dTASSER methodology . In 2009 , Predictor @ home shut down .
Other protein related distributed computing projects on BOINC include QMC @ home , Docking @ home , POEM @ home , SIMAP , and TANPAKU . RALPH @ home , the Rosetta @ home alpha project which tests new application versions , work units , and updates before they move on to Rosetta @ home , runs on BOINC as well .
= = Volunteer contributions = =
Rosetta @ home depends on computing power donated by individual project members for its research . As of April 18 , 2014 , about 26 @,@ 900 users from 150 countries were active members of Rosetta @ home , together contributing idle processor time from about 66 @,@ 000 computers for a combined average performance of over 83 teraFLOPS .
Users are granted BOINC credits as a measure of their contribution . The credit granted for each workunit is the number of decoys produced for that workunit multiplied by the average claimed credit for the decoys submitted by all computer hosts for that workunit . This custom system was designed to address significant differences between credit granted to users with the standard BOINC client and an optimized BOINC client , and credit differences between users running Rosetta @ home on Windows and Linux operating systems . The amount of credit granted per second of CPU work is lower for Rosetta @ home than most other BOINC projects . Rosetta @ home is thirteenth out of over 40 BOINC projects in terms of total credit .
Rosetta @ home users who predict protein structures submitted for the CASP experiment are acknowledged in scientific publications regarding their results . Users who predict the lowest energy structure for a given workunit are featured on the Rosetta @ home homepage as ' Predictor of the Day ' , along with any team of which they are a member . A ' User of the Day ' is chosen at random each day to be on the homepage as well from users who have made a Rosetta @ home profile .
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= Sanguinarium =
" Sanguinarium " is the sixth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . " Sanguinarium " was written by newcomers Vivian and Valerie Mayhew and directed by Kim Manners , and is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . It first aired in the United States on November 10 , 1996 on the Fox network , earning a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 and being seen by 19 @.@ 85 million viewers upon its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In " Sanguinarium " , bizarre murders in a hospital 's plastic surgery unit lead Mulder and Scully to suspect a supernatural force may be responsible . As the uncontrolled killings continue , Mulder discovers a link between the victims ' dates of birth and key dates on the witchcraft calendar .
The episode started as a spec script written by two fans of the series . It features several references to real life witchcraft sources . " Sanguinarium " received mixed reviews from critics ; negative criticism was given to the number of inconsistencies in the plot . The episode 's use of gore also drew a mixed reaction ; some critics felt that the gore helped , while others felt that " Sanguinarium " relied too heavily on it to cover up weaknesses in its storyline .
= = Plot = =
During a routine liposuction operation in Chicago , Dr. Harrison Lloyd ( John Juliani ) suddenly begins to violently remove such large amounts of fat from a patient that the patient dies . Following the unusual experience , Lloyd tells Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) that he killed the patient due to being spiritually possessed . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is skeptical about Lloyd 's claims , believing he 's only making it up to escape legal consequences . Mulder inspects the operation room and discovers pentagrams burned into the floor , suspecting witchcraft as the cause .
Upon reviewing the tapes of the operation , Mulder decides to check what type of medication Lloyd was taking . Meanwhile , the staff at Lloyd 's clinic are shocked when another plastic surgeon , Dr. Ilaqua ( Paul Raskin ) , murders a patient under unusual circumstances . Scully interviews Ilaqua , who claims to not be able to remember anything from what happened . Scully deduces that both Ilaqua and Lloyd were taking the same medicine . Mulder 's belief in the cause for the unexplained phenomena strengthens when he reviews the tape of the second murder , observing a pentagram @-@ like pattern on the stomach of the victim .
Worried by the events , the staff tells Mulder and Scully about a similar series of deaths that occurred at the same hospital ten years prior . They suspect Rebecca Waite ( O @-@ Lan Jones ) , a nurse who is the only person present at all the death scenes . The agents visit Waite 's house , discovering evidence that she practiced witchcraft ; however , the evidence has been planted there by a staff member of the hospital . Elsewhere , Dr. Jack Franklin ( Richard Beymer ) is non @-@ fatally assaulted at his house by Waite . Attempts to question Waite are prevented when she starts to vomit pins , and then dies shortly after .
Mulder deduces that the birthdays of all the victims match up with the dates of the Witches ' Sabbath , meaning that continued murders will occur . Back at the clinic , another patient is murdered when her face is melted by acid . With no suspects left to turn to , Mulder uses the hospital 's computer program to determine what Franklin would look like under heavy plastic surgery . He is shocked to find that Franklin is actually Dr. Cllifford Cox , a cosmetic doctor who presumably died during the first spree of murders . Cox attempts to murder his fifth and final victim in a quest to gain eternal youth . He removes the skin on his own face , using a ritual to make him appear younger . Cox is never caught , with the episode ending with him successfully applying at another medical hospital .
= = Production = =
In the 1990s , spec scripts were widely used in television , wherein unexperienced writers could write a teleplay for their favorite shows . The X @-@ Files had a large staff of writers , however occasionally to fill the large amount of ordered episodes per season , the staff would have to take a risk on a teleplay written by a freelance writer . " Sanguinarium " was such a case , being written by sisters Vivian Mayhew and Valerie Mayhew , their first experience with writing a one @-@ hour network program . They would later be responsible for several episodes in the television series Charmed . The sisters asked staff writers Glen Morgan and James Wong for suggestions . Morgan and Wong stated that " the scariest things are those which repeat every day " . After Vivian was paged by a number she did not know , she concluded that a pager qualified as a scary thing because an unknown person could connect with its owner . Then the Mayhews went from the pagers to a class that normally uses them , doctors , and concluded that doctors losing control and being bewitched could be a good plot . After writing the spec script , they presented them to Morgan and Wong , who suggested they change the villain from a woman to a man as " plastic surgery is related to vanity , and everyone expects that from a woman , but not a man . " The spec script written by the Mayhew sisters was chosen to become a full episode . " Sanguinarium " stands as the siblings ' only work in The X @-@ Files .
After the spec script was picked , series creator Chris Carter and the show 's staff reworked the ideas into a teleplay . Carter focused the plot on the themes of greed and vanity , and executive producer Howard Gordon created some of the most graphic moments , such as a phrase written in blood on Franklin 's bathroom . Vince Gilligan named Theresa Shannon after actress Shannon Tweed . After Carter had the idea of placing a subtle pentagram on the reunion table , production designer Graeme Murray decided to take this further by creating rooms with five sides , and having the plastic surgery unit with five operating rooms represent an imaginary pentagram . Like previous episode " Home " , Fox Standards and Practices objected to the graphical content , and Carter had to intervene to help retain some scenes .
The episode features references to witchcraft and occultism . The nurse from the episode , Rebecca Waite , was named after a friend of the writers called Rebecca White , with a slight change as a real nurse also called White existed in Chicago . Viewers ended up finding Waite 's name as an unintended reference to Rebecca Nurse , an innocent woman prosecuted during the Salem witch trials , and the Rider @-@ Waite tarot deck , the most popular tarot deck utilized in the world . The episode itself references Gerald Gardner , a wiccan known for publishing several books on witchcraft and founder of the Gardnerian Tradition . While the Mayhew sisters tried to depict occultism without offending anybody , not connecting Franklin and Waite to any known cult , many Wiccans sent angry letters and e @-@ mails to Fox regarding the portrayal of their beliefs .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sanguinarium " premiered on the Fox network on November 10 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Sanguinarium " was seen by 18 @.@ 85 million viewers on first broadcast .
Gillian Anderson described " Sanguinarium " as " one of the most repulsive scripts I ever shot " , explaining that she could not watch scenes such as the doctor stabbing a patient . David Duchovny stated that " I didn 't understand the plot , but I liked the script " , noting that Carter and his team improved a weak teleplay and director Kim Manners " did an excellent job " . Entertainment Weekly gave " Sanguinarium " a " B – " , feeling that it was " redeemed " by the gore . However , they were " worried " by the " fourth consecutive phoned @-@ in performance by Duchovny and Anderson " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was more negative , grading it a " D " . He felt that the episode was " too much " , with gore shown directly instead of suggested . He also criticized the characterization , especially Scully 's , the " predictable " scares , " ludicrously bad " dialogue , and a story that did not make much sense . Despite this , he did praise the " strong " guest acting . Sarah Stegall awarded " Sanguinarium " two stars out of five , commenting that " several things went wrong " , and also noting the reliance on gore . She mused that she thought it was odd that the " bad " magic seemed to succeed , noting that the " good " magic seemed useless , summarizing , " Where 's the logic in that ? " In addition , Stegall thought the episode 's biggest flaw was its lack of logical writing , and that it required too much suspension of belief from the viewer .
Tom Kessenich in Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 @-@ 9 of the X @-@ Files commented that the ending of " Sanguinarium " was similar to the ending of episode " Signs and Wonders " , wherein the antagonist manages to get away . Frederick S. Clarke from Cinefantastique gave " Sanguinarium " a mixed review , writing that the episode " combines plastic surgery and black magic into an unsatisfying mix that fails to lampoon our obsession with beauty . " Not all reviews were as negative . Writer Preston Nichols took a liking to the episode , having viewed it " eighteen times and counting " . Michael Avalos and George Liedtke , writing for Knight Ridder , speculated that " Sanguinarium " provided viewers with " haunting memories " . Mark Davis of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal , in 1998 , named the episode one of the " Best of The X @-@ Files " .
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= Goat Simulator =
Goat Simulator is a third @-@ person perspective action video game developed and published by Coffee Stain Studios . It was released for Microsoft Windows via Steam on 1 April 2014 , and ports for Mac OS X and Linux were released on 27 June 2014 . Mobile versions for iOS and Android were released on 17 September 2014 . Versions for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One were released on 17 April 2015 , and for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 on 11 August 2015 ; these ports were developed by Double Eleven .
The game has been compared by the developer as akin to skateboarding games , but where the player controls a goat aimed at doing as much damage as possible around an open world map , without any other larger goals . The game , initially developed as a joke prototype from an internal game jam and shown in an early alpha state in YouTube videos , was met with excitement and attention , prompting the studio to build out the game into a releasable state while still retaining various non @-@ breaking bugs and glitches to maintain the game 's entertainment value .
The game received mixed reviews ; some reviewers praised the title for providing a humorous sandbox interface to experiment with , while others criticized the game 's reliance on social media to popularize what was otherwise a simple and buggy product .
= = Gameplay = =
Goat Simulator is an open @-@ ended third @-@ person perspective game in which the player controls a goat . The player is free to explore the game 's world , a suburban setting , as a goat , and jump , run , bash things , and lick objects . Licking objects attaches the goat 's tongue to the object and lets the player drag the object around until they let go . At any time , the player can let the goat drop into a ragdoll model , allowing the game 's physics to take over , and another control makes the game run in slow @-@ motion . A number of environmental features allow the player to manipulate the goat into stunts such as bouncing off trampolines or launching the goat into the air through large fans . The game features a scoring system similar to skateboarding games like Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater , whereby doing tricks or other actions earns points , while chaining such tricks together in sequence helps build a multiplier that applies to the total score of the tricks done in the sequence . Various in @-@ game goals , such as achieving a certain height , completing flips , or destroying certain objects , are given to the player , but the player is not required to follow these instructions .
Small gold goat statues are hidden in the game 's world . Collecting this allows the goat to restart the game with various modifiers in play , such as changing the goat model to a demon goat , a giraffe , or an ostrich , or adding a jetpack to the goat that can be activated at any time . Various easter eggs are scattered about the sandbox , such as a castle where one can become the Queen of all Goats , or where the goat character gains a move similar to Sonic the Hedgehog 's spin attack . The game 's lead developer Armin Ibrisagic noted after release that the game 's setting is a parody of the concept of Purgatory , having left references to Heaven and Hell that were later found by fans . Ibrisagic also noted the inclusion of some elements based on the 2014 Ukrainian revolution .
= = Development = =
Goat Simulator started as a joke prototype from an internal one @-@ month game jam held by Coffee Stain Studios in January 2014 , after completing work for their game Sanctum 2 . The game was described by the lead developer Armin Ibrisagic as " an old school skating game , except instead of being a skater , you 're a goat , and instead of doing tricks , you wreck stuff " . The idea followed after originally pitching the game as a variation of QWOP , where the player would control the individual limbs of the goat separately with various keyboard keys ; this concept was rejected in favor of the more Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater @-@ type of gameplay the final game presents . Ibrisagic had focused on goats after jokingly trying to convince his coworkers that goats would achieve viral attention on the Internet in much the same way that cats presently do .
The prototype used Nvidia PhysX and an Apex physics engine with ragdoll physics for the goat and human models within the Unreal Engine 3 , a game engine they were familiar with from the Sanctum series . In @-@ game assets were purchased from third @-@ party vendors instead of developed in @-@ house , such as the original goat model which the studio acquired for use for less than $ 20 . The prototype was meant to be a parody of various other " weirdly successful " Simulation games presently available , such as Euro Truck Simulator . Ibrisagic had no intention of this becoming a full title , instead only offering the prototype for him and other developers to learn the Unreal Engine alongside other developers that were developing prototypes in more earnest .
Footage of the game in its alpha state was posted to YouTube by Coffee Stain , where it received more than a million views in two days and a large response from fans requesting a full release of the game in part due to various glitches in the prototype 's engine . The appeal of the video was also picked up by the agricultural magazine Modern Farmer . Some journalists suggested that the title be developed into a full game even knowing it was meant as a joking title ; GameSpot editor Danny O 'Dwyer supported the full release of the game arguing that " games should be dumb once in a while " .
The large positive response to the alpha footage convinced the studio to develop Goat Simulator as a full title to Steam , putting more people on the title . The team , having no plans for a full release , debated on whether to approach a large publisher to receive funding to help make the title into something like Grand Theft Auto , but decided to stay with a small , inexpensive title that would be truer to the teaser video . Recognizing that the glitching was part of the game 's appeal , Ibrisagic only sought to fix software bugs that might cause the game to crash , leaving in the other glitches and bugs associated with the physics engine as the results from these were " really hilarious " . They limited themselves to a short development time of four weeks without significant management oversight as to set an urgent but realistic goal to bring the game to a playable state . Ibrisagic felt it was important for the game to be supported on Steam , but initially feared that Valve Corporation would not accept the quirky title . He instead found Valve to be welcoming of the title , including a joking response from the company that stated " [ Valve 's marketing manager DJ Powers ] has started wearing a goat costume to work he ’ s so excited about this game " . As part of its release , Coffee Stain added support for Steam Workshop which would let players modify the game , aware that players would likely create levels and scenarios that will glitch and crash the game for humorous results . While the physics engine allows for spectacular rendering of destruction of the game environment , which is a main feature of the game , Coffee Stain acknowledged the downside of this as " it would synchronise terribly in multiplayer " . They estimated that adding multiplayer would remove " 90 percent of the physics " and many other features , and left the game as a single player title at launch . The studio considered that it only spent a couple months to complete the Windows version , and opted to outsource versions for OS X and Linux , with Ryan Gordon handling the porting .
= = = Release and promotion = = =
Coffee Stain Studios released Goat Simulator worldwide on 1 April 2014 , aware that tying the date with April Fools ' Day may raise doubts on the validity of the game . Those that pre @-@ ordered the game through Coffee Stain 's website received early access to the title three days ahead of release . The official release trailer for Goat Simulator is a loose parody of the highly praised teaser trailer released for Dead Island , showing , among shots of the game , reversed slow @-@ motion footage of the goat crashing through a building after being launched from an exploding gas station .
The studio released a free expansion and patch to the game on 3 June 2014 , which in addition to fixing game @-@ breaking issues , added new goat models , a new map to explore based on a seaside town with a carnival , more game @-@ breaking issues , and local multiplayer for up to 4 players via split @-@ screen . Ibrisagic believes that adding multiplayer support atop Steam Workshop support will allow creative users to develop new gameplay modes that will extend the title 's playability . The patch also adds in additional controls that the player can use to make the goat perform various freestyle tricks comparable to those in Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater . The studio released a second free patch to the game on 20 November 2014 including elements that parody massive multiplayer online games like World of Warcraft , though remains a single player or local multiplayer experience .
A paid @-@ content expansion titled " GoatZ " was released on 7 May 2015 as downloadable content for the game on personal computers and a stand @-@ alone application for mobile devices . It was developed by Coffee Stain 's partner studio Gone North Games . The expansion 's content spoofs zombie @-@ based survival games , such as DayZ , and includes a new map and gameplay aspects such as fighting off zombies and crafting . The title itself plays off DayZ as well as a play on the Internet meme goatse.cx. In a cross @-@ promotional " GoatBread " update with Bossa Studios ' I am Bread to be offered in late 2015 , a free update to Goat Simulator will allow the players to select a piece of bread as their avatar , while I am Bread will add in a " RAMpage " mode based on Goat Simulator . Another add @-@ on , the " Super Secret DLC " package part of a cross @-@ promotion with Overkill Software 's Payday 2 ; the Payday @-@ inspired content for Goat Simulator included additional playable characters including a camel , flamingo , and a dolphin in a wheelchair , while Goat Simulator content will be added to Payday 2 . These were released in January 2016 . Goat Simulator decorative content will be added to Rocket League in a mid @-@ 2016 update . Another expansion , " Waste of Space " , was again developed by Gone North Games and released on 26 May 2016 . The expansion features a new map based on a space colony , and spoofs much of the recent science fiction media genre .
The aforementioned OS X and Linux ports were released on 27 June 2014 . Following the game 's digital release , Koch Media agreed to distribute the game in UK and EU retail stores starting in May 2014 . Similarly , Deep Silver approached Coffee Stain Studios to work out a deal to publish the title in North American retail markets starting in July 2014 . At Microsoft 's presentation at the 2014 Gamescom convention in August , Goat Simulator was announced as one of several titles to be coming to the Xbox One platform with the help of Double Eleven studios , and later confirmed to be also arriving for the Xbox 360 , with both versions released on 17 April 2015 . Koch Media also distributed a retail version of the Xbox One version , including all additional downloadable content , across Europe for release on 4 March 2016 . Coffee Stain Studios also released ports for iOS and Android in September 2014 . PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 versions , also ported by Double Eleven , were released on 11 August 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Goat Simulator received " mixed " reviews upon release , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Goat Simulator was named as an honorable mention for Excellence in Audio for the 2015 Independent Games Festival .
Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead complimented Coffee Stain Studios on building in enough content Goat Simulator and potential expansion through Steam to prove it more than a simple joke title , and instead a brief diversion " in which the player is a willing participant " . Dan Stapleton of IGN considered the title a " clever interactive spoof of all the broken game physics we ’ ve seen in open worlds " and despite being short , was a " hell of a good time " . Tim Turi of Game Informer stated that the first hour with the game would be amusing , but due to the lack of more expansive features , he " [ does not ] recommend it to anyone looking for more than disposable entertainment " . Steve Tilley of the Toronto Sun described the game as one where " most players will have a few hours of fun and then file [ it ] away as an occasional novelty to pull out when they ’ re especially bored " .
Rich Stanton of The Guardian was very critical of Goat Simulator , noting how the title is self @-@ aware of its poor quality , and stated that the game 's creation and promotion " demonstrates how social media and the internet amplify our supine tendencies " . Andy Kelly of PC Gamer was also critical of the title , calling it a " bad , amateurish and boring game " , and considered its popularity was only due to word @-@ of @-@ mouth and YouTube videos that enticed players to buy the game themselves .
Ibrisagic stated that Coffee Stain Studios made their money back on the development costs within a few minutes of the game being offered on Steam . As of August 2014 , the studio has reported that nearly a million copies of Goat Simulator have been sold , outperforming their other games over the previous four years . The mobile release for iOS and Android systems reached 100 @,@ 000 downloads within 6 days of launch . By mid @-@ January 2015 , over 2 @.@ 5 million copies of the game were sold across all platforms . During a presentation at the 2016 Game Developers Conference , Ibrisagic revealed that Goat Simulator has made more than $ 12 million in revenue , compared to both Sanctum and Sanctum 2 which made under $ 2 million each . With the success of the game , Coffee Stain Studios has worked to license out Goat Simulator @-@ themed properties with third @-@ party vendors .
In an industry roundtable the CEO of Paradox name checked Goat Simulator specifically stating " You have to have an edge in there , and that 's why I say ' more Goat Simulator and less Call of Duty ' for Paradox , because we need the edge . It 's easier to get out and market , it 's easier to show what you 're doing " adding that " People are tired of explosions and dubstep music . We 've seen it a million times now "
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= History of the domestic sheep =
The history of the domesticated sheep goes back to between 11000 and 9000 BC , and the domestication of the wild mouflon in ancient Mesopotamia . Sheep are among the first animals to have been domesticated by humans , and there is evidence of sheep farming in Iranian statuary dating to that time period . These sheep were primarily raised for meat , milk , and skins . Woolly sheep began to be developed around 6000 BC in Iran , and cultures such as the Persians relied on sheep 's wool for trading . They were then imported to Africa and Europe via trade . The first sheep was found in Asia .
= = Wild ancestors = =
The exact line of descent between domestic sheep and their wild ancestors is unclear . The most common hypothesis states that Ovis aries is descended from the Asiatic ( O. orientalis ) species of mouflon . It has been proposed that the European mouflon ( O. musimon ) is an ancient breed of domestic sheep turned feral rather than an ancestor , despite its commonly being cited as ancestor in past literature . A few breeds of sheep , such as the Castlemilk Moorit from Scotland , were formed through crossbreeding with wild European mouflon .
The urial ( O. vignei ) was once thought to have been a forebear of domestic sheep , as they occasionally interbreed with mouflon in the Iranian part of their range . However , the urial , argali ( O. ammon ) , and snow sheep ( O. nivicola ) have a different number of chromosomes than other Ovis species , making a direct relationship implausible , and phylogenetic studies show no evidence of urial ancestry . Further studies comparing European and Asian breeds of sheep showed significant genetic differences between the two . Two explanations for this phenomenon have been posited . The first explanation is that a currently unknown species or subspecies of wild sheep that contributed to the formation of domestic sheep . The second explanation is that this variation is the result of multiple waves of capture from wild mouflon , similar to the known development of other livestock .
One chief difference between ancient sheep and modern breeds is the technique by which wool could be collected . Primitive sheep can be shorn , but many can have their wool plucked out by hand in a process called " rooing " . Rooing helps to leave behind the coarse fibers called kemps which are still longer than the soft fleece . The fleece may also be collected from the field after it falls out naturally . This rooing trait survives today in unrefined breeds such as the Soay and many Shetlands . Indeed , the Soay , along with other Northern European breeds with short tails , naturally rooing fleece , diminutive size , and horns in both sexes , are closely related to ancient sheep . Originally , weaving and spinning wool was a handicraft practiced at home , rather than an industry . Babylonians , Sumerians , and Persians all depended on sheep ; and although linen was the first fabric to be fashioned in to clothing , wool was a prized product . The raising of flocks for their fleece was one of the earliest industries , and flocks were a medium of exchange in barter economies . Numerous biblical figures kept large flocks , and subjects of the king of Israel were taxed according to the number of rams they owned .
= = In Asia = =
= = = Domestication = = =
Sheep were among the first animals to be domesticated by mankind ( although the domestication of dogs may be over 20 @,@ 000 years earlier ) ; the domestication date is estimated to fall between 11 @,@ 000 and 9 @,@ 000 B.C in Mesopotamia . Their wild relatives have several characteristics , such as a relative lack of aggression , a manageable size , early sexual maturity , a social nature , and high reproduction rates , which made them particularly suitable for domestication . Today , Ovis aries is an entirely domesticated animal that is largely dependent on man for its health and survival . Feral sheep do exist , but exclusively in areas devoid of large predators ( usually islands ) and not on the scale of feral horses , goats , pigs , or dogs , although some feral populations have remained isolated long enough to be recognized as distinct breeds .
The rearing of sheep for secondary products , and the resulting breed development , began in either southwest Asia or western Europe . Initially , sheep were kept solely for meat , milk and skins . Archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests that selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC , and the earliest woven wool garments have been dated to two to three thousand years later . Before this , when a sheep was slaughtered for its meat , the hide would be tanned and worn as a kind of tunic . Researchers believe that the development of such clothing encouraged humans to live in areas far colder than the Fertile Crescent , where temperatures averaged 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Sheep molars and bones found at Çatalhöyük suggest that populations of domestic sheep may have been established in the area . By that span of the Bronze Age , sheep with all the major features of modern breeds were widespread throughout Western Asia .
The residents of the ancient city of Jeitun , which dates to 6000 BC , kept sheep and goats as their primary livestock . There have also been numerous identifications of Nomadic pastoralism in archaeological sites , identified by a prevalence of sheep and goat bones , a lack of grain or grain @-@ processing equipment , very limited architecture showing a set of characteristic traits , a location outside the region 's zone of agriculture , and ethnographic analogy to modern nomadic pastoral peoples .
= = = Modern = = =
= = = = Middle East = = = =
There is a large but constantly declining minority of nomadic and seminomadic pastoralists in countries such as Saudi Arabia ( probably less than 3 % ) , Iran ( 4 % ) , and Afghanistan ( at most 10 % ) .
= = = = India = = = =
In India , there are efforts to ' grade up ' , or improve the quality of , the native desi sheep breed , by crossing it with Merino and other high @-@ quality wool sheep . This is being done in an effort to produce a desi sheep that produces high @-@ quality wool and mutton .
= = = = China = = = =
Sheep are not an important part of China 's agricultural economy , since the majority of China does not have the large open pastures required for sheep @-@ rearing . Sheep farming is more common in the northwestern provinces of the country , where such tracts of land exist . China does have a native sheep breed , the zhan . The population of the breed has been in decline since 1985 , despite government promotion of the breed .
= = = = Japan = = = =
The Japanese government encouraged farmers to raise sheep throughout the 19th @-@ century . Sheep @-@ rearing programs began to import Yorkshire , Berkshire , Spanish merino , and numerous Chinese and Mongolian sheep breeds , encouraged by government promotion of sheep farming . However , a lack of knowledge on the farmer 's part of how to successfully keep sheep , and the government 's failure to provide information to those importing the sheep they promoted , led to the project 's failure , and in 1888 it was discontinued .
= = = = Mongolia = = = =
Sheep herding has been one of the main economic activities and lifestyles of Mongolians for millennia . Mongolian sheep herding traditions and modern science are well developed . Mongolian selection and veterinary science classifies the sheep herd of the country by ( i ) wool fiber ’ s length , thinness and softness , ( ii ) capability of surviving at various altitudes , ( iii ) physical appearance , tail form , size , and other criteria . The most common sheep breeds are Mongol Khalha , Gov @-@ altai , Baidrag , Bayad , Uzenchin , Sumber and number of other breeds , all being of the fat @-@ tailed breed .
A census of the entire domestic animals stock of the country is carried out annually . At the end of 2014 , the census counted more than 23 million of sheep that makes up 44 @.@ 6 percent of the entire herding stock .
Annually before the Lunar New year the Government awards the prestigious “ Best Herder ” ( in Mongolian “ Улсын сайн малчин цол ” ) nomination to select herders .
= = In Africa = =
Sheep entered the African continent not long after their domestication in western Asia . A minority of historians once posited a contentious African theory of origin for Ovis aries . This theory is based primarily on rock art interpretations , and osteological evidence from Barbary sheep . The first sheep entered North Africa via Sinai , and were present in ancient Egyptian society between eight and seven thousand years ago . Sheep have always been part of subsistence farming in Africa , but today the only country that keeps significant numbers of commercial sheep is South Africa , with 28 @.@ 8 million head .
In Ethiopia , there are several varieties of sheep landrace . Attempts have been made to classify the sheep based on factors such as tail shape and wool type , and H. Epstein made an attempt at classifying them this way by dividing the breeds into 14 types based on those two factors . However , in 2002 , further genetic analysis revealed that there are only four distinct varieties of Ethiopian sheep : short @-@ fat @-@ tailed , long @-@ fat @-@ tailed , fat @-@ rumped , and thin @-@ tailed .
= = In Europe = =
Sheep husbandry spread quickly in Europe . Excavations show that in about 6000 BC , during the Neolithic period of prehistory , the Castelnovien people , living around Châteauneuf @-@ les @-@ Martigues near present @-@ day Marseille in the south of France , were among the first in Europe to keep domestic sheep . Practically from its inception , ancient Greek civilization relied on sheep as primary livestock , and were even said to name individual animals . Scandinavian sheep of a type seen today — with short tails and multi @-@ colored fleece — were also present early on . Later , the Roman Empire kept sheep on a wide scale , and the Romans were an important agent in the spread of sheep raising through much of Europe . Pliny the Elder , in his Natural History ( Naturalis Historia ) , speaks at length about sheep and wool . Declaring " Many thanks , too , do we owe to the sheep , both for appeasing the gods , and for giving us the use of its fleece . " , he goes on to detail the breeds of ancient sheep and the many colors , lengths and qualities of wool . Romans also pioneered the practice of blanketing sheep , in which a fitted coat ( today usually of nylon ) is placed over the sheep to improve the cleanliness and luster of its wool .
During the Roman occupation of the British Isles , a large wool processing factory was established in Winchester , England in about 50 AD . By 1000 AD , England and Spain were recognized as the twin centers of sheep production in the Western world . As the original breeders of the fine @-@ wooled merino sheep that have historically dominated the wool trade , the Spanish gained great wealth . Wool money largely financed Spanish rulers and thus the voyages to the New World by conquistadors . The powerful Mesta ( its full title was Honrado Concejo de la Mesta , the Honorable Council of the Mesta ) was a corporation of sheep owners mostly drawn from Spain 's wealthy merchants , Catholic clergy and nobility that controlled the merino flocks . By the 17th century , the Mesta held upwards of two million head of merino sheep .
Mesta flocks followed a seasonal pattern of transhumance across Spain . In the spring , they left the winter pastures ( invernaderos ) in Extremadura and Andalusia to graze on their summer pastures ( agostaderos ) in Castile , returning again in the autumn . Spanish rulers eager to increase wool profits gave extensive legal rights to the Mesta , often to the detriment of local peasantry . The huge merino flocks had a lawful right of way for their migratory routes ( cañadas ) . Towns and villages were obliged by law to let the flocks graze on their common land , and the Mesta had its own sheriffs that could summon offending individuals to its own tribunals .
Exportation of merinos without royal permission was also a punishable offense , thus ensuring a near @-@ absolute monopoly on the breed until the mid @-@ 18th century . After the breaking of the export ban , fine wool sheep began to be distributed worldwide . The export to Rambouillet by Louis XVI in 1786 formed the basis for the modern Rambouillet ( or French Merino ) breed . After the Napoleonic Wars and the global distribution of the once @-@ exclusive Spanish stocks of Merinos , sheep raising in Spain reverted to hardy coarse @-@ wooled breeds such as the Churra , and was no longer of international economic significance .
The sheep industry in Spain was an instance of migratory flock management , with large homogenous flocks ranging over the entire country . The management model used in England was quite different but had a similar importance to economy of the country . Up until the early 20th century , owling ( the smuggling of sheep or wool out of the country ) was a punishable offense , and to this day the Lord Speaker of the House of Lords sits on a cushion known as the Woolsack .
The high concentration and more sedentary nature of shepherding in the UK allowed sheep especially adapted to their particular purpose and region to be raised , thereby giving rise to an exceptional variety of breeds in relation to the land mass of the country . This greater variety of breeds also produced a valuable variety of products to compete with the superfine wool of Spanish sheep . By the time of Elizabeth I 's rule , sheep and wool trade was the primary source of tax revenue to the Crown of England and the country was a major influence in the development and spread of sheep husbandry .
An important event not only in the history of domestic sheep , but of all livestock , was the work of Robert Bakewell in the 18th century . Before his time , breeding for desirable traits was often based on chance , with no scientific process for selection of breeding stock . Bakewell established the principles of selective breeding — especially line breeding — in his work with sheep , horses and cattle ; his work later influenced Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin . His most important contribution to sheep was the development of the Leicester Longwool , a quick @-@ maturing breed of blocky conformation that formed the basis for many vital modern breeds . Today , the sheep industry in the UK has diminished significantly , though pedigreed rams can still fetch around 100 @,@ 000 Pounds sterling at auction .
= = In the Americas = =
No ovine species native to the Americas has ever been domesticated , despite being closer genetically to domestic sheep than many Asian and European species . The first domestic sheep in North America — most likely of the Churra breed — arrived with Christopher Columbus ' second voyage in 1493 . The next transatlantic shipment to arrive was with Hernán Cortés in 1519 , landing in Mexico . No export of wool or animals is known to have occurred from these populations , but flocks did disseminate throughout what is now Mexico and the Southwest United States with Spanish colonists . Churras were also introduced to the Navajo tribe of Native Americans , and became a key part of their livelihood and culture . The modern presence of the Navajo @-@ Churro breed is a result of this heritage .
= = = North America = = =
The next transport of sheep to North America was not until 1607 , with the voyage of the Susan Constant to Virginia . However , the sheep that arrived in that year were all slaughtered because of a famine , and a permanent flock was not to reach the colony until two years later in 1609 . In two decades ' time , the colonists had expanded their flock to a total of 400 head . By the 1640s there were about 100 @,@ 000 head of sheep in the 13 colonies , and in 1662 , a woolen mill was built in Watertown , Massachusetts . Especially during the periods of political unrest and civil war in Britain spanning the 1640s and 1650s which disrupted maritime trade , the colonists found it pressing to produce wool for clothing . Many islands off the coast were cleared of predators and set aside for sheep : Nantucket , Long Island , Martha 's Vineyard and small islands in Boston Harbor were notable examples . There remain some rare breeds of American sheep — such as the Hog Island sheep — that were the result of island flocks . Placing semi @-@ feral sheep and goats on islands was common practice in colonization during this period . Early on , the British government banned further export of sheep to the Americas , or wool from it , in an attempt to stifle any threat to the wool trade in the British Isles . One of many restrictive trade measures that precipitated the American Revolution , the sheep industry in the Northeast grew despite the bans .
Gradually , beginning in the 19th century , sheep production in the U.S. moved westward . Today , the vast majority of flocks reside on Western range lands . During this westward migration of the industry , competition between sheep ( sometime called " range maggots " ) and cattle operations grew more heated , eventually erupting into range wars . Other than simple competition for grazing and water rights , cattlemen believed that the secretions of the foot glands of sheep made cattle unwilling to graze on places where sheep had stepped . As sheep production centered on the U.S. western ranges , it became associated with other parts of Western culture , such as the rodeo . In modern America , a minor event in rodeos is mutton busting , in which children compete to see who can stay atop a sheep the longest before falling off . Another effect of the westward movement of sheep flocks in North America was the decline of wild species such as Bighorn sheep ( O. canadesis ) . Most diseases of domestic sheep are transmittable to wild ovines , and such diseases , along with overgrazing and habitat loss , are named as primary factors in the plummeting numbers of wild sheep . Sheep production peaked in North America during the 1940s and 1950s at more than 55 million head . By 2013 the number of sheep in the United States was 10 percent what it had been in the early 1940s .
In the 1970s , Roy McBride , a farmer from Alpine , Texas , invented a collar filled with the poison compound 1080 to protect his livestock from coyotes , which tended to attack the throat . This device is known as the livestock protection collar and is in widespread use in Texas , as well as in South Africa .
= = = South America = = =
In South America , especially in Patagonia , there is an active modern sheep industry . Sheep keeping was largely introduced through immigration to the continent by Spanish and British peoples , for whom sheep were a major industry during the period . South America has a large number of sheep , but the highest @-@ producing nation ( Brazil ) kept only just over 15 million head in 2004 , far fewer than most centers of sheep husbandry . The primary challenges to the sheep industry in South America are the phenomenal drop in wool prices in the late 20th century and the loss of habitat through logging and overgrazing . The most influential region internationally is that of Patagonia , which has been the first to rebound from the fall in wool prices . With few predators and almost no grazing competition ( the only large native grazing mammal is the guanaco ) , the region is prime land for sheep raising . The most exceptional area of production is surrounding the La Plata river in the Pampas region . Sheep production in Patagonia peaked in 1952 at more than 21 million head , but has steadily fallen to fewer than ten today . Most operations focus on wool production for export from Merino and Corriedale sheep ; the economic sustainability of wool flocks has fallen with the drop in prices , while the cattle industry continues to grow .
= = In Australia and New Zealand = =
Australia and New Zealand are crucial players in the contemporary sheep industry , and sheep are an iconic part of both countries ' culture and economy . New Zealand has the highest density of sheep per capita ( sheep outnumber the human population 12 to 1 ) , and Australia is the world 's indisputably largest exporter of sheep and cattle . In 2007 , New Zealand even declared 15 February their official National Lamb Day to celebrate the country 's history of sheep production .
The First Fleet brought the initial population of 70 sheep from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia in 1788 . The next shipment was of 30 sheep from Calcutta and Ireland in 1793 . All of the early sheep brought to Australia were exclusively used for the dietary needs of the penal colonies . The beginnings of the Australian wool industry were due to the efforts of Captain John Macarthur . At Macarthur 's urging 16 Spanish merinos were imported in 1797 , effectively beginning the Australian sheep industry . By 1801 Macarthur had 1 @,@ 000 head of sheep , and in 1803 he exported 111 kilograms ( 245 lb ) of wool to England . Today , Macarthur is generally thought of as the father of the Australian sheep industry .
The growth of the sheep industry in Australia was explosive . In 1820 , the continent held 100 @,@ 000 sheep , a decade later it had one million . By 1840 , New South Wales alone kept 4 million sheep ; flock numbers grew to 13 million in a decade . While much of the growth in both nations was due to the active support of Britain in its desire for wool , both worked independently to develop new high @-@ production breeds : the Corriedale , Coolalee , Coopworth , Perendale , Polwarth , Booroola Merino , Peppin Merino , and Poll Merino were all created in New Zealand or Australia . Wool production was a fitting industry for colonies far from their home nations . Before the advent of fast air and maritime shipping , wool was one of the few viable products that was not subject to spoiling on the long passage back to British ports . The abundant new land and milder winter weather of the region also aided the growth of the Australian and New Zealand sheep industries .
Flocks in Australia have always been largely range bands on fenced land , and are aimed at production of medium to superfine wool for clothing and other products as well as meat . New Zealand flocks are kept in a fashion similar to English ones , in fenced holdings without shepherds . Although wool was once the primary income source for New Zealand sheep owners ( especially during the New Zealand wool boom ) , today it has shifted to meat production for export .
= = = Animal welfare concerns = = =
The Australian sheep industry is the only sector of the industry to receive international criticism for its practices . Sheep stations in Australia are cited in Animal Liberation , the seminal book of the animal rights movement , as the author 's primary evidence in his argument against retaining sheep as a part of animal agriculture . The practice of mulesing , in which skin is cut away from an animal 's perineal area to prevent cases of the fatal condition flystrike , has been condemned by animal rights groups such as PETA as being a " painful and unnecessary " process . In response , a program of phasing out mulesing is currently being implemented , and some mulesing operations are being carried out with the use of anaesthetic . The Animal Welfare Advisory Committee to the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture Code of recommendations and minimum standards for the welfare of Sheep , considers mulesing a " special technique " which is performed on some Merino sheep at a small number of farms in New Zealand .
Most of the sheep meat exported from Australia is either frozen carcases to the UK or is live export to the Middle East for halal slaughter . PETA has stated that sheep exported to countries outside the jurisdiction of Australia 's animal cruelty laws are treated inhumanely and that halal meat processing facilities exist in Australia , making the export of live animals redundant . Entertainer Pink has pledged to boycott all Australian sheep products in protest .
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= Common stingray =
The common stingray ( Dasyatis pastinaca ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black Seas . It typically inhabits sandy or muddy habitats in coastal waters shallower than 60 m ( 200 ft ) , often burying itself in sediment . Usually measuring 45 cm ( 18 in ) across , the common stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc slightly wider than long , and a whip @-@ like tail with upper and lower fin folds . It can be identified by its plain coloration and mostly smooth skin , except for a row of tubercles along the midline of the back in the largest individuals .
The predominant prey of the common stingray are bottom @-@ dwelling crustaceans , though it also takes molluscs , polychaete worms , and small bony fishes . It is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are nourished by yolk and later histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear 4 – 9 young twice per year in shallow water , after a gestation period of four months . The common stingray can inflict a painful , though rarely life @-@ threatening , wound with its venomous tail spine . During classical antiquity , its sting was ascribed many mythical properties . This species is not sought after by commercial fisheries , but is taken in large numbers as bycatch and utilized for food , fishmeal , and liver oil . Its population is apparently dwindling across its range , though there is not yet sufficient data for the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess it beyond Data Deficient .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Well @-@ documented since classical antiquity , the common stingray was known as trygon ( τρυγών ) to the ancient Greeks and as pastinaca to the ancient Romans . An old common name for this species , used in Great Britain since at least the 18th century , is " fire @-@ flare " or " fiery @-@ flare " , which may refer to the reddish color of its meat .
The first formal scientific description of the common stingray , as Raja pastinaca , was authored by the father of taxonomy Carl Linnaeus in the 1758 tenth edition of Systema Naturae . It has since been placed in the genus Dasyatis . There are at least 25 earlier references to this ray in literature , under various non @-@ binomial names such as Raja corpore glabro , aculeo longo anterius serrato in cauda apterygia , Pastinaca marina prima , and Pastinaca marina lævis . Many of these early accounts , including Linnaeus ' , also incorporated information from other species . Consequently , the designation of a lectotype is warranted in the interests of taxonomic stability , but this has yet to be enacted .
The blue stingray ( Dasyatis chrysonota ) of southern Africa has long been regarded as a variant of the common stingray . However , the common stingray lacks the blue markings of the other species and differs in morphological and meristic characters , which led the latter to be definitively recognized as a separate species by Paul Cowley and Leonard Compagno in 1993 . The distinction between this species and the similar Tortonese 's stingray ( D. tortonesei ) of the Mediterranean is poorly understood and may not be valid , requiring further investigation .
In 2001 , Lisa Rosenberger published a phylogenetic analysis of 14 Dasyatis species , based on morphology . The common stingray was reported to be the most basal member of the genus , other than the bluespotted stingray ( D. kuhlii ) and pelagic stingray ( D. violacea ) . However , D. violacea has generally been recognized as belonging to its own genus Pteroplatytrygon , and recently D. kuhlii has also been placed in a different genus , Neotrygon .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The common stingray is found throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas . It also occurs , though in significantly lower numbers , in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from southern Norway and the western Baltic Sea to Madeira and the Canary Islands . This bottom @-@ dwelling species can be found from the shore to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) , though it is not usually found deeper than 60 m ( 200 ft ) . It favors sandy or muddy bottoms in calm water , and is also sometimes encountered near rocky reefs or in estuaries , as it is tolerant of low salinity . Off the Azores , common stingrays are most abundant in summer and least abundant in winter , suggestive of a seasonal shift in range and / or depth as has been documented in other ray species .
= = Description = =
The common stingray has been reported to reach a width of 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) and a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , though a width of 45 cm ( 18 in ) is more typical . The flattened pectoral fin disc is diamond @-@ shaped and slightly wider than it is long , with narrowly rounded outer corners . The leading margins of the disc are almost straight and converge on a pointed , slightly protruding snout ; the trailing margins of the disc are convex . The eyes are smaller than the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) , which are placed closely behind . There are 28 – 38 upper tooth rows and 28 – 43 lower tooth rows ; the teeth are small and blunt , and arranged into flattened surfaces . There are five papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) across the floor of the mouth .
The tail is slender and whip @-@ like , measuring approximately half as long as the disc . A stinging spine with strong serrations , measuring up to 35 cm ( 14 in ) long and equipped with a venom gland at its base , is positioned about a third of the distance along the tail . A second or even third spine may also be present , as the spines are regularly replaced and new spines grow in before existing ones have been shed . The tail behind the spine bears a low cutaneous fold on top and a short , deep fold underneath . The body and tail are smooth , save for a few dermal denticles on the leading edge of the disk ; older individuals may also develop a row of bony knobs along the midline of the back . This species is a solid gray , brown , reddish , or olive @-@ green above , and whitish below with dark fin margins . Young rays may have white spots .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Encountered singly or in " social " groups , the common stingray appears to segregate by sex to some degree and may be more active at night , tending to bury itself in sediment during daytime . It feeds on a wide variety of bottom @-@ dwelling organisms , including crustaceans , cephalopods , bivalves , polychaete worms , and small bony fishes . It is reportedly does great damage to cultured shellfish beds . One study in the Gulf of İskenderun off Turkey found that crustaceans comprised some 99 % of its diet , with fish prey becoming increasingly important with age . Another study off the coast of Cilicia , Turkey , found the most important dietary component to be the penaeid shrimp Metapenaeus stebbingi , followed by the pistol shrimp Alpheus glaber and the swimming crab Charybdis longicollis ; cephalopods were relatively important for males , while fishes were important for females . Common stingrays have been observed closely following each other in the presence of food , possibly to take advantage of other individuals ' foraging success .
Like other stingrays , the common stingray is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially sustained by yolk , which is later supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , enriched with proteins , fat , and mucus ) delivered by the mother through numerous extensions of the uterine epithelium called trophonemata . Females bear two litters of 4 – 9 pups per year in shallow inshore waters , following a gestation period of four months . Various authors have generally reported birthing in summer , between May and September or over a narrower timeframe such as July to August . Mature rays are known to aggregate off the Balearic Islands from mid @-@ June to July , possibly for reproductive purposes . Newborns measure about 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) across and 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Males reach sexual maturity at 22 – 32 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 – 12 @.@ 6 in ) across , and females at 24 – 38 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 – 15 @.@ 0 in ) across . The oldest known individual from the wild was ten years of age , but the species has lived up to 21 years in captivity . Known parasites of the common stingray include the flukes Heterocotyle pastinacae and Entobdella diadema , and the tapeworm Scalithrium minimum .
= = Human interactions = =
Though not aggressive , the common stingray can inflict an excruciating wound with its serrated , venomous tail spine . The ancient Greeks and Romans greatly feared its venom , with authors such as Aelian ( 175 – 235 AD ) stating that stingray wounds were incurable . The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 AD ) , in his Natural History , asserted that its spine was capable of killing trees , piercing armor like an arrow , and corroding iron . Greek poet Oppian ( 172 – 210 AD ) claimed that the touch of stingray venom could even dissolve stone . In Greek mythology , Hercules was said to have lost a finger to the bite of a stingray , and Circe was said to have armed her son Telegonus with a spear tipped with a stingray spine , with which he accidentally slew his father Odysseus .
British zoologist Francis Day , in his 1884 The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland , noted that the common stingray was not eaten because of its " rank and disagreeable " flesh , and that Welsh fishermen used its liver oil as a treatment for burns and other injuries . In the present day , the pectoral fins or " wings " of this species are sold smoked or dried and salted , and it is also utilized as a source of fishmeal and liver oil . The liver is regarded as a delicacy in French cuisine , and used to prepare dishes such as beignets de foie de raie and foie de raie en croute .
Common stingrays are caught incidentally by commercial fisheries across many parts of its range , using bottom trawls , gillnets , bottom longlines , beach seines , and trammel nets . Because of its inshore habitat preferences , this ray is more susceptible to small @-@ scale coastal fisheries than to industrial operations , such as in the Balearic Islands , where it makes up 40 % of the shark and ray trammel net catch . Surveys indicate that common stingrays have declined in the Mediterranean and the northeastern Atlantic , and may have been extirpated from the Bay of Biscay . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened in those two regions , while the species as a whole is listed under Data Deficient . The common stingray is protected within five marine protected areas ( MPAs ) in the Balearic Islands , and also benefits from a European Union ban on the use of trawls within 5 @.@ 6 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) of the coast .
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= Yosemite National Park =
Yosemite National Park ( / joʊˈsɛmᵻti / yoh @-@ SEM @-@ it @-@ ee ) is a United States National Park spanning eastern portions of Tuolumne , Mariposa and Madera counties in the central eastern portion of the U.S. state of California . The park , which is managed by the National Park Service , covers an area of 747 @,@ 956 acres ( 1 @,@ 168 @.@ 681 sq mi ; 302 @,@ 687 ha ; 3 @,@ 026 @.@ 87 km2 ) and reaches across the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range . About 3 @.@ 8 million people visit Yosemite each year : most spend the majority of their time in the seven square miles ( 18 km2 ) of Yosemite Valley . Designated a World Heritage Site in 1984 , Yosemite is internationally recognized for its granite cliffs , waterfalls , clear streams , giant sequoia groves , lakes , mountains , glaciers , and biological diversity . Almost 95 % of the park is designated wilderness . Yosemite was central to the development of the national park idea . First , Galen Clark and others lobbied to protect Yosemite Valley from development , ultimately leading to President Abraham Lincoln 's signing the Yosemite Grant in 1864 . Later , John Muir led a successful movement to establish a larger national park encompassing not just the valley , but surrounding mountains and forests as well — paving the way for the United States national park system .
Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada , and the park supports a diversity of plants and animals . The park has an elevation range from 2 @,@ 127 to 13 @,@ 114 feet ( 648 to 3 @,@ 997 m ) and contains five major vegetation zones : chaparral / oak woodland , lower montane forest , upper montane forest , subalpine zone , and alpine . Of California 's 7 @,@ 000 plant species , about 50 % occur in the Sierra Nevada and more than 20 % within Yosemite . There is suitable habitat for more than 160 rare plants in the park , with rare local geologic formations and unique soils characterizing the restricted ranges many of these plants occupy .
The geology of the Yosemite area is characterized by granitic rocks and remnants of older rock . About 10 million years ago , the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and then tilted to form its relatively gentle western slopes and the more dramatic eastern slopes . The uplift increased the steepness of stream and river beds , resulting in formation of deep , narrow canyons . About 1 million years ago , snow and ice accumulated , forming glaciers at the higher alpine meadows that moved down the river valleys . Ice thickness in Yosemite Valley may have reached 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) during the early glacial episode . The downslope movement of the ice masses cut and sculpted the U @-@ shaped valley that attracts so many visitors to its scenic vistas today .
The name " Yosemite " ( meaning " killer " in Miwok ) originally referred to the name of a renegade tribe which was driven out of the area ( and possibly annihilated ) by the Mariposa Battalion . Before then the area was called " Ahwahnee " ( " big mouth " ) by indigenous people .
= = History = =
= = = Ahwahneechee and the Mariposa Wars = = =
As revealed by archeological finds , the Yosemite Valley has been inhabited for nearly 3 @,@ 000 years , though humans may have first visited the area as long as 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The indigenous natives called themselves the Ahwahneechee , meaning " dwellers in Ahwahnee . " They are related to the Northern Paiute and Mono tribes . Many tribes visited the area to trade , including nearby Central Sierra Miwoks , who lived along the drainage area of the Tuolumne and Stanislaus Rivers . A major trading route went over Mono Pass and through Bloody Canyon to Mono Lake , just to the east of the Yosemite area . Vegetation and game in the region was similar to that present today ; acorns were a staple to their diet , as well as other seeds and plants , salmon and deer .
The California Gold Rush in the mid @-@ 19th century dramatically increased travel by European @-@ Americans in the area , causing competition for resources between the regional Paiute and Miwok and the miners and hangers on . In 1851 as part of the Mariposa Wars intended to suppress Native American resistance , United States Army Major Jim Savage led the Mariposa Battalion into the west end of Yosemite Valley . He was pursuing forces of around 200 Ahwahneechee led by Chief Tenaya .
Accounts from this battalion were the first well @-@ documented reports of ethnic Europeans entering Yosemite Valley . Attached to Savage 's unit was Dr. Lafayette Bunnell , the company physician , who later wrote about his awestruck impressions of the valley in The Discovery of the Yosemite . Bunnell is credited with naming Yosemite Valley , based on his interviews with Chief Tenaya . Bunnell wrote that Chief Tenaya was the founder of the Pai @-@ Ute Colony of Ah @-@ wah @-@ nee . The Miwok , a neighboring tribe , and most white settlers considered the Ahwahneechee to be especially violent because of their frequent territorial disputes . The Miwok term for the Pai @-@ Ute band was yohhe 'meti , meaning " they are killers " . Correspondence and articles written by members of the battalion helped to popularize the natural wonders of the Yosemite Valley and the surrounding area .
Chief Tenaya and his Ahwahneechee were eventually captured and their village burned ; they were removed to a reservation near Fresno , California . The chief and some others were later allowed to return to Yosemite Valley . In the spring of 1852 they attacked a group of eight gold miners , and then moved east to flee law enforcement . Near Mono Lake , they took refuge with the nearby Mono tribe of Paiute . They stole horses from their hosts and moved away , but the Mono Paiutes tracked down and killed many of the Ahwahneechee , including Chief Tenaya . The Mono Paiute took the survivors as captives back to Mono Lake and absorbed them into the Mono Lake Paiute tribe .
A reconstructed " Indian Village of Ahwahnee " has been erected behind the Yosemite Museum , located next to the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center .
= = = Early tourists = = =
In 1855 , entrepreneur James Mason Hutchings , artist Thomas Ayres and two others were the first to tour the area . Hutchings and Ayres were responsible for much of the earliest publicity about Yosemite , writing articles and special magazine issues about the Valley . Ayres ' style in art was highly detailed with exaggerated angularity . His works and written accounts were distributed nationally , and an art exhibition of his drawings was held in New York City . Hutchings ' publicity efforts between 1855 and 1860 led to an increase in tourism to Yosemite .
Wawona was an Indian encampment in what is now the southwestern part of the park . Settler Galen Clark discovered the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoia in Wawona in 1857 . He had simple lodgings built , and roads to the area . In 1879 , the Wawona Hotel was built to serve tourists visiting Mariposa Grove . As tourism increased , so did the number of trails and hotels developed by people intending to build on the trade .
The Wawona Tree , also known as the Tunnel Tree , was a famous giant sequoia that stood in the Mariposa Grove . It was 227 feet ( 69 m ) tall , and was 90 ft ( 27 m ) in circumference . When a carriage @-@ wide tunnel was cut through the tree in 1881 , it became even more popular as a tourist photo attraction . Everything from horse @-@ drawn carriages in the late 19th century , to automobiles in the first part of the 20th century , traveled the road which passed through that tree . The Wawona Tree fell in 1969 under a heavy load of snow . It was estimated to have been 2 @,@ 300 years old .
Yosemite 's first concession was established in 1884 when John Degnan and his wife established a bakery and store . In 1916 , the National Park Service granted a 20 @-@ year concession to the Desmond Park Service Company . It bought out or built hotels , stores , camps , a dairy , a garage , and other park services . Desmond changed its name to the Yosemite National Park Company in December 1917 and was reorganized in 1920 .
The Curry Company had been started in 1899 by David and Jennie Curry to provide concessions in the park . They also founded Camp Curry , formerly known as Curry Village , now known as Half Dome Village . The Currys lobbied reluctant park supervisors to allow expansion of concession operations and development in the area .
Administrators in the National Park Service felt that limiting the number of concessionaires in each national park would be more financially sound . The Curry Company and its rival , the Yosemite National Park Company , were forced to merge in 1925 to form the Yosemite Park & Curry Company ( YP & CC ) . The company built the Ahwahnee Hotel in 1927 .
= = = Yosemite Grant = = =
Concerned by the effects of commercial interests , prominent citizens including Galen Clark and Senator John Conness advocated for protection of the area . A park bill was prepared with the assistance of the General Land Office in the Interior Department . The bill passed both houses of the 38th United States Congress , and was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on June 30 , 1864 , creating the Yosemite Grant . This is the first instance of park land being set aside specifically for preservation and public use by action of the U.S. federal government , and set a precedent for the 1872 creation of Yellowstone as the first national park . Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were ceded to California as a state park , and a board of commissioners was proclaimed two years later .
Galen Clark was appointed by the commission as the Grant 's first guardian , but neither Clark nor the commissioners had the authority to evict homesteaders ( which included Hutchings ) . The issue was not settled until 1872 when the homesteader land holdings were invalidated by the U.S. Supreme Court . Clark and the reigning commissioners were ousted in 1880 , this dispute also reaching the Supreme Court in 1880 . The two Supreme Court decisions affecting management of the Yosemite Grant are considered important precedents in land management law . Hutchings became the new park guardian .
Access to the park by tourists improved in the early years of the park , and conditions in the Valley were made more hospitable . Tourism significantly increased after the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 , but the long horseback ride to reach the area was a deterrent . Three stagecoach roads were built in the mid @-@ 1870s to provide better access for the growing number of visitors to Yosemite Valley .
John Muir was a Scottish @-@ born American naturalist and explorer . It was because of Muir that many National Parks were left untouched , such as Yosemite Valley National Park . One of the most significant camping trips Muir took was in 1903 with then president Theodore Roosevelt . This trip persuaded Roosevelt to return " Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to federal protection as part of Yosemite National Park " .
John Muir wrote articles popularizing the area and increasing scientific interest in it . Muir was one of the first to theorize that the major landforms in Yosemite Valley were created by large alpine glaciers , bucking established scientists such as Josiah Whitney , who regarded Muir as an amateur . Muir wrote scientific papers on the area 's biology . Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted emphasized the importance of conservation of Yosemite Valley .
= = = Increased protection efforts = = =
Overgrazing of meadows ( especially by sheep ) , logging of giant sequoia , and other damage caused Muir to become an advocate for further protection . Muir convinced prominent guests of the importance of putting the area under federal protection ; one such guest was Robert Underwood Johnson , editor of Century Magazine . Muir and Johnson lobbied Congress for the Act that created Yosemite National Park on October 1 , 1890 . The State of California , however , retained control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove . Muir also helped persuade local officials to virtually eliminate grazing from the Yosemite high country .
The newly created national park came under the jurisdiction of the United States Army 's Troop I of the 4th Cavalry on May 19 , 1891 , which set up camp in Wawona with Captain Abram Epperson Wood as acting superintendent . By the late 1890s , sheep grazing was no longer a problem , and the Army made many other improvements . The cavalry could not intervene to ease the worsening condition of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove . The cavalry left another legacy in the park , the ranger hat . From 1899 to 1913 , cavalry regiments of the Western Department , including the all Black 9th Cavalry ( known as the " Buffalo Soldiers " ) and the 1st Cavalry , stationed two troops at Yosemite and brought with them the trooper 's campaign hat with its distinctive Montana Peak we recognize today as the " ranger hat . " This peak had been formed into the trooper 's stetson by veterans of the 1898 Spanish – American War to better shed tropical rain .
Muir and his Sierra Club continued to lobby the government and influential people for the creation of a unified Yosemite National Park . In May 1903 , President Theodore Roosevelt camped with Muir near Glacier Point for three days . On that trip , Muir convinced Roosevelt to take control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove away from California and return it to the federal government . In 1906 , Roosevelt signed a bill that did precisely that .
= = = National Park Service = = =
The National Park Service was formed in 1916 , and Yosemite was transferred to that agency 's jurisdiction . Tuolumne Meadows Lodge , Tioga Pass Road , and campgrounds at Tenaya and Merced lakes were also completed in 1916 . Automobiles started to enter the park in ever @-@ increasing numbers following the construction of all @-@ weather highways to the park . The Yosemite Museum was founded in 1926 through the efforts of Ansel Franklin Hall .
In 1903 , a dam in the northern portion of the park was proposed . Located in the Hetch Hetchy Valley , its purpose was to provide water and hydroelectric power to San Francisco . Muir and the Sierra Club opposed the project , while others , including Gifford Pinchot , supported it . In 1913 , the U.S. Congress authorized the O 'Shaughnessy Dam through passage of the Raker Act .
In the late 1920s , in an attempt that would be impossible to make today , a bid for Yosemite for the 1932 Winter Olympics was put forward . ( Ultimately , Lake Placid , New York , hosted . )
More recently , preservationists persuaded Congress to designate 677 @,@ 600 acres ( 274 @,@ 200 ha ) , or about 89 % of the park , as the Yosemite Wilderness — a highly protected wilderness area . The Park Service has reduced artificial inducements to visit the park , such as the Firefall , in which red @-@ hot embers were pushed off a cliff near Glacier Point at night . Traffic congestion in Yosemite Valley during the summer months has become a concern . Two electric buses commenced service in September 1995 . The buses are quiet and do not emit pollutants . Eventually , all the buses in Yosemite will be electric . The 1996 Yosemite Valley Landslide killed a hiker and the January 1997 Merced River flood damaged many roads and several campgrounds .
= = Geography = =
Yosemite National Park is located in the central Sierra Nevada of California . Three wilderness areas are adjacent to Yosemite : the Ansel Adams Wilderness to the southeast , the Hoover Wilderness to the northeast , and the Emigrant Wilderness to the north .
The 1 @,@ 189 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 080 km2 ) park is roughly the size of the U.S. state of Rhode Island and contains thousands of lakes and ponds , 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) of streams , 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) of hiking trails , and 350 miles ( 560 km ) of roads . Two federally designated Wild and Scenic Rivers , the Merced and the Tuolumne , begin within Yosemite 's borders and flow westward through the Sierra foothills , into the Central Valley of California . Annual park visitation exceeds 3 @.@ 5 million , with most visitor use concentrated in the seven @-@ square @-@ mile ( 18 km2 ) area of Yosemite Valley .
= = = Rocks and erosion = = =
Almost all of the landforms in the Yosemite area are cut from the granitic rock of the Sierra Nevada Batholith ( a batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock that formed deep below the surface ) . About 5 % of the park 's landforms ( mostly in its eastern margin near Mount Dana ) are metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks . These rocks are called roof pendants because they were once the roof of the underlying granitic rock .
Erosion acting upon different types of uplift @-@ created joint and fracture systems is responsible for creating the valleys , canyons , domes , and other features we see today . These joints and fracture systems do not move , and are therefore not faults . Spacing between joints is controlled by the amount of silica in the granite and granodiorite rocks ; more silica tends to create a more resistant rock , resulting in larger spaces between joints and fractures .
Pillars and columns , such as Washington Column and Lost Arrow , are created by cross joints . Erosion acting on master joints is responsible for creating valleys and later canyons . The single most erosive force over the last few million years has been large alpine glaciers , which have turned the previously V @-@ shaped river @-@ cut valleys into U @-@ shaped glacial @-@ cut canyons ( such as Yosemite Valley and Hetch Hetchy Valley ) . Exfoliation ( caused by the tendency of crystals in plutonic rocks to expand at the surface ) acting on granitic rock with widely spaced joints is responsible for creating domes such as Half Dome and North Dome and inset arches like Royal Arches .
= = = Popular features = = =
Yosemite Valley represents only one percent of the park area , but this is where most visitors arrive and stay . The Tunnel View is the first view of the Valley for many visitors and is extensively photographed . El Capitan , a prominent granite cliff that looms over Yosemite Valley , is one of the most popular rock climbing destinations in the world because of its diverse range of climbing routes in addition to its year @-@ round accessibility . Granite domes such as Sentinel Dome and Half Dome rise 3 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 910 and 1 @,@ 460 m ) , respectively , above the valley floor .
The high country of Yosemite contains beautiful areas such as Tuolumne Meadows , Dana Meadows , the Clark Range , the Cathedral Range , and the Kuna Crest . The Sierra crest and the Pacific Crest Trail run through Yosemite , with peaks of red metamorphic rock , such as Mount Dana and Mount Gibbs , and granite peaks , such as Mount Conness . Mount Lyell is the highest point in the park , standing at 13 @,@ 120 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) . The Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in Yosemite National Park and is one of the few remaining in the Sierra Nevada today .
The park has three groves of ancient giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ) trees ; the Mariposa Grove ( 200 trees ) , the Tuolumne Grove ( 25 trees ) , and the Merced Grove ( 20 trees ) . This species grows larger in volume than any other and is one of the tallest and longest @-@ lived .
= = = Water and ice = = =
Tuolumne and Merced River systems originate along the crest of the Sierra Nevada in the park and have carved river canyons 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 to 1 @,@ 220 m ) deep . The Tuolumne River drains the entire northern portion of the park , an area of approximately 680 square miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km2 ) . The Merced River begins in the park 's southern peaks , primarily the Cathedral and Clark Ranges , and drains an area of approximately 511 square miles ( 1 @,@ 320 km2 ) .
Hydrologic processes , including glaciation , flooding , and fluvial geomorphic response , have been fundamental in creating landforms in the park . The park also contains approximately 3 @,@ 200 lakes ( greater than 100 m2 ) , two reservoirs , and 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) of streams , all of which help form these two large watersheds . Wetlands in Yosemite occur in valley bottoms throughout the park , and are often hydrologically linked to nearby lakes and rivers through seasonal flooding and groundwater movement . Meadow habitats , distributed at elevations from 3 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 to 3 @,@ 350 m ) in the park , are generally wetlands , as are the riparian habitats found on the banks of Yosemite 's numerous streams and rivers .
Yosemite is famous for its high concentration of waterfalls in a small area . Numerous sheer drops , glacial steps and hanging valleys in the park provide many places for waterfalls to exist , especially during April , May , and June ( the snowmelt season ) . Located in Yosemite Valley , the Yosemite Falls is the highest in North America at 2 @,@ 425 @-@ foot ( 739 m ) . Also in Yosemite Valley is the much lower volume Ribbon Falls , which has the highest single vertical drop , 1 @,@ 612 feet ( 491 m ) . Perhaps the most prominent of the Yosemite Valley waterfalls is Bridalveil Fall , which is the waterfall seen from the Tunnel View viewpoint at the east end of the Wawona Tunnel . Wapama Falls in Hetch Hetchy Valley is another notable waterfall . Hundreds of ephemeral waterfalls also exist in the park .
All glaciers in the park are relatively small glaciers that occupy areas that are in almost permanent shade , such as north- and northeast @-@ facing cirques . Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in Yosemite ( the Palisades Glaciers are the largest in the Sierra Nevada ) and covers 160 acres ( 65 ha ) . None of the Yosemite glaciers are a remnant of the much , much larger Ice Age alpine glaciers responsible for sculpting the Yosemite landscape . Instead , they were formed during one of the neoglacial episodes that have occurred since the thawing of the Ice Age ( such as the Little Ice Age ) . Climate change has reduced the number and size of glaciers around the world . Many Yosemite glaciers , including Merced Glacier , which was discovered by John Muir in 1871 and bolstered his glacial origins theory of the Yosemite area , have disappeared and most of the others have lost up to 75 % of their surface area .
= = = Climate = = =
Yosemite has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , meaning most precipitation falls during the mild winter , and the other seasons are nearly dry ( less than 3 % of precipitation falls during the long , hot summers ) . Because of orographic lift , precipitation increases with elevation up to 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) where it slowly decreases to the crest . Precipitation amounts vary from 36 inches ( 910 mm ) at 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) elevation to 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) at 8 @,@ 600 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) . Snow does not typically persist on the ground until November in the high country . It accumulates all winter and into March or early April .
Mean daily temperatures range from 25 ° F ( − 4 ° C ) to 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) at Tuolumne Meadows at 8 @,@ 600 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) . At the Wawona Entrance ( elevation 5 @,@ 130 feet or 1 @,@ 560 metres ) , mean daily temperature ranges from 36 to 67 ° F ( 2 to 19 ° C ) . At the lower elevations below 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , temperatures are hotter ; the mean daily high temperature at Yosemite Valley ( elevation 3 @,@ 966 feet or 1 @,@ 209 metres ) varies from 46 to 90 ° F ( 8 to 32 ° C ) . At elevations above 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) , the hot , dry summer temperatures are moderated by frequent summer thunderstorms , along with snow that can persist into July . The combination of dry vegetation , low relative humidity , and thunderstorms results in frequent lightning @-@ caused fires as well .
At the park headquarters , with an elevation of 3 @,@ 966 feet ( 1 @,@ 209 m ) , January averages 38 @.@ 2 ° F ( 3 @.@ 4 ° C ) , while July averages 73 @.@ 0 ° F ( 22 @.@ 8 ° C ) , though in summer the nights are much cooler than the hot days . There are an average of 39 @.@ 5 days with highs of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or higher and an average of 97 @.@ 9 nights with freezing temperatures . Freezing temperatures have been recorded in every month of the year . The record high temperature was 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) on July 20 , 1915 , while the record low temperature was − 6 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) on January 2 , 1924 and on January 21 , 1937 . Average annual precipitation is nearly 37 inches ( 940 mm ) , falling on 65 days . The wettest year was 1983 with 68 @.@ 94 inches ( 1 @,@ 751 mm ) and the driest year was 1976 with 14 @.@ 84 inches ( 377 mm ) . The most precipitation in one month was 29 @.@ 61 inches ( 752 mm ) in December 1955 and the most in one day was 6 @.@ 92 inches ( 176 mm ) on December 23 , 1955 . Average annual snowfall is 65 @.@ 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 67 m ) . The snowiest year was 1967 with 154 @.@ 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 93 m ) . The most snow in one month was 140 @.@ 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 58 m ) in January 1993 .
= = Geology = =
= = = Tectonic and volcanic activity = = =
The area of the park was astride a passive continental margin during the Precambrian and early Paleozoic . Sediment was derived from continental sources and was deposited in shallow water . These rocks have since been metamorphosed .
Heat generated from the Farallon Plate subducting below the North American Plate led to the creation of an island arc of volcanoes on the west coast of proto @-@ North America between the late Devonian and Permian periods . Later volcanism in the Jurassic intruded and covered these rocks in what may have been magmatic activity associated with the early stages of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith . 95 % of these rocks were eventually removed by uplifted @-@ accelerated erosion .
The first phase of regional plutonism started 210 million years ago in the late Triassic and continued throughout the Jurassic to about 150 million years before present ( BP ) . Around the same time , the Nevadan orogeny built the Nevadan mountain range ( also called the Ancestral Sierra Nevada ) to a height of 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . This was directly part of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith , and the resulting rocks were mostly granitic in composition and emplaced about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) below the surface . The second major pluton emplacement phase lasted from about 120 million to 80 million years ago during the Cretaceous . This was part of the Sevier orogeny .
Starting 20 million years ago ( in the Cenozoic ) and lasting until 5 million years ago , a now @-@ extinct extension of Cascade Range volcanoes erupted , bringing large amounts of igneous material in the area . These igneous deposits blanketed the region north of the Yosemite region . Volcanic activity persisted past 5 million years BP east of the current park borders in the Mono Lake and Long Valley areas .
= = = Uplift and erosion = = =
Starting 10 million years ago , vertical movement along the Sierra fault started to uplift the Sierra Nevada . Subsequent tilting of the Sierra block and the resulting accelerated uplift of the Sierra Nevada increased the gradient of western @-@ flowing streams . The streams consequently ran faster and thus cut their valleys more quickly . Additional uplift occurred when major faults developed to the east , especially the creation of Owens Valley from Basin and Range @-@ associated extensional forces . Uplift of the Sierra accelerated again about two million years ago during the Pleistocene .
The uplifting and increased erosion exposed granitic rocks in the area to surface pressures , resulting in exfoliation ( responsible for the rounded shape of the many domes in the park ) and mass wasting following the numerous fracture joint planes ( cracks ; especially vertical ones ) in the now solidified plutons . Pleistocene glaciers further accelerated this process and the larger ones transported the resulting talus and till from valley floors .
Numerous vertical joint planes controlled where and how fast erosion took place . Most of these long , linear and very deep cracks trend northeast or northwest and form parallel , often regularly spaced sets . They were created by uplift @-@ associated pressure release and by the unloading of overlying rock via erosion .
= = = Sculpting by glaciers = = =
A series of glaciations further modified the region starting about 2 to 3 million years ago and ending sometime around 10 @,@ 000 BP . At least four major glaciations have occurred in the Sierra Nevada , locally called the Sherwin ( also called the pre @-@ Tahoe ) , Tahoe , Tenaya , and Tioga . The Sherwin glaciers were the largest , filling Yosemite and other valleys , while later stages produced much smaller glaciers . A Sherwin @-@ age glacier was almost surely responsible for the major excavation and shaping of Yosemite Valley and other canyons in the area .
Glacial systems reached depths of up to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) and left their marks in the Yosemite area . The longest glacier in the Yosemite area ran down the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River for 60 miles ( 97 km ) , passing well beyond Hetch Hetchy Valley . Merced Glacier flowed out of Yosemite Valley and into the Merced River Gorge . Lee Vining Glacier carved Lee Vining Canyon and emptied into Lake Russel ( the much @-@ enlarged ice age version of Mono Lake ) . Only the highest peaks , such as Mount Dana and Mount Conness , were not covered by glaciers . Retreating glaciers often left recessional moraines that impounded lakes such as the 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 9 km ) long Lake Yosemite ( a shallow lake that periodically covered much of the floor of Yosemite Valley ) .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitats = = =
With its scrubby sun @-@ baked chaparral , stately groves of pine , fir , and sequoia , and expanses of alpine woodlands and meadows , Yosemite National Park preserves a Sierra Nevada landscape as it prevailed before Euro @-@ American settlement . In contrast to surrounding lands , which have been significantly altered by logging , the park still contains some 225 @,@ 510 acres ( 91 @,@ 260 ha ) of old @-@ growth forest . Taken together , the park 's varied habitats support over 250 species of vertebrates , which include fish , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals .
Along much of Yosemite 's western boundary , habitats are dominated by mixed coniferous forests of ponderosa pine , sugar pine , incense cedar , white fir , Douglas fir , and a few stands of giant sequoia , interspersed by areas of black oak and canyon live oak . A relatively high diversity of wildlife species is supported by these habitats , because of relatively mild , lower @-@ elevation climate and the mixture of habitat types and plant species . Wildlife species typically found in these habitats include black bear , coyote , raccoon , mountain kingsnake , Gilbert 's skink , white @-@ headed woodpecker , bobcat , river otter , gray fox , red fox , brown creeper , two species of skunk , cougar , spotted owl , and a wide variety of bat species .
Going higher in elevation , the coniferous forests become purer stands of red fir , western white pine , Jeffrey pine , lodgepole pine , and the occasional foxtail pine . Fewer wildlife species tend to be found in these habitats , because of their higher elevation and lower complexity . Species likely to be found include golden @-@ mantled ground squirrel , chickaree , fisher , Steller 's jay , hermit thrush , and northern goshawk . Reptiles are not common , but include rubber boa , western fence lizard , and northern alligator lizard .
As the landscape rises , trees become smaller and more sparse , with stands broken by areas of exposed granite . These include lodgepole pine , whitebark pine , and mountain hemlock that , at highest elevations , give way to vast expanses of granite as treeline is reached . The climate in these habitats is harsh and the growing season is short , but species such as pika , yellow @-@ bellied marmot , white @-@ tailed jackrabbit , Clark 's nutcracker , and black rosy finch are adapted to these conditions . Also , the treeless alpine habitats are the areas favored by Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep . This species , however , is now found in the Yosemite area only around Tioga Pass , where a small , reintroduced population exists .
At a variety of elevations , meadows provide important , productive habitat for wildlife . Animals come to feed on the green grasses and use the flowing and standing water found in many meadows . Predators , in turn , are attracted to these areas . The interface between meadow and forest is also favored by many animal species because of the proximity of open areas for foraging and cover for protection . Species that are highly dependent upon meadow habitat include great grey owl , willow flycatcher , Yosemite toad , and mountain beaver .
= = = Management issues = = =
Despite the richness of high @-@ quality habitats in Yosemite , the brown bear , California condor , and least Bell 's vireo have become extinct in the park within historical time , and another 37 species currently have special status under either California or federal endangered species legislation . The most serious current threats to Yosemite 's wildlife and the ecosystems they occupy include loss of a natural fire regime , exotic species , air pollution , habitat fragmentation , and climate change . On a more local basis , factors such as road kills and the availability of human food have affected some wildlife species .
The black bears of Yosemite were once famous for breaking into parked cars to steal food . They were also an encouraged tourist sight for many years at the park 's garbage dumps , where bears congregated to eat park visitors ' garbage and tourists gathered to photograph the bears . Increasing encounters between bears and humans and increasing damage to property led to an aggressive campaign to discourage bears from relying on human food or interacting with people and their property . The open @-@ air dumps were closed ; all trash receptacles were replaced with bear @-@ proof receptacles ; all campgrounds were equipped with bear @-@ proof food lockers so that people would not leave food in their vehicles , which were easy targets for the powerful and resourceful bears . Because bears who show aggression towards people usually are eventually destroyed , park personnel have continued to come up with innovative ways to have bears associate humans and their property with unpleasant experiences , such as being hit with rubber bullets . Today , about 30 bears a year are captured and ear @-@ tagged and their DNA is sampled so that , when bear damage occurs , rangers can ascertain which bear is causing the problem .
Increasing ozone pollution is causing tissue damage to the massive giant sequoia trees in the park . This makes them more vulnerable to insect infestation and disease . Since the cones of these trees require fire @-@ touched soil to germinate , historic fire suppression has reduced these trees ' ability to reproduce . The current policy of setting prescribed fires is expected to help the germination issue .
Yosemite National Park has documented more than 130 non @-@ native plant species within park boundaries . These non @-@ native plants were introduced into Yosemite following the migration of early Euro @-@ American settlers in the late 1850s . Natural and human @-@ caused disturbances , such as wildland fires and construction activities , have contributed to a rapid increase in the spread of non @-@ native plants . A number of these species aggressively invade and displace the native plant communities , resulting in impacts on the park 's resources . Non @-@ native plants can bring about significant changes in park ecosystems by altering the native plant communities and the processes that support them . Some non @-@ native species may cause an increase in the fire frequency of an area or increase the available nitrogen in the soil that may allow more non @-@ native plants to become established . Many non @-@ native species , such as yellow star thistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) , are able to produce a long tap root that allows them to out @-@ compete the native plants for available water .
Bull thistle ( Cirsium vulgare ) , common mullein ( Verbascum thapsus ) , and Klamath weed ( Hypericum perforatum ) have been identified as noxious pests in Yosemite since the 1940s . Additional species that have been recognized more recently as aggressive and requiring control are yellow star thistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) , sweet clover ( Melilot spp . ) , Himalayan blackberry ( Rubus armeniacus ) , cut @-@ leaved blackberry ( Rubus laciniatus ) and large periwinkle ( Vinca major ) .
= = = Wildfires = = =
Forest fires seasonally clear the park of dead vegetation , making way for new growth . These fires are detrimental to the ecology of the park , and also damage the income generated by tourism . The Summer of Fire saw more resources dedicated to the subject of wildfire than ever before or since in the United States . The most recent fire , the Rim Fire , which destroyed nearly $ 2 billion in assets and revenue , closed off much of the park to tourists . This rim fire was the third largest on record , and burned nearly 500 acres of wild habitat .
= = Activities = =
Yosemite Valley is open year @-@ round and numerous activities are available through the National Park Service , Yosemite Conservancy , and Delaware North at Yosemite , including nature walks , photography and art classes , stargazing programs , tours , bike rentals , rafting , mule and horseback rides , and rock climbing classes . Many people enjoy short walks and longer hikes to waterfalls in Yosemite Valley , or walks among giant sequoias in the Mariposa , Tuolumne , or Merced Groves . Others like to drive or take a tour bus to Glacier Point ( summer – fall ) to see a spectacular view of Yosemite Valley and the high country , or drive along the scenic Tioga Road to Tuolumne Meadows ( May – October ) and go for a walk or hike .
Most park visitors stay just for the day , and only visit locations within Yosemite Valley that are easily accessible by automobile . There is a US $ 25 @-@ 30 per automobile user fee to enter the park , depending on the season . Traffic congestion in the valley is a serious problem during peak season , in summer . A free shuttle bus system operates year @-@ round in the valley , and park rangers encourage people to use this system since parking within the valley during the summer is often nearly impossible to find .
In addition to exploring the natural features of the park , visitors can also learn about the natural and cultural history of Yosemite Valley at a number of facilities in the valley : the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center , the adjoining Yosemite Museum , and the Nature Center at Happy Isles . There are also two National Historic Landmarks : the Sierra Club 's LeConte Memorial Lodge ( Yosemite 's first public visitor center ) , and the world @-@ famous Ahwahnee Hotel . Camp 4 was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003 .
= = = Hiking = = =
Over 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) of trails are available to hikers — anything from the easy stroll , to the grueling hikes up several park mountains , to multiple @-@ day backpack trips .
The park can be divided into 5 sections for the day @-@ user — Yosemite Valley , Wawona / Mariposa Grove / Glacier Point , Tuolumne Meadows , Hetch Hetchy , and Crane Flat / White Wolf . Numerous books describe park trails , and free information is available from the Park Service in Yosemite . Park rangers encourage visitors to experience portions of the park in addition to Yosemite Valley .
Between late spring and early fall , much of the park can be accessed for multiple @-@ day backpacking trips . All overnight trips into the back country require a wilderness permit and most require approved bear @-@ resistant food storage .
= = = Driving destinations = = =
While some locations in Yosemite require hiking , other locations can be reached via automobile transportation . Driving locations also allow guests to observe the night sky in locations other than their campsite or lodge . All of the roads in Yosemite are scenic , but the most famous is the Tioga Road , typically open from late May or early June through November .
As an alternative to driving , bicycles are allowed on the roads . However , bicycles are only allowed off @-@ road on 12 miles ( 19 km ) of paved trails in Yosemite Valley itself ; mountain biking is not allowed .
= = = Climbing = = =
Rock climbing is an important part of Yosemite . Camp 4 , a walk @-@ in campground in Yosemite Valley , was instrumental in the development of rock climbing as a sport , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Climbers can generally be spotted in the snow @-@ free months on anything from ten @-@ foot @-@ high ( 3 m ) boulders to the 3 @,@ 300 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) face of El Capitan . Classes are offered by numerous groups on rock climbing .
= = = Winter activities = = =
Yosemite Valley is open all year , although some roads within the park close in winter . Downhill skiing is available at the Badger Pass Ski Area — the oldest downhill skiing area in California , offering downhill skiing from mid @-@ December through early April . Much of the park is open to cross @-@ country skiing and snowshoeing , with several backcountry ski huts open for use . Wilderness permits are required for backcountry overnight ski trips .
The Bracebridge dinner is an annual holiday event , held since 1927 at the Ahwahnee Hotel , inspired by Washington Irving 's descriptions of Squire Bracebridge and English Christmas traditions of the 18th century in his Sketch Book . Between 1929 and 1973 , the show was organized by Ansel Adams .
= = = Other = = =
Bicycle rentals are available in Yosemite Valley spring through fall . Over 12 miles ( 19 km ) of paved bike paths are available in Yosemite Valley . In addition , bicyclists can ride on regular roads . Helmets are required by law for children under 18 years of age . Off @-@ trail riding and mountain biking are not permitted in Yosemite National Park .
Water activities are plentiful during warmer months . Rafting can be done through the Yosemite Valley on the Merced River . There are also swimming pools available at Yosemite Lodge and Curry Village .
In 2010 , Yosemite National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters program .
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= Percy Cherry =
Percy Herbert Cherry , VC , MC ( 4 June 1895 – 27 March 1917 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . The award was granted posthumously for Cherry 's actions during an attack on the French village of Lagnicourt which was strongly defended by German forces .
Born in the Australian state of Victoria , Cherry moved to Tasmania at the age of seven when his family took up an apple orchard . Becoming an expert apple packer , he was also a skilled rifle shot and member of the Franklin rowing club . In 1913 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 93rd Infantry Regiment , Citizens Military Force , and served as a drill instructor at the outbreak of war . Enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in March 1915 , he served at Gallipoli before transferring to the Western Front . In early March 1917 , Cherry was decorated with the Military Cross following an attack on Malt Trench , in which he led a party in capturing two German machine gun posts . He was killed by a German shell the day following his Victoria Cross action .
= = Early life = =
Cherry was born on 4 June 1895 at Drysdale , Victoria , to John Gawley Cherry and his wife Elizabeth , née Russel . When he was seven years old , the family moved to Tasmania and took up an apple orchard near Cradoc . Cherry attended the local state school until he was thirteen , after which he received private tuition . He worked with his father and became an expert apple packer ; at fourteen he won a local case @-@ making competition at the Launceston Fruit Show by packing thirty @-@ five cases of apples in an hour . Joining the Australian Army Cadets in 1908 , Cherry soon became a sergeant and later a second lieutenant , where he used to drill cadets in four different districts . At the age of sixteen , he won the President 's Trophy and Gold Medal for being the best shot at the rifle range in Franklin . He also rowed with the Franklin rowing club , played the cornet in the Franklin brass band and sang in the Anglican church choir . In 1913 , Cherry joined the Citizens Military Force and was commissioned into the 93rd Infantry Regiment as a second lieutenant .
= = First World War = =
= = = Enlistment , March 1915 to Western Front , March 1917 = = =
At the outbreak of war , Cherry was sent to Claremont Camp and assumed duties as a drill instructor . On 5 March 1915 , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force and was allotted to the 26th Battalion , where he qualified as an infantry officer , but was considered too young for a commission in the Australian Imperial Force and was instead made a Quartermaster Sergeant . On 29 June , the battalion embarked from Brisbane for Egypt with Cherry aboard HMAT Aeneas . On arrival , the battalion spent several months training in the desert , where Cherry was promoted to company sergeant major in August . On 12 September , the battalion landed at Gallipoli and played a defensive role at Courtney ’ s and Steele ’ s Posts , and Russell ’ s Top .
On 1 December , injured by bomb wounds to his face and head , Cherry was evacuated to Egypt , where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 9 December . Three days later , the 26th Battalion was withdrawn from Gallipoli and evacuated to Egypt where Cherry rejoined them in preparation for service on the Western Front . Remaining in Egypt during this time , Cherry was selected to attend a machine gun course in March 1916 . After completion of this , he was transferred to the 7th Machine Gun Company in France .
He commanded the company 's 1st Battery at Fleurbaix , Messines and on the Somme until 5 August , when he was wounded in a duel with a German officer at Pozières . He and a German officer — who was leading an attack against Cherry 's position — were exchanging shots from neighbouring shell @-@ holes . Eventually , they both rose , firing simultaneously . The German officer hit Cherry in the neck but was mortally wounded by Cherry in return . Cherry approached the dying man , who pulled a package of letters from his pocket , and asked Cherry to have them censored and posted . Cherry promised to do so and the German handed over the letters , with the words ; " And so it ends " . He died shortly afterwards . As a result of his wounds , Cherry was evacuated to England for treatment .
Promoted to lieutenant on 25 August 1916 , Cherry returned to his unit on the Somme in November . The following month he was made a temporary captain and transferred back to the 26th Battalion as the commanding officer of C Company . His rank was confirmed on 14 February 1917 , and on 1 – 2 March he was involved in the battalion 's actions around the village of Warlencourt . At 03 : 00 on 2 March , Cherry led his company in an attack on the German held position of Malt Trench , situated between the villages of Warlencourt and Bapaume . Artillery fire had failed to adequately cut the barbwire lines for the advancing troops , and Cherry led a section of men along the wire until he found a break in it . Once through the gap , he rushed two machine gun posts , capturing one single @-@ handed , and turned one on the fleeing Germans before being wounded himself . For his actions during the engagement , Cherry was awarded the Military Cross , the notification of which was published in a supplement of the London Gazette on 26 April 1917 .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
On 26 March 1917 , the 7th Brigade — of which the 26th Battalion was part — was tasked with the capture of Lagnicourt . It was during this engagement where Cherry was to earn the Victoria Cross . An artillery barrage opened up on the village at 05 : 15 and continued for twenty minutes , allowing the infantry to close in . The plan was that Cherry 's company would storm the village itself while the battalion 's other companies encircled it . For the assault , Cherry split his company into two sections ; he commanded one section himself and placed the other under Lieutenant William Frederick Joseph Hamilton .
The company was soon in action . Cherry 's section captured a large fortified farm on the edge of the village . As they entered the muddy main street , the Australians came under heavy fire from the houses lining the road and from an adjacent stable yard . Cherry " rushed the stable yard " and a fierce firefight developed , before the Germans surrendered . As Cherry and his men moved through Lagnicourt , they found the main resistance coming from a large chalky crater , " spotted with white chalk " , at the crossroads in the village centre . The Germans ' stout defence was holding up the advance and Cherry sent a messenger back for more Stokes mortars . Becoming impatient at the delay , Cherry decided to rush the position under the cover of Lewis Gun and rifle grenade fire . Capturing the crater , he found Lieutenant Harold Hereward Bieske at the bottom wounded . Bieske had taken over command of the second section when Lieutenant Hamilton was wounded , and it had now been reduced to six men .
After capturing the crater , Cherry pushed on through the village , where his party emerged from among the buildings on the far side . Another stiff fight ensured with a group of Germans in dug @-@ outs by the side of the road , before the company was able to meet up with its fellow units which had bypassed the village and were already established to the north and east of the area . Cherry 's orders were to fall back into reserve , but he disregarded them as he sensed a counter @-@ attack was forthcoming . At 09 : 00 on 27 March , the Germans launched a very strong counter @-@ attack under heavy artillery fire . At one point , Cherry noticed that the Germans were firing yellow flares to pinpoint Australian positions to their gunners . He found some of these flares , and fired them away from his position . The German attempts to retake Lagnicourt — at a cost to the 7th Brigade of 377 casualties — raged all day before they abandoned the counterattack .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In the afternoon of 27 March 1917 , a shell burst in a sunken road to the east of Lagnicourt , killing Cherry and several other men . He was buried in Quéant Road Cemetery , Buissy , Plot VIII , Row C , Grave 10 . The full citation for Cherry 's posthumous award of the Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 11 May 1917 , reading :
War Office , 11th May , 1917
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers and Man : —
2nd Lt. ( temp . Capt. ) Percy Herbert Cherry , M.C. , late Aus . Imp . Force .
For most conspicuous bravery , determination and leadership when in command of a company detailed to storm and clear a village .
After all the officers of his company had become casualties he carried on with care and determination , in the face of fierce opposition , and cleared the village of the enemy .
He sent frequent reports of progress made , and when held up for some time by an enemy strong point he organised machine gun and bomb parties and captured the position . His leadership , coolness and bravery set a wonderful example to his men .
Having cleared the village , he took charge of the situation and beat off the most resolute and heavy counter @-@ attacks made by the enemy .
Wounded about 6 @.@ 30 a.m. , he refused to leave his post , and there remained , encouraging all to hold out at all costs , until , about 4 @.@ 30 p.m. , this very gallant officer was killed by an enemy shell .
Cherry 's Victoria Cross was presented to his father by the Governor of Tasmania , Sir Francis Newdegate , in Hobart during October 1917 . In 1932 , a photograph of Cherry was unveiled at the headquarters of the 26th Battalion , Australian Imperial Force , at Dinnerley , Brisbane . His Victoria Cross is currently on display at the Australian War Memorial along with his other medals .
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= North Staffordshire Railway =
The North Staffordshire Railway ( NSR ) was a British railway company formed in 1845 to promote a number of lines in the Staffordshire Potteries and surrounding areas in Staffordshire , Cheshire , Derbyshire and Shropshire .
The company was based in Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent and was nicknamed The Knotty ; its lines were built to the standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) . The main routes were constructed between 1846 and 1852 and ran from Macclesfield to Norton Bridge , just north of Stafford , and from Crewe to Egginton Junction , west of Derby . Within these main connections with other railway companies , most notably the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) , the company operated a network of smaller lines although the total route mileage of the company never exceeded 221 miles ( 355 @.@ 7 km ) . The majority of the passenger traffic was local although a number of LNWR services from Manchester to London were operated via Stoke . Freight traffic was mostly coal and other minerals but the line also carried the vast majority of china and other pottery goods manufactured in England .
As the NSR was surrounded by other larger railway companies , there were in the 19th century several attempts emanating from other companies or proposals from NSR shareholders to amalgamate with one or more of the other companies that adjoined it . None of these came to fruition and the NSR remained an independent company up to 1923 when it became part of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway Company .
= = Before the railway = =
The area of north Staffordshire known today as the City of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent was already a thriving industrial area before the arrival of the railways . The establishment of the pottery industry and the development of coal and ironstone mines in the 18th century had provided a need for materials , most noticeably clay , to be brought into the area . A corresponding need also arose for the resulting fragile goods i.e. pottery to be taken away from the area . This need had given rise in the mid to late 18th century of the construction of the Trent & Mersey Canal ( T & M ) and its various branches . Opened in 1777 it was a spectacular success and paid dividends reaching 75 % in 1822 . By 1845 this had fallen to a still impressive 30 % despite the onset of railway development in the North West of England . In 1836 the canal carried 184 @,@ 500 long tons ( 187 @,@ 461 t ; 206 @,@ 640 short tons ) of goods away and brought in 143 @,@ 610 long tons ( 145 @,@ 914 t ; 160 @,@ 843 short tons ) .
It was the Trent & Mersey Canal company that built the first railway in north Staffordshire when in 1776 it was granted powers to build a railway , or plateway , from Caldon Low limestone quarries to the canal basin at Froghall in the Churnet Valley .
= = Formation of the company = =
The Railway Mania of 1845 found the Potteries still without a railway , although the surrounding towns of Stafford , Crewe , Derby and Macclesfield were all connected to the fledgling railway system . The Staffordshire Potteries Railway promoted a route from Macclesfield to the Grand Junction Railway mainline at Norton Bridge plus a spur to Crewe . At the same time the Churnet Valley Railway promoted a line from Macclesfield to Derby with a branch to Stoke . After these two companies applied for the necessary powers to build the lines , Parliament suggested a pause of a year " to afford time for consideration and for maturing some more complete scheme for the accommodation of that important district " .
The two companies decided to join forces to make a new approach to Parliament . They also incorporated in the scheme a proposal to join the Trent Valley Railway into the Potteries . To do this they promoted the North Staffordshire or Churnet Valley and Trent Junction Railway . This prospective company issued its prospectus on 30 April 1845 from offices at 1 Old Palace Yard , Westminster , London . There was to be a share capital of £ 2 @,@ 350 @,@ 000 ( £ 210 million in 2015 ) . in £ 20 shares ( 117 @,@ 500 shares ) .
The prospectus outlined the NSR 's plans for two main lines . The Pottery Line running from a junction with the Manchester & Birmingham railway at Congleton to the Grand Junction Railway at Colwich was promoted , as ' giving the most ample accommodation to the towns of Tunstall , Burslem , Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme , Hanley , Stoke , Fenton , Longton and Stone ' . The Churnet Line was to run from Macclesfield though Leek , Cheadle and Uttoxeter to join the Midland Railway line between Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent and Derby forming a direct link between Manchester and Derby .
The company was formally incorporated in April 1845 under the shorter name of the North Staffordshire Railway . As a way of eliminating opposition to the Company 's Bills in Parliament , and to allow it to promote a line to Liverpool , the company made an agreement to take over the Trent & Mersey Canal Company . This was achieved by T & M shares being swapped for preference shares in the NSR . These preference shares paid a guaranteed annual dividend of 5 % once the entire railway was open . The total purchase cost of the T & M to the NSR £ 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 .
On 25 November 1845 the Derby and Crewe Railway was absorbed into the NSR Scheme . This was a line that was being supported by the Grand Junction Railway ( GJR ) running between Derby and Crewe via Uttoxeter and Stoke . It was to eliminate the opposition of the Grand Junction company to the other NSR proposals that the NSR agreed to absorb the Derby and Crewe . However part of the deal was that the proposed line from Harecastle to Liverpool was abandoned . Despite having arranged to purchase the T & M canal for a considerable sum , to obtain support for the Liverpool extension the NSR agreed to the GJR demand . All that survived of the NSR Liverpool plan was the short branch to Sandbach from Harecastle .
= = Parliamentary approval and construction = =
On 26 June 1846 , the three NSR acts were passed with the total of £ 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in share capital being shared amongst the three lines , with seven years allowed for the completion of each line . The North Staffordshire Railway ( Pottery Line ) Act provided for the construction of the line from Macclesfield to Colwich with branches to Norton Bridge , Newcastle , Silverdale and Crewe . This act also vested the Trent & Mersey Canal in the NSR . Allocated capital for this work was £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The second act , the North Staffordshire Railway ( Harecastle and Sandbach ) Act provided for the construction of the line from Harecastle to Sandbach , allocated capital for these works was £ 200 @,@ 000 . Finally the North Staffordshire Railway ( Churnet Valley Line ) Act authorised the construction of the line from North Rode to Burton , a branch from Tutbury to Willington Junction near Derby , and the line between Uttoxeter and Stoke ; £ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 of capital was allocated to this .
To start the construction work , there was an official ' cutting of the first sod ' ceremony . This took place in September 1846 The site chosen for the ceremony was a field in Etruria . A roped off enclosure for directors was created and the remainder of the field was reserved for invited guests . A mile long procession headed by John Lewis Ricardo , Member of Parliament for Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent and chairman of the NSR Company , formed . On Ricardo 's arrival , the crowds broke through the roped off area and Ricardo was pushed and shoved . During the actual cutting he buckled the silver spade and had difficulty removing the sod . Finally , his hat blew away .
Construction work went ahead under the supervision of the Consulting Engineer , George Parker Bidder . By February 1847 there were 1 @,@ 318 men and 60 horses working between Macclesfield and Colwich and they had removed 80 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 61 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth , driven 843 yards ( 771 m ) of tunnel heading and erected 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 10 @,@ 973 m ) yards of fencing .
On 2 July 1847 the North Staffordshire Railway Act was passed . The act was necessary was because of problems encountered with the construction of the Crewe branch . The opportunity was taken to authorise several other deviations and small branches . It also consolidated the previous acts and importantly , forced the NSR to ensure that all lines were completed by specifying that ordinary dividends were not to exceed 5 % until the Churnet Valley and Willington lines had been opened .
Work continued apace and by 3 April 1848 the first freight trains were run . Passenger services started on 17 April 1848 and the first passenger train left the temporary station at Wheildon Road , Stoke , hauled by locomotive No. 1 Dragon , heading for a temporary station at Norton Bridge on the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) . The opening of the line gave the Potteries a railway link with Birmingham and London which made it an instant success with the public . Profits for the first two months were £ 1 @,@ 668 ' exceeding expectations ' .
The remaining lines under the original Acts were opened in stages but all were completed and open by the end of 1852 when the Stoke to Newcastle and Newcastle to Knutton sections opened . A few months after the opening of the first line , the imposing permanent station in Winton Square , Stoke was opened on 9 October 1848 . Stoke station then became the headquarters of the NSR .
= = Later lines = =
Later branches constructed in the nineteenth century included lines from Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to Congleton via Smallthorne and Biddulph ; Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to Leek ; Newcastle to Silverdale , Keele and Market Drayton ( junction with the Great Western Railway ) ; Alsager to Audley , Leycett and Keele , and Rocester to Ashbourne .
Also opened in the nineteenth century was the only NSR line to achieve any degree of fame , the Potteries Loop Line from Etruria via Hanley , Cobridge , Burslem , Tunstall , Pitts Hill , Newchapel and Goldenhill to Kidsgrove Liverpool Rd . Authorised in stages in 1864 – 5 , it opened to traffic in 1873 . Its fame came from several mentions and a description of a journey on a Burslem to Hanley train in Arnold Bennett 's The Old Wives ' Tale .
Twentieth century construction included a branch from Leek to Cauldon Lowe via Waterhouses from where the 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway ( L & MV ) was constructed through the Hamps and Manifold river valleys to Hulme End near Hartington . Although the L & MV was nominally independent the NSR both worked and operated the line .
Finally in 1910 , a very short line was built from Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to Trentham Park . It was authorised as part of an alternative line to Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme but construction work beyond Trentham was quickly abandoned owing to rising costs . The same act of parliament also transferred the Cheadle Railway to the NSR . The Cheadle Railway was a small local company constructed with NSR 's backing , built at great cost over a period of twelve years . It was a short line from Cresswell to Cheadle , this line , only four miles long , included a very difficult tunnel . The line was opened from Cresswell to Totmonslow 7 November 1892 and to Cheadle , 1 January 1901 .
A full list of authorisation and opening dates for sections of the NSR is given below .
= = Macclesfield , Bollington and Marple Railway = =
The Macclesfield , Bollington and Marple Railway ( MB & M ) was a joint line which the NSR participated in . A short line of just under 11 miles ( 18 km ) it was opened with the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway ( MS & L ) in 1869 to give the NSR to Manchester independently of the LNWR . As relationships between the NSR and the LNWR grew better the reason for the line lessened as the MB & M route to Manchester was 5 miles longer than the LNWR route . > Both passenger and freight traffic was handled by the MS & L ( or as it later became the Great Central Railway ) with the buildings maintained by the NSR .
= = Running powers with other companies = =
As a company with only a small route mileage the NSR made extensive use of running powers and in exchange granted running powers to other companies .
The earliest agreements were reached with the LNWR . In 1849 an agreement was reached where LNWR traffic could work over the NSR system but in exchange a certain amount of the LNWR London trains had to be routed via Stoke . These Manchester to London Euston restaurant car expresses were unique in often being hauled by NSR tank engines from Manchester to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent where the LNWR express engines took over for the run via Stone , Sandon , Colwich , and the main line to London Euston . The NSR received a payment for every through passenger on these trains and employed a small army of ticket inspectors to examine and clip ( with its distinctive ' P ' clip ) every ticket during the Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent station stop . The agreement did give the NSR access to destinations such as Llandudno , Manchester , Stafford , Wolverhampton and Buxton . NSR goods trains were able to run to places such as Liverpool and Rugby . The LNWR also used running rights over the Uttoxeter – Ashbourne line to run through coaches from Buxton to London via Nuneaton . As well as the running power agreements with the LNWR there was a very short joint line of 32 chains ( 644 m ) at Middlewood and three jointly owned stations ; Ashbourne , Colwich and Macclesfield Goods .
Equally important in terms of traffic but not as extensive in terms of route were the running power agreements with the Midland Railway ( MR ) . For the NSR passenger traffic into Derby and Burton was authorised and good traffic as far afield as Wellingborough . The arrangements with these two companies allowed the NSR to run its longest passenger service , between Derby and Llandudno . These trains only ran 44 @.@ 5 miles ( 71 @.@ 6 km ) on NSR rails , with 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) over MR but with the majority , 67 @.@ 5 miles ( 108 @.@ 6 km ) over the LNWR .
In 1867 , an independent local company built the Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway , later incorporated into the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) . The GNR built its GNR Derbyshire and Staffordshire Extension from Nottingham and Derby Friargate via Mickleover to Egginton Junction with running powers over the NSR from Etwall , through Uttoxeter , to Bromshall Junction . The GNR granted the NSR running rights to Nottingham , Colwick , Leicester and Peterborough . Apart from excursion trains to Nottingham and goods trains to Colwick , the NSR did not take advantage of these powers .
Although the NSR had joint ownership of the MB & M with the MS & L the NSR did not have running powers over the rest of the MS & L and was content to let the MS & L handle all traffic north of Middlewood . Finally with both the NSR and the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) expanding into Shropshire running rights were agreed for NSR trains to run to Hodnet and Wellington and in return GWR goods trains could run to Stoke .
= = Amalgamation proposals and financial strength = =
There were several proposals made either to the NSR or by it , to merge or lease or sell the company to other railway companies . The first was in 1849 when the LNWR , using its financial strength , made suggestions about a merger . To avoid this the NSR had to agree to the running powers outlined above . A further attempt in 1851 got as far as a parliamentary bill being submitted for amalgamation until the select committee appointed to look at the bill reported against the idea . The LNWR made a further attempt in 1855 which failed because of concerted opposition by the MR , MS & L and GWR . Less than twenty years later , in 1870 , these four companies all combined to look at taking over the NSR following a decision by the NSR board to sell or lease the company . The four rival companies were unable to agree on who would take what share of the NSR and the proposal floundered .
In 1875 the MS & L proposed an amalgamation which initially found favour with the NSR board and shareholders but eventually fell through when the MS & L finances were investigated and it was found that the MS & L was no stronger financially than the NSR . Only two years later some NSR shareholders proposed a merger with the MR , the board dismissed the proposal with the chairman reminding shareholders that
The NSR had a small mileage and had to collect traffic for the large companies which surrounded it . They made profits from good mileages while the NSR had to do a great deal for comparatively little return .
The quote about little return was accurate . In 1877 the NSR dividend was only 2 % compared with the dividend of 6 % paid by the LNWR to its shareholders . A year later the dividend fell to its lowest ever point of only 1 ⅝ % . However it recovered and after 1881 never fell below 3 % . In 1891 the NSR paid a 5 % dividend for the first time , a level not to be reached again until 1913 .
In 1913 the NSR ranked as the eighteenth largest company by route mileage with 216 miles ( 348 km ) . Passenger numbers stood at 7 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 and goods traffic handled by the NSR consisted of 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 778 @,@ 082 t ) of goods , nearly 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 064 @,@ 188 t ) of coal and coke and over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 032 @,@ 094 t ) of other minerals . Among the 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 778 @,@ 082 t ) of goods was 150 @,@ 000 long tons ( 152 @,@ 407 t ) of pottery , over five @-@ sixths of the entire production in Britain .
= = Grouping = =
Under the Railways Act 1921 , the NSR was one of the eight major companies designated to form the North Western , Midland and West Scottish Group . This group became the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) . The act came into force on 1 January 1923 but along with the Caledonian Railway , the NSR amalgamation into the LMS was delayed until 1 July 1923 due to certain legal requirements not being completed by the due date .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
In January 1885 , a London and North Western Railway express passenger train collided with a freight train near Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . One person was killed .
= = Other interests = =
In common with most other British railway companies , the NSR decided early on that it was advantageous to carry out its own maintenance work in all departments and also to undertake much of its own new construction work . Stoke railway works were opened in 1849 , capable of producing carriages , wagons and other equipment . Construction of locomotives followed later , commencing in 1864 .
Ownership of the Trent & Mersey canal made the NSR the biggest canal owning railway with 130 miles ( 209 km ) of waterways owned . The T & M owned Rudyard Lake which the NSR made use of as a leisure complex , building a golf course , in 1905 , on land adjoining the lake . A further area of interest , again via ownership of the T & M , was the lease on Caldon Low quarries . Associated with the quarry was the 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) tramway that ran from the quarries to Froghall making the NSR the operator of lines of three different gauges .
Although the NSR principally served the urban areas of the Potteries , it did promote the area for tourism , especially the Churnet Valley which local hoteliers had labelled as " Staffordshire 's little Switzerland " . The company issued a 150 @-@ page guide called Picturesque Staffordshire to support this promotion and dispel the widespread held idea that the county was dull and bleak In addition to the tourist traffic generated the NSR owned three hotels ; the North Stafford in Stoke ( opposite Stoke station ) , the Churnet Valley in Leek and the Hotel Rudyard at Rudyard .
= = Officers of the company = =
= = Motive power and rolling stock = =
= = = Locomotives = = =
NSR motive power came from a mixture of sources . Before the establishment of Stoke works there was a complete reliance on outside contractors . The first locomotives were either purchased from contractors building the line or firms such as Sharp Brothers and Company , B. Hick and Son , Kitson , Thompson and Hewitson , the Vulcan Foundry or Jones and Potts .
Originally the resident engineers were responsible for the locomotive stock and the first four holders of this post were all primarily civil engineers . In 1863 the new general manager , Morris , commissioned an outside report on the NSR locomotive fleet which recommended the rebuilding of 50 engines . By the time this report was produced a new engineer , Johnson , had been appointed . He undertook the improvements but the results were unsatisfactory and Johnson left in 1870 after only five years in post . The only significant event of Johnson 's tenure was the building of the first engines at Stoke works when three 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T engines were built in 1868 . Johnson 's successor , Dodds , fared no better as his patented wedge motion , a type of valve gear , was unsuccessful . Dodds was dismissed in 1875 and a new post of locomotive superintendent created with a locomotive engineer , Angus , in charge . Although only in post for two years Angus replaced all the wedge motions with Stephenson valve gear .
There followed a long period of locomotive construction internally with all locomotives between 1875 and 1900 coming from the company works . The vast majority of these being tank engines although a small number of tender engines were constructed . Most engines , whether tank or tender locomotives were built with either 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 or 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangements . An urgent need for heavier goods engines prompted the company to go to contractors and a small number of 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 designs were purchased from Nasmyth , Wilson and Company . In 1903 five 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T engines were purchased from Vulcan Foundry and with the exception of two locomotives for shunting purchased from Kerr Stuart in 1919 these were the last engines not to be built by the company at Stoke .
Apart from engine No 1 of 1848 being named Dragon only two other NSR engines were ever named , in 1882 Class C 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 No. 55 was named Colin Minton Campbell and Class C No. 54 John Bramley Moore after the chairman and deputy chairman of the company , respectively .
The NSR also used a small number of railmotors with three being purchased in 1905 from Beyer , Peacock and Company . They were used on routes such as the Stoke – Newcastle service but were not a success . The vehicles did survive until grouping but had been taken out of service for some time some years earlier . In addition to the NSR locomotives were the two engines of the Leek & Manifold and the three engines that worked the Caldon Low quarries . The former were purchased from Kitson and Company and the latter from Henry Hughes and W. G. Bagnall .
At grouping 196 steam locomotives including the L & MV and Caldon Low engines were absorbed into the LMS along with the three railmotors and one battery electric locomotive . This last engine was built at Stoke in 1917 for shunting the copper works at Oakamoor . Four engines under construction at Stoke in 1923 were completed and also added to the LMS stock . Although many of the locomotives were not old , due to the LMS policy of standardisation all NSR engines had been withdrawn from service by 1939 . The one exception was the battery electric shunting locomotive which remained in service until 1963 .
Two NSR locomotives are preserved . NSR No. 2 , an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T New L class ( one of the four constructed in 1923 ) and the battery electric locomotive . Both formed part of the national collection at the National Railway Museum but in 2016 ownership of the New L class locomotive was transferred to the Foxfield Railway where the locomotive is now on display .
= = = = Locomotive depots = = = =
The largest locomotive depot was at Stoke , with 125 engines at grouping . The next largest was Alsager with an allocation of 15 engines . Other NSR depots existed at Macclesfield , Derby , Uttoxeter , Burton and Crewe . Stoke also had sub @-@ sheds at Market Drayton , Leekbrook and Ashbourne . NSR engines were also sub @-@ shedded at other companies depots , with arrangements existing at the LNWR sheds at Stafford , Liverpool Edge Hill and Manchester Longsight and the GNR shed at Nottingham Colwick .
= = = = Locomotive liveries = = = =
Up to 1882 locomotives were a bright green with black and white lining with a Staffordshire knot emblem on the tank or tender sides . Longbottom introduced a new livery of a red brown with black , yellow and vermilion lining . Longbottom was succeeded by Adams who changed the livery once more to a crimson shade called Madder Lakewith yellow and vermilion lining . The knot emblem was replaced by the company coat of arms and the words North Stafford .
= = = Coaching stock = = =
The NSR coaching stock was , even until grouping , predominantly four and six wheeled vehicles . Four @-@ wheeled carriages were the norm from the start and the last were constructed in the 1880s , although by then they had progressed from the unbraked coaches of the 1840s with the introduction of the communication cord in 1869 and the simple vacuum brake in 1883 . The first bogie coaches were introduced in 1906 for use on the Derby – Llandudno service and these were followed by further examples until 1923 . By 1919 all carriages , except 13 four @-@ wheelers used on miners trains , had been fitted with steam heating and a number of vehicles had been fitted with through pipes to allow use in trains equipped with Westinghouse brakes . Most carriages were constructed at Stoke but some were purchased from companies such as the Metropolitan Carriage , Wagon and Finance Company .
One area were the NSR was a pioneer was in the use of electrical lighting being the largest of only three British railway companies to switch from oil to electric lighting and not use any form of gas lighting . The first coach was fitted in 1897 and new stock constructed from 1899 had electric lighting as standard . Conversion of the remaining stock was slow and in 1910 there were still some oil lit carriages in service .
= = = = Coaching liveries = = = =
Coaching stock was originally claret but in 1875 was changed to Victoria Brown and white ( except for branch line trains which carried an all over Victoria Brown livery ) with gold and blue lining . Victoria Brown was the same red brown colour as Longbottom had introduced for NSR locomotives . In 1882 waist panels were additionally painted white . This colour scheme lasted until 1896 when it was changed to an overall Victoria Lake ( brown ) colour with gold and blue lining . Adams changed the livery to Madder Lake in 1903 to match the locomotives , the lining became yellow and red . A final minor change was to paint the waist panels of first class compartments cream to distinguish them . A constant presence was the company coat of arms being displayed on the coach sides .
= = = Goods stock = = =
Over its life the NSR built or bought many thousands of goods wagons . Early wagons had dumb buffers with spring buffers being introduced from 1870 . Early wagons were not of high capacity e.g. typical open wagons were only of 4 long tons ( 4 @.@ 1 t ) capacity. but capacities grew to 10 long tons ( 10 t ) on average by 1923 .
The NSR handed over to the LMS 6 @,@ 612 goods wagons of which over 5 @,@ 000 were open wagons for the transport of coal and other minerals . This number was dwarfed by the number of wagons owned by the pits , ironworks , other industrial operations and traders in the Stoke area . An unusual set of wagons to be seen were the bright yellow with red lettering vans owned by the Barnum and Bailey circus who had their main English depot in Stoke .
= = = = Goods liveries = = = =
Goods vehicles were painted red oxide with white lettering and a white Staffordshire knot . The letters N.S.R with only two full stops were carried in small letters . From 1912 the letters were increased in size but changed to just N S with a central knot and no full stops .
= = The Knotty = =
The NSR is one of the few railways to become the subject of a play . In 1966 , Peter Cheeseman , artistic director of The Victoria Theatre , Stoke wrote a musical documentary about the NSR called The Knotty . Featured in the play were the voices of several NSR staff who had been interviewed especially for the play . The script with introductory notes by Cheeseman was published in 1970 . Sound recordings of the production , The Knotty - a musical documentary , was released on LP by Argo Transacord ( ZTR 125 ) in 1970 and as a digital version in 2014 it was digitised by Transacord Digital .
= = NSR main lines and branch lines — opening dates = =
Ricardo , North Staffordshire Railway chairman described the network as being like " a small octopus " ; but not one NSR station was more than 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . Dates of authorisation and opening are given in the following table .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Fembot ( song ) =
" Fembot " is a song by Swedish recording artist Robyn , taken from her fifth studio album , Body Talk Pt . 1 ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Robyn and Klas Åhlund , and produced by the latter . It was inspired by Robyn 's personal experience of entering her thirties and contemplating children . With the song , she also argues against the notion that humans and robots are separate , explaining that technology has become more organic . " Fembot " is a song with an R & B vibe , and features Robyn rapping several double entendres in the verses , while proclaiming that " Fembots have feelings too " in the chorus . The song was released on 13 April 2010 as one of three promotional singles before the album 's release .
" Fembot " was met with positive reviews from critics , with some of them highlighting its humor and lyrical content . Critics also noted the continued " android theme " present on a few of Robyn 's previous songs , including the Röyksopp collaboration " The Girl and the Robot " ( 2009 ) . Commercially , " Fembot " performed well on the charts , managing to reach number three on the Sverigetopplistan chart and number ten in Norway . Robyn performed the song for the first time on talk show Skavlan in April 2010 , and later included it on the set lists for the All Hearts Tour ( 2010 ) and the Body Talk Tour ( 2010 ) .
= = Background = =
In an interview with music webzine Pitchfork , Robyn was asked if " Fembot " represented a dislike for the notion that humans and robots are separate , and she responded by saying , " The classic , dystopian theory about the future is not really as interesting to me . Like the book I , Robot is all about these robots that basically went nuts , and it 's always because they were wrongly programmed by humans . It 's like a mirror of our own psyche . It 's almost like the wrong program could be a mental disease . " She elaborated that " Fembot " is not " really about the future or about space or anything " , saying that it is about the present time . " Technology is becoming more organic , and using the word ' fembot ' or ' robot ' in a song makes things more human to me " , she said . In an interview with music website Stereogum , she explained that the song also chronicles her personal experience of " turning 30 and contemplating children " . She elaborated , saying ,
The song was uploaded the song onto Robyn 's official website on 17 March 2010 . It was later released to digital retailers in the United States on 13 April 2010 , and in Sweden three days later . It was one of three promotional singles released before the release of Body Talk Pt . 1 and the official first single , " Dancing on My Own " .
= = Composition = =
" Fembot " was written by Robyn and Klas Åhlund , and produced by the latter . It is in the key of D major and a tempo of 123 beats per minute with a " heavy R & B vibe " . According to Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone , the song continues the " android theme " previously present on Robyn 's track , " Robotboy " , the interlude " Bionic Woman " and the Röyksopp collaboration , " The Girl and the Robot " ( 2009 ) . DJ Ron Slomowicz of About.com compared its musical and lyrical style to that of previous single " Konichiwa Bitches " ( 2007 ) . According to Jer Fairall of PopMatters , the song utilizes " a spare , beepy two @-@ note synth hook and a squelching electronic rhythm . " Robyn 's vocals in the song are layered with Auto @-@ Tune and vocoders . During the verses , she adapts her distinctive rapping style , and exclaims lyrical lines such as " I gotta lotta automatic booty applications " and " I 'm a very scientifically advanced hot mama . " Nate Chinen of The New York Times wrote that Robyn " rap [ s ] a series of double entendres in a digitally processed purr " , and then proclaims her " voguish fixation on androids " in the chorus ; " I ’ ve got some news for you / Fembots have feelings too " . According to Lindsey Fortier of Billboard , " Fembot " sees Robyn " get [ ting ] in touch with her urban side " .
= = Reception = =
Michael Gragg of MusicOMH wrote that " Though the lyrics are daft [ ... ] it 's exuberance and general sense of fun is so infectious that when the chorus kicks in you barely notice what she 's saying . " Jer Fairall of PopMatters wrote , " Look no further than the wry chorus hook of “ Fembot ” for proof of Robyn ’ s deftly subversive sense of humor . " Fairall also pointed out that " [ The chorus ] might hint , at first , in the direction of some Blade Runner @-@ esque sci @-@ fi pathos , but Robyn turns it towards a canny meta @-@ commentary on the fluid sense of authenticity that pervades 21st century pop stardom . " Fairall , however , thought that " the verses are nothing more than an inventory of the titular ‘ bot ’ s synthetic virtues . " Ben Norman of About.com selected the song as his favorite track on Body Talk Pt . 1 , and wrote that " ' Fembot ' is the incredibly quirky and well @-@ written Robyn @-@ rap track that needs to be heard to be believed . " Christopher Muther of The Boston Globe praised the song for having " one of the most entertaining lyrics to emerge this year " .
" Fembot " debuted at number seven on the Sverigetopplistan chart on the issue dated 23 April 2010 , becoming the week 's highest debut . The following week , it rose four positions to number three , which became its peak . The song spent seven weeks on the chart , before dropping out in June 2010 . In Norway , " Fembot " debuted at number nineteen on the VG @-@ lista chart and peaked at number ten . The song debuted and peaked at number ninety @-@ nine on the European Hot 100 Singles chart on the issue dated 15 May 2010 .
= = Live performances = =
Robyn performed the song on 16 April 2010 on the Norwegian @-@ Swedish talk show Skavlan . A writer from music website Stereogum wrote that Robyn did the song very well live , and commented ; " With just a keyboardist doubling as robot hypeman and two drummers , the performance is extremely faithful to the recorded version . It fact , it doesn ’ t really pop until the end and we get two seconds of Robyn doing the robot . " Robyn also performed the song on the All Hearts joint tour with American singer Kelis during the summer of 2010 . Robyn opened the show with " Fembot " , which was preceded by a computerized voice counting down . Joanna Buffum of MTV Iggy wrote that the song " set the tone for the futuristic electro light show to follow " . The song was also included on the set list for the Body Talk Tour . Similar to the All Hearts Tour , the show commenced with robotic voices over the speakers and backed by a heavy beat , before Robyn began singing " Fembot " as multicolored strobes lit the stage . However , for the second North American leg and onwards , " Time Machine " took over as the opening number .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Fembot " – 3 : 35
= = Credits and personnel = =
Robyn – lyrics
Klas Åhlund – music , lyrics , instruments , programming and production
Niklas Flykt – mixing
Source
= = Charts = =
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= Johnnie Johnson ( RAF officer ) =
Air vice @-@ marshal James Edgar Johnson CB , CBE , DSO & two bars , DFC & Bar ( 9 March 1915 – 30 January 2001 ) , nicknamed " Johnnie " , was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) pilot and flying ace — defined as a pilot that has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in aerial combat — who flew and fought during the Second World War .
Born in 1915 , Johnson grew up and was educated in the East Midlands , where he qualified as an engineer . A sportsman , Johnson broke his collarbone while playing rugby , an injury that later complicated his ambitions of becoming a fighter pilot . Johnson had been interested in aviation since his youth and applied to join the RAF . He was initially rejected , first on social , and then on medical grounds . In August 1939 he was eventually accepted . The injury problems , however , returned during his early training and flying career , resulting in him missing the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain between May and October 1940 .
In 1940 Johnson had an operation to reset his collarbone , and began flying regularly . He took part in the offensive sweeps over German @-@ occupied Europe from 1941 to 1944 , almost without rest . Johnson was involved in heavy aerial fighting during this period . His combat tour included participation in the Dieppe Raid , Combined Bomber Offensive , Battle of Normandy , Operation Market Garden , the Battle of the Bulge and the Western Allied invasion of Germany . Johnson progressed to the rank of group captain by the end of the war .
Johnson was credited with 34 individual victories over enemy aircraft , as well as seven shared victories , three shared probable , 10 damaged , three shared damaged and one destroyed on the ground . Johnson flew 700 operational sorties and engaged enemy aircraft on 57 occasions . Included in his list of individual victories were 14 Messerschmitt Bf 109s and 20 Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s destroyed making him the most successful RAF ace against the Fw 190 . This score made him the highest scoring Western Allied fighter ace against the German Luftwaffe .
Johnson continued his career in the RAF after the war , and served in the Korean War , retiring in 1966 , with the rank of air vice marshal . He maintained an interest in aviation and did public speaking on the subject as well as entering into the business of aviation art . Johnnie Johnson remained active until his death from cancer in 2001 .
= = Early life = =
Johnson was born 9 March 1915 in Barrow upon Soar , Leicestershire , to Alfred Johnson and Beatrice May Johnson . He lived and was brought up in Melton Mowbray , where his father was a policeman . Alfred Johnson was Inspector by the mid @-@ 1930s . One evening Oswald Mosley , the leader of the British Union of Fascists , held a meeting in the town . The license for the meeting expired at 22 : 00 at which time Alfred Johnson went alone and ejected the Fascists from the building .
Johnson was educated at Camden Street Junior School and Loughborough Grammar School . Johnson 's uncle , Edgar Charles Rossell , who had won the Military Cross with the Royal Fusiliers in 1916 , paid for Johnson 's education at Loughborough . According to his brother Ross , during his time there , Johnson was nearly expelled after refusing punishment for a misdemeanour , believing it to be unjustified : " he was very principled and simply dug his heels in " . Among Johnson 's hobbies and interests were shooting and sports ; he shot rabbits and birds in the local countryside .
Johnson attended the University of Nottingham , where he qualified as a civil engineer , aged 22 . Johnson became a surveyor at Melton Mowbray Urban District Council before progressing to assistant engineer with Chigwell Urban District Council at Loughton . In 1938 , Johnson broke his collarbone playing rugby for Chingford Rugby Club ; the injury was wrongly set and did not heal properly , which later caused him difficulty at the start of his flying career .
= = Joining the RAF = =
Keen to follow up his interest in aviation , Johnson started taking flying lessons at his own expense . He applied to join the Auxiliary Air Force ( AAF ) but encountered some of the social problems that were rife in British society at the time . Johnson strongly felt he was rejected on the grounds of his class status . Johnson 's fortunes were to improve . As the chances of war increased in the aftermath of the Munich Crisis , the standards of the RAF were relaxed , however , as the service expanded and brought in men from ordinary social backgrounds . Johnson re @-@ applied to the AAF . He was informed that sufficient pilots were already available but there were some vacancies in the balloon squadrons . Johnson rejected the offer .
Inspired by some Chingford friends who had joined , Johnson applied again to join the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve ( RAFVR ) . The RAFVR was a means to enter the RAF for young men with ordinary backgrounds . All volunteer aircrew were made Sergeants on with the possibility of a commission . He was rejected on the grounds that there were too many applicants for vacancies and his injury made him unsuitable for flight operations . He then joined the Leicestershire Yeomanry , where the injury was not a bar to recruitment . He joined the Territorial Army unit because , though he was in a reserved occupation , if war came , he had " no intention of seeing out the duration building air raid shelters or supervising decontamination squads " . Johnson was content in the Yeomanry . One day while riding through Burleigh , Berkshire on annual camp Johnson took a detour to RAF Wittering in Cambridgeshire . Upon seeing a line of Hawker Hurricane fighters Johnson remarked " If I 've got to fight Hitler I 'd sooner fight him in one of those than on a bloody great horse ! " .
= = = Flight training = = =
In August 1939 , Johnson was accepted by the RAFVR and began training at weekends at the airfield Stapleford Tawney , a satellite airfield of RAF North Weald . There he received ground instruction on airmanship . Taught by retired service pilots of 21 Elementary & Reserve Flying Training School , Johnson trained on the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane . Upon the outbreak of war in September 1939 , with the rank of sergeant , Johnson entrained for Cambridge . He arrived at the 2nd Initial Training Wing to begin flight instruction . He was interviewed by senior officers in which he said his profession and knowledge of topography , surveying and mapping would make him more useful in a reconnaissance role . The wing commander agreed , but nonetheless , Johnson was selected for fighter pilot training and given the service number 754750 with the rank of Sergeant . Johnson and several hundred others were entrained for Cambridge and the 2 initial Training Wing . While assigned here Johnson learned basic military drill , sometimes given the slang name " square bashing " .
By December 1939 , Johnson began his initial training at 22 EFTS ( Elementary Flying Training School ) , Cambridge . He flew only three times in December 1939 and eight in January 1940 , all as second pilot . On 29 February 1940 , Johnson flew solo for the first time in Tiger Moth N6635 . On 15 March and 24 April , his passed a 50 @-@ minute flight test followed by two night flights the following day . The chief flying instructor passed him on 6 May . He then moved to 5 FTS at Sealand before completing training at 7 OTU ( Operational Training Unit ) – RAF Hawarden in Wales flying the Miles Master N7454 where he earned his instrument , navigation , night @-@ flying ratings and practised forced landings . After training was complete on 7 August 1940 , Johnson received his " wings " and was immediately inducted into the General Duties Branch of the RAF as a pilot officer with 55 hours and 5 minutes solo flying .
0n 19 August 1940 , Johnson flew a Spitfire for the first time . Over the next weeks he practised handling , formation flying , attacks , battle climbs , aerobatics and dogfighting . During his training flights , he stalled and crashed a Spitfire . Johnson had his harness straps on too loose , and wrenched his shoulders – revealing that his earlier rugby injury had not healed properly . The Spitfire did a ground loop , ripping off one of the undercarriage legs and forcing the other up through the port main plane . The commanding officer excused Johnson , for the " short airfield " was difficult to land on for an inexperienced pilot . Johnson got the impression , however , that he would be watched closely , and felt that if he made another mistake , he would be " certainly washed out " . Johnson tried to pack the injured shoulder with wool , held in place by adhesive tape . He also tightened the straps to reduce vibrations . Johnson found he had lost his " feel " in his right hand , and it became numb . When he practised dives , the pressure also aggravated his shoulder . He often tried to fly using his left hand only , but the Spitfire would have to be handled with both hands during anything other than simple manoeuvres . Despite the difficulties with his injuries , on 28 August 1940 , the course was complete . Johnson had 205 @.@ 25 hours on operational types including 23 @.@ 50 on the Spitfire .
= = = = Injury resurfaces = = = =
After training , in August 1940 , he was briefly posted to No. 19 Squadron as a probationary pilot officer . Due to equipment difficulties , 19 Squadron were unable to complete Johnson 's training and he left the unit . On 6 September 1940 Johnson was posted to No. 616 Squadron at RAF Coltishall . Squadron Leader H.L " Billy " Burton took Johnson on a 50 @-@ minute training flight in X4055 . After the flight Burton impressed upon Johnson the difficulties of deflection shooting and the technique of a killing shot from line @-@ astern or near line @-@ astern positions ; the duty of the number two whose job was not to shoot down enemy aircraft but to ensure the leader 's tail was safe . Burton also directed Johnson to some critical tactical essentials ; the importance of keeping good battle formation and the tactical use of sun , cloud and height . Five days later , Johnson flew an X @-@ Raid patrol in Spitfire X4330 , qualifying for the Battle of Britain clasp .
Johnson 's old injury continued to trouble him and he found flying high performance aircraft like the Spitfire extremely painful . RAF medics gave him two options ; he could have an operation that would correct the problem , but this meant he would miss the Battle of Britain , or becoming a training instructor flying the light Tiger Moth . Johnson opted for the operation . He had hoped for discreet treatment , but word soon reached the CO , and Johnson was taken off flying duties and sent to the RAF Hospital at Rauceby . He did not return to the squadron until 28 December 1940 . CO Burton took Johnson up for a test flight on 31 December 1940 in Miles Magister L8151 . After the 45 @-@ minute flight , Johnson 's fitness to fly was approved .
= = Second World War = =
Johnson returned to operational flying in early 1941 in 616 Squadron , which was forming part of the Tangmere Wing . Johnson often found himself flying alongside Wing Commander Douglas Bader and Australian ace Tony Gaze . On 15 January 1941 , Johnson , the recently appointed Squadron Leader Burton and Pilot Officer Hugh Dundas , who arrived back at the squadron on 13 September 1940 , took off to offer cover for a convoy off North Coates . The controller vectored the pair onto an enemy aircraft , a Dornier Do 17 . Both attacked the bomber and lost sight of it and each other . Although the controllers intercepted distress signals from the bomber Johnson did not see it crash . They were credited with one enemy aircraft damaged . It was the only time Johnson was to engage a German bomber . By the end of January , Johnson had added another 16 @.@ 35 flying hours on Spitfires .
In the opening months , Johnson flew as a night fighter pilot . Using day fighters to act as night fighters without radar was largely unsuccessful in intercepting German bombers during The Blitz ; Johnson 's only action occurred on 22 February 1941 when he damaged a Messerschmitt Bf 110 in Spitfire R6611 , QJ @-@ F. A week later , Johnson 's squadron was moved to RAF Tangmere on the Channel coast . Johnson was eager to see combat after just 10 @.@ 40 operational hours and welcomed the prospect of meeting the enemy from Tangmere . If the Germans did not resume their assault the Wing was to take the fight to them .
In November 1940 Air Marshal Sholto Douglas became AOC ( Air Officer Commanding ) RAF Fighter Command . On 8 December 1940 a directive from the Air Staff called for Sector Offensive Sweeps . It ordered hit @-@ and @-@ run operations over Belgium and France . The operations were to be conducted by three squadrons to harass German air defences . On 10 January 1941 Circus attacks were initiated by sending small bomber formations protected by large numbers of fighters . The escalation of offensive operations throughout 1941 was designed to draw up the Luftwaffe as Douglas ' Command took an increasingly offensive stance . These operations became known as the Circus offensive . Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory , AOC 11 Group , penned Operations Instruction No. 7 , which he had written on 16 February . Leigh @-@ Mallory outlined six distinct operations for day fighters : Ramrod ( bomber escort with primary goal the destruction of the target ) ; Fighter Ramrod ( The same goal where fighters escorted ground @-@ attack fighters ) ; Roadstead ( Bomber escort and anti @-@ sipping operations ) ; Fighter Roadstead ( the same operation as Roadstead but without bombers ) along with Rhubarb ( poor weather ground attack operation ) and Circus operations ( see glossary ) .
= = = Circus Offensives = = =
Johnson 's first contact with enemy single @-@ engine fighters did not go as planned . Bader undertook a patrol with Dundas as his number two . Johnson followed in his section as number three with " Nip " Nepple guarding his tail as Red Four . Johnson spotted three Bf 109s a few hundred feet higher and travelling in the same direction . Johnson , forgetting to calmly report the number , type and position of the enemy , shouted , " Look out Dogsbody ! " ( Bader 's call sign ) . Such a call was only to be used if the pilot in question was in imminent danger of being " bounced " . The Section broke in all directions and headed to Tangmere singly . The mistake brought an embarrassing rebuke from Bader at the debriefing .
Johnson flew various operations over France including the Rhubarb ground attack missions which Johnson hated — he considered it a waste of pilots . Several successful fighter pilots had been lost this way . Flight Lieutenant Eric Lock and Wing Commander Paddy Finucane were killed on Rhubarb operations in August 1941 and July 1942 respectively . Squadron leader Robert Stanford Tuck would be captured carrying out a similar operation in January 1942 . During this time , Dundas and other pilots also expressed dissatisfaction with the formation tactics being used in the wing . After a long conversation into the early hours , Bader accepted the suggestions by his senior pilots and agreed to the use of more flexible tactics to lessen the chances of being taken by surprise , or " bounced " . The tactical changes involved operating overlapping line abreast formations similar to the German Finger @-@ four formation . The tactics were used thereafter by RAF pilots in the Wing .
The first use of these tactics by the Tangmere Wing was used on 6 May 1941 . The Wing engaged Bf 109Fs from Jagdgeschwader 51 ( Fighter Wing 51 ) , led by Werner Mölders . Noticing the approaching Germans below and behind them , the Spitfires feigned ignorance . Waiting for the optimum moment to turn the tables , Bader called for them to break , and whip around behind the Bf 109s . Unfortunately , while the tactic had been successful in avoiding a surprise attack , the break was mistimed . It left some Bf 109s still behind the Spitfires . In the battle that followed the Wing shot down one Bf 109 and damaged another , although Dundas was shot down for the second time in his career — and once again by Mölders , who had remained behind the British . Dundas was able to nurse his crippled fighter back to base and crash @-@ land .
One month later , Johnson gained his first air victory . On 26 June Johnson participated in Circus 24 . Crossing the coast near Gravelines , Bader warned of 24 Bf 109s nearby , southeast , in front of the Wing . The Bf 109s saw the British and turned to attack the lower No. 610 Squadron from the rear . While watching three Bf 109s above him dive to port , Johnson lost sight of his wing commander at 15 @,@ 000 feet . Immediately a Bf 109E flew in front of him and turned slightly to port at a range of 150 yards . After receiving hits , the Bf 109 's hood was jettisoned and the pilot baled out . Several No. 145 Squadron pilots witnessed the victory . He had expended 278 rounds from P7837 's guns . The Bf 109 was one of five lost by Jagdgeschwader 2 ( Fighter Wing 2 ) that day .
A flurry of action followed . On 1 July 1941 he expended 89 rounds and damaged a Bf 109E . Bader 's section was attacked and Johnson out @-@ turned his assailant . Firing , he saw glycol streaming behind it . On 14 July , the Tangmere Wing flew on Circus 48 to St Omer . Losing sight of the squadron , Johnson and his wingman proceeded inland at 3 @,@ 000 feet after spotting three aircraft . Turning in behind them , he identified them as Bf 109Fs . Johnson dived so as to come up and underneath into the enemy 's blind spot . Closing to 15 yards , he gave the trailing Bf 109 a two @-@ second burst . The tail was blown off and his windshield was covered in oil from the Messerschmitt . Johnson saw the other Bf 109s spinning down out of control . Having also lost his wingman , Johnson disengaged . Climbing and crossing the coast at Etaples , Johnson bounced a Bf 109E . Giving chase in a dive to 2 @,@ 000 feet and firing at 150 yards , he observed something flying off the Bf 109 's starboard wing . Johnson could not see any more owing to the oil @-@ covered windscreen and did not make a claim . His second victory was probably Unteroffizier ( Corporal ) R. Klienike , III . / Jagdgeschwader 26 ( Third Group , Fighter Wing 26 ) who was posted missing .
On 21 July , Johnson shared in the destruction of another Bf 109 with Pilot Officer Hepple . Johnson 's wingman disappeared during the battle . Sergeant Mabbet was mortally wounded but made a wheels @-@ up landing near St Omer . Impressed with his skilful flying while badly wounded , the Germans buried him with full honours . On 23 July , Johnson damaged another Bf 109 . During this battle Adolf Galland , Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of JG 26 was wounded ; his life was saved by a recently installed armour plate behind his head .
Johnson took part in the 9 August 1941 mission in which Bader was lost over France . During the sortie , he destroyed a solitary Messerschmitt Bf 109 . Johnson flew as wingman to Dundas in Bader 's section . As the Wing crossed the coast , around 70 Bf 109s were reported in the area , the Luftwaffe aircraft outnumbering Bader 's Wing by 3 : 1 . Spotting a group of Bf 109s 1 @,@ 000 feet below them , Bader led a bounce on a lower group . The formations fell apart and the air battle became a mass of twisting aircraft ;
It seemed to me the biggest danger was a collision rather than being shot down , that 's how close we all were . We got the 109s we were bouncing then ( Squadron Leader ) Holden came down with his section , so there were a lot of aeroplanes ... just 50 yards apart . It was awful ... all you could think about was surviving , getting out of that mass of aircraft .
Johnson exited the mass of aircraft and was immediately attacked by three Bf 109s . The closest was 100 yards away . Maintaining a steep , tight , spiralling turn , he dived into cloud and immediately headed for Dover . Coming out of the cloud , Johnson saw a lone Bf 109 . Suspecting it to be one of the three that had chased him , he searched for the other two . Seeing nothing , Johnson attacked and shot it down . It was his fourth victory . Johnson ended his month 's tally by adding a probable victory on 21 August . But it had been a bad day and month for the Wing . The much loathed Circus and Rhubarb raids had cost Fighter Command 108 fighters . The Germans lost just 18 . On 4 September 1941 Johnson was promoted to flight lieutenant and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) .
Johnson 's last certain victories of the year were achieved on 21 September 1941 . Escorting Bristol Blenheims to Gosnay , the top cover wings failed to rendezvous with the bombers . Near Le Touquet at 15 : 15 and around 20 @,@ 000 feet , Johnson 's section was bounced by 30 Bf 109s . Johnson broke and turned in and behind a Bf 109F . Approaching from a quarter astern and slightly below , Johnson fired closing from 200 to 70 yards . Pilot Officer Smith of Johnson 's section observed the pilot bail out . Pursued by several enemy aircraft , Johnson dived to ground level . About 10 miles off Le Touquet , other Bf 109s attacked . Allowing the Germans to close within range , Johnson turned into a steep left @-@ hand turn . It took him onto the tail of a Bf 109 . Johnson fired and broke away at 50 yards . The Bf 109 was hit , stalled and crashed into the sea . Johnson was pursued until 10 miles south of Dover . The two victories made Johnson 's total to six destroyed , which now meant he was an official flying ace . In winter 1941 , Johnson and 616 Squadron moved to training duties . The odd convoy patrol was flown but it was an idle period for the Squadron which had now concluded its " Tangmere tour " .
= = = Squadron Leader to Wing Commander = = =
On 31 January 1942 , the Squadron moved to RAF Kings Cliffe . After an uneventful few months , RAF Fighter Command resumed its offensive policy in April 1942 when the weather cleared for large @-@ scale operations . Johnnie flew seven sweeps that month . But the situation had now changed . The Spitfire V , which was flown by the RAF had been a match for the Bf 109F , however , the Germans had introduced an new fighter : the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . It was faster at all altitudes below 25 @,@ 000 feet , possessed a faster roll rate , was more heavily armed and could out @-@ dive and out @-@ climb the Spitfire . Only in the turn could the Spitfire outperform the Fw 190 . The introduction of this new enemy fighter resulted in heavier casualty rates among the Spitfire squadrons until a new mark of Spitfire could be produced . Johnson claimed a damaged Fw 190 on 15 April 1942 but he witnessed the Fw 190s get the better of the British pilots consistently throughout most of 1942 :
Yes , the 190 was causing us real problems at this time . We could out @-@ turn it , but you couldn 't turn all day . As the number of 190s increased , so the depth of our penetrations deceased . They drove us back to the coast really .
On 25 May , Johnson experienced an unusual mission . His section engaged a Dornier Do 217 carrying British markings , four miles west of his base . Johnson allowed the three inexperienced pilots to attack it , but they only managed to damage the bomber . Days later , on 26 June 1942 , Johnson was awarded the Bar to his DFC . More welcome news was received late in the month as the first Spitfire Mk . IXs began reaching RAF units . On 10 July 1942 , Johnson was promoted to the rank of squadron leader , effective as of the 13 July , and given command of 610 Squadron .
In " rhubarb " operations over France , Johnson 's wing commander , Patrick Jameson , insisted that the line @-@ astern formation be used which caused Johnson to question why tactics such as the finger @-@ four had not been universally adopted . Johnson criticised the lack of tactical consistency and when his squadron flew top cover , he often changed to the finger @-@ four as soon as they reached the French coast , hoping his wing leader wouldn 't notice .
By August 1942 , preparations were begun for a major operation , Jubilee , at Dieppe . The Dieppe raid took place on 19 August 1942 . Johnson took off at 07 : 40 in Spitfire VB . EP254 , DW @-@ B. Running into around 50 Bf 109s and Fw 190s in fours , pairs and singly . In a climbing attack Johnson shot down one Fw 190 which crashed into the sea and shared in the destruction of a Bf 109F . While heading back to base , Johnson attacked an alert Fw 190 which met his attack head on . The dogfight descended from 8 @,@ 000 to zero feet . Flying over Dieppe , Johnson dived towards a destroyer in the hope its fire would drive off the Fw 190 , now on his tail . The move worked and Johnson landed back at RAF West Malling at 09 : 20 . For the remainder of the year , the squadron was moved to RAF Castletown in September 1942 to protect the Royal Navy fleet at Scapa Flow .
Johnson took command of No. 144 Wing ( Canadians ) based at RAF Kenley after Christmas and they received the new Spitfire IX : the answer to the Fw 190 . After gaining a probable against a Fw 190 in February 1943 , Johnnie selected Spitfire EN398 after a 50 @-@ minute test flight on 22 March 1943 . It became his regular mount . Being a wing commander now meant his initials could be painted on the machine . His Spitfires now carried JE @-@ J. He was also allotted the call sign " Greycap " .
Johnson set about changing the wing 's tactical approach . He quickly forced the wing to abandon the line @-@ astern tactics for the finger @-@ four formation which offered much more safety in combat ; enabling multiple pilots to participate in scanning the skies for enemy aircraft so as to avoid an attack , and also being better able to spot and position their unit for a surprise attack upon the enemy . Johnson made another alteration to his units operations . He loathed ground @-@ attack missions which highly trained fighter pilots were forced to participate in . He abandoned ground attack missions whenever he could . During these weeks , Johnson 's wing escorted United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) bombers to targets in France . On a fighter sweep , Ramrod 49 , Johnson destroyed an Fw 190 for his eighth victory . Unteroffizier Hans Hiess from 6 Staffel baled out , but his parachute failed to open .
The spring proved to be a busy one ; Johnson claimed three Fw 190s damaged two days later . On the 11 and 13 May he destroyed an Fw 190 to reach 10 individual air victories while sharing in the destruction of another on the later date and a Bf 109 on 1 June . A further five victories against Fw 190s were achieved in June . Two were claimed on the 15 June . On the 17 June while leading the wing over Calais Johnson bounced one of JG 26 's Gruppen led by Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand Galland . He shot down Unteroffizier Gunther Freitag , 8 . / JG 26 who was killed . On 24 June he claimed one destroyed and one damaged on and another victory on the 27th to brought his total to 15 .
Johnson scored more success in July . The USAAF began Blitz Week ; a concentrated effort against German targets . Escorting American bombers , Johnson destroyed three Bf 109s and damaged another , the last being shot down on 30 July ; his tally stood at 18 . There was still no standard formation procedure in Fighter Command , and Johnson 's use of the finger @-@ four made the wing distinct in the air . It earned 144 Wing the nickname " Wolfpack " . The name remained until 144 Wing was moved to an Advanced Landing Ground ( ALG ) at Lashenden and was renamed No. 127 Wing RCAF , part of the RAF Second Tactical Air Force under the command of No. 83 Group RAF .
The tactics proved successful in the Canadian Wing . Johnson scored his 19 — 21 victories on 23 and 26 August , whilst claiming yet another Fw 190 on 4 September 1943 . Johnsons 19th victory was gained against Oberfeldwebel ( First @-@ Sergeant ) Erich Borounik 10 . / JG 26 , who was killed . Johnson 's 21st victim , Oberfeldwebel Walter Grunlinger 10 . / JG 26 , was also killed .
= = = Normandy to the Rhine = = =
In the lead up to the Battle of Normandy and the D @-@ Day landings Johnson continued to score regularly . His 22 — 23rd victories were achieved on 25 April 1944 and Johnson became the highest scoring ace still on operations . These victories were followed by another Fw 190 on the 5 May ( no . 24 ) ; III . / JG 26 lost Feldwebel Horst Schwentick and Unteroffizier Manfred Talkenberg killed during the air battle . After the landings in France on 6 June 1944 , Johnson added further to his tally , claiming another five aerial victories that month including two Bf 109s on 28 June . The mission in which Johnson recorded his 26th victory on 22 June was particularly eventful ; four more Fw 190s fell to his wing . After bouncing a formation of Bf 109s and Fw 190s , he shot down a Bf 109 for his 29th victory . Five days later , Johnson destroyed two Fw 190s to reach his 30 — 31st air victories .
Johnson 's wing was the first to be stationed on French soil following the invasion . With their radius of action now far extended compared to the squadrons still in Britain , the wing scored heavily through the summer . On 21 August 1944 , Johnson was leading No. 443 Squadron on a patrol over the Seine , near Paris . Johnson bounced a formation of Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s , shooting down two , which were recorded on the cine camera . Climbing back to his starting point at 8 @,@ 000 ft , Johnson attempted to join a formation of six aircraft , he thought were Spitfires . The fighters were actually Messerschmitt Bf 109s . Johnson escaped by doing a series of steep climbs , during which he nearly stalled and blacked out . He eventually evaded the Messerschmitts , which had been trying to flank him on either side , while two more stuck to his tail . Johnson 's Spitfire IX was hit by enemy aircraft fire for the only time , taking cannon shells in the rudder and elevators . Johnson had now equalled and surpassed Sailor Malan 's record score of 32 , shooting down two Fw 190s for his 32 — 33 air victories . However Johnson considered Malan 's exploits to be better . Johnson points out , when Malan fought ( during 1940 — 41 ) , he did so outnumbered , and had matched the enemy even then . Johnson said :
Malan had fought with great distinction when the odds were against him . He matched his handful of Spitfires against greatly superior numbers of Luftwaffe fighters and bombers . He had been forced to fight a defensive battle over southern England and often at a tactical disadvantage , when the top @-@ cover Messerschmitts [ Bf 109s and Bf 110s ] were high in the sun . I had always fought on the offensive , and , after 1941 , I had either a squadron , a wing or sometimes two wings behind me .
In September 1944 Johnson 's wing participated in support actions for Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands . On 27 September 1944 , Johnson 's last victory of the war was over Nijmegen . His flight bounced a formation of nine Bf 109s , one of which Johnson shot down . During this combat Squadron Leader Henry " Wally " MacLeod , of the Royal Canadian Air Force , and his squadron had joined Johnson . It was during this action that MacLeod went missing , possibly shot down by Siegfried Freytag of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( Fighter Wing 77 ) .
The wing rarely saw enemy aircraft for the remainder of the year . Only on 1 January 1945 did the Germans appear in large numbers , during Operation Bodenplatte to support their faltering attack in the Ardennes . Johnson witnessed the German attack his wing 's airfield at Brussels – Melsbroek . He recalled the Germans seemed inexperienced and their shooting was " atrocious " . Johnson led a Spitfire patrol to prevent a second wave of German aircraft attacking but engaged no enemy aircraft , since there was no follow @-@ up attack . From late January and through most of February , Johnson reduced his flying time .
In March 1945 , Johnson patrolled as Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity pushed Allied armies into Germany . There was little sign of the Luftwaffe . Numerous ground @-@ attack operations were carried out instead . On 26 March Johnson 's wing was relocated to Twente and he was promoted to group captain . Days later Johnson took command of No. 125 Wing . On 5 April , after returning from patrol in Spitfire Mk XIV MV268 , he switched off the engine just as a Bf 109 flew overhead . Seeing the Spitfire , it turned in for an attack ; Johnson took cover under his fighter while the airfield defences shot down the 109 . On 16 April 1945 Johnson 's Wing moved to RAF Celle in Germany .
During the last week of the war , Johnson 's squadron flew patrols over Berlin and Kiel as German resistance crumbled . During a flight over central Germany looking for jet fighters , Johnson 's squadron attacked Luftwaffe airfields . On one sortie , his unit strafed and destroyed 11 Bf 109s that were preparing to take off . On another sortie , an enemy transport was sighted , but took evasive action and retreated back to German held territory but Johnson 's pilots shot it down . On another occasion , Johnson intercepted a flight of four Fw 190s . The German fighters , however , waggled their wings to signal non @-@ hostile intent and Johnson 's unit escorted them to an RAF airfield .
After the German capitulation in May 1945 , Johnson relocated with his unit to Copenhagen , Denmark . Here , his association with the Belgian No. 350 Squadron RAF led him to be awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm and the rank of Officer of the Order of Léopold with Palms .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the war Johnson commanded RAF Second Tactical Air Force at RAF Wildenrath in the West Germany from 1952 to 1955 . In 1956 he wrote his wartime memoir , Wing Leader and in followed it up in 1964 with Full Circle , a history of air fighting , co @-@ written with Percy " Laddie " Lucas , a former Member of Parliament and Douglas Bader 's brother @-@ in @-@ law .
= = = Korean War = = =
Johnson was given a permanent commission by the RAF after the war ( initially as a squadron leader , although retaining his wartime substantive rank as wing commander , and later confirmed in that rank ) , becoming OC Tactics at the Central Fighter Establishment . After an exchange posting to the USA , he flew North American F @-@ 86 Sabres with Tactical Air Command and went on to serve in the Korean War flying the Lockheed F @-@ 80 Shooting Star . Johnson did not leave any written record of his experiences in the Korean War . It is believed he saw action against enemy aircraft . For his service he received the Air Medal and Legion of Merit from the United States .
In 1951 , Johnson commanded a wing at RAF Fassberg . The following year Johnson became air officer commanding ( AOC ) RAF Wildenrath from 1952 to 1954 . From 1954 to 1957 he was deputy director , operations at the Air Ministry . On 20 October 1957 , Johnson became AOC RAF Cottesmore in Rutland commanding V bombers . An air commodore by 1960 , he attended the Imperial Staff College and served in No. 3 Group RAF commanding RAF Middle East at Aden . In June 1960 , he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) . In 1965 , Johnson was promoted air vice marshal and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) . He retired in 1966 .
= = = Later life = = =
Johnson was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Leicestershire in 1967 . He established the Johnnie Johnson Housing Trust in 1969 and by 2001 the housing association managed over 4 @,@ 000 properties . After the death of his friend Douglas Bader in 1982 , Johnson , Denis Crowley @-@ Milling and Sir Hugh Dundas set up the Douglas Bader Foundation , to continue supporting disabled charities , of which Bader was a passionate supporter .
Johnson was also the first to recognise the skills of Robert Taylor , aviation artist , in the 1980s . Depictions of aircraft and battle scenes in print began to become popular and he helped Taylor promote them . The venture was successful and Johnson 's sons set up their own distribution networks in the United States and Britain .
Johnson spent most of the 1980s and 1990s as a keynote speaker , fundraiser and spending time on his hobbies ; travelling , fishing , shooting and walking his dogs . Johnson appeared on the long – running British television show This Is Your Life on 8 May 1985 , the 40th anniversary of VE Day . Among the programme 's guests was German fighter ace Walter Matoni . British wartime propaganda had alleged Johnson had challenged Matoni to a personal duel ; a version of events denied by Johnson . The two men arranged to meet after the war but were unable to do so until the TV programme . Among other guests was Hugh Dundas , " Nip " Nepple , who flew alongside Johnson on his first operation — in which he earned a rebuke from Bader — Crowley @-@ Milling , Johnson 's former Wing Commander Patrick Jameson and his uncle , Charlie Rossell who was over 100 years old at the time .
= = Personal life = =
As a teenager Johnson became fascinated by speed and joined the Melton Car Club with two boyhood friends . Johnson enjoyed the lifestyle of cars and " pacey women " . Although he had many early interests , Johnson would later settle and add to his family . On 14 November 1942 , Johnson married Pauline Ingate in Norwich during home leave . Hugh Dundas acted as best man and Lord Beaverbrook 's son , Wing Commander Max Aitken also attended . During the war Pauline worked for the Fire Service . They had two sons : Michael ( 16 October 1944 ) and Chris ( born 1 December 1946 ) . After the couple split up , Johnson lived with his partner Janet Partridge .
On 30 January 2001 , Johnson , aged 85 years , died from cancer . A memorial service took place on 25 April 2001 at St Clement Danes and the hymns Jerusalem and I Vow to Thee , My Country were played . His children scattered his ashes on the Chatsworth estate in Derbyshire . The only memorial was a bench dedicated to him at his favourite fishing spot on the estate ; the inscription reads " In Memory of a Fisherman " .
= = List of air victories = =
Johnson 's wartime record was 515 sorties flown , 34 aircraft claimed destroyed with a further seven shared destroyed ( three and one shared victories ) , three probable destroyed , 10 damaged , and one shared , destroyed on the ground . All his victories were fighters . As a Wing Leader , Johnson was able to use his initials " JE @-@ J " in place of squadron code letters . He scored the bulk of his victories flying two Mk IXs : EN398 / JEJ in which he shot down 12 aircraft and shared five plus six and one shared damaged , while commanding the Kenley Wing ; MK392 / JEJ , an L.F Mk . IX , 12 aircraft plus one shared , destroyed on the ground . His last victory of the war was scored in this aircraft . Johnson ended the war flying a Mk XIVE , MV268 / JEJ . His post @-@ war mount was MV257 / JEJ ; it was the last Spitfire to carry his initials .
The ability to verify British claims against the British ' main opponents in 1941 and 1942 , JG 26 and JG 2 , is very limited . Only two of the 30 volumes of War Diaries produced by JG 26 survived the war . Historian Donald Caldwell has attempted to use what limited German material is available to compare losses and air victory claims but acknowledges the lack of sources leave the possibility for error .
A list of the 34 individual victories .
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= Within ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Within " is the eighth season premiere of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on November 5 , 2000 on the Fox Network . It was written by executive producer and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Kim Manners . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 and was watched by 15 @.@ 87 million viewers , marking a slight increase from the previous season 's finale " Requiem " . " Within " was largely well @-@ received by critics , although some fans felt alienated by the addition of Robert Patrick to the cast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode — continuing from the seventh season finale " Requiem " when Mulder was abducted by aliens who are planning to colonize Earth — an FBI taskforce is organized to hunt for Mulder but Scully suspects the taskforce leader , Special Agent John Doggett ( Patrick ) , and instead chooses to search for her lost partner with Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) . Scully and Skinner travel to Arizona , only to be followed by Doggett 's task force . There , they find Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) and someone who they believe may very well be Mulder .
" Within " was a story milestone for the series . It introduced several new character changes for the season , including the departure of Mulder and the inclusion of Doggett as a main character to the cast . The episode was written as a way to both explain Mulder 's absence as well as appease fans who would otherwise lament the loss of Duchovny . " Within " also marked the first major change to the opening credits since the show first started , with new images and updated photos for David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson , and the addition of Robert Patrick . " Within " has been analyzed due to its themes of death and resurrection . In addition , the experiments performed on Mulder after his abduction have been thematically compared to the Crucifixion of Jesus .
= = Plot = =
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) has been deeply distraught since Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) was abducted by aliens . One morning , she arrives in her partner 's office to find it being searched by FBI agents . Scully subsequently learns that the Bureau 's newly promoted deputy director , Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , has launched a manhunt in search for Mulder . The investigation is being led by an FBI special agent named John Doggett . Scully and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) are taken to the task force 's field office to be questioned , despite protests that they would be the most qualified to lead the manhunt themselves . As Skinner is being interrogated , Scully is accosted by an unnamed person who starts asking her about Mulder . When Scully finds out that he is actually Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , she angrily throws water in his face and leaves .
Back at Scully 's apartment , she runs a background check of Doggett on her computer , learning about his background as a former NYPD detective . She feels sick and leaves the computer , and later on calls her mom , Margaret ( Sheila Larken ) . When she realizes her phone is tapped , she looks outside the window to see if anyone is out there . She angrily calls Doggett to protest him monitoring her phone conversations , which he seems genuinely surprised about . She notices a mysterious man and runs into the hall to pursue him , but meets her landlord Mr. Coeben who tells her that he had seen Mulder .
Meanwhile , Skinner visits the Lone Gunmen , who are monitoring UFO activity in the United States in the hopes of tracking down Mulder . Skinner later finds out that someone has used Mulder 's FBI pass to gain access to the X @-@ Files , and that the Bureau task force considers him the main suspect . Meanwhile , Doggett has gathered enough evidence to track Mulder 's whereabouts before his so @-@ called abduction , discovering that Mulder was dying and had his name engraved in his family 's gravestone to mark his death in 2000 . Later on , more evidence of high UFO activity in Clifton , Arizona is found by The Lone Gunmen . Concurrently , Doggett receives information about Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) when someone slips his file under his door .
Scully and Skinner leave for Arizona without giving any of their information to Doggett . At the same time , Doggett believes that to find Mulder they must first find the whereabouts of Praise . They locate him in Flemingtown , Arizona , in the middle of the desert . By the time Doggett 's taskforce arrives , he has already escaped via a window and is leaving for a desert hill top with another person : Mulder .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting and development = = =
The seventh season was a time of closure for The X @-@ Files . Characters within the show were written out , including The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and Mulder 's mother ( Rebecca Toolan ) , and several plot threads were resolved , including the fate of Fox Mulder 's sister Samantha . After settling his contract dispute , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season . Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny 's departure , but it was decided Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh season , leaving it open for the actor 's return in 11 episodes the following year . " Requiem " , the seventh season finale , was written by Carter both as a possible series finale and as a way to segue into a new season . However , the producers found it difficult to convincingly write Duchovny 's character out of the script , and explain Mulder 's absence in the episodes of the upcoming season .
Hoping to continue the series , Carter introduced a new central character to replace Mulder : Doggett . More than 100 actors auditioned for the role , with only about ten considered by the producers . Lou Diamond Phillips and Hart Bochner were among the auditionees , and Phillips , Bochner and Bruce Campbell were considered for the role . In particular , Campbell , following his involvement with the sixth season episode " Terms of Endearment " , was considered , but , due to a contractual obligation , could not take any work during the filming of his series Jack of All Trades . On potentially being cast as the series regular , Campbell mused , " I had worked on an X @-@ Files episode before , and I think they sort of remembered me from that . It was nice to be involved in that – even if you don 't get it , it 's nice to hang out at that party . " Later in Campbell 's novel Make Love ! The Bruce Campbell Way , he joked that Patrick " stiffed him out of the role " . In the end , the producers eventually chose Robert Patrick . Reportedly , Patrick was cast due to the fact that his featured role in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) would attract a great 18- to 35 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic to the show . In fact , Fox executives reported a 10 percent overall increase in the demographic , solely due to Patrick 's casting .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
Carter was inspired to write the scene in which Scully splashes water into Doggett 's face , since he was aware that new actor Robert Patrick would be facing opposition from some members of the fan community . The scene was even the first filmed , in order to truly introduce Patrick to the show . After the conclusion of The X @-@ Files television series in 2002 , Patrick commented that this part of the episode had been his favorite scene in the series , and admitted that he could not think of a better way to introduce his character because the scene not only said a lot , but it had actually helped him . Tom Braidwood , who appears in this episode as long @-@ running recurring character Frohike , similarly remarked that the first meeting of Doggett and Scully was one of his favorite scenes from the entire series . Both Robert Patrick and the director of this episode , Kim Manners , felt that it was the perfect introduction to the character of John Doggett as the leader of the taskforce sent to find Mulder . Manners stated that Patrick gave a new " sense of energy " to the show , since they had basically used the same characters for seven years .
Because the script of the episode does not specify the identity of an unseen person who slides a file about Gibson Praise under Doggett 's door , Kim Manners later had to ask the writers who the mysterious visitor was ; the director was told by Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz that the unseen person was actually Kersh . Robert Patrick asked the same question of Manners , around this time , but the director – not yet sure of the answer and hoping to avoid looking foolish – never gave the actor an answer . Patrick thought the reason that Manners was being purposefully secretive was that the director wanted Patrick to still be in wonderment as to the mysterious visitor 's identity , as a device for the actor to aid his performance . Manners later teased Patrick that the reason he had not answered the question was that he had not liked Patrick at the time , prompting the actor to ask what he had done to annoy Manners on the first night of filming the episode . Eventually , the director finally admitted to Patrick what had actually happened . Kersh 's actions are later revealed and explained in the ninth season premiere " Nothing Important Happened Today " .
The majority of the episode — like the rest of seasons six , seven , eight and nine — was filmed in and around the Los Angeles , California area . Before shooting the episode , Chris Carter reminded Patrick various times that he had to be in " good shape " . On the audio commentary , Patrick remembers being " nervous " for the shooting of the episode , since he was a big fan of The X @-@ Files before becoming a part of the acting crew . The scene in which Walter Skinner tells Doggett that he himself witnessed Mulder being taken away aboard a UFO was filmed in the second part of Patrick 's first night of production on the series ; this scene also marked the first time that Patrick got to work with Pileggi . The ending of the episode , as well as a majority of its follow @-@ up " Without " were filmed at Split Mountain in Anza @-@ Borrego State Park . According to producer Paul Rabwin , an " incredible heat wave " hit the area during the shooting , resulting in terrible filming conditions . In the desert , the cast and crew were informed that there was a " one in twenty @-@ five " chance that someone would be bit by a rattlesnake . Pileggi later joked that during the filming of his scenes all he could think about was stumbling upon a snake .
The original opening sequence was made in 1993 for the first season and remained unchanged until " Within " . The opening sequence then was modified to include new images , updated FBI badge photos for Duchovny and Anderson , as well as the addition of Patrick to the main cast . Duchovny , however , would only be featured in the opening credits when he appeared in an episode . Furthermore , the opening contains images of Scully 's pregnancy and , according to Frank Spotnitz , showed an " abstract " explanation of Mulder 's absence in this season , with him falling into an eye . Jim Engh , a member of the production crew of The X @-@ Files , died during the filming of this episode via electrocution , an accident that injured six other crew members . This episode was dedicated to his memory .
= = Themes = =
As The X @-@ Files entered into its eighth season , " human resurrection and salvation " as well as " disease , suffering , and healing " became an increasingly central focus of the show . " Within " , along with various other episodes during the eighth season of the show , would be the first to explore themes of birth , death and resurrection . The sub @-@ theme of birth first emerged in this episode during Scully 's opening dream of an abducted Mulder , which " invok [ es ] strong birth imagery of the amniotic sack [ sic ] and fluid . " Then later in the episode , the themes of death and resurrection are touched upon when Scully is shown Mulder 's tombstone . This arc would continue in " The Gift " , where Mulder 's inoperable brain tumor and the resurrection of John Doggett is explored . In " Deadalive " , the theme reappears in full @-@ force : Billy Miles is found dead but resurrects , Mulder is buried for three months , and later , is brought back to life . This sub @-@ theme would continue well into the ninth season , in entries such as " Audrey Pauley " .
The episode is one of many to feature Mulder as a Christ @-@ like figure . These comparisons were first purposely inserted during the seventh season episode " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " , in which Mulder is placed on a cross @-@ like table , symbolic of the wooden cross that Jesus was nailed to . Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X notes that Mulder 's torture scenes in " Within " bear a resemblance to the Crucifixion of Jesus . She argues that the metal bars piercing his wrists and ankles are similar to the nails that held Jesus , the metal straps imbedded in his head are similar to the Crown of Thorns , and that his vivisection is reminiscent of the wound made by the Holy Lance . Furthermore , Bush parallels Jesus ' " horrific death in order to rise again " to Mulder 's abduction , death , and resurrection later on in " Deadalive " , which would further make allusions to the Christ @-@ like nature of Mulder .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Within " first aired on Fox on November 5 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 58 million households and 15 @.@ 87 million viewers . The episode marked an 11 % decrease from the seventh season opener , " The Sixth Extinction " , but a slight increase over the seventh season finale " Requiem " , which was viewed by 15 @.@ 26 million viewers . As soon as both " Within " and Without " were completed , Carter screened them at the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences . The two were played back @-@ to @-@ back " like a feature film " , according to Patrick . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " The new case is a manhunt . The new agent is a mystery . The new X @-@ File is Mulder . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
= = = Reviews = = =
Overall , the episode received positive reviews from critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a rare " A + " . The entry 's follow @-@ up , " Without " , would also receive a second " A + " , making them the only two episodes of The X @-@ Files to receive the prestigious rating from the site . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Ken Tucker gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an A- . He said that Patrick 's portrayal of Doggett was " hardboiled alertness , " giving mostly positive reviews about his inclusion . Furthermore , he noted that Anderson enacted all " her queasiness " in this episode and its follow @-@ up , " Without " . Tom Janulewicz from Space.com also reacted positively toward the episode , enjoying the idea of making the character of Skinner into a " true " believer . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris criticized both the unnatural elongation of Scully 's pregnancy and the glimpses of Mulder that are shown , calling both " little more than lip @-@ service . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote that " the episode sings when it reinvents the old and introduces the new . " However , Shearman and Pearson criticized the bringing back of Gibson Praise , noting that " the return of Gibson Praise almost derails the episode altogether [ … ] he only manages to make an episode that seemed as if it was giving The X @-@ Files a bold new beginning feel like it 's about to offer more of the same old stooge . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations wrote a moderately positive review of the episode . He noted , " In many ways , ' Within ' reminded us why we tune into The X @-@ Files every week . However , it also reminded us why the road ahead will be difficult . Fox Mulder may be gone , but he will never be forgotten . Or replaced . "
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that both " Within " and " Without " form " a great way to pick up after the cliffhanger ending of the previous season " and that " the pair of episodes [ ... ] work well as an introduction to the new narrative status quo . " He awarded both entries a " B + " and praised the characterization of Doggett , writing that " Robert Patrick brings a distinct , charismatic energy to the part . " However , he was slightly critical of some of the episode 's features , such as the " trope " of Scully being sad or " melodramatic gloom and overheated monologues " .
Some fans , however , criticized the introduction of Doggett ; claiming that the character had been intentionally created to replace Mulder . Carter responded to this in an interview with National Public Radio ( NPR ) by stating , " What he brings is a different approach to The X @-@ Files . First of all , he ’ s a knee jerk skeptic so he couldn ’ t be more different than the character of Mulder . He ’ s an insider at the FBI , well liked , has buddies . Mulder , of course , he ’ s been banished to the basement along with all of his X @-@ files . So when he ’ s put together with Agent Scully , who has become something of a reluctant believer , the dynamic on the show changes completely " .
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= Tourism in Malta =
Tourism in Malta is an important sector of the country 's economy , contributing to about 15 percent of the nation 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) . It is overseen by the Malta Tourism Authority , in turn falls under the responsibility of the Minister for Tourism , the Environment and Culture . Malta features a number of tourism attractions encompassing elements of the island 's rich history and culture , as well as aquatic activities associated with the Mediterranean Sea . In addition , medical tourism has become popular in Malta in recent years , especially since government efforts to market the practice to medical tourists in the United Kingdom .
The number of people who visited Malta in 2009 dropped considerably compared to the figures for 2008 - overall , the country 's tourism industry suffered an 8 percent drop from 2008 . Visits from non @-@ European Union countries dropped more considerably than visits from European Union countries ( and even more so than visits from Eurozone countries ) , while the average stay length remained the same for both 2008 and 2009 . Visitors from most countries require a visa to visit Malta . The nationalities requiring a visa are standardised as per European Union rules . Visitors already holding a valid Schengen Area visa most likely will not need to complete any more formalities to enter Malta ( so long as they are already inside the Schengen Area ) . Visitors holding citizenship of the European Union do not require a visa to enter Malta as they hold the right to free movement within the European Union . In recent years , the country 's tourism industry has been faced with a number of issues relating to the nation 's small size , both in terms of area and population . These issues include stretched resources and infrastructure ( such as water , waste management , beaches and roads ) , especially during the summer months of July and August .
= = Attractions = =
Malta has a long and rich history , and this is reflected in the island 's cultural attractions . The Phoenicians , the Carthaginians , the Romans and the Byzantines have all occupied Malta at some point in history , leaving a mix of many different architectural styles and artifacts to explore . The sovereignty of the Knights Hospitaller over Malta from 1530 to 1798 resulted in a legacy of elaborate artistry and architecture throughout Malta . The country 's modern museums and art galleries feature relics from Malta 's history for tourists and Maltese residents alike to enjoy .
There are also a number of aquatic activities to enjoy on Malta as well as Gozo and Comino . Northern Malta is home to the country 's beach resorts and holiday areas , with the beaches most popular with holiday @-@ makers being Mellieha Bay , Ghajn Tuffieha and Golden Bay . These beaches are large enough to be able to house cafes , restaurants and kiosks , but small enough to be crowded rarely . Malta 's northwest is home to the island 's quietest beaches , and it is on these that the main island 's neighbouring two are nearest . Gozo and Comino are also popular beach spots for holiday @-@ makers , although these are much more likely to be quieter , rockier and more suitable for snorkelling . The Mediterranean Sea surrounding Malta is popular for diving - while shallow dips may be attractive to beginning divers , more experienced divers may be able to dive deeper to find historical artifacts from World War II or earlier .
= = Major event tourism = =
Major event tourism , especially events centred on Catholicism , is an important segment of the Maltese tourism sector . During Holy Week , processions and religious services dominate the country and food stalls are set up in the village squares of Malta . Another popular major event is Carnival , a five centuries @-@ old traditional celebration lasting for the five days preceding Ash Wednesday . Celebrations for Carnival involve float @-@ based pageants , street parties and street food stalls . They are mostly Roman Catholic .
One of the biggest sporting events held on the island is the Malta Marathon . Held every year in late February or early March , the race attracts a number of international competitors and has been sponsored by Land Rover since 2009 , BMW from 2003 to 2008 , GoMobile in 2002 and Flora Malta in 2001 and prior . In 2009 , the full marathon winner , a Belgian , recorded a time of 2 : 25 : 59 . In 2010 , approximately 1 @,@ 400 entrants participated .
= = Medical tourism = =
Since 2010 , the Malta Tourism Authority has been marketing Malta as a medical tourism destination . Focus areas for medical tourism include " cosmetic surgery , orthopedics , ophthalmic , neurological , urological , oncology , diagnostic , bariatric and cardiac services . " The focus target market for medical tourists in Malta is the United Kingdom , followed by North Africa , the Middle East , Russia and North America . Part of the reason for targeting the United Kingdom for medical tourists is that many members of Malta 's medical profession were trained in the United Kingdom , increasing the confidence of British patients in those taking care of them . In addition , unlike some medical tourism destinations , Malta has a stable political climate . The Maltese government supports the development of medical tourism on the island but believes that private medical providers should be performing medical procedures , not government @-@ run facilities .
= = Visas = =
In addition to a valid passport , " documents substantiating the purpose and the conditions of the planned visit " and " sufficient means of support , both for the period of the planned visit and to return to their country of origin , " travellers arriving in Malta may be required to have a visa for entry into the country .
European Union citizens have the right to travel freely into Malta without completing any special formalities . The nationals of many countries are not required to hold visas to enter Malta , although many are in accordance with uniform European Union regulations . A full list of nationalities required to hold visas to enter Malta and the Schengen Area is published on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ' web site .
While Malta cannot unilaterally drop the requirement for nations it makes agreements with to obtain visas to enter the Schengen Area through its border crossing points , it is permitted to offer visa discounts to certain nationalities . At present , Malta has ' visa facilitation agreements ' with eight nations : Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Moldova , Macedonia , Russia , Serbia and Ukraine .
= = Statistics = =
Tourism is a major component of the Maltese economy , constituting about 40 per cent of Malta 's GDP in 2003 / 04 . 1 @,@ 183 @,@ 012 tourists visited Malta in 2009 . Although this is an 8 per cent drop from 2008 , the number of tourists is expected to reach 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 by the end of 2010 ( figures are not yet available ) . For the period January to December 2009 , drops were recorded in visits from most countries sending large numbers of tourists to Malta , including Belgium , France , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands , Russia , the Scandinavian countries , Spain , the United Kingdom and the United States , whilst a 24 @.@ 7 per cent increase was recorded in visits to and from Libya . Visits from non @-@ European Union countries took the greatest hit , with visits from these countries decreasing by 15 per cent compared to 2008 . Comparatively , visits from European Union countries decreased only 7 @.@ 4 per cent . Visits from the Eurozone dropped by an even smaller proportion , recording a fall of only 5 @.@ 6 per cent .
The vast majority of visitors to Malta stayed for seven nights or longer , with the average stay length being 8 @.@ 5 nights . While the number of people staying seven nights or longer in Malta fell by 13 @.@ 4 per cent in 2009 compared to 2008 , the number of people staying four to six nights jumped 7 @.@ 5 per cent , and one to three nights by 1 @.@ 5 per cent . Expenditure by tourists to Malta declined 12 per cent when compared to 2008 levels , with a recorded value of EUR 916 @.@ 4 million .
= = = Arrivals by country = = =
Most visitors arriving to Malta on short term basis in 2015 were from the following countries of nationality :
= = = Historical trends = = =
Tourism in Malta began to grow beginning in the mid @-@ 1960s . During the 1970s , Maltese tourism grew significantly , with numbers growing from 170 @,@ 800 in 1970 to 705 @,@ 500 in 1981 . From 1981 , the figures dropped to approximately 500 @,@ 000 visitors per year until the late 1980s , when an upward trend began again . In the mid @-@ 1990s , figures were as high as 1 @.@ 2 million tourists per year .
The volatility of the Maltese tourism market in the past has been largely due to trends in the preferences of tourists from the United Kingdom , who comprise Malta 's largest tourism market . Although Malta 's uniform use of English , its traditional ties to the United Kingdom and low @-@ cost travel options have made it an attractive option to British tourists , changing preferences of these tourists can impact Malta 's tourism income quite significantly . For example , the increasing preference of British tourists for Spanish destinations during the 1980s was reflected in a drop in Malta 's tourism numbers during that period .
= = Market issues = =
Malta 's tourism industry faces a number of issues impacting on it now and threatening to impact on it in the future . One of the clearest issues facing Malta 's tourism industry is overcrowding as a result of the island nation 's relatively small size , in terms of both area and population . Malta is a nation of just under 450 @,@ 000 people , yet its infrastructure is required to support over 1 @.@ 1 million tourists every year . Malta 's water works , roads , waste management systems and beaches are stretched to capacity in the summer months of July and August of every year , when tourism numbers are at their peak . This is a challenge facing Maltese tourism operators as it means that they cannot simply pursue the kinds of ' mass tourism ' marketing measures taken by operators in other Mediterranean destinations with more space and resources to pursue them . In addition , Maltese tourism operators must balance increased tourism numbers with the needs of the ' native population ' , as when resources are stretched thin by tourists during the summer season , there are negative impacts on Maltese residents also .
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= United States v. Lara =
United States v. Lara , 541 U.S. 193 ( 2004 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case which held that both the United States and a Native American ( Indian ) tribe could prosecute an Indian for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions . The Court held that the United States and the tribe were separate sovereigns ; therefore , separate tribal and federal prosecutions did not violate the Double Jeopardy Clause .
In the 1880s , Congress passed the Major Crimes Act , divesting tribes of criminal jurisdiction in regard to several felony crimes . In 1990 , the Supreme Court ruled in Duro v. Reina that an Indian tribe did not have the authority to try an Indian criminally who was not a member of that tribe . The following year , Congress passed a law that stated that Indian tribes , because of their inherent sovereignty , had the authority to try non @-@ member Indians for crimes committed within the tribe 's territorial jurisdiction .
The defendant , Billy Jo Lara , was charged for acts that were criminal offenses under both the Spirit Lake Sioux Tribe 's laws and the federal United States Code . Lara pleaded guilty to the tribal charges , but claimed double jeopardy against the federal charges . The Supreme Court ruled that double jeopardy did not apply to Lara since " the successive prosecutions were brought by separate and distinct sovereign bodies " .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
The Sioux people consist of three main groups , the Lakota in the west , the Western Dakota in the center , and the Eastern Dakota in the east . In the east , the Santee was originally from the Minnesota area . The Chippewa or Ojibwe people were also from the same general area . The two tribes had been at war from at least 1736 and by 1750 the Chippewa had forced the Santee to the west into the prairie . The war between the tribes continued until at least the 1850s . Only after 1862 , when the Santee rose up against the whites and were subsequently removed to the Dakota Territory , did the fighting cease . In 1872 , the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of the Santee signed a treaty that resulted in their moving to the Spirit Lake Reservation .
= = = Major Crimes Act = = =
Originally , crimes committed by Indians against Indians were not subject to federal or state jurisdiction , but were handled by tribal law . In 1881 , a Brulé Lakota named Crow Dog shot and killed another Indian , Spotted Tail , on the Great Sioux Reservation in South Dakota . Crow Dog was tried in federal court for murder , found guilty , and sentenced to hang . He petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus to the Supreme Court , and in Ex parte Crow Dog the Supreme Court found that the federal government did not have jurisdiction to try the case . Crow Dog was ordered released , having made restitution under tribal law to Spotted Tail 's family .
In response to Ex Parte Crow Dog , Congress passed the Major Crimes Act in 1885 . The Act provided that the federal government had exclusive jurisdiction over certain Indian @-@ on @-@ Indian crimes when the crimes were committed in " Indian country . " In 1886 , the Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in United States v. Kagama .
= = = Duro v. Reina = = =
In 1990 , the Supreme Court held in Duro v. Reina that an Indian tribe did not have jurisdiction to try an Indian of another tribe . Tribal leaders urged Congress to fix the problem that the Duro decision created . In 1991 , Congress amended the Indian Civil Rights Act ( ICRA ) to recognize that Indian tribes had inherent power to exercise criminal jurisdiction over all Indians . This legislation became known as the " Duro fix " , and was based on tribal sovereignty rather than a federal delegation of power .
= = = Arrest = = =
Billy Jo Lara was an enrolled member of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians located in northern North Dakota near the Canadian border . The Spirit Lake Reservation is approximately 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation . Lara had married a member of the Spirit Lake Santee tribe and had resided on the Spirit Lake Reservation with her and their children until he was banished from the reservation due to several serious misdemeanors . Lara returned to the reservation , where he was arrested and charged with public intoxication . After the arrest , Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) officer Bryon Swan took Lara to the police station where Lara was informed of a Sioux order excluding him from the reservation . Lara then struck Swan , who as a BIA officer was considered both a tribal officer and a federal law enforcement officer .
= = = Procedural history = = =
= = = = Trial courts = = = =
Following his arrest , the tribal court of the Spirit Lake Sioux Tribe charged Lara with assaulting the arresting officers , along with four other charges . Lara pleaded guilty to the tribal charge of " violence to a policeman " . Soon after , federal prosecutors charged Lara with assault on a federal officer and a federal grand jury indicted him . Lara moved to dismiss the charge based on double jeopardy and other constitutional grounds . The Federal District Court , with Magistrate Judge Alice R. Senechal sitting by consent , denied the motions and Lara entered a conditional guilty plea , reserving the right to appeal . Senechal noted that two other trial courts in the circuit had already ruled that double jeopardy did not apply , that the ICRA only recognized the inherent sovereignty of the tribes and did not delegate prosecutorial power to the tribe . She further noted that another circuit court had ruled the same way . Lara also argued that the Petite doctrine , if applied , would preclude his prosecution , and that since it was never applied to federal prosecutions following convictions in tribal court , it discriminated against Indians . Senechal denied this motion , noting that Lara had shown no examples of other races not being prosecuted for like offenses .
= = = = Court of Appeals = = = =
Lara appealed the denial of his motion to dismiss to the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals , arguing that the Tribal Court obtained its authority from the ICRA , an act of Congress , and that both the Tribal Court and the Federal Court derived their power from the same sovereign . A three @-@ judge panel of the Circuit Court affirmed the decision of the District Court , holding that the tribe derived its power from its own retained sovereignty that was separate from the sovereignty of the United States . The Eighth Circuit 's panel noted that in the Duro decision , the Supreme Court had observed that Congress could address the jurisdictional system , which Congress did . When Congress amended the ICRA , they were addressing a federal common law issue , not a constitutional issue , and were within their authority to recognize the sovereignty of the tribes . The panel then affirmed the trial court on the Petite claim . Judge Hansen dissented , believing that the tribe drew its authority to try Lara from the federal government .
Lara then requested a rehearing en banc by the full court . The request was granted , and the full court reversed the decision of the three @-@ judge panel , ordering that the federal indictment be dismissed on the grounds of double jeopardy . While the court noted that the Fifth Amendment allowed prosecution by two separate sovereigns , such as the federal government and a state government , it found that an Indian tribe derived its authority to prosecute offenders from the ICRA , which was federal law . The court noted that in previous Supreme Court rulings , the determination of tribal jurisdiction was based on the tribal membership of the individual , not on his race as an Indian . This meant that double jeopardy attached . The United States then appealed to the Supreme Court , which granted certiorari to hear the case .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Arguments = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
Solicitor General Ted Olson argued that Congress , in response to the Duro decision , acted to " recognize and affirm " the Indian tribe 's inherent power to enforce its criminal laws against Indians of other tribes . Olson noted that the United States v. Wheeler decision clearly stated that a tribe could prosecute a tribal member for a crime and that the Federal government could subsequently prosecute for the same criminal acts without invoking double jeopardy if the actions of the accused violated Federal law . Olson noted that the legislative history of the Duro fix bill clearly indicated that Congress intended to restore , not delegate , authority to prosecute non @-@ member Indians by a tribe . The government argued that the limitation in Duro was a statutory limitation of the tribe 's sovereignty , not a constitutional limit , and that Congress had the authority to remove that limitation . He noted that a tribe 's sovereignty has allowed prosecution of non @-@ member Indians for centuries , until it was limited by Congress . The United States was supported by amicus briefs filed by the State of Washington and seven other states , the State of Idaho and five other states , the National Congress of American Indians , and eighteen Indian tribes .
= = = = Lara = = = =
Alexander F. Reichert was appointed by the Supreme Court to argue the case for Lara . Reichert argued that an Indian tribe had no inherent sovereignty in regards to non @-@ member Indians , but only the power that Congress decided to give the tribe , citing Duro , Wheeler , and Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe to support his argument . He stated that it was the place of the Supreme Court , not Congress , to determine the inherent sovereignty of the tribe . Lara argued that since the tribe had no such inherent sovereignty , it could only prosecute a non @-@ member Indian based upon federal sovereignty , which would make a subsequent Federal prosecution a violation of the prohibition of double jeopardy . It was noted that members of Indian tribes were at the same time United States citizens , and protected under the constitution in the same manner as any other citizen . Reichert stated that Duro was decided as a constitutional issue , not as a matter of common law , and it was the Court 's place to determine the issue , not the place of Congress . To subject Lara to a prosecution by a tribal court , which was not subject to the Bill of Rights , would deprive Lara of his rights as a United States citizen . Lara 's position was supported by amicus curiae briefs filed by the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers , Lewis County , Idaho , ( along with several other counties ) , the Citizen 's Equal Rights Foundation , and T. Morris , E. Morris , and R. Morris ( individual Indians ) .
= = = Opinion of the Court = = =
Justice Stephen Breyer delivered the opinion of the court on April 19 , 2004 . Breyer believed that the question the Court needed to answer was whether Congress had the authority to relax restrictions that had been imposed on an Indian tribe 's inherent sovereignty . He noted that the intent of Congress was clear , not only based on the plain language of the statute , but also from its legislative history .
Breyer stated that the Indian Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution granted Congress " plenary and exclusive " power to legislate in respect to the Indian tribes . He noted that the Indian Treaty Clause did not specifically grant Congress the right to legislate , but that treaties made pursuant to the clause could grant Congress the authority to legislate in regards to treaty matters .
These powers included the ability to both restrict tribal powers or to relax such restrictions . Congress has done both , such as in the withdrawal of federal recognition of the Menominee tribe with the Menominee Termination Act in 1954 , and the Menominee Restoration Act to restore tribal recognition and powers . The earlier decisions in Duro , Wheeler , and Oliphant dealt with cases where Congress had restricted a tribe 's inherent powers but pointed at nothing in the Constitution or established precedent that prohibits Congress from relaxing such restrictions . The decision in Duro was one of federal common law , and it is clear that Congress has the power to change that law . Since the power exercised by the Spirit Lake Sioux Tribe was that of inherent tribal sovereignty , double jeopardy did not attach .
Breyer noted Lara 's other arguments , but as the double jeopardy issue was dispositive , he declined to address those issues . He did note that " we are not now faced with a question dealing with potential constitutional limits on congressional efforts to legislate far more radical changes in tribal status . " The decision allowed both courts to prosecute Lara . Since separate sovereign bodies had filed the charges , double jeopardy did not apply to Lara 's case . The decision of the Eighth Circuit Court was reversed in the 7 @-@ 2 decision .
= = = Concurrences = = =
= = = = Justice Stevens = = = =
Justice John Paul Stevens wrote a concurring opinion that argued that the Indian tribes have a stronger claim on inherent sovereign powers than do individual states . He noted that the Indian tribes governed themselves since before Columbus arrived , and that most states never governed themselves outside of the United States .
= = = = Justice Kennedy = = = =
Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a concurrence which stated that Congress was very careful to base the changes to the statute on inherent tribal powers and not on a delegation of authority . Kennedy states that is all that is needed to decide the case , but that the Court went further than was necessary when it decided that Congress had the power under the constitution to authorize tribes to prosecute non @-@ member Indians . Finally , Kennedy was concerned that the court did not address the question of the Equal Protection Clause . He would have reversed the Eighth Circuit without going into the additional detail .
= = = = Justice Thomas = = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a concurring opinion stating that it was time to re @-@ examine the entire concept of tribal sovereignty . He noted that doubtful precedents stated that Congress , and not another part of the government had the power to regulate everything that a tribe could or could not do , which renders tribal sovereignty a " nullity . " Thomas did not believe that Congress has the constitutional authority to set the " metes and bounds of tribal sovereignty . " He noted that such authority was not in the Indian Treaty Clause nor the Indian Commerce Clause . " In [ his ] view , the tribes either are or are not separate sovereigns , and our federal Indian law cases untenably hold both positions simultaneously . " Thomas further questioned the law ending the practice of making treaties with the tribes , noting that this was the one clear constitutional provision that provides for dealing with other sovereigns . Thomas noted that a delegation of prosecutorial power is always to an executive branch and that the tribes are not part of any executive branch of the Federal government . Therefore , the case hinges on the tribes ' inherent sovereignty , and based on precedent , the tribes possess that power .
= = = Dissent = = =
Justice David Souter wrote a dissenting opinion , which was joined by Justice Antonin Scalia . Souter referenced prior cases dealing with sovereignty and jurisdiction , from the decision made in United States v. Kagama , to the opinion made in South Dakota v. Bourland . Souter stated that the decision in this case did not align with precedent established in previous cases . Since Duro held that the tribes had lost their inherent sovereignty , the only way for the tribes to regain jurisdiction over non @-@ member Indians would be by the delegation of that jurisdiction by Congress . Bourland was even more specific as to that point . Souter believed that the only two ways that the tribes could regain their sovereignty would be for Congress to declare that they were independent of the United States , as it did with the Philippines , or for the Court to overturn the concept of a dependent domestic sovereign .
Souter wrote that this dissonance in court decisions will lead to confusion , stating : " And confusion , I fear , will be the legacy of today 's decision , for our failure to stand by what we have previously said reveals that our conceptualizations of sovereignty and dependent sovereignty are largely rhetorical . " Souter concluded that he would stand by the decisions made in Duro and Oliphant .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Release of Lara = = =
Lara was released from federal prison on August 19 , 2005 , about a year and four months after the Supreme Court delivered their decision .
= = = Law reviews = = =
This case has been the subject of numerous law review articles since the decision was made . Points raised include :
Indians are very integrated across tribal boundaries , intermarrying across tribes and sharing child and medical care services across tribes . Lara was an example of this ; he married a Spirit Lake Sioux woman and moved to that reservation before his exclusion by the tribe .
" As ' domestic dependent nations , ' Indian tribes possess criminal jurisdiction in Indian Country that is ' complete , inherent , and exclusive , ' except as limited by Congress . "
The decision enhanced tribal self @-@ determination because tribes could act even in the presence of related federal activity . They noted that Lara had been in numerous altercations with the tribal police at Spirit Lake for intoxication , spousal abuse , and resisting arrest . Only when the tribe ran out of options did it issue an exclusion order to bar him from the reservation .
The decision limited tribal sovereignty by affirming the ability of Congress to relax or to restrict tribal powers . The opinion of Justice Thomas was especially telling in this , as Thomas had opined that plenary power and tribal sovereignty were mutually exclusive .
= = = Books and media = = =
The case has been widely covered in books and news media . Tribal court authority has been altered by the U.S. government for decades , affecting jurisdictional powers . In Justice Thomas 's conclusion at the end of this case , he stated , " History points in both directions . " Thomas further stated , " Federal Indian policy , is , to say the least , schizophrenic . " Thomas 's statements directly address the Supreme Court 's confusion on both present and future Federal Indian Policy . As Justice Souter stated in his dissent , this remains " an area peculiarly susceptible to confusion . "
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= Have a nice day =
Have a nice day is a commonly spoken expression used to conclude a conversation ( whether brief or extensive ) , or end a message by hoping the person to whom it is addressed experiences a pleasant day . Since it is often uttered by service employees to customers at the end of a transaction , particularly in Israel and the United States , its repetitious and dutiful usage has resulted in the phrase developing , according to some journalists and scholars , especially outside of these two countries , a cultural connotation of impersonality , lack of interest , passive – aggressive behavior , or sarcasm . The phrase is generally not used in Europe , as some find it artificial or even offensive . Critics of the phrase characterize it as an imperative , obliging the person to have a nice day . Other critics argue that it is a parting platitude that comes across as pretended . While defenders of the phrase agree that " Have a nice day " can be used insincerely , they consider the phrase to be comforting , in that it improves interactions among people . Others favor the phrase because it does not require a response .
A variant of the phrase — " have a good day " — is first recorded in Layamon 's Brut ( c . 1205 ) and King Horn . " Have a nice day " itself first appeared in the 1948 film A Letter to Three Wives . The phrase was subsequently popularized by truck drivers talking on CB radios . Variations on the phrase include " have a good one " and " have a nice one " . In conjunction with the smiley face , the phrase became a defining cultural emblem of the 1970s and was a key theme in the 1991 film My Own Private Idaho . By 2000 , " have a nice day " and " have a good day " were taken metaphorically , synonymous with the parting phrase " goodbye " .
= = History = =
The Oxford English Dictionary recorded the earliest uses of one the phrase 's variants — " have a good day " — as being " Habbeð alle godne dæie " in Layamon 's Brut ( c . 1205 ) and " Rymenhild , have wel godne day " in King Horn ( 1225 ) . According to Roland Dickison of California State University , " have a good day " first appeared in Geoffrey Chaucer 's 1387 The Canterbury Tales : " And hoom wente every man the righte way , there was namoore but ' Fare wel , have a good day ' " . Routinely employed by Chaucer in his literary works , " have a good day " disappeared for several centuries before its revival .
William Safire of The New York Times wrote that " have a nice day " first appeared in the 1948 film A Letter to Three Wives . The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms stated that " have a nice day " first came into being in 1920 , and the phrase and its variants became widely used after the 1950s . In 1964 , Carol Reed of WCBS @-@ TV spread the phrase in the New York metropolitan area by closing her weather reports with " have a happy day " , which , according to Safire , is a variant of " have a nice day " . The 1960s saw the phrase " have a good day " become prevalent and supersede " happy day " . Numerous hippies , when parting , told each other to " have a nice day " or " have a beautiful day " . In 1970 , " have a nice city " was a mayoralty slogan in San Francisco . In 1972 , during the Vietnam War , family members of POW / MIA members of the American armed forces participated in South Boston 's Saint Patrick 's Day march . They carried a black banner that read " POW / MIA Families Never Have a Nice Day " . They received scowls and jeers from a hostile crowd . One woman said , " They should be shot for bringing this here . "
By around 2000 , " have a nice day " and " have a good day " were taken metaphorically , morphing into synonyms of the parting phrase " goodbye " .
= = = Smiley face and " have a nice day " = = =
Abigail Goldman of the Los Angeles Times , wrote that the smiley face and the expression " have a nice day " " helped to define the ' 70s " . In the early 1970s , Philadelphian brothers Murray and Bernard Spain designed and sold products including bumper stickers and coffee mugs that each contained the yellow smiley face , usually attributed to Harvey Ball . They later changed the phrase to " Have a nice day " .
The 1991 film My Own Private Idaho ironically ends with the parting phrase " have a nice day " , which for the fourth time invokes the smiley face . Smiley faces represent optimism and appear to ask the characters , who are characterized as " marginal figures " , how nice their days are . While traveling to Idaho , the protagonists ' motorcycle breaks down , and one of the characters , Mike , gazes at the sun on the horizon and links it with the motto " have a nice day " . He says , " I 've been on this road before . Looks like a fucked @-@ up face . Like it 's saying ' have a nice day ' or something . "
In the 1994 film Forrest Gump , title character Forrest is jogging down the street when a T @-@ shirt salesman approaches him , asking him to put his face on T @-@ shirts as inspiration to people . While the men are jogging , a truck splashes mud into Forrest 's face , and the salesman gives him a yellow shirt to wipe the mud off . Forrest rolls up the shirt and hands it back , saying " have a nice day " . Unrolling the shirt , the man finds a smiley face outlined on it . Thus the film credits Forrest Gump with inventing the Smiley logo and the have a nice day slogan .
In September 2005 , Bon Jovi released the album Have a Nice Day . The album cover contains a red smiley face which guitarist Richie Sambora stated echoes its title song . Sambora explained that " It 's [ like ] ' Have a nice day ; get out of my face ' — therefore the smirk . To me , it 's much more of a Clint Eastwood ' Have a nice day ' than a smiley face ' Have a nice day . ' "
= = Usage = =
The phrase " have a nice day " is typically spoken by service employees or clerks to customers at the end of a transaction . A mercantile method of expressing " thank you " as in " thank you for shopping with us " or " thank you for using our service " , it is commonly used among people in the United States and by retailers in New Zealand and elsewhere . In the 1970s , the American supermarket chain Kmart opened a store in Brisbane , Australia . The workers were trained to say , " Thank you for shopping at K @-@ Mart . Have a nice day . "
Other versions of " have a nice day " are " have a good one " and " have a nice one . " The phrase was universalized after 1950 by truck drivers conversing on their CB radios . Scientific studies indicate that people who regularly smile are more likely to say " have a nice day " . The phrase can have passive – aggressive connotations , and can be caustically used to end transactions with abusive customers . The speaker may also use the phrase ironically , in either a purposeful or unintentional manner .
Roly Sussex of The Courier @-@ Mail wrote that " have a nice day " can sound " a touch brusque " in comparison with " you have a nice day " . Deeming the word " you " as moderating the imperative , Sussex stated that the word " you " causes the phrase to seem like a mixture of a command and a hope . He wrote that using " you " in imperatives is more common with people under 25 . In her 2001 book The Facts on File Dictionary of Clichés , Christina Ammer wrote about the growing usage of " have a good meal " in restaurants . Ammer opined that the phrase " induces teeth @-@ gnashing irritation when voiced by a particularly incompetent waiter " .
Academic Sandi Mann 's interviews found that the British wished and demanded cordiality from service personnel , more than from their coworkers . Israelis , Americans , and Australians , on the other hand , wanted friendliness from both their coworkers and service personnel . Mann explains that the British do not expect a " smiley " display from colleagues because they have more time to build longer @-@ term relationships . Those in the service industry , though , have to become " one @-@ minute friends " each time they interact with customers .
= = = In crime = = =
On July 14 , 1979 , the Chicago Tribune published an article titled " This is a holdup ; have a nice day " about a Minneapolis robber ; while robbing the First Federal Savings & Loan Association of Chicago , the man gave a note to the bank teller that said " Thank you , and have a nice day " . On November 3 , 2007 , two robbers equipped with handguns stole money from a kiosk at a Vale , North Carolina store ; the Hickory Daily Record called them " courteous crooks " because after the theft , they told people to " have a nice day " .
Before the Binghamton shootings on April 3 , 2009 , the perpetrator sent a rambling diatribe against the police to News 10 Now ; the letter concluded with the chilling message " COP BRiNG ABOUT THiS SHOOTiNG COP MUST RESPONSiBLE . AND YOU HAVE A NiCE DAY " . In the Cumbria shootings on June 2 , 2010 , the belligerent mocked one of his victims by saying " have a nice day " to her while he shot her in the face . The victim , who survived the incident , told reporters later she felt " [ i ] t was just like something out of The Terminator " .
= = = In Israel = = =
" Have a nice day " is frequently used in the Israeli retail and service industries . Jerry Levin wrote in his 2005 book West Bank Diary : Middle East Violence as Reported by a Former American Hostage about a woman in a coffee shop telling him to " have a nice day " after he purchased a sweet roll and coffee . Levin stated that there is also a " grimmer version of the pervasive pleasantry " . After an Israeli soldier destroyed the memory card of Levin 's camera , the soldier told him with a jocular smirk , " have a nice day " .
In 2005 , the Mosawa Center for Arab Rights in Israel paid for ads on television and radio stations in Israel . In the television ads , the Arabic phrase for " have a nice day " would flash onto the screen in black letters and on a red background . Immediately following the Arabic phrase would be a Hebrew phrase that said , " Are you already against it without even knowing what it says ? All we wanted to say is have a nice day . " Spokeswoman Abir Kopty stated that " [ t ] he purpose of this campaign was mainly to cause the Israeli public sitting at home , or walking down the street , to ask itself why it had a negative reaction to everything Arab , even if it is the simplest phrase . " Kopty further said that the Mosawa Center wanted to encourage Arabs to be more active and more visible in the community .
= = = In Korea = = =
According to Korean Studies published by the University of Hawaii at Manoa , " have a nice day " is sometimes used in Korea . Korean Studies wrote that it " seemed somehow to fit nicely " with the phrase " Caymi posey yo " , which is frequently used in Korean shops to say goodbye .
= = = In Europe = = =
Europeans generally feel the phrase " have a nice day " is fake and that the speaker is solely interacting with the listener for business purposes . It is generally not used in the United Kingdom .
The phrase " have a nice day " spread to Britain from the United States . In Britain , the variants " have a fine day " and " have a good day " are frequently used in place of " have a nice day " . British customers generally consider it to be obnoxious and overbearing , instead usually preferring the gentler expression " enjoy the rest of your afternoon " .
In their 2002 book Different Games , Different Rules , Haru Yamada and Deborah Tannen recalled teaching a class in London , where a student construed " have a nice day " to be insincere . The student said that Americans " say things like that with this big fake smile on their face , and they don 't really mean it " . Not having the context of the metaphor , the student took the phrase literally and was unable to discern the intended cordiality . Conversely , when Americans visit stores in Britain where the salespeople engage not in " have a nice day " salesmanship , Americans regard British as lacking customer service .
Guy Browning penned an article in 2007 titled " How to ... have a nice day " for The Guardian , writing that sarcasm will creep into the discussion if the British say " have a nice day " . Browning explained that in Britain , people assume that the day will be horrible — even catastrophic . He wrote that for the United States though , " nice days and the having thereof are written into the constitution " .
In Germany , " Schönen Tag noch ! " , the German phrase for " have a nice day " , is being used more frequently by its vendors and waiters . German author Hyde Flippo wrote that many Germans deem " have a nice day " to be affected and shallow . Flippo further opined that the phrase is an appropriate example of culturally improper language . He compared it to smiling arbitrarily at a German person which would give the impression that the smiler is a " little simple @-@ minded or not quite ' all there ' " . Writing that Germans prefer " Auf Wiedersehen ! " or " Tschüss ! " ( both meaning " goodbye " ) — which German shopkeepers frequently use — to " dubious wishes for a nice day " he opined that that is why Germans generally favor visiting a small shop instead of a large department store .
The French also concur that the phrase is insincere . Author Natalie Schorr wrote that the French frequently say " bonne journée " — " good day " in French — and do not consider it to be insincere . Schorr explains that " bonne journée " is a " gracious formule de politesse " , similar to merci and s 'il vous plaît . However , " have a nice day " sounds like a trite phrase spoken by a telemarketer .
In Sweden , Lennart Fridén , a member of the Parliament of Sweden , lamented in a January 1995 speech to Parliament the usage of " ha en bra dag " — " have a nice day " in Swedish . Fridén stated that the increased usage of English loan expressions like " ha en bra dag " " impairs our sense of language and style " . He proposed a motion that an authoritative body , working in conjunction with linguistic institutions , be delegated the job of " caring for the Swedish language " ; the motion did not pass .
The Boston @-@ born American author Edith Shillue wrote in her 2003 book Peace Comes Dropping Slow that when the Irish stereotyped Americans , they tended to use the phrase " have a nice day " . While lodging at a house in Ireland , Shillue found a drawing on the wall for American visitors like her . Drawn by her host 's daughters , the picture had the phrase " Have a _ _ _ _ _ _ Day " , with a smiley faced affixed instead of the word " nice " . Irish author Aidan Higgins wrote in his 2004 book A Bestiary that the Americanization of Ireland led the Irish to say phrases like " No problem ! " or " Have a nice day ! " even when there is drenching rain .
= = = In the United States = = =
In the United States , " good morning " , " good afternoon " , " good evening " , and " good night " were previously the normal farewell addresses for a lengthy period of time . The common valediction has become " have a nice day " . According to the Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States , " [ t ] enga un nice day " is an example of Cuban Spanglish . This is distinguished from Chicano Spanish , in that the Chicano second @-@ generation and beyond , who are inclined to code @-@ switch , generally do not speak in the formal address form of " tenga " .
In a New York courtroom , a judge sentenced a man to a seven- to ten @-@ year jail term at the Auburn State Prison for committing a robbery . The judge 's final words were " You are hereby remanded to the custody of the sheriff 's department for delivery to the custody of state officials . Have a nice day . " Jack Sheehan of WKRT stated that the convict " almost sank to his knees . The phrase had worked its magic . "
Jewish @-@ American comedian Alan King joked in his book Matzo Balls for Breakfast that Jews rarely say " ' have a nice day ' , or even have one " . He wrote that " [ t ] o be honest , I 've never heard a Jew say that . "
= = " Have a Nice Day " culture = =
Sandi Mann , a business psychologist at the University of Central Lancashire , defines the " Have a Nice Day " culture as filled with " fake smiles , forced bonhomie , and meaningless demands by workers to ' have a nice day ' " . Managers compel their employees to be attentive and affable with customers despite the fact that some employees do not feel these emotions .
Sandi Mann concludes from her research that the " Have a Nice Day " culture will prevail , becoming used by more companies and countries . In the service industry , for example , she explains that products have become more uniform over the past few decades . Thus , the sole way for companies to distinguish themselves is to have better customer service . She notes that there are positive and negative effects . A positive effect is that it is beneficial for business and for people who enjoy fake displays . A negative effect is that emotions incompatible with the " Have a Nice Day " culture are repressed , leading to what Mann terms the " Have a Nice Day " syndrome . In an interview for the Wall Street Journal , an employee of the telemarketing company DialAmerica Marketing , was called a son of a bitch . Clenching his teeth , he responded " Thank you very much , you have a nice day . " The stress of suppressing their feelings and faking cheerfulness caused people like the telemarketer to feel insincere and phony . Individuals affected by the " Have a Nice Day " syndrome must carry out emotional labor , which could lead to diminished self @-@ esteem , depression , and cynicism .
= = = Criticism = = =
Linguistically , " have a nice day " is a command in that the subject , the pronoun you , is intimated . It could be regarded as an exhortation to achieve an outcome that the recipient has no power to influence . However , it is also possible to interpret the phrase as a contraction of " I hope that you have a nice day " .
Kerry LePage wrote in his 2004 book Some Day Never Comes that he chooses to have a nice day based on his own choice , not that of another person . J. Broad wrote in his 2007 book Some Day Never Comes that the phrase causes people to feel they have an obligation to have a nice day . Mike Royko wrote in his 2002 book For the Love of Mike that people may have a bad day , not a nice one , because they " confront a demanding boss , a nasty customer , a crabby teacher " .
According to author John Tschohl , the tediousness of the phrase is exemplified by employees uttering the words so faintly as to be barely audible . The phrase is occasionally used in an ironic manner when others have been disrespectful or have negatively impacted the speaker . In Detroit , a supermarket started a program to have its cashiers tell every customer to " have a nice day " after completing their transactions . After conducting surveys , they realized that more than half of the customers were unaware of whether the clerk had said the phrase . In addition , a number of customers commented that they despised being told to " have a nice day " . In a 2006 study , researchers at Frankfurt University discovered that people who must smile and say " have a nice day " in their jobs are more prone to illness . Flight attendants , waiters , and call center operators , as well as others who are forced to act cheerfully , are more likely to become depressed . This can lead to decreased immune system function .
Australian Andrew Biggs of the Bangkok Post wrote that in the past , the phrase was heard exclusively in Hollywood movies and American soap operas . He lamented that by the 1970s , Aussie teenagers were compelled to tell customers to " have a nice day " , a " blatant American cliche " . Biggs stated that " have a nice day " is " an idiom that 's been mashed and mangled over the decades " .
Jan C. Snow laments that the phrase was trite and indicative of the speaker 's lack of vocabulary . She wrote that on Saturdays , people could be asked to " have a relaxing day " . People with highly variable jobs such as emergency room nurses may appreciate " have a routine day " , while mothers of young children may wish to " have a quiet day " . Debbie Lundberg wrote in her 2008 book Have a Nice Day Is Not Thank You , and No Problem Is Not You 're Welcome that service people should say " thank you " instead of " have a nice day " . She argued that " thank you " is shorter and is a " recognition of the ability you have to thank someone " , which adds more worth to the purchase than something that will occur in the future . Paul V. Marshall , the bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Bethlehem , concurred , writing in the Reading Eagle that he prefers " thank you " to " have a nice day " or " have a great day " even though " thank you " has a " host of socially acceptable responses " . He stated that when people say " thank you " , they admit that they are dependent on others , which leads to a healthier , safer society .
J. Broad wrote that the phrase " have a nice day " is an apt middle ground for the " drop dead " the cashier is thinking and the " come back soon " the owner wants . Broad stated that the phrase is meaningless because it has been castrated by excessive usage and pretense . He compared the phrase to the salutation " How are you ? " and the phrase " had a lovely time " , which are " conversational space @-@ fillers " that help prevent embarrassing silences . Usage of the term has been compared to inserting the phrase " you know " or the word " like " in sentences . In 1982 , comedian George Carlin joked at Carnegie Hall , " That 's the trouble with ' Have a nice day ' ; it puts all the pressure on you . Now you 've got to go out and somehow manage to have a good time , all because of some loose @-@ lipped cashier . ' Have a nice day ... ' Maybe I don 't feel like having a nice day . Maybe , just maybe , I 've had 116 nice days in a row and I 'm ready , by God , for a crappy day . "
William Safire of The New York Times wrote that when the speaker of the phrase is genuine and maintains eye contact , the act is a " social asset and a note of civility " in a busy world . However , he stated that when the phrase is robotically said or said in a tone similar to " get lost " , the utterance " comes across with a resounding clank of falsity " . Marilyn Gardner of The Christian Science Monitor wrote that the " bland age of ' Have @-@ a @-@ nice @-@ day ' should come to a deserving end " . She opined that service could not be " peddled as an image " , and that substance is more important than style . Satirical commentator Russell Baker wrote in the Chicago Tribune that he did not know Ma Bell was waning until she began using the phrase " have a nice day " .
Miss Manners wrote in her 1990 book Miss Manners ' Guide for the Turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Millennium that although the phrase was trite , she wondered whether there was " so much deeply felt good will " permeating through the world that shallow friendliness ought to desist . She stated that for her , saying " goodbye " is sufficient because it expresses the same well @-@ wishing farewell sentiment . Leil Lowndes wrote in her 2009 book How to Instantly Connect with Anyone that if someone says " have a nice day " , the recipient should refrain from sarcastically responding " Thanks , but I have other plans " or " Gee , I was planning on having a miserable one , but now that you mention it , I think I 'll have a nice one . " Lowndes suggested that the response merely be " You , too . "
= = = Defense = = =
Carol Swiderski of the Chicago Tribune wrote that although saying " have a nice day " may not be sincere , the speaker has acknowledged that the recipient is there . She argued " [ h ] ave we become so analytic that we can 't accept these little niceties without asking ourselves , ' Did he really mean it ? Does she really care if I have a nice day ? ' " Writing that society has become so automated that going through a check @-@ out line at a grocery store without having made eye contact or spoken with the checker is possible , Swiderski favored " insincerely meant human kindness to a robot " . She encouraged people to respond to " have a nice day " with " you have a nice day , too " because she hoped that when a sufficient number of people do this , there could be a time when people will sincerely intend it .
Jeff Corbett of The Newcastle Herald defended " have a nice day " despite his characterization of the phrase as " wincingly American and so patently false in its sing @-@ song delivery " by cashiers . Corbett favored the phrase to the inquiries of the shopkeepers about his life ; he preferred " have a nice day " because it did not entail a response .
Janice Turner of The Times supported the phrase , writing that she is indifferent to it being used insincerely or 1 @,@ 000 times a day . She wrote that " have a nice day " is " soothing , even kind " , in that it improves the interactions among millions of people crowded together .
William F. Wyatt Jr. of the Chicago Tribune wrote that " have a nice day " used to be new and " fill [ ed ] a needed slot " . " Goodbye " , he stated , inappropriately indicates that salespeople are intimate with customers they do not know and would seem forced . " Farewell " , Wyatt said , would feel abnormal and could only be employed in an ironic context . The close of a transaction needed an oral ending . " Have a nice day " was the apt phrase for those who serve people they do not know to end a transaction .
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= 1st Airborne Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 1st Airborne Division was an airborne infantry division of the British Army during the Second World War . The division was formed in late 1941 during World War II , after the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , demanded an airborne force , and was initially under command of Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague Browning . The division was one of two airborne divisions raised by the British Army during the war , with the other being the 6th Airborne Division , created in May 1943 , using former units of the 1st Airborne Division .
The divisions first two missions – Operation Biting , a parachute landing in France , and Operation Freshman , a glider mission in Norway – were both raids . Part of the division was sent to North Africa at the end of 1942 , where it fought in the Tunisia Campaign , and when the Allies invaded Sicily in July 1943 , the division undertook two brigade sized landings . The first , Operation Ladbroke , carried out by glider infantry of the 1st Airlanding Brigade and the second , Operation Fustian , by the 1st Parachute Brigade , were far from completely successful . The 1st Airborne Division then took part in a mostly diversionary amphibious landing , Operation Slapstick , part of the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 .
In December , most of the 1st Airborne Division ( minus the 2nd Parachute Brigade ) returned to England , and began training and preparing for the Allied invasion of Normandy . It was not involved in the Normandy landings in June 1944 , being held in reserve . In September 1944 it took part in Operation Market Garden . The division , with the Polish 1st Parachute Brigade temporarily attached , landed 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind German lines , to capture crossings on the River Rhine , and fought in the Battle of Arnhem . After failing to achieve its objectives , the division was surrounded and took very heavy casualties , but held out for nine days before the survivors were evacuated .
The remnants of the 1st Airborne Division was returned to England soon after . The division never fully recovered from their losses at Arnhem and the 4th Parachute Brigade was disbanded . Just after the end of the war in Europe , the depleted formation took part in Operation Doomsday in Norway in May 1945 . They were tasked with the disarmament and repatriation of the German occupation army . The 1st Airborne Division then returned to England and was disbanded in November 1945 .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a force of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . As a result , on 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando assumed parachute duties , and on 21 November was re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing .
On 21 June 1940 the Central Landing Establishment was formed at Ringway airfield near Manchester . Although tasked primarily with training parachute troops , it was also directed to investigate the use of gliders to transport troops into battle . At the same time , the Ministry of Aircraft Production contracted General Aircraft Ltd to design and produce a glider for this purpose . The result was the General Aircraft Hotspur , which was capable of transporting eight soldiers and was used for both assault and training purposes .
The success of the first British airborne raid , Operation Colossus , prompted the War Office to expand the airborne force through the creation of the Parachute Regiment , and to develop plans to convert several infantry battalions into parachute and glider battalions . On 31 May 1941 , a joint army and air force memorandum was approved by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff and Winston Churchill ; it recommended that the British airborne forces should consist of two parachute brigades , one based in England and the other in the Middle East , and that a glider force of 10 @,@ 000 men should be created .
= = Formation history = =
The existing 11th Special Air Service Battalion was renamed the 1st Parachute Battalion and , together with the newly raised 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions , formed the first of the new airborne formations , 1st Parachute Brigade , commanded by Brigadier Richard Nelson Gale who would later command the 6th Airborne Division . The 2nd and 3rd Battalions were formed from volunteers , between the ages of twenty @-@ two and thirty @-@ two , who were already serving in infantry units . Only ten men from any one unit were allowed to volunteer .
In October 1941 , Frederick Arthur Montague Browning was promoted to Major General , named the Commander Parachute and Airborne Troops , and ordered to form a headquarters to develop and train airborne forces . The next unit formed was the 1st Airlanding Brigade on 10 October 1941 , by the conversion of the mountain warfare trained 31st Independent Infantry Brigade Group , commanded by Brigadier George F. Hopkinson . The brigade comprised four battalions : the 1st Border Regiment , 2nd South Staffordshire Regiment , 2nd Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry , and the 1st Royal Ulster Rifles . The men who were unsuitable for airborne forces were replaced by volunteers from other units . By the end of the year Browning 's command had become the headquarters of 1st Airborne Division .
= = = 1942 – 1943 = = =
Browning expressed his opinion that the force must not be sacrificed in " penny packets " , and urged the formation of a third brigade . Permission was finally granted in July 1942 , and the 2nd Parachute Brigade , commanded by Brigadier Ernest Down , was formed . The 2nd Parachute Brigade was assigned the existing 4th Parachute Battalion , and two new battalions converted from line infantry units , the 5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion , converted from the 7th Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders , and the 6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion , from the 10th Royal Welch Fusiliers .
The 3rd Parachute Brigade , comprising the 7th Parachute Battalion , previously the 10th Somerset Light Infantry , the 8th Parachute Battalion , converted from 13th Royal Warwickshire Regiment , and the 9th Parachute Battalion , which was previously the 10th Essex Regiment , Parachute Battalions , was formed in November 1943 , and also assigned to the division . Soon afterwards , the 1st Parachute Brigade left the division , to take part in the Operation Torch landings in North Africa .
In April 1943 , the commander of the 1st Airlanding Brigade , Hopkinson , was promoted to Major General and given command of the division . Later that year , the division was deployed to Tunisia for operations in the Mediterranean theatre . The 3rd Parachute Brigade and two battalions from the 1st Airlanding Brigade – the 1st Royal Ulster Rifles and 2nd Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry – remained behind in England , forming the nucleus of the newly raised 6th Airborne Division . On arrival , the 1st Airborne was reinforced by the 4th Parachute Brigade . The 4th Parachute Brigade had been formed in the Middle East during 1942 . In addition to the 156th Parachute Battalion , which had been raised from British troops stationed in India , it comprised the 10th and 11th Parachute Battalions , which had been raised from troops based in Egypt and Palestine .
The division took part in two brigade sized operations in Sicily , and an amphibious assault at Taranto in Italy . During the fighting in Italy , Major General Ernest Down became the divisional commander , after his predecessor died of wounds received in the fighting . After service in the Mediterranean , the division returned to England in December 1943 , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade behind as an independent formation .
= = = 1944 – 1945 = = =
After the division arrived in England , Ernest Down was posted to India to oversee the formation of the 44th Indian Airborne Division , and was replaced by Major General Roy Urquhart . In September 1944 , for Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands , the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade was attached to the division . Following Market Garden , fewer than 2 @,@ 200 men from the 10 @,@ 000 that were sent to the Netherlands returned to the British lines . Having suffered such severe casualties , the 4th Parachute Brigade was disbanded , with its surviving men being posted to the 1st Parachute Brigade . The division then went through a period of reorganisation , but had still not fully recovered by the end of the war , due to the acute shortage of manpower throughout the British Army in 1944 @-@ 1945 . Still under strength in May 1945 , it was sent to Norway to disarm the German army of occupation ; returning to Britain in November 1945 where the 1st Airborne Division was disbanded .
= = Operational history = =
= = = France = = =
Operation Biting , also known as the Bruneval Raid , was the codename for a raid by Combined Operations in 1942 . Their objective was a German Würzburg radar installation at Bruneval in France . Due to the extensive coastal defences erected by the Germans to protect the array , it was thought a commando raid from the sea would incur heavy losses , and give the garrison sufficient time for the radar equipment to be destroyed . It was therefore decided that an airborne assault followed by sea @-@ borne evacuation would be the ideal way to surprise the garrison and seize the technology intact .
On the night of 27 February , ' C ' Company , 2nd Parachute Battalion , under the command of Major John Frost , parachuted into France a few miles from the installation . The force then proceeded to assault the villa in which the radar equipment was kept , killing several members of the German garrison and capturing the installation after a brief fire @-@ fight . A technician that had come with the force partially dismantled the Würzburg radar array and removed several key pieces to take back to Britain , the raiding force then retreated to the evacuation beach . The detachment assigned to clear the beach had failed to do so , however , and another brief fire @-@ fight was required to eliminate the Germans guarding the beach . The raiding force was then picked up by a small number of landing craft and transferred to several Motor Gun Boats which brought them back to Britain . The raid was entirely successful . The airborne troops suffered only a few casualties , and the pieces of the radar they brought back , along with a German radar technician , allowed British scientists to understand German advances in radar and to create counter @-@ measures to neutralise those advances .
= = = Norway = = =
Operation Freshman was the first British airborne operation conducted using gliders , its target was the Vemork Norsk Hydro chemical plant in Norway , which produced heavy water for Nazi Germany . By 1942 the German atomic weapons programme had come close to being able to develop a nuclear reactor , but in order for the reactor to function it would require a great deal of heavy water . The source of this water was the Norsk Hydro plant , which had been occupied in 1940 ; when the British government learned of the German nuclear developments , it was decided that a raid would be launched to destroy the plant and deny the Germans the heavy water . Several tactics were discussed and discarded as impractical , and it was finally decided that a small force from the 1st Airborne Division , comprising 30 sappers from the Royal Engineers , would land by glider a short distance from the plant , and demolish it with explosives .
Two aircraft , each towing one glider , left Scotland on the night of 19 November 1942 . All managed to reach the Norwegian coast , but none were able to reach their objective . The first pair suffered from navigational difficulties and severe weather , which resulted in the tow rope snapping and the first glider crash @-@ landing , with its towing aircraft returning to base ; eight airborne troops were killed outright , four were severely injured and five unhurt . The survivors were captured shortly after the crash . The second pair fared even worse , with both aircraft and glider crashing into a mountain for unknown reasons ; the aircrew and several men were killed outright , and those who survived were taken prisoner . None of the prisoners survived for very long , being either poisoned or executed as a result of Adolf Hitler 's Commando Order , which stated that all British Commandos personnel were to be killed immediately when captured .
= = = Sicily = = =
Operation Turkey Buzzard , also known as Operation Beggar , was a supply mission to North Africa that took place between March and August 1943 . The mission was undertaken by the division 's glider pilots and No. 295 Squadron Royal Air Force , as part of the preparations for the Allied invasion of Sicily .
The mission involved Halifax bombers towing Horsa gliders 3 @,@ 200 miles ( 5 @,@ 100 km ) from England to Tunisia . The Horsas were needed to complement the smaller American Waco gliders , which did not have the capacity required for the planned operations . During the mission two German Condor patrol aircraft located and shot down a Halifax @-@ and @-@ Horsa combination . Altogether five Horsas and three Halifaxes were lost , but 27 Horsas arrived in Tunisia in time to participate in the invasion of Sicily .
Operation Ladbroke was a glider assault by the 1st Airlanding Brigade near Syracuse , that began on 9 July 1943 as part of the invasion of Sicily . The brigade were equipped with 144 Waco and six Horsa gliders . Their objective was to land near the town of Syracuse , secure the Ponte Grande Bridge , and ultimately take control of the city itself with its strategically important docks .
On the way to Sicily , 65 gliders were released too early by the towing aircraft and crashed into the sea , drowning around 252 men . Of the remainder , only 87 men arrived at the Pont Grande Bridge , which they successfully captured and held beyond the time they were to be relieved . Finally , with their ammunition expended and only 15 soldiers remaining unwounded , they surrendered to the Italian forces . The Italians sought to demolish the bridge after regaining control of it , but were unable to do so because the airborne forces had removed the explosive charges . Other troops from the airlanding brigade , who had landed elsewhere in Sicily , destroyed communications links and captured artillery batteries .
Operation Fustain , the division 's second mission in Sicily , was carried out by the 1st Parachute Brigade . Their objective was the Primosole Bridge across the Simeto River . The intention was for the parachute brigade , with glider @-@ borne forces in support , to land on both sides of the river . While one battalion seized the bridge , the other two battalions would establish defensive positions to the north and south . They would then hold the bridge until relieved by the advance of XIII Corps , part of the Eighth Army which had landed on the south eastern coast three days previously .
The start of the operation was a disaster . Many of the aircraft carrying the paratroopers from North Africa were shot down , or were damaged and turned back , due to both friendly fire and enemy action . The evasive action taken by the pilots scattered the brigade over a large area , and only the equivalent of two companies of troops were landed in the correct locations . Despite this and the defence by German and Italian forces , the British paratroops captured the bridge . Resisting attacks from the north and south , they held out against increasing odds until nightfall .
The relieving force led by the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , which was short of transport , found it hard going to reach the parachute brigade and were still 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away when they halted for the night . By this time , with casualties mounting and supplies running short , the brigade commander , Brigadier Gerald Lathbury , had relinquished control of the bridge to the Germans . The following day the British units joined forces , and the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry with armour support attempted to recapture the bridge . It was not finally secured until three days after the start of the operation , when another battalion of the Durham Light Infantry , led by the paratroopers , established a bridgehead on the northern bank of the river .
= = = Italy = = =
Operation Slapstick was an amphibious landing at the Italian port of Taranto , part of the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 . The mission had been planned at short notice , following an offer by the Italian government to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the heel of Italy to the Allies . The 1st Airborne Division was selected to undertake the mission , but at the time they were located in North Africa . A shortage of transport aircraft meant the division could not land by parachute and glider , and all the landing craft in the area were already allocated to the other landings : Operation Avalanche at Salerno on the western coast , and Operation Baytown at Calabria . Instead , the division had to be transported across the Mediterranean by ships of the Royal Navy . The landing was unopposed , and the airborne division successfully captured the ports of Taranto , and later Brindisi on the Adriatic coast , in working order .
The only German forces in the area were elements of the German 1st Parachute Division , which engaged the advancing British in ambushes and at roadblocks during a fighting withdrawal north . By the end of September , the 1st Airborne Division had advanced 125 miles ( 201 km ) to Foggia . Reinforcements from two infantry divisions , the 8th Indian and British 78th , had by then been landed behind them , which allowed the airborne troops to be withdrawn back to Taranto . Despite casualties for the 1st Airborne Division in Italy being relatively light , the General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) , Major @-@ General George Hopkinson , was killed while watching an assault by the 10th Parachute Battalion where he was mortally wounded by a burst of machine gun fire . He was replaced by Brigadier Ernest E. Down , previously the commander of 2nd Parachute Brigade .
= = = England = = =
By December 1943 the division had returned to England and begun training for operations in North @-@ West Europe under the supervision of I Airborne Corps . Although the 1st Airborne Division was not scheduled to take part in the Normandy landings , a contingency plan , Operation Wasteage , was drawn up whereby the division would be parachuted in to support any of the five invasion beaches if serious delays were experienced . This plan turned out not to be required .
While the 6th Airborne Division were still fighting in Normandy , numerous plans to parachute the 1st Airborne Division into France were formulated , all to no avail . In June and July 1944 , the plans included Operation Reinforcement , which was a landing to the west of St Sauveur @-@ le @-@ Vicomte to support the US 82nd Airborne Division , and Operation Wild Oats to seize Carpiquet airfield in support of the First Canadian Army . There was also Operation Beneficiary , intended to support the American XX Corps in capturing St Malo , and Operation Lucky Strike which had the objective of seizing bridges across the River Seine at Rouen . In Operation Sword Hilt , the division was to isolate the port of Brest and destroy the Morlaix viaduct . Operation Hands Up was intended to support the US Third Army by seizing the Vannes airfield .
By August the division was still waiting to be deployed , but now plans envisioned using them as part of a larger force . Operation Transfigure involved the division , the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , the US 101st Airborne Division , and the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade landing at Rambouillet St Arnoult , to close the gap between Orléans and Paris . Operation Axehead , using the same force , was to seize the bridges over the River Seine in support of 21st Army Group . Operation Boxer , with the same force , was to seize Boulogne and assault V1 flying bomb sites . Near the end of the month , Operation Linnet , with the same units as before , was formulated to seize crossings over the Escaut . Operation Infatuate , drawn up in early September , involved the entire I Airborne Corps landing in Belgium to trap the retreating German armies in the Scheldt estuary , as well as aiming to threaten Antwerp .
Finally , in September , there was Operation Comet , in which the division 's three brigades were to land in the Netherlands and each capture a river crossing . The first of these was the bridge over the River Waal at Nijmegen , the second the bridge over the River Maas at Grave , and the last was the bridge over the River Rhine at Arnhem . Planning for Comet was well advanced when on 10 September the mission was cancelled . Instead , a new operation was proposed with the same objectives as Comet but to be carried out by three divisions of the First Allied Airborne Army .
= = = Arnhem = = =
Operation Market Garden was an airborne assault by three divisions in the Netherlands in September 1944 , including the 1st and the American 82nd and 101st , to secure key bridges and towns along the expected Allied axis of advance . Farthest north , 1st Airborne , supported by the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade , landed at Arnhem to secure bridges across the Nederrijn . Initially expecting an easy advance , XXX Corps planned to reach the airborne force at Arnhem within two to three days .
1st Airborne landed some distance from its objectives and was quickly hampered by unexpected resistance , especially from elements of the 9th SS and 10th SS panzer divisions . Only a small force was able to reach the Arnhem road bridge , while the main body of the division was halted on the outskirts of the city . Meanwhile , XXX Corps was unable to advance north as quickly as anticipated and failed to relieve the airborne troops . After four days , the small British force at the bridge was overwhelmed and the rest of the division became trapped in a pocket north of the river , where they could not be sufficiently reinforced by the Poles , or by XXX Corps when it arrived on the southern bank . After nine days of fighting , the shattered remains of the airborne forces were eventually withdrawn south of the Rhine . 1st Airborne lost 8 @,@ 000 men during the battle and never saw combat again .
= = = Norway post @-@ war = = =
In May 1945 , immediately after the Allied Victory in Europe Day , the 1st Airborne Division was sent to disarm and repatriate the 350 @,@ 000 @-@ strong German occupation army in Norway . The division maintained law and order until the arrival of the remainder of Force 134 , the occupation force . During its time in Norway , the division was tasked with supervising the surrender of the German forces in Norway , as well as preventing the sabotage of important military and civilian facilities .
The German Instrument of Surrender was delivered on 8 May to General Franz Böhme , the commander of all German forces stationed in Norway ; the 1st Airborne Division landed near Oslo and Stavanger between 9 and 11 May . Most of the transport aircraft carrying the division landed safely , but one crash caused several fatalities . The division encountered little of the expected German resistance . Operational duties included welcoming back King Haakon , looking after Allied ex @-@ prisoners of war , arresting war criminals and supervising the clearing of minefields . While in Norway , the division was also able to investigate what happened to the airborne troops that had taken part in Operation Freshman . The division returned to Britain , and was disbanded on 26 August 1945 .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = Commanders = = =
Major @-@ General Frederick Browning
Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson
Major @-@ General Ernest Down
Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart
= = = Units = = =
1st Parachute Brigade
1st Airlanding Brigade
2nd Parachute Brigade
3rd Parachute Brigade
4th Parachute Brigade
Divisional troops
Divisional headquarters and signal squadron
1st Airlanding Light Regiment , Royal Artillery
1st Forward ( Airborne ) Observation Unit , Royal Artillery
21st Independent Parachute Company , Army Air Corps
1st Airborne Reconnaissance Squadron
9th ( Airborne ) Field Company , Royal Engineers
261st ( Airborne ) Field Park Company , Royal Engineers
250th ( Airborne ) Light Company , Royal Army Service Corps
93rd Company , Royal Army Service Corps
Detachment Ordnance Field Park
Detachment , Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers Workshop
89th Field Security Section , Intelligence Corps
1st Airborne Division , Provost Company , Royal Military Police
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= Rhabdomyolysis =
Rhabdomyolysis is a condition in which damaged skeletal striated muscle breaks down rapidly . Breakdown products of damaged muscle cells are released into the bloodstream ; some of these , such as the protein myoglobin , are harmful to the kidneys and may lead to kidney failure . The severity of the symptoms , which may include muscle pains , vomiting , and confusion , depends on the extent of muscle damage and whether kidney failure develops . The muscle damage may be caused by physical factors ( e.g. , crush injury , strenuous exercise , medications , drug abuse , and infections ) . Some people have a hereditary muscle condition that increases the risk of rhabdomyolysis . The diagnosis is usually made with blood tests and urinalysis . The mainstay of treatment is generous quantities of intravenous fluids , but may include dialysis or hemofiltration in more severe cases .
Rhabdomyolysis and its complications are significant problems for those injured in disasters such as earthquakes and bombings . Relief efforts in areas struck by earthquakes often include medical teams with the skills and equipment to treat survivors with rhabdomyolysis . The disease was first described in the 20th century , and important discoveries as to its mechanism were made during the Blitz of London in 1941 . Horses may also develop rhabdomyolysis from a variety of causes .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The symptoms of rhabdomyolysis depend on its severity and whether kidney failure develops . Milder forms may not cause any muscle symptoms , and the diagnosis is based on abnormal blood tests in the context of other problems . More severe rhabdomyolysis is characterized by muscle pain , tenderness , weakness and swelling of the affected muscles . If the swelling is very rapid , as may happen after someone is released from under a collapsed building , the movement of fluid from the bloodstream into damaged muscle may cause low blood pressure and shock . Other symptoms are nonspecific and result either from the consequences of muscle tissue breakdown or from the condition that originally led to the muscle breakdown . Release of the components of muscle tissue into the bloodstream causes electrolyte disturbances , which can lead to nausea , vomiting , confusion , coma or abnormal heart rate and rhythm . The urine may be dark , often described as " tea @-@ colored " , due to the presence of myoglobin . Damage to the kidneys may give rise to decreased or absent urine production , usually 12 to 24 hours after the initial muscle damage .
Swelling of damaged muscle occasionally leads to compartment syndrome — compression of surrounding tissues , such as nerves and blood vessels , in the same fascial compartment — leading to the loss of blood supply and damage or loss of function in the part ( s ) of the body supplied by these structures . Symptoms of this complication include pain or reduced sensation in the affected limb . A second recognized complication is disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) , a severe disruption in blood clotting that may lead to uncontrollable bleeding .
= = Causes = =
Any form of muscle damage of sufficient severity can cause rhabdomyolysis . Multiple causes can be present simultaneously in one person . Some have an underlying muscle condition , usually hereditary in nature , that makes them more prone to rhabdomyolysis .
= = = Common and important causes = = =
= = = Genetic predisposition = = =
Recurrent rhabdomyolysis may result from intrinsic muscle enzyme deficiencies , which are usually inherited and often appear during childhood . Many structural muscle diseases feature episodes of rhabdomyolysis that are triggered by exercise , general anesthesia or any of the other causes of rhabdomyolysis listed above . Inherited muscle disorders and infections together cause the majority of rhabdomyolysis in children .
The following hereditary disorders of the muscle energy supply may cause recurrent and usually exertional rhabdomyolysis :
Glycolysis and glycogenolysis defects : McArdle 's disease , phosphofructokinase deficiency , glycogen storage diseases VIII , IX , X and XI
Lipid metabolism defects : carnitine palmitoyltransferase I and II deficiency , deficiency of subtypes of acyl CoA dehydrogenase ( LCAD , SCAD , MCAD , VLCAD , 3 @-@ hydroxyacyl @-@ coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency ) , thiolase deficiency
Mitochondrial myopathies : deficiency of succinate dehydrogenase , cytochrome c oxidase and coenzyme Q10
Others : glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , myoadenylate deaminase deficiency and muscular dystrophies
= = Mechanism = =
Damage to skeletal muscle may take various forms . Crush and other physical injuries cause damage to muscle cells directly or interfere with blood supply , while non @-@ physical causes interfere with muscle cell metabolism . When damaged , muscle tissue rapidly fills with fluid from the bloodstream , including sodium ions . The swelling itself may lead to destruction of muscle cells , but those cells that survive are subject to various disruptions that lead to rise in intracellular calcium ions ; the accumulation of calcium outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum leads to continuous muscle contraction and depletion of ATP , the main carrier of energy in the cell . ATP depletion can itself lead to uncontrolled calcium influx . The persistent contraction of the muscle cell leads to breakdown of intracellular proteins and disintegration of the cell .
Neutrophil granulocytes — the most abundant type of white blood cell — enter the muscle tissue , producing an inflammatory reaction and releasing reactive oxygen species , particularly after crush injury . Crush syndrome may also cause reperfusion injury when blood flow to decompressed muscle is suddenly restored .
The swollen , inflamed muscle may directly compress structures in the same fascial compartment , causing compartment syndrome . The swelling may also further compromise blood supply into the area . Finally , destroyed muscle cells release potassium ions , phosphate ions , the heme @-@ containing protein myoglobin , the enzyme creatine kinase and uric acid ( a breakdown product of purines from DNA ) into the blood . Activation of the coagulation system may precipitate disseminated intravascular coagulation . High potassium levels may lead to potentially fatal disruptions in heart rhythm . Phosphate binds to calcium from the circulation , leading to low calcium levels in the blood .
Rhabdomyolysis may cause kidney failure by several mechanisms . The most important is the accumulation of myoglobin in the kidney tubules . Normally , the blood protein haptoglobin binds circulating myoglobin and other heme @-@ containing substances , but in rhabdomyolysis the quantity of myoglobin exceeds the binding capacity of haptoglobin . Myoglobinuria , the presence of myoglobin in the urine , occurs when the level in plasma exceeds 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mg / dl ; once plasma levels reach 100 mg / dl , the concentration in the urine becomes sufficient for it to be visibly discolored and corresponds with the destruction of about 200 grams of muscle . As the kidneys reabsorb more water from the filtrate , myoglobin interacts with Tamm – Horsfall protein in the nephron to form casts ( solid aggregates ) that obstruct the normal flow of fluid ; the condition is worsened further by high levels of uric acid and acidification of the filtrate , which increase cast formation . Iron released from the heme generates reactive oxygen species , damaging the kidney cells . In addition to the myoglobinuria , two other mechanisms contribute to kidney impairment : low blood pressure leads to constriction of the blood vessels and therefore a relative lack of blood flow to the kidney , and finally uric acid may form crystals in the tubules of the kidneys , causing obstruction . Together , these processes lead to acute tubular necrosis , the destruction of the cells of tubules . Glomerular filtration rate falls and the kidney is unable to perform its normal excretory functions . This causes disruption of electrolyte regulation , leading to a further rise in potassium levels , and interferes with vitamin D processing , further worsening the low calcium levels .
= = Diagnosis = =
A diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis may be suspected in anyone who has suffered trauma , crush injury or prolonged immobilization , but it may also be identified at a later stage due to deteriorating kidney function ( abnormally raised or increasing creatinine and urea levels , falling urine output ) or reddish @-@ brown discoloration of the urine .
= = = General investigations = = =
The most reliable test in the diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis is the level of creatine kinase ( CK ) in the blood . This enzyme is released by damaged muscle , and levels above 5 times the upper limit of normal ( ULN ) indicate rhabdomyolysis . Depending on the extent of the rhabdomyolysis , concentrations up to 100 @,@ 000 U / l are not unusual . CK concentrations rise steadily for 12 hours after the original muscle injury , remain elevated for 1 – 3 days and then fall gradually . Initial and peak CK levels have a linear relationship with the risk of acute kidney failure : the higher the CK , the more likely it is that kidney damage will occur . There is no specific concentration of CK above which kidney impairment definitely occurs ; concentrations below 20 @,@ 000 U / l are unlikely to be associated with a risk of kidney impairment , unless there are other contributing risk factors . Mild rises without kidney impairment are referred to as " hyperCKemia " . Myoglobin has a short half @-@ life , and is therefore less useful as a diagnostic test in the later stages . Its detection in blood or urine is associated with a higher risk of kidney impairment . Despite this , use of urine myoglobin measurement is not supported by evidence as it lacks specificity and the research studying its utility is of poor quality .
Elevated concentrations of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase ( LDH ) may be detected . Other markers of muscle damage , such as aldolase , troponin , carbonic anhydrase type 3 and fatty acid @-@ binding protein ( FABP ) , are mainly used in chronic muscle diseases . The transaminases , enzymes abundant in both liver and muscle tissue , are also usually increased ; this can lead to the condition being confused with acute liver injury , at least in the early stages . The incidence of actual acute liver injury is 25 % in people with non @-@ traumatic rhabdomyolysis ; the mechanism for this is uncertain .
High potassium levels tend to be a feature of severe rhabdomyolysis . Electrocardiography ( ECG ) may show whether the elevated potassium levels are affecting the conduction system of the heart , as suggested by the presence of T wave changes or broadening of the QRS complex . Low calcium levels may be present in the initial stage due to binding of free calcium to damaged muscle cells .
Urinalysis by urine test strip may reveal a positive result for " blood " , even though no red blood cells can be identified on microscopy of the urine ; this occurs because the reagent on the test strip reacts with myoglobin . The same phenomenon may happen in conditions that lead to hemolysis , the destruction of red blood cells ; in hemolysis the blood serum is also visibly discolored , while in rhabdomyolysis it is normal . If kidney damage has occurred , microscopy of the urine also reveals urinary casts that appear pigmented and granular .
= = = Complications = = =
Compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis , i.e. , no diagnostic test conclusively proves its presence or absence , but direct measurement of the pressure in a fascial compartment , and the difference between this pressure and the blood pressure , may be used to assess its severity . High pressures in the compartment and a small difference between compartment pressure and blood pressure indicate that the blood supply is likely to be insufficient , and that surgical intervention may be needed .
Disseminated intravascular coagulation , another complication of rhabdomyolysis and other forms of critical illness , may be suspected on the basis of unexpected bleeding or abnormalities in hematological tests , such as a decreasing platelet count or prolongation of the prothrombin time . The diagnosis can be confirmed with standard blood tests for DIC , such as D @-@ dimer .
= = = Underlying disorders = = =
If an underlying muscle disease is suspected , for instance if there is no obvious explanation or there have been multiple episodes , it may be necessary to perform further investigations . During an attack , low levels of carnitine in the blood and high levels of acylcarnitine in blood and urine may indicate a lipid metabolism defect , but these abnormalities revert to normal during convalescence . Other tests may be used at that stage to demonstrate these disorders . Disorders of glycolysis can be detected by various means , including the measurement of lactate after exercise ; a failure of the lactate to rise may be indicative of a disorder in glycolysis , while an exaggerated response is typical of mitochondrial diseases . Electromyography ( EMG ) may show particular patterns in specific muscle diseases ; for instance , McArdle 's disease and phosphofructokinase deficiency show a phenomenon called cramp @-@ like contracture . There are genetic tests available for many of the hereditary muscle conditions that predispose to myoglobinuria and rhabdomyolysis .
Muscle biopsy can be useful if an episode of rhabdomyolysis is thought to be the result of an underlying muscle disorder . A biopsy sample taken during an episode is often uninformative , as it will show only evidence of cell death or may appear normal . Taking the sample is therefore delayed for several weeks or months . The histopathological appearance on the biopsy indicates the nature of the underlying disorder . For instance , mitochondrial diseases are characterized by ragged red fibers . Biopsy sites may be identified by medical imaging , such as magnetic resonance imaging , as the muscles may not be uniformly affected .
= = Treatment = =
The main goal of treatment is to treat shock and preserve kidney function . Initially this is done through the administration of generous amounts of intravenous fluids , usually isotonic saline ( 0 @.@ 9 % weight per volume sodium chloride solution ) . In victims of crush syndrome , it is recommended to administer intravenous fluids even before they are extracted from collapsed structures . This will ensure sufficient circulating volume to deal with the muscle cell swelling ( which typically commences when blood supply is restored ) , and to prevent the deposition of myoglobin in the kidneys . Amounts of 6 to 12 liters over 24 hours are recommended . The rate of fluid administration may be altered to achieve a high urine output ( 200 – 300 ml / h in adults ) , unless there are other reasons why this might lead to complications , such as a history of heart failure .
While many sources recommend additional intravenous agents to reduce damage to the kidney , most of the evidence supporting this practice comes from animal studies , and is inconsistent and conflicting . Mannitol acts by osmosis to enhance urine production and is thought to prevent myoglobin deposition in the kidney , but its efficacy has not been shown in studies and there is a risk of worsening kidney function . The addition of bicarbonate to the intravenous fluids may alleviate acidosis ( high acid level of the blood ) and make the urine more alkaline to prevent cast formation in the kidneys ; evidence suggesting that bicarbonate has benefits above saline alone is limited , and it can worsen hypocalcemia by enhancing calcium and phosphate deposition in the tissues . If urine alkalinization is used , the pH of the urine is kept at 6 @.@ 5 or above . Furosemide , a loop diuretic , is often used to ensure sufficient urine production , but evidence that this prevents kidney failure is lacking .
= = = Electrolytes = = =
In the initial stages , electrolyte levels are often abnormal and require correction . High potassium levels can be life @-@ threatening , and respond to increased urine production and renal replacement therapy ( see below ) . Temporary measures include the administration of calcium to protect against cardiac complications , insulin or salbutamol to redistribute potassium into cells , and infusions of bicarbonate solution .
Calcium levels initially tend to be low , but as the situation improves calcium is released from where it has precipitated with phosphate , and vitamin D production resumes , leading to hypercalcemia ( abnormally high calcium levels ) . This " overshoot " occurs in 20 – 30 % of those people who have developed kidney failure .
= = = Acute kidney impairment = = =
Kidney dysfunction typically develops 1 – 2 days after the initial muscle damage . If supportive treatment is inadequate to manage this , renal replacement therapy ( RRT ) may be required . RRT removes excess potassium , acid and phosphate that accumulate when the kidneys are unable to function normally and is required until kidney function is regained .
Three main modalities of RRT are available : hemodialysis , continuous hemofiltration and peritoneal dialysis . The former two require access to the bloodstream ( a dialysis catheter ) , while peritoneal dialysis is achieved by instilling fluid into the abdominal cavity and later draining it . Hemodialysis , which is normally done several times a week in chronic kidney disease , is often required on a daily basis in rhabdomyolysis . Its advantage over continuous hemofiltration is that one machine can be used multiple times a day , and that continuous administration of anticoagulant drugs is not necessary . Hemofiltration is more effective at removing large molecules from the bloodstream , such as myoglobin , but this does not seem to confer any particular benefit . Peritoneal dialysis may be difficult to administer in someone with severe abdominal injury , and it may be less effective than the other modalities .
= = = Other complications = = =
Compartment syndrome is treated with surgery to relieve the pressure inside the muscle compartment and reduce the risk of compression on blood vessels and nerves in that area . Fasciotomy is the incision of the affected compartment . Often , multiple incisions are made and left open until the swelling has reduced . At that point , the incisions are closed , often requiring debridement ( removal of non @-@ viable tissue ) and skin grafting in the process . The need for fasciotomy may be decreased if mannitol is used , as it can relieve muscle swelling directly .
Disseminated intravascular coagulation generally resolves when the underlying causes are treated , but supportive measures are often required . For instance , if the platelet count drops significantly and there is resultant bleeding , platelets may be administered .
= = Prognosis = =
The prognosis depends on the underlying cause and whether any complications occur . Rhabdomyolysis complicated by acute kidney impairment in patients with traumatic injury may have a mortality rate of 20 % . Admission to the intensive care unit is associated with a mortality of 22 % in the absence of acute kidney injury , and 59 % if kidney impairment occurs . Most people who have sustained kidney impairment due to rhabdomyolysis fully recover their kidney function .
= = Epidemiology = =
The exact incidence of rhabdomyolysis is difficult to establish , because different definitions have been used . In 1995 , hospitals in the U.S. reported 26 @,@ 000 cases of rhabdomyolysis . Up to 85 % of people with major traumatic injuries will experience some degree of rhabdomyolysis . Of those with rhabdomyolysis , 10 – 50 % develop acute kidney injury . The risk is higher in people with a history of illicit drug use , alcohol misuse or trauma when compared to muscle diseases , and it is particularly high if multiple contributing factors occur together . Rhabdomyolysis accounts for 7 – 10 % of all cases of acute kidney injury in the U.S.
Crush injuries are common in major disasters , but especially so in earthquakes . The aftermath of the 1988 Spitak earthquake prompted the establishment , in 1995 , of the Renal Disaster Relief Task Force , a working group of the International Society of Nephrology ( a worldwide body of kidney experts ) . Its volunteer doctors and nurses assisted for the first time in the 1999 İzmit earthquake in Turkey , where 462 people received dialysis , with positive results . Treatment units are generally established outside the immediate disaster area , as aftershocks could potentially injure or kill staff and make equipment unusable .
= = History = =
The Bible may contain an early account of rhabdomyolysis . In Numbers 11 : 4 – 6 @,@ 31 – 33 , the Pentateuch says that the Jews demanded meat while traveling in the desert ; God sent quail in response to the complaints , and people ate large quantities of quail meat . A plague then broke out , killing numerous people . Rhabdomyolysis after consuming quail was described in more recent times and called coturnism ( after Coturnix , the main quail genus ) . Migrating quail consume large amounts of hemlock , a known cause of rhabdomyolysis .
In modern times , early reports from the 1908 Messina earthquake and World War I on kidney failure after injury were followed by studies by London physicians Eric Bywaters and Desmond Beall , working at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School and the National Institute for Medical Research , on four victims of The Blitz in 1941 . Myoglobin was demonstrated in the urine of victims by spectroscopy , and it was noted that the kidneys of victims resembled those of patients who had hemoglobinuria ( hemoglobin rather than myoglobin being the cause of the kidney damage ) . In 1944 Bywaters demonstrated experimentally that the kidney failure was mainly caused by myoglobin . Already during the war , teams of doctors traveled to bombed areas to provide medical support , chiefly with intravenous fluids , as dialysis was not yet available . The prognosis of acute kidney failure improved markedly when dialysis was added to supportive treatment , which first happened during the 1950 – 1953 Korean War .
= = Other animals = =
Rhabdomyolysis is recognized in horses . Horses can develop a number of muscle disorders , many of which may progress to rhabdomyolysis . Of these , some cause isolated attacks of rhabdomyolysis ( e.g. , dietary deficiency in vitamin E and selenium , poisoning associated with pasture or agricultural poisons such as organophosphates ) , while others predispose to exertional rhabdomyolysis ( e.g. , the hereditary condition equine polysaccharide storage myopathy ) . 5 – 10 % of thoroughbred horses and some standardbred horses suffer from the condition equine exertional rhabdomyolysis ; no specific cause has been identified , but an underlying muscle calcium regulation disorder is suspected .
Rhabdomyolysis affecting horses may also occur in outbreaks ; these have been reported in many European countries , and later in Canada , Australia , and the United States . It has been referred to as " atypical myopathy " or " myoglobinuria of unknown etiology " . No single cause has yet been found , but various mechanisms have been proposed , and a seasonal pattern has been observed . Very high creatine kinase levels are detected , and mortality from this condition is 89 % .
= = Etymology and pronunciation = =
The word rhabdomyolysis ( / ˌræbdoʊmaɪˈɒlᵻsᵻs / ) uses the combining forms rhabdo- + myo- + -lysis , yielding " striated muscle breakdown " .
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= William Edward Sanders =
William Edward Sanders VC , DSO ( 7 February 1883 – 14 August 1917 ) was a New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross ( VC ) , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces .
Born in Auckland , Sanders took up a seafaring career in 1899 . He initially worked aboard steamships before transferring to sailing ships working around New Zealand waters to enhance his career prospects . After the outbreak of the First World War , he earned a master 's certificate in late 1914 . He then served in the Merchant Navy working aboard troopships until April 1916 , when he was commissioned in the Royal Naval Reserve . He completed his military training in the United Kingdom after which he served aboard the Helgoland , a Q @-@ ship which operated against German submarines . He performed well on his first two patrols and was given his own command , HMS Prize , in February 1917 . He was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions while on his first patrol as captain , when the Prize engaged and saw off a German U @-@ boat that had earlier attacked and damaged his own ship . He was killed in action during the Prize 's fourth patrol when his ship was sunk by a U @-@ boat . His Victoria Cross was presented to his father and is currently held by the Auckland War Memorial Museum . Several memorials exist to Sanders ' memory , including the Sanders Cup , a sailing trophy for 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) centerboard X @-@ class yachts .
= = Early life = =
William Sanders was born in the Auckland suburb of Kingsland on 7 February 1883 . His father , Edward Helman Cook Sanders , was a boot maker , who with his wife Emma Jane Sanders ( née Wilson ) , would have three more children . His maternal grandfather was a sea captain and worked for the family 's shipping company .
Sanders attended Nelson Street School but in 1894 , when his family moved to Takapuna , he shifted to Takapuna School . The school was close to Lake Pupuke , where he learned to sail . He earned the nickname Gunner Billy for his exploits with a small cannon that a classmate brought to school . He left school at the age of 15 , and due to the influence of his parents was apprenticed to a mercer in Auckland . He was not particularly interested in the profession and , desiring a career at sea , would go down to the wharfs to inspect the berthed ships and chat with their captains and crewmen .
In 1899 , Sanders joined the Kapanui as a cabin boy . An officer on the ship , a coastal steamer which worked the coast north of Auckland , was an acquaintance and advised Sanders of the availability of a position on board as a cabin boy , which he promptly applied for . He remained with the company that operated the Kapanui for three years . In 1902 he joined the Aparima , operated by the Union Steam Ship Company , which traded between New Zealand and India . He transferred to the NZGSS Hinemoa in 1906 as an ordinary seaman . The Hinemoa was a government steamer which serviced lighthouses along the New Zealand coast and depots on offshore islands .
With his seafaring career to date spent working on steamships , Sanders decided to spend time under sail with the Craig Line . At the time , steam was looked down upon by seafarers with sailors being regarded as more skillful . After taking his mate 's certificates , he sailed aboard the Joseph Craig . However , the ship foundered on the Hokianga bar on 7 August 1914 .
= = First World War = =
During the early part of the war , Sanders worked as second mate on the Moeraki . He also sat for his Masters certificate , passing with honours on 7 November 1914 . He was then discharged from the Moeraki in December and applied for the Royal Naval Reserve . However , he was not called up and in the interim served as a Merchant Navy officer on the troopships Willochra and Tofua .
After repeated pleas to authorities , Sanders traveled to London and on 19 April 1916 was finally appointed an acting sub @-@ lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve . After a period of time at the HMS Excellent training facility on Whale Island , he was granted a position on the Helgoland , a Q @-@ ship operating against German submarines in the Western Approaches .
Q @-@ ships were merchant ships crewed by Navy personnel and bearing hidden weaponry . When attacked by U @-@ boats , a portion of the ship 's crew ( referred to as a panic party ) would appear to evacuate the vessel , sometimes setting smoke fires to simulate damage . This would encourage its attacker to approach and when the U @-@ boat was close enough , the Q @-@ ship 's guns would become operational and open fire , hopefully destroying the submarine .
The Helgoland was a Dutch brigantine armed with 12 @-@ pounder guns and a machine gun . Sanders , second in command to fellow New Zealander Lieutenant A.D. Blair , helped oversee its conversion to a Q @-@ ship . On its first patrol in September 1916 his ship participated in two actions against U @-@ boats , and on its second the following month , it again engaged two U @-@ boats . During the first engagement , the Helgoland was becalmed , without engines and extremely vulnerable . Surrounded by three submarines and with limited manoeuvrability it was forced to reveal its identity early in the engagement . On this occasion a screen concealing one of the guns jammed ; Sanders and Blair exposed themselves to potential gun fire from the U @-@ boat being attacked in order to cut away the screen with axes and crowbars .
= = = HMS Prize = = =
His conduct on the Helgoland resulted in a promotion to lieutenant for Sanders , and he was also recommended for command of his own ship . In February 1917 , he was appointed captain of HMS Prize , a three @-@ masted topsail schooner that was sailing under the German flag when it was seized in 1914 and converted to a Q @-@ ship in early 1917 . At midnight on 30 April 1917 about 180 miles south of Ireland , in the Atlantic , the Prize was attacked by a U @-@ boat , the U @-@ 93 commanded by Edgar von Spiegel von und zu Peckelsheim . It was genuinely badly damaged by shellfire from the U @-@ boat 's deck guns . Sanders , remaining under cover , moved about the vessel reassuring his men .
After the ' panic party ' had taken to the boats and the ship appeared to be sinking , the U @-@ boat approached to within 80 yards of her port quarter , whereupon Sanders ordered the White Ensign hoisted and the Prize opened fire . Within a few minutes the submarine was on fire and her bows rose in the air , whilst the Prize was further damaged . The U @-@ boat disappeared from sight , and was believed to have been sunk by the crew of the Prize and by several of the German crew ( including her captain ) who had been blown or jumped into the sea . However , neither of the crippled ships had sunk , with the Prize being towed in flames back to Kinsale . The U @-@ 93 struggled back to the Sylt nine days later .
Badly damaged , the Prize had to spend several weeks being repaired . During this time the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir John Jellicoe offered Sanders command of a destroyer of his choosing , which he declined . He returned to sea in May with the Prize conducting a second patrol for three weeks . Sanders was wounded slightly in an action on 12 June , in which the Prize was fired at 30 times by the U @-@ boat being attacked . His award of the Victoria Cross ( VC ) for his actions on 30 April was gazetted in June , while he was at sea on a third patrol . Because the use of Q @-@ ships such as the Prize were still secret , the published details of his award when it was gazetted simply read
In recognition of his conspicuous gallantry , consummate coolness , and skill in command of one of H.M. Ships in action .
The Prize was lost on its fourth patrol , Sanders having been promoted to lieutenant commander . On 14 August 1917 , UB @-@ 48 spotted the Prize . The Q @-@ ship was recognised by the captain of the U @-@ boat , who had been warned by the survivors of U @-@ 93 and did not approach the Prize too closely . Instead , it remained submerged and fired two torpedoes into the sailing ship , blowing her to pieces . Rescue craft were unable to find a trace of her crew when they arrived in the area , long after the U @-@ boat had escaped .
= = Medals and legacy = =
Sanders , a bachelor , died without knowledge of the award of a Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his actions on 12 June 1917 . The emergence of correspondence with his first Q @-@ ship commander , A.D Blair , makes it clear that he at least knew of his VC prior to his death , even if he had not received it . In June 1918 , Sanders ' father received his son 's VC and DSO from the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand . Sander 's VC , the only one awarded to a New Zealander serving in the navy , and DSO is on display at the Auckland War Memorial Museum .
There are many memorials to Sanders , including an exhibit of photographs and his citations at Takapuna Primary School , which he attended , a bronze tablet in the church at Milford Haven , the home port of the Prize , and The Sanders Memorial Scholarship at the University of Auckland for children of members of the Royal Navy or the Mercantile Marine . The best @-@ known memorial is the Sanders Cup for interprovincial competition between 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) centerboard X @-@ class yachts , still contested to this day .
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= Platinum =
Platinum is a chemical element with symbol Pt and atomic number 78 . It is a dense , malleable , ductile , highly unreactive , precious , gray @-@ white transition metal . Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina , which is literally translated into " little silver " .
Platinum is a member of the platinum group of elements and group 10 of the periodic table of elements . It has six naturally occurring isotopes . It is one of the rarer elements in Earth 's crust with an average abundance of approximately 5 μg / kg . It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits , mostly in South Africa , which accounts for 80 % of the world production . Because of its scarcity in Earth 's crust , only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually , and given its important uses , it is highly valuable and is a major precious metal commodity .
Platinum is one of the least reactive metals . It has remarkable resistance to corrosion , even at high temperatures , and is therefore considered a noble metal . Consequently , platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum . Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers , it was first used by pre @-@ Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts . It was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century , but it was not until Antonio de Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it began to be investigated by scientists .
Platinum is used in catalytic converters , laboratory equipment , electrical contacts and electrodes , platinum resistance thermometers , dentistry equipment , and jewelry . Being a heavy metal , it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts ; but due to its corrosion resistance , metallic platinum has not been linked to adverse health effects . Compounds containing platinum , such as cisplatin , oxaliplatin and carboplatin , are applied in chemotherapy against certain types of cancer .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Pure platinum is a lustrous , ductile , and malleable , silver @-@ white metal . Platinum is more ductile than gold , silver or copper , thus being the most ductile of pure metals , but it is less malleable than gold . The metal has excellent resistance to corrosion , is stable at high temperatures and has stable electrical properties . Platinum reacts with oxygen slowly at very high temperatures . It reacts vigorously with fluorine at 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) to form tetrafluoride . It is also attacked by chlorine , bromine , iodine , and sulfur . Platinum is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid , but dissolves in hot aqua regia to form chloroplatinic acid , H2PtCl6 .
Its physical characteristics and chemical stability make it useful for industrial applications . Its resistance to wear and tarnish is well suited to use in fine jewelry .
= = = Chemical = = =
The most common oxidation states of platinum are + 2 and + 4 . The + 1 and + 3 oxidation states are less common , and are often stabilized by metal bonding in bimetallic ( or polymetallic ) species . As is expected , tetracoordinate platinum ( II ) compounds tend to adopt 16 @-@ electron square planar geometries . Although elemental platinum is generally unreactive , it dissolves in hot aqua regia to give aqueous chloroplatinic acid ( H2PtCl6 ) :
Pt + 4 HNO3 + 6 HCl → H2PtCl6 + 4 NO2 + 4 H2O
As a soft acid , platinum has a great affinity for sulfur , such as on dimethyl sulfoxide ( DMSO ) ; numerous DMSO complexes have been reported and care should be taken in the choice of reaction solvent .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes : 190Pt , 192Pt , 194Pt , 195Pt , 196Pt , and 198Pt . The most abundant of these is 195Pt , comprising 33 @.@ 83 % of all platinum . It is the only stable isotope with a non @-@ zero spin ; with a spin of 1 / 2 , 195Pt satellite peaks are often observed in 1H and 31P NMR spectroscopy ( i.e. , Pt @-@ phosphine and Pt @-@ alkyl complexes ) . 190Pt is the least abundant at only 0 @.@ 01 % . Of the naturally occurring isotopes , only 190Pt is unstable , though it decays with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 5 × 1011 years , causing an activity of 15 Bq / kg of natural platinum . 198Pt can undergo alpha decay , but its decay has never been observed ( the half @-@ life is known to be longer than 3 @.@ 2 × 1014 years ) ; therefore , it is considered stable . Platinum also has 31 synthetic isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 166 to 202 , making the total number of known isotopes 37 . The least stable of these is 166Pt , with a half @-@ life of 300 µs , whereas the most stable is 193Pt with a half @-@ life of 50 years . Most platinum isotopes decay by some combination of beta decay and alpha decay . 188Pt , 191Pt , and 193Pt decay primarily by electron capture . 190Pt and 198Pt have double beta decay paths .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Platinum is an extremely rare metal , occurring at a concentration of only 0 @.@ 005 ppm in Earth 's crust . It is sometimes mistaken for silver ( Ag ) . Platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum and as alloy with the other platinum @-@ group metals and iron mostly . Most often the native platinum is found in secondary deposits in alluvial deposits . The alluvial deposits used by pre @-@ Columbian people in the Chocó Department , Colombia are still a source for platinum @-@ group metals . Another large alluvial deposit is in the Ural Mountains , Russia , and it is still mined .
In nickel and copper deposits , platinum @-@ group metals occur as sulfides ( e.g. ( Pt , Pd ) S ) , tellurides ( e.g. PtBiTe ) , antimonides ( PdSb ) , and arsenides ( e.g. PtAs2 ) , and as end alloys with nickel or copper . Platinum arsenide , sperrylite ( PtAs2 ) , is a major source of platinum associated with nickel ores in the Sudbury Basin deposit in Ontario , Canada . At Platinum , Alaska , about 17 @,@ 000 kg ( 550 @,@ 000 ozt ) had been mined between 1927 and 1975 . The mine ceased operations in 1990 . The rare sulfide mineral cooperite , ( Pt , Pd , Ni ) S , contains platinum along with palladium and nickel . Cooperite occurs in the Merensky Reef within the Bushveld complex , Gauteng , South Africa .
In 1865 , chromites were identified in the Bushveld region of South Africa , followed by the discovery of platinum in 1906 . The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld complex in South Africa . The large copper – nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia , and the Sudbury Basin , Canada , are the two other large deposits . In the Sudbury Basin , the huge quantities of nickel ore processed make up for the fact platinum is present as only 0 @.@ 5 ppm in the ore . Smaller reserves can be found in the United States , for example in the Absaroka Range in Montana . In 2010 , South Africa was the top producer of platinum , with an almost 77 % share , followed by Russia at 13 % ; world production in 2010 was 192 @,@ 000 kg ( 423 @,@ 000 lb ) .
Platinum deposits are present in the state of Tamil Nadu , India. and a MOU has been signed between Geological Survey of India with TAMIN – Tamil Nadu Minerals Ltd .
Platinum exists in higher abundances on the Moon and in meteorites . Correspondingly , platinum is found in slightly higher abundances at sites of bolide impact on Earth that are associated with resulting post @-@ impact volcanism , and can be mined economically ; the Sudbury Basin is one such example .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Halides = = =
Hexachloroplatinic acid mentioned above is probably the most important platinum compound , as it serves as the precursor for many other platinum compounds . By itself , it has various applications in photography , zinc etchings , indelible ink , plating , mirrors , porcelain coloring , and as a catalyst .
Treatment of hexachloroplatinic acid with an ammonium salt , such as ammonium chloride , gives ammonium hexachloroplatinate , which is relatively insoluble in ammonium solutions . Heating this ammonium salt in the presence of hydrogen reduces it to elemental platinum . Potassium hexachloroplatinate is similarly insoluble , and hexachloroplatinic acid has been used in the determination of potassium ions by gravimetry .
When hexachloroplatinic acid is heated , it decomposes through platinum ( IV ) chloride and platinum ( II ) chloride to elemental platinum , although the reactions do not occur stepwise :
( H3O ) 2PtCl6 · nH2O ⇌ PtCl4 + 2 HCl + ( n + 2 ) H2O
PtCl4 ⇌ PtCl2 + Cl2
PtCl2 ⇌ Pt + Cl2
All three reactions are reversible . Platinum ( II ) and platinum ( IV ) bromides are known as well . Platinum hexafluoride is a strong oxidizer capable of oxidizing oxygen .
= = = Oxides = = =
Platinum ( IV ) oxide , PtO2 , also known as Adams ' catalyst , is a black powder that is soluble in KOH solutions and concentrated acids . PtO2 and the less common PtO both decompose upon heating . Platinum ( II , IV ) oxide , Pt3O4 , is formed in the following reaction :
2 Pt2 + + Pt4 + + 4 O2 − → Pt3O4
= = = Other compounds = = =
Unlike palladium acetate , platinum ( II ) acetate is not commercially available . Where a base is desired , the halides have been used in conjunction with sodium acetate . The use of platinum ( II ) acetylacetonate has also been reported .
Several barium platinides have been synthesized in which platinum exhibits negative oxidation states ranging from − 1 to − 2 . These include BaPt , Ba
3Pt
2 , and Ba
2Pt . Caesium platinide , Cs
2Pt , a dark @-@ red transparent crystalline compound has been shown to contain Pt2 − anions . Platinum also exhibits negative oxidation states at surfaces reduced electrochemically . The negative oxidation states exhibited by platinum are unusual for metallic elements , and they are attributed to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s orbitals .
Zeise 's salt , containing an ethylene ligand , was one of the first organometallic compounds discovered . Dichloro ( cycloocta @-@ 1 @,@ 5 @-@ diene ) platinum ( II ) is a commercially available olefin complex , which contains easily displaceable cod ligands ( " cod " being an abbreviation of 1 @,@ 5 @-@ cyclooctadiene ) . The cod complex and the halides are convenient starting points to platinum chemistry .
Cisplatin , or cis @-@ diamminedichloroplatinum ( II ) is the first of a series of square planar platinum ( II ) -containing chemotherapy drugs , including carboplatin and oxaliplatin . These compounds are capable of crosslinking DNA , and kill cells by similar pathways to alkylating chemotherapeutic agents . ( Side effects of cisplatin include nausea and vomiting , hair loss , tinnitus , hearing loss , and nephrotoxicity . )
= = History = =
= = = Early uses = = =
Archaeologists have discovered traces of platinum in the gold used in ancient Egyptian tombs and hieroglyphics as early as 1200 BC . However , the extent of early Egyptians ' knowledge of the metal is unclear . It is quite possible they did not recognize there was platinum in their gold .
The metal was used by pre @-@ Columbian Americans near modern @-@ day Esmeraldas , Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold @-@ platinum alloy . They employed a relatively sophisticated system of powder metallurgy . The platinum used in such objects was not the pure element , but rather a naturally occurring mixture of the platinum group metals , with small amounts of palladium , rhodium , and iridium .
= = = European discovery = = =
The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico , " which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy " . From their first encounters with platinum , the Spanish generally saw the metal as a kind of impurity in gold , and it was treated as such . It was often simply thrown away , and there was an official decree forbidding the adulteration of gold with platinum impurities .
In 1741 , Charles Wood , a British metallurgist , found various samples of Colombian platinum in Jamaica , which he sent to William Brownrigg for further investigation . Antonio de Ulloa , also credited with the discovery of platinum , returned to Spain from the French Geodesic Mission in 1746 after having been there for eight years . His historical account of the expedition included a description of platinum as being neither separable nor calcinable . Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of platinum mines . After publishing the report in 1748 , Ulloa did not continue to investigate the new metal . In 1758 , he was sent to superintend mercury mining operations in Huancavelica .
In 1750 , after studying the platinum sent to him by Wood , Brownrigg presented a detailed account of the metal to the Royal Society , stating that he had seen no mention of it in any previous accounts of known minerals . Brownrigg also made note of platinum 's extremely high melting point and refractoriness toward borax . Other chemists across Europe soon began studying platinum , including Andreas Sigismund Marggraf , Torbern Bergman , Jöns Jakob Berzelius , William Lewis , and Pierre Macquer . In 1752 , Henrik Scheffer published a detailed scientific description of the metal , which he referred to as " white gold " , including an account of how he succeeded in fusing platinum ore with the aid of arsenic . Scheffer described platinum as being less pliable than gold , but with similar resistance to corrosion .
= = = Means of malleability = = =
Carl von Sickingen researched platinum extensively in 1772 . He succeeded in making malleable platinum by alloying it with gold , dissolving the alloy in hot aqua regia , precipitating the platinum with ammonium chloride , igniting the ammonium chloroplatinate , and hammering the resulting finely divided platinum to make it cohere . Franz Karl Achard made the first platinum crucible in 1784 . He worked with the platinum by fusing it with arsenic , then later volatilizing the arsenic .
Because the other platinum @-@ family members were not discovered yet ( platinum was the first in the list ) , Scheffer and Sickingen made the false assumption that due to its hardness — which is slightly more than for pure iron — platinum would be a relatively non @-@ pliable material , even brittle at times , when in fact its ductility and malleability are close to that of gold . Their assumptions could not be avoided because the platinum they experimented with was highly contaminated with minute amounts of platinum @-@ family elements such as osmium and iridium , amongst others , which embrittled the platinum alloy . Alloying this impure platinum residue called " plyoxen " with gold was the only solution at the time to obtain a pliable compound , but nowadays , very pure platinum is available and extremely long wires can be drawn from pure platinum , very easily , due to its crystalline structure , which is similar to that of many soft metals .
In 1786 , Charles III of Spain provided a library and laboratory to Pierre @-@ François Chabaneau to aid in his research of platinum . Chabaneau succeeded in removing various impurities from the ore , including gold , mercury , lead , copper , and iron . This led him to believe he was working with a single metal , but in truth the ore still contained the yet @-@ undiscovered platinum @-@ group metals . This led to inconsistent results in his experiments . At times , the platinum seemed malleable , but when it was alloyed with iridium , it would be much more brittle . Sometimes the metal was entirely incombustible , but when alloyed with osmium , it would volatilize . After several months , Chabaneau succeeded in producing 23 kilograms of pure , malleable platinum by hammering and compressing the sponge form while white @-@ hot . Chabeneau realized the infusibility of platinum would lend value to objects made of it , and so started a business with Joaquín Cabezas producing platinum ingots and utensils . This started what is known as the " platinum age " in Spain .
In 2007 , Gerhard Ertl won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the detailed molecular mechanisms of the catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide over platinum ( catalytic converter ) .
= = Production = =
Platinum , along with the rest of the platinum @-@ group metals , is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel and copper mining and processing . During electrorefining of copper , noble metals such as silver , gold and the platinum @-@ group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as " anode mud " , which forms the starting point for the extraction of the platinum @-@ group metals .
If pure platinum is found in placer deposits or other ores , it is isolated from them by various methods of subtracting impurities . Because platinum is significantly denser than many of its impurities , the lighter impurities can be removed by simply floating them away in a liquid . Platinum is paramagnetic , whereas nickel and iron are both ferromagnetic . These two impurities are thus removed by running an electromagnet over the mixture . Because platinum has a higher melting point than most other substances , many impurities can be burned or melted away without melting the platinum . Finally , platinum is resistant to hydrochloric and sulfuric acids , whereas other substances are readily attacked by them . Metal impurities can be removed by stirring the mixture in either of the two acids and recovering the remaining platinum .
One suitable method for purification for the raw platinum , which contains platinum , gold , and the other platinum @-@ group metals , is to process it with aqua regia , in which palladium , gold and platinum are dissolved , whereas osmium , iridium , ruthenium and rhodium stay unreacted . The gold is precipitated by the addition of iron ( II ) chloride and after filtering off the gold , the platinum is precipitated as ammonium chloroplatinate by the addition of ammonium chloride . Ammonium chloroplatinate can be converted to platinum by heating . Unprecipitated hexachloroplatinate ( IV ) may be reduced with elemental zinc , and a similar method is suitable for small scale recovery of platinum from laboratory residues .
= = Applications = =
Of the 218 tonnes of platinum sold in 2014 , 98 tonnes were used for vehicle emissions control devices ( 45 % ) , 74 @.@ 7 tonnes for jewelry ( 34 % ) , 20 @.@ 0 tonnes for chemical production and petroleum refining ( 9 @.@ 2 % ) , and 5 @.@ 85 tonnes for electrical applications such as hard disk drives ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) . The remaining 28 @.@ 9 tonnes went to various other minor applications , such as medicine and biomedicine , glassmaking equipment , investment , electrodes , anticancer drugs , oxygen sensors , spark plugs and turbine engines .
= = = Catalyst = = =
The most common use of platinum is as a catalyst in chemical reactions , often as platinum black . It has been employed as a catalyst since the early 19th century , when platinum powder was used to catalyze the ignition of hydrogen . Its most important application is in automobiles as a catalytic converter , which allows the complete combustion of low concentrations of unburned hydrocarbons from the exhaust into carbon dioxide and water vapor . Platinum is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst in a number of separate processes , but especially in catalytic reforming of straight @-@ run naphthas into higher @-@ octane gasoline that becomes rich in aromatic compounds . PtO2 , also known as Adams ' catalyst , is used as a hydrogenation catalyst , specifically for vegetable oils . Platinum also strongly catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen and it is used in fuel cells as a catalyst for the reduction of oxygen .
= = = Standard = = =
From 1889 to 1960 , the meter was defined as the length of a platinum @-@ iridium ( 90 : 10 ) alloy bar , known as the International Prototype Meter bar . The previous bar was made of platinum in 1799 . The International Prototype Kilogram remains defined by a cylinder of the same platinum @-@ iridium alloy made in 1879 .
The standard hydrogen electrode also uses a platinized platinum electrode due to its corrosion resistance , and other attributes .
= = = As an investment = = =
Platinum is a precious metal commodity ; its bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT . Coins , bars , and ingots are traded or collected . Platinum finds use in jewellery , usually as a 90 – 95 % alloy , due to its inertness . It is used for this purpose for its prestige and inherent bullion value . Jewellery trade publications advise jewellers to present minute surface scratches ( which they term patina ) as a desirable feature in attempt to enhance value of platinum products .
In watchmaking , Vacheron Constantin , Patek Philippe , Rolex , Breitling , and other companies use platinum for producing their limited edition watch series . Watchmakers appreciate the unique properties of platinum , as it neither tarnishes nor wears out ( the latter quality relative to gold ) .
The price of platinum , like other industrial commodities , is more volatile than that of gold . In 2008 , the price of platinum dropped from $ 2 @,@ 252 to $ 774 per oz , a loss of nearly 2 / 3 of its value . By contrast , the price of gold dropped from ~ $ 1 @,@ 000 to ~ $ 700 / oz during the same time frame , a loss of only 1 / 3 of its value .
During periods of sustained economic stability and growth , the price of platinum tends to be as much as twice the price of gold , whereas during periods of economic uncertainty , the price of platinum tends to decrease due to reduced industrial demand , falling below the price of gold . Gold prices are more stable in slow economic times , as gold is considered a safe haven . Although gold is used in industrial applications , its demand is not so driven by industrial uses . In the 18th century , platinum 's rarity made King Louis XV of France declare it the only metal fit for a king .
= = = Other uses = = =
In the laboratory , platinum wire is used for electrodes ; platinum pans and supports are used in thermogravimetric analysis because of the stringent requirements of chemical inertness upon heating to high temperatures ( ~ 1000 ° C ) . Platinum is used as an alloying agent for various metal products , including fine wires , noncorrosive laboratory containers , medical instruments , dental prostheses , electrical contacts , and thermocouples . Platinum @-@ cobalt , an alloy of roughly three parts platinum and one part cobalt , is used to make relatively strong permanent magnets . Platinum @-@ based anodes are used in ships , pipelines , and steel piers .
= = = Symbol of prestige = = =
Platinum 's rarity as a metal has caused advertisers to associate it with exclusivity and wealth . " Platinum " debit and credit cards have greater privileges than " gold " cards . " Platinum awards " are the second highest possible , ranking above " gold " , " silver " and " bronze " , but below diamond . For example , in the United States , a musical album that has sold more than 1 million copies , will be credited as " platinum " , whereas an album that sold more than 10 million copies will be certified as " diamond " . Some products , such as blenders and vehicles , with a silvery @-@ white color are identified as " platinum " . Platinum is considered a precious metal , although its use is not as common as the use of gold or silver . The frame of the Crown of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , manufactured for her coronation as Consort of King George VI , is made of platinum . It was the first British crown to be made of this particular metal .
= = Health issues = =
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , short @-@ term exposure to platinum salts may cause irritation of the eyes , nose , and throat , and long @-@ term exposure may cause both respiratory and skin allergies . The current OSHA standard is 2 micrograms per cubic meter of air averaged over an 8 @-@ hour work shift . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) for platinum as 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday .
Platinum @-@ based antineoplastic agents are used in chemotherapy , and show good activity against some tumors .
As platinum is a catalyst in the manufacture of the silicone rubber and gel components of several types of medical implants ( breast implants , joint replacement prosthetics , artificial lumbar discs , vascular access ports , etc . ) , the possibility that platinum could enter the body and cause adverse effects has merited study . The Food and Drug Administration and other institutions have reviewed the issue and found no evidence to suggest toxicity in vivo .
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= Maximilian von Spee =
Maximilian Reichsgraf von Spee ( 22 June 1861 – 8 December 1914 ) was a naval officer of the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , who famously commanded the German East Asia Squadron during World War I. Spee entered the navy in 1878 and served in a variety of roles and locations , including on a colonial gunboat in German West Africa in the 1880s , the East Africa Squadron in the late 1890s , and as commander of several warships in the main German fleet in the early 1900s . During his time in Germany in the late 1880s and early 1890s , he married his wife , Margareta , and had three children , his sons Heinrich and Otto and his daughter Huberta . By 1912 , he had returned to the East Asia Squadron as its commander , and was promoted to the rank of Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) the following year .
After the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , Spee led his squadron across the Pacific to the coast of South America . Here on 1 November , he defeated the British 4th Cruiser Squadron under Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock in the Battle of Coronel , sinking two of Cradock 's cruisers and forcing his other two ships to retreat . A month later , Spee decided to attack the British naval base in the Falkland Islands , though a superior British force surprised him . In the ensuing Battle of the Falkland Islands , Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee 's squadron , which included two powerful battlecruisers , destroyed the East Asia Squadron . Spee and his two sons , who happened to be serving on two of his ships , were all killed , along with about 2 @,@ 200 other men . Spee was hailed as a hero in Germany , and several ships were named in his honor , including the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee , which was built in the 1930s and was defeated in the Battle of the River Plate during World War II .
= = Early career = =
Maximilian Johannes Maria Hubert von Spee was born in Copenhagen , Denmark , on 22 June 1861 , though he was raised in the Rhineland in Germany , where his family had an estate . He joined the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in 1878 and initially served in the main German naval base at Kiel . He was commissioned an officer at the rank of Leutnant zur See ( Lieutenant at Sea ) , and was assigned to the gunboat SMS Möwe , which was sent to western Africa . During this voyage , the Germans signed treaties with local rulers in Togo and Cameroon , creating the colonies of Togoland and Kamerun , respectively . In 1887 , Spee was transferred to Kamerun where he commanded the port at Duala . He contracted rheumatic fever while there , and had to be sent back to Germany to recover , though he occasionally suffered from rheumatism for the rest of his life . After returning to Germany in 1889 , he married his wife , Margareta Baroness von der Osten @-@ Sacken . With her he had two sons – Otto , born on 10 July 1890 , Heinrich , born on 24 April 1893 – and one daughter , Huberta , born on 11 July 1894 .
In December 1897 , Spee was stationed in Germany 's East Asia Squadron after it seized the concession at Kiautschou Bay , with its port at Tsingtao . Here , he served on the staff of Vizeadmiral Otto von Diederichs . During the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 , Spee saw action at Tsingtao and on the Yangtze . After arriving back in Germany , he was promoted to the rank of Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) and assigned as the first officer aboard the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Brandenburg . Between 1900 and 1908 , Spee held command of several ships , including the aviso Hela , the minelayer Pelikan , and finally the pre @-@ dreadnought Wittelsbach . During this period , he was promoted to Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) on 27 January 1904 and to Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) exactly a year later ; his command of Wittelsbach followed the latter promotion . In 1908 , he was assigned as the chief of staff to the commander of the North Sea Station , and in 1910 he was promoted to the rank of Konteradmiral ( KAdm – Counter Admiral ) . Spee was then assigned as the deputy commander for the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet .
= = East Asia Squadron = =
In late 1912 , Spee was given command of the East Asia Squadron , replacing KAdm Günther von Krosigk on 4 December . Spee raised his flag on the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , and departed on a tour of the southwest Pacific along with Scharnhorst 's sister ship Gneisenau , during which Spee made visits to several ports , including Singapore and Batavia . Spee was promoted to Vizeadmiral the following year . Over the following year and a half , Spee met with the leaders of several East Asian countries . From 1 April to 7 May 1913 , Scharnhorst took Spee to Japan to meet the Taishō Emperor . Later in the year , Spee met with Chulalongkorn , the King of Siam . In May 1914 , Spee took Scharnhorst and the torpedo boat S90 on a visit to Port Arthur and then to Tianjin ; Spee continued on to Beijing , where he met with Yuan Shikai , the first President of the Republic of China . He came back aboard Scharnhorst on 11 May and the ship returned to Tsingtao .
Spee thereafter began preparations for a cruise to German New Guinea ; Scharnhorst departed on 20 June . The two armored cruisers proceeded to Nagasaki , Japan , where they coaled in preparation for their tour . While en route to Truk in the Caroline Islands , they received news of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the throne of Austria @-@ Hungary . On 17 July , the East Asia Squadron arrived in Ponape in the Carolines , where the ships remained while tensions steadily rose in Europe . In Ponape , Spee had access to the German radio network , and he learned of the Austro @-@ Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July , followed shortly thereafter by the Russian mobilization — tantamount to a declaration of war — against Austria @-@ Hungary and possibly Germany . On 31 July , word came that the German ultimatum that Russia demobilize its armies was set to expire ; Spee ordered his ships ' crews to prepare for war . On 2 August , Wilhelm II ordered German mobilization against Russia and its ally , France . Following Germany 's violation of neutral Belgium during its invasion of France , Britain declared war on Germany .
= = = World War I = = =
The East Asia Squadron consisted of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the light cruisers Emden , Nürnberg , and Leipzig . At the time , Nürnberg was returning from the west coast of the United States , where Leipzig had just replaced her , and Emden was still in Tsingtao . Spee recalled his ships to consolidate his forces ; Nürnberg arrived on 6 August and the three cruisers plus their colliers moved to Pagan Island in the Marianas , at that time a German colony . Emden and the liner Prinz Eitel Friedrich , which had been converted into an auxiliary cruiser , joined the squadron there on 12 August . The four cruisers , accompanied by Prinz Eitel Friedrich and several colliers , then departed the central Pacific , bound for Chile . On 13 August , Commodore Karl von Müller , captain of the Emden , persuaded Spee to detach his ship as a commerce raider . On 14 August , the East Asia Squadron departed Pagan for Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands . While en route across the Pacific , Spee relaxed formalities aboard his ships , integrating the messes for officers and non @-@ commissioned and engineering officers .
To keep the German high command informed , on 8 September Spee detached Nürnberg to Honolulu to send word through neutral countries . Nürnberg returned with news of the Allied capture of German Samoa , which had taken place on 29 August . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau sailed to Apia to investigate the situation . Spee had hoped to catch a British or Australian warship by surprise , but upon his arrival on 14 September , he found no warships in the harbor . Spee decided against attacking the Allied troops ashore , since doing so would risk killing Samoans and damaging German property . On 22 September , Scharnhorst and the rest of the East Asia Squadron arrived at the French colony of Papeete . The Germans attacked the colony , and in the ensuing Battle of Papeete , they sank the French gunboat Zélée . The ships came under fire from French shore batteries but were undamaged . Fear of mines in the harbor prevented Spee from seizing the coal in the harbor . Spee then continued across the Pacific , passing through the Marquesas Islands , where his ships acquired supplies including fresh meat by barter , purchase , or confiscation . On 12 October , the squadron reached Easter Island , where it was reinforced by Leipzig , Dresden , and four more colliers . Spee 's ships were off the coast of Chile by 1 November , when he learned that the British cruiser Glasgow was moored in Coronel , ostensibly alone ; he decided to try to sink the ship .
= = = = Battle of Coronel = = = =
Glasgow was assigned to the 4th Cruiser Squadron , under Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock ; as it turned out , Glasgow was joined by the armored cruisers Good Hope and Monmouth and the auxiliary cruiser Otranto . After discovering the entire squadron off Coronel , Spee decided to engage the British ships , but he delayed the action using his ships ' superior speed until later in the day , when the setting sun would silhouette Cradock 's ships . The German ships would meanwhile be obscured against the Chilean coast , making the task of the British gunners more difficult . At 18 : 07 , Spee issued the order to open fire , with his two armored cruisers battling Cradock 's armored cruisers and his light cruisers engaging Glasgow and Otranto . Cradock quickly detached Otranto , as she had no place in the line of battle . By 18 : 50 , Gneisenau had disabled Monmouth and so shifted fire to Good Hope ; the combined firepower of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau neutralized Good Hope by 19 : 23 . Spee then withdrew his two armored cruisers and sent in his light cruisers to finish off Monmouth and Good Hope . The British had lost both ships and suffered more than 1 @,@ 600 dead , including Cradock , though the German ships had expended around 40 percent of their ammunition supply . Spee had inflicted the first defeat on a Royal Navy squadron since the Napoleonic Wars a century earlier .
After the battle , Spee took his ships north to Valparaiso . Since Chile was neutral , only three ships could enter the port at a time ; Spee took Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg in first on the morning of 3 November , leaving Dresden and Leipzig with the colliers at Mas a Fuera . There , Spee 's ships could take on coal while he conferred with the Admiralty Staff in Germany to determine the strength of remaining British forces in the region . In addition , Spee sought to counter British press reports that attempted to minimize their losses and exaggerate German casualties . A reception followed at the German Club of Valparaiso , though Spee insisted that the event be restrained in tone . He received a bouquet of flowers to celebrate the victory at Coronel ; Spee replied that they would do nicely for his grave . He stated that ,
You must not forget that I am quite homeless . I cannot reach Germany . We possess no other secure harbor . I must fight my way through the seas of the world doing as much mischief as can , until my ammunition is exhausted , or a foe far superior in power succeeds in catching me . But it will cost the wretches dearly before they take me down .
While in port , Spee received the order from the Admiralty Staff to attempt to break through to Germany . The ships remained in the port for only 24 hours , in accordance with the neutrality restrictions , and arrived at Mas a Fuera on 6 November , where they took on more coal from captured British and French steamers . Dresden and Leipzig took their turn in Valparaiso , after which the re @-@ formed squadron continued south and rounded Cape Horn into the South Atlantic . In the meantime , the Royal Navy sent a pair of battlecruisers — Invincible and Inflexible — commanded by Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee to hunt down Spee 's squadron and avenge Cradock 's defeat .
= = = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = = =
On the morning of 6 December , Spee held a conference with the ship commanders aboard Scharnhorst to determine their next course of action . The Germans had received numerous fragmentary and contradictory reports of British reinforcements in the region ; Spee and two other captains favored an attack on the Falkland Islands to destroy the British wireless station there , while three other commanders argued that it would be better to bypass the islands and attack British shipping off Argentina . Spee 's opinion carried the day and the squadron departed for the Falkland Islands at 12 : 00 on 6 December . The ships arrived off the Falkland Islands two days later ; Gneisenau and Nürnberg were delegated for the attack . As they approached , observers aboard Gneisenau spotted smoke rising from Port Stanley , but assumed it was the British burning their coal stocks to prevent the Germans from seizing them . As they closed on the harbor , 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) shells from the elderly battleship Canopus , which had been beached as a guard ship , began to fall around the German ships , which prompted Spee to break off the attack . As Spee withdrew , Sturdee quickly got steam up in his ships and sortied to chase the Germans .
By 13 : 20 , the battlecruisers had caught up with Spee , who realized his armored cruisers could not escape the much faster battlecruisers . He ordered the three light cruisers to attempt to break away while he tried to hold off the British squadron with Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . Sturdee instead ordered his cruisers to chase down the fleeing German light cruisers while Invincible and Inflexible dealt with Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . Spee deftly maneuvered his ships , taking the leeward position ; the wind kept his ships swept of smoke , which improved visibility for his gunners . This forced Sturdee into the windward position and its corresponding worse visibility . Scharnhorst straddled Invincible with her third salvo and quickly scored two hits on the British battlecruiser . The German flagship was herself not hit during this phase of the battle . Sturdee attempted to widen the distance by turning two points to the north to prevent Spee from closing to within the range of his numerous secondary guns . Spee counteracted this maneuver by turning rapidly to the south , which forced Sturdee to turn south as well to keep within range . This allowed Scharnhorst and Gneisenau to turn back north and get close enough to engage with their secondary 15 cm guns . Their shooting was so accurate that it forced the British to haul away a second time .
The British gunfire became increasingly accurate , and by 16 : 00 , Scharnhorst had begun to list badly , while fires raged aboard the ship . Spee ordered Gneisenau to try to disengage while he turned Scharnhorst toward his attackers in an attempt to launch torpedoes at them . At 16 : 17 , Scharnhorst capsized and sank , taking her entire crew with her , including Spee . The British , still focused on Gneisenau , made no effort to rescue survivors . Gneisenau , Leipzig , and Nürnberg were also sunk . Only Dresden managed to escape , but she was eventually tracked to the Juan Fernández Islands and sunk . The complete destruction of the squadron killed about 2 @,@ 200 German sailors and officers , including both of Spee 's sons ; Heinrich died aboard Gneisenau , and Otto was killed aboard Nürnberg .
= = Legacy = =
In September 1917 , the second Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser was named Graf Spee , and was christened by Spee 's widow Margarete . Construction of the ship had not been completed by the time of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , and she was broken up for scrap by 1921 . In 1934 Germany named the new heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee after him ; as with the earlier vessel , a member of Spee 's family christened the ship , this time his daughter . In December 1939 , Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled by her crew after the Battle of the River Plate off the coast of Uruguay . Between 1959 and 1964 the Federal German Bundesmarine operated the training frigate Graf Spee .
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= Southern Cross ( wordless novel ) =
Southern Cross is the sole wordless novel by Canadian artist Laurence Hyde ( 1914 – 1987 ) . Its 118 wood @-@ engraved images narrate the impact of atomic testing on Polynesian islanders . Hyde made the book to express his anger at the US military 's nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll .
The wordless novel genre had flourished primarily during the 1920s and 1930s , but by the 1940s even the most prolific practitioners had abandoned it . Hyde was familiar with some such works by Lynd Ward , Otto Nückel , and the form 's pioneer Frans Masereel . The high @-@ contrast artwork of Southern Cross features dynamic curving lines uncommon in wood engraving and combines abstract imagery with realistic detail . It has gained appreciation in comics circles as a precursor to the Canadian graphic novel , though it had no direct influence .
= = Synopsis = =
The story tells of the American military evacuating villagers from a Polynesian island before testing nuclear weapons . A drunken soldier attempts to rape a fisherman 's wife during the evacuation , and the fisherman kills him . To avoid capture , the couple run to the forests with their child and hide . The child witnesses the death of its parents and destruction of its environment resulting from the ensuing atomic tests .
= = Background = =
Born in Kingston upon Thames in England in 1914 , Laurence Hyde moved with his family to Canada in 1926 . They settled in Toronto in 1928 , where Hyde studied art at Central Technical School . His strongest artistic influences included the painter Paul Nash and the printmakers Eric Gill , Rockwell Kent , and Lynd Ward ; he corresponded with Kent and Ward .
From the 1930s Hyde did commercial pen @-@ and @-@ ink and scratchboard illustrations , ran a business providing advertising illustrations , and made wood engravings and linocuts for books . He attempted but gave up on two series of prints , titled Discovery and Macbeth . Hyde worked in Ottawa for the National Film Board of Canada from 1942 until his 1972 retirement .
The wordless novel had enjoyed popularity in the 1920s and 1930s , but had become rare by the 1940s . Such books tended to be melodramatic works about social injustice . Hyde was familiar with some of Ward 's books and the German Otto Nückel 's Destiny ( 1926 ) . The only work he knew of the Flemish artist Frans Masereel , the form 's first and most prolific practitioner , was Passionate Journey ( 1919 ) , which he had read in a 1949 American edition . Like his forebears in the genre , Hyde had a left @-@ wing agenda that he expressed in his art . When Southern Cross appeared , the genre had been out of the public eye for so long that Hyde included a historical essay with the book to orient the reader . Hyde had asked Ward to proofread this history , but the book was published without Ward 's corrections — errors remained , such as Masereel 's forename given as " Hans " , and a listing of only four of Ward 's six wordless novels .
= = Creation and publication = =
" Words are capable of expressing very complicated and very subtle notions ... But for directness and universal interpretation , pictures , under certain conditions , are unrivalled . It really depends on what you want to say . "
Hyde made Southern Cross to express his anger at American nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll in 1946 following the atomic bombings in Japan . He worked on it from 1948 to 1951 . Each image is 4 by 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm × 7 @.@ 6 cm ) , centred at the top third of the page and with broad margins . The one exception is of the bomb detonating , a 7 in × 6 in ( 18 cm × 15 cm ) full @-@ page image that bleeds off the page . Hyde carved dynamic curving lines uncommon in wood engraving . Blacks overwhelms the figures they surround , and abstract images contrast with realistic detail in the flora and fauna .
Published in a limited edition by Ward Ritchie Press in 1951 , it was printed on Japanese paper with the images on the recto and the verso left blank . Rockwell Kent provided the introduction . Hyde dedicated the book to the Red Cross Societies and the Society of Friends . Hyde was not present at the book 's pressing and thus was not able to correct some blocks which had not been carved deeply enough to produce satisfactory prints .
The book was republished twice in 2007 : Drawn and Quarterly released a deluxe facsimile edition with additional essays by Hyde and an introduction by wordless novel historian David Beronä , and George Walker included Southern Cross in his anthology of wordless novels Graphic Witness .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" Man ... can tie himself up in words to the point of persuading himself that dropping atom bombs on people he 's never seen is a kind of shrewd move in an exciting chess game . He needs something simpler , like pictures , to remind him of what dropping bombs on innocent people is really like . "
In a talk with the CBC in 1952 , literary critic Northrop Frye praised Hyde 's visual skills , but said , " There 's no point in getting the book for your library unless you like the engravings themselves as separate works of art . " He found the book a quick read in contrast to the time it took to make it , and called its " continuity " a weak point . He considered the visualization of the bomb 's destruction of living things the strongest justification for the work .
Comics critic Sean Rogers praised the work , particularly the pacing and action sequences , but felt it had less impact that such earlier works as Masereel 's Passionate Journey ( 1919 ) or Ward 's Vertigo ( 1937 ) . Rogers found the anti @-@ nuclear message of the book less effective than that of later works in comics such as Keiji Nakazawa 's Barefoot Gen or Gary Panter 's Jimbo . Comics scholar Roger Sabin found the book unconvincing , " a well @-@ meaning but facile piece of agit @-@ prop " . Reviewer Erik Hinton praised the artwork while denigrating the story as " the progeny of historical lip @-@ service and the hot @-@ button anxiety of the destructivity of modern warfare " , and considered Ward and others of Hyde 's predecessors more proficient at the medium .
Southern Cross has gained appreciation in comics circles as a precursor to the graphic novel in Canada , though it had no direct influence on Canadian comics — it was marketed to book connoisseurs , a world far removed from that of consumers of cheap entertainment that comics served in the 1950s . Copies of Southern Cross joined the collections of the National Gallery of Canada in 1952 and the Burnaby Art Gallery in 1987 . The book received an Honorable Mention for Best Book at the 2008 Doug Wright Awards for Canadian Cartooning , accepted by Hyde 's son Anthony .
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= Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem =
Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem : Heroes of Light and Shadow is a tactical role @-@ playing game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld video game console in July 2010 . It is the twelfth entry in the Fire Emblem series , and a remake of the Super Famicom title Fire Emblem : Mystery of the Emblem . The story is based on the original story content from Mystery of the Emblem , while including a customizable Avatar as the main character alongside Marth , the protagonist of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light . New Mystery of the Emblem also adapts the story content from the Satellaview title BS Fire Emblem into four additional story episodes dubbed the " New Archanea Chronicles " .
Preparations for New Mystery of the Emblem began during development of the 2008 DS remake of Shadow Dragon at the Blade of Light . Instead of building on Shadow Dragon for New Mystery of the Emblem , the staff started over and used the original Mystery of the Emblem as their starting point . Staff included producer Tohru Narihiro , co @-@ director and writer Kouhei Maeda , co @-@ director Masayuki Horikawa , and character designer Daisuke Izuka . Two of the major new elements were the customizable Avatar character and the " Casual Mode " , in which units defeated in missions are revived : the latter element was a point of fierce contention between staff due to the series ' long @-@ standing tradition of permanent death for characters . It was the first Fire Emblem to remain exclusive to Japan since Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade in 2002 . Upon release , it received critical acclaim from Japanese and Western journalists , and went on to sell over 274 @,@ 000 units .
= = Gameplay = =
Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem is a tactical role @-@ playing game which puts players in the role of a customizable Avatar : their gender , appearance , character class and statistics can be tailored by the player . Missions are split between story @-@ based chapters and optional side chapters : side chapters give access to new playable characters outside the main narrative . Players can save at any time during battles , with the game opening offering a save at the end of each chapter . Outside battles , the player can visit towns to buy supplies and items such as weapons . Characters recruited by the player can also engage in support conversations accessed through the battle menu : these raise a character 's support rank and grant boons during battle . How characters connect through supports is documented using a relationship chart .
Battles take place on a grid @-@ based map , with the battle system employing a turn @-@ based system for the player , enemy units and allied units . The movement and attack ranges of enemies can be optionally displayed to players . While seventy @-@ four units are accessible in @-@ game by completing its chapters , only twelve can be taken into battle at any one time . When two units engage , a separate battle screen activates , and the battle plays out automatically . Enemy resistances to weapons are covered by the Weapon Triangle : lances are strong against swords , swords are strong against axes , and axes are strong against lances . Each unit gains experience points with each action , and when they accumulate 100 points , they level up and their stats are randomly raised . Each unit has a class , which affects their weaponry and movement range : these classes , when at level 10 , can be promoted to a stronger class using a Master Seal item .
In addition to the single @-@ player campaign , limited multiplayer functions are available through the Nintendo DS ' Wi @-@ Fi functionality . When the connection is active , players can battle each other in dedicated maps . Units can also be loaned between players , and an online shop is available to purchase new items and weapons with in @-@ game currency . The game also has a time @-@ based function where , when the game is left idle while characters are in the " unit barracks " , a meter will fill up and the characters will perform limited autonomous actions : these actions can involve leveling up , or crafting new items and weapons . The game can be played with two modes : Classic Mode , which enables permanent death for characters defeated in battle , and the new Casual Mode , which revives fallen units for the next battle . In addition to this are four difficulty levels : " normal " , " hard " , " maniac " and " lunatic " .
= = Synopsis = =
The story of New Mystery of the Emblem remains from the original version : the main difference is the addition of the Avatar . The game is set on the continent of Archanea , a land also featured in the first Fire Emblem title Fire Emblem : Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light . In Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , the land was threatened by the dark sorcerer Gharnef , who summoned the dark dragon Medeus into the world . After becoming a fugitive from his kingdom after an attack on his kingdom , Archanean prince Marth went on a quest to reclaim his kingdom and defeat Gharnef and Medeus . By the events of New Mystery of the Emblem , Marth 's old ally Hardin has ascended the throne , but begins expanding the military and dominating the other regions of Archanea . Marth investigates , and discovers that both Gharnef and Medeus are still alive , and Hardin has been corrupted by them .
= = Development and release = =
The original version of Fire Emblem : Mystery of the Emblem was released in 1994 for the Super Famicom : it was in part a remake of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light . Preparations for development of New Mystery of the Emblem began while development was still ongoing for Fire Emblem : Shadow Dragon , the 2008 DS remake of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light . The original plan was to release New Mystery of the Emblem close to Shadow Dragon , but the staff decided that they could not make New Mystery of the Emblem using the systems of Shadow Dragon , instead using the original Mystery of the Emblem as a starting point . The staff included producer Tohru Narihiro , co @-@ director Masayuki Horikawa , co @-@ director and scenario writer Kouhei Maeda , and composers Hiroshi Morishita , Takeshi Kanezaki , Sei Murakami . Character artwork was done by Daisuke Izuka , who had worked on revamped character art for Shadow Dragon . The team added to the original narrative with new elements such as support conversations that expanded the personalities of some characters . The game 's subtitle , " Heroes of Light and Shadow " made reference to the player being a " shadow hero " , hidden behind the exploits of the main characters .
The biggest point of contention among the developers was including options allowing for the revival of fallen units in " Casual Mode " , a recurring discussion stretching back to the development of Fire Emblem : Genealogy of the Holy War ( 1996 ) . The dispute between Intelligent Systems and Nintendo staff was fierce , but positive comments from playtests with the feature included helped those opposed come round to its inclusion . The four difficulty levels were made separate from the two modes of play , so players could adjust the experience to suit their needs . Another new element was the Avatar character , who was created so players would have an easier introduction , as the developers realized that they might end up creating the game assuming players would know about main protagonist Marth when that might not be the case . Alongside the Avatar was a new tutorial , which the developers needed to balance so it was enjoyable for series veterans while easing new players into the experience . Also new was the element of time passing when the system was turned off and the cartridge still in place . The content grew to the point that the developers contemplated dividing New Mystery of the Emblem itself into two releases .
New Mystery of the Emblem was announced by series publisher Nintendo in May 2010 . Its announcement formed part of the company 's 20th anniversary celebrations for the franchise . Its release date of July 15 , 2010 was announced the following month . New Mystery of the Emblem did not receive a Western release , making it the first title in the series to remain exclusive to Japan since Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade in 2002 . In addition to the original narrative of Mystery of the Emblem , the team remade story episodes from BS Fire Emblem , a prequel to the original game and Mystery of the Emblem originally released in 1997 for the Satellaview . The remade episodes were dubbed " New Archanea Chronicles " . This was the first time content from a Satellaview title had been re @-@ released in any form .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , the game topped Japanese gaming charts , with initial sales of 136 @,@ 000 units . Its debut sales were notably lower than its predecessor Shadow Dragon . In the following weeks , its position and sales varied , going from fourth to tenth to seventh place in the charts . As of 2012 , the game has sold a total of 274 @,@ 000 .
Famitsu was positive on how the new narrative elements and support conversations were incorporated into the existing narrative . RPGamer 's Mike Moehnke felt the additional dialogue unnecessary , as the story 's complexity had not noticeably increased over the original version . He also positively noted how the Avatar was incorporated into the story , with the added chapters revolving around them making them " far more than a throwaway " . 4Gamer.net 's Kojiro Nishioka likewise praised the inclusion of the BS Fire Emblem chapters and the new prologue and side chapters , but felt that those who had not played Shadow Dragon would be unable to understand some of the characters .
Commenting on the gameplay , Famitsu noted that it was rather simple , but approved of the inclusion of Casual Mode and praised the content of each chapter for being just the right size . Moehnke praised the alterations made from the original version , such as not needing to dismount steeds when indoors , but also noted that some elements such as mechanics surrounding Marth showed the game 's age . Nishioka generally enjoyed the gameplay experience , praising the inclusion of user @-@ friendly options , but felt that these same new additions would divide fans .
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= 2002 – 03 S.L. Benfica season =
The 2002 – 03 season was Sport Lisboa e Benfica 's 99th season in existence and the club 's 69th consecutive season in the top flight of Portuguese football . During the season , which lasted from 1 July 2002 to 30 June 2003 , Benfica competed in the Primeira Liga and the Taça de Portugal .
Going into a second year without UEFA competitions , qualifying for Europe was one of the club 's top priorities ; to improve its competitiveness , Benfica signed some of the best domestic players , Ricardo Rocha and Petit , but also brought back former players , like Hélder and Nuno Gomes . Jesualdo Ferreira remained as manager for his first full season on the club .
Benfica 's season started with four consecutive victories , to lead the league . In late September , they experienced their first loss and went on a win @-@ less spree that saw them drop to fifth . In November , Benfica won again , but the results remained erratic and after a 7 – 0 trashing of Paços de Ferreira , they lost to Varzim . A few days later , in the Portuguese Cup , a home loss against Gondomar cost Ferreira his job . Fernando Chalana replaced him for one match , before the appointment of José Antonio Camacho .
With the Spaniard in charge , Benfica regained second place and slowly opened a gap over Sporting , eventually finishing with 75 points , qualifying for the 2003 – 04 UEFA Champions League . Despite this , Camacho was unable to close the distance to Porto , who finished 11 points ahead . The season was also the last that Benfica played in the original Estádio da Luz , before a new version was built ahead of UEFA Euro 2004 . Their final game was on 22 March 2003 , with the remaining games being played in the Estádio Nacional in Oeiras .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Although he only guided the team to fourth place in the previous campaign , Jesualdo Ferreira remained in charge of the team , with overwhelming support from inside the club , especially from former Director of Football Gaspar Ramos and former President Manuel Dámasio , who said he was " the best solution to lead Benfica " . In the transfer season , Maniche and Robert Enke left the club as their contracts expired ; the former joined Porto , the latter , Barcelona . Marco Caneira and Edgaras Jankauskas also left , as Benfica did not get their loan deals renewed ; with Jankauskas immediately moving to Porto . Benfica replaced Jankauskas with Nuno Gomes on a free transfer after the collapse of Fiorentina . Gomes scored 76 goals in his first spell at Benfica ; expectations were high , with crowds gathering to see him in training sessions . He joined a depleted attack , which only had the new signing from Porto Miklós Fehér as option , as both Mantorras and Tomo Šokota were injured . The back four was also strengthened , with Benfica bringing back Hélder after six seasons abroad and adding Ricardo Rocha , a young defender from Braga .
The pre @-@ season began on 9 July with a week of training before the club travelled to Switzerland on the 13th , where they played their first two games of the pre @-@ season , against Étoile Carouge and Auxerre . After a game in Palermo with Inter Milan on 21 July , Benfica returned to Portugal the next day , meeting up with Sporting in the Superbola Trophy on the 28th . With three more matches in early August , including one in the Guadiana Trophy , Benfica closed its season preparation with a match against European champions Real Madrid on 17 August , a week before the first official game .
= = = August – October = = =
Benfica started the 2002 – 03 Primeira Liga campaign at home against Marítimo , scoring twice in the first half , leading to a 3 – 0 win . The following Saturday , they played Beira @-@ Mar away and won 2 – 0 after an early lead ; according to Manuel Queiroz of Record , despite " dominating in the first half , [ Benfica ] suffered to retain the lead in the second , with the two nil only arriving right near the end " . The club ended the month sharing first place with two other teams , but with a higher goal average than them .
The team began September with a 3 – 2 away win against Moreirense ; Fehér had a decisive influence , earning a penalty and scoring the winner in the 78th minute . Benfica won their fourth consecutive game on 21 September , with a 3 – 1 win at home against União de Leiria . In the second half , Simão scored his fourth and fifth league goals , unlocking the game that was tied 1 – 1 at half @-@ time . They ended September with a visit to Estádio da Madeira to play Nacional . The game ended with a 0 – 1 loss ; according to José Ribeiro writing for Record , " after two warnings in the previous two games , the inevitable happened . With known defensive weaknesses , Benfica was winning because of their players intelligence ( Zahovič and Petit ) and talent ( Simão ) . Only yesterday , none of that worked , given that Peseiro read the game very well and found Benfica 's problems ... " .
Benfica hosted Vitória Setúbal on 5 October , dropping two points in a 1 – 1 draw , due to a " childish error , or better yet , a lack of sharpness of the back @-@ four " , in the words of Ricardo Tavares from Record . On 20 October , Benfica met Porto in Estádio das Antas for the Clássico . It was an intense match , with 3 ejections and 73 fouls . Porto won 2 – 1 because to António Tadeira , they " reacted better to playing outnumbered , while Benfica lost their focus when Paulo Costa sent off Éder and then Miguel " . Six days later , for the final game of the month , Benfica played Académica at home . The final score of 1 – 1 was the best possible , because Académica scored the first goal in the 86th minute , giving Benfica only a few minutes to level the game , which Carlitos did in the 90th minute . Benfica ended the month in fifth place , having won only two of nine possible points .
= = = November – February = = =
At the beginning of November , Benfica headed to the Azores to play Santa Clara . They won 2 – 1 due to a double from Simão . A week later , the team played Paços de Ferreira in the Estádio da Luz . The game ended with a 7 – 0 win for Benfica ; Antonio Tadeia writing for Record said the win " showed that Benfica it is alive and well in the league , even without two internationals , Simão and Petit " . On 16 November , Benfica played Varzim away , resulting in a 1 – 2 loss ; Rui Dias wrote for Record that , Varzim " adjusted better to the windstorm night and to the soaking wet field ... taking the initiative in the search for the three points " .
On 24 November , Benfica started the 2002 – 03 Taça de Portugal by playing Gondomar at home for the fourth round . A 10th @-@ minute goal from Cilio knocked Benfica out of the competition . Tinoco de Faria , the club vice @-@ president , called the defeat " unacceptable " ; Jesualdo Ferreira was relieved of his duties the day after . Benfica appointed Fernando Chalana as caretaker until they could agree terms with José Antonio Camacho . On the day Camacho arrived to sign with Benfica , Chalana led the team against Braga at home . He moved Miguel to right @-@ back and started Hélder instead of João Manuel Pinto ; Benfica defeated the visitors by 3 – 0 .
In the opening match of December , Benfica played Gil Vicente at home after re @-@ scheduling the game from 29 November to 4 December , because of an imminent players strike during the holidays . They won that match 3 – 1 with two first @-@ half goals ; António Varela wrote that the unpredictability of Simão " unbalanced the opponent and the game " ; Benfica climbed to second place before a match against Sporting . On 7 December , Benfica played their last game in the 46 @-@ year @-@ old Estádio de Alvalade against city rivals Sporting in the Derby de Lisboa . The game ended with a 2 – 0 win for Benfica , who controlled the game from the beginning ; as José Manuel Delgado wrote , " ... the advantage of the visitors starting in the clear superiority of Tiago and Petit in the direct contend with Paulo Bento and Rui Bento , while Zahovic descended to guide the team ... " . A week later , the team played Belenenses at home . Simão scored the sole goal of the game in the 55th minute , helping Camacho to a third consecutive win . During the last game of the month , Benfica played Boavista away , drawing 0 – 0 ; José Manuel Delgado at Record criticized the players of both teams for " showing little inspiration and inability to break away from the tight tactical requirements of the game " .
Early in January 2003 , Benfica announced the signing of Brazilian midfielder Geovanni , on a loan deal from Barcelona until the end of the season . On 11 January , the team played Vitória Guimarães away . The 1 – 1 draw after 90 minutes was a consequence of the constant interruptions for a large number of fouls signalled by the referee . In the stands , the problematic behaviour of the Benfica supporters group No Name Boys caused the governing body of the Portuguese league to punish both clubs by closing their stadiums for one game each . On the following Sunday , Benfica visited the Estádio dos Barreiros for a game against Marítimo , which Benfica won 2 – 1 after an individual effort from Nuno Gomes in the 74th minute . It was the first win there since 1994 – 95 . After selecting the Estádio Municipal Dr. Alves Vieira in Torres Novas to replace Estádio da Luz , Benfica hosted Beira @-@ Mar on 26 January , winning 1 – 0 with a goal from Geovanni . Three days later , the team played the second friendly of the month after a 1 – 1 draw against Ajax a week before . During the game , intended to bring people to Da Luz , Benfica lost 0 – 1 to Barcelona .
On 1 February , Benfica played Moreirense at home , drawing 1 – 1 ; Rui Dias wrote that the team 's overconfidence was the main reason for the draw because they were " unsettled by the lack of space ... they allowed the clock to run , certain a goal would arrive , soon or later " . On 8 February , Benfica visited the Estádio Municipal da Marinha Grande to play União de Leiria . The final score , 3 – 0 to Benfica , was the biggest in the Camacho era ; António Tadeia , writing for Record , complimented the team for the " more pleasing performance , after the very poor display against Moreirense " . The following Sunday , Benfica played Nacional at home . According to Rui Dias ' match analysis in Record , the team strong first half " .. left the feeling that two goals were not enough in such a display of power ... " , allowing them to manage the game in the second half , ensuring a 2 – 0 win and reducing the distance to Porto to 10 points . Benfica won their third consecutive match on 22 February ; a 6 – 2 away win against Vitória Setúbal . The opponents took an early lead in the 18th minute when Pascal scored a goal , and doubled their advantage five minutes later ; however , in a strong second half , Benfica overturned the game . Simão scored a hat @-@ trick , aided by Tiago and Tomo Šokota , who also scored goals .
= = = March – June = = =
On 4 March , Benfica played Porto on the last Clássico to be held at the Estádio da Luz . Porto won 1 – 0 through Deco 's goal , in a match that Manuel Queiroz at Record defined as " ... ending the last doubts of who is the future champion and who is the best team in the league , defeating Camacho 's Benfica for the first time ... " Benfica rebounded with an away win against Académica on 15 March , beating them 4 – 1 in the Municipal José Bento Pessoa in Figueira da Foz . A week later , Benfica had its last game on the old Estádio da Luz before the 49 @-@ year @-@ old stadium 's demolition , playing against Santa Clara . The match ended in a 1 – 0 win for Benfica , but António Tadeia described the performance as " colourless " .
On 5 April , April Benfica played at Estádio da Mata Real against Paços de Ferreira . With three goals in the first half @-@ hour , Benfica secured the lead until the end to gain three points in a 3 – 1 win . With the league on international break , Benfica played two friendlies abroad ; one against Luxembourg 's F91 Dudelange and another against Paris Saint @-@ Germain . They resumed their league campaign on 21 April , hosting home games at the Estádio Nacional in Oeiras where they met Varzim . Benfica won 2 – 1 ; and according to António Magalhães writing for Record , they " wasted a excessive number of opportunities to score " . On the following Saturday , Benfica played away to Braga at the Estádio Primeiro de Maio . By winning 3 – 1 , they opened an 11 @-@ point gap above third @-@ place Sporting .
On 3 May , Benfica met Sporting for the second Derby de Lisboa of the season . In the words of António Tadeia , the visitors took on an approach of " ignoring the midfield ... and abusing of the long ball " , inflicting a 1 – 2 loss upon Benfica . A week later , Benfica defeated Belenenses in Restelo , securing the second place in the league with a 4 @-@ 2 victory and the associated berth to the third qualifying round of the 2003 – 04 UEFA Champions League . On 18 May , Benfica played Boavista at home . Camacho changed several players of the starting eleven , but the match ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Benfica closed the month with a 2 – 0 away win against Adelino Ribeiro Novo ; Rui Dias wrote that Benfica showed " professionalism , despite having nothing to fight for " .
Benfica played their last game of the season on 1 June at home against Vitória Guimarães , winning 4 – 0 ; Féher scored a hat @-@ trick . Benfica finished in second place after the 34 @-@ game season with 23 wins , six draws and five losses for a total of 75 points . They scored 74 goals & ndash : the most in the league – and conceded 27 , the second @-@ lowest league @-@ wide . Simão was the joint highest scorer in the Primeira Liga , with 18 goals , equal to Beira @-@ Mar 's Faye Fary ; the latter took the Bola de Prata award due to having played fewer games .
= = Competitions = =
Win Draw Loss Postponed
= = = Overall record = = =
= = = Primeira Liga = = =
= = = = League table = = = =
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= International Finance Corporation =
The International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) is an international financial institution that offers investment , advisory , and asset management services to encourage private sector development in developing countries . The IFC is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1956 as the private sector arm of the World Bank Group to advance economic development by investing in strictly for @-@ profit and commercial projects that purport to reduce poverty and promote development . The IFC 's stated aim is to create opportunities for people to escape poverty and achieve better living standards by mobilizing financial resources for private enterprise , promoting accessible and competitive markets , supporting businesses and other private sector entities , and creating jobs and delivering necessary services to those who are poverty @-@ stricken or otherwise vulnerable . Since 2009 , the IFC has focused on a set of development goals that its projects are expected to target . Its goals are to increase sustainable agriculture opportunities , improve health and education , increase access to financing for microfinance and business clients , advance infrastructure , help small businesses grow revenues , and invest in climate health .
The IFC is owned and governed by its member countries , but has its own executive leadership and staff that conduct its normal business operations . It is a corporation whose shareholders are member governments that provide paid @-@ in capital and which have the right to vote on its matters . Originally more financially integrated with the World Bank Group , the IFC was established separately and eventually became authorized to operate as a financially autonomous entity and make independent investment decisions . It offers an array of debt and equity financing services and helps companies face their risk exposures , while refraining from participating in a management capacity . The corporation also offers advice to companies on making decisions , evaluating their impact on the environment and society , and being responsible . It advises governments on building infrastructure and partnerships to further support private sector development .
The corporation is assessed by an independent evaluator each year . In 2011 , its evaluation report recognized that its investments performed well and reduced poverty , but recommended that the corporation define poverty and expected outcomes more explicitly to better @-@ understand its effectiveness and approach poverty reduction more strategically . The corporation 's total investments in 2011 amounted to $ 18 @.@ 66 billion . It committed $ 820 million to advisory services for 642 projects in 2011 , and held $ 24 @.@ 5 billion worth of liquid assets . The IFC is in good financial standing and received the highest ratings from two independent credit rating agencies in 2010 and 2011 .
= = History = =
The World Bank and International Monetary Fund were designed by delegates at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944 and the World Bank , then consisting of only the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development , became operational in 1946 . Robert L. Garner joined the World Bank in 1947 as a senior executive and expressed his view that private business could play an important role in international development . In 1950 , Garner and his colleagues proposed establishing a new institution for the purpose of making private investments in the developing countries served by the Bank . The U.S. government encouraged the idea of an international corporation working in tandem with the World Bank to invest in private enterprises without accepting guarantees from governments , without managing those enterprises , and by collaborating with third party investors . When describing the IFC in 1955 , World Bank President Eugene R. Black said that the IFC would only invest in private firms , rather than make loans to governments , and it would not manage the projects in which it invests . In 1956 the International Finance Corporation became operational under the leadership of Garner . It initially had 12 staff members and $ 100 million ( $ 844 @.@ 9 million in 2012 dollars ) in capital . The corporation made its inaugural investment in 1957 by making a $ 2 million ( $ 16 @.@ 4 million in 2012 dollars ) loan to a Brazil @-@ based affiliate of Siemens & Halske ( now Siemens AG ) . In 2007 , IFC bought 18 % stake in the Indian Financial firm , Angel Broking . In December 2015 IFC supported Greek banks with 150 million euros by buying shares in four of them : Alpha Bank ( 60 million ) , Eurobank ( 50 million ) , Piraeus Bank ( 20 million ) and National Bank of Greece ( 20 million ) .
= = Governance = =
The IFC is governed by its Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country ( most often the country 's finance minister or treasury secretary ) . Each member typically appoints one governor and also one alternate . Although corporate authority rests with the Board of Governors , the governors delegate most of their corporate powers and their authority over daily matters such as lending and business operations to the Board of Directors . The IFC 's Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors who meet regularly and work at the IFC 's headquarters , and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group . The executive directors collectively represent all 184 member countries . When the IFC 's Board of Directors votes on matters brought before it , each executive director 's vote is weighted according to the total share capital of the member countries represented by that director . The IFC 's Executive Vice President and CEO oversees its overall direction and daily operations . As of October 2012 , Jin @-@ Yong Cai serves as the Executive Vice President and CEO of the IFC . President of the World Bank Group Jim Yong Kim appointed Jin @-@ Yong Cai to serve as the new Executive Vice President and CEO of the IFC . Cai is a Chinese citizen who formerly served as a managing director for Goldman Sachs and has over 20 years of financial sector experience .
Although the IFC coordinates its activities in many areas with the other World Bank Group institutions , it generally operates independently as it is a separate entity with legal and financial autonomy , established by its own Articles of Agreement . The corporation operates with a staff of over 3 @,@ 400 employees , of which half are stationed in field offices across its member nations .
= = Services = =
= = = Investment services = = =
The IFC 's investment services consist of loans , equity , trade finance , syndicated loans , structured and securitized finance , client risk management services , treasury services , and liquidity management . In its fiscal year 2010 , the IFC invested $ 12 @.@ 7 billion in 528 projects across 103 countries . Of that total investment commitment , approximately 39 % ( $ 4 @.@ 9 billion ) was invested into 255 projects across 58 member nations of the World Bank 's International Development Association ( IDA ) .
The IFC makes loans to businesses and private projects generally with maturities of seven to twelve years . It determines a suitable repayment schedule and grace period for each loan individually to meet borrowers ' currency and cash flow requirements . The IFC may provide longer @-@ term loans or extend grace periods if a project is deemed to warrant it . Leasing companies and financial intermediaries may also receive loans from the IFC . Though loans have traditionally been denominated in hard currencies , the IFC has endeavored to structure loan products in local currencies . Its disbursement portfolio included loans denominated in 25 local currencies in 2010 , and 45 local currencies in 2011 , funded largely through swap markets . Local financial markets development is one of IFC ’ s strategic focus areas . In line with its AAA rating , it has strict concentration , liquidity , asset @-@ liability and other policies . The IFC committed to approximately $ 5 @.@ 7 billion in new loans in 2010 , and $ 5 billion in 2011 .
Although the IFC 's shareholders initially only allowed it to make loans , the IFC was authorized in 1961 to make equity investments , the first of which was made in 1962 by taking a stake in FEMSA , a former manufacturer of auto parts in Spain that is now part of Bosch Spain . The IFC invests in businesses ' equity either directly or via private equity funds , generally from five up to twenty percent of a company 's total equity . IFC ’ s private equity portfolio currently stands at roughly $ 3 @.@ 0 billion committed to about 180 funds . The portfolio is widely distributed across all regions including Africa , East Asia , South Asia , Eastern Europe , Latin America and the Middle East , and recently has invested in Small Enterprise Assistance Funds ' ( SEAF ) Caucasus Growth Fund , Aureos Capital 's Kula Fund II ( Papua New Guinea , Fiji , Pacific Islands ) and Leopard Capital ’ s Haiti Fund . Other equity investments made by the IFC include preferred equity , convertible loans , and participation loans . The IFC prefers to invest for the long @-@ term , usually for a period of eight to fifteen years , before exiting through the sale of shares on a domestic stock exchange , usually as part of an initial public offering . When the IFC invests in a company , it does not assume an active role in management of the company .
Through its Global Trade Finance Program , the IFC guarantees trade payment obligations of more than 200 approved banks in over 80 countries to mitigate risk for international transactions . The Global Trade Finance Program provides guarantees to cover payment risks for emerging market banks regarding promissory notes , bills of exchange , letters of credit , bid and performance bonds , supplier credit for capital goods imports , and advance payments . The IFC issued $ 3 @.@ 46 billion in more than 2 @,@ 800 guarantees in 2010 , of which over 51 % targeted IDA member nations . In its fiscal year 2011 , the IFC issued $ 4 @.@ 6 billion in more than 3 @,@ 100 guarantees . In 2009 , the IFC launched a separate program for crisis response , known as its Global Trade Liquidity Program , which provides liquidity for international trade among developing countries . Since its establishment in 2009 , the Global Trade Liquidity Program assisted with over $ 15 billion in trade in 2011 .
The IFC operates a Syndicated Loan Program in an effort to mobilize capital for development goals . The program was created in 1957 and as of 2011 has channeled approximately $ 38 billion from over 550 financial institutions toward development projects in over 100 different emerging markets . The IFC syndicated a total of $ 4 @.@ 7 billion in loans in 2011 , twice that of its $ 2 billion worth of syndications in 2010 . Due to banks retrenching from lending across borders in emerging markets , in 2009 the IFC started to syndicate parallel loans to the international financial institutions and other participants .
To service clients without ready access to low @-@ cost financing , the IFC relies on structured or securitized financial products such as partial credit guarantees , portfolio risk transfers , and Islamic finance . The IFC committed $ 797 million in the form of structured and securitized financing in 2010 . For companies that face difficulty in obtaining financing due to a perception of high credit risk , the IFC securitizes assets with predictable cash flows , such as mortgages , credit cards , loans , corporate debt instruments , and revenue streams , in an effort to enhance those companies ' credit .
Financial derivative products are made available to the IFC 's clients strictly for hedging interest rate risk , exchange rate risk , and commodity risk exposure . It serves as an intermediary between emerging market businesses and international derivatives market makers to increase access to risk management instruments .
The IFC fulfills a treasury role by borrowing international capital to fund lending activities . It is usually one of the first institutions to issue bonds or to do swaps in emerging markets denominated in those markets ' local currencies . The IFC 's new international borrowings amounted to $ 8 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 and $ 9 @.@ 8 billion in 2011 . The IFC Treasury actively engages in liquidity management in an effort to maximize returns and assure that funding for its investments is readily available while managing risks to the IFC .
= = = Advisory services = = =
In addition to its investment activities the IFC provides a range of advisory services to support corporate decisionmaking regarding business , environment , social impact , and sustainability . The IFC 's corporate advice targets governance , managerial capacity , scalability , and corporate responsibility . It prioritizes the encouragement of reforms that improve the trade friendliness and ease of doing business in an effort to advise countries on fostering a suitable investment climate . It also offers advice to governments on infrastructure development and public @-@ private partnerships . The IFC attempts to guide businesses toward more sustainable practices particularly with regards to having good governance , supporting women in business , and proactively combating climate change .
= = = Asset Management Company = = =
The IFC established IFC Asset Management Company LLC ( IFC AMC ) in 2009 as a wholly owned subsidiary to manage all capital funds to be invested in emerging markets . The AMC manages capital mobilized by the IFC as well as by third parties such as sovereign or pension funds , and other development financing organizations . Despite being owned by the IFC , the AMC has investment decision autonomy and is charged with a fiduciary responsibility to the four individual funds under its management . It also aims to mobilize additional capital for IFC investments as it can make certain types of investments which the IFC cannot . As of 2011 , the AMC managed the IFC Capitalization Fund ( Equity ) Fund , L.P. , the IFC Capitalization ( Subordinated Debt ) Fund , L.P. , the IFC African , Latin American , and Caribbean Fund , L.P. , and the Africa Capitalization Fund , Ltd . The IFC Capitalization ( Equity ) Fund holds $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in equity , while the IFC Capitalization ( Subordinated Debt ) Fund is valued at $ 1 @.@ 7 billion . The IFC African , Latin American , and Caribbean Fund ( referred to as the IFC ALAC Fund ) was created in 2010 and is worth $ 1 billion . As of March 2012 , the ALAC Fund has invested a total of $ 349 @.@ 1 million into twelve businesses . The Africa Capitalization Fund was set up in 2011 to invest in commercial banks in both Northern and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and its commitments totaled $ 181 @.@ 8 million in March 2012 . As of 2012 , Gavin E.R. Wilson serves as CEO of the AMC .
= = Financial performance = =
The IFC prepares consolidated financial statements in accordance with United States GAAP which are audited by KPMG . It reported income before grants to IDA members of $ 2 @.@ 18 billion in fiscal year 2011 , up from $ 1 @.@ 95 billion in fiscal 2010 and $ 299 million in fiscal 2009 . The increase in income before grants is ascribed to higher earnings from the IFC 's investments and also from higher service fees . The IFC reported a partial offset from lower liquid asset trading income , higher administrative costs , and higher advisory service expenses . The IFC made $ 600 million in grants to IDA countries in fiscal 2011 , up from $ 200 million in fiscal 2010 and $ 450 million in fiscal 2009 . The IFC reported a net income of $ 1 @.@ 58 billion in fiscal year 2011 . In previous years , the IFC had reported a net loss of $ 151 million in fiscal 2009 and $ 1 @.@ 75 billion in fiscal 2010 . The IFC 's total capital amounted to $ 20 @.@ 3 billion in 2011 , of which $ 2 @.@ 4 billion was paid @-@ in capital from member countries , $ 16 @.@ 4 billion was retained earnings , and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion was accumulated other comprehensive income . The IFC held $ 68 @.@ 49 billion in total assets in 2011 .
The IFC 's return on average assets ( GAAP basis ) decreased from 3 @.@ 1 % in 2010 to 2 @.@ 4 % in 2011 . Its return on average capital ( GAAP basis ) decreased from 10 @.@ 1 % in 2010 to 8 @.@ 2 % in 2011 . The IFC 's cash and liquid investments accounted for 83 % of its estimated net cash requirements for fiscal years 2012 through 2014 . Its external funding liquidity level grew from 190 % in 2010 to 266 % in 2011 . It has a 2 @.@ 6 : 1 debt @-@ to @-@ equity ratio and holds 6 @.@ 6 % in reserves against losses on loans to its disbursement portfolio . The IFC 's deployable strategic capital decreased from 14 % in 2010 to 10 % in 2011 as a share of its total resources available , which grew from $ 16 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 to $ 17 @.@ 9 billion in 2011 .
In 2011 , the IFC reported total funding commitments ( consisting of loans , equity , guarantees , and client risk management ) of $ 12 @.@ 18 billion , slightly lower than its $ 12 @.@ 66 billion in commitments in 2010 . Its core mobilization , which consists of participation and parallel loans , structured finance , its Asset Management Company funds , and other initiatives , grew from $ 5 @.@ 38 billion in 2010 to $ 6 @.@ 47 billion in 2011 . The IFC 's total investment program was reported at a value of $ 18 @.@ 66 billion for fiscal year 2011 . Its advisory services portfolio included 642 projects valued at $ 820 million in 2011 , compared to 736 projects at $ 859 million in 2010 . The IFC held $ 24 @.@ 5 billion in liquid assets in 2011 , up from $ 21 billion in 2010 .
The IFC received credit ratings of AAA from Standard & Poor 's in December 2012 and Aaa from Moody 's Investors Service in November 2012 . S & P rated the IFC as having a strong financial standing with adequate capital and liquidity , cautious management policies , a high level of geographic diversification , and anticipated treatment as a preferred creditor given its membership in the World Bank Group . It noted that the IFC faces a weakness relative to other multilateral institutions of having higher risks due to its mandated emphasis on private sector investing and its income heavily affected by equity markets .
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= State of Vietnam referendum , 1955 =
The State of Vietnam referendum of 1955 determined the future form of government of the State of Vietnam , the nation that was to become the Republic of Vietnam ( widely known as South Vietnam ) . It was contested by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm , who proposed a republic , and former emperor Bảo Đại . Bảo Đại had abdicated as emperor in 1945 and at the time of the referendum held the title of head of state . Though published counts showed Diệm winning the election with 98 @.@ 2 % of the vote , the referendum was widely marred by electoral fraud . In the capital , Saigon , Diệm was credited with more than 600 @,@ 000 votes , although only 450 @,@ 000 people were on the electoral roll . He accumulated tallies in excess of 90 % of the registered voters , even in rural regions where opposition groups prevented voting .
The referendum was the last phase in the power struggle between Bảo Đại and his prime minister . Bảo Đại disliked Diệm and had frequently attempted to undermine him , having appointed him only because he was a conduit to American aid . At the time , the country was going through a period of insecurity , as Vietnam had been temporarily partitioned as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords that ended the First Indochina War . The State of Vietnam controlled the southern half of the country , pending national elections that were intended to reunify the country under a common government . Still , the Vietnamese National Army was not in full control of southern Vietnam ; the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects ran their own administrations in the countryside supported by private armies , while the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate controlled the streets of Saigon . Despite interference from these groups , Bảo Đại , and even French officials , Diệm managed to subdue the private armies and consolidate government control over the country by mid @-@ 1955 .
Emboldened by his success , Diệm began to plot Bảo Đại 's downfall . He scheduled a referendum for 23 October 1955 and pushed Bảo Đại out of the political scene , hindering the former emperor 's attempts to derail the poll . In the period leading up to the vote , campaigning for Bảo Đại was banned , while Diệm 's election campaign focused on personal attacks against Bảo Đại . These included pornographic cartoons of the head of state and unverified rumours claiming he was illegitimate and linking him to various mistresses . The government @-@ controlled media launched polemical attacks on Bảo Đại , and police went door @-@ to @-@ door , warning people of the consequences of failing to vote . After his brother Ngô Đình Nhu successfully rigged the poll , Diệm proclaimed himself president of the newly created Republic of Vietnam .
= = Background = =
The defeat of the French Army at Điện Biên Phủ in 1954 , followed by the Geneva Accords , led to a divided Vietnam . The French @-@ backed State of Vietnam , led by former Emperor Bảo Đại , provisionally held control south of the 17th parallel . Hồ Chí Minh 's Viet Minh held the north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam , which Hồ Chí Minh had proclaimed in 1945 . The agreements stated that nationwide elections were to be held in 1956 to unify the country under a common government . In July 1954 , during the transition period , Bảo Đại appointed Diệm as Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam .
On 11 October 1954 , the border was closed by the International Control Commission , after a period of 300 days during which free passage between both halves of Vietnam had been allowed . Under the Geneva Accords , anti @-@ communist military personnel were obliged to evacuate to the south , while communist forces were to be moved north . Civilians were free to move to whichever zone they preferred . During the 300 days , Diệm and U.S. CIA adviser Colonel Edward Lansdale staged a campaign to convince people to move to South Vietnam . The campaign was particularly focused on Vietnam 's Catholics , who were to provide Diệm 's power base in his later years , with the use of the slogan " God has gone south " . Between 800 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people migrated to the south , mostly Catholics . At the start of 1955 , French Indochina was dissolved , leaving Diệm in temporary control of the south .
At the time , Diệm had little authority beyond the gates of his own palace . Bảo Đại had little confidence in him and gave him meagre support — the pair had clashed in the past , with Diem resigning as Bảo Đại 's Interior Minister two decades earlier , believing the head of state to be weak and ineffective . Many historians believe that Bảo Đại may have selected Diệm for the latter 's ability to attract U.S. support and funding . During the transition period , the French Expeditionary Corps maintained a presence in South Vietnam . This led to tension between France and the State of Vietnam . Diệm , a passionate nationalist , detested the French , who reciprocated , hoping he would fail , even calling for his removal on occasions .
Diệm faced challenges to his authority from four more groups . The Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious sects had private armies that controlled the Mekong Delta and the areas west of Saigon , respectively . The Bình Xuyên was an armed , organised crime empire that controlled much of Saigon with a 40 @,@ 000 strong private army , while the Vietminh still controlled much of the rural area . Diệm 's Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) was led by General Nguyễn Văn Hinh , a French citizen who loathed and frequently disobeyed him . Bảo Đại sold the operating license of the national police to the Bình Xuyên , effectively putting administrative control of the police in the hands of a crime syndicate .
Amid growing French and US skepticism of his ability to provide stable rule , Diệm forced the matter to a head in April 1955 . He ordered the Bình Xuyên to relinquish control of the National Police and submit to his command by integrating into the VNA or disbanding , threatening to crush them if they refused . He bribed Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài commanders into joining the VNA , gradually resulting in the defection of some commanders and their units , while others continued to lead their forces against Saigon . The Bình Xuyên defied Diệm 's ultimatum . On 27 April , the VNA initiated the Battle for Saigon . After a brief but violent battle that left between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 people dead and about 20 @,@ 000 homeless , the Bình Xuyên were crushed . Diệm had regained both U.S. confidence and control of the police . Jubilant crowds lauded Diệm and denounced Bảo Đại , who had tried to dismiss him in the middle of the battle to prevent him from quelling the Bình Xuyên . In addition , General Paul Ely , the head of the French presence in Vietnam , tried to impede Diệm ; his troops put road blocks against the VNA and gave intelligence to the Bình Xuyên .
Buoyed by his successes , and fueled by increased hatred of both the French and Bảo Đại after their attempts to prevent him from dismantling the Bình Xuyên , Diệm became more confident as he went about consolidating his hold on power . On 15 May , Diệm abolished Bảo Đại 's Imperial Guard ; its 5 @,@ 000 men became the 11th and 42nd Infantry Regiments of the VNA . Diệm then stripped Bảo Đại of his extensive crown lands . On 15 June , Diệm had the Council of the Royal Family at Huế declare that Bảo Đại be stripped of his powers , and that he , Diệm , be made president . Bảo Đại 's relatives condemned him for abdicating as head of state , and for his links with France and the Bình Xuyên . Historians have speculated that the royals agreed to turn on Bảo Đại so Diệm would not seize their assets .
= = Organization of the referendum = =
On 7 July 1955 , the first anniversary of his installation as prime minister , Diệm announced that a national referendum would be held to determine the future of the country . On 16 July , Diệm publicly announced his intention to not take part in the reunification elections : " We will not be tied down by the [ Geneva ] treaty that was signed against the wishes of the Vietnamese people . "
Diệm contended that the Communists would never allow free elections in the north , so therefore South Vietnam must strike out on its own and establish a separate , non @-@ Communist state . This was echoed by the Saigon press , which ran articles assailing communist elections as shambolic , rigged , and meaningless ; at the time , the northern half of Vietnam had a greater population than the south . A month earlier , North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng wrote to Saigon asking to begin negotiations over the specific details of the elections . While the Americans were happy to avoid elections because of fears of a communist victory , they hoped that Diệm would enter the dialogue over planning matters and wait for North Vietnam to object to a proposal , and thus use it to blame Ho [ Chi Minh ] for violating the Geneva Accords . The Americans had earlier advised Diệm , who had been acting in defiance of Bảo Đại , that continued aid was contingent on Diệm establishing a legal basis for usurping the head of state 's power .
On 6 October 1955 , Diệm announced the referendum would be held on 23 October . The election was open to men and women aged 18 or over , and the government arranged to have a polling station set up for every 1 @,@ 000 registered voters . The poll was contested by Bảo Đại , who had spent much of his time in France and advocated a monarchy , and Diệm , who ran on a republican platform . According to historian Jessica Chapman , it was a choice between " the country 's obsolete emperor and its far @-@ from @-@ popular prime minister , Ngo Dinh Diem " . In announcing the referendum , Diệm portrayed his decision as being motivated by a love of democracy and popular discontent with the rule of Bảo Đại . The prime minister cited a plethora of petitions from various social , religious , and political groups calling on him to stage a plebiscite to remove Bảo Đại , claiming he was motivated by these " legitimate and democratic " sentiments . Lansdale cautioned Diệm against electoral fraud , confident that Diệm would win a free election : " While I 'm away I don 't want to suddenly read that you have won by 99 @.@ 99 % . I would know that it 's rigged then . " U.S. officials thought that a fair election would have seen Diệm poll between 60 % and 70 % of the vote .
Under the Elysee Accords and the subsequent legislation that created the State of Vietnam in 1949 , Bảo Đại 's position as head of state was neither permanent nor indefinite . Sovereignty was presumed to rest solely upon the people , with Bảo Đại being a mere conduit . As a result , the referendum itself was within the law . Diệm had not been elected to his post , so he saw the referendum as an opportunity to rebuff opponents , who claimed that he was undemocratic and autocratic . The event also gave Diệm an opportunity to boost his prestige by defeating Bảo Đại in a head @-@ to @-@ head contest . It was previously agreed that a National Assembly would be elected first , but Diệm went ahead with the plebiscite , which meant that he would have total power if he deposed Bảo Đại before a legislature was formed .
U.S. diplomats were concerned that the move would be seen as a power grab , as Diệm was organising and driving an electoral process in which he was a candidate . The Americans felt that a legislature should be formed first and that the body should oversee the referendum , but Diệm ignored their advice . Ambassador G. Frederick Reinhardt informed Washington that Diệm had no intention of allowing a level playing field for the opposition , and that the foreign press had already made much of Diệm 's democratic pronouncements being a facade . The Department of State agreed and opted to avoid trumpeting the referendum as an exercise in democracy for fear of attracting negative reactions to their foreign policy . Nevertheless , U.S. officials in Vietnam were pleased with the referendum , as they saw it as an opportunity to strengthen South Vietnam and avoid defeat to the communists , as they saw a republican model as being more robust .
Having declared his disdain for the 1956 reunification elections , Diệm saw the referendum as the first step in creating a long @-@ term state to rule over South Vietnam . He repeatedly said that the creation of a legislature and a constitution for his new state would follow the referendum .
Diệm reportedly saw the poll as an opportunity to legitimise him as a symbol of Vietnamese democracy , so that he could frame and justify his refusal to participate in national elections as a struggle between freedom and communist authoritarianism . Diệm asserted that South Vietnam would eventually reunify the nation under a democratic administration and liberate their northern compatriots from communist oppression , and championed the referendum as a first step in nurturing democracy . His support base was to use this as a means of justifying the deposal of Bảo Đại , citing past decisions that according to them , were pro @-@ communist .
One of Diệm 's main themes was that the referendum would usher in a new era of unprecedented democracy : " This shall be but the first step made by our people in the free use of our political rights . " The day before the poll , Diệm said : " This 23 October , for the first time in our country 's history , our men and women will exercise one of many basic civil rights of a democracy , the right to vote . " A government proclamation four days before the poll said : " Dear compatriots , proclaim your will forcefully ! Go forward firmly in the path of Freedom , Independence and Democracy ! "
= = Campaign = =
Diệm ran a personal attack campaign against the head of state , for whom campaigning was prohibited . The army and national police went about enforcing the ban on pro @-@ Bảo Đại and anti @-@ Diệm activities . Police went from door to door , explaining the consequences of failing to vote . They organized conferences in rural villages and addressed the populace with loudspeakers . In general , Diệm 's line of attack was to portray Bảo Đại as a drunken womanizer who was preoccupied with immoral pleasures and unconcerned with the problems of the populace . Vietnam 's monarchic tradition was built on Confucianism and the emperor 's Mandate of Heaven , and Diệm 's campaign claimed Bảo Đại had lost this mandate through his debauched lifestyle . According to Joseph Buttinger , who was based in Vietnam as the second in command at the International Rescue Committee , the methods used to influence the poll were " outrageous " . Donald Lancaster , a journalist who covered the poll , said " Whereas Bao Dai was given no opportunity to defend himself , the government @-@ controlled press proceeded to overwhelm him with scurrilous abuse . " Diệm later banned Bảo Đại from entering the State of Vietnam .
Diệm 's advertising included the parading of giant pageant @-@ style floats of Bảo Đại through the streets of Saigon , depicted with bags of money on his shoulders , a deck of cards in his hands , and with naked blonde women and bottles of cognac in his arms . This was a reference to the head of state 's reputation for opulence , gambling and womanising . In particular , the blonde hair referred to Bảo Đại 's purported penchant for European mistresses with whom he liaised on the French Riviera . Bảo Đại 's dummy was accompanied by that of a Frenchman putting gold into his pockets , thereby questioning his nationalist credentials . Posters and effigies associating Bảo Đại with a pig 's head were disseminated , while a prominent newspaper composed and encouraged the people to sing insulting songs about Bảo Đại .
Walls and public transport vehicles were plastered with slogans , including " Beware of the evil king Bảo Đại 's preference for gambling , women , wine , milk , and butter . Those who vote for him betray their country . " Aside from referring to his opulent lifestyle , other slogans such as " Bao Dai , puppet king selling his country " , and " Bao Dai , master keeper of gambling dens and brothels " , referred to his alleged softness towards the communists . The radio was used to verbally abuse Bảo Đại , who was accused of treason and corruption in these broadcasts .
On the other hand , the bachelor Diệm was described as the " hero of the people " and " father of all children " . The slogans exhorted the populace to vote for the prime minister because " To vote for the revolutionary man Ngo Dinh Diem is to build a society of welfare and justice " . They portrayed Diệm as a patriotic and nationalist anti @-@ communist , proclaiming " To kill communists , depose the king , [ and ] struggle against colonialists is a citizen 's duty in Free Vietnam . "
Diệm 's government @-@ controlled press overwhelmed Bảo Đại with endless personal propaganda attacks , with special editions of newspapers being devoted to polemical biographical accounts of the former emperor . This allowed Diệm 's campaign to condemn Bảo Đại with much more salacious detail than was possible through mere slogans . This started in August when the daily newspaper Thoi Dai started a three @-@ week series that disseminated unsubstantiated and scandalous details about Bảo Đại 's life . These were written by editorialist Hong Van , who called Bảo Đại a " dung beetle who sold his country for personal glory " . Van claimed Bảo Đại was the illegitimate son of Emperor Khải Định , alleging Khải Định had been infertile and married a maid , before claiming the maid 's son , by another man , as his own . The paper claimed Bảo Đại was " big like a lubber , had many children , and was very fond of women " while Khải Định was uncomfortable with females , hinting that the different personalities were inconsistent with a common biological lineage .
Capitalising on anti @-@ French sentiment , the paper went on to discuss Bảo Đại 's upbringing in France , claiming that he was already womanising as a teenager because of his European upbringing . Bảo Đại later married an ethnic Vietnamese French citizen , who became Empress Nam Phương , who had been raised Catholic . The editorials accused her of being a French agent and claimed she had treated the queen mother badly , a serious character flaw as Confucianism strongly emphasized respect for elders . Hong Van went on to claim that Bảo Đại 's sequence of Gallic lovers was an indication that colonial officials were successfully using sex to turn the head of state into a puppet of France .
The culmination of the newspaper campaign was a satirical pornographic cartoon , entitled " The Story of Bảo Đại " . It summarized the scandalous depictions of the head of state made by Thoi Dai in the preceding weeks and was published on 19 October , four days before the referendum . The pictures featured full frontal nude depictions of Bảo Đại and his mistresses , with genitalia clearly visible , including a frame showing a naked blonde performing an erotic dance for the head of state .
Aside from painting Bảo Đại as a sexually insatiable glutton , Diệm 's campaign also attacked the head of state 's nationalist credentials . They criticised him as being too soft in his dealings with French colonial authorities , and for serving as the head of state of the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet regime set up by Imperial Japan after they invaded during World War II . They also accused him of ceding half the country to the communists . The communists had already captured more than half the country on the battlefield , and Diệm claimed he had no choice , but Diệm 's campaign portrayed him as incompetent and unwilling to take the blame .
Diệm used the Ministry of Information 's electoral education campaign as a partisan political tool . Instead of using it purely to explain the democratic process , the campaign was used to extol Diệm and his allies . After explaining what democracy was , a pamphlet outlined why Deposing a chief @-@ of @-@ state is a vital act . After elaborating on the powers of the head of state , the pamphlet went on to champion Diệm as an anti @-@ communist who could defend people 's freedom , while explaining why Bảo Đại was unfit to lead , saying that he did not have respect among the international community .
On 15 October , Bảo Đại issued a statement protesting against the referendum . He urged the governments of France , the United Kingdom , the United States , India and even the Soviet Union not to recognise Diệm , asserting that he was an obstacle to the reunification of Vietnam under the Geneva Accords . He accused Diệm 's poll of being " a governmental activity which conforms neither to the profound sentiment of the Vietnamese people nor to the common cause of peace " .
On 18 October , he made the token gesture of formally dismissing Diệm . The following day , he denounced " the police methods " of Diệm 's " dictatorship " and warned the Vietnamese populace " against a regime that was bound to lead them to ruin , famine , and war " . Bảo Đại accused Diệm of trying to foment conflict between the French and the Americans . On the eve of the poll , Bảo Đại stated " I can even tell you that I know the percentage of favourable votes that Mr. Diem has decided to obtain . "
= = Other opposition = =
The staging of the election was subsidised by foreign funding . The United States government and a combination of American Roman Catholic charities contributed US $ 2 million each . Ba Cụt , a leader of an anti @-@ government Hòa Hảo religious sect , distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet , citing the funding as proof and further asserting that Diệm was going to " Catholicize " the country . The Vietnamese Socialist Party , which was affiliated to the Hòa Hảo , claimed Diệm had " bribed the world of laborers and young students to petition in support of Diem 's rise to chief @-@ of @-@ state and to petition in favor of deposing Bao Dai " , using the American election funding . Another Hòa Hảo rebel leader , General Trần Văn Soái , assailed Diệm 's undemocratic regime and declared the referendum illegal . He invited " friendly countries and the people of Vietnam to distrust this political maneuver " . Diệm had earlier told a cabinet minister that there was only one political party – Nhu 's outfit , and went about eradicating opposition by force . Opponents claimed Diệm 's declarations about the value of democracy were hollow .
= = Logistics and voting = =
Lansdale advised Diệm to print his ballots in red , while those of Bảo Đại were printed in green . In Vietnam , red is associated with good luck and prosperity , whereas green is often associated with a cuckold and bad luck . Diệm 's red ballots pictured him with youthful and modern @-@ looking people , while Bảo Đại 's photo was placed in old @-@ fashioned robes , which he never wore . In addition , Bảo Đại 's portrait showed him to appear dazed and bloated , while Diệm and those surrounding him were smiling and appeared to be energetic . The ballot claimed that a vote for Diệm would be a vote for democracy , stating " I depose Bảo Đại and recognise Ngô Đình Diệm as Head of State , charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime . " Bảo Đại 's ballot read " I do not depose Bảo Đại and do not regard Ngô Đình Diệm as the Head of State charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime . " The voters would place the red or green ballot into the box , according to their preference , while discarding the other , which meant the voting was actually not secret .
The logistics of the referendum were organised and supervised by Diệm 's brother and confidant , Nhu , who was the leader of the family 's secret Cần Lao party , which supplied the Ngôs ' electoral base . Reports of violence and intimidation were widespread . During the referendum , Nhu 's staff told voters to throw away the green ballots . Those who disobeyed were often chased down and beaten , with pepper sauce and water sometimes being forced into their nostrils . The violations were particularly flagrant in central Vietnam , a region over which another of Diệm 's younger brothers , Ngô Đình Cẩn , ruled . Cẩn was based in the former imperial capital city of Huế , home of the Nguyễn Dynasty and a source of support for Bảo Đại . He stifled this support by ordering the police to arrest 1 @,@ 200 people for political reasons in the week leading up to the vote . In the city of Hội An , several people were killed in election violence on the day of the poll . Voting started at 07 : 00 and ended at 17 : 00 .
= = Counting and results = =
Diệm 's government formulated procedural regulations ostensibly designed to ensure results and ballots were correctly accounted for and to prevent election fraud . In reality however , the votes were counted without independent supervision , which resulted in Diệm being credited with 98 @.@ 2 % of the vote . The prime minister tallied 605 @,@ 025 votes in Saigon , although only 450 @,@ 000 voters were registered in the capital . Diệm 's tally exceeded the registration numbers in other districts . French newspapers claimed that only half of the registered voters in Saigon had actually voted , and that the rest had boycotted the election , implying that more than 60 % of the votes in the capital were not authentic . Defenders of Diệm claim this was due to recently arrived , mostly Catholic , refugees from North Vietnam who voted without being enrolled , rather than large @-@ scale ballot stuffing .
Diệm 's regime had announced that 5 @,@ 335 @,@ 668 people were eligible to vote , but when the results were declared , there were 5 @,@ 784 @,@ 752 ballots . Diệm 's government claimed his candidacy had been endorsed by the mother of Bảo Đại , although Diệm had ordered the military to confiscate her family 's property and evict her from the land . The near unanimous voter turnout and support for Diệm was replicated in highland and Mekong Delta swamp areas , which were not even under the control of the government and its Vietnamese National Army . In some districts of the Mekong Delta , overwhelming tallies for Diệm in excess of 90 % of the registered voters were recorded , even though the Hòa Hảo warlord Ba Cụt and his army had prevented voting .
The referendum was widely condemned for being fraudulent . Historian and writer Jessica Chapman said " Even Diệm apologists like Anthony Trawick Bouscaren and American CIA officer Edward Lansdale concur with the prime minister 's harshest critics on the conclusion that the South Vietnamese government was either incapable of or unwilling to hold a truly free , representative plebiscite " . A CIA report written in 1966 adjudged the poll to be the most heavily manipulated in the first 11 years of South Vietnam 's history . The U.S. government privately concluded that the monopoly Diệm had on the media and the election campaign was a greater factor in the victory than intimidation and the fact that the voting was effectively public . Reinhardt cabled Washington , saying that the " referendum proved [ a ] resounding success for [ the ] Diem government " . He indicated that the poll results were not necessarily a reflection of reality by adding that the result did not show that Diệm had majority support but that he was able to control the country , effectively unchallenged . The U.S. government was heartened by Diệm 's apparent ability to negate communist and other opposition .
The scholar Bernard B. Fall stated that " there is not the slightest doubt that this plebiscite was only a shade more fraudulent than most electoral tests under a dictatorship " . The American journalist Stanley Karnow cited the dubious plebiscite as evidence of Diệm 's " mandarin mentality " . Chapman wrote that " ... no amount of unilateral campaigning , anti @-@ Bảo Đại sentiment , or Confucian political restraint could explain Diệm 's 98 percent margin of victory in a politically heterogeneous South Vietnam . Corruption and intimidation must have played a significant role . " Buttinger said that while the monarchy was " another rotten relic of Vietnam 's past " and Bảo Đại " its last , unworthy representative " , fraud and intimidation were unnecessary as Diệm would have won easily in any event . Historian David Anderson said the victory " was not a true representation of Diệm 's power or popularity . The emperor 's weakness , the disarray of the political opposition , and other such factors explain his triumph " .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
Three days after the vote , Diệm proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Vietnam , naming himself as its president . He said " The October 23rd plebiscite in which [ the people of South Vietnam ] took such an enthusiastic part , constitutes an approval of the policies pursued thus far and at the same time augurs a whole new era for the future of our country . " Diệm reiterated that he would not partake in national reunification elections , saying that they would be futile unless " true liberty " came about in the communist North Vietnam , which impressed American observers , who feared a total communist takeover .
Having claimed the election was entirely without irregularities , the United States government hailed Diệm as a new hero of the " free world " . Senator Mike Mansfield ( D @-@ MT ) claimed the referendum " was a reflection of their [ the Vietnamese people 's ] search for a leader who would respond to their needs ... they sensed that Diệm could provide that kind of leadership . " Mansfield had been a professor of Asian history before entering politics ; as a result his opinions about Vietnam were more influential and held in high regard by his fellow senators . Archives of policy discussions show that the Americans were concerned more about the negative image created by Diem 's autocratic and antidemocratic style among the international community , rather than its possible effects on national cohesion . The US State Department spokesman said " the people of Viet @-@ Nam have spoken , and we , of course , recognise their decision " . An official congratulatory statement from the department said " The Department of State is gratified that according to reports the referendum was conducted in such an orderly and efficient manner and that the people of Viet @-@ Nam have made their choice unmistakably clear ... we look forward to a continuation of the friendly relations between the Government of Viet @-@ Nam and the United States . "
Reaction to Diệm 's victory among the American press varied with geographic location . Newspapers in the Midwest hailed Diệm 's win as a triumph for democracy and extolled the new president as a champion of democracy . However , The New York Times said that the extreme margin of victory made " Diem 's administrative control look more pervasive than is thought to be the case by a number of observers here . " However , the paper also obligingly claimed the poll a " sound democratic procedure " and a " public tribute to a strong @-@ willed leader " . Reader 's Digest called it an " overwhelming endorsement " and dubbed Diệm a " beacon of light , showing the way to free people " .
Diệm 's victory was seen as a blow to French stature in Vietnam , as the former colonial power had helped to set up Bảo Đại 's State of Vietnam in 1949 . They consistently opposed Diệm and his policies , and unsuccessfully tried to impede him . The U.S. media regarded Diệm 's victory as a signal that the United States would be the only Western power in South Vietnam . Some felt that this would enable Diệm to rule effectively without French hindrance , while others felt that this would leave too much of a burden on the American government . The French media and diplomatic corps viewed the result as a humiliation . Before the poll , French officials had privately predicted Diệm would dissolve the French High Command and use any victory as justification for scrapping the national reunification elections . The French media viewed the poll as undemocratic and a plot by the Americans to sabotage any prospect of national reunification , but France recognised the Republic of Vietnam soon after .
Diệm severed economic relations with France on 9 December 1955 , and withdrew from the French Union shortly afterwards . Neither the Soviet Union nor communist China overtly objected to Diệm 's actions in creating a new state in the southern half of Vietnam . Nevertheless , by the time of Diệm 's deposal and assassination in 1963 , France bought 46 @.@ 3 % of South Vietnam 's exports and accounted for most of the foreign investment in the country . French cultural influences and the language remained prevalent .
In January 1956 , with no legislature and constitution in place , Diệm used his absolute power to dissolve the Revolutionary Council by launching police raids on the members , forcing those from the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo who had rallied to his side to go on the run . As a result , they turned against him .
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= Battle of Kolubara =
The Battle of Kolubara ( Serbian : Колубарска битка , Kolubarska bitka ) ( German : Schlacht an der Kolubara ) was fought between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia in November and December 1914 , during the Serbian Campaign of World War I. It commenced on 16 November , when the Austro @-@ Hungarians under command of Oskar Potiorek reached the Kolubara River during their third invasion of Serbia that year , having captured the strategic town of Valjevo and forced the Serbian Army to undertake a series of retreats . The Serbs withdrew from their capital , Belgrade , on 29 and 30 November , and it quickly fell into the hands of the Austro @-@ Hungarians . On 2 December , the Serbian Army launched a surprise counterattack all along the front . Valjevo and Užice were retaken by the Serbs on 8 December and the Austro @-@ Hungarians retreated to Belgrade , which 5th Army commander Liborius Ritter von Frank deemed to be untenable . The Austro @-@ Hungarians abandoned the city between 14 and 15 December and retreated back into Austria @-@ Hungary , allowing the Serbs to retake their capital the following day .
Both the Austro @-@ Hungarians and the Serbs suffered heavy casualties , with more than 20 @,@ 000 dead on each side . The defeat humiliated Austria @-@ Hungary , which had hoped to occupy Serbia by the end of 1914 . On 22 December , Potiorek and von Frank were relieved of their respective commands , and the 5th and 6th armies were merged into a single 5th Army of 95 @,@ 000 men .
= = Background = =
On 28 June 1914 , Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo . The assassination precipitated the July Crisis , which led Austria @-@ Hungary to issue an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July on suspicion that the assassination had been planned in Belgrade . The Austro @-@ Hungarian government made the ultimatum intentionally unacceptable to Serbia , and it was indeed rejected . The Austro @-@ Hungarians declared war on Serbia on 28 July and that same day the Serbs destroyed all bridges on the Sava and Danube rivers in order to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarians from using them during any future invasion . Belgrade was shelled the following day , marking the beginning of World War I.
Fighting in Eastern Europe began with the first Austro @-@ Hungarian invasion of Serbia in early August 1914 , under the command of Oskar Potiorek . The number of Austro @-@ Hungarian troops assigned to the invasion was far smaller than the 308 @,@ 000 @-@ strong force intended when war was declared . This was because a large portion of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 2nd Army had moved to the Russian Front , reducing the number of troops involved in the initial stages of the invasion to approximately 200 @,@ 000 . On the other hand , the Serbs could muster some 450 @,@ 000 men to oppose the Austro @-@ Hungarians upon full mobilization . The main elements to face the Austro @-@ Hungarians were the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and Užice armies , with a combined strength of approximately 180 @,@ 000 men . The Serbian Army was commanded by Crown Prince Alexander , with the chief of the Serbian general staff , Radomir Putnik , who had commanded Serb forces in the Balkan Wars , as his deputy and de facto military leader . Petar Bojović , Stepa Stepanović , Pavle Jurišić Šturm and Miloš Božanović commanded the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and Užice armies , respectively .
The Balkan Wars had only just concluded and Serbia was still recovering . Over 36 @,@ 000 Serbian soldiers had been killed and 55 @,@ 000 seriously wounded . Few recruits had been gained from the newly acquired territories , and the Serbian Army had been stretched by the need to garrison them against Albanian insurgents and the threat of Bulgarian attack . To compound matters , the Serbs were dangerously short of artillery , and had only just begun to replenish their ammunition stocks . Their supply problems also extended to more basic items . Many soldiers lacked any uniform other than a standard issue greatcoat and a traditional Serbian cap known as a šajkača . Rifles were also in critically short supply . It was estimated that full mobilization would see some 50 @,@ 000 Serbian soldiers with no equipment at all . The Austro @-@ Hungarians , on the other hand , possessed an abundance of modern rifles and had twice as many machine guns and field guns as the Serbs . They also had better stocks of munitions , as well as much better transport and industrial infrastructure behind them . The Serbs had a slight advantage over the Austro @-@ Hungarians as many of their soldiers were experienced veterans of the Balkan Wars and better trained than their Austro @-@ Hungarian counterparts . Serb soldiers were also highly motivated , which compensated in part for their lack of weaponry .
The Serbs beat back an Austro @-@ Hungarian invasion in August , at the Battle of Cer . It marked the first Allied victory over the Central Powers in World War I. Potiorek was humiliated by the defeat and was determined to resume the assault against the Serbs . He was given permission in September to launch another invasion of Serbia provided that he " [ did not ] risk anything that might lead to a further fiasco . " Under pressure from the Russians to launch their own offensive and keep as many Austro @-@ Hungarian troops as possible away from the Eastern Front , the Serbs invaded Bosnia in September with the help of Chetnik irregulars but were repulsed after a month of fighting in what came to be known as the Battle of the Drina . Bojović was wounded during the battle and was replaced by Živojin Mišić as commander of the Serbian 1st Army .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Austro @-@ Hungarian plans = = =
The Armeeoberkommando ( AOK ) acknowledged that an undefeated Serbia severed Austria @-@ Hungary 's connection to the Ottoman Empire and prevented the completion of the Berlin – Baghdad railway . The AOK also realized that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army 's inability to defeat Serbia would discourage neutral countries — such as Bulgaria , Romania and Greece — from joining the Central Powers and would tempt Italy to open up a third front against Austria @-@ Hungary . Nevertheless , the AOK was hesitant to authorize a third invasion of Serbia . This changed in September 1914 , when Austro @-@ Hungarian troops discovered a map in an abandoned Semlin bookshop , titled The New Division of Europe . Originally printed in a Russian newspaper , the map was widely sold in Serbia and depicted the borders of Europe as they would appear following the war . Germany was to be divided into northern and southern confederations and Austria @-@ Hungary was to be abolished , its eastern provinces given to Russia , Romania , the Czechs and the Hungarians , and its southern provinces divided between Serbia and Italy . Alarmed by the prospect of Austria @-@ Hungary 's disintegration , Emperor Franz Joseph personally authorized a third invasion of Serbia in early October 1914 .
Having just repelled the Serbian incursion into Bosnia , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army regrouped and positioned itself for one final invasion before winter set in . Potiorek was again placed in charge of Austro @-@ Hungarian forces and was given command of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 6th Army . The Austro @-@ Hungarian 5th Army was commanded by Liborius Ritter von Frank . In total , the Austro @-@ Hungarians had 450 @,@ 000 troops at their disposal . The Serbian Army had 400 @,@ 000 soldiers ready to face the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . In mid @-@ October , the Austro @-@ Hungarians launched another thrust into northwestern Serbia ; Potiorek appeared confident . " Soldiers of the 5th and 6th armies , " he said . " The goal of this war is nearly attained — the complete destruction of the enemy . The three @-@ month campaign is almost over ; we must only break the enemy 's last resistance before the onset of winter . " The Serbs were exhausted and demoralized . In a telegram to Putnik dated 27 October 1914 , Stepanović complained that the 2nd Army did not have enough shells to resist the Austro @-@ Hungarians effectively and requested that he be removed from his command ; Putnik denied the request , but ordered all units to resist the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance for as long as possible before retreating . This strategy had worked in Putnik 's favour during the summer months , but heavy rainfall in September and early October had reduced all of Serbia 's roads to " muddy quagmires " that made movement of troops , guns and wagons extremely difficult . Potiorek recognized that the Serbian Army was in a difficult situation ; he was certain that a third invasion would bring him the decisive victory that he so desperately wanted . In Vienna and Sarajevo , Austro @-@ Hungarian officials began planning for the occupation and dismantling of Serbia . The country was to be plundered and its territory used to bribe the neutral Balkan states into joining the Central Powers , with the Romanians getting the region of Timočka Krajina and the Bulgarians getting Macedonia and southeastern Serbia . The Austro @-@ Hungarians intended to annex everything west of the Morava River , as well as the cities of Scutari ( Shkodër ) and Durazzo ( Durrës ) in northern Albania . The Serbs living west of the Morava — or " the compact masses of the Serbian element " , as the Austro @-@ Hungarians called them — were to be expelled and replaced with Austrian settlers ( colonisten ) , who would " change the psychology [ of the region ] , making Serbia more Habsburg [ and ] less Serbian in outlook . " Ludwig Thallóczy , section chief of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Ministry , wrote Potiorek in October , recommending " the West Europeanization of the Serbs with a strong hand " as soon as Serbia was occupied .
Potiorek planned to launch a converging attack across northern and western Serbia ; the 5th Army was to capture Valjevo and envelope the Kolubara River from the north , and the 6th Army was to secure the Jagodnja plateau and outflank Serbian units on the Kolubara from the south . The capture of the southeastern Serbian city of Niš was Potiorek 's main objective ; Niš had been Serbia 's capital since July and was a crucial transportation hub for its military . It also acted as a clearing house for munitions produced at the arsenal in nearby Kragujevac . The city 's capture would effectively cut Serbia in two and scatter the Serbian Army .
= = = Third Austro @-@ Hungarian invasion of Serbia = = =
All of the valleys of northwestern Serbia were swamped by constant rainfall . The mountains had been covered in snow since early October . Acknowledging the opportunity that such conditions presented , Putnik told his closest advisors : " All my strategy consists in placing the ' Serbian national mud ' between the enemy 's fighting line and his supplies . " On 31 October , von Frank 's 5th Army pushed down into the region between the Sava and Drina rivers while Potiorek 's 6th Army drove west across the Drina and into the Jagodnja plateau . Austria @-@ Hungary 's third invasion of Serbia commenced on 6 November 1914 , with intense artillery fire strafing a series of Serbian border towns . On 7 November , the Austro @-@ Hungarian 5th and 6th armies attacked across the Drina . Despite being outnumbered and in desperate need of ammunition , the Serbian Army offered fierce resistance but was forced into strategic withdrawal . The 3rd Army fell back against a road by the Jadar River in an effort to block the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance towards Valjevo , while the 1st Army retreated southward into the Serbian interior and the Užice Army managed to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarians from crossing the Drina .
On 8 November , the Austro @-@ Hungarians attacked the Serbian 2nd Army near Cer Mountain and came within 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) of the Serbian frontline , entrenching themselves at the foot of the mountain . The 2nd Army was given orders to hold the Austro @-@ Hungarians down for as long as possible and , if its position became untenable , retreat towards the right bank of the Dobrava River and position itself so as to block the approach to Valjevo . Elsewhere , the Austro @-@ Hungarians drove a wedge between the 1st and 3rd Army and forced another Serbian retreat . Later that day , the Serbian Government held a joint session with the Serbian Supreme Command with regard to Serbia 's worsening military position . Putnik stressed that it was critical for Serbia to hold the Kolubara and the towns within its vicinity and suggested that the Serbs make a separate peace with Austria @-@ Hungary if this proved impossible . This notion was rejected by the Prime Minister of Serbia , Nikola Pašić , who urged further resistance to the Austro @-@ Hungarians and threatened the resignation of his government if peace discussions began . The session ended with the Serbian Government and Supreme Command agreeing to fight on .
= = = Serbian retreat = = =
Putnik reasoned that Austro @-@ Hungarian supply lines would become overstretched as their forces pressed deeper into Serbia while the Serbs would continue to hold the railheads in the Serbian interior . On 10 November , he ordered a general retreat from the Jadar and withdrew the Serbian 2nd Army to Ub and positioned the 1st and 3rd armies north and west of Valjevo . Meanwhile , the Užice Army took up positions to defend the town from which it took its name . The Austro @-@ Hungarians pressed after the Serbs , hoping to capture the Obrenovac – Valjevo railroad . Clashes ensued and the Serbian Army managed to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarians from taking the railroad for a time . It quickly became clear to Putnik that he had underestimated the Austro @-@ Hungarians , who managed to bring their heavy artillery through the muddy Serbian country roads . They established firing positions on the Serbian side of the Drina and began targeting the Serbian Army , which suffered heavy casualties . Morale plummeted amongst the Serbs , who were already significantly demoralized due a lack of cold @-@ weather clothing and ammunition and exhausted by the long retreat towards the Serbian interior . Putnik realized that his forces would need to regroup if they were to provide any effective resistance to the Austro @-@ Hungarians . He ordered that Valjevo be abandoned and had the Serbian Army take up positions on the Kolubara . The retreat towards the river was long and excruciating , with the Serbs being forced to destroy all bridges and telephone lines so that they would not fall into Austro @-@ Hungarian hands . The Serbian Army also abandoned most of its heavy equipment to speed up the withdrawal . Seeing that the situation was critical and that Serbian forces were lacking artillery , ammunition and supplies , Pašić sought the help of the Triple Entente . He sent a telegram to his envoys abroad , which read : " Urgent help is required . Beg and plead . " France provided the Serbs with munitions and supplies . Representatives of Russia and the United Kingdom " expressed understanding " , but those countries failed to deliver weapons and munitions .
The Austro @-@ Hungarians entered Valjevo on 15 November , prompting wild public celebrations in Vienna . Franz Joseph praised Potiorek for seizing the town ; cities across the empire made Potiorek an honorary citizen and Sarajevo even named a street after him . Valjevo 's capture led the Austro @-@ Hungarians to believe that they were on the verge of defeating Serbia and that the Serbian Army was no longer a coherent fighting force , but the scorched earth tactics employed by the Serbs during their withdrawal complicated the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarians were right in assuming that the Serbian Army was exhausted , its defensive positions along the Kolubara had been prepared months in advance . Putnik 's carefully timed withdrawals had ensured that the losses of the Serbian Army were lighter than if it had stood and fought pitched battles with the Austro @-@ Hungarians . Moreover , the geography of northwestern Serbia favoured defensive operations since the approaches to the Kolubara did not offer any cover to armies invading from the direction of Austria @-@ Hungary and the river itself was surrounded by mountainous terrain . In October , the Serbs had fortified the Jeljak and Maljen mountain ranges in anticipation of an Austro @-@ Hungarian attack . This gave them an advantage over the Austro @-@ Hungarians as it placed them in control of all roads leading to Kragujevac . The Serbs also established a series of field fortifications blocking the approach to Niš . The extensive series of fortifications and the difficulty of the terrain which they faced left the Austro @-@ Hungarians with no choice but to conduct operations in the gruelling Serbian countryside with almost no lines of communication .
= = Battle = =
= = = 16 – 26 November = = =
The Austro @-@ Hungarians reached the Kolubara on 16 November and launched an assault against Serbian defensive positions there the following day . The Serbs managed to force the Austro @-@ Hungarians back and over the course of the next five days , the two armies fought a series of battles under heavy rain and snowfall . Both sides suffered heavy casualties , with a large number of soldiers succumbing to frostbite and hypothermia .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian assault began at Lazarevac , a strategically located town just south of Belgrade whose capture would have given them access to the Mladenovac railway line and the ability to outflank the Serbian forces holding the road to Belgrade . Further south , the Austro @-@ Hungarians attacked the Serbian 1st Army . During this assault , they made the mistake of attacking its stronger right flank and were met with determined Serbian resistance which prevented them from gaining any ground . Military historian David Jordan notes that had the Austro @-@ Hungarians attacked the junction splitting the 1st and Užice armies , they might have been able to split the Serbs down the centre and gotten hold of an unimpeded passage to the Morava River . The Serbian 1st Army was quick to reinforce its left flank , realizing that any subsequent attack against it would be far less easy to repel .
During the night of 18 November , the Austro @-@ Hungarians moved into position to carry out a further assault , which began the following morning . The Austro @-@ Hungarians ' main goal was to break through the defenses of the Serbian 2nd Army , concentrated primarily around Lazarevac , and to drive the Serbian 1st Army back towards the town of Gornji Milanovac while simultaneously assaulting Serbian positions around the villages of Čovka and Vrače Brdo which threatened the Austro @-@ Hungarian flank . The Austro @-@ Hungarians gained a foothold at Vrače Brdo by the evening of 19 November , and seized higher ground from the Serbs further to the south . The Serbian 1st Army was forced to retreat the following day , giving the Austro @-@ Hungarians the ability to advance down the main routes leading to Kragujevac . Potiorek believed it was possible that Putnik was trying to lure the Austro @-@ Hungarians deeper into Serbia for the purpose of encircling them and then attacking their flanks , but correctly assessed that the Serbian Army was in no position to carry out such an attack .
The Austro @-@ Hungarians made a renewed attack against the 1st Army on 21 November , forcing the Serbs back after a series of brutal engagements . The Austro @-@ Hungarians then advanced towards Mount Maljen , aiming to drive the 1st Serbian Army from its positions there . The Serbs withdrew from the mountain after three days of heavy fighting ; Potiorek decided not to pursue the retreating Serb units , allowing them to make an orderly withdrawal . The Austro @-@ Hungarians had suffered heavy casualties and the intensity of the fighting caused them to lose cohesion . As they advanced deeper into Serbia , the terrain became increasingly difficult and exhausted the already tired Austro @-@ Hungarian soldiers . While the Serbian 1st Army withdrew , the 2nd and 3rd armies fiercely resisted the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . This led Potiorek to reinforce his positions around Lazarevac , which he aimed to capture and use as a pivot from which to attack Kragujevac while his right flank pushed down the West Morava valley . Austro @-@ Hungarian advances convinced Potiorek that his army had the upper hand . He envisaged that his forces would pursue the surviving soldiers from the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies and predicted that the Serbian 1st and Užice armies would be forced to manoeuvre towards Belgrade and Lazarevac , where they would be encircled and destroyed . Combat on the outskirts of Lazarevac intensified once again as a result , and the Serbian Army managed to repulse every Austro @-@ Hungarian assault despite a lack of ammunition . The Serbs quickly began to run out of shells and Stepanović asked the Serbian Supreme Command that the artillery of the 2nd Army be redirected to its rear , as he felt that its failure to contribute to the defense of Lazarevac frustrated his troops and was bad for morale . Putnik instructed Stepanović to keep the artillery of the 2nd Army on the front and told him that the Russians had sent artillery shells for its guns . Stepanović was skeptical that the Russians had sent supplies to the Serbs , but kept the artillery of the 2nd Army on the front line as Putnik had instructed .
By 24 November , Potiorek was predicting that Serbia would be defeated within a matter of days and appointed Stjepan Sarkotić to be the country 's governor once it was occupied . The Austro @-@ Hungarians made further gains on 25 November , forcing the Serbian Army from Čovka and Vrače Brdo with an intense artillery bombardment . On 26 November , they attempted to cross the Kolubara at its junction with the Sava River and managed to do so in their initial attack . The Serbs soon counterattacked and forced the invaders back , inflicting 50 percent casualties on the Austro @-@ Hungarians and causing their offensive to grind to a halt . On 27 November , the Serbian Army attacked Čovka and Vrače Brdo and succeeded in forcing the Austro @-@ Hungarians out .
= = = Fall of Belgrade = = =
Although the Serbian Army had put up fierce resistance and inflicted heavy casualties on the Austro @-@ Hungarians , Putnik became concerned that his lines were over @-@ extended . He began contemplating another strategic withdrawal , one in which Belgrade would have to be evacuated . On the night of 26 – 27 November , the Austro @-@ Hungarian 6th Army attacked all along the front and pushed deeper into the Serbian interior .
Defending along an over @-@ extended front , the Serbian Supreme Command decided to abandon Belgrade . The city was evacuated on 29 / 30 November . The Austro @-@ Hungarians entered the city on 1 December , prompting yet more celebrations in Vienna . The Serbian people withdrew alongside their army and many retreated to Niš , where news of Belgrade 's fall was greeted " impassively " , as it had been " expected since the beginning of the war " . Albin Kutschbach , a German agent in Niš , reported : " More refugees are arriving by the day , and despite many people being sent on south , there are certainly still 60 @,@ 000 people here . " Germany responded to the capture of Belgrade with delight and sent a congratulatory telegram to the Austro @-@ Hungarian leadership . The Austro @-@ Hungarians ascertained that their war with Serbia would soon be over and began preparing for the country 's occupation . On 2 December , the anniversary of Franz Joseph 's 66th year on the throne , Potiorek wrote that he was " laying town and fortress Belgrade at His Majesty 's feet " .
= = = Serbian counterattack = = =
It became increasingly clear to both Potiorek and Putnik that Austro @-@ Hungarian supply lines were over @-@ extended and so , on 1 December , Potiorek ordered the Austro @-@ Hungarian 6th Army to stop and wait for the 5th Army to secure its supply lines east of the Valjevo railway , resulting in a short pause to all Austro @-@ Hungarian military operations . Mišić exploited this brief respite by withdrawing the Serbian 1st Army a full 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the front line and ensured that his soldiers had an opportunity to rest . The Serbian Army then converged around Mount Rudnik , where it received long @-@ promised supplies from its allies via the Niš – Salonika railroad . Putnik 's confidence in the ability of his army to launch a counterattack was restored . On 2 December , he ordered his forces to attack the Austro @-@ Hungarians all along the front and informed his officers that the offensive was to have the specific purpose of improving Serbian morale . Determined to play his part , the aging Serbian king , Peter I , took a rifle and accompanied his troops to the front . The Serbian offensive caught the Austro @-@ Hungarians by surprise , and at the time that the attack was launched they were holding a large military parade through the streets of Belgrade . The Austro @-@ Hungarians now found themselves defending along an over @-@ extended front as Potiorek had just begun strengthening his left flank , leaving the front line very lightly held . Potiorek knew that he could avoid a serious reversal on the battlefield by preventing the Serbian 1st Army from reaching the watershed of the Kolubara and Morava rivers , but the Serbs were confident . They discovered that the Austro @-@ Hungarians had failed to adequately prepare for a Serbian counterattack , as their artillery was positioned well behind the front line . This meant that the Austro @-@ Hungarian defenders would be unable to use their heavy guns to break up any Serbian advance . Rested and resupplied , the Serbs pushed forward towards Belgrade . By the night of 2 December , the Serbian 1st Army pushed several kilometres past Austro @-@ Hungarian lines , taking a large number of prisoners and inflicting heavy casualties on the Austro @-@ Hungarians . The 2nd and 3rd armies captured a number of important positions on high ground , while the Užice Army met fierce resistance but was ultimately able to push the Austro @-@ Hungarians back .
The offensive 's initial success served to greatly enhanced the morale of Serbian troops , just as Putnik had wanted . Significantly weakened , the Austro @-@ Hungarians did not have time to recover before the offensive resumed the following morning and they were forced into retreat by the end of the day . On 6 December , the British ambassador to Serbia informed the British Government that the Serb offensive was " progressing brilliantly " . That day , the Serbian Army had broken the Austro @-@ Hungarians at their centre and on their right flank . Outmanoeuvred , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were forced into a full retreat , abandoning their weapons and equipment as they went . Meanwhile , the Austro @-@ Hungarians attempted to consolidate control around Belgrade . On 7 December , they attacked the right flank of the Serbian Army in the city 's outskirts .
On 8 December , the Austro @-@ Hungarians fell back against Užice and Valjevo . The Serbs anticipated that their opponents would entrench themselves and attempt to block the Serbian Army 's advance , but the Austro @-@ Hungarians had failed to construct any defensive networks and , as such , were in no position to block the Serbian offensive . The Austro @-@ Hungarians had ensured that Valjevo 's defenses were fortified and had laid down artillery plans for the town 's defense , but their lack of prior preparation meant that the hills surrounding the town were devoid of any significant defensive positions . The Serbs exploited this weakness by manoeuvring around the hills and encircling the Austro @-@ Hungarians , suffering minimal casualties . The Serbian 3rd Army then broke through the defenses of the 6th Army at Mount Suvobor and stormed Valjevo . In Niš , the Bulgarian ambassador to Serbia reported : " The most improbable news from the battleground , sweet to the Serb ear , has been going around since this morning . " He wrote that , in the last three to four days , the Serbian Army had captured one Austro @-@ Hungarian General , 49 officers and more than 20 @,@ 000 troops , as well as 40 cannon and " huge quantities of war matériel " . By 9 December , the Austro @-@ Hungarian counter @-@ offensive around Belgrade lost its momentum and the Austro @-@ Hungarians began to retreat back towards the city centre . One Austro @-@ Hungarian soldier wrote : " We could not have imagined that the Serbs were on our heels , after all we had recently been victorious . " On 10 December , the Serbian Army captured the lower reaches of the Drina , forcing the majority of surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian troops to flee across the river . They did not stop until they had crossed the Sava and the Danube and entered the Banat . Very few Austro @-@ Hungarian soldiers made it back into Bosnia .
On 13 December , von Frank informed Potiorek that he considered it impossible for Austro @-@ Hungarian forces to remain in Belgrade for much longer . As a result , Potiorek ordered the Austro @-@ Hungarian forces in the city to withdraw . The Austro @-@ Hungarians left Belgrade on 14 and 15 December and retreated back into Austria @-@ Hungary under the cover of their river monitors on the Sava and the Danube . The Serbian Army re @-@ entered Belgrade on 15 December and was in full control of the city by the end of the following day .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle ended in a decisive Serbian victory . A directive issued by the Serbian Supreme Command on 16 December reported : " The recapture of Belgrade marks the successful end of a great and magnificent period in our operations . The enemy is beaten , dispersed , defeated and expelled from our territory once and for all . " Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Chief of the General Staff , attributed the defeat to a Serbian " thunder bolt from the south " . The battle did not achieve any of Austria @-@ Hungary 's objectives : it failed to knock Serbia out of the war , it failed to induce Bulgaria to join the Central Powers and it failed to convince Romania to stay neutral . Austro @-@ Hungarian historians concluded after the battle that defeat by Serbia constituted " a serious diminution in the Dual Monarchy 's prestige and self @-@ confidence " . The battle , like the Battle of Cer before it , drew considerable attention to Serbia and many foreigners came to the country in late 1914 to offer political and humanitarian aid or to fight alongside the Serbian Army . German publicist Maximilian Harden wrote : " Serbia has risen from its grave on the field of Kosovo . From the source of the Kolubara River it will draw courage for the greatest battles of the whole century . "
The Austro @-@ Hungarians suffered about 225 @,@ 000 casualties , including 30 @,@ 000 killed , 173 @,@ 000 wounded and 70 @,@ 000 taken prisoner . They reported that 200 of their officers were taken prisoner during the battle and more than 130 cannon , 70 heavy machine @-@ guns and a large quantity of matériel were captured . The Serbs also suffered heavy casualties , with 22 @,@ 000 killed , 91 @,@ 000 wounded and 19 @,@ 000 missing or captured . The Western press was appalled with the scale of atrocities committed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian troops against Serbian civilians , including women and children . William Shepard , of the United Press , confirmed as an eyewitness that at least eighteen towns were fully abandoned , and the whole of northwestern Serbia was nearly depopulated .
Mišić was promoted to the rank of vojvoda for his command during the battle . Potiorek , on the other hand , was relieved of command on 22 December for " this most ignominious , rankling and derisory defeat " . The decision reportedly made him suicidal . He was replaced by Archduke Eugen of Austria , who the Austro @-@ Hungarians hoped would " restore Habsburg forces to the glory days of Prince Eugene " . Von Frank was dismissed as commander of the 5th Army and replaced by Karl Tersztyánszky von Nádas , who had commanded the 4th Corps at the Battle of Cer . The 5th and 6th armies were then merged into a single 5th Army consisting of 95 @,@ 000 men .
Dobrica Ćosić 's novel A Time of Death revolves around the battle . It was adapted into a stage play in 1983 , titled The Battle of Kolubara .
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= Hot to the Touch =
" Hot to the Touch " is the first episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 2 , 2012 . The episode serves as a direct continuation of the third season episode " Incendium " .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn develops a crush on Flame Princess ( voiced by Jessica DiCicco ) and tries to get to know her , which proves difficult due to her destructive and uncontrollable power .
The episode was the first to be storyboarded by Sanchez and Sugar ; Sugar 's previous storyboard partner , Adam Muto , helped clean up the episode 's drawings . Sugar wrote a short rap for the episode , rapped by Andy Milonakis . Originally , Sugar wanted Milonakis to write his own , but he felt the song was of quality and he wanted to rap Sugar 's version . " Hot to the Touch " was seen by 2 @.@ 655 million viewers and marked a significant increase in ratings for the series . It received largely positive critical reviews , with reviewers from both The A.V. Club and Slate applauding the episode 's emotional range .
= = Plot = =
Finn pursues Flame Princess ( voiced by Jessica DiCicco ) , trying to explain to her that he does not want to hurt her . However , Flame Princess , confused by Finn 's aversion to fire , assumes that he merely wants to taunt her . She ventures to the Goblin Kingdom , intent on turning it into her new domain . Finn and Jake , meanwhile , return to the tree fort and , with the help of N.E.P.T.R. ( voiced by Andy Milonakis ) , build flame @-@ retardant battle robots .
The two heroes descend on the Goblin Kingdom , and begin putting out the fire ; this , in turn , hurts Flame Princess , both emotionally and physically , judging from her shedding of a single tear . Finn , horrified at the pain he has caused the object of his affections , exits his robot and calls for Flame Princess 's attention , before crying . The tears alert Flame Princess that Finn is a " water elemental " , and that the two will only hurt each other , due to the opposition of their natural states .
= = Production = =
" Hot to the Touch " was written and storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar , from a story developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , Patrick McHale , and Kent Osborne . This was the first episode that Sugar and Sanchez worked on together ; Sugar 's previous partner Adam Muto served as the episode 's creative director , and also helped clean up the episode 's storyboards . Sugar was excited to get a chance to show how Flame Princess interacted in the Land of Ooo , because in " Incendium " , she was only shown inside of her lantern . The line about Finn wanting to play BMO with Flame Princess was based on Sanchez 's experiences with his high school girlfriend ; he reasoned that , since Finn was younger , his ultimate idea of love would be to sit next to his love interest and play video games .
The episode features Andy Milonakis reprising his role as N.E.P.T.R. , a character that was last seen in the first season episode " What is Life ? " The short rap " Working for the Master " that is sung by N.E.P.T.R. was written by Sugar . She had originally planned for her demo version to merely be a filler track , as she expected Milonakis to want to write his own rap . To her surprise , however , Milonakis enjoyed her version and wanted to perform it the way it was written . Sugar 's father , Rob , later released her demo version on his YouTube channel . Series composer Tim Kiefer produced the song 's instrumental . Inspired by Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's penchant for sampling , Kieffer took his music from the season one episode " What is Life ? " and edited it substantially , creating the " clattery bumpin ' beat " featured in the episode .
= = Reception = =
" Hot to the Touch " aired on Cartoon Network on April 2 , 2012 . The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 655 million viewers . The episode also ranked as the number one telecast for all children demographics , according to Nielsen ratings . It also marked a 96 percent increase in ratings , when the numbers for " Hot to the Touch " were compared to the ratings for the same time period in 2011 . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2014 DVD , Princess Day , which included 16 episodes from the series ' second through sixth seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete fourth season DVD in October 2014 .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club gave the episode a largely positive review , noting that " in the episode ’ s 10 minutes , the writers create an apt metaphor for pubescent dating , as Finn and FP struggle to make a relationship work . " He noted the symbolism inherent in making Flame Princess a fire elemental , writing that " fire is the perfect element for a hormonal teenage princess , and FP can ’ t control her emotions , burning everything in her path as she reacts to Finn ’ s advances . " Sava also complimented the return of N.E.P.T.R. , as well as his short rap , which Sava called " a perfect little musical interlude at the midway point of the episode . "
Mike Lechevaillier of Slate magazine , in a review of the fourth season , wrote that " it 's frequently astonishing to observe the confidence and wide @-@ ranging appeal with which Adventure Time unswervingly depicts the many stages of infatuation . " The reviewer highlighted " Hot to the Touch " as an example of such an example , noting that Flame Princess represents " an uncomplicated yet vastly pertinent metaphor for the hypothesis that the closer you cherish someone , the likelier they are to singe your soft exterior and the easier it is for them to affectionately melt your exposed heart . " Marc Snetiker of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode a " B " , noting that " the season four premiere of this inspired ' toon about a boy and his precocious dog is as colorful , clever , and unpredictably funny as ever . "
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= Hydrogen =
Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1 . With an atomic weight of 1 @.@ 00794 u , hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table . Its monatomic form ( H ) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe , constituting roughly 75 % of all baryonic mass . Non @-@ remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state . The most common isotope of hydrogen , termed protium ( name rarely used , symbol 1H ) , has one proton and no neutrons .
The universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch . At standard temperature and pressure , hydrogen is a colorless , odorless , tasteless , non @-@ toxic , nonmetallic , highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2 . Since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most non @-@ metallic elements , most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds . Hydrogen plays a particularly important role in acid – base reactions because most acid @-@ base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules . In ionic compounds , hydrogen can take the form of a negative charge ( i.e. , anion ) when it is known as a hydride , or as a positively charged ( i.e. , cation ) species denoted by the symbol H + . The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton , but in reality , hydrogen cations in ionic compounds are always more complex . As the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically , study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics .
Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals . In 1766 – 81 , Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance , and that it produces water when burned , the property for which it was later named : in Greek , hydrogen means " water @-@ former " .
Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas , and less often from more energy @-@ intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water . Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production site , the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing ( e.g. , hydrocracking ) and ammonia production , mostly for the fertilizer market . Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals , complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks .
= = Properties = =
= = = Combustion = = =
Hydrogen gas ( dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen ) is highly flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4 % and 75 % by volume . The enthalpy of combustion is − 286 kJ / mol :
2 H2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2 H2O ( l ) + 572 kJ ( 286 kJ / mol )
Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4 – 74 % and with chlorine at 5 – 95 % . The explosive reactions may be triggered by spark , heat , or sunlight . The hydrogen autoignition temperature , the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air , is 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . Pure hydrogen @-@ oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to the naked eye , as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine , compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster , which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite . The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector ; such leaks can be very dangerous . Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue , resembling blue natural gas flames .
The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was an notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated . The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a rich mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin .
H2 reacts with every oxidizing element . Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding hydrogen halides , hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride , which are also potentially dangerous acids .
= = = Electron energy levels = = =
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is − 13 @.@ 6 eV , which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength .
The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom , which conceptualizes the electron as " orbiting " the proton in analogy to the Earth 's orbit of the Sun . However , the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force , while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity . Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr , the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton , and therefore only certain allowed energies .
A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation , Dirac equation or even the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton . The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization . In the quantum mechanical treatment , the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all — illustrating how the " planetary orbit " differs from electron motion .
= = = Elemental molecular forms = = =
There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei . In the orthohydrogen form , the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 ( 1 ⁄ 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 ) ; in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 ⁄ 2 ) . At standard temperature and pressure , hydrogen gas contains about 25 % of the para form and 75 % of the ortho form , also known as the " normal form " . The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature , but because the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form , it is unstable and cannot be purified . At very low temperatures , the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the para form . The liquid and gas phase thermal properties of pure parahydrogen differ significantly from those of the normal form because of differences in rotational heat capacities , as discussed more fully in spin isomers of hydrogen . The ortho / para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen @-@ containing molecules or functional groups , such as water and methylene , but is of little significance for their thermal properties .
The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing temperature ; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high @-@ energy ortho form that converts to the para form very slowly . The ortho / para ratio in condensed H2 is an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen : the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate some of the hydrogen liquid , leading to loss of liquefied material . Catalysts for the ortho @-@ para interconversion , such as ferric oxide , activated carbon , platinized asbestos , rare earth metals , uranium compounds , chromic oxide , or some nickel compounds , are used during hydrogen cooling .
= = = Phases = = =
Gaseous hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen
Slush hydrogen
Solid hydrogen
Metallic hydrogen
= = = Compounds = = =
= = = = Covalent and organic compounds = = = =
While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions , it does form compounds with most elements . Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative , such as halogens ( e.g. , F , Cl , Br , I ) , or oxygen ; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge . When bonded to fluorine , oxygen , or nitrogen , hydrogen can participate in a form of medium @-@ strength noncovalent bonding with the hydrogen of other similar molecules , a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules . Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements , such as metals and metalloids , where it takes on a partial negative charge . These compounds are often known as hydrides .
Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons , and an even vaster array with heteroatoms that , because of their general association with living things , are called organic compounds . The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry . By some definitions , " organic " compounds are only required to contain carbon . However , most of them also contain hydrogen , and because it is the carbon @-@ hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics , carbon @-@ hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word " organic " in chemistry . Millions of hydrocarbons are known , and they are usually formed by complicated synthetic pathways that seldom involve elementary hydrogen .
= = = = Hydrides = = = =
Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides , a term that is used fairly loosely . The term " hydride " suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character , denoted H − , and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element . The existence of the hydride anion , suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt @-@ like hydrides , was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride ( LiH ) , producing a stoichiometry quantity of hydrogen at the anode . For hydrides other than group 1 and 2 metals , the term is quite misleading , considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen . An exception in group 2 hydrides is BeH
2 , which is polymeric . In lithium aluminium hydride , the AlH −
4 anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al ( III ) .
Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main @-@ group elements , the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely ; for example , more than 100 binary borane hydrides are known , but only one binary aluminium hydride . Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified , although larger complexes exist .
In inorganic chemistry , hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex . This function is particularly common in group 13 elements , especially in boranes ( boron hydrides ) and aluminium complexes , as well as in clustered carboranes .
= = = = Protons and acids = = = =
Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H + , which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton . That is why H + is often called a proton . This species is central to discussion of acids . Under the Bronsted @-@ Lowry theory , acids are proton donors , while bases are proton acceptors .
A bare proton , H + , cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons . Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas , such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules , and will remain attached to them . However , the term ' proton ' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion , and as such is denoted " H + " without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species .
To avoid the implication of the naked " solvated proton " in solution , acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species , termed the " hydronium ion " ( H
3O + ) . However , even in this case , such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to H
9O +
4 . Other oxonium ions are found when water is in acidic solution with other solvents .
Although exotic on Earth , one of the most common ions in the universe is the H +
3 ion , known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes , denoted 1H , 2H and 3H . Other , highly unstable nuclei ( 4H to 7H ) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature .
1H is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99 @.@ 98 % . Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton , it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal name protium .
2H , the other stable hydrogen isotope , is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in the nucleus . All deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the time of the Big Bang , and has endured since that time . Deuterium is not radioactive , and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard . Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy water . Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non @-@ radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for 1H @-@ NMR spectroscopy . Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors . Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion .
3H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus . It is radioactive , decaying into helium @-@ 3 through beta decay with a half @-@ life of 12 @.@ 32 years . It is so radioactive that it can be used in luminous paint , making it useful in such things as watches . The glass prevents the small amount of radiation from getting out . Small amounts of tritium are produced naturally by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases ; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests . It is used in nuclear fusion reactions , as a tracer in isotope geochemistry , and in specialized self @-@ powered lighting devices . Tritium has also been used in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel .
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today . During the early study of radioactivity , various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names , but such names are no longer used , except for deuterium and tritium . The symbols D and T ( instead of 2H and 3H ) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium , but the corresponding symbol for protium , P , is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium . In its nomenclatural guidelines , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D , T , 2H , and 3H to be used , although 2H and 3H are preferred .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery and use = = =
In 1671 , Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids , which results in the production of hydrogen gas . In 1766 , Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance , by naming the gas from a metal @-@ acid reaction " inflammable air " . He speculated that " inflammable air " was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called " phlogiston " and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned . He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element . In 1783 , Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen ( from the Greek ὑδρο- hydro meaning " water " and -γενής genes meaning " creator " ) when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish 's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned .
Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire . Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions :
Fe + H2O → FeO + H2
2 Fe + 3 H2O → Fe2O3 + 3 H2
3 Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 H2
Many metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with water leading to the production of hydrogen .
Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention , the vacuum flask . He produced solid hydrogen the next year . Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey , and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford , Mark Oliphant , and Paul Harteck . Heavy water , which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen , was discovered by Urey 's group in 1932 . François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine , an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806 . Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819 . The Döbereiner 's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823 .
The first hydrogen @-@ filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783 . Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air @-@ travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen @-@ lifted airship by Henri Giffard . German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins ; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900 . Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , they had carried 35 @,@ 000 passengers without a serious incident . Hydrogen @-@ lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war .
The first non @-@ stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919 . Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety , but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose . Therefore , H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship , which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937 . The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed . Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause , but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity . But the damage to hydrogen 's reputation as a lifting gas was already done .
In the same year the first hydrogen @-@ cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton , Ohio , by the Dayton Power & Light Co . ; because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas , this is the most common type in its field today .
The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy 's Navigation technology satellite @-@ 2 ( NTS @-@ 2 ) . For example , the ISS , Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel @-@ hydrogen batteries . In the dark part of its orbit , the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel @-@ hydrogen batteries , which were finally replaced in May 2009 , more than 19 years after launch and 13 years beyond their design life .
= = = Role in quantum theory = = =
Because of its simple atomic structure , consisting only of a proton and an electron , the hydrogen atom , together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it , has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure . Furthermore , study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H +
2 brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond , which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid @-@ 1920s .
One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed ( but not understood at the time ) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen , half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived . Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures . According to quantum theory , this behavior arises from the spacing of the ( quantized ) rotational energy levels , which are particularly wide @-@ spaced in H2 because of its low mass . These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures . Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect .
Antihydrogen ( H ) is the antimatter counterpart to hydrogen . It consists of an antiproton with a positron . Antihydrogen is the only type of antimatter atom to have been produced as of 2015 .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Hydrogen , as atomic H , is the most abundant chemical element in the universe , making up 75 % of normal matter by mass and more than 90 % by number of atoms . ( Most of the mass of the universe , however , is not in the form of chemical @-@ element type matter , but rather is postulated to occur as yet @-@ undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy . ) This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets . Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation . Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton @-@ proton reaction and the CNO cycle nuclear fusion .
Throughout the universe , hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states , with properties quite different from those of molecular hydrogen . As a plasma , hydrogen 's electron and proton are not bound together , resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity ( producing the light from the Sun and other stars ) . The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields . For example , in the solar wind they interact with the Earth 's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora . Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium . The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman @-@ alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z = 4 .
Under ordinary conditions on Earth , elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas , H2 . However , hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth 's atmosphere ( 1 ppm by volume ) because of its light weight , which enables it to escape from Earth 's gravity more easily than heavier gases . However , hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth 's surface , mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water . Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus , as is methane , itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance .
A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen ( H +
3 ) is found in the interstellar medium , where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays . This charged ion has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter . The ion is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density . H +
3 is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe , and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium . Neutral triatomic hydrogen H3 can exist only in an excited form and is unstable . By contrast , the positive hydrogen molecular ion ( H +
2 ) is a rare molecule in the universe .
= = Production = =
H
2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories , often as a by @-@ product of other reactions ; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates ; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions .
= = = Steam reforming = = =
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways , but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons , as about 95 % of hydrogen production came from steam reforming around year 2000 . Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas . At high temperatures ( 1000 – 1400 K , 700 – 1100 ° C or 1300 – 2000 ° F ) , steam ( water vapor ) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H
2 .
CH
4 + H
2O → CO + 3 H
2
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures ( 2 @.@ 0 MPa , 20 atm or 600 inHg ) . This is because high @-@ pressure H
2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption ( PSA ) purification systems work better at higher pressures . The product mixture is known as " synthesis gas " because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds . Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios . One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon :
CH
4 → C + 2 H
2
Consequently , steam reforming typically employs an excess of H
2O . Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction , especially with an iron oxide catalyst . This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide :
CO + H
2O → CO
2 + H
2
Other important methods for H
2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons :
2 CH
4 + O
2 → 2 CO + 4 H
2
and the coal reaction , which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above :
C + H
2O → CO + H
2
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process , without being separated . In the Haber process for the production of ammonia , hydrogen is generated from natural gas . Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co @-@ product .
= = = Metal @-@ acid = = =
In the laboratory , H
2 is usually prepared by the reaction of dilute non @-@ oxidizing acids on some reactive metals such as zinc with Kipp 's apparatus .
Zn + 2 H + → Zn2 + + H
2
Aluminium can also produce H
2 upon treatment with bases :
2 Al + 6 H
2O + 2 OH − → 2 Al ( OH ) −
4 + 3 H
2
The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen . A low voltage current is run through the water , and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode . Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage . If , however , the gas is to be burnt on site , oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion , and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals . ( Iron , for instance , would oxidize , and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off . ) The theoretical maximum efficiency ( electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced ) is in the range 80 – 94 % .
2 H
2O ( l ) → 2 H
2 ( g ) + O
2 ( g )
An alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water can be used to generate hydrogen . The process also produces alumina , but the expensive gallium , which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets , can be re @-@ used . This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy , as hydrogen can be produced on @-@ site and does not need to be transported .
= = = Thermochemical = = =
There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting , around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle , cerium ( IV ) oxide – cerium ( III ) oxide cycle , zinc zinc @-@ oxide cycle , sulfur @-@ iodine cycle , copper @-@ chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity . A number of laboratories ( including in France , Germany , Greece , Japan , and the USA ) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water .
= = = Anaerobic corrosion = = =
Under anaerobic conditions , iron and steel alloys are slowly oxidized by the protons of water concomitantly reduced in molecular hydrogen ( H
2 ) . The anaerobic corrosion of iron leads first to the formation of ferrous hydroxide ( green rust ) and can be described by the following reaction :
Fe + 2 H
2O → Fe ( OH )
2 + H
2
In its turn , under anaerobic conditions , the ferrous hydroxide ( Fe ( OH )
2 ) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and molecular hydrogen . This process is described by the Schikorr reaction :
3 Fe ( OH )
2 → Fe
3O
4 + 2 H
2O + H
2
ferrous hydroxide → magnetite + water + hydrogen
The well crystallized magnetite ( Fe
3O
4 ) is thermodynamically more stable than the ferrous hydroxide ( Fe ( OH )
2 ) .
This process occurs during the anaerobic corrosion of iron and steel in oxygen @-@ free groundwater and in reducing soils below the water table .
= = = Geological occurrence : the serpentinization reaction = = =
In the absence of atmospheric oxygen ( O
2 ) , in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere , hydrogen ( H
2 ) is produced during the process of serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation by the water protons ( H + ) of the ferrous ( Fe2 + ) silicate present in the crystal lattice of the fayalite ( Fe
2SiO
4 , the olivine iron @-@ endmember ) . The corresponding reaction leading to the formation of magnetite ( Fe
3O
4 ) , quartz ( SiO
2 ) and hydrogen ( H
2 ) is the following :
3Fe
2SiO
4 + 2 H
2O → 2 Fe
3O
4 + 3 SiO
2 + 3 H
2
fayalite + water → magnetite + quartz + hydrogen
This reaction closely resembles the Schikorr reaction observed in the anaerobic oxidation of the ferrous hydroxide in contact with water .
= = = Formation in transformers = = =
From all the fault gases formed in power transformers , hydrogen is the most common and is generated under most fault conditions ; thus , formation of hydrogen is an early indication of serious problems in the transformer 's life cycle .
= = Applications = =
= = = Consumption in processes = = =
Large quantities of H
2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries . The largest application of H
2 is for the processing ( " upgrading " ) of fossil fuels , and in the production of ammonia . The key consumers of H
2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation , hydrodesulfurization , and hydrocracking . H
2 has several other important uses . H
2 is used as a hydrogenating agent , particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils ( found in items such as margarine ) , and in the production of methanol . It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid . H
2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores .
Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals . Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice . These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks , but the gas 's high solubility is a metallurgical problem , contributing to the embrittlement of many metals , complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks .
Apart from its use as a reactant , H
2 has wide applications in physics and engineering . It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding . H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations , because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas . Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research , including superconductivity studies . Because H
2 is lighter than air , having a little more than 1 ⁄ 14 of the density of air , it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships .
In more recent applications , hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen ( sometimes called forming gas ) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection . Applications can be found in the automotive , chemical , power generation , aerospace , and telecommunications industries . Hydrogen is an authorized food additive ( E 949 ) that allows food package leak testing among other anti @-@ oxidizing properties .
Hydrogen 's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications . Deuterium ( hydrogen @-@ 2 ) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons , and in nuclear fusion reactions . Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects . Tritium ( hydrogen @-@ 3 ) , produced in nuclear reactors , is used in the production of hydrogen bombs , as an isotopic label in the biosciences , and as a radiation source in luminous paints .
The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS @-@ 90 temperature scale at 13 @.@ 8033 kelvins .
= = = Coolant = = =
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules . These include low density , low viscosity , and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases .
= = = Energy carrier = = =
Hydrogen is not an energy resource , except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium , a technology presently far from development . The Sun 's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen , but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth . Elemental hydrogen from solar , biological , or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it , so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier , like a battery . Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources ( such as methane ) , but these sources are unsustainable .
The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources , although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher . Nevertheless , elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy , as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy @-@ wide scale . For example , CO
2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H
2 production from fossil fuels . Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly , with some NOx emissions , but without carbon emissions . However , the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial . Fuel cells can convert hydrogen and oxygen directly to electricity more efficiently than internal combustion engines .
= = = Semiconductor industry = = =
Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken ( " dangling " ) bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties . It is also a potential electron donor in various oxide materials , including ZnO , SnO2 , CdO , MgO , ZrO2 , HfO2 , La2O3 , Y2O3 , TiO2 , SrTiO3 , LaAlO3 , SiO2 , Al2O3 , ZrSiO4 , HfSiO4 , and SrZrO3 .
= = Biological reactions = =
H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms , usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel @-@ containing enzymes called hydrogenases . These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electrons . Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water . The natural cycle of hydrogen production and consumption by organisms is called the hydrogen cycle .
Water splitting , in which water is decomposed into its component protons , electrons , and oxygen , occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms . Some such organisms , including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria , have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast . Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen . Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor .
= = Safety and precautions = =
Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety , from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure , oxygen @-@ free form . In addition , liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers ( such as frostbite ) associated with very cold liquids . Hydrogen dissolves in many metals , and , in addition to leaking out , may have adverse effects on them , such as hydrogen embrittlement , leading to cracks and explosions . Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite . Moreover , hydrogen fire , while being extremely hot , is almost invisible , and thus can lead to accidental burns .
Even interpreting the hydrogen data ( including safety data ) is confounded by a number of phenomena . Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen / orthohydrogen ratio ( it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio , for which the data is usually given ) . Hydrogen detonation parameters , such as critical detonation pressure and temperature , strongly depend on the container geometry .
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= Bigfin reef squid =
Sepioteuthis lessoniana , commonly known as the bigfin reef squid or oval squid , is a commercially important species of loliginid squid . It is one of the three currently recognized species belonging to the genus Sepioteuthis . Studies in 1993 , however , have indicated that bigfin reef squids may comprise a cryptic species complex . The species is likely to include several very similar and closely related species .
Bigfin reef squids are characterised by a large oval fin that extends throughout the margins of its mantle , giving them a superficial similarity to cuttlefish . They are small to medium @-@ sized squids , averaging 3 @.@ 8 to 33 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 0 in ) in length . They exhibit elaborate mating displays and usually spawn in May , but it can vary by location . The paralarvae resemble miniature adults and are remarkable for already having the capability to change body colouration upon hatching . Bigfin reef squids have the fastest recorded growth rates of any large marine invertebrate , reaching 600 g ( 1 @.@ 3 lb ) in only four months . They are a short @-@ lived species , with a maximum recorded lifespan of 315 days .
The diet of bigfin reef squids comprises mainly crustaceans and small fish . They are found in the temperate and tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans , and have recently been introduced into the Mediterranean as a Lessepsian migrant . They are commonly found near the shoreline , near rocks , and coral reefs . They are fished in vast quantities for human food in Asia . Because of their rapid growth rate , short life span , and tolerance to handling and captivity , bigfin reef squids are regarded as one of the most promising species for mariculture . They are also a valuable source of giant axons for medical research .
= = Taxonomy and nomenclature = =
Bigfin reef squids are also known as northern calamary in Australia and New Zealand , to distinguish them from the southern reef squid ( or southern calamary ) , Sepioteuthis australis . Other common names include green @-@ eyed squid in English , koonthal in Malayalam , oosi kanava in Tamil , calmar tonnelet in French , calamar manopla in Spanish , Großflossen @-@ Riffkalmar in German , mu he`e in Hawaiian , 莱氏拟乌贼 in Chinese , torak in Malaysian , アオリイカ ( aori @-@ ika ) in Japanese , kinn mon in Burmese. and 무늬오징어 ( moony @-@ o @-@ jing @-@ au ) in Korean .
Sepioteuthis lessoniana is one of the three currently recognised species classified under the genus Sepioteuthis of the pencil squid family , Loliginidae . It belongs to the suborder Myopsina of the squid order Teuthida . Sepioteuthis literally means ' cuttlefish squid ' , from Greek : σηπία ( sēpía , ' cuttlefish ' ) and τευθίς ( teuthis , ' squid ' ) .
It was first described by the French naturalist André Étienne d 'Audebert de Férussac and named after René Primevère Lesson . The type specimen was collected by Lesson off the coast of New Guinea during the circumnavigational voyage of the French corvette La Coquille ( 1822 – 1825 ) under the command of Louis Isidore Duperrey . Numerous other species of Sepioteuthis were described from the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the late 19th century and in the early 20th century . In 1939 the Belgian malacologist William Adam examined the specimens of Sepioteuthis recovered from the tropical western Pacific . He synonymised the twelve species then considered valid under Sepioteuthis lessoniana .
A study in 1993 by Segawa et al. revealed that the population of S. lessoniana in Okinawa may actually be composed of three distinct species . This was confirmed in genetic studies by Izuka et al. in 1994 . Triantafillos and Adams in 2005 also showed that S. lessoniana in Shark Bay , Australia is composed of two species . These findings indicate that S. lessoniana may actually comprise several very similar and closely related species . It is now believed that S. lessoniana is a cryptic species complex .
= = Description = =
Like other members of the genus Sepioteuthis , bigfin reef squids are easy to distinguish from other squids in that they possess thick and muscular oval fins that extend around almost the entire mantle . The fins extend about 83 to 97 % of the mantle length and are 67 to 70 % of the mantle length in width . Because of these fins , bigfin reef squids are sometimes mistaken for cuttlefish , a fact reflected by their scientific names . A narrow blue or white line is visible at the point of attachment of the fins to the mantle . A fleshy ridge is also present where the fins meet at the back of the squid .
The mantles of bigfin reef squids are cylindrical , tapering to a blunt cone at the posterior . The mantle is usually 4 to 33 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 0 in ) long in males and 3 @.@ 8 to 25 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 1 in ) long in females . Both sexes can reach a maximum mantle length of 38 cm ( 15 in ) . Adult males weigh 403 @.@ 5 to 1 @,@ 415 g ( 0 @.@ 890 to 3 @.@ 120 lb ) , while adult females are 165 to 1 @,@ 046 g ( 0 @.@ 364 to 2 @.@ 306 lb ) . Both sexes can attain a maximum documented weight of 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 lb ) . The forward margin of the mantle on the ventral side is concave .
Their eyes are large and covered entirely by a transparent secondary cornea . They are greenish at the base . A pair of prominent ridges ( olfactory crests ) are present on the ventral surface of the head at the rear edge of the eyes . The mouth area is supported by seven triangular flaps ( buccal lappets ) , each with 0 to 7 suckers of less than 0 @.@ 2 mm in diameter and 18 to 25 teeth . The strong , curved , and short beaks ( rostra ) are mostly black to dark brown . The radula has seven rows of teeth .
The spermatophores of males are about 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) long and 0 @.@ 15 mm wide . The ink sac is pear @-@ shaped , with a silvery blue @-@ green outer layer . The vane of the gladius ( the rigid internal remnants of the mollusc shell ) is oval @-@ shaped and pointed at both ends ( lanceolate ) . It has a broad midrib ( rachis ) .
The eight arms are thick , tapering to a narrow point . They are unequal in length , with arm pair I the shortest , followed by arm pair II and arm pair IV , and arm pair III the longest . All of them possess two rows of suckers . Each sucker has a diameter less than 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) , decreasing distally , and a ring of 17 to 28 sharp acute teeth . The left arm of pair IV in males is modified into a sexual organ known as the hectocotylus . They bear long fleshy protrusions ( papillae ) with toothless suckers at the distal portion . The tentacles are thick and long , extending the length of the mantle when retracted . They are slightly compressed laterally . A prominent ridge ( a keel ) is present on the outer surface of each of the tentacle clubs ( the wide tip of the tentacles ) . There are four rows of suckers on the manus ( proximal part of the club ) and the dactylus ( distal part of the club ) . The larger suckers in the centre of the manus have 17 to 18 widely spaced teeth .
= = = Coloration = = =
Large chromatophores densely cover the upper surfaces of the head , mantle and arms . They are distributed more sparsely on the ventral side . The fins do not possess chromatophores on the underside . Living specimens range in colour from translucent creamy white through pale yellow to brownish pink and brownish violet .
Like some other cephalopods , bigfin reef squids are capable of metachrosis – rapidly changing body colouration and patterns through voluntary control of chromatophores . They also possess iridophores ( particularly in the head ) , a form of structural colouration that produces iridescent metallic greens and red when illuminated . They are also possibly one of two squid species with leucophores . Leucophores are a reflector @-@ type structural colouration that reflects ambient light , such that they are white in white light , green in green light , and so on . Bigfin reef squids are remarkable for having the ability to produce complex body patterns from the moment they hatch . In comparison , other loliginid squid species do not produce complex body patterns at less than four months of age . The patterns produced by bigfin reef squids , however , are less diverse than those of the Caribbean reef squids .
Bigfin reef squids do not possess photophores , and are thus not truly bioluminescent .
= = = Sexual dimorphism = = =
It is often difficult to superficially distinguish between male and female bigfin reef squids . Some authors say that females are generally smaller than males , but this distinction is not observed in other studies . Closer examination of sexually mature specimens , however , will usually distinguish males from females by the presence of the hectocotylus on the fourth left arm in males , and the nidamental glands and the pale ovaries within the mantle in females . Males also purportedly show a more conspicuous pattern of transverse streaks on their dorsal side .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
The bigfin reef squid is a neritic warm water @-@ dwelling squid . They are usually found 0 to 100 m ( 0 to 328 ft ) below the water 's surface . They tend to remain close to the shoreline , near rocks and reefs . They are slightly more active during the night and will move to deeper waters or find cover in daytime . Large numbers of juveniles can often be found hiding beneath floating driftwood .
The bigfin reef squid is the most widespread species in the genus Sepioteuthis . It is found in temperate and tropical regions of the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean . Their original range extends east to the Hawaiian Islands , west to the Red Sea , north to Japan , and south to Australia and New Zealand ( 42 ° N to 42 ° S and 32 ° E to 154 ° W ) . The range has also expanded to include parts of the Mediterranean Sea . In 2002 , bigfin reef squids were first documented in the Gulf of İskenderun of the southeastern Mediterranean Sea . They may have already existed in significant populations in the area as they have acquired a common name among the fishermen of the Aegean Sea – σουπιοκαλάμαρο ( soupiocalamaro , literally " cuttlefish @-@ like squid " ) . It is a Lessepsian migrant , reaching the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
The bigfin reef squid eats a variety of different marine organisms . Its main prey are usually prawns and other crustaceans , and fish . Captive specimens were observed to consume one fish every 2 to 25 hours .
Bigfin reef squids are , in turn , preyed upon by tuna , marlin , swordfish , and other predator fish and groundfish .
= = = Parasites = = =
Bigfin reef squids serve as hosts to the copepod ectoparasite Doridicola similis and the worm @-@ like dicyemid endoparasites Dicyema koshidai and Dicyema orientale .
= = Biology and behaviour = =
Bigfin reef squids are closely related to the Caribbean reef squid ( Sepioteuthis sepioidea ) , a species noted for its complex social interactions . Like Caribbean reef squids , bigfin reef squids also exhibit elaborate mating displays .
Bigfin reef squids also exhibit both schooling and shoaling behaviours . Very young bigfin reef squids will also stay close together ( shoaling ) , but do not swim together parallel to each other ( schooling ) . Unlike most other squid species , bigfin reef squids are rarely cannibalistic . Shoals can include animals of different sizes without the threat of larger members attacking and consuming the smaller members . Whether bigfin reef squids recognise each other individually still remains unknown .
= = = Phototaxis = = =
Bigfin reef squids exhibit strong positive phototactic behaviour ( attraction to light ) and will move readily within a certain distance of a light source . Studies have proposed that this might be an involuntary stimulus behaviour , as the squids immediately stop all other movements once a light source is switched on . The colour of the light does not matter , but it has been shown that they react more strongly to underwater lights between the intensities of 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 lx , with peak ranges of 2 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 0 lx .
= = = Hearing = = =
Bigfin reef squids and the common octopus ( Octopus vulgaris ) were studied to resolve a century @-@ long debate over whether cephalopods can hear . Unlike fishes , cephalopods do not possess air @-@ filled swim bladders , which might amplify sound waves travelling in water . The results were published in 2009 . It showed that bigfin reef squids and octopuses utilise their statocysts for detecting vibrations , an organ primarily used for maintaining spatial orientation . The common octopus can hear sounds between 400 Hz and 1000 Hz . Bigfin reef squids have a slightly better hearing range of 400 Hz to 1500 Hz . Both hear best at a frequency of 600 Hz . Relatively , their hearing is comparable to prawns and some other invertebrates but is less sensitive than that of most fishes .
The difference in the hearing ranges for octopus and bigfin reef squids may be explained by the difference in their habitats . The octopus is demersal ( bottom @-@ dwelling ) with excellent camouflage capabilities . Bigfin reef squids , on the other hand , are usually in open water with limited hiding places . Hearing would thus be more important for the squids to escape predators . The ability to hear is particularly relevant for avoiding mammalian predators of the suborder Odontoceti ( particularly dolphins ) , who use echolocation to find prey .
= = = Mating behaviour = = =
Bigfin reef squids exhibit two most common social body patterning and posturing behaviours related to mating .
The first is dubbed " accentuated gonads " , in which they will sometimes increase the visibility of their gonads while reducing the rest of their body colouration . This makes their reproductive organs appear bright white through the transparent mantle . It may indicate the reproductive condition of the signalling squid .
Another common behaviour , primarily seen in males , is dubbed " spread arms " , in which the squid will slightly tilt its body forward , head down and arms spread widely and raised above . The mantle is darkened . This behaviour is exhibited mostly when the squids are chasing or following another individual . It is thought to be a signal of reproductive arousal or aggression , similar to the " zebra display " behaviour of Sepioteuthis sepioidea , the " intense zebra display " behaviour of Sepia officinalis , and the " lateral display " of Loligo plei . Females will also sometimes use this display to rebuff courting males .
There are three known courtship behaviours in bigfin reef squids , dubbed " male @-@ upturned " mating , " male @-@ parallel " mating , and " head @-@ to @-@ head " mating . Actual insertion in each position lasts for only a few seconds .
" Male @-@ upturned " mating involves rapid back and forth swimming by the courting male beside a slower @-@ swimming female . The male will then flip over so that he is swimming upside down and quickly lunge forward towards the female . He will quickly eject several spermatophores from his funnel into his hectocotylus and attempt to deposit them on the female 's mouth funnel , then jet away from the female . " Head @-@ to @-@ head " mating is regarded as a variation of this tactic .
" Male @-@ parallel " mating involves the male and female swimming side by side . The male will then raise one or two of his arm pair I upwards and swing them back and forth . He moves below the female and clasps the female 's neck with his arms . In contrast to the previous behaviours , in this position the male actually inserts his hectoctylus into the mantle cavity of the female , attaching the spermatophores right at the opening of the oviduct rather than at the mouth . Possibly for this reason , it is usually more successful in fertilizing the female than other mating behaviours .
In addition to the above , males will often engage in " sneaking " behaviour . In this scenario , a smaller male will attach spermatophores to the female 's mouth area while she is being courted by a larger male using the " male @-@ upturned " behaviour . Even when successful , the male using this strategy is usually chased away by the larger male afterwards .
The spermatophores usually remain embedded near the mouth of the female . Mating usually occurs well before spawning , but may also happen on the spawning grounds themselves . In those cases , the male will stay near the female 's side as she lays eggs .
Males have been observed to exhibit mating behaviours with other males . Some males have been found with numerous spermatophores embedded in their mouth funnels . Since bigfin reef squids distinguish sex by visual cues , this may be a form of deception . The smaller males ( termed " female mimics " or " sneaker males " ) might have assumed body patterning typical of females in order to trick larger males . Believing they are females , they will then waste their spermatophores on them . This behaviour has also been observed in other cephalopods .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
The main spawning season for bigfin reef squids usually begins in May , but they lay eggs all year round and spawning seasons can vary by location . A single female can spawn more than once in her lifetime . Females can release 20 to 1180 eggs per individual and will die soon afterwards .
The females spawn by passing eggs from their oviducts . These eggs are then coated in gelatinous substances from the nidamental glands and oviducal glands , forming an egg ' capsule ' . The egg capsules of the bigfin reef squids contain two to nine eggs each . These are laid in single straight strands on rocks , corals , aquatic plants , submerged branches and other surfaces . At this point , the eggs are 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) in diameter and the egg capsules about 58 @.@ 2 mm ( 2 @.@ 29 in ) in length and 12 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) in width , on average .
The capsules incubate for about 3 weeks , depending on temperature . In warmer Indonesia , the incubation period was recorded to be only 15 to 16 days , while in Thailand it takes around 20 to 22 days . They gradually enlarge by absorbing water , reaching around 82 @.@ 4 mm ( 3 @.@ 24 in ) in length and 14 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 57 in ) in width . Unfertilised eggs remain milky white and do not develop further . Fertilised eggs undergo cell division reaching a diameter of 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) with the developing embryo at 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) on the day before hatching . Upon hatching , the paralarvae are 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in mantle length ( excluding tentacles ) , with fully functioning fins and ink sacs . They resemble miniature adults and are already strong swimmers . They exhibit schooling behaviour two weeks after hatching .
Hatchlings are often cannibalistic . This is regarded as the main cause of death in young squids , particularly in dense populations . However , cannibalism usually happens only when eaten individuals were already weakened significantly or dead , so the actual cause of death may have been something else . Subadults are usually recognisable by their size , ranging from 20 to 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 2 @.@ 36 in ) in length . They reach sexual maturity at less than 210 days in the wild . Males reach sexual maturity earlier than females . In captive populations , males mature 140 days after hatching at most . Females will begin spawning at around 156 to 196 days after hatching . Both males and females mature earlier in captivity than in the wild . Water temperature may play an important role in the earlier sexual maturation of captive specimens . High temperatures may induce shorter lifespans and smaller body sizes , while cooler temperatures favour longer lifespans and larger individuals .
Bigfin reef squids have one of the fastest recorded growth rates for any large marine invertebrate . They can reach 600 g ( 1 @.@ 3 lb ) in only four months . Nonetheless , size can not often be reliably correlated with age , as variations of body size within a generation is fairly common . In captivity , bigfin reef squids have a lifespan of 161 to 315 days for both sexes .
= = Economic importance = =
= = = Commercial fishing and human consumption = = =
Bigfin reef squids are one of the most commercially important squid species , and are widely consumed as human food . They are usually caught in large numbers by trawling , seine fishing , or fixed net traps . In small @-@ scale fishing , they are caught by jigging , drive @-@ in nets , slingshot @-@ driven spearguns , or with squid pots .
Fishing operations for bigfin reef squids ( particularly in jigging ) are usually done at night and utilise bright lights , taking advantage of their attraction to illumination . They are especially abundant during the full moon and in foggy weather . Populations of bigfin reef squids are not seasonal , and they can be fished throughout the year . They are also used as fish bait in hook and line fishing .
Because of their rapid growth rate , short life span , and tolerance to handling and captivity , bigfin reef squids are regarded as one of the most promising species for mariculture . Although there have been several studies about this , there have been no reported commercial @-@ scale cultures , as of 2011 .
= = = Biomedical research = = =
The bigfin reef squid is the first squid species to have been cultured for more than one generation . It is remarkable for its ability to readily adapt to being confined in tanks , and is one of the few squid species of which the entire life span has been observed under laboratory conditions .
Bigfin reef squids are also valuable sources for squid giant axons used in research in neuroscience and physiology . Unlike axons of other animals , squid axons are very large . Those of bigfin reef squids can range in diameter from 350 to 560 μm ( in contrast to the typical 1 μm for humans ) . In life , these giant axons are used by the squids to coordinate escape jetting behaviour , enabling the squid to contract its muscles in a split second directly from the brain .
= = = Global warming = = =
Bigfin reef squids adapt to warmer temperatures by laying more eggs , making them a good indicator species for climate change . In conjunction with their rapid growth rates and short lifespans , bigfin reef squid populations may rise dramatically in response to global warming . Overfishing may also play an important role . In the Gulf of Thailand , the fishing industry has been forced to adapt to the large numbers of bigfin reef squids now present in the area , believed to be the result of overfishing of the squid 's natural predators . The Australian scientist George Jackson describes them as " the weeds of the sea . "
Warmer waters may also accelerate the squid 's expansion into areas in which it was not previously native . Its recent discovery as a Lessepsian migrant in the Mediterranean Sea may be an example .
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= William Arnold ( settler ) =
William Arnold ( 24 June 1587 – c . 1676 ) was one of the founding settlers of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , and with his sons was among the wealthiest people in the colony . He was raised and educated in England where he was the warden of St. Mary 's , the parish church of Ilchester in southeastern Somerset . In 1635 , along with family and associates , he immigrated to New England , where he initially settled in Hingham in the Massachusetts Bay Colony , but soon relocated to the new settlement of Providence with Roger Williams . He was one of the 13 original proprietors of Providence , appearing on the deed signed by Roger Williams in 1638 , and was one of the twelve founding members of the first Baptist church to be established in America .
After living in Providence for about two years , Arnold moved with his family and other relatives and associates to the north side of the Pawtuxet River forming a settlement commonly called Pawtuxet , later a part of Cranston , Rhode Island . He and his fellow settlers had serious disputes with their Warwick neighbors on the south side of the river and as a result separated themselves from the Providence government , putting themselves under the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colony . This separation from Providence lasted for 16 years , and as the head of the settlement , Arnold was appointed as the keeper of the peace . He died sometime during the great turmoil of King Philip 's War in 1675 or 1676 . Arnold 's son , Benedict Arnold , succeeded Roger Williams as President of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1657 , and under the royal charter of 1663 became the first Governor of the colony .
Highly unusual for a 17th @-@ century American settler , Arnold began a family record based on entries from the local parish registers in England and brought this with him to New England ; this family record would eventually span more than 200 years and six generations . Nearly 300 years after his birth , a fabricated pedigree for Arnold was published , claiming his descent from 12th @-@ century kings living in Wales . Three and a half decades later , in 1915 , his correct ancestry was published , but not before the misinformation had been printed in an important source for Rhode Island genealogy .
= = Early life = =
Born in Ilchester , Somerset , England on 24 June 1587 , William Arnold was the son of Nicholas Arnold ( c . 1550 – 1623 ) by his first wife Alice Gully ( 1553 – 1596 ) . In about 1610 he married Christian Peak who was baptized 15 February 1584 , the daughter of Thomas Peak of Muchelney , Somerset , a village about six miles ( 10 km ) west of Ilchester .
Arnold 's parents lived in the small village of Northover , located across the River Yeo ( also known as the River Ivel ) from the town of Ilchester . Nicholas was a tailor , and the mention of his occupation in his will and the vital records of some of his family members suggests that he was prominent in his work , and likely a member of the Tailor 's Guild , which carried professional and political clout in its day . As he advanced in his profession , and after the baptism of his oldest daughter Thomasine in 1572 , Nicholas moved with his small family from Northover across the river to the much larger town of Ilchester where he became well established in his trade , and where the remainder of his children were born .
Arnold 's mother , Alice Gully , was the daughter of John Gully ( c . 1508 – 1559 ) and his wife Alice ( c . 1510 – 1583 ) of Northover . His mother died in 1596 shortly after child birth , when Arnold was eight years old , and he was thereafter largely raised and influenced by his sister Joanne who was ten years older than he . Though Joanne eventually married William Hopkins of Yeovilton and died at an early age in England , two of her children , Frances ( Hopkins ) Man and Thomas Hopkins , immigrated to New England with their Uncle William Arnold .
Arnold and his siblings were likely educated at the Free Grammar School associated with the parish church in Limington , slightly more than a mile to the east of Ilchester . This ancient school is where Thomas Wolsey was the curate and schoolmaster from 1500 to 1509 . Wolsey later became the Lord Cardinal and Primate of England .
Only two records for Arnold are known to exist while he still lived in England . The first of these was a transcript of baptisms , marriages and burials that he signed in 1622 as the warden of St. Mary 's , the parish church of Ilchester . These bishop 's transcripts , as they were called , were sent to the City of Wells , Somerset , a central repository for such records . The other record mentioning his name was the will of his father , Nicholas Arnold , dated 18 January 1623 . William Arnold was appointed by the will as overseer along with Ambrose Chappell , a friend of Nicholas .
There is no record of Arnold between 1623 and his sailing to New England in 1635 . He was an educated man , since he had to be able to read and write as the warden of his parish church , and appeared to have a secure relationship with his church and community . Unknown are his motives for emigrating from England and when he began planning to do so . For whatever reasons , his plan to leave England with his family and associates materialized in 1635 .
= = Voyage to New England = =
With members of his immediate family and other relatives and associates , Arnold gathered his group together with their baggage and supplies in the spring of 1635 and made the trip from Ilchester to Dartmouth on the coast of Devon . While the exact route of the travelers was not recorded , a probable path was through Yeovil , Crewkerne and Axminster to Exeter . From there the party likely turned south along the Devonshire coast traveling through Teignmouth and Torquay to the port city of Dartmouth .
Fred Arnold , in 1921 , provided a perspective of the group as they prepared to load their ship destined for the New World : " While their eyes rested upon these last scenes in the home land , the ... young people ... were perhaps thinking more of the village greens of Ilchester and Yeovil ... and their playmates from whom they were now separated ... while the older ones were more likely turning their thoughts toward the unknown sea with some doubts and misgivings mayhap , but yet with stout hearts and strong hopes facing the great adventure that lay before them in a new world . "
The ship carrying William Arnold and his group sailed from England to New England in 1635 , with some brief particulars of the voyage given by his son Benedict in the family record : " Memorandom my father and his family Sett Sayle ffrom Dartmouth in Old England , the first of May , friday & c . Arrived In New England June 24o Ano 1635 " The name of the ship on which this group sailed was not recorded , nor has it been identified since . Governor Winthrop recorded that in the six @-@ week period beginning 4 June 1635 , fifteen ships had arrived in the Massachusetts Bay area , but he gave the names of only two of them . The ship on which the Arnolds sailed was not the Plain Joan , as stated in some accounts , which vessel carried a Thomas Arnold from England to Virginia . There is no known record of any event that took place at sea , only the length of the trip . The journey to America was less than two months in duration and ended on William Arnold 's 48th birthday .
= = Settling Providence and Pawtuxet = =
Once in New England , Arnold joined a group of settlers from Hingham , Norfolk , England who were about to establish the new settlement of Hingham , in the Massachusetts Bay Colony . On 18 September 1635 the town of Hingham gave Arnold a 2 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 100 m2 ) house lot " lying in the Town Street . "
According to historian John Barry , William Arnold was banished from Hingham for reasons that were not religious , but the reason is not given , nor are any references . Years later , Arnold 's son , Benedict , recorded in the family record , " Memm . We came to Providence to Dwell the 20th of April , 1636 @.@ per me Bennedict Arnold . " The younger Arnold was using the place name of Providence loosely , since Providence had not yet been founded ; the Arnolds actually settled with Roger Williams at Seekonk near the western edge of the Plymouth Colony ( now Rehoboth , Massachusetts ) . That the Arnolds came here before arriving in Providence is borne out by a statement made by William Arnold in 1659 : " for as much that I was one that the very first day entred [ sic ] with some others upon the land of providence , and so laid out my money to buy and helpe pay for it , ... " The settlers could not remain in Seekonk , because Plymouth would then be harangued by Massachusetts for harboring its fugitives . The Plymouth governor Edward Winslow , gently urged Williams to move with his fellow settlers across the Seekonk River into the lands of the Narragansetts . Most historians agree that it was about June 1636 when the small group of settlers moved across the river , and settled on the bank of the Moshassuck River at a place that Roger Williams soon named Providence .
Arnold became one of the 13 original proprietors of Providence , and his initials appear second on the " initial deed " signed by Roger Williams in 1638 , following the initials of his son Benedict 's future father @-@ in @-@ law , Stukeley Westcott . He was assigned a house lot on what was later North Main Street , but his stay in this part of Providence was short . About 1638 he , his wife and children , his son @-@ in @-@ law William Carpenter , his nephew Thomas Hopkins and a few associates and all their families moved four miles ( six km ) south to the Pawtuxet River , at the far southern edge of Williams 's Providence purchase . They settled at the ford where the Pequot Trail crossed the river , close to where the Warwick Avenue ( US Hwy 1A / Hwy 117 ) bridge later crossed the river in the town of Cranston . Here Arnold remained until the end of his life . Though in some deeds he continued to be called " of Providence " after his move to Pawtuxet , this was before a dividing line had been created between the two localities , and he physically resided at the location called Pawtuxet .
William Arnold had been important to his church in England , and Samuel Gorton , in his work Simplicity 's Defence ... , wrote that Arnold had been a great professor of religion in the west of England . Once in the New World , Arnold became one of the original 12 members to organize the First Baptist Church in Providence in 1638 . This church , founded by Roger Williams , was also the first Baptist church established in America .
Arnold had a good relationship with the native people , and in the words of Elisha Stephen Arnold , author of the family genealogy ( 1935 ) , " he felt for the Indians a conscientious kindliness and in his dealings with them was actuated by a sense of strictest justice . " Also , like Roger Williams , he made an effort to learn their language and acted as interpreter many times , being paid , in one instance , 26 shillings for his services . Being able to communicate with the Indians , he was able to buy large tracts of land from them , and soon he and his sons owned nearly 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km2 ) . In 1650 he paid more than three and a half pounds and his son Benedict paid five pounds , the highest taxes paid in the colony , implying that the Arnold family was among the wealthiest , if not the wealthiest , families in the colony in terms of land holdings .
= = Difficulty with the Gortonites = =
In 1641 the Pawtuxet settlers complained to the Massachusetts authorities of their neighbors in Warwick , the Gortonites , so called , led by the Samuel Gorton mentioned earlier . Gorton had been causing disturbances for several years , and had already been evicted from several places for creating difficulties which centered around his religious beliefs , insubordination towards the magistrates , refusal to pay taxes , and his dealings with and treatment of the Indians . The Massachusetts authorities replied that they were unable to help because the Pawtuxet settlement fell under the jurisdiction of neither the Massachusetts Bay Colony nor the Plymouth Colony . As a result , in 1642 William Arnold and other Pawtuxet settlers subjected themselves to the Massachusetts government with Arnold appointed to keep the peace . This separation from Providence lasted for 16 years .
One of the primary reasons for the separation from Providence was dissension over admitting Samuel Gorton and his Warwick friends to equal rights in Providence . After being evicted from other places Gorton attempted to join in the Providence government , but the Pawtuxet settlers wanted no part of him or his followers . On a personal level , Gorton had bought from the Indians some of the same land that Arnold had bought four years earlier and attempted to seize the land . Another cause of dissatisfaction was Gorton 's treatment of the Indians . Having acquired the language of the Narragansett people , Arnold felt a strong affinity towards them , and in a long letter to Governor John Winthrop of Massachusetts in 1648 he complained of the injustice shown them by Gorton and the other Warwick settlers .
So unhappy was Arnold with the conduct of the Gortonites that on 1 September 1651 he wrote to Massachusetts protesting Roger William 's proposed errand to England to seek a charter for the colony . In this letter he spoke in very uncomplimentary terms of the Warwick settlers saying " under the pretense of liberty of conscience about these parts there came to live all the scum and runaways of the country , which in time for want of better order may bring a heavy burden on the land . " Over time these sentiments dissipated ; following an appeal to the Massachusetts government , Gorton 's objectionable activities ceased , and he accepted Arnold 's ownership of disputed land . Being able to coexist with Gorton , in 1658 the Pawtuxet settlers expressed the desire to reunite with Providence , and upon their own motion it was done .
= = End of life = =
In the two decades following Pawtuxet 's reunification with Providence , William Arnold continued to reside in Pawtuxet being a party to several land transactions where he deeded away some of his properties . Here he lived in relative peace until July 1675 when King Philip 's War erupted into a major confrontation between the natives and the English settlers . Pawtuxet was not a safe place to be , but Arnold refused to go to his son Benedict 's house in Newport , nor would he go up to Providence . He was eventually persuaded to go to his son Stephen 's garrison house further up the Pawtuxet River . In December 1675 a detachment of Massachusetts troops led by General Josiah Winslow , en route to the " Great Swamp Fight " in Kingston , Rhode Island , stayed at this garrison house and was given provisions .
In January 1676 , after the Kingston fight , about 300 Indians attacked Pawtuxet , burning buildings on William Carpenter 's land , driving away livestock and killing two members of his family . The attacks continued , and by March the Indians had burned all the houses in Warwick and Pawtuxet , and most of them in Providence , scattering the residents to other localities . William Carpenter and Thomas Hopkins most likely went to Oyster Bay , Long Island where they had family . Where Stephen Arnold went with his family is not known , but William Arnold was probably not with him . He likely died that winter or spring , aged 88 , and was buried in a family plot with his wife and grandson William , son of Benedict . Confirmation of his death did not occur until 3 November 1677 when his son Benedict described himself as " eldest son and heir of William Arnold late of Pautuxett in the said Colony deceased . "
= = Ancestry = =
The genealogy of the early Arnold family has been pieced together from a number of historical documents , but two such documents were of enough significance to be published as entire articles in an early genealogical journal . The first of these was a family record created by William Arnold and brought to New England by him in 1635 . The second of these was a fabricated pedigree of Arnold 's lineage , showing descent from some early kings in Wales dating back to the 12th century . Both of these documents were published side @-@ by @-@ side in the New England Historical and Genealogical Register in October 1879 .
= = = The Arnold family record = = =
While events concerning the immediate families of many colonial immigrants to America were recorded in family Bibles , some of which exist to this day , what William Arnold did was highly unusual among those immigrating to the New World in the 17th century . As the warden of St. Mary 's Church in Ilchester , Arnold had access to the records of baptisms , marriages and burials that were kept in the parish register . As he contemplated immigrating with his family to New England , he recorded all the baptismal entries in the Ilchester parish register pertaining to his children and siblings . He then took the process a step further , crossing the River Ivel to the parish of Northover , where his parents had lived and where his oldest sister was baptized , recording pertinent information from that register as well , thus creating a personal family record .
This family document sailed with Arnold from England to the New World in 1635 , but the record did not end then . In later years Arnold 's son , Benedict , added his own notes and family events to the document , and then Benedict 's son Josiah Arnold added his family . The latest entries in the family record were made by the son of Josiah , Josiah Arnold Jr . This exceptional historical document , spanning a total of 223 years and six generations , began with the baptism of William Arnold 's mother Alice Gully in 1553 and ended with the death of Josiah Arnold III in 1776 .
What became of the document between 1776 and the mid @-@ 19th century is uncertain , but it eventually came into the possession of Mr. Patrick Anderson McEwen ( a descendant of Governor Benedict Arnold ) of Windsor , Ontario , Canada , from whom it passed to Isaac N. Arnold , president of the Chicago Historical Society . A copy was then made by Edwin Hubbard in 1878 , and ultimately published under his name the following year . ( It turns out that Isaac N. Arnold was descended from Thomas Arnold of Watertown , and thus not from William Arnold of Pawtuxet . ) As with any historical document , genealogists and historians wanted to know how reliable it was . Once the original parish registers were discovered by a researcher in 1902 , it was demonstrated that every entry in Arnold 's original document that could be corroborated with these parish records in England was correct and precise to the minutest detail .
= = = The false pedigree of the Arnold family = = =
Published in the same issue of the New England Historical and Genealogical Register with the Arnold family record was another article giving a lineage for William Arnold going back 16 generations . In 1870 the genealogist Horatio G. Somerby compiled this pedigree of the Arnold family for a client in New York based on his research in England . In this pedigree , William Arnold was shown to be a son of a Thomas Arnold and to descend from a 12th @-@ century King of Gwentland ( in modern day Wales ) whose name was Ynir . Mr. Somerby 's manuscript was " compiled from Herald 's Visitations , Inquisitions Post Mortem , Subsidy rolls , Wills , Parish registers , and other original documents . " A few years after this pedigree was published , John O. Austin incorporated some of it into his Genealogical Dictionary of Rhode Island .
In 1902 , Edson S. Jones , a descendant of Thomas Arnold of Watertown and Providence mentioned earlier , visited England in search of records pertaining to his family . Thinking that Thomas Arnold was connected with William Arnold ( which , it turned out , he was not ) , he visited Northover and Ilchester , finding the original parish registers , as well as other important source documents . He discovered that every entry in the Arnold record that could be compared with entries in the parish registers matched perfectly . He also discovered that the Somerby pedigree of the Arnold family had serious discrepancies with original documents . As he checked the source documents from which Somerby supposedly compiled the pedigree , he found that some of the generations in the Somerby pedigree had been shuffled from the original documents , some members of the lineage came from unrelated families , and some place names seemed to have been totally made up . It had earlier been believed that a Thomas Arnold was the father of William Arnold , and Somerby stated that this Thomas Arnold came from a place called Northover near Cheselbourne in County Dorset . No such place exists . The Somerby pedigree of the Arnold family published in 1879 was riddled with misinformation , and it had been accepted as fact for over three decades by even prominent genealogists such as John O. Austin . Fred Arnold wrote in 1921 , " The most regrettable feature in Somerby 's work is , that in the absence of any English record , known here to disprove it , so reliable a genealogist as Mr. John O. Austin was led to accept and use it in his dictionary , although neither give any record evidence . Very rarely has Mr. Austin accepted another 's statement , unless he has himself seen evidence to support it . " This fabricated research was not an isolated incident ; Mr. Somerby had also been implicated in other fraudulent research and was out to please his clients regardless of the veracity of his work .
= = = The correct ancestry and English home of William Arnold = = =
Edson Jones eventually published his findings on the Arnold family in 1915 , demonstrating the accuracy of the Arnold family record , and then carefully revealing each inconsistency and factual error found in Somerby 's pedigree . In 1921 , Fred Arnold summarized these findings and synthesized them into a coherent lineage of the Arnold family which is consistent with every known historical document , and presented his findings to the Rhode Island Historical Society . To summarize the work of both Edson Jones and Fred Arnold , William Arnold was the son of Nicholas Arnold of Northover and Ilchester in Somerset based on the Arnold family record and the Northover parish register . Arnold 's mother was Alice Gully , and her parents were John and Alice Gully based on the same two documents . These are the only known ancestors of William Arnold based on known historical records , and the parents of Nicholas Arnold have not been identified in any historical document .
The Somerby pedigree of the Arnold family indicated that the family had lived in many counties in both England and Wales . This was not the case ; the Arnolds and their associates all lived in a small area within southeastern Somerset . While in England William Arnold and his family lived in Ilchester . His parents had come from the village of Northover , scarcely one half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) across the River Yeo to the north . When Arnold 's son Benedict mentioned his " Lemmington " farm in his will , he was referring to a New England property named after the village of Limington in old England ; this village is less than a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 5 km ) east of Ilchester . A very short distance north of Limington across the River Yeo is the town of Yeovilton where William Hopkins , the husband of Arnold 's sister Joanne , lived . Six miles ( 10 km ) west of Ilchester is the village of Muchelney , the home of Arnold 's wife Christian Peak , and five miles ( 8 km ) south of Ilchester is Yeovil , the home of Stukeley Westcott , whose daughter Damaris married Arnold 's son Benedict , and who may have accompanied the Arnolds on their voyage to the New World . Thus , Arnold and all of his known kinsmen had lived within six miles ( 10 km ) of each other in southeastern Somerset .
= = Children = =
William and Christian Arnold had four children , all born in Ilchester , Somerset . The oldest child was Elizabeth ( 1611 – after 7 September 1685 ) who married William Carpenter ( c . 1610 – 1685 ) , the son of Richard Carpenter of Amesbury , Wiltshire , England ; the couple had eight children . William and Elizabeth Carpenter settled in Providence , and then followed her parents to the settlement of Pawtuxet , where they lived the remainder of their lives , except for a short time during King Philip 's War , when they were forced to flee to Long Island .
The second child and oldest son was Benedict ( 1615 – 1678 ) who married Damaris Westcott ( 1621 – after 1678 ) , the daughter of Stukeley and Juliann ( Marchante ) Westcott . They had nine children . Stukeley Westcott lived in Yeovil , five miles ( eight km ) south of Ilchester , where he was married and where Damaris was baptized . The Westcotts may have sailed to New England with the Arnolds ; if not they likely sailed at about the same time . Benedict moved with his family from Pawtuxet to Newport in 1651 , and in 1657 succeeded Roger Williams as the President of the colony . When the royal charter arrived from England in 1663 , Benedict Arnold became the first Governor of the colony , and served as either president or governor for a total of 11 years .
The third child and youngest daughter , Joanna ( 1617 – after 11 February 1693 ) , married first Zachariah Rhodes ( c . 1603 – 1665 ) , and settled in Pawtuxet near Joanna 's brother Stephen . Following Zachariah 's death by drowning , Joanna married Samuel Reape . She had eight children , all by her first husband , and became the ancestress of the Rhodes family of Rhode Island .
The fourth and youngest child of William and Christian Arnold was Stephen ( 1622 – 1699 ) who married Sarah Smith ( 1629 – 1713 ) , the daughter of Edward Smith of Rehoboth , Massachusetts . Stephen and Sarah had seven children . Stephen was either a Deputy to the General Assembly or colonial Assistant nearly every year for a period of three decades . He and his family settled in Pawtuxet near his father , and had a garrison house along the Pawtuxet River . Stephen was 13 years old when he sailed from England to the New World with his parents and relatives , and he was the last surviving member of that sailing party .
= = Notable descendants = =
Several descendants of William Arnold became prominent in either the military or the civil affairs of the United States . A great @-@ great grandson , named Benedict Arnold , became one of the great generals of the American Revolutionary War but was better known for his betrayal of the American revolutionary cause . Other well @-@ known descendants include U.S. Presidents George Herbert Walker Bush and George W. Bush ; Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry , American hero of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812 and his younger brother Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry who was sent across the Pacific in 1852 by President Millard Fillmore to open Japan to western trade ; and Stephen Arnold Douglas who debated Abraham Lincoln in 1858 while vying for the Illinois Senate seat and winning the contest , but later losing to Lincoln in the 1860 presidential race . Stephen A. Douglas descends from both sons of William Arnold . Rhode Island colonial Deputy Governor George Hazard is another descendant . The hall of fame rodeo cowboy and western artist Earl W. Bascom is also a noted descendant . A published line of descent from Arnold to U.S. President James A. Garfield was later disproven .
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= Bart of Darkness =
" Bart of Darkness " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 4 , 1994 . It was written by Dan McGrath , and directed by Jim Reardon . In the episode , Bart breaks his leg and becomes increasingly isolated in his room . He starts spying on the neighbors with a telescope and begins to suspect that Ned Flanders has murdered his wife . The episode was produced during the 1994 Northridge earthquake which delayed production by a month , and is largely a parody of the film Rear Window .
= = Plot = =
A heatwave in Springfield leads Bart and Lisa to persuade Homer into getting a swimming pool . To avoid months of persistence , he gives in instantly . Word soon spreads that the Simpsons have a pool and every child in the town comes to use the new facility . After being dared , Bart attempts an ambitious dive into the pool from the top of his treehouse , but gets distracted by Nelson , and falls and breaks his leg . This forces him to spend the rest of the summer wearing a cast and , unable to socialize with the other children , he retreats to his bedroom . His isolation slowly makes him more and more irritable and paranoid . Lisa loans Bart her telescope to entertain him . Soon , Bart hears a woman 's scream next door , and witnesses Ned Flanders burying something in his backyard and screaming " I 'm a murderer ! " He becomes convinced that Ned has murdered his wife Maude , and vows to reveal the truth .
Meanwhile , Lisa basks in the glow of her new popularity . However , Martin Prince gets a larger pool , and everyone abandons Lisa , leaving her inside the empty pool with no idea of how to get out . After Lisa apologizes to her brother for neglecting him , Bart asks Lisa to go and look for evidence of the murder while Ned is out of the house . When Ned returns early , Lisa becomes trapped in the Flanders house , eventually being cornered in the attic ; Bart painfully makes his way over there by himself , just in time to discover that Ned was actually storing an axe and not using it to threaten Lisa . Maude , as it turns out , is actually alive , and had gone to Bible Camp for the weekend , to learn to be more judgemental . The victim of Ned 's " murder " was merely her favorite plant , and the woman screaming actually came from Ned himself . Meanwhile , Martin 's swimming pool explodes after being full with too many kids , and everyone abandons him , although Nelson steals his bathing suit first . When the episode ends , Martin sadly sings " Summer Wind " to himself as he stands naked in the wreckage of his pool .
= = Production = =
Dan McGrath was chosen to pen the episode , while Jim Reardon directed . The episode was originally produced as the season finale of the fifth season , but was held over and aired as the premiere of the sixth . This was because , along with " Lisa 's Rival " , the episode was in production at the time of the Northridge earthquake of 1994 . The earthquake damaged much of the Film Roman building in which The Simpsons writing and animation staff worked , forcing them to move out for three months and continue production in a temporary building . David X. Cohen came in the weekend after the earthquake to see what had happened , and was told that " it was no more dangerous than it was before the earthquake , " as the building was " a ninety year old , decrepit shack . " The only staff members that came in expecting to work were future show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . As a result , the staff was given a month more than they would usually have had to work on the episode , which Reardon described as " greatly benefiting " it . Having been a director on the series for five years before this episode , he believed that this " was closer to what [ he ] was trying to achieve as a director than [ he ] had done before . " He credited this to the extra time , and used it to insert little details , such as having Bart get stuck on the fabric of the chair he was in , and wearing his underwear instead of a swimsuit .
Many of the heat wave jokes at the start of the episode were based on past events of the crew 's lives . The sitting in front of the fridge @-@ freezer joke , came from McGrath , who had done a similar thing as a child . The Springfield Pool @-@ Mobile was based on a similar vehicle from David Mirkin 's childhood , where a truck with a " spinning cars " fairground ride on the back would often come around his neighborhood . Flanders ' feminine scream was performed by Tress MacNeille and not his regular voice actor Harry Shearer . Krusty 's mispronunciation of Ravi Shankar 's name was an ad @-@ lib , that Mirkin kept in after the editing process because he liked it so much .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the novella Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad . The third act of the episode is largely a pastiche of Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window . As in the film , a wheelchair @-@ using Bart witnesses an apparent murder through his telescope , with musical cues from the film also being used . James Stewart 's character L. B. " Jeff " Jefferies appears twice , caricatured as he looks in the film . Also , the pictures on the wall of Jeff 's room are a racing car accident and a plane , the same as in Rear Window . The barn building scene with the onlooking Amish man is a reference to Peter Weir 's film Witness . The Itchy & Scratchy episode 's title is a reference to The Planet of the Apes , with the mutants being a reference to the Star Trek episode " The Menagerie " , as well as Beneath the Planet of the Apes . Itchy 's sealing of Scratchy behind a brick wall alludes to Edgar Allan Poe 's short story The Cask of Amontillado . At the end of the episode Martin sings Frank Sinatra 's " Summer Wind " . Springfield 's wax museum features models of The Beatles and the cast of M * A * S * H , and Bart plays Stratego on his own . The pool dance scene sees Lisa in a role like those of Esther Williams , while Bart 's play has similar elements of the works of Anton Chekhov . Dr. Hibbert is watching Jay Leno in his living room .
= = Reception = =
For season six , Fox moved The Simpsons back to its original Sunday night time of 8 p.m. , having aired on Thursdays for the previous four seasons . It has remained in this slot ever since . In this original American broadcast , " Bart of Darkness " finished 44th in the ratings for the week of August 29 to September 4 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 and an audience share of 17 % . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
Mike Duffy praised the episode , stating it showed that The Simpsons was " just as strong and funny as it ever was . " Elaine Liner of the Corpus Christi Caller @-@ Times praised the writing as " crisp , hilarious and multi @-@ layered " , praising its many cultural references and noting the " biting commentary " of Maude Flanders ' line " I was at Bible camp learning to be more judgmental . " Later reviews shared these sentiments . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it a " fine episode " and found that the " eventual explanation for [ Flanders ' ] murderous behavior is hilarious . " Tim Knight called it " a terrific opener to the season . "
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= Lettuce =
Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) is an annual plant of the daisy family Asteraceae . It is most often grown as a leaf vegetable , but sometimes for its stem and seeds . Lettuce was first cultivated by the ancient Egyptians who turned it from a weed , whose seeds were used to produce oil , into a food plant grown for its succulent leaves , in addition to its oil @-@ rich seeds . Lettuce spread to the Greeks and Romans , the latter of whom gave it the name lactuca , from which the English lettuce is ultimately derived . By 50 AD , multiple types were described , and lettuce appeared often in medieval writings , including several herbals . The 16th through 18th centuries saw the development of many varieties in Europe , and by the mid @-@ 18th century cultivars were described that can still be found in gardens . Europe and North America originally dominated the market for lettuce , but by the late 20th century the consumption of lettuce had spread throughout the world .
Generally grown as a hardy annual , lettuce is easily cultivated , although it requires relatively low temperatures to prevent it from flowering quickly . It can be plagued with numerous nutrient deficiencies , as well as insect and mammal pests and fungal and bacterial diseases . L. sativa crosses easily within the species and with some other species within the Lactuca genus ; although this trait can be a problem to home gardeners who attempt to save seeds , biologists have used it to broaden the gene pool of cultivated lettuce varieties . World production of lettuce and chicory for calendar year 2010 stood at 23 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 long tons ; 26 @,@ 040 @,@ 000 short tons ) , over half of which came from China .
Lettuce is most often used for salads , although it is also seen in other kinds of food , such as soups , sandwiches and wraps ; it can also be grilled . One variety , the woju ( 莴苣 ) , or asparagus lettuce , is grown for its stems , which are eaten either raw or cooked . Lettuce is a rich source of vitamin K and vitamin A , and is a moderate source of folate and iron . Contaminated lettuce is often a source of bacterial , viral and parasitic outbreaks in humans , including E. coli and Salmonella . In addition to its main use as a leafy green , it has also gathered religious and medicinal significance over centuries of human consumption .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Lactuca sativa is a member of the Lactuca ( lettuce ) genus and the Asteraceae ( sunflower or aster ) family . The species was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in the second volume of his Species Plantarum . Synonyms for L. sativa include Lactuca scariola var. sativa , L. scariola var. integrata and L. scariola var. integrifolia . L. scariola is itself a synonym for L. serriola , the common wild or prickly lettuce . L. sativa also has many identified taxonomic groups , subspecies and varieties , which delineate the various cultivar groups of domesticated lettuce . Lettuce is closely related to several Lactuca species from southwest Asia ; the closest relationship is to L. serriola , an aggressive weed common in temperate and subtropical zones in much of the world .
The Romans referred to lettuce as lactuca ( lac meaning milk in Latin ) , an allusion to the white substance , now called latex , exuded by cut stems . This word has become the genus name , while sativa ( meaning " sown " or " cultivated " ) was added to create the species name . The current word lettuce , originally from Middle English , came from the Old French letues or laitues , which derived from the Roman name . The name romaine came from that type 's use in the Roman papal gardens , while cos , another term for romaine lettuce , came from the earliest European seeds of the type from the Greek island of Cos , a center of lettuce farming in the Byzantine period .
= = Description = =
Lettuce 's native range spreads from the Mediterranean to Siberia , although it has been transported to almost all areas of the world . Plants generally have a height and spread of 6 to 12 inches ( 15 to 30 cm ) . The leaves are colorful , mainly in the green and red color spectrums , with some variegated varieties . There are also a few varieties with yellow , gold or blue @-@ teal leaves . Lettuces have a wide range of shapes and textures , from the dense heads of the iceberg type to the notched , scalloped , frilly or ruffly leaves of leaf varieties . Lettuce plants have a root system that includes a main taproot and smaller secondary roots . Some varieties , especially those found in the United States and Western Europe , have long , narrow taproots and a small set of secondary roots . Longer taproots and more extensive secondary systems are found in varieties from Asia .
Depending on the variety and time of year , lettuce generally lives 65 – 130 days from planting to harvesting . Because lettuce that flowers ( through the process known as " bolting " ) becomes bitter and unsaleable , plants grown for consumption are rarely allowed to grow to maturity . Lettuce flowers more quickly in hot temperatures , while freezing temperatures cause slower growth and sometimes damage to outer leaves . Once plants move past the edible stage , they develop flower stalks up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high with small yellow blossoms . Like other members of the tribe Cichorieae , lettuce inflorescences ( also known as flower heads or capitula ) are composed of multiple florets , each with a modified calyx called a pappus ( which becomes the feathery " parachute " of the fruit ) , a corolla of five petals fused into a ligule or strap , and the reproductive parts . These include fused anthers that form a tube which surrounds a style and bipartite stigma . As the anthers shed pollen , the style elongates to allow the stigmas , now coated with pollen , to emerge from the tube . The ovaries form compressed , obovate ( teardrop @-@ shaped ) dry fruits that do not open at maturity , measuring 3 to 4 mm long . The fruits have 5 – 7 ribs on each side and are tipped by two rows of small white hairs . The pappus remains at the top of each fruit as a dispersal structure . Each fruit contains one seed , which can be white , yellow , gray or brown depending on the variety of lettuce .
The domestication of lettuce over the centuries has resulted in several changes through selective breeding : delayed bolting , larger seeds , larger leaves and heads , better taste and texture , a lower latex content , and different leaf shapes and colors . Work in these areas continues through the present day . Scientific research into the genetic modification of lettuce is ongoing , with over 85 field trials taking place between 1992 and 2005 in the European Union and United States to test modifications allowing greater herbicide tolerance , greater resistance to insects and fungi and slower bolting patterns . However , genetically modified lettuce is not currently used in commercial agriculture .
= = History = =
Lettuce was first cultivated in ancient Egypt for the production of oil from its seeds . This plant was probably selectively bred by the Egyptians into a plant grown for its edible leaves , with evidence of its cultivation appearing as early as 2680 BC . Lettuce was considered a sacred plant of the reproduction god Min , and it was carried during his festivals and placed near his images . The plant was thought to help the god " perform the sexual act untiringly . " Its use in religious ceremonies resulted in the creation of many images in tombs and wall paintings . The cultivated variety appears to have been about 30 inches ( 76 cm ) tall and resembled a large version of the modern romaine lettuce . These upright lettuces were developed by the Egyptians and passed to the Greeks , who in turn shared them with the Romans . Circa 50 AD , Roman agriculturalist Columella described several lettuce varieties – some of which may have been ancestors of today 's lettuces .
Lettuce appears in many medieval writings , especially as a medicinal herb . Hildegard of Bingen mentioned it in her writings on medicinal herbs between 1098 and 1179 , and many early herbals also describe its uses . In 1586 , Joachim Camerarius provided descriptions of the three basic modern lettuces – head lettuce , loose @-@ leaf lettuce , and romaine ( or cos ) lettuce . Lettuce was first brought to the Americas from Europe by Christopher Columbus in the late 15th century . Between the late 16th century and the early 18th century , many varieties were developed in Europe , particularly Holland . Books published in the mid @-@ 18th and early 19th centuries describe several varieties found in gardens today .
Due to its short lifespan after harvest , lettuce was originally sold relatively close to where it was grown . The early 20th century saw the development of new packing , storage and shipping technologies that improved the lifespan and transportability of lettuce and resulted in a significant increase in availability . During the 1950s , lettuce production was revolutionized with the development of vacuum cooling , which allowed field cooling and packing of lettuce , replacing the previously used method of ice @-@ cooling in packing houses outside the fields .
Lettuce is very easy to grow , and as such has been a significant source of sales for many seed companies . Tracing the history of many varieties is complicated by the practice of many companies , particularly in the US , of changing a variety 's name from year to year . This was done for several reasons , the most prominent being to boost sales by promoting a " new " variety or to prevent customers from knowing that the variety had been developed by a competing seed company . Documentation from the late 19th century shows between 65 and 140 distinct varieties of lettuce , depending on the amount of variation allowed between types – a distinct difference from the 1 @,@ 100 named lettuce varieties on the market at the time . Names also often changed significantly from country to country . Although most lettuce grown today is used as a vegetable , a minor amount is used in the production of tobacco @-@ free cigarettes ; however , domestic lettuce 's wild relatives produce a leaf that visually more closely resembles tobacco .
= = Cultivation = =
A hardy annual , some varieties of lettuce can be overwintered even in relatively cold climates under a layer of straw , and older , heirloom varieties are often grown in cold frames . Lettuces meant for the cutting of individual leaves are generally planted straight into the garden in thick rows . Heading varieties of lettuces are commonly started in flats , then transplanted to individual spots , usually 8 to 14 inches ( 20 to 36 cm ) apart , in the garden after developing several leaves . Lettuce spaced further apart receives more sunlight , which improves color and nutrient quantities in the leaves . Pale to white lettuce , such as the centers in some iceberg lettuce , contain few nutrients .
Lettuce grows best in full sun in loose , nitrogen @-@ rich soils with a pH of between 6 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 8 . Heat generally prompts lettuce to bolt , with most varieties growing poorly above 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) ; cool temperatures prompt better performance , with 60 to 65 ° F ( 16 to 18 ° C ) being preferred and as low as 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) being tolerated . Plants in hot areas that are provided partial shade during the hottest part of the day will bolt more slowly . Temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) will generally result in poor or non @-@ existent germination of lettuce seeds . After harvest , lettuce lasts the longest when kept at 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) and 96 percent humidity . Lettuce quickly degrades when stored with fruit such as apples , pears and bananas that release the ripening agent ethylene gas . The high water content of lettuce ( 94 @.@ 9 percent ) creates problems when attempting to preserve the plant – it cannot be successfully frozen , canned or dried and must be eaten fresh .
Lettuce varieties will cross with each other , making spacing of 5 to 20 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) between varieties necessary to prevent contamination when saving seeds . Lettuce will also cross with Lactuca serriola ( wild lettuce ) , with the resulting seeds often producing a plant with tough , bitter leaves . Celtuce , a lettuce variety grown primarily in Asia for its stems , crosses easily with lettuces grown for their leaves . This propensity for crossing , however , has led to breeding programs using closely related species in Lactuca , such as L. serriola , L. saligna , and L. virosa , to broaden the available gene pool . Starting in the 1990s , such programs began to include more distantly related species such as L. tatarica . Seeds keep best when stored in cool conditions , and , unless stored cryogenically , remain viable the longest when stored at − 4 ° F ( − 20 ° C ) ; they are relatively short lived in storage . At room temperature , lettuce seeds remain viable for only a few months . However , when newly harvested lettuce seed is stored cryogenically , this life increases to a half @-@ life of 500 years for vaporized nitrogen and 3 @,@ 400 years for liquid nitrogen ; this advantage is lost if seeds are not frozen promptly after harvesting .
= = = Cultivars = = =
There are several types of lettuce , but three ( leaf , head and cos or romaine ) are the most common . There are seven main cultivar groups of lettuce , each including many varieties :
Leaf – Also known as looseleaf , cutting or bunching lettuce , this type has loosely bunched leaves and is the most widely planted . It is used mainly for salads .
Romaine / Cos – Used mainly for salads and sandwiches , this type forms long , upright heads . This is the most often used lettuce in Caesar salads .
Iceberg / Crisphead - the most popular type in the US , it is very heat @-@ sensitive and was originally adapted for growth in the northern US . It ships well , but is low in flavor and nutritional content , being composed of even more water than other lettuce types .
Butterhead – Also known as Boston or Bibb lettuce , this type is a head lettuce with a loose arrangement of leaves , known for its sweet flavor and tender texture .
Summercrisp – Also called Batavian or French crisp , this lettuce is midway between the crisphead and leaf types . These lettuces tend to be larger , bolt @-@ resistant and well @-@ flavored .
Stem – This type is grown for its seedstalk , rather than its leaves , and is used in Asian cooking , primarily Chinese , as well as stewed and creamed dishes .
Oilseed – This type is grown for its seeds , which are pressed to extract an oil mainly used for cooking . It has few leaves , bolts quickly and produces seeds around 50 percent larger than other types of lettuce .
The butterhead and crisphead types are sometimes known together as " cabbage " lettuce , because their heads are shorter , flatter , and more cabbage @-@ like than romaine lettuces .
= = = Cultivation problems = = =
Soil nutrient deficiencies can cause a variety of plant problems that range from malformed plants to a lack of head growth . Many insects are attracted to lettuce , including cutworms , which cut seedlings off at the soil line ; wireworms and nematodes , which cause yellow , stunted plants ; tarnished plant bugs and aphids , which cause yellow , distorted leaves ; leafhoppers , which cause stunted growth and pale leaves ; thrips , which turn leaves gray @-@ green or silver ; leafminers , which create tunnels within the leaves ; flea beetles , which cut small holes in leaves and caterpillars , slugs and snails , which cut large holes in leaves . Mammals , including rabbits and groundhogs , also eat the plants . Lettuce contains several defensive compounds , including sesquiterpene lactones , and other natural phenolics such as flavonol and glycosides , which help to protect it against pests . Certain varieties contain more than others , and some selective breeding and genetic modification studies have focused on using this trait to identify and produce commercial varieties with increased pest resistance .
Lettuce also suffers from several viral diseases , including big vein , which causes yellow , distorted leaves , and mosaic virus , which is spread by aphids and causes stunted plant growth and deformed leaves . Aster yellows are a disease @-@ causing bacteria carried by leafhoppers , which causes deformed leaves . Fungal diseases include powdery mildew and downy mildew , which cause leaves to mold and die and bottom rot , lettuce drop and gray mold , which cause entire plants to rot and collapse . Crowding lettuce tends to attract pests and diseases . Weeds can also be an issue , as cultivated lettuce is generally not competitive with them , especially when directly seeded into the ground . Transplanted lettuce ( started in flats and later moved to growing beds ) is generally more competitive initially , but can still be crowded later in the season , causing misshapen lettuce and lower yields . Weeds also act as homes for insects and disease and can make harvesting more difficult . Herbicides are often used to control weeds in commercial production . However , this has led to the development of herbicide @-@ resistant weeds and prompted environmental and health concerns .
= = Production = =
Lettuce is the only member of the Lactuca genus to be grown commercially . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) reports that world production of lettuce and chicory ( the two crops are combined by the FAO for reporting purposes ) for calendar year 2010 was 23 @,@ 622 @,@ 366 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 249 @,@ 287 long tons ; 26 @,@ 039 @,@ 201 short tons ) . This came primarily from China ( 53 percent ) , the US ( 17 percent ) and India ( 4 percent ) . Although China is the top world producer of lettuce , the majority of the crop is consumed domestically . Spain is the world 's largest exporter of lettuce , with the US ranking second .
Western Europe and North America were the original major markets for large @-@ scale lettuce production . By the late 1900s , Asia , South America , Australia and Africa became more substantial markets . Different locations tended to prefer different types of lettuce , with butterhead prevailing in northern Europe and Great Britain , romaine in the Mediterranean and stem lettuce in China and Egypt . By the late 20th century , the preferred types began to change , with crisphead , especially iceberg , lettuce becoming the dominant type in northern Europe and Great Britain and more popular in western Europe . In the US , no one type predominated until the early 20th century , when crisphead lettuces began gaining popularity . After the 1940s , with the development of iceberg lettuce , 95 percent of the lettuce grown and consumed in the US was crisphead lettuce . By the end of the century , other types began to regain popularity and eventually made up over 30 percent of production . Stem lettuce was first developed in China , and remains primarily cultivated in that country .
Lettuce production methods , including all of the processes from growing to sales , have become much larger in scale during the 20th century . The majority of agricultural production is done with the application of large amounts of chemicals , including fertilizers and pesticides , but organic production makes up a growing percentage of the market – a trend that began with small growers but moved to a more industrial scale . More non @-@ heading types , mostly leaf and romaine lettuces , are also being grown . In the first years of the 21st century , bagged salad products began to hold a growing portion of the lettuce market , especially in the US . Processed from what was previously waste lettuce not considered acceptable for the fresh market , these products are packaged in a manner that makes them last longer than standard head lettuce after harvest . As of 2007 , 70 percent of the lettuce production in the US came from California ; in that country it ranks third in produce consumption behind tomatoes and oranges .
= = Culinary use = =
As described around 50 AD , lettuce leaves were often cooked and served by the Romans with an oil @-@ and @-@ vinegar dressing ; however , smaller leaves were sometimes eaten raw . During the 81 – 96 AD reign of Domitian , the tradition of serving a lettuce salad before a meal began . Post @-@ Roman Europe continued the tradition of poaching lettuce , mainly with large romaine types , as well as the method of pouring a hot oil and vinegar mixture over the leaves . Today , the majority of lettuce is grown for its leaves , although one type is grown for its stem and one for its seeds , which are made into an oil . Most lettuce is used in salads , either alone or with other greens , vegetables , meats and cheeses . Romaine lettuce is often used for Caesar salads , with a dressing that includes anchovies and eggs . Lettuce leaves can also be found in soups , sandwiches and wraps , while the stems are eaten both raw and cooked . The consumption of lettuce in China developed differently from in Western countries , due to health risks and cultural aversion to eating raw leaves . In that country , " salads " were created from cooked vegetables and served hot or cold . Lettuce was also used in a larger variety of dishes than in Western countries , contributing to a range of dishes including bean curd and meat dishes , soups and stir @-@ frys plain or with other vegetables . Stem lettuce , widely consumed in China , is eaten either raw or cooked , the latter primarily in soups and stir @-@ frys . Lettuce is also used as a primary ingredient in the preparation of lettuce soup .
= = Nutritional content = =
Depending on the variety , lettuce is an excellent source ( 20 % of the Daily Value , DV , or higher ) of vitamin K ( 97 % DV ) and vitamin A ( 21 % DV ) ( table ) , with higher concentrations of the provitamin A compound , beta @-@ carotene , found in darker green lettuces , such as Romaine . With the exception of the iceberg variety , lettuce is also a good source ( 10 @-@ 19 % DV ) of folate and iron ( table ) .
= = Food @-@ borne illness = =
Food @-@ borne pathogens that can survive on lettuce include Listeria monocytogenes , the causative agent of listeriosis , which multiplies in storage . However , despite high levels of bacteria being found on ready @-@ to @-@ eat lettuce products , a 2008 study found no incidences of food @-@ borne illness related to listeriosis , possibly due to the product 's short shelf life , indigenous microflora competing with the Listeria bacteria or inhibition of bacteria to cause listeriosis .
Other bacteria found on lettuce include Aeromonas species , which have not been linked to any outbreaks ; Campylobacter species , which cause campylobacteriosis ; and Yersinia intermedia and Yersinia kristensenii ( species of Yersinia ) , which have been found mainly in lettuce . Lettuce has been linked to numerous outbreaks of the bacteria E. coli O157 : H7 and Shigella ; the plants were most likely contaminated through contact with animal feces . A 2007 study determined that the vacuum cooling method , especially prevalent in the California lettuce industry , increased the uptake and survival rates of E. coli O157 : H7 . Salmonella bacteria , including the uncommon Salmonella braenderup type , have also caused outbreaks traced to contaminated lettuce . Viruses , including hepatitis A , calicivirus and a Norwalk @-@ like strain , have been found in lettuce . The vegetable has also been linked to outbreaks of parasitic infestations , including Giardia lamblia .
= = Religious and medicinal lore = =
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible leafy vegetable , lettuce has had a number of uses in ancient ( and even some more modern ) times as a medicinal herb and religious symbol . For example , ancient Egyptians thought lettuce to be a symbol of sexual prowess and a promoter of love and childbearing in women . The Romans likewise claimed that it increased sexual potency . In contrast , the ancient Greeks connected the plant with male impotency , and served it during funerals ( probably due to its role in the myth of Adonis ' death ) , and British women in the 19th century believed it would cause infertility and sterility . Lettuce has mild narcotic properties ; it was called " sleepwort " by the Anglo @-@ Saxons because of this attribute , although the cultivated L. sativa has lower levels of the narcotic than its wild cousins . This narcotic effect is a property of two sesquiterpene lactones which are found in the white liquid ( latex ) in the stems of lettuce , called lactucarium or " lettuce opium " .
Lettuce is also eaten as part of the Jewish Passover Seder , where it is considered the optimal choice for use as the bitter herb , which is eaten together with the matzah .
Some American settlers claimed that smallpox could be prevented through the ingestion of lettuce , and an Iranian belief suggested consumption of the seeds when afflicted with typhoid . Folk medicine has also claimed it as a treatment for pain , rheumatism , tension and nervousness , coughs and insanity ; scientific evidence of these benefits in humans has not been found . The religious ties of lettuce continue into the present day among the Yazidi people of northern Iraq , who have a religious prohibition against eating the plant .
= = Cited literature = =
Bradley , Fern Marshall ; Ellis , Barbara W. ; Martin , Deborah L. , eds . ( 2009 ) . The Organic Gardener 's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control . Rodale . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60529 @-@ 677 @-@ 7 .
Davey , M. R. ; Anthony , P. ; Van Hooff , P. ; Power , J. B. ; Lowe , , K. C. ( 2007 ) . " Lettuce " . Transgenic Crops . Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry . Volume 59 . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 36752 @-@ 9 .
Katz , Solomon H. ; Weaver , Williams Woys ( 2003 ) . Encyclopedia of Food and Culture . Volume 2 . Scribner . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 80565 @-@ 8 .
Weaver , Williams Woys ( 1997 ) . Heirloom Vegetable Gardening : A Master Gardener 's Guide to Planting , Seed Saving and Cultural History . Henry Holt and Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 4025 @-@ 8 .
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= Borscht =
Borscht is a tart soup popular in several East European cuisines , including Ukrainian , Russian , Polish , Belarusian , Lithuanian , Romanian and Ashkenazi Jewish . The variety most commonly associated with the name in English is of Ukrainian origin and includes beetroots as one of the main ingredients , which gives the dish a distinctive red color . It shares the name , however , with a wide selection of sour @-@ tasting soups without beetroots , such as sorrel @-@ based green borscht , rye @-@ based white borscht , cabbage borscht , etc .
Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems , leaves and umbels of common hogweed , a herbaceous plant growing in damp meadows , which lent the dish its Slavic name . With time , it evolved into a diverse array of tart soups , among which the beet @-@ based red borscht has become the most popular . It is typically made by combining meat or bone stock with sautéed vegetables , which – as well as beetroots – usually include cabbage , carrots , onions , potatoes and tomatoes . Depending on the recipe , borscht may include meat or fish , or be purely vegetarian ; it may be served either hot or cold ; and it may range from a hearty one @-@ pot meal to a dainty clear broth or a smooth refreshing drink . It is often served with smetana or sour cream , hard @-@ boiled eggs and / or potatoes , but there exists an ample choice of more involved garnishes and side dishes , such as uszka or pampushky , that can be served with the soup .
Its popularity has spread throughout Eastern Europe and the former Russian Empire , and – by way of migration – to other continents . In North America , borscht is often linked with either Jews or Mennonites , the groups who first brought it there from Europe . Today , several ethnic groups claim borscht , in its variegated local guises , as their own national dish and consume it as part of ritual meals within Eastern Orthodox , Greek Catholic , Roman Catholic , and Jewish religious traditions .
= = Etymology = =
The English word borscht , also spelled borsch , borsht , or bortsch , comes from Yiddish באָרשט ( borsht ) . The latter derives from the word борщ ( borshch ) , which is common to East Slavic languages , such as Ukrainian or Russian . Together with cognates in other Slavic languages , it comes from Proto @-@ Slavic * bŭrščǐ ' hogweed ' and ultimately from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * bhr ̥ sti- < * bhares- / bhores- ' point , stubble ' . Common hogweed ( Heracleum sphondylium ) was the soup 's principal ingredient before it was replaced with other vegetables , notably beetroot . The beetroot borscht was invented in what is now Ukraine and first popularized in North America by Yiddish @-@ speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe .
= = Ingredients and preparation = =
Typical Ukrainian borscht is traditionally made from meat and / or bone stock , sautéed vegetables , and beet sour , that is , fermented beetroot juice . Depending on the recipe , some of these components may be omitted or substituted .
The stock is typically made by boiling meat , bones , or both . Beef , pork or a combination of both are most commonly used , with brisket , ribs , shank and chuck considered to give the most flavorful results , especially if cooked on a high flame . Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock . Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours , whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare . Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10 – 15 minutes before the borscht is done . Some recipes call for smoked meats , resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht , while others use poultry or mutton stock . Fasting varieties are typically made with fish stock to avoid the use of meat , while purely vegetarian recipes often substitute the stock with forest mushroom broth .
The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots , white cabbage , carrots , parsley root , potatoes , onions and tomatoes . Some recipes may also call for beans , tart apples , turnip , celeriac , zucchini or bell peppers . Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root , and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes . The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables – by sautéing , braising , boiling or baking – separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock . This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice of slow cooking in the Russian oven ( traditional masonry stove , used for both cooking and heating ) , wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time . The importance of this method is reflected in the Russian language , where a variant in which all vegetables are added raw directly into the stock is referred to by the diminutive form borshchok rather than borshch . Vegetables are usually julienned , except for potatoes and zucchini , which are diced . The beetroots may be partially baked before being sprinkled with vinegar or lemon juice to preserve the color and braised separately from other vegetables . Onions , carrots , parsley root , turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed ( traditionally in animal fat , especially lard or butter ) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste . Dry beans are boiled separately . Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15 minutes before the precooked vegetables are added .
The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour . This combination is traditionally obtained by adding beet sour . It is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm preboiled water and allowing bacteria to ferment some of the sugars present in beetroots into dextran ( which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency ) , mannitol , acetic acid and lactic acid . Stale rye bread is often added to hasten the process , but usually omitted in Jewish recipes , as chametz ( leavened bread ) would make the sour unfit for Passover meals . Sugar , salt and lemon juice may be also added to balance the flavor . After about 2 – 5 days ( or 2 – 3 weeks without the bread ) , the deep red , sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to use . It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done , as prolonged boiling would cause the tart flavor to dissipate . The beet sour is known in Slavic languages as kvas ( literally ' sour , acid ' ; compare kvass ) and in Yiddish as rosl ( from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping salted meat or vegetables in water ; compare Russian rassol ' pickle juice ' , Polish rosół ' broth ' ) . Apart from its employment in borscht , it may be also added to prepared horseradish or used as pot roast marinade .
As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least several days ahead , many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh beetroot juice , while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients , such as vinegar , lemon juice or citric acid , tomatoes , tart apples , dry red wine , dill pickle juice , sauerkraut juice , fermented rye flour and water mixture , etc . The soup is typically flavored with a wide selection of herbs , spices and condiments . Salt , black pepper , garlic , bay leaves and dill are among the most commonly used . Other aromatics often added to borscht include allspice , celery stalks , parsley , marjoram , hot peppers , saffron , horseradish , ginger and prunes . Some recipes require flour or roux to further thicken the borscht . A common opinion is that a good borscht should be thick enough for a spoon to stand upright in it .
= = Varieties = =
As the home country of beetroot borscht , Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup 's regional variants , with virtually every district having its own recipe . Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used ( meat , bone , or both ) , the kind of meat ( beef , pork , poultry , etc . ) , the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them . For example , although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork , the Kiev variant uses mutton or lamb as well as beef , while in the Poltava region , the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat , that is , chicken , duck or goose . The use of zucchini , beans and apples is characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht ; in this variant , beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard , and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples . The Lviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages .
Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine . Examples include the Moscow borscht , served with pieces of beef , ham and Vienna sausages ; Siberian borscht with meatballs ; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes . Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht ( flotsky borshch ) , the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond @-@ shaped chunks rather than julienned .
As well as the thick borschts described above , Polish cuisine offers a ruby @-@ colored beetroot bouillon known as barszcz czysty czerwony , or clear red borscht . It is made by combining strained meat @-@ and @-@ vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour . In some versions , smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice , dill pickle brine , or dry red wine . It may be served either in a soup bowl or – especially at dinner parties – as a hot beverage in a twin @-@ handled cup , with a croquette or a filled pastry on the side . Unlike other types of borscht , it is not whitened with sour cream . Barszcz wigilijny , or Christmas Eve borscht , is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper . In this version , meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth , usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes . The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for uszka ( small filled dumplings ) , which are then served with the borscht .
In the summertime , cold borscht is a popular , refreshing alternative to the aforementioned variants , which are normally served hot . It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream , buttermilk , soured milk , kefir and / or yogurt , and is refrigerated . The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color . It is typically served over finely chopped beetroot , cucumbers , radishes and green onion , together with halves of a hard @-@ boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill . Chopped veal , ham , or crawfish tails may be added as well . This soup probably originated in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which comprised the territories of modern @-@ day Lithuania and Belarus , and it is still part of the culinary traditions of these and neighboring nations . The Lithuanian language is the only one in the region which actually refers to it as ' cold borscht ' ( šaltibarščiai ) . In Belarusian it is known simply as khaladnik , or ' cold soup ' ; in Polish as chłodnik litewski , or ' Lithuanian cold soup ' ; and in Russian as svekolnik , or ' beetroot soup ' .
Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements . As combining meat with milk is proscribed by kosher dietary laws , Jews have developed two variants of the soup : meat ( fleischik ) and dairy ( milchik ) . The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket ( pork is never used ) and cabbage , while the dairy one is vegetarian , blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks . Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions , and are flavored with beet sour , vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness . Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet . Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold , typically with a hot boiled potato on the side . In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday .
= = = Without beets = = =
Although in the English language borscht refers almost invariably to a beet @-@ based soup , in some culinary cultures there exist soups with the same or similar names where beetroots are absent or merely optional . The principal common trait among them is a tart flavor obtained by adding various sour @-@ tasting ingredients .
Green borscht ( zeleny borshch ) , a light soup made from leaf vegetables , is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines . The naturally tart @-@ tasting sorrel is most commonly used , but spinach , chard , nettle , garden orache and occasionally dandelion , goutweed or ramsons , may be added as well , especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed . Like beetroot borscht , it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard @-@ boiled eggs , sprinkled with dill . There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots .
In Polish cuisine , white borscht ( barszcz biały , also known as żur or żurek , ' sour soup ' ) is made from a fermented mixture of rye flour or oatmeal and water . It is typically flavored with garlic and marjoram , and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage ; the water in which the sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock . In the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland , variants of borscht are also made in which the tart taste comes from fermented milk products , such as whey or buttermilk . Although the deep red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood , the kind of borscht that does contain animal ( usually poultry ) blood mixed with vinegar is dark brownish @-@ gray in color and aptly called " gray borscht " ( barszcz szary ) , which is a regional name of the Polish blood soup better known as czernina .
In Romanian and Moldovan cuisines , a mixture of wheat bran or cornmeal with water that has been left to ferment , similar to that used in Polish white borscht , is called borș . It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups , known as either also borș or ciorbă . Variants include ciorbă de perișoare ( with meatballs ) , ciorbă de burtă ( with tripe ) , borş de peşte ( with fish ) and borş de sfeclă roşie ( with beetroots ) .
The Armenian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef stock , green peppers and other vegetables , which may or may not include beetroots , and flavored with parsley and cilantro . In Chinese cuisine , a soup known as luó sòng tāng , or " Russian soup " , is based on red cabbage and tomatoes , and lacks beetroots altogether ; also known as " Chinese borscht " , it originated in Harbin , close to the Russian border in northeast China . In ethnic Mennonite cuisine , borscht refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock – from spring borscht made with spinach , sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage , tomatoes , corn and squash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage , beets and potatoes .
= = Garnishes and sides = =
The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various kinds of borscht may be served .
Most often , borscht is dished up with sour cream , the East European version of which , known as smetana , is runnier than its American counterpart . The sour cream may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already " whitened " , that is , blended with sour cream . Sometimes the cream is thickened with flour before being added to the soup . Yogurt and a mixture of milk and yolks are possible substitutes .
Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup ; dill is most common , but parsley , chives or scallion are often added as well . Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic . Many kinds of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard @-@ boiled chicken or quail eggs . Navy beans , broad beans or string beans are also a common addition .
Meat , removed from the stock on which the borscht was based , may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or mustard . Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes . Borscht based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style , with marrow from the bones .
Some kinds of the soup , such as Poltava borscht , may be served with halushky , or thick noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour . Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs ( frikadelki ) of minced beef and onion . In Poland and parts of western Ukraine , borscht is typically ladled over uszka , or bite @-@ sized ear @-@ shaped dumplings made from pasta dough wrapped around mushroom , buckwheat or meat filling . Mushroom @-@ filled uszka are particularly associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht .
Borscht , like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines , is seldom eaten by itself , but rather accompanied by a side dish . At a minimum , spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a slice of bread . Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes , often topped with pork cracklings , are other simple possibilities , but a range of more involved sides exists as well .
In Ukraine , borscht is often accompanied with pampushky , or savory , puffy yeast @-@ raised rolls glazed with oil and crushed garlic . In Russian cuisine , borscht may be served with any of assorted side dishes based on tvorog , or the East European variant of farmer cheese , such as vatrushki , syrniki or krupeniki . Vatrushki are baked round cheese @-@ filled tarts ; syrniki are small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter ; and a krupenik is a casserole of buckwheat groats baked with cheese .
Pirozhki , or baked dumplings with fillings as for uszka , are another common side for both hearty and clear variants of borscht . Polish clear borscht may be also served with a croquette or paszteciki . A typical Polish croquette ( krokiet ) is made by wrapping a crêpe ( thin pancake ) around a filling and coating it in breadcrumbs before refrying ; paszteciki ( literally , ' little pâtés ' ) are variously shaped filled hand @-@ held pastries of yeast @-@ raised or flaky dough . An even more exquisite way to serve borscht is with a coulibiac , or a large loaf @-@ shaped pie . Possible fillings for croquettes , paszteciki and coulibiacs include mushrooms , sauerkraut and minced meat .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed ( Heracleum sphondylium , also known as cow parsnip ) , which lent the dish its Slavic name . Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone , hogweed was used not only as fodder ( as its English names suggest ) , but also for human consumption – from Eastern Europe to Siberia , to northwestern North America .
The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat , while the stems , leaves and umbels were chopped , covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment . After a few days , lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as " something between beer and sauerkraut " . This concoction was then used for cooking a soup characterized by a mouth @-@ puckering sour taste and pungent smell . As the Polish ethnographer Łukasz Gołębiowski wrote in 1830 , " Poles have been always partial to tart dishes , which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health . "
The earliest written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in Domostroy ( Domestic Order ) , a 16th @-@ century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking advice . It recommends growing the plant " by the fence , around the whole garden , where the nettle grows " , to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to , " for the Lord 's sake , share it with those in need " . Simon Syrenius ( Szymon Syreński ) , a 17th @-@ century Polish botanist , described " our Polish hogweed " as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland , Rus ' , Lithuania and Samogitia ( that is , most of the northern part of Eastern Europe ) , typically used for cooking a " tasty and graceful soup " with capon stock , eggs , sour cream and millet . More interested in the plant 's medicinal properties than its culinary use , he also recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover .
Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man 's food . The soup 's humble beginnings are still reflected in Polish fixed expressions , where " cheap like borscht " is the equivalent of " dirt cheap " ( also attested as a calque in Yiddish and Canadian English ) , whereas adding " two mushrooms into borscht " is synonymous with excess . For the professors of the University of Kraków , who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century , hogweed borscht was a fasting dish which they ate regularly ( sometimes with deviled eggs ) from Lent till Rogation days . It was uncommon on the royal table , although according to the 16th @-@ century Polish botanist Marcin of Urzędów – citing Giovanni Manardo , a court physician to the Jagiellonian kings of Hungary – the Polish @-@ born King Vladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed @-@ based dish prepared for him at his court in Buda .
= = = Diversification = = =
With time , other ingredients were added to the soup , eventually replacing hogweed altogether , and the names borshch or barszcz became generic terms for any sour @-@ tasting soup . In 19th @-@ century rural Poland , this term included soups made from barberries , currants , gooseberries , cranberries , celery or plums .
When describing the uses of common hogweed , John Gerard , a 17th @-@ century English botanist , observed that " the people of [ Poland ] and Lithuania use to make [ a ] drink with the decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal , which is used instead of beer and other ordinary drink . " It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water and barley flour , oatmeal or rye flour . Such soured , gelatinous flour @-@ and @-@ water mixture , originally known as kissel ( from the Proto @-@ Slavic root * kyslŭ , ' sour ' ) had been already mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years , a 12th @-@ century chronicle of Kievan Rus ' , and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century . In Poland , a soup based on diluted kissel became known as either żur ( from Middle High German sur ' sour ' ) or barszcz and later – to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht – as barszcz biały ' white borscht ' .
The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht , written by chefs catering to Polish magnates ( aristocrats ) , are from the late 17th century . Stanisław Czerniecki , head chef to Prince Aleksander Michał Lubomirski , included several borscht recipes in his Compendium ferculorum ( A Collection of Dishes ) , the first cookbook published originally in Polish , in 1682 . They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and " royal borscht " , the latter made from assorted dried , smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran . A manuscript recipe collection from the Radziwiłł family court , dating back to ca . 1686 , contains an instruction for making hogweed borscht mixed with poppy seeds or ground almonds . As this was a Lenten dish , it was garnished , in a trompe @-@ l 'œil fashion typical of Baroque cuisine , with mock eggs made from finely chopped pike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval balls . An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with vinegar .
Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland . Examples include onion borscht , a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook , and sorrel @-@ based green borscht , which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia . A Gift to Young Housewives by Elena Molokhovets , the best @-@ selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century , first published in 1861 , contains nine recipes for borscht , some of which are based on kvass , a traditional Slavic fermented beverage made from rye bread . Kvass @-@ based variants were also known in Ukraine at that time ; some of them were types of green borscht , while others were similar to the Russian okroshka .
Before the advent of beet @-@ based borscht , cabbage borscht was of particular importance . Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut , it could be indistinguishable from the Russian shchi . Indeed , the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language defines borshch as " a kind of shchi " with beet sour added for tartness . The significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian proverb , " without bread , it 's no lunch ; without cabbage , it 's no borscht . "
= = = Novel ingredients = = =
Beet ( Beta vulgaris ) , a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin , was already grown in antiquity . Only the leaves were of culinary use , as the tapered , tough , whitish and bitter @-@ tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption . It is likely that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot @-@ based red borscht . Beet varieties with round , red , sweet taproots , known as beetroots , were not reliably reported until the 12th century and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century . Mikołaj Rej , a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist , included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book , Life of an Honest Man . It would later evolve into ćwikła , or chrain mit burik , a beet @-@ and @-@ horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines . Rej also recommended the " very tasty brine " left over from beetroot pickling , which was an early version of beet sour . The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and – mixed with honey – as a sore throat remedy .
It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht , which also gave the soup its now @-@ familiar red color . Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie 's Polish @-@ German dictionary published in 1806 was the first to define barszcz as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots . The fact that certain 19th @-@ century Russian and Polish cookbooks , such as Handbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife ( 1842 ) by Yekaterina Avdeyeva and The Lithuanian Cook ( 1854 ) by Wincenta Zawadzka , refer to beetroot @-@ based borscht as " Little Russian borscht " ( where " Little Russian " is a term used at the time for ethnic Ukrainians under imperial Russian rule ) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine , whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation . Ukrainian legends , probably of 19th @-@ century origin , attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either to Zaporozhian Cossacks , serving in the Polish army , on their way to break the siege of Vienna in 1683 , or to Don Cossacks , serving in the Russian army , while laying siege to Azov in 1695 .
Spanish conquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the 16th century , but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern Europe in the 19th century . Eventually , both became staples of peasant diet and essential ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht . Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes , and tomatoes – fresh , canned or paste – took over from beet sour as the source of tartness . The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes , and even then , together with potatoes . In Ukraine , beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately prevailed during the last third of the 19th century .
= = = Spread = = =
Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries , borscht 's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland , largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire , Russia 's growing political clout and cultural stature , and waves of emigration out of the country . As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia , borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire , from Finland to the Caucasus and Iran , to Central Asia and China , and to Alaska ( Russian America ) .
Borscht 's westward expansion was less successful ; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare . What helped familiarize Western Europe with borscht was the practice of Russian emperors , as well as Russian and Polish aristocrats , to employ celebrated French chefs , who later presented their own versions of the dish as a foreign curiosity back in France . One of the first French chefs to do so was Marie @-@ Antoine Carême , who worked briefly for Emperor Alexander I in 1819 . In his take on borscht , the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravagant haute cuisine dish with an air of eastern exoticism . Apart from vegetables and beet sour , his recipe calls for a roast chicken , a fried chicken , a duck , a piece of veal , an oxtail , a marrow bone , one pound of bacon , and six large sausages , and suggests serving with beef quenelles , deviled eggs , and croûtons . Auguste Escoffier , Carême 's apprentice , who was mostly fascinated by the soup 's vivid ruby @-@ red color , simplified his master 's recipe , while also securing the place of potage bortsch ( " borscht soup " ) in French cuisine . Urbain Dubois and Émile Bernard , both of whom had been employed at Polish aristocratic courts , presented borscht to the French public as a Polish soup ; their cookbook , La cuisine classique , published in 1856 , contains a borscht recipe under the descriptive name , potage au jus de betteraves à la polonaise ( " Polish @-@ style beet @-@ juice soup " ) , which had been changed to potage barsch à la polonaise by the third edition in 1868 . In 1867 , beetroot borscht was served , along with herrings , sturgeon , coulibiac , Pozharsky cutlets and vinaigrette salad , at a Russian @-@ themed dinner at the International Exposition in Paris , strengthening its international association with Russian culture .
Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America – initially mosty by members of persecuted religious minorities – was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic . The earliest waves of migration occurred at a time when cabbage @-@ based borscht was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia . The Mennonites , who began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia 's Volga region in the 1870s , still eschew beetroots in their borscht ; instead , Mennonite varieties include Komst Borscht ( with cabbage or sauerkraut ) and Somma Borscht ( sorrel @-@ based " summer borscht " ) . According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published in 1906 , cabbage @-@ based kraut borscht was also more popular than the beet @-@ based variant in American Jewish cuisine at the time . Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America .
In the 1930s , when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespread anti @-@ Semitism , New York Jews began flocking to Jewish @-@ owned resorts in the Catskill Mountains for their summer vacations . The area grew into a major center of Jewish entertainment , with restaurants offering all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare , including copious amounts of borscht . Grossinger 's , one of the largest resorts , served borscht throughout the day , every day of the year . The region became known , initially in derision , as the " Borscht Belt " , reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish culture . As most visitors arrived in the summertime , the borscht was typically served cold . Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers , producing 1 @,@ 750 short tons ( 1 @,@ 590 t ) a year in his business 's heyday . Gold 's borscht consists of puréed beetroots seasoned with sugar , salt and citric acid ; it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing beverage , more aptly described as a " beet smoothie " . Such kind of " purplish , watery broth " is , according to Nikolai Burlakoff , author of The World of Russian Borsch , " associated in America with borsch , in general , and Jewish borsch in particular . "
In the Soviet Union , borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes . It was described by James Meek , a British correspondent in Kiev and Moscow , as " the common denominator of the Soviet kitchen , the dish that tied together ... the high table of the Kremlin and the meanest canteen in the boondocks of the Urals , ... the beetroot soup that pumped like a main artery through the kitchens of the east Slav lands " . Among Soviet leaders , the Ukrainian @-@ born Leonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht , which his wife continued to personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin .
The soup has even played a role in the Soviet space program . In March 1961 , as part of a communications equipment test , a pre @-@ recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from the Korabl @-@ Sputnik 4 spacecraft . The craft , carrying animals and a mannequin , had been launched into low Earth orbit in preparation for manned space flights . Actual borscht eventually made its way into outer space as space food for Soviet and , later , Russian cosmonauts . Originally , a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes . All ingredients for the space borscht ( which include beef , beetroots , cabbage , potatoes , carrots , onions , parsley root and tomato paste ) were cooked separately , then combined one by one in strictly controlled order , sterilized , packed into tubes , sealed airtight and autoclaved . In the 1970s , the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratable freeze @-@ dried borscht with regular @-@ size bits of cooked vegetables .
= = In culture = =
= = = As a ritual dish = = =
Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations ( Eastern Orthodox , Greek and Roman Catholic , and Jewish ) that are common in Eastern Europe . In East Slavic countries , " memorial borscht " is served as the first course at a post @-@ funeral wake . According to a traditional belief , the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes , such as blini , porridge , boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread . In the region of Polesye , straddling the Belarusian @-@ Ukrainian border , the same steaming @-@ hot dishes , including borscht , are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi @-@ pagan remembrance ceremony known as Dzyady , or Forefathers ' Night .
In Poland and Ukraine , borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner . Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky on December 25 ( Roman Catholic ) or January 6 ( Greek Catholic ) , it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting , a multicourse affair ( traditionally , with twelve distinct dishes ) that excludes ingredients of land @-@ animal origin . Christmas Eve borscht is , therefore , either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed with sour cream . In Ukraine , the soup contains vegetables that are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard , as well as beans and mushrooms . It may be also thickened with wheat flour dry @-@ roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux . The Polish version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby @-@ red broth . Both Ukrainian and Polish variants are often served with uszka .
While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht , Lent – the fasting period that leads up to Easter – is associated with a meatless version of white borscht , or żur . Youths used to celebrate Holy Saturday , the last day of the fast , with a mock " funeral " of the white borscht , in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken , sometimes – to the crowd 's amusement – while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head . On the next day , the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table , but this time , in its more coveted , meat @-@ based guise with sausage , bacon and eggs .
In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition , vegetarian borscht served with sour cream and boiled potatoes on the side , known as peysakhdiker borsht , is considered an essential dish during the Passover period . As the holiday is observed in spring ( March or April ) , the preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter , remaining potatoes that had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new calving season . Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular on Shavuot ( Feast of Weeks ) , a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods , observed in late May or early June . Seudah Shlishit , or the third meal of the Shabbat , often includes borscht as well .
= = = As an ethnic dish = = =
Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups , especially Ukrainians , Russians , Poles , Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews , as their own national or ethnic dish and cultural icon . Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive , as the soup 's history predates the emergence of modern nation states , with their ever @-@ shifting borders , in Eastern Europe . Borscht , in the words of Burlakoff , " is perfectly suited to a global culture . " He describes it as " a global phenomenon " , in which " local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non @-@ specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition . " In his view , borscht " is an almost perfect example of ... ' glocalization ' – a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation ; ... a highly localized product that became globalized , and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones . " However , according to Irina Perianova , a Russian linguist and anthropologist , " people tend to be very proprietal about their food and proud of it . " A " connection between culinary and territorial claims " may be observed , which results in the culinary area turning into " a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths . "
In its currently most popular , beet @-@ based version , borscht most likely originated in what is now Ukraine . Borscht 's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying , " borscht and porridge are our food " ( compare the equivalent Russian saying , where borscht is replaced with shchi ) . The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables , as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth , is still known in Poland as " Ukrainian borscht " .
In the Soviet Union , government @-@ sponsored cookbooks , such as The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food curated by Anastas Mikoyan , Cookery and Directory of Recipes and Culinary Production , promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally " rational " versions of traditional dishes . The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in culinary vocational schools throughout the country , establishing a common cooking style in Soviet cafés and restaurants . Though inspired by the cuisines of the country 's various ethnic groups , many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage , disassociated from their individual geographic origins . By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union , borscht was increasingly seen not as an ethnic Ukrainian soup , but as a Soviet or – metonymically – Russian dish . This approach was criticized by William Pokhlebkin , a preeminent Russian food writer , who unequivocally described beet @-@ based borscht as one of the " dishes of Ukrainian cookery " which " have entered the menu of international cuisine " . " One could understand " , he wrote , " and forgive foreigners for calling borscht or varenyky Russian national dishes , but when it turns out that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus , one is embarrassed for our authors and chefs , who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples [ that is , the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union ] with such ignorance . "
According to Meek ,
Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead , yet Borshchland lives on . Recipes , like birds , ignore political boundaries ... The faint outline of the Tsarist @-@ Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock , and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup , from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and , in emigration , from Brooklyn to Berlin .
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= Tony Benn =
Anthony Neil Wedgwood Benn ( 3 April 1925 – 14 March 2014 ) , originally known as Anthony Wedgwood Benn or Wedgie Benn , but later as Tony Benn , was a British politician who was a Member of Parliament ( MP ) for 47 years between the 1950 and 2001 general elections and a Cabinet minister in the Labour governments of Harold Wilson and James Callaghan in the 1960s and 1970s . Originally a " moderate " , he was identified as being on the party 's hard left from the early 1980s , and was widely seen as a key proponent of democratic socialism within the party .
Benn inherited a peerage on his father 's death ( as 2nd Viscount Stansgate ) , which prevented his continuing as an MP . He fought to remain in the House of Commons , and then campaigned for the ability to renounce the title , a campaign which succeeded with the Peerage Act 1963 . In the Labour Government of 1964 – 70 he served first as Postmaster General , where he oversaw the opening of the Post Office Tower , and later as a " technocratic " Minister of Technology .
He served as Chairman of the Labour Party in 1971 – 72 while in opposition , and in the Labour Government of 1974 – 1979 , he returned to the Cabinet , initially as Secretary of State for Industry , before being made Secretary of State for Energy , retaining his post when James Callaghan replaced Wilson as Prime Minister . When the Labour Party was again in opposition through the 1980s , he emerged as a prominent figure on its left wing and the term " Bennite " came into currency as someone associated with radical left @-@ wing politics .
Benn was described as " one of the few UK politicians to have become more left @-@ wing after holding ministerial office . " After leaving Parliament , Benn was President of the Stop the War Coalition from 2001 until his death in 2014 .
= = Early life and family = =
Benn was born in London on 3 April 1925 . Benn 's father William Wedgwood Benn was a Liberal Member of Parliament from 1906 who crossed the floor to the Labour Party in 1928 and was appointed Secretary of State for India by Ramsay MacDonald in 1929 , a position he held until 1931 . William Benn was elevated to the House of Lords with the title of Viscount Stansgate in 1942 – the new wartime coalition government was short of working Labour peers in the upper house . In 1945 – 46 , William Benn was the Secretary of State for Air in the first majority Labour Government .
Benn 's mother , Margaret Wedgwood Benn ( née Holmes , 1897 – 1991 ) , was a theologian , feminist and the founder President of the Congregational Federation . She was a member of the League of the Church Militant , which was the predecessor of the Movement for the Ordination of Women ; in 1925 , she was rebuked by Randall Davidson , the Archbishop of Canterbury , for advocating the ordination of women . His mother 's theology had a profound influence on Benn , as she taught him that the stories in the Bible were based around the struggle between the prophets and the kings and that he ought in his life to support the prophets over the kings , who had power , as the prophets taught righteousness .
Benn asserted that the teachings of Jesus Christ had a " radical political importance " on his life , and made a distinction between the historical Jesus as " a carpenter of Nazareth " who advocated social justice and egalitarianism and " the way in which he 's presented by some religious authorities ; by popes , archbishops and bishops who present Jesus as justification for their power " , believing this to be a gross misunderstanding of the role of Jesus . He believed that it was a " great mistake " to assume that the teachings of Christianity are outdated in modern Britain , and Higgins wrote in The Benn Inheritance that Benn was " a socialist whose political commitment owes much more to the teaching of Jesus than the writing of Marx " . Later in his life , Benn emphasised issues regarding morality and righteousness , as well as various ethical principles of Nonconformism . " I 've never thought we can understand the world we lived in unless we understood the history of the church " , Benn said to the Catholic Herald . " All political freedoms were won , first of all , through religious freedom . Some of the arguments about the control of the media today , which are very big arguments , are the arguments that would have been fought in the religious wars . You have the satellites coming in now — well , it is the multinational church all over again . That 's why Mrs Thatcher pulled Britain out of UNESCO : she was not prepared , any more than Ronald Reagan was , to be part of an organisation that talked about a New World Information Order , people speaking to each other without the help of Murdoch or Maxwell . " According to Peter Wilby in the New Statesman , Benn " decided to do without the paraphernalia and doctrine of organised religion but not without the teachings of Jesus " . Although Benn became more agnostic as he became older , Benn was intrigued by the interconnections between Christianity , radicalism and socialism . Wilby also wrote in The Guardian that although former Chancellor Stafford Cripps described Benn as " as keen a Christian as I am myself " , Benn wrote in 2005 that he was " a Christian agnostic " who believed " in Jesus the prophet , not Christ the king " , specifically rejecting the label of " humanist " .
Both of Benn 's grandfathers were Liberal MPs ; his paternal grandfather was John Benn , a successful politician , MP for Tower Hamlets and later Devonport , who was created a baronet in 1914 ( and who founded a publishing company , Benn Brothers ) , and his maternal grandfather was Daniel Holmes , MP for Glasgow Govan . Benn 's contact with leading politicians of the day dates back to his earliest years ; he met Ramsay MacDonald when he was five , whom he described as : " A kindly old gentleman [ who ] leaned over me and offered me a chocolate biscuit . I 've looked at Labour leaders in a funny way ever since . " Benn also met David Lloyd George when he was 12 and later recalled that , while still a boy , he once shook hands with Mahatma Gandhi . This was in 1931 , while his father was Secretary of State for India .
In the Second World War , Benn joined and trained with the Home Guard from the age of 16 , later recalling ( 2009 ) in a speech : " I could use a bayonet , a rifle , a revolver , and if I 'd seen a German officer having a meal I 'd have tossed a grenade through the window . Would I have been a freedom fighter or a terrorist ? "
In July 1943 , Benn enlisted in the Royal Air Force as an aircraftman 2nd Class . His father and elder brother Michael ( who was later killed in an accident ) were already serving in the RAF . He was granted an emergency commission as a pilot officer ( on probation ) on 10 March 1945 . As a pilot officer , Benn served as a pilot in South Africa and Rhodesia . He relinquished his commission with effect from 10 August 1945 , three months after the European Second World War ended on 8 May , and just days before the war with Japan ended on 2 September .
Benn attended Westminster School and studied at New College , Oxford , where he read Philosophy , Politics and Economics and was elected President of the Oxford Union in 1947 . In later life , Benn removed public references to his private education from Who 's Who ; in 1970 all references to Westminster School were removed ; in the 1975 edition his entry stated " Education — still in progress " . In the 1976 edition , almost all details were omitted save for his name , jobs as a Member of Parliament and as a Government Minister , and address ; the publishers confirmed that Benn had sent back the draft entry with everything else struck through . In the 1977 edition , Benn 's entry disappeared entirely , and when he returned to Who 's Who in 1983 , he was listed as " Tony Benn " and all references to his education or service record were removed .
In 1972 , Benn said in his diaries that " Today I had the idea that I would resign my Privy Councillorship , my MA and all my honorary doctorates in order to strip myself of what the world had to offer " . While he acknowledged that he " might be ridiculed " for doing so , Benn said that " But ' Wedgie Benn ' and ' the Rt Honourable Anthony Wedgwood Benn ' and all that stuff is impossible . I have been Tony Benn in Bristol for a long time . " In October 1973 he announced on BBC Radio that he wished to be known as Mr. Tony Benn rather than Anthony Wedgwood Benn , and his book Speeches from 1974 is credited to " Tony Benn " . Despite this name change , social historian Alwyn W. Turner writes that " Just as those with an agenda to pursue still call Muhammed Ali by his original name ... so most newspapers continued to refer to Tony Benn as Wedgwood Benn , or Wedgie in the case of the tabloids , for years to come ( some older Tories were still doing so three decades later ) . "
Benn met Caroline Middleton DeCamp ( born 13 October 1926 , Cincinnati , Ohio , United States ) over tea at Worcester College , Oxford , in 1949 and nine days later he proposed to her on a park bench in the city . Later , he bought the bench from Oxford City Council and installed it in the garden of their home in Holland Park . Tony and Caroline had four children – Stephen , Hilary , Melissa , a feminist writer , and Joshua – and ten grandchildren . Caroline Benn died of cancer on 22 November 2000 , aged 74 , after a career as an educationalist .
Two of Benn 's children have been active in Labour Party politics . His first son , Stephen , was an elected Member of the Inner London Education Authority from 1986 to 1990 . His second son , Hilary , was a councillor in London , and stood for Parliament in 1983 and 1987 , becoming the Labour MP for Leeds Central in 1999 . He was Secretary of State for International Development from 2003 to 2007 , and then Secretary of State for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs until 2010 , serving as Shadow Foreign Secretary ( 2015 – 16 ) . This makes him the third generation of his family to have been a member of the Cabinet , a rare distinction for a modern political family in Britain . Benn 's granddaughter Emily Benn was the Labour Party 's youngest @-@ ever candidate when she failed to win East Worthing and Shoreham in 2010 . Benn was a first cousin once removed of the actress Margaret Rutherford .
He became a vegetarian in 1970 , for ethical reasons , and remained so for the rest of his life .
= = Member of Parliament ( 1950 – 64 ) = =
Following the Second World War Benn worked briefly as a BBC Radio producer . On 1 November 1950 , he was selected to succeed Stafford Cripps as the Labour candidate for Bristol South East , after Cripps stood down because of ill @-@ health . He won the seat in a by @-@ election on 30 November 1950 . Anthony Crosland helped him get the seat as he was the MP for nearby South Gloucestershire at the time . Upon taking the oath on 4 December 1950 Benn became " Baby of the House " , the youngest MP , for one day , being succeeded by Thomas Teevan , who was two years younger but took his oath a day later . He became the " Baby " again in 1951 , when Teevan was not re @-@ elected . In the 1950s , Benn held middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road or soft left views , and was not associated with the young left wing group around Aneurin Bevan .
Benn as Bristol South East MP helped organise the 1963 Bristol Bus Boycott against the colour bar of the Bristol Omnibus Company against employing Black British and British Asian drivers . Benn said that he would " stay off the buses , even if I have to find a bike " , and Labour leader Harold Wilson also told an anti @-@ apartheid rally in London he was " glad that so many Bristolians are supporting the [ boycott ] campaign " , adding that he " wish [ ed ] them every success " .
= = = Peerage reform = = =
Benn 's father had been created Viscount Stansgate in 1942 when Winston Churchill increased the number of Labour peers to aid political work in the House of Lords ; at this time , Benn 's elder brother Michael was intending to enter the priesthood and had no objections to inheriting a peerage . However , Michael was later killed in an accident while on active service in the Second World War , and this left Benn as the heir to the peerage . He made several unsuccessful attempts to renounce the succession .
In November 1960 , Lord Stansgate died . Benn automatically became a peer , preventing him from sitting in the House of Commons . The Speaker of the Commons , Sir Harry Hylton @-@ Foster , did not allow him to deliver a speech from the bar of the House of Commons in April 1961 when the by @-@ election was being called . Continuing to maintain his right to abandon his peerage , Benn fought to retain his seat in a by @-@ election caused by his succession on 4 May 1961 . Although he was disqualified from taking his seat , he was re @-@ elected . An election court found that the voters were fully aware that Benn was disqualified , and declared the seat won by the Conservative runner @-@ up , Malcolm St Clair , who was at the time also the heir presumptive to a peerage .
Benn continued his campaign outside Parliament . Within two years , though , the Conservative Government of the time , which had members in the same or similar situation to Benn 's ( i.e. , who were going to receive title , or who had already applied for writs of summons ) , changed the law . The Peerage Act 1963 , allowing lifetime disclaimer of peerages , became law shortly after 6 pm on 31 July 1963 . Benn was the first peer to renounce his title , doing so at 6 @.@ 22 pm that day . St Clair , fulfilling a promise he had made at the time of his election , then accepted the office of Steward of the Manor of Northstead , disqualifying himself from the House ( outright resignation not being possible ) . Benn returned to the Commons after winning a by @-@ election on 20 August 1963 .
= = In government , 1964 – 70 = =
In the 1964 Government of Harold Wilson , Benn was Postmaster General , where he oversaw the opening of the Post Office Tower , then the UK 's tallest building , and the creations of the Post Bus service and Girobank . He proposed issuing stamps without the Sovereign 's head , but this met with private opposition from the Queen . Instead , the portrait was reduced to a small profile in silhouette , a format that is still used on commemorative stamps.f
Benn also led the government 's opposition to the " pirate " radio stations broadcasting from international waters , which he was aware would be an unpopular measure . Some of these stations were causing problems , such as interference to emergency radio used by shipping , although he was not responsible for introducing the Marine Broadcasting Offences Bill when it came before Parliament at the end of July 1966 for its first reading .
Earlier in the month , Benn was promoted to Minister of Technology , which included responsibility for the development of Concorde and the formation of International Computers Ltd ( ICL ) . The period also saw government involvement in industrial rationalisation , and the merger of several car companies to form British Leyland . Following Conservative MP Enoch Powell 's 1968 " Rivers of Blood " speech to a Conservative Association meeting , in opposition to Harold Wilson 's insistence on not " stirring up the Powell issue " , Benn said during the 1970 general election campaign :
The flag of racialism which has been hoisted in Wolverhampton is beginning to look like the one that fluttered 25 years ago over Dachau and Belsen . If we do not speak up now against the filthy and obscene racialist propaganda ... the forces of hatred will mark up their first success and mobilise their first offensive . ...
Enoch Powell has emerged as the real leader of the Conservative Party . He is a far stronger character than Mr. Heath . He speaks his mind ; Heath does not . The final proof of Powell 's power is that Heath dare not attack him publicly , even when he says things things that disgust decent Conservatives .
The mainstream press attacked Benn for using language deemed as intemperate as Powell 's language in his " Rivers of Blood " speech ( which was widely regarded as racist ) , and Benn noted in his diary that " letters began pouring in on the Powell speech : 2 : 1 against me but some very sympathetic ones saying that my speech was overdue " . Harold Wilson later reprimanded Benn for this speech , accusing him of losing Labour seats in the 1970 general election .
Labour lost the 1970 election to Edward Heath 's Conservatives and upon Heath 's application to join the European Economic Community , a surge in left @-@ wing Euroscepticism emerged . Benn " was stridently against membership " , and campaigned in favour of a referendum on the UK 's membership . The Shadow Cabinet voted to support a referendum on 29 March 1972 , and as a result Roy Jenkins resigned as Deputy Leader of the Labour Party .
= = In government , 1974 – 79 = =
In the Labour Government of 1974 Benn was Secretary of State for Industry and as such increased nationalised industry pay , provided better terms and conditions for workers such as the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and was involved in setting up worker cooperatives in firms which were struggling , the best known being at Meriden , outside Coventry , producing Triumph Motorcycles . In 1975 he was appointed Secretary of State for Energy , immediately following his unsuccessful campaign for a " No " vote in the referendum on the UK 's continued membership of the European Community ( Common Market ) . Later in his diary ( 25 October 1977 ) Benn wrote that he " loathed " the EEC ; he claimed it was " bureaucratic and centralised " and " of course it is really dominated by Germany . All the Common Market countries except the UK have been occupied by Germany , and they have this mixed feeling of hatred and subservience towards the Germans " .
Upon the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 , Benn described Mao as " one of the greatest – if not the greatest – figures of the twentieth century : a schoolteacher who transformed China , released it from civil war and foreign attack and constructed a new society there " in his diaries , adding that " he certainly towers above any twentieth @-@ century figure I can think of in his philosophical contribution and military genius " . On his trip to the Chinese embassy after Mao 's death , Benn recorded in an earlier volume of his diaries that he was " a great admirer of Mao " , while also admitting that " he made mistakes , because everybody does " .
Harold Wilson resigned as Leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister in March 1976 . Benn later attributed the collapse of the Wilson government to cuts enforced on the UK by global capital , in particular the International Monetary Fund . In the resulting leadership contest Benn came in fourth out of the six cabinet ministers who stood — he withdrew as 11 @.@ 8 % of colleagues voted for him in the first ballot . Benn withdrew from the second ballot and supported Michael Foot ; James Callaghan eventually won . Despite not receiving his support in the second and third rounds of the vote , Callaghan kept Benn on as Energy Secretary . In 1976 there was a sterling crisis , and Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey sought a loan from the International Monetary Fund . Underlining a wish to counter international market forces which seemed to penalise a larger welfare state , Benn publicly circulated the divided Cabinet minutes in which a narrow majority of the Labour Cabinet under Ramsay MacDonald supported a cut in unemployment benefits in order to obtain a loan from American bankers . As he highlighted , these minutes resulted in the 1931 split of the Labour Party in which MacDonald and his allies formed a National Government with Conservatives and Liberals . Callaghan allowed Benn to put forward the Alternative Economic Strategy , which consisted of a self @-@ sufficient economy less dependent on low @-@ rate fresh borrowing , but the AES , which according to opponents would have led to a " siege economy " , was rejected by the Cabinet . In response , Benn later recalled that : " I retorted that their policy was a siege economy , only they had the bankers inside the castle with all our supporters left outside , whereas my policy would have our supporters in the castle with the bankers outside . " Benn blamed the Winter of Discontent on these cuts to socialist policies .
= = = Move to the left = = =
By the end of the 1970s , Benn had migrated to the left wing of the Labour Party . He attributed this political shift to his experience as a Cabinet Minister in the 1964 – 1970 Labour Government . Benn ascribed his move to the left to four lessons :
How " the Civil Service can frustrate the policies and decisions of popularly elected governments " ;
The centralised nature of the Labour Party which allowed the Leader to run " the Party almost as if it were his personal kingdom "
" The power of industrialists and bankers to get their way by use of the crudest form of economic pressure , even blackmail , against a Labour Government " ; and
The power of the media , which " like the power of the medieval Church , ensures that events of the day are always presented from the point of the view of those who enjoy economic privilege .
As regards the power of industrialists and bankers , Benn remarked :
Compared to this , the pressure brought to bear in industrial disputes by the unions is minuscule . This power was revealed even more clearly in 1976 when the International Monetary Fund secured cuts in our public expenditure . ... These [ four ] lessons led me to the conclusion that the UK is only superficially governed by MPs and the voters who elect them . Parliamentary democracy is , in truth , little more than a means of securing a periodical change in the management team , which is then allowed to preside over a system that remains in essence intact . If the British people were ever to ask themselves what power they truly enjoyed under our political system they would be amazed to discover how little it is , and some new Chartist agitation might be born and might quickly gather momentum .
Benn 's philosophy consisted of a form of syndicalism , state planning where necessary to ensure national competitiveness , greater democracy in the structures of the Labour Party and observance of Party Conference decisions . Alongside an alleged twelve Labour MPs , he spent twelve years affiliated with the Institute for Workers ' Control , beginning in 1971 when he visited the Upper Clyde Shipyards , arguing in 1975 for the " labour movement to intensify its discussion about industrial democracy " .
He was vilified by most of the press while his opponents implied and stated that a Benn @-@ led Labour Government would implement a type of Eastern European socialism , with Edward Heath referring to Benn as " Commissar Benn " and others referring to Benn as a " Bollinger Bolshevik " . Despite this , Benn was overwhelmingly popular with Labour activists in the constituencies : a survey of delegates at the Labour Party Conference in 1978 found that by large margins they supported Benn for the leadership , as well as many Bennite policies .
He publicly supported Sinn Féin and the unification of Ireland , although in 2005 he suggested to Sinn Féin leaders that it abandon its long @-@ standing policy of not taking seats at Westminster ( abstentionism ) . Sinn Féin in turn argued that to do so would recognise Britain 's claim over Northern Ireland , and the Sinn Féin constitution prevented its elected members from taking their seats in any British @-@ created institution . A supporter of the Scottish Parliament and political devolution , Benn however opposed the Scottish National Party and Scottish independence , saying : " I think nationalism is a mistake . And I am half Scots and feel it would divide me in half with a knife . The thought that my mother would suddenly be a foreigner would upset me very much . "
= = In opposition , 1979 – 97 = =
In a keynote speech to the Labour Party Conference of 1980 , shortly before the resignation of party leader James Callaghan and election of Michael Foot as successor , Benn outlined what he envisaged the next Labour Government would do . " Within days " , a Labour Government would gain powers to nationalise industries , control capital and implement industrial democracy ; " within weeks " , all powers from Brussels would be returned to Westminster , and the House of Lords would be abolished by creating one thousand new peers and then abolishing the peerage . Benn received tumultuous applause . On 25 January 1981 , Roy Jenkins , David Owen , Shirley Williams and Bill Rodgers ( known collectively as the " Gang of Four " ) launched the Council for Social Democracy , which became the Social Democratic Party in March . The " Gang of Four " left the Labour Party because of what they perceived to be the influence of the Militant tendency and the Bennite " hard left " within the party . Benn was highly critical of the SDP , saying that " Britain has had SDP governments for the past 25 years . "
Benn stood against Denis Healey , the party 's incumbent deputy leader , triggering the 1981 Deputy Leadership election , disregarding an appeal from Michael Foot to either stand for the leadership or abstain from inflaming the party 's divisions . Benn defended his decision insisting that it was " not about personalities , but about policies . " Healey retained his position by a margin of barely 1 % . The decision of several soft left MPs , including Neil Kinnock , to abstain triggered the split of the Socialist Campaign Group from the left of the Tribune Group . After Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in April 1982 , Benn argued that the dispute should be settled by the United Nations and that the British Government should not send a task force to recapture the islands . The task force was sent , and following the Falklands War , they were back in British control by mid @-@ June . In a debate in the Commons just after the Falklands were recaptured , Benn 's demand for " a full analysis of the costs in life , equipment and money in this tragic and unnecessary war " was rejected by Margaret Thatcher , who stated that " he would not enjoy the freedom of speech that he put to such excellent use unless people had been prepared to fight for it " .
For the 1983 election Benn 's Bristol South East constituency was abolished by boundary changes , and he lost to Michael Cocks in the selection of a candidate to stand in the new winnable seat of Bristol South . Rejecting offers from the new seat of Livingston in Scotland , Benn contested Bristol East , losing to the Conservative 's Jonathan Sayeed in June 1983 .
In a by @-@ election , Benn was elected as the MP for Chesterfield , the next Labour seat to fall vacant , after Eric Varley had left the Commons to head Coalite . On the day of the by @-@ election , 1 March 1984 , The Sun newspaper ran a hostile feature article , " Benn on the Couch " , which purported to be the opinions of an American psychiatrist . In the period since Benn 's defeat in Bristol , Michael Foot had stepped down after the general election ( which saw a return of only 209 Labour MPs ) and was succeeded in October of that year by Neil Kinnock .
Newly elected to a mining seat , Benn was a supporter of the 1984 – 85 UK miners ' strike , which was beginning when he returned to the Commons , and of his long @-@ standing friend , the National Union of Mineworkers leader Arthur Scargill . However , some miners considered Benn 's 1977 industry reforms to have caused problems during the strike ; firstly , that they led to huge wage differences and distrust between miners of different regions ; and secondly that the controversy over balloting miners for these reforms made it unclear as to whether a ballot was needed for a strike or whether it could be deemed as a " regional matter " in the same way that the 1977 reforms had been . Benn also spoke at a Militant tendency rally held in 1984 , saying : " The labour movement is not engaged in a personalised battle against individual cabinet ministers , nor do we seek to win public support by arguing that the crisis could be ended by the election of a new and more humane team of ministers who are better qualified to administer capitalism . We are working for a majority labour government , elected on a socialist programme , as decided by conference . " This guest appearance was considered one reason why Benn did not become a member of Labour 's Shadow Cabinet .
In June 1985 , three months after the miners admitted defeat and ended their strike , Benn introduced the Miners ' Amnesty ( General Pardon ) Bill into the Commons , which would have extended an amnesty to all miners imprisoned during the strike . This would have included two men convicted of murder ( later reduced to manslaughter ) for the killing of David Wilkie , a taxi driver driving a non @-@ striking miner to work in South Wales during the strike .
Benn stood for election as Party Leader in 1988 , against Neil Kinnock , following Labour 's third successive defeat in the 1987 general election , losing by a substantial margin , and received only about 11 % of the vote . In May 1989 he made an extended appearance on Channel 4 's late @-@ night discussion programme After Dark , alongside among others Lord Dacre and Miles Copeland . During the Gulf War , Benn visited Baghdad in order to try and persuade Saddam Hussein to release the hostages who had been captured .
Benn supported various LGBT social movements , which were then known as gay liberation ; Benn had voted in favour of decriminalisation in 1967 . Talking about Section 28 of the 1988 Local Government Act , a piece of anti @-@ gay legislation preventing the " promotion of homosexuality " , Benn said :
if the sense of the word " promote " can be read across from " describe " , every murder play promotes murder , every war play promotes war , every drama involving the eternal triangle promotes adultery ; and Mr. Richard Branson 's condom campaign promotes fornication . The House had better be very careful before it gives to judges , who come from a narrow section of society , the power to interpret " promote " .
Benn later voted for the repeal of Section 28 during the first term of Tony Blair 's New Labour Government , and voted in favour of equalising the age of consent .
In 1990 he proposed a " Margaret Thatcher ( Global Repeal ) Bill " , which he said " could go through both Houses in 24 hours . It would be easy to reverse the policies and replace the personalities — the process has begun — but the rotten values that have been propagated from the platform of political power in Britain during the past 10 years will be an infection — a virulent strain of right @-@ wing capitalist thinking which it will take time to overcome . " In 1991 , with Labour still in opposition and a general election due by June 1992 , he proposed the Commonwealth of Britain Bill , abolishing the monarchy in favour of the United Kingdom becoming a " democratic , federal and secular commonwealth " , a republic with a written constitution . It was read in Parliament a number of times until his retirement at the 2001 election , but never achieved a second reading . He presented an account of his proposal in Common Sense : A New Constitution for Britain . In 1992 , Tony Benn also received a Pipe Smoker of the Year award , claiming in his acceptance speech that " pipe smoking stopped you going to war " .
In 1991 , Benn reiterated his opposition to the European Commission and highlighted an alleged democratic deficit in the institution , saying : " Some people genuinely believe that we shall never get social justice from the British Government , but we shall get it from Jacques Delors . They believe that a good king is better than a bad Parliament . I have never taken that view . " This argument has also been used by many on the right @-@ wing Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party , such as Daniel Hannan MEP . Jonathan Freedland writes in The Guardian that " For [ Tony Benn ] , even benign rule by a monarch was worthless because the king 's whim could change and there 'd be nothing you could do about it . "
= = Prior to retirement , 1997 – 2001 = =
In 1997 , the Labour Party under Tony Blair won the election . Despite later calling Labour under Tony Blair " the idea of a Conservative group who had taken over Labour " and saying " [ Blair ] set up a new political party , New Labour " , Benn 's political diaries Free at Last show that Benn was initially somewhat sympathetic to Blair , welcoming a change of government . Benn supported the introduction of the national minimum wage , and welcomed the progress towards peace and security in Northern Ireland ( particularly under Mo Mowlam ) . He was supportive of the extra public money given to public services in the New Labour years but believed it to be under the guise of privatisation . Overall , his concluding judgement on New Labour is highly critical ; he describes its evolution as a way of retaining office by abandoning socialism and distancing the party from the trade union movement , adopting a presidentialist style of politics , overriding the concept of the collective ministerial responsibility by reducing the power of the Cabinet , eliminated any effective influence from the annual conference of the Labour Party and " hinged its foreign policy on support for one of the worst presidents in US history " .
Benn strongly objected to the " immoral " bombing of Iraq in December 1998 , saying : " Aren 't Arabs terrified ? Aren 't Iraqis terrified ? Don 't Arab and Iraqi women weep when their children die ? Does bombing strengthen their determination ? ... Every Member of Parliament tonight who votes for the government motion will be consciously and deliberately accepting the responsibility for the deaths of innocent people if the war begins , as I fear it will . "
Several months prior to his retirement , Benn was a signatory to a letter , alongside Niki Adams ( Legal Action for Women ) , Ian Macdonald QC , Gareth Peirce , and other legal professionals , that was published in The Guardian newspaper on 22 February 2001 " condemning " raids of more than 50 brothels in the central London area of Soho . At the time , a police spokesman said : " As far as we know , this is the biggest simultaneous crackdown on brothels and prostitution in this country in recent times " , the arrest of 28 people in an operation that involved around 110 police officers . The letter read :
In the name of " protecting " women from trafficking , about 40 women , including a woman from Iraq , were arrested , detained and in some cases summarily removed from Britain . If any of these women have been trafficked ... they deserve protection and resources , not punishment by expulsion . ... Having forced women into destitution , the government first criminalised those who begged . Now it is trying to use prostitution as a way to make deportation of the vulnerable more acceptable . We will not allow such injustice to go unchallenged .
= = Retirement and final years , 2001 – 14 = =
Benn did not stand at the 2001 general election , saying he was " leaving parliament in order to spend more time on politics . " Along with Edward Heath , Benn was permitted by the Speaker to continue using the House of Commons Library and Members ' refreshment facilities . Shortly after his retirement , he became the president of the Stop the War Coalition . He became a leading figure of the British opposition to the War in Afghanistan from 2001 and the Iraq War , and in February 2003 he travelled to Baghdad to meet Saddam Hussein . The interview was shown on British television .
He spoke against the war at the February 2003 protest in London organised by the Stop the War Coalition , with police saying it was the biggest ever demonstration in the UK with about 750 @,@ 000 marchers , and the organisers estimating nearly a million people participating . In February 2004 and 2008 , he was re @-@ elected President of the Stop the War Coalition .
He toured with a one @-@ man stage show and appeared a few times each year in a two @-@ man show with folk singer Roy Bailey . In 2003 , his show with Bailey was voted ' Best Live Act ' at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards . In 2002 he opened the " Left Field " stage at the Glastonbury Festival . He continued to speak at each subsequent festival ; attending one of his speeches was described as a " Glastonbury rite of passage " . In October 2003 , he was a guest of British Airways on the last scheduled Concorde flight from New York to London . In June 2005 , he was a panellist on a special edition of BBC One 's Question Time edited entirely by a school @-@ age film crew selected by a BBC competition .
On 21 June 2005 , Benn presented a programme on democracy as part of the Channel 5 series Big Ideas That Changed The World . He presented a left @-@ wing view of democracy as the means to pass power from the " wallet to the ballot " . He argued that traditional social democratic values were under threat in an increasingly globalised world in which powerful institutions such as the International Monetary Fund , the World Bank and the European Commission are unelected and unaccountable to those whose lives they affect daily .
On 27 September 2005 , Benn became ill while at the Labour Party Conference in Brighton and was taken by ambulance to the Royal Sussex County Hospital after being treated by paramedics at the Brighton Centre . Benn reportedly fell and struck his head . He was kept in hospital for observation and was described as being in a " comfortable condition " . He was subsequently fitted with an artificial pacemaker to help regulate his heartbeat .
In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006 , he was voted twelfth in the list of " Heroes of our Time " . In September 2006 , Benn joined the " Time to Go " demonstration in Manchester the day before the start of the final Labour Party Conference with Tony Blair as Party Leader , with the aim of persuading the Labour Government to withdraw troops from Iraq , to refrain from attacking Iran and to reject replacing the Trident missile and submarines with a new system . He spoke to the demonstrators in the rally afterwards . In 2007 , he appeared in an extended segment in the Michael Moore film Sicko giving comments about democracy , social responsibility and health care , notably , " If we can find the money to kill people , we can find the money to help people . "
A poll by the BBC2 The Daily Politics programme in January 2007 selected Benn as the UK 's " Political Hero " with 38 % of the vote , beating Margaret Thatcher , who had 35 % , by 3 % .
In the 2007 Labour Party leadership election , Benn backed the left @-@ wing MP John McDonnell in his unsuccessful bid . In September 2007 , Benn called for the government to hold a referendum on the EU Reform Treaty . In October 2007 , at the age of 82 , and when it appeared that a general election was about to be held , Benn reportedly announced that he wanted to stand , having written to his local Kensington and Chelsea Constituency Labour Party offering himself as a prospective candidate for the seat held by the Conservative Malcolm Rifkind . However , there was no election in 2007 , and the constituency was subsequently abolished .
In early 2008 Benn appeared on Scottish singer @-@ songwriter Colin MacIntyre 's album The Water , reading a poem he had composed himself . In September 2008 , he appeared on the DVD release for the Doctor Who story The War Machines with a vignette discussing the Post Office Tower ; he became the second Labour politician , after Roy Hattersley to appear on a Doctor Who DVD .
Conservatives Daniel Hannan , Douglas Carswell and David Cameron praised Benn in 2008 . In their book The Plan , Carswell and Hannan write that " Historically , it was the left that sought to disperse power among the people . ... It was the cause of the Levellers and the Chartists and the Suffragettes , the cause of religious toleration and meritocracy , of the secret ballot and universal education " , adding :
These days , though , the radical cause should have different targets . The elites have altered in character and composition . The citizen is far less likely to be impacted by the decisions of dukes or bishops than by those of Nice or his local education authority . The employees of these and similar agencies are , today , the unaccountable crown office @-@ holders against whom earlier generations of radicals would have railed . Yet , with some exceptions – among whom , in a special place of honour , stands Tony Benn – few contemporary British leftists show any interest in dispersing power when doing so would mean challenging public sector monopolies .
Cameron also said in 2008 that , alongside George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , Benn 's Arguments for Democracy was " a very powerful book which makes the important point that we vest power in people who are elected , and that we can get rid of , rather than those we can 't " .
Benn was invited by Richard Branson and Peter Gabriel to join The Elders , an advocacy group comprising Nelson Mandela , Mary Robinson and Jimmy Carter .
At the Stop the War Conference 2009 , he described the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as " Imperialist war ( s ) " and discussed the killing of American and allied troops by Iraqi or foreign insurgents , questioning whether they were in fact freedom fighters , and comparing the insurgents to a British Dad 's Army , saying : " If you are invaded you have a right to self @-@ defence , and this idea that people in Iraq and Afghanistan who are resisting the invasion are militant Muslim extremists is a complete bloody lie . I joined Dad 's Army when I was sixteen , and if the Germans had arrived , I tell you , I could use a bayonet , a rifle , a revolver , and if I 'd seen a German officer having a meal I 'd have tossed a grenade through the window . Would I have been a freedom fighter or a terrorist ? "
In an interview published in Dartford Living in September 2009 , Benn was critical of the Government 's decision to delay the findings of the Iraq War Inquiry until after the General Election , stating that " people can take into account what the inquiry has reported on but they ’ ve deliberately pushed it beyond the election . Government is responsible for explaining what it has done and I don 't think we were told the truth . " He also stated that local government was strangled by Margaret Thatcher and had not been liberated by New Labour .
In 2009 Benn was admitted to hospital and An Evening with Tony Benn , scheduled to take place at London 's Cadogan Hall , was cancelled . He performed his show , The Writing on the Wall , with Roy Bailey at St Mary 's Church , Ashford , Kent , in September 2011 , as part of the arts venue 's first Revelation St Mary 's Season . In July 2011 Benn was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Glamorgan , Wales .
Tony Benn headed a the " coalition of resistance " , a group with was opposed to the UK austerity programme . In interviews in 2010 with Amy Goodman on Democracy Now ! and 2013 with Afshin Rattansi on RT UK , Benn claimed that the actions of New Labour in the leadup to and aftermath of the Iraq War were such that the former Prime Minister Tony Blair should be tried for war crimes . Benn also claimed in 2010 that Blair had lost the " trust of the nation " regarding the war in Iraq .
In November 2011 it was reported that Benn had moved out of his home in Holland Park Avenue , London , into a smaller flat nearby that benefited from a warden . In 2012 Benn was awarded an honorary degree from Goldsmiths , University of London . He was also the honorary president of the Goldsmiths Students ' Union , who successfully campaigned for him to retract comments dismissing the Julian Assange rape allegations . In February 2013 Benn was among those who gave their support to the People 's Assembly in a letter published by The Guardian newspaper . He gave a speech at the People 's Assembly Conference held at Westminster Central Hall on 22 June 2013 .
In 2013 , Tony Benn reiterated his previous opposition to European integration . Speaking to the Oxford Union on the alleged overshadowing of the EU debate by " UKIP and Tory backbenchers " , he said :
I took the view that having fought [ Europeans in the Second World War ] that we should now work with them , and co @-@ operate , and that was my first thought about it . Then how I saw how the European Union was developing , it was very obvious that what they had in mind was not democratic . ... And the way that Europe has developed is that the bankers and the multinational corporations have got very powerful positions , and if you come in on their terms , they will tell you what you can and cannot do . And that is unacceptable . My view about the European Union has always been not that I am hostile to foreigners , but that I am in favour of democracy ... I think they 're building an empire there , they want us to be a part of their empire and I don 't want that .
= = Illness and death = =
In 1990 , Benn was diagnosed with chronic lymphatic leukaemia and given three or four years to live ; at this time , he kept the news of his leukaemia from everyone except his immediate family . Benn said : " When you 're in parliament , you can 't describe your medical condition . People immediately start wondering what your majority is and when there will be a by @-@ election . They 're very brutal . " This was revealed in 2002 with the release of his 1990 – 2001 diaries .
Benn suffered a stroke in 2012 , and spent much of the following year in hospital . He was reported to be " seriously ill " in hospital in February 2014 . Benn died at home , surrounded by his family , on 14 March 2014 , at age 88 .
Benn 's funeral took place on 27 March 2014 at St Margaret 's Church , Westminster . His body had lain in rest at St Mary Undercroft in the Palace of Westminster the night before the funeral service . The service ended with the singing of " The Red Flag " . His body was then cremated ; the ashes are expected to be buried alongside those of his wife at the family home near Steeple , Essex .
Figures from across the political spectrum praised Benn following his death , and the leaders of all three major political parties ( the Conservatives , Labour and the Liberal Democrats ) in the United Kingdom paid tributes to Benn on his death .
David Cameron ( Conservative leader and Prime Minister ) said :
... he was an extraordinary man : a great writer , a brilliant speaker , extraordinary in Parliament , and a great life of public and political and parliamentary service . I mean , I disagreed with most of what he said . But he was always engaging and interesting , and you were never bored when reading or listening to him , and the country a great campaigner , a great writer , and someone who I 'm sure whose words will be followed keenly for many , many years to come .
Deputy Prime Minister , Nick Clegg called Benn a " astonishing , iconic figure " and a " veteran parliamentarian , he was a great writer , he had great warmth and he had great conviction ... his political life will be looked back on with affection and admiration " .
Leader of the Opposition and Labour leader Ed Miliband , who knew Benn personally as a family friend , said :
I think Tony Benn will be remembered as a champion of the powerless , as a conviction politician , as somebody of deep principle and integrity . The thing about Tony Benn is that you always knew what he stood for , and who he stood up for . And I think that 's why he was admired right across the political spectrum . There are people who agreed with him and disagreed with him , including in my own party , but I think people admired that sense of conviction and integrity that shone through from Tony Benn .
= = Diaries and biographies = =
Benn was a prolific diarist : nine volumes of his diaries have been published . The final volume was published in 2013 . Collections of his speeches and writings were published as Arguments for Socialism ( 1979 ) , Arguments for Democracy ( 1981 ) , ( both edited by Chris Mullin ) , Fighting Back ( 1988 ) and ( with Andrew Hood ) Common Sense ( 1993 ) , as well as Free Radical : New Century Essays ( 2004 ) . In August 2003 , London DJ Charles Bailey created an album of Benn 's speeches ( ISBN 1 @-@ 904734 @-@ 03 @-@ 0 ) set to ambient groove .
He made public several episodes of audio diaries he made during his time in Parliament and after retirement , entitled The Benn Tapes , broadcast originally on BBC Radio 4 . Short series have been played periodically on BBC Radio 4 Extra . A major biography was written by Jad Adams and published by Macmillan in 1992 ; it was updated to cover the intervening 20 years and reissued by Biteback Publishing in 2011 : Tony Benn : A Biography ( ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 52558 @-@ 2 ) . A more recent " semi @-@ authorised " biography with a foreword by Benn was published in 2001 : David Powell , Tony Benn : A Political Life , Continuum Books ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0826464156 ) . An autobiography , Dare to be a Daniel : Then and Now , Hutchinson ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0099471530 ) , was published in 2004 .
There are substantial essays on Benn in the Dictionary of Labour Biography by Phillip Whitehead , Greg Rosen ( eds ) , Politicos Publishing , 2001 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1902301181 ) and in Labour Forces : From Ernie Bevin to Gordon Brown , Kevin Jefferys ( ed . ) , I.B. Tauris Publishing , 2002 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1860647437 ) . Michael Moore dedicates his book Mike 's Election Guide 2008 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0141039817 ) to Benn , with the words : " For Tony Benn , keep teaching us " .
= = Plaques = =
During his final years in Parliament , Benn placed three plaques within the Houses of Parliament . Two are in a room between the Central Lobby and Strangers ' Gallery that holds a permanent display about the suffragettes . The first was placed in 1995 . The second was placed in 1996 and is dedicated to all who work within the Houses of Parliament .
The third is dedicated to Suffragette Emily Wilding Davison and was placed in the broom cupboard next to the Undercroft Chapel within the Palace of Westminster , where Davison is said to have hidden during the 1911 census in order to establish her address as the House of Commons .
In 2011 Benn unveiled a plaque in Highbury , North London , to commemorate the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
= = Legacy = =
In Bristol , where Benn first served as a Member of Parliament , a number of tributes exist in his honour . A bust of him was unveiled in Bristol 's City Hall in 2005 . In 2012 Transport House on Victoria Street , headquarters of Unite the Union 's regional office , was officially renamed Tony Benn House and opened by Benn himself . As of 2015 he appears , alongside other famous people associated with the city , on the reverse of the Bristol Pound 's £ B5 banknote .
Benn told the Socialist Review in 2007 that :
I 'd like to have on my gravestone : " He encouraged us . " I 'm proud to have been in the parliament that introduced the health service , the welfare state and voted against means testing . I did my maiden speech on nationalising the steel industry , put down the first motion for the boycott of South African goods , and resigned from the shadow cabinet in 1958 because of their support for nuclear weapons .
I think you do plant a few acorns , and I have lived to see one or two trees growing : gay rights , freedom of information , CND . I 'm not claiming them for myself but you feel you have encouraged other people and see the arguments developing .
I 'm not ashamed of making mistakes . I 've made a million mistakes and they 're all in the diary . When we edit the diary – which is cut to around 10 percent – every mistake has to be printed because people look to see if you do . I would be ashamed if I thought I 'd ever said anything I didn 't believe to get on , but making mistakes is part of life , isn 't it ?
= = Styles = =
Anthony Wedgwood Benn , Esq . ( 1925 – 12 January 1942 )
The Hon. Anthony Wedgwood Benn ( 12 January 1942 – 30 November 1950 )
The Hon. Anthony Wedgwood Benn , MP ( 30 November 1950 – 17 November 1960 )
The Rt Hon. the Viscount Stansgate ( 17 November 1960 – 31 July 1963 )
Anthony Wedgwood Benn , Esq . ( 31 July – 20 August 1963 )
Anthony Wedgwood Benn , Esq . , MP ( 20 August 1963 – 1964 )
The Rt Hon. Anthony Wedgwood Benn , MP ( 1964 – October 1973 )
The Rt Hon. Tony Benn , MP ( October 1973 – 9 June 1983 )
The Rt Hon. Tony Benn ( 9 June 1983 – 1 March 1984 )
The Rt Hon. Tony Benn , MP ( 1 March 1984 – 7 June 2001 )
The Rt Hon. Tony Benn ( 7 June 2001 – 14 March 2014 )
= = = Diaries = = =
Years of Hope : Diaries 1940 – 62 , Hutchinson ( 1994 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 178534 @-@ 5
Out of the Wilderness : Diaries 1963 – 67 , Hutchinson ( 1987 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 170660 @-@ 9
Office Without Power : Diaries 1968 – 72 , Hutchinson ( 1988 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 173647 @-@ 7
Against the Tide : Diaries 1973 – 76 , Hutchinson ( 1989 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 173775 @-@ 7
Conflicts of Interest : Diaries 1977 – 80 , Hutchinson ( 1990 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 174321 @-@ 5
The End of an Era : Diaries 1980 – 90 , Hutchinson ( 1992 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 174857 @-@ 9
The Benn Diaries : Single Volume Edition 1940 – 90 , Hutchinson ( 1995 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 179223 @-@ 7
Free at Last ! : Diaries 1991 – 2001 , Hutchinson ( 2002 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 179352 @-@ 4
More Time for Politics : Diaries 2001 – 2007 , Hutchinson ( 2007 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 951705 @-@ 4
A Blaze of Autumn Sunshine : The Last Diaries , Hutchinson ( 2013 ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 194387 @-@ 5
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= William Speirs Bruce =
William Speirs Bruce FRSE ( 1 August 1867 – 28 October 1921 ) was a Scottish naturalist , polar scientist and oceanographer who organized and led the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition ( SNAE , 1902 – 04 ) to the South Orkney Islands and the Weddell Sea . Among other achievements , the expedition established the first permanent weather station in Antarctica . Bruce later founded the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory in Edinburgh , but his plans for a transcontinental Antarctic march via the South Pole were abandoned because of lack of public and financial support .
In 1892 Bruce gave up his medical studies at the University of Edinburgh and joined the Dundee Whaling Expedition to Antarctica as a scientific assistant . This was followed by Arctic voyages to Novaya Zemlya , Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land . In 1899 Bruce , by then Britain 's most experienced polar scientist , applied for a post on Robert Falcon Scott 's Discovery Expedition , but delays over this appointment and clashes with Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) president Sir Clements Markham led him instead to organise his own expedition , and earned him the permanent enmity of the British geographical establishment . Although Bruce received various awards for his polar work , including an honorary doctorate from the University of Aberdeen , neither he nor any of his SNAE colleagues were recommended by the RGS for the prestigious Polar Medal .
Between 1907 and 1920 Bruce made many journeys to the Arctic regions , both for scientific and for commercial purposes . His failure to mount any major exploration ventures after the SNAE is usually attributed to his lack of public relations skills , powerful enemies , and his fervent Scottish nationalism . By 1919 his health was failing , and he experienced several spells in hospital before his death in 1921 , after which he was almost totally forgotten . In recent years , following the centenary of the Scottish Expedition , efforts have been made to give fuller recognition to his role in the history of scientific polar exploration .
= = Early life = =
= = = Home and school = = =
William Speirs Bruce was born at 43 Kensington Gardens Square in London , the fourth child of Samuel Noble Bruce , a Scottish physician , and his Welsh wife Mary , née Lloyd . His middle name came from another branch of the family ; its unusual spelling , as distinct from the more common " Spiers " , tended to cause problems for reporters , reviewers and biographers . William passed his early childhood in the family 's London home at 18 Royal Crescent , Holland Park , under the tutelage of his grandfather , the Revd William Bruce . There were regular visits to nearby Kensington Gardens , and sometimes to the Natural History Museum ; according to Samuel Bruce these outings first ignited young William 's interest in life and nature .
In 1879 , at the age of 12 , William was sent to a progressive boarding school , Norfolk County School ( later Watts Naval School ) in the village of North Elmham , Norfolk . He remained there until 1885 , and then spent two further years at University College School , Hampstead , preparing for the matriculation examination that would admit him to the medical school at University College London ( UCL ) . He succeeded at his third attempt , and was ready to start his medical studies in the autumn of 1887 .
= = = Edinburgh = = =
During the summer of 1887 , Bruce travelled north to Edinburgh to attend a pair of vacation courses in natural sciences . The six @-@ week courses , at the recently established Scottish Marine Station at Granton on the Firth of Forth , were under the direction of Patrick Geddes and John Arthur Thomson , and included sections on botany and practical zoology . The experience of Granton , and the contact with some of the foremost contemporary natural scientists , convinced Bruce to stay in Scotland . He abandoned his place at UCL , and enrolled instead in the medical school at the University of Edinburgh . This enabled him to maintain contact with mentors such as Geddes and Thomson , and also gave him the opportunity to work during his free time in the Edinburgh laboratories where specimens brought back from the Challenger expedition were being examined and classified . Here he worked under Dr John Murray and his assistant John Young Buchanan , and gained a deeper understanding of oceanography and invaluable experience in the principles of scientific investigation .
= = First voyages = =
= = = Dundee Whaling Expedition = = =
The Dundee Whaling Expedition , 1892 – 93 , was an attempt to investigate the commercial possibilities of whaling in Antarctic waters by locating a source of right whales in the region . Scientific observations and oceanographic research would also be carried out in the four whaling ships : Balaena , Active , Diana and Polar Star . Bruce was recommended to the expedition by Hugh Robert Mill , an acquaintance from Granton who was now librarian to the Royal Geographical Society in London . Although it would finally curtail his medical studies , Bruce did not hesitate ; with William Gordon Burn Murdoch as an assistant he took up his duties on Balaena under Capt. Alexander Fairweather . The four ships sailed from Dundee on 6 September 1892 .
The relatively short expedition — Bruce was back in Scotland in May 1893 — failed in its main purpose , and gave only limited opportunities for scientific work . No right whales were found , and to cut the expedition 's losses a mass slaughter of seals was ordered , to secure skins , oil and blubber . Bruce found this distasteful , especially as he was expected to share in the killing . The scientific output from the voyage was , in Bruce 's words " a miserable show " . In a letter to the Royal Geographical Society he wrote : " The general bearing of the master ( Captain Fairweather ) was far from being favourable to scientific work " . Bruce was denied access to charts , so was unable to establish the accurate location of phenomena . He was required to work " in the boats " when he should have been making meteorological and other observations , and no facilities were allowed him for the preparation of specimens , many of which were lost through careless handling by the crew . Nevertheless , his letter to the RGS ends : " I have to thank the Society for assisting me in what has been , despite all drawbacks , an instructive and delightful experience . " In a further letter to Mill he outlined his wishes to go South again , adding : " the taste I have had has made me ravenous " .
Within months he was making proposals for a scientific expedition to South Georgia , but the RGS would not support his plans . In early 1896 he considered collaboration with the Norwegians Henryk Bull and Carsten Borchgrevink in an attempt to reach the South Magnetic Pole . This , too , failed to materialise .
= = = Jackson – Harmsworth Expedition = = =
From September 1895 to June 1896 Bruce worked at the Ben Nevis summit meteorological station , where he gained further experience in scientific procedures and with meteorological instruments . In June 1896 , again on the recommendation of Mill , he left this post to join the Jackson – Harmsworth Expedition , then in its third year in the Arctic on Franz Josef Land . This expedition , led by Frederick George Jackson and financed by newspaper magnate Alfred Harmsworth , had left London in 1894 . It was engaged in a detailed survey of the Franz Josef archipelago , which had been discovered , though not properly mapped , during an Austrian expedition 20 years earlier . Jackson 's party was based at Cape Flora on Northbrook Island , the southernmost island of the archipelago . It was supplied through regular visits from its expedition ship Windward , on which Bruce sailed from London on 9 June 1896 .
Windward arrived at Cape Flora on 25 July where Bruce found that Jackson 's expedition party had been joined by Fridtjof Nansen and his companion Hjalmar Johansen . The two Norwegians had been living on the ice for more than a year since leaving their ship Fram for a dash to the North Pole , and it was pure chance that had brought them to the one inhabited spot among thousands of square miles of Arctic wastes . Bruce mentions meeting Nansen in a letter to Mill , and his acquaintance with the celebrated Norwegian would be a future source of much advice and encouragement .
During his year at Cape Flora Bruce collected around 700 zoological specimens , in often very disagreeable conditions . According to Jackson : " It is no pleasant job to dabble in icy @-@ cold water , with the thermometer some degrees below zero , or to plod in the summer through snow , slush and mud many miles in search of animal life , as I have known Mr Bruce frequently to do " . Jackson named Cape Bruce after him , on the northern edge of Northbrook Island , at 80 ° 55 ′ N. Jackson was less pleased with Bruce 's proprietarial attitude to his personal specimens , which he refused to entrust to the British Museum with the expedition 's other finds . This " tendency towards scientific conceit " , and lack of tact in interpersonal dealings , were early demonstrations of character flaws that in later life would be held against him .
= = = Arctic voyages = = =
On his return from Franz Josef Land in 1897 , Bruce worked in Edinburgh as an assistant to his former mentor John Arthur Thomson , and resumed his duties at the Ben Nevis observatory . In March 1898 he received an offer to join Major Andrew Coats on a hunting voyage to the Arctic waters around Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen , in the private yacht Blencathra . This offer had originally been made to Mill , who was unable to obtain leave from the Royal Geographical Society , and once again suggested Bruce as a replacement . Andrew Coats was a member of the prosperous Coats family of thread manufacturers , who had founded the Coats Observatory at Paisley . Bruce joined Blencathra at Tromsø , Norway in May 1898 , for a cruise which explored the Barents Sea , the dual islands of Novaya Zemlya , and the island of Kolguyev , before a retreat to Vardø in north @-@ eastern Norway to re @-@ provision for the voyage to Spitsbergen . In a letter to Mill , Bruce reported : " This is a pure yachting cruise and life is luxurious " . But his scientific work was unabated : " I have been taking 4 @-@ hourly observations in meteorology and temperature of the sea surface [ ... ] have tested salinity with Buchanan 's hydrometer ; my tow @-@ nets [ ... ] have been going almost constantly " .
Blencathra sailed for Spitsbergen , but was stopped by ice , so she returned to Tromsø . Here she encountered the research ship Princesse Alice , purpose @-@ built for Prince Albert I of Monaco , a leading oceanographer . Bruce was delighted when the Prince invited him to join Princesse Alice on a hydrographic survey around Spitsbergen . The ship sailed up the west coast of the main island of the Spitsbergen group , and visited Adventfjorden and Smeerenburg in the north . During the latter stages of the voyage Bruce was placed in charge of the voyage 's scientific observations .
In the following summer Bruce was invited to join Prince Albert on another oceanographic cruise to Spitsbergen . At Red Bay , latitude 80 ° N , Bruce ascended the highest peak in the area , which the Prince named " Ben Nevis " in his honour . When Princesse Alice ran aground on a submerged rock and appeared stranded , Prince Albert instructed Bruce to begin preparations for a winter camp , in the belief that it might be impossible for the ship to escape . Fortunately she floated free , and was able to return to Tromsø for repairs .
= = Marriage and family life = =
It is uncertain how Bruce was employed after his return from Spitsbergen in autumn 1899 . In his whole life he rarely had settled salaried work , and usually relied on patronage or on influential acquaintances to find him temporary posts . Early in 1901 he evidently felt sufficiently confident of his prospects to get married . His bride was Jessie Mackenzie , who had worked as a nurse in Samuel Bruce 's London surgery . Bruce 's secretive nature , even among his circle of close friends and colleagues , was such that precise information about the wedding — its exact date , its location — has not been recorded by his biographers .
In 1907 the Bruces settled in a house at South Morton Street in Joppa near the coastal Edinburgh suburb of Portobello , in the first of a series of addresses in that area . They named their huse " Antarctica " . A son , Eillium Alastair , was born in April 1902 , and a daughter , Sheila Mackenzie , was born seven years later . During these years Bruce founded the Scottish Ski Club and became its first president . He was also a co @-@ founder of Edinburgh Zoo .
Bruce 's chosen life as an explorer , his unreliable sources of income and his frequent extended absences , all placed severe strains on the marriage , and the couple became estranged around 1916 . However , they continued to live in the same house until Bruce 's death . Eillium became a Merchant Navy officer , eventually captaining a Fisheries Research Ship which , by chance , bore the name Scotia .
= = Scottish National Antarctic Expedition = =
= = = Dispute with Markham = = =
On 15 March 1899 Bruce wrote to Sir Clements Markham at the RGS , offering himself for the scientific staff of the National Antarctic Expedition , then in its early planning stages . Markham 's reply was a non @-@ committal one @-@ line acknowledgement , after which Bruce heard nothing for a year . He was then told , indirectly , to apply for a scientific assistant 's post . On 21 March 1900 Bruce reminded Markham that he had applied a year earlier , and went on to reveal that he " was not without hopes of being able to raise sufficient capital whereby I could take out a second British ship " . He followed this up a few days later , and reported that the funding for a second ship was now assured , making his first explicit references to a " Scottish Expedition " . This alarmed Markham , who replied with some anger : " Such a course will be most prejudicial to the Expedition [ ... ] A second ship is not in the least required [ ... ] I do not know why this mischievous rivalry should have been started " . Bruce replied by return , denying rivalry , and asserting : " If my friends are prepared to give me money to carry out my plans I do not see why I should not accept it [ ... ] there are several who maintain that a second ship is highly desirable " . Unappeased , Markham wrote back : " As I was doing my best to get you appointed ( to the National Antarctic Expedition ) I had a right to think you would not take such a step [ ... ] without at least consulting me " . He continued : " You will cripple the National Expedition [ ... ] in order to get up a scheme for yourself " .
Bruce replied formally , saying that the funds he had raised in Scotland would not have been forthcoming for any other project . There was no further correspondence between the two , beyond a short conciliatory note from Markham , in February 1901 , which read " I can now see things from your point of view , and wish you success " — a sentiment apparently not reflected in Markham 's subsequent attitude towards the Scottish expedition .
= = = Voyage of the Scotia = = =
With financial support from the Coats family , Bruce had acquired a Norwegian whaler , Hekla , which he transformed into a fully equipped Antarctic research ship , renamed Scotia . He then appointed an all @-@ Scottish crew and scientific team . Scotia left Troon on 2 November 1902 , and headed south towards Antarctica , where Bruce intended to set up winter quarters in the Weddell Sea quadrant , " as near to the South Pole as is practicable " . On 22 February the ship reached 70 ° 25 ′ S , but could proceed no further because of heavy ice . She retreated to Laurie Island in the South Orkneys chain , and wintered there . A meteorological station , Omond House , was established as part of a full programme of scientific work .
In November 1903 Scotia retreated to Buenos Aires for repair and reprovisioning . While in Argentina , Bruce negotiated an agreement with the government whereby Omond House became a permanent weather station , under Argentinian control . Renamed Orcadas Base , the site has been continuously in operation since then , and provides the longest historical meteorological series of Antarctica . In January 1904 Scotia sailed south again , to explore the Weddell Sea . On 6 March , new land was sighted , part of the sea 's eastern boundary ; Bruce named this Coats Land after the expedition 's chief backers . On 14 March , at 74 ° 01 ′ S and in danger of becoming icebound , Scotia turned north . The long voyage back to Scotland , via Cape Town , was completed on 21 July 1904 .
This expedition assembled a large collection of animal , marine and plant specimens , and carried out extensive hydrographic , magnetic and meteorological observations . One hundred years later it was recognised that the expedition 's work had " laid the foundation of modern climate change studies " , and that its experimental work had showed this part of the globe to be crucially important to the world 's climate . According to the oceanographer Tony Rice , it fulfilled a more comprehensive programme than any other Antarctic expedition of its day . At the time , however , its reception in Britain was relatively muted ; although its work was highly praised within sections of the scientific community , Bruce struggled to raise the funding to publish his scientific results , and blamed Markham for the lack of national recognition .
= = Post @-@ expedition years = =
= = = Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory = = =
Bruce 's collection of specimens , gathered from more than a decade of Arctic and Antarctic travel , required a permanent home . Bruce himself needed a base from which the detailed scientific reports of the Scotia voyage could be prepared for publication . He obtained premises in Nicolson Street , Edinburgh , in which he established a laboratory and museum , naming it the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory , with the ultimate ambition that it should become the Scottish National Oceanographic Institute . It was officially opened by Prince Albert of Monaco in 1906 .
Within these premises Bruce housed his meteorological and oceanographic equipment , in preparation for future expeditions . He also met there with fellow @-@ explorers , including Nansen , Shackleton , and Roald Amundsen . His main task , however , was masterminding the preparation of the SNAE scientific reports . These , at considerable cost and much delay , were published between 1907 and 1920 , except for one volume — Bruce 's own log — that remained unpublished until 1992 , after its rediscovery . Bruce maintained a wide correspondence with experts , including Sir Joseph Hooker , who had travelled to the Antarctic with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , and to whom Bruce dedicated his short book Polar Exploration .
In 1914 discussions began toward finding more permanent homes , both for Bruce 's collection and , following the death that year of oceanographer Sir John Murray , for the specimens and library of the Challenger expedition . Bruce proposed that a new centre should be created as a memorial to Murray . There was unanimous agreement to proceed , but the project was curtailed by the outbreak of war , and not revived . The Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory continued until 1919 , when Bruce , in poor health , was forced to close it , dispersing its contents to the Royal Scottish Museum , the Royal Scottish Geographical Society ( RSGS ) , and the University of Edinburgh .
= = = Further Antarctic plans = = =
On 17 March 1910 Bruce presented proposals to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society ( RSGS ) for a new Scottish Antarctic expedition . His plan envisaged a party wintering in or near Coats Land , while the ship took another group to the Ross Sea , on the opposite side of the continent . During the second season the Coats Land party would cross the continent on foot , via the South Pole , while the Ross Sea party pushed south to meet them and assist them home . The expedition would also carry out extensive oceanographical and other scientific work . Bruce estimated that the total cost would be about £ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2016 value about £ 4 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ) .
The RSGS supported these proposals , as did the Royal Society of Edinburgh , the University of Edinburgh , and other Scottish organisations . However , the timing was wrong ; the Royal Geographical Society in London was fully occupied with Captain Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , and showed no interest in Bruce 's plans . No rich private benefactors came forward , and persistent and intensive lobbying of the government for financial backing failed . Bruce suspected that his efforts were , as usual , being undermined by the aged but still influential Markham . Finally accepting that his venture would not take place , he gave generous support and advice to Ernest Shackleton , who in 1913 announced plans , similar to Bruce 's , for his Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition . Shackleton not only received £ 10 @,@ 000 from the government , but raised large sums from private sources , including £ 24 @,@ 000 from Scottish industrialist Sir James Caird of Dundee .
Shackleton 's expedition was an epic adventure , but failed completely in its main endeavour of a transcontinental crossing . Bruce was not consulted by the Shackleton relief committee about that expedition 's rescue , when the need arose in 1916 . " Myself , I suppose , " he wrote , " because of being north of the Tweed , they think dead " .
= = = Scottish Spitsbergen syndicate = = =
During his Spitsbergen visits with Prince Albert in 1898 and 1899 , Bruce had detected the presence of coal , gypsum and possibly oil . In the summers of 1906 and 1907 he again accompanied the Prince to the archipelago , with the primary purpose of surveying and mapping Prince Charles Foreland , an island unvisited during the earlier voyages . Here Bruce found further deposits of coal , and indications of iron . On the basis of these finds , Bruce set up a mineral prospecting company , the Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate , in July 1909 .
At that time , in international law Spitsbergen was regarded as terra nullius — rights to mine and extract could be established simply by registering a claim . Bruce 's syndicate registered claims on Prince Charles Foreland and on the islands of Barentsøya and Edgeøya , among other areas . A sum of £ 4 @,@ 000 ( out of a target of £ 6 @,@ 000 ) was subscribed to finance the costs of a detailed prospecting expedition during the summer of 1909 , in a chartered vessel with a full scientific team . The results , however were " disappointing " , and the voyage absorbed almost all of the syndicate 's funds .
Bruce paid two further visits to Spitsbergen , in 1912 and 1914 , but the outbreak of war prevented further immediate developments . However , early in 1919 the old syndicate was replaced by a larger and better @-@ financed company . Bruce had now fixed his main hopes on the discovery of oil , but scientific expeditions in 1919 and 1920 failed to provide evidence of its presence , although substantial new deposits of coal and iron ore were discovered . Thereafter Bruce was too ill to continue with his involvement . The new company had expended most of its capital on these prospecting ventures , and although it continued to exist , under various ownerships , until 1952 , there is no record of profitable extraction . Its assets and claims were finally acquired by a rival concern .
= = Later life = =
= = = Polar Medals withheld = = =
During his lifetime Bruce received many awards : the Gold Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in 1904 ; the Patron 's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1910 ; the Neill prize and Medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1913 , and the Livingstone Medal of the American Geographical Society in 1920 . He also received an honorary LLD degree from the University of Aberdeen . The honour that eluded him , however , was the Polar Medal , awarded by the Sovereign on the recommendation of the Royal Geographical Society . Although the Medal was awarded to the members of every other British or Commonwealth Antarctic expedition during the early 20th century , the SNAE was the exception ; the medal was withheld .
Bruce , and those close to him , blamed Markham for this omission . The matter was raised , repeatedly , with anyone thought to have influence . Robert Rudmose Brown , chronicler of the Scotia voyage and later Bruce 's first biographer , wrote in a 1913 letter to the President of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society that this neglect was " a slight to Scotland and to Scottish endeavour " . Bruce wrote in March 1915 to the President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , who agreed in his reply that " Markham had much to answer for " . After Markham 's death in 1916 Bruce sent a long letter to his Member of Parliament , Charles Price , detailing Sir Clements 's malice towards him and the Scottish expedition , ending with a heartfelt cry on behalf of his old comrades : " Robertson is dying without his well won white ribbon ! The Mate is dead ! ! The Chief Engineer is dead ! ! ! Everyone as good men as have ever served on any Polar Expedition , yet they did not receive the white ribbon . " No action followed this plea .
No award had been made nearly a century later , when the matter was raised in the Scottish Parliament . On 4 November 2002 MSP Michael Russell tabled a motion relating to the SNAE centenary , which concluded : " The Polar Medal Advisory Committee should recommend the posthumous award of the Polar Medal to Dr William Speirs Bruce , in recognition of his status as one of the key figures in early 20th century polar scientific exploration " .
= = = Last years = = =
After the outbreak of war in 1914 , Bruce 's prospecting ventures were on hold . He offered his services to the Admiralty , but failed to obtain an appointment . In 1915 he accepted a post as director and manager of a whaling company based in the Seychelles , and spent four months there , but the venture failed . On his return to Britain he finally secured a minor post at the Admiralty .
Bruce continued to lobby for recognition , highlighting the distinctions between the treatment of SNAE and that of English expeditions . When the war finished he attempted to revive his various interests , but his health was failing , forcing him to close his laboratory . On the 1920 voyage to Spitsbergen he travelled in an advisory role , unable to participate in the detailed work . On return , he was confined in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary and later in the Liberton Hospital , Edinburgh , where he died on 28 October 1921 . In accordance with his wishes he was cremated , and the ashes taken to South Georgia to be scattered on the southern sea . Despite his irregular income and general lack of funds , his estate realised £ 7 @,@ 000 ( 2016 value about £ 280 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Assessment = =
After Bruce 's death his long @-@ time friend and colleague Robert Rudmose Brown wrote , in a letter to Bruce 's father : " His name is imperishably enrolled among the world 's great explorers , and the martyrs to unselfish scientific devotion " . Rudmose Brown 's biography was published in 1923 , and in the same year a joint committee of Edinburgh 's learned societies instituted the Bruce Memorial Prize , an award for young polar scientists . Thereafter , although his name continued to be respected in scientific circles , Bruce and his achievements were forgotten by the general public . Occasional mentions of him , in polar histories and biographies of major figures such as Scott and Shackleton , tended to be dismissive and inaccurate .
The early years of the 21st century , however , have seen a reassessment of Bruce 's work . Contributory factors have been the SNAE centenary , and Scotland 's renewed sense of national identity . A 2003 expedition , in a modern research ship " Scotia " , used information collected by Bruce as a basis for examining climate change in South Georgia . This expedition predicted " dramatic conclusions " relating to global warming from its research , and saw this contribution as a " fitting tribute to Britain 's forgotten polar hero , William Speirs Bruce " . An hour @-@ long BBC television documentary on Bruce presented by Neil Oliver in 2011 contrasted his meticulous science with his rivals ' aim of enhancing imperial prestige . A new biographer , Peter Speak ( 2003 ) , claims that the SNAE was " by far the most cost @-@ effective and carefully planned scientific expedition of the Heroic Age " .
The same author considers reasons why Bruce 's efforts to capitalise on this success met with failure , and suggests a combination of his shy , solitary , uncharismatic nature and his " fervent " Scottish nationalism . Bruce seemingly lacked public relations skills and the ability to promote his work , after the fashion of Scott and Shackleton ; a lifelong friend described him as being " as prickly as the Scottish thistle itself " . On occasion he behaved tactlessly , as with Jackson over the question of the specimens brought back from Franz Josef Land , and on another occasion with the Royal Geographical Society , over the question of a minor expense claim .
As to his nationalism , he wished to see Scotland on an equal footing with other nations . His national pride was intense ; in a Preparatory Note to The Voyage of the Scotia he wrote : " While ' Science ' was the talisman of the Expedition , ' Scotland ' was emblazoned on its flag " . This insistence on emphasising the Scottish character of his enterprises could be irksome to those who did not share his passion . However , he retained the respect and devotion of those whom he led , and of those who had known him longest . John Arthur Thomson , who had known Bruce since Granton , wrote of him when reviewing Rudmose Brown 's 1923 biography : " We never heard him once grumble about himself , though he was neither to hold or bend when he thought some injustice was being done to , or slight cast on , his men , on his colleagues , on his laboratory , on his Scotland . Then one got glimpses of the volcano which his gentle spirit usually kept sleeping " .
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= French ironclad Marceau =
Marceau was an ironclad turret ship built for the French Navy during the 1880s , the lead ship of her class . She served in the Mediterranean Squadron until 1900 , when she was rebuilt and subsequently placed in reserve . She returned to service in 1906 as a torpedo training ship . During World War I , she served in Malta and Corfu as a submarine tender . The old ironclad was sold for scrapping in 1920 , and while being towed to Toulon , she ran aground in a gale off Bizerte and became stranded . The wreck remained visible there until the 1930s .
= = Design = =
Marceau had an overall length of 101 @.@ 6 meters ( 333 ft 4 in ) and was 98 @.@ 6 meters ( 323 ft 6 in ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 23 m ( 66 ft 4 in ) and a draft up to 8 @.@ 3 m ( 27 ft 3 in ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 850 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 680 long tons ) . The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam provided by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers that were trunked into a single large funnel . The engines were designed to reach 12 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 8 @,@ 800 kW ) and propel the ship at a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) , but they only managed 11 @,@ 169 metric horsepower ( 8 @,@ 215 kW ) and 16 @.@ 194 knots ( 29 @.@ 991 km / h ; 18 @.@ 636 mph ) on the ship 's sea trials . Marceau had a range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 643 – 651 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of two 340 @-@ millimeter ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) M1881 28 @-@ caliber guns and two slightly newer M1884 guns of the same caliber . These weapons were mounted in individual barbettes in a " lozenge " arrangement , with one gun forward , one aft , and two amidships . The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 138 @.@ 6 mm ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) M1884 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , all firing through unarmored embrasures in the hull . Marceau 's light armament varies widely between sources : Chesneau & Kolesnik give a range of three to six 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) 9 @-@ pounder guns , nine to eighteen 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns , eight to twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder five @-@ barrel Hotchkiss revolving cannon , and three to five 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers ; naval historian Eric Gille gives four to seven 65 mm guns , nine to twelve 47 mm guns , eight 37 mm guns and five to six torpedo tubes , all above water ; naval historian Paul Silverstone says six 65 mm guns , twelve 47 mm guns and five torpedo tubes . The ship 's compound armor belt was 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) at the stern and 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) . The barbettes were also 450 mm thick . The conning tower was protected by 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of armor plating and the deck was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Marceau was ordered in October 1880 , but was not laid down until 27 January 1882 at the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . Work proceeded slowly , and she was not launched until April 1890 . This was a result of the influence of Admiral Théophile Aube , who was the Minister of Marine in 1886 – 87 ; Aube was a staunch advocate of the so @-@ called Jeune École and opposed new battleship construction . Fitting out work was completed much more quickly , however , and she was commissioned into the French fleet on 14 March 1891 . After her commissioning , she joined a French fleet that visited Kronstadt and was inspected by Czar Alexander III of Russia . On the return voyage , the fleet stopped in Spithead , where Queen Victoria reviewed the ships . This turned out to be the only time Marceau operated in the Atlantic ; after returning to France , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron , where she remained for the duration of her career .
In 1895 , Marceau and the ironclads Courbet , Amiral Baudin , and Formidable all nearly ran aground off Hyères ; Marceau and three tugs used to tow Amiral Baudin back to port . During the 1897 fleet gunnery trials , which saw the first use of a new system of centralized fire control in the French fleet , Marceau , her sister Neptune , and the new battleship Brennus all achieved more than 25 percent hits at ranges of between 3 @,@ 000 yd ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . On 30 August 1900 , Marceau returned to La Seyne for a major reconstruction . Her heavy military masts were cut down , her engines were modernized and her boilers were replaced with 16 Niclausse boilers . Another 138 @.@ 6 mm gun was installed in the bow under the forecastle . The work was completed in May 1902 , and Marceau underwent a series of sea trials for the remainder of the year . She did not return to active service with the fleet , however , and was placed in reserve at Toulon . In 1906 , she was converted into a training ship for torpedo operators in Toulon .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Marceau was converted into a floating workshop to support torpedo boats and submarines . She was initially based in Malta , but was later moved to Corfu and then to Bizerte in 1918 . She was stricken from the naval register on 1 October 1920 , and sold to a shipbreaking firm based in Toulon in 1921 . While she was being towed to Toulon , a storm caused her to run aground off Bizerte . She remained visible there until the 1930s .
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= Privy Council of the United Kingdom =
Her Majesty 's Most Honourable Privy Council , usually known simply as the Privy Council , is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom . Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians , who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords .
The Privy Council formally advises the sovereign on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative , and corporately ( as Queen @-@ in @-@ Council ) it issues executive instruments known as Orders in Council , which among other powers enact Acts of Parliament . The Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council , mostly used to regulate certain public institutions . The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters , which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies , and city or borough status to local authorities . Otherwise , the Privy Council 's powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom .
Certain judicial functions are also performed by the Queen @-@ in @-@ Council , although in practice its actual work of hearing and deciding upon cases is carried out day @-@ to @-@ day by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . The Judicial Committee consists of senior judges appointed as Privy Counsellors : predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and senior judges from the Commonwealth . The Privy Council formerly acted as the High Court of Appeal for the entire British Empire ( other than for the United Kingdom itself ) , and continues to hear appeals from the Crown Dependencies , the British Overseas Territories , and some independent Commonwealth states .
= = History = =
The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland and the Privy Council of England . The key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below :
Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England . During the reigns of the Norman monarchs , the English Crown was advised by a royal court or curia regis , which consisted of magnates , ecclesiastics and high officials . The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation , administration and justice . Later , different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court . The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice , while Parliament became the supreme legislature of the kingdom . Nevertheless , the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes , either in the first instance or on appeal . Furthermore , laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council , rather than on the advice of Parliament , were accepted as valid . Powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament . For example , a committee of the Council — which later became the Court of the Star Chamber — was during the 15th century permitted to inflict any punishment except death , without being bound by normal court procedure . During Henry VIII 's reign , the sovereign , on the advice of the Council , was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation . The legislative pre @-@ eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIII 's death . Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities , it became a primarily administrative body . The Council consisted of forty members in 1553 , but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee , which later evolved into the modern Cabinet .
By the end of the English Civil War , the monarchy , House of Lords , and Privy Council had been abolished . The remaining parliamentary chamber , the House of Commons , instituted a Council of State to execute laws and to direct administrative policy . The forty @-@ one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons ; the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell , de facto military dictator of the nation . In 1653 , however , Cromwell became Lord Protector , and the Council was reduced to between thirteen and twenty @-@ one members , all elected by the Commons . In 1657 , the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers , some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs . The Council became known as the Protector 's Privy Council ; its members were appointed by the Lord Protector , subject to Parliament 's approval .
In 1659 , shortly before the restoration of the monarchy , the Protector 's Council was abolished . Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council , but he , like previous Stuart monarchs , chose to rely on a small group of advisers . Under George I even more power transferred to this committee . It now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign , communicating its decisions to him after the fact .
Thus , the British Privy Council , as a whole , ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign ; the role passed to a committee of the Council , now known as the Cabinet .
= = Origin of the term = =
According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the definition of the word privy in Privy Council is obsolete meaning " of or pertaining exclusively to a particular person or persons , one 's own " ; hence the Council is personal to the sovereign . It is closely related to the word private , and derives from the French word privé .
= = Composition = =
The sovereign , when acting on the Council 's advice , is known as the King @-@ in @-@ Council or Queen @-@ in @-@ Council . The members of the Council are collectively known as The Lords of Her Majesty 's Most Honourable Privy Council ( sometimes The Lords and others of ... ) . The chief officer of the body is the Lord President of the Council , who is the fourth highest Great Officer of State , a Cabinet member and normally , either the Leader of the House of Lords or of the House of Commons . Another important official is the Clerk , whose signature is appended to all orders made in the Council .
Both Privy Counsellor and Privy Councillor may be correctly used to refer to a member of the Council . The former , however , is preferred by the Privy Council Office , emphasising English usage of the term Counsellor as " one who gives counsel " , as opposed to " one who is a member of a council " . A Privy Counsellor is traditionally said to be " sworn of " the Council after being received by the sovereign .
The sovereign may appoint anyone a Privy Counsellor , but in practice appointments are made only on the advice of the Her Majesty 's Government , and generally consist only of senior members of Parliament , the Church of England and HM Judiciary . There is no statutory limit to its membership : at January 2012 , there were about 600 members ; they had risen in number to over 650 by June 2015 .
However , the members have no automatic right to attend all Privy Council meetings , and only some are summoned regularly to meetings ( in practice at the Prime Minister 's discretion ) .
The Church of England 's three senior bishops — the Archbishop of Canterbury , the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of London — become Privy Counsellors upon appointment . Senior members of the Royal Family may also be appointed , but this is confined to the current consort and heir apparent and consort . Prince Philip is at present the most senior member by length of service , and he is the only current Privy Counsellor not appointed by the reigning monarch , having been sworn of the Council by her father . The Private Secretary to the Sovereign is always appointed a Privy Counsellor , as are the Lord Chamberlain , the Speaker of the House of Commons , and the Lord Speaker . Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom , judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , senior judges of the Inner House of the Court of Session ( Scotland 's highest law court ) and the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland also join the Privy Council ex officio .
The balance of Privy Counsellors is largely made up of politicians . The Prime Minister , Cabinet ministers and the Leader of HM Opposition are traditionally sworn of the Privy Council upon appointment . Leaders of major parties in the House of Commons , First Ministers of the devolved assemblies , some senior Ministers outside Cabinet , and on occasion other respected senior parliamentarians are appointed Privy Counsellors .
Because Privy Counsellors are bound by oath to keep matters discussed at Council meetings secret , the appointment of the Leaders of Opposition Parties as Privy Counsellors allows the Government to share confidential information with them " on Privy Council terms " . This usually only happens in special circumstances , such as in matters of national security . For example , Tony Blair met Iain Duncan Smith ( then Leader of HM Opposition ) and Charles Kennedy ( then Leader of the Liberal Democrats ) , " on Privy Council terms " to discuss the evidence for Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction .
Although the Privy Council is primarily a British institution , officials from some other Commonwealth realms are also appointed . By 2000 , the most notable instance was New Zealand , whose Prime Minister , senior politicians , Chief Justice and Court of Appeal Justices were traditionally appointed Privy Counsellors . However , appointments of New Zealand members have since been discontinued . The Prime Minister , the Speaker , the Governor @-@ General and the Chief Justice of New Zealand are still accorded the style , Right Honourable , but without membership of the Council . Until the late 20th century , the Prime Ministers and Chief Justices of Canada and Australia were also appointed Privy Counsellors . Canada also has its own Privy Council , the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada ( see below ) . Prime Ministers of some other Commonwealth countries that retain the Queen as their sovereign continue to be sworn of the Council .
= = Privy Council oath and initiation rite = =
It was formerly regarded by the Privy Council as criminal , and possibly treasonous , to disclose the oath administered to Privy Counsellors as they take office . However , the oath was officially made public by the Blair Government in a written parliamentary answer in 1998 , as follows . It had also been read out in full in the House of Lords during debate by Lord Rankeillour on 21 December 1932 .
You do swear by Almighty God to be a true and faithful Servant unto the Queen 's Majesty , as one of Her Majesty 's Privy Council . You will not know or understand of any manner of thing to be attempted , done , or spoken against Her Majesty 's Person , Honour , Crown , or Dignity Royal , but you will let and withstand the same to the uttermost of your Power , and either cause it to be revealed to Her Majesty Herself , or to such of Her Privy Council as shall advertise Her Majesty of the same . You will , in all things to be moved , treated , and debated in Council , faithfully and truly declare your Mind and Opinion , according to your Heart and Conscience ; and will keep secret all Matters committed and revealed unto you , or that shall be treated of secretly in Council . And if any of the said Treaties or Counsels shall touch any of the Counsellors , you will not reveal it unto him , but will keep the same until such time as , by the Consent of Her Majesty , or of the Council , Publication shall be made thereof . You will to your uttermost bear Faith and Allegiance unto the Queen 's Majesty ; and will assist and defend all Jurisdictions , Pre @-@ eminences , and Authorities , granted to Her Majesty , and annexed to the Crown by Acts of Parliament , or otherwise , against all Foreign Princes , Persons , Prelates , States , or Potentates . And generally in all things you will do as a faithful and true Servant ought to do to Her Majesty . So help you God .
A form of this oath dates back to at least 1570 .
Privy counsellors can choose to affirm their allegiance in similar terms should they prefer not to take a religious oath . At the induction ceremony , the order of precedence places Anglicans ( being those of the established church ) before others .
The initiation ceremony for newly appointed privy counsellors is held in private and typically requires kneeling on a stool before the sovereign and then kissing hands . According to the The Royal Encyclopaedia : " The new privy counsellor or minister will extend his or her right hand , palm upwards , and , taking the Queen 's hand lightly , will kiss it with no more than a touch of the lips . " The ceremony has caused difficulties for privy counsellors who advocate republicanism ; Tony Benn said in his diaries that he kissed his own thumb , rather than the Queen 's hand , while Jeremy Corbyn reportedly did not kneel . Not all members of the privy council go through the initiation ceremony ; appointments are frequently made by an Order in Council , although it is " rare for a party leader to use such a course . "
= = Term of office = =
Membership is conferred for life . Formerly , the death of a monarch ( " demise of the Crown " ) brought an immediate dissolution of the Council , as all Crown appointments automatically lapsed . By the 18th century , it was enacted that the Council would not be dissolved until up to six months after the demise of the Crown . By convention , however , the sovereign would reappoint all members of the Council after its dissolution . In practice , therefore , membership continued without a break . In 1901 the law was changed to ensure that Crown Appointments became wholly unaffected by any succession of monarch .
The sovereign however may remove an individual from the Privy Council . On 8 June 2011 , the former MP Elliot Morley was expelled following his conviction on charges of false accounting in connection with the British parliamentary expenses scandal . Before this , the last individual to be expelled from the Council against his will was Sir Edgar Speyer Bt , who was removed on 13 December 1921 for collaborating with the enemy German Empire , during the First World War . Individuals can choose to resign , sometimes to avoid expulsion : three members voluntarily left the Privy Council in the 20th century : Jonathan Aitken , on 25 June 1997 following allegations of perjury , John Profumo , who resigned on 26 June 1963 , and John Stonehouse , who resigned on 17 August 1976 . On 4 February 2013 , Chris Huhne announced that he would voluntarily leave the Privy Council after pleading guilty to perverting the course of justice .
The Lord Prescott stood down on 6 July 2013 as an act of protest against the delays in the introduction of press regulation , expecting others to follow , and Denis MacShane was forced to resign on 9 October 2013 prior to a High Court hearing at which he pleaded guilty of false accounting and was subsequently imprisoned . Both are former Labour MPs .
= = Meetings = =
Meetings of the Privy Council are normally held once each month wherever the sovereign may be in residence at the time . The quorum , according to the Privy Council Office , is three , though some statutes provide for other quorums ( for example , section 35 of the Opticians Act 1989 ( c . 44 ) provides for a lower quorum of two ) .
The sovereign attends the meeting , though his or her place may be taken by two or more Counsellors of State . Under the Regency Acts 1937 to 1953 , Counsellors of State may be chosen from among the sovereign 's spouse and the four individuals next in the line of succession who are over 21 years of age ( 18 for the heir to the throne ) . Customarily the sovereign remains standing at meetings of the Privy Council , so that no other members may sit down , thereby keeping meetings short . The Lord President reads out a list of Orders to be made , and the sovereign merely says " Approved " .
Few Privy Counsellors are required to attend regularly . The settled practice is that day @-@ to @-@ day meetings of the Council are attended by four Privy Counsellors , usually the relevant Minister to the matters pertaining . The Cabinet Minister holding the office of Lord President of the Council , currently the Rt Hon David Lidington MP , invariably presides . Under Britain 's modern conventions of parliamentary government and constitutional monarchy , every order made in Council is drafted by a Government Department and has already been approved by the Minister responsible — thus actions taken by the Queen @-@ in @-@ Council are formalities required for validation of each measure .
Full meetings of the Privy Council are held only when the reigning sovereign announces his or her own engagement ( which last happened on 23 November 1839 , in the reign of Queen Victoria ) ; or when there is a demise of the Crown , either by the death or abdication of the monarch . A full meeting of the Privy Council was also held on 6 February 1811 , when George , Prince of Wales was sworn in as Prince Regent by Act of Parliament . The current statutes regulating the establishment of a regency in the case of minority or incapacity of the sovereign also require any regents to swear their oaths before the Privy Council .
In the case of a demise of the Crown , the Privy Council — together with the Lords Spiritual , the Lords Temporal , the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of the City of London as well as representatives of Commonwealth realms — makes a proclamation declaring the accession of the new sovereign and receives an oath from the new monarch relating to the security of the Church of Scotland , as required by law . It is also customary for the new sovereign to make an allocution to the Privy Council on that occasion , and this Sovereign 's Speech is formally published in The London Gazette . Any such Special Assembly of the Privy Council , convened to proclaim the accession of a new sovereign and witness the monarch 's statutory oath , is known as an Accession Council . The last such meetings were held on 6 and 8 February 1952 : as Elizabeth II was abroad when the last demise of the Crown took place , the Accession Council met twice , once to proclaim the sovereign ( meeting of 6 February 1952 ) , and then again after the new queen had returned to Britain , to receive from her the oath required by statute ( meeting of 8 February 1952 ) .
= = Functions = =
The sovereign exercises executive authority by making Orders in Council upon the advice of the Privy Council . Orders @-@ in @-@ Council , which are drafted by the government rather than by the sovereign , are secondary legislation and are used to make government regulations and to make government appointments . Furthermore , Orders @-@ in @-@ Council are used to grant Royal Assent for Measures of the National Assembly for Wales , and laws passed by the legislatures of British Crown dependencies .
Distinct from Orders @-@ in @-@ Council are Orders of Council : the former are issued by the sovereign upon the advice of the Privy Council , whereas the latter are made by members of the Privy Council without requiring the sovereign 's approval . They are issued under the specific authority of Acts of Parliament , and most commonly are used for the regulation of public institutions .
The sovereign also grants Royal Charters on the advice of the Privy Council . Charters bestow special status to incorporated bodies ; they are used to grant " chartered " status to certain professional , educational or charitable bodies , and sometimes also city and borough status to towns . The Privy Council therefore deals with a wide range of matters , including university and livery company statutes , churchyards , coinage and dates of bank holidays .
Members of the Privy Council are privileged to be given advance notice of any prime ministerial decision to commit HM Armed Forces in enemy action .
= = Committees of the Privy Council = =
The Privy Council comprises a number of Standing Committees :
Baronetage Committee
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Committee for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey
Committee for the Purposes of the Crown Office Act 1877
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
Scottish Universities Committee
Universities Committee
The Baronetage Committee was established by a 1910 Order in Council , during Edward VII 's reign , to scrutinise all succession claims ( and thus reject doubtful ones ) to be placed on the Roll of Baronets .
The Committee for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey recommends approval of Channel Islands legislation .
The Committee for the purposes of the Crown Office Act 1877 consists of the Lord Chancellor and Lord Privy Seal as well as a Secretary of State . The Committee which last met in 1988 is concerned with the design and usage of wafer seals .
The Scottish Universities Committee considers proposed amendments to the statutes of Scotland 's four ancient universities . The Universities Committee , which last met in 1995 , considers petitions against statutes made by Oxford and Cambridge Universities and their colleges .
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , consists of senior judges who are Privy Counsellors . The decision of the Committee is presented in the form of " advice " to the monarch , but in practice it is always followed by the sovereign ( as Crown @-@ in @-@ Council ) , who formally approves the recommendation of the Judicial Committee .
Within the United Kingdom , the Judicial Committee hears appeals from ecclesiastical courts , the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports , prize courts and the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons , appeals against schemes of the Church Commissioners and appeals under certain Acts of Parliament ( e.g. , the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 ) . The Crown @-@ in @-@ Council was formerly the Supreme Appeal Court for the entire British Empire , but a number of Commonwealth countries have now abolished the right to such appeals . The Judicial Committee continues to hear appeals from several Commonwealth countries , from British Overseas Territories , Sovereign Base Areas and Crown dependencies . The Judicial Committee had direct jurisdiction in cases relating to the Scotland Act 1998 , the Government of Wales Act 1998 and the Northern Ireland Act 1998 , but this was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009 .
In addition to the Standing Committees , ad hoc Committees are notionally set up to consider and report on Petitions for Royal Charters of Incorporation and to approve changes to the bye @-@ laws of bodies created by Royal Charter .
Committees of Privy Counsellors are occasionally established to examine specific issues . Such Committees are independent of the Privy Council Office and therefore do not report directly to the Lord President of the Council . Examples of such Committees include :
the Butler Committee — operation of the intelligence services in the runup to military intervention in Iraq
the Chilcot Committee — for the Chilcot Inquiry on the use of intercept materials
the Gibson Committee of enquiry set up in 2010 — to consider whether the UK security services were complicit in torture of detainees .
= = Notable orders = =
The Civil Service is formally governed by Privy Council Orders , as an exercise of the Royal prerogative . One such order implemented HM Government 's ban of GCHQ staff from joining a Trade Union . Another , the Civil Service ( Amendment ) Order in Council 1997 , permitted the Prime Minister to grant up to three political advisers management authority over some Civil Servants .
In the 1960s , the Privy Council made an order to evict the 2 @,@ 000 inhabitants of the 65 @-@ island Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean , in preparation for the establishment of a joint United States – United Kingdom military base on the largest outlying island , Diego Garcia , some 60 miles ( 97 km ) distant . In 2000 the Court of Appeal ruled the 1971 Immigration Ordinance preventing resettlement unlawful . In 2004 , the Privy Council , under Jack Straw 's tenure , overturned the ruling . In 2006 the High Court of Justice found the Privy Council 's decision to be unlawful . Sir Sydney Kentridge described the treatment of the Chagossians as " outrageous , unlawful and a breach of accepted moral standards " : Justice Kentridge stated that there was no known precedent " for the lawful use of prerogative powers to remove or exclude an entire population of British subjects from their homes and place of birth " , and the Court of Appeal were persuaded by this argument , but the Law Lords ( at that time the UK 's highest law court ) found its decision to be flawed and overturned the ruling by a 3 – 2 decision thereby upholding the terms of the Ordinance .
= = Rights and privileges of members = =
The Privy Council as a whole is termed " The Most Honourable " whilst its members individually , the Privy Counsellors , are entitled to be styled " The Right Honourable " . The term is only used for addressing living people ; it is never used for dead people .
Peers below the rank of marquess who are not members of the Privy Council are nowadays customarily prefixed with " The " before their title , omitting " The Right Honourable " , although this used to be considered to be correct form when addressing them in writing ( prior to 1999 ) . All those sworn of the Privy Council , including barons , viscounts , and earls , are accorded the style " The Right Honourable " ; non @-@ royal dukes are styled " The Most Noble " and marquesses as " The Most Honourable " .
Modern custom as recommended by Debrett 's is to use the post @-@ nominal letters " PC " in a social style of address for peers who are Privy Counsellors . For commoners , " The Right Honourable " is sufficient identification of their status as a Privy Counsellor . The Ministry of Justice revises current practice of this convention from time to time .
Privy Counsellors are accorded a formal rank of precedence , if not already having a higher one . At the beginning of each new Parliament , and at the discretion of the Speaker , those members of the House of Commons who are Privy Counsellors usually take the oath of allegiance before all other members except the Speaker and the Father of the House , who is the most senior member of the House . Should a Privy Counsellor rise to speak in the House of Commons at the same time as another Honourable Member , the Speaker usually gives priority to the " Right Honourable " Member . This parliamentary custom , however , was discouraged under New Labour after 1998 , despite the Government not being supposed to exert influence over the Speaker .
Only Privy Counsellors can be signatories , by the monarch 's command i.e. Royal Assent , to the examination of a Bill affecting the rights of the Crown .
Privy Counsellors technically are allowed to sit on the steps of the Sovereign 's Throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords during debates , a privilege which was shared with heirs apparent of those peerage titles who were to become members of the House of Lords before Labour 's partial Reform of the Lords in 1999 , diocesan bishops of the Church of England yet to be Lords Spiritual , retired bishops who formerly sat in the House of Lords , the Dean of Westminster , Peers of Ireland , the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery and the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod . Nowadays this privilege is rarely exercised .
Each Privy Counsellor has the right of personal access to the sovereign . Peers were considered to enjoy this right individually ; members of the House of Commons possess the right collectively . In each case , personal access may only be used to tender advice on public affairs .
= = Other councils = =
The Privy Council is one of the four principal councils of the sovereign . The other three are the courts of law , the Commune Concilium ( Common Council , or Parliament ) and the Magnum Concilium ( Great Council , or the assembly of all the Peers of the Realm ) . All are still in existence , or at least have never been formally abolished , but the Magnum Concilium has not been summoned since 1640 and was considered defunct even then .
Several other Privy Councils have advised the sovereign . England and Scotland once had separate Privy Councils ( the Privy Council of England and Privy Council of Scotland ) . The Acts of Union 1707 , which united the two countries into the Kingdom of Great Britain , created a single body . Both Privy Councils were abolished in 1708 and a new joint Priviy Council created . Ireland , on the other hand , continued to have a separate Privy Council even after the Act of Union 1800 . The Privy Council of Ireland was abolished in 1922 , when the southern part of Ireland separated from the United Kingdom ; it was succeeded by the Privy Council of Northern Ireland , which became dormant after the suspension of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1972 . No further appointments have been made since then , and only four appointees were still living as of May 2014 .
Canada has had its own Privy Council — the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada — since 1867 . While the Canadian Privy Council is specifically " for Canada " , the Privy Council discussed above is not " for the United Kingdom " ; in order to clarify the ambiguity where necessary , the latter was traditionally referred to as the Imperial Privy Council . Equivalent organs of state in other Commonwealth realms , such as Australia and New Zealand , are called Executive Councils .
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