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= Portia fimbriata =
Portia fimbriata , sometimes called the fringed jumping spider , is a jumping spider ( family Salticidae ) found in Australia and Southeast Asia . Adult females have bodies 6 @.@ 8 to 10 @.@ 5 millimetres long , while those of adult males are 5 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 5 millimetres long . Both sexes have a generally dark brown carapace , reddish brown chelicerae ( " fangs " ) , a brown underside , dark brown palps with white hairs , and dark brown abdomens with white spots on the upper side . Both sexes have fine , faint markings and soft fringes of hair , and the legs are spindly and fringed . However , specimens from New Guinea and Indonesia have orange @-@ brown carapaces and yellowish abdomens . In all species of the genus Portia , the abdomen distends when the spider is well fed or producing eggs .
The hunting tactics of Portia are versatile and adaptable . All members of Portia have instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey , but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations , and then remember the new approach . There are differences in the hunting tactics of the regional populations of P. fimbriata . Those in Australia 's Northern Territory are poor at hunting jumping spiders and better against non @-@ salticid web @-@ building spiders and against insects . The Sri Lanka variant is fair against other jumping spiders , and good against web spiders and insects . P. fimbriata in Queensland is an outstanding predator of other jumping spiders and of web spiders , but poor against insects . The Queensland variant use a unique " cryptic stalking " technique which prevents most jumping spider prey from identifying this P. fimbriata as a predator , or even as an animal at all . Some jumping spider prey have partial defences against the cryptic stalking technique . All types of prey spiders occasionally counter @-@ attack , but all Portia species have very good defences , starting with especially tough skin .
When meeting another of the same species , P. fimbriata does not use cryptic stalking but displays by moving quickly and smoothly . In P. fimbriata from Queensland , contests between males usually are very brief and do no damage . Contests between Portia females are usually long and violent , and the victor may evict a loser and then eat the loser 's eggs – but victorious females of P. fimbriata from Queensland do not kill and eat the losing female . If a P. fimbriata male from Queensland displays to a female , she may run away or she may charge at him . If the pair reach agreement after this , they will copulate if she is mature , and if she is sub @-@ adult he will cohabit in her nest until she finishes moulting , and then they copulate . P. fimbriata typically copulates much quicker than other jumping spiders . Unlike in other Portia species , females of P. fimbriata do not eat their mates during courting , nor during or after copulation .
= = Body structure and appearance = =
Females of the jumping spider Portia fimbriata have bodies 6 @.@ 8 to 10 @.@ 5 millimetres long , while those of adult males are 5 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 5 millimetres long . : 100 The Queensland variety is typically smaller than the Northern Territory variety . The cephalothorax is about 4 millimetres long and 3 millimetres wide , and the abdomen about 4 millimetres long and 2 @.@ 2 millimetres wide . The front of the cephalothorax is large and angular , and the face is broad , high and flat . In Australia and Taiwan , both sexes have a generally dark brown carapace , reddish brown chelicerae ( " jaws " ) , a brown underside , and dark brown palps with white hairs . Both sexes also have fine , faint markings and soft fringes of hair . : 6 However , the female has a white fringe just above the chelicerae , while the back half of the male 's cephalothorax has a white band round the bottom edge and a white groove down the back . While male spiders ' palps are larger than females ' , : 572 – 573 the palps of P. fimbriata females have a fringe of hair that makes them look about as larger as males ' . The abdomens of both sexes are dark brown , with white spots on the upper side . Wanless ' female from New Guinea has an orange carapace and chelicerae with sooty markings , palps mainly light yellow , legs orange @-@ brown legs , and abdomen light yellow . Wanless also found a male from the Amboina area in Indonesia , showing an orange @-@ brown carapace and chelicerae , yellow @-@ brown to orange @-@ brown palps , orange @-@ brown legs and a light yellowish abdomen . : 99 – 100
= = Movement = =
When not hunting for prey or a mate , Portia species adopt a special posture , called the " cryptic rest posture " , pulling their legs in close to the body and their palps back beside the chelicerae ( " jaws " ) , which obscures the outlines of these appendages . When walking , all Portia species have a slow , " choppy " gait that preserves their concealment : pausing often and at irregular intervals ; waving their legs continuously and their palps jerkily up and down ; and moving each appendage out of time with the others : 6 and continuously varying the speed and timing . : 418 Portia ′ s walk is unlike that of any other spider , and this gait and the spider 's fringes gives the appearance of light flickering through the forest canopy and reflecting from a piece of detritus . : 6 In Queensland , P. fimbriata walks and waves more jerkily and about twice as slowly as other Portia species , including P. fimbriata in other areas . : 433
If disturbed , most Portia species leap upwards about 100 to 150 millimetres , often from the cryptic rest pose , and often over a wide trajectory . Usually Portia then either freezes or runs about 100 millimetres and then freezes . However , P. fimbriata in Queensland rarely runs or leaps . : 434
= = Senses = =
Although other spiders can also jump , salticids including Portia fimbriata have significantly better vision than other spiders , : 521 and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . Jumping spiders have eight eyes , the two large ones in the center @-@ and @-@ front position ( the anterior @-@ median eyes , also called " principal eyes " : 51 ) housed in tubes in the cephalothorax and providing acute vision . The other six are secondary eyes , positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors . : 16 In most jumping spiders , the middle pair of secondary eyes are very small and have no known function , but those of Portia species are relatively large , and function as well as its other secondary eyes . : 424 : 232 The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres to infinity , : 51 and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres . : 53 Like all jumping spiders , P. fimbriata can take in only a small visual field at one time , as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12 millimeters wide at 20 centimeters away , or up to 18 millimeters wide at 30 centimeters away .
Generally the jumping spider subfamily Spartaeinae , which includes the genus Portia , cannot discriminate objects at such long distances as the members of subfamilies Salticinae or Lyssomaninae can . However , the main eyes of Portia have vision about as acute as the best of the jumping spiders : the salticine Mogrus neglectus can distinguish prey and conspecifics up to 320 millimetres away ( 42 times its own body length ) , while P. fimbriata can distinguish these up to 280 millimetres ( 47 times its own body length ) . The main eyes of P. fimbriata can also identify features of the scenery up to 85 times its own body length , which helps the spider to find detours . : 21
However , a Portia takes a relatively long time to see objects , possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning . This makes a Portia vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds , frogs and mantises , which a Portia often cannot identify because of the other predator 's size .
Spiders , like other arthropods , have sensors , often modified setae ( bristles ) , for smell , taste , touch and vibration , protruding through their cuticle ( " skin " ) . : 532 – 533 A Portia can sense vibrations from surfaces , and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness . It can use air- and surface " smells " to detect prey which it often meets , to identify members of the same species , to recognise familiar members , and to determine the sex of other member of the same species . : 13
= = Hunting and feeding = =
= = = Hunting tactics of the genus Portia = = =
Members of the genus Portia have been called " eight @-@ legged cats " , as their hunting tactics are as versatile and adaptable as a lion 's . All members of Portia have instinctive tactics for their most common prey , but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations , and then remember the new approach . They can also make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey , even when the best detour takes a Portia out of visual contact with the prey , and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind . Such detours may take up to an hour , and a Portia usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route . : 422
While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting , : 340 females of Portia also build webs to catch prey directly . These " capture webs " are funnel @-@ shaped and widest at the top : 513 and are about 4 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres in volume . : 429 – 431 A Portia often builds her own web on to one of a web @-@ based non @-@ salticid spider . When not joined to another spiders ' , a P. fimbriata female 's capture web is generally suspended from rigid foundations such as boughs and rocks . : 432 Males of Portia do not build capture webs . : 429
A Portia can pluck another spider 's web with a virtually unlimited range of signals , either to lure the prey out into the open or calming the prey by monotonously repeating the same signal while the Portia walks slowly close enough to bite it . : 340 – 341 Such tactics enable Portia species to take web spiders from 10 % to 200 % of a Portia ′ s size , and Portia species hunt in all types of webs . : 491 In contrast , other cursorial spiders generally have difficulty moving on webs , and web @-@ building spiders find it difficult to move in webs unlike those they build . When hunting in another spider 's web , a Portia ′ s slow , choppy movements and the flaps on its legs make it resemble leaf detritus caught in the web and blown in a breeze . : 514 P. fimbriata and some other Portia species use breezes and other disturbances as " smokescreens " in which these predators can approach web spiders more quickly , and revert to a more cautious approach when the disturbance disappears . : 313 A few web spiders run far away when they sense the un @-@ rhythmical gait of a Portia entering the web – a reaction Wilcox and Jackson call " Portia panic " . : 418
If a large insect is struggling in a web , Portia usually waits for up to a day until the insect stops struggling , even if the prey is thoroughly stuck . : 448 When an insect is stuck in a web owned by P. labiata , P. schultzi or any regional variant of P. fimbriata , and next to a web spider 's web , the web spider sometimes enters the Portia ′ s web , and the Portia pursues and catches the web spider . : 440 – 441 , 444
The webs of spiders on which Portia species prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten . P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) and some other Portia species such as P. labiata and P. schultzi sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed . : 448
When using its own web to catch other species of salticids , P. fimbriata conceals its conspicuous palps , which it does not do when stalking a web @-@ spider or occasionally a moving fly .
All Portia species eat eggs of other spiders , including eggs of their own species and of other cursorial spiders , and can extract eggs from cases ranging from the flimsy ones of Pholcus to the tough papery ones of Philoponella . While only P. fimbriata ( in Queensland ) captures cursorial spiders in their nests , all Portia species steal eggs from empty nests of cursorial spiders . : 448
The venom of Portia is unusually powerful against spiders . : 491 When a Portia stabs a small to medium spider ( up to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , including another Portia , the prey usually runs away for about 100 to 200 millimetres , enters convulsions , becomes paralysed after 10 to 30 seconds , and continues convulsing for 10 seconds to 4 minutes . Portia slowly approaches the prey and takes it . : 441 – 443 Portia usually needs to inflict up to 15 stabbings to completely immobilise a larger spider ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 times to the Portia ′ s weight : 428 ) , and then Portia may wait about 20 to 200 millimetres away for 15 to 30 minutes from seizing the prey . : 441 – 443 Insects are usually not immobilised so quickly but continue to struggle , sometimes for several minutes . : 441 – 443
Occasionally a Portia is killed or injured while pursuing prey up to twice Portia ′ s size . In tests , Portia labiata is killed in 2 @.@ 1 % of pursuits and injured but not killed in 3 @.@ 9 % , while P. schultzi is killed in 1 @.@ 7 % and injured but not killed in 5 @.@ 3 % . In Queensland , P. fimbriata is killed in 0 @.@ 06 % of its pursuits and injured but not killed in another 0 @.@ 06 % . A Portia ′ s especially tough skin often prevents injury , even when its body is caught in the other spider 's fangs . When injured , Portia bleeds and may sometimes lose one or more legs . Spiders ' palps and legs break off easily when attacked , Portia ′ s palps and legs break off exceptionally easily , which may be a defence mechanism , and Portia species are often seen with missing legs or palps , while other salticids in the same habitat are not seen with missing legs or palps . : 450 A P. fimbriata specimen , now in the Australian Museum collection , regenerated a lost limb about 7 days after moulting .
= = = Hunting tactics of P. fimbriata = = =
All performance statistics summarise result of tests in a laboratory , using captive specimens . : 429 – 430 Female P. fimbriatas ' tactics and performance show regional differences between the populations in Queensland , the Northern Territory and Sri Lanka . : 424 The table also includes females of P. africana around Lake Victoria , of P. schultzi elsewhere in Kenya and of P. labiata in Sri Lanka for comparison . : 424 , 432 , 434
P. fimbriata in all regions fix their own webs to solid surfaces such as rocks and tree trunks and boughs , while some other Portia species often fix their webs to pliant stems and leaves and on the lower branches of trees . : 432
A test in 2001 showed that four jumping species take nectar , either by sucking free nectar from the surface of flowers or biting the flowers with their fangs . The spiders fed in cycles of two to four minutes , then groomed their bodies and especially their chelicerae , before another cycle . A more formal part of the test showed that 90 juvenile jumping spiders , including P. fimbriata , generally prefer to suck from blotting soaked with a 30 % solution of sugar rather than paper soaked with distilled water . The authors suggest that , in the wild , nectar may be a frequent , convenient way to get some nutrients , as it would avoid the work , risks and costs ( such as making venom ) of predation . Jumping spiders may benefit from amino acids , lipids , vitamins and minerals normally found in nectar .
= = = = Tactics in Queensland = = = =
Portia fimbriata from Queensland is the most thoroughly studied araneophagic ( spider @-@ eating ) salticid . Robinson ( 2010 ) said that the Queensland P. fimbriata has the most varied prey capture techniques of any animal in the world except humans and other simians . When not using its own web , the Queensland P. fimbriata preys mainly on salticids of other genera , generally using against them a special tactic called " cryptic stalking " .
Adult males are less ready to pursue and less efficient at catching than adult females , especially against larger prey . Males are quite effective against small web spiders , and reluctant to tackle large ones although they catch them in about 50 % of attempts . Against other jumping spiders , males do not pursue large ones and pursue about 48 % of small ones , catching 84 % of those they pursue . : 438 Males of Portia do not build large webs for catching prey ( " capture webs " ) . : 429
A test in 1997 showed that P. fimbriata ′ s preferences for different types of prey are in the order : web spiders ; jumping spiders ; and insects . : 337 – 339 These preferences apply to both live prey and motionless lures , and to P. fimbriata specimens without prey for 7 days ( " well @-@ fed " : 335 ) and without prey for 14 days ( " starved " : 335 ) . P. fimbriata specimens without prey for 21 days ( " extra @-@ starved " ) showed no preference for different types of prey . : 339 The test included as prey several species of web spiders and jumping spiders , and the selection of the prey species showed no evidence of affecting the results . : 337 – 339 Insects were represented by the house fly Musca domestica . : 335
When hunting most other salticids in Queensland , P. fimbriata exaggerates the slowness and " choppiness " of its normal gait ( sometimes called " robotlike " : 6 ) and holds its palps retracted beside its fangs , as it also does in the cryptic rest pose . If the salticid prey faces P. fimbriata , P. fimbriata freezes until the prey turns away . : 750 This " cryptic stalking " appears unique to Queensland , where most other jumping spiders fail to recognize a disguised stalking P. fimbriata as a predator , or even as an animal at all . : 447 P. fimbriata from Queensland uses cryptic stalking against both salticids native to Queensland and against imported salticids . : 445 Other salticids often defend themselves when stalked by other species of Portia or by P. fimbriata outside Queensland , and the Queensland P. fimbriata ′ s cryptic stalking may be a regional adaptation to the abundant but dangerous salticid prey , especially Jacksonoides queenslandicus , in the local rainforest . : 750 – 751 P. fimbriata uses cryptic stalking even against some oddly @-@ shaped salticids such as the flattened Holoplatys and the elongated , mantis @-@ like Mantisatta longicauda . : 455 All of P. fimbriata ′ s salticid prey have a pair of large , forward @-@ facing principal eyes , a feature that arachnologists also use to distinguish salticids from all other spiders . : 455 – 456
Euryattus , another jumping spider from Queensland , has a partly overlapping range with P. fimbriata ′ s : 416 – 417 and is abundant in their common range , and adult and large juvenile P. fimbriatas hunt Euryattus adopting specific tactics . Unlike most jumping spiders , Euryattus makes a nest by suspending a dead rolled @-@ up leaf by silk lines from vegetation . P. fimbriata catches Euryattus females by mimicking the vibrations made by Euryattus males as part of their courtship , and this deception lures Euryattus females out of their nests . In tests , a Euryattus from P. fimbriata ′ s range recognises the predator and defends itself , while Euryattus specimens from outside P. fimbriata ′ s range seldom recognise the threat . P. fimbriata finds it easier to catch a Euryattus from outside the predator 's home range than to capture the same species from P. fimbriata ′ s range . : 416 – 417 This may be an example of an evolutionary arms race .
P. fimbriata does not stalk at all species of the ant @-@ mimic jumping spider genus Myrmarachne , : 449 – 450 , 455 and uses cryptic stalking only about 20 % of the time against other ant @-@ mimicking salticids and against beetle @-@ mimicking salticids . : 453 P. fimbriata also sometimes does not use cryptic stalking against females of the salticid subfamily Lyssomaninae . These females are unusually translucent , and the translucent cuticle makes the anterior @-@ median eyes ( front @-@ and @-@ center ) show light and dark regions that flicker in and out when viewed head on . Lyssomanine males are not translucent and do not produce this flickering , and P. fimbriata uses cryptic stalking consistently against the males . This suggests that the flickering anterior @-@ median eyes of lyssomanine females may reduce the ability of P. fimbriata to identify these females as jumping spiders .
When encountering J. queenlandicus , P. fimbriata often first notices chemical cues on J. queenlandicus ′ silken safety lines and then looks for its prey . The smell makes P. fimbriata to quicker to see the prey , : 6 , 12 possibly by lowering thresholds in the visual system . : 36 – 37 Sometimes P. fimbriata cannot see J. queenlandicus through the prey 's camouflage , and " hunts by speculation " , jumping high in the air , so that J. queenlandicus betrays itself by turning and looking for the disturbance . : 6 : 749 P. fimbriata then turns toward J. queenslandicus and waves its palps . : 1601 It appears that only P. fimbriatas from Queensland behaves this way while Portia species from other areas did not , that P. fimbriata from Queensland reacts this way only to J. queenslandicus , and that J. queenslandicus perceives no chemical warnings that P. fimbriata is around . : 749
When stalking any non @-@ salticid , P. fimbriata does not use cryptic stalking and does not consistently pull its palps back nor consistently freeze when faced by the prey . P. fimbriata adopts cryptic stalking only after recognizing prey as a jumping spider .
In Queensland , P. fimbriata is reluctant to jump into the webs of prey spiders , while other Portia species do this at any opportunity . : 515 The Queensland orb web spider Argiope appensa shakes it web violently to shake off intruders , and P. fimbriata finds a detour that allows it to abseil on to the prey . : 422 When the web spider Zosis genicularis is busy wrapping up its own prey and is less aware of other predators , P. fimbriata uses this activity as a type of smokescreen to approach the web spider . : 147
P. fimbriata uses non @-@ cryptic stalking against lycosid , clubionid , theridiid and desid spiders , and against flies , but does not stalk beetles or ants . : 453
Unlike other Portia species , P. fimbriata in Queensland readily invades the nests of cursorial spiders , plucking or cutting the nest . If the resident spider eventually leaves the nest , P. fimbriata stalks it . If the resident spider tries to counterattack and then retreats into the nest , P. fimbriata may attack the other spider as it re @-@ enters the nest , or may wait motionless until the prey exits . If a stabbed prey spider retreats into the nest , P. fimbriata in Queensland never enters the nest , but waits for the prey to move out , and then P. fimbriata kills it . : 444 – 447
A test in a deliberately artificial environment explored the Queensland P. fimbriata ′ s ability to solve a novel problem by trial and error . A little island was set up in the middle of a miniature atoll , and the space between with them was filled with water . The gap was too wide for the spiders to jump all the way , and the spiders ' options were to leap and then swim or to swim only . The testers encouraged some specimens by using a tiny scoop to make waves toward the atoll when the spiders chose the option the testers preferred ( leap and then swim , or swim only ) , and discouraged some specimens by making waves back toward the island when the spiders chose the option the testers did not want – in other words , the testers " rewarded " one group for " successful " behaviour and " penalised " the other group for " unwanted " behaviour . : 284 – 286 The Queensland P. fimbriata specimens generally repeated successful behaviour and switched if the first try was unsuccessful , irrespective of which option ( leap and then swim or to swim only ) the testers chose as " good " for each specimen . : 1215
= = = = Tactics in Northern Territory = = = =
In the Northern Territory , P. fimbriata has no special tactics against other jumping spiders and tries to treat them as if they were web spiders , and then either tries to jump on them or gives up . Hence this variant is poor at catching other jumping spiders . The Northern Territory variant of P. fimbriata is not as good as the Queensland one as catching web spiders , but better than the Sri Lanka variant and some other species of Portia . It is not enthusiastic about pursuing insects , but very good at catching those it pursues , as the performance table above shows : 424 , 432 , 434 While pursuits by the Queensland variant typically take 26 minutes , those of the Northern Territory variant typically take 3 to 5 minutes , like some other species of Portia . : 439 – 440 , 449
= = = = Tactics in Sri Lanka = = = =
The Sri Lanka variant enthusiastically pursues other jumping spiders and is slightly better than most Portia species in tests , but about half as effective as the Queensland variant . In Sri Lanka , P. fimbriata is not a prolific hunter of web spiders or insects , but quite efficiently catches those it pursues . : 424 , 432 , 434 Like other Portia species , the Sri Lanka P. fimbriata typically take 3 to 5 minutes for a pursuit . : 439 – 440 , 449
= = Reproduction and lifecycle = =
Before courtship , a male Portia spins a small web between boughs or twigs , and he hangs under that and ejaculates on to it . : 467 He then takes up the semen into reservoirs in the palpal bulbs on his pedipalps . : 581 – 583
A laboratory test showed how males of P. fimbriata from Queensland minimise the risk of meeting each other , by recognising fresh pieces of blotting paper , some containing their own silk draglines and some containing another male 's draglines . Males also were attracted by fresh blotting paper containing females ' draglines , while females do not respond to fresh blotting paper containing males ' draglines . This suggested that the males usually search for females , rather than vice versa . Neither sex responded to one week @-@ old blotting paper , irrespective of whether it contained males ' or females ' draglines . A similar series of tests showed that P. labiata showed the same patterns of responses between the sexes .
When meeting another of the same species , P. fimbriata does not stalk but displays by moving quickly and smoothly , and displays at 4 to 27 centimetres away . It raises its legs , its body sways from side to side , and the palps are lowered below the chelicerae ( " fangs " ) . This is very different from the stalking it uses when encountering another salticid of a different species , despite receiving the same visual stimulus , the sight of the other 's large anterior @-@ median eyes . Although P. fimbriata is influenced by pheromones much more than is usual among salticids , visual cues alone are enough to start displays and distinguish members of the same species from other salticids , even if neither partner moves . The spindly , fringed legs of Portia species may identify members of the same species , as well as concealing these spiders from other salticid species .
In P. fimbriata from Queensland and in some other species , contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds , and only their legs make contact . : 466 Contests between Portia females are usually long and violent , : 518 and in P. fimbriata from Queensland these often including grappling that sometimes breaks a leg . : 466 A victor may evict a loser , and then eat the loser 's eggs and take over the loser 's web . : 518 : 466 Unlike in some other Portia species , victorious females of P. fimbriata from Queensland do not kill and eat the losers . : 466
A female that sees a male may approach slowly or wait . The male then walks erect and displays by waving his legs and palps . If the female does not run away , she gives a " propulsive display " first . If the male stands his ground and she does not run away or repeat the propulsive display , he approaches and , if she is mature , they copulate , the male inserting the tip of one of his palpal bulbs into the female 's copulatory opening , using the first palp that made scraping contact . : 459 – 464 If the female is sub @-@ adult ( one moult from maturity ) , a male or sometimes a sub @-@ adult male of P. fimbriata may cohabit in the female 's capture web . : 467 Portia species usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female . : 518 P. fimbriata typically copulates for about 100 seconds , while other genera can take several minutes or even several hours . : 518 : 465 Unlike in some other Portia species , females of P. fimbriata from Queensland do not eat their mates during courting , nor during : 464 or after copulation .
When hunting , mature females of P. fimbriata , P. africana , P. fimbriata , P. labiata , and P. schultzi emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females , males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey . The effect inhibits aggressive mimicry against a prey spider even if the prey spider is visible , and also if the prey is inhabiting any part of a web . If a female of one of these Portias smells a male of the same species , the female stimulates the males to court . These Portia species do not show this behaviour when they receive olfactory signals from members of other Portia species .
In laboratory tests , Portia species including P. fimbriata mate with other species , but the females then produce no eggs . : 466
P. fimbriata in Queensland prefers to lay eggs on dead , brown leaves about 20 millimetres long , suspended near the top of its capture web , and then cover the eggs with a sheet of silk . If there is no dead leaf available , the female will make a small horizontal silk platform in the capture web , lay the eggs on it , and then cover the eggs . In Northern Territory , P. fimbriata occasionally lays eggs in a dead leaf , but more usually in a silk egg sac on a small horizontal web suspended on the main web . : 434 – 435 , 469
Like all arthropods , spiders moult and , after hatching , the life stage before each moult is called an " instar " . Specimens of P. fimbriata become mature at instar 7 , 8 or 9 . In an experiment using P. fimbriata spiderlings from Queensland , 64 % of those fed only on spiders survived to maturity , 37 % of those fed on a mixture of spiders and insects survived , and all those fed solely on insects died before reaching the 6th instar . For moulting , all Portia species spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider 's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf . The spider lies head down , and often slides down 20 to 30 millimetres during moulting . : 496 Portia species spin a similar temporary web for resting . : 513 P. fimbriata in Queensland can be very sedentary , in some cases remaining in the same web for over 48 days during a series of moults . : 239
= = Ecology = =
P. fimbriata is found in the rain forests of India , Nepal , Sri Lanka , Hong Kong , Taiwan , New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , Malaysia including Malacca , Indonesia , and in Australia 's Northern Territory and Queensland . : 424 : 302 : 99 – 100 It lives on foliage , tree trunks , boulders , and rock walls . Throughout its range , this is the most common species of the genus Portia . Queensland specimens of P. fimbriata live near running water and where there is moderate light , while Northern Territory specimens live in caves where the light varies from rather dark at the back to much brighter around the mouths . Other populations of Portia also live with higher light levels than in Queensland , and some members of these other populations are found in webs exposed to direct sunlight for part of the day . : 431 In Queensland , P. fimbriata shares its environment with a common prey , the very abundant Jacksonoides queenslandicus , and with large populations of other non @-@ Portia salticids and non @-@ salticid web @-@ building spiders . : 432
Ants prey on P. fimbriata while P. fimbriata does not stalk ants , regarding them as poisonous or very unpleasant . : 454 – 455 P. fimbriata is also preyed upon by birds , frogs , and mantises .
It is often difficult to find P. fimbriata in the wild , as its shape and movements are well disguised . The Queensland variety is quite easy to raise , while the Northern Territory variety is quite troublesome to maintain .
= = Taxonomy = =
P. fimbriata is one of 17 species in the genus Portia as of May 2016 . Wanless divided the genus Portia into two species groups : the schultzi group , in which males ' palps have a fixed tibial apophysis ; and the kenti group , in which the apophysis of each palp in the males has a joint separated by a membrane . : 87 – 88 The schultzi group includes P. schultzi , P. africana , P. fimbriata , and P. labiata . : 93 – 94 , 99 – 100 , 102 – 105
The species P. fimbriata was originally described by Carl Ludwig Doleschall as Salticus fimbriata in 1859 . The species has also been named Attus fimbriatus ( Doleschall , 1859 ) , Sinis fimbriatus ( Doleschall , 1859 ) , Linus fimbriatus ( Doleschall , 1859 ) and Boethoportia ocellata ( Hogg , 1915 ) , and Portia fimbriata ( Doleschall , 1859 ) , and the last is now used . According to Jackson and Hallas , P. fimbriata , as currently defined , probably includes two or more distinct species . In particular , Queensland P. fimbriata are probably a distinct species from Sri Lankan P. fimbriata , as matings between the two groups are infertile . : 480
Portia is in the subfamily Spartaeinae , which is thought to be primitive . : 491 Molecular phylogeny , a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to reconstruct the tree of life , indicates that Portia is a member of the clade Spartaeinae , that Spartaeinae is basal ( quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders ) , and that Portia ′ s closest relatives are the genera Spartaeus , Phaeacius , and Holcolaetis . : 53
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= Tegetthoff @-@ class battleship =
The Tegetthoff class ( sometimes erroneously named the Viribus Unitis class ) was the sole class of dreadnought battleship built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Four ships were built , Viribus Unitis , Tegetthoff , Prinz Eugen and Szent István . Three of the four were laid down in Trieste , with Szent István being built at Rijeka , to incorporate both parts of the dual monarchy into the construction of the ships . The smaller size of the shipyards in Rijeka meant that Szent István was built three years after her sisters , with slightly different characteristics .
The first three ships , Viribus Unitis , Tegetthoff and Prinz Eugen were joined by their sister in 1915 , when they bombarded the Italian installations at Ancona . The Tegetthoffs attempted to sortie through the Otranto Barrage with the support of lighter ships in 1918 , but failed after Szent István was sunk . After the transfer to State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , Virbus Unitis was sunk by Italian frogmen , and Tegetthoff and Prinz Eugen were transferred to Italy and France , respectively .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Dimensions = = =
The ships had an overall length of 152 metres ( 498 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 27 @.@ 90 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 70 metres ( 28 ft 7 in ) at deep load . They displaced 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 684 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The propulsion consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 134 kW ) , which was theoretically enough to attain her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her speed trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Each ship had an armament consisting of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets mounted on the center @-@ line , forward and aft of the superstructure . Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Eighteen 70 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivots on the upper deck above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 530 @-@ millimetre ( 21 in ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline armour belt of the Tegetthoff class measured 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) thick between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes and thinned to 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) further towards the bow and stern , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . It was continued to the bow by a small patch of 110 – 130 @-@ millimetre ( 4 – 5 in ) armour . The upper armour belt had a maximum thickness of 180 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) , but it thinned to 110 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) from the forward barbette all the way to the bow . The casemate armour was also 180 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The sides of the main gun turrets , barbettes and main conning tower were protected by 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) of armour , except for the turret and conning tower roofs which were 60 to 150 millimetres ( 2 to 6 in ) thick . The thickness of the decks ranged from 30 to 48 millimetres ( 1 to 2 in ) in two layers . The underwater protection system consisted of the extension of the double bottom up to the lower edge of the waterline armour belt , with a thin 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) plate acting as the outermost bulkhead . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of two layered 25 @-@ millimetre plates . The total thickness of this system was only 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 5 ft 3 in ) which made it incapable of containing a torpedo warhead detonation or mine explosion without rupturing .
= = = Variations = = =
Szent István , built at Fiume , differed from her half @-@ sisters mainly in her machinery . She only had two shafts and two turbines , unlike the four shaft arrangement of the other ships of her class . External differences included a platform built around the fore funnel which extended from the bridge to the after funnel and on which several searchlights were installed . A further distinguishing feature was the modified ventilator trunk in front of the mainmast . She was the only ship of her class not to be fitted with torpedo nets .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction = =
The Austro @-@ Hungarian government ordered the construction of a new fleet in 1908 , following the announcement of the start of construction of the first dreadnought for the Regia Marina ( the Italian navy ) , Dante Alighieri . The ships of this class were among the first ships to utilize triple gun turrets for their main armament , the first one being the Italian battleship Dante Alighieri , which the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were supposed to act against in a war ; as for the Italian ship , this choice made it possible to deliver a heavier broadside than other dreadnoughts of a similar size . The triple turrets were built at the Škoda Works , in Plzeň , Bohemia ( Czech republic ) , and was available at short notice because Škoda were already working on a design for an order for the Russian navy .
The first unit was to bear the name of Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , an Austrian naval admiral of the 19th century , but Franz Joseph I wanted it to be named after his personal motto , Viribus Unitis ( Latin for " With united forces " ) . In any event , the class name remained Tegetthoff .
The first three ships were built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino yard , Trieste , but as a condition of agreeing to the construction and financing of the new fleet , the Hungarian parliament insisted that one of the battleships be built at the Hungarian facility , the Danubius yard at Fiume – Rijeka ( pronounced : riiyeca ) , now Croatia . However , the Danibius shipyard had until then never built anything larger than a destroyer , therefore delayed construction as the yard was extended in preparation for the dreadnought . For this reason the final ship , delivered seventeen months late , was given a Hungarian name — named Szent István after Saint Stephen , the first king and patron saint of Hungary .
= = Service history = =
= = = World War I = = =
The assistance of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet was called upon by the German Mediterranean Division , which consisted of the battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . The German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , where they had been coaling prior to the outbreak of war — British ships had begun to assemble off Messina in an attempt to trap the Germans . By this time , the Austro @-@ Hungarians had not yet fully mobilized their fleet , though the three Radetzkys and three Tegetthoffs , along with several cruisers and smaller craft , were available . The Austro @-@ Hungarian high command , wary of instigating war with Great Britain , ordered the fleet to avoid the British ships , and only to support the Germans openly while they were in Austro @-@ Hungarian waters . On 7 August , when the Germans broke out of Messina , the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , including the Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , sailed as far south as Brindisi , before returning to port .
After the breakout , the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy saw very little action , spending much of its time in its base at Pola ( now Pula , Croatia ) . The navy 's general inactivity was partly caused by a lack of coal , which became a problem as the war progressed , and partly by a fear of mines in the Adriatic ( which also kept the Italian navy in port for most of the war ) . They did , however , leave Pula to bombard Ancona in May 1915 . On 23 May 1915 , four hours after the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , the members of the Tegetthoff class and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian coast . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships bombarded the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro , without opposition ; by the time Italian ships arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola .
= = = = Otranto Raid = = = =
In 1918 Admiral Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya became rear admiral of the fleet , and he determined to use the fleet to attack the Otranto Barrage . On 8 June 1918 he took Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen south with a small supporting flotilla ; on the evening of 9 June , Szent István and Tegetthoff followed . In trying to make maximum speed in order to catch up , Szent István 's turbines started to overheat and speed had to be reduced to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . When an attempt was made to raise more steam in order to increase to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) Szent István produced an excess of smoke , attracting the attention of a pair of patrolling Italian torpedo boats at 3 @.@ 20 a.m. on 10 June . MAS @-@ 21 attacked Tegetthoff , but one of her torpedoes failed to leave the launch tube and the other failed to explode . MAS @-@ 15 however succeeded in striking Szent István with two torpedoes at 3 : 31 a.m. Tegetthoff returned to the scene to take Szent István in tow . An attempt to beach the ship on nearby Molat Island ( northwest of Zara ) was considered , but the ship was taking on too much water . At 6 : 12 am , with the pumps unequal to the task , Szent István capsized , taking 89 of her crew with her . The last half @-@ hour of the sinking was filmed in stages from Tegetthoff ( one of only two battleship sinkings on the high seas to ever be filmed , the other being that of the British battleship HMS Barham in the Second World War ) . Fearing further attacks by torpedo boats or destroyers from the Italian navy , his element of surprise now compromised , Admiral Horthy called off the attack and the fleet returned to base for the remainder of the war .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After it was clear that Austria @-@ Hungary had lost World War I , the Austrian government decided to give Viribus Unitis , along with much of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . This move would have avoided handing the fleet to the Allies , since the new state had declared neutrality . Following the transfer , she was renamed Yugoslavia .
On 1 November 1918 , the transfer being still unknown , two men of the Regia Marina , Raffaele Paolucci and Raffaele Rossetti , rode a primitive manned torpedo ( nicknamed the Mignatta or " leech " ) into the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola . Using limpet mines , they then sank Viribus Unitis , as well as the freighter Wien .
Traveling down the rows of Austrian battleships , the two men encountered Viribus Unitis at around 4 : 40 am . Rossetti placed one canister of TNT on the hull of the battleship , timed to explode at 6 : 30 am . He then flooded the second canister , sinking it on the harbor floor close to the ship . This second canister exploded close to the Austrian freighter Wien , resulting in her sinking . The men had no breathing sets , and therefore had to keep their heads above water . They were discovered and taken prisoner just after placing the explosives under the battleship 's hull . The Italians did not know that the Austrian government had handed over Viribus Unitis , along with most of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . The two @-@ man team were captured and taken aboard Viribus Unitis , where they informed the new captain of the battleship what they had done but did not reveal the exact position of the explosives . Vuković then arranged for the two prisoners to be taken safely to the sister ship Tegetthoff , and ordered the evacuation of the ship . The explosion did not happen at 6 : 30 as predicted and Vuković returned to the ship with many sailors ( believing mistakenly that the Italians had lied ) . He therefore remained on his ship and went down with her and 300 – 400 of her crew when the mines exploded shortly afterwards at 6 : 44 . Following the explosion , the battleship sank in 15 minutes . The two Italian crew were interned for a few days until the end of the war and were honored by the Kingdom of Italy with the Gold Medal of Military Valor .
On 4 November Italian troops entered Pola and seized Tegetthoff and Prinz Eugen . The Italians kept Tegetthoff for their own use , although they broke her up in 1924 following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , but she had first featured in the movie Eroi di nostri mari ( Heroes of our seas ) about the sinking of Szent István . Prinz Eugen became French property — they removed the main armament for inspection and used the ship to test aerial bombardment attacks , before she was finally used as a target ship by the battleships Paris , Jean Bart , and France , and sunk in the Atlantic .
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= Postgame Mortem =
" Postgame Mortem " is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ seventh episode overall . Written by Joe Voci and directed by John T. Kretchmer , the episode premiered on The CW on February 13 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
The episode is the first of two episodes to deal with the murder of the basketball coach at Veronica 's school Hearst College , Tom Barry ( Matt McKenzie ) . In this episode , Veronica tries to clear the coach 's son , Josh ( Jonathan Chase ) of charges of his murder . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) , heartbroken from his breakup with Veronica in " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " , ends up babysitting the eleven @-@ year @-@ old sister ( Juliette Goglia ) of one of his friend Dick 's ( Ryan Hansen ) paramours , and they begin to emotionally connect with each other . In addition , Veronica and Keith find out that two of the main suspects ' alibis do not match .
" Postgame Mortem " was one of series creator Rob Thomas 's favorite episodes of the season . In particular , a scene in which Logan and Heather run into Veronica in an elevator was Thomas 's favorite of the year , praising Goglia 's performance in the scene and episode . In addition , Dohring contacted Rob Thomas to discuss his character 's development . The episode received 2 @.@ 37 million viewers and mixed reviews from critics , with many praising the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and being more mixed on the Logan – Heather subplot . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club referred to Heather as a non @-@ sexualized Manic Pixie Dream Girl , while Alan Sepinwall believed that it worked well comedically and dramatically .
= = Plot synopsis = =
The Hearst basketball coach , Tom Barry , berates his team , including Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , after a game , and the coach 's son quits as a result . One of Logan 's teachers tells Dick that Logan must start attending classes . Dick sneaks into Logan 's apartment for the hotel staff and finds it a mess . Veronica works at Mars Investigations for the day and walks in to find the Coach 's family in the office , as the Coach has died . The son who quit , Josh , is the prime suspect , but the family suspects Mel Stolz ( Jeremy Roberts ) or one of the PCH bikers . Dick tries to set up Logan on a double date before realizing that one of the “ twins ” is actually eleven years old . Dick and the older sister leave , leading Logan to babysit the other sister , Heather ( Juliette Goglia ) although Logan just goes to bed . Keith talks to Mel Stolz , who says that he was on a plane at the time . Dick calls Logan and says he is in Las Vegas , leaving Logan to babysit Heather for another day .
Weevil ( Francis Capra ) organizes a meeting between Veronica and the PCHers , and the new leader says that they would not kill someone over a bad car like the Coach 's vehicle . Mason ( Robert Ri 'chard ) , one of the team 's former star basketball players , testifies to Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) that Josh is responsible for his father ’ s death . The Sheriff arrests Josh , and Veronica learns that the Coach 's car was found in the water . Logan and Heather begin to actually enjoy each other 's company . Keith speaks to Mindy O 'Dell ( Jaime Ray Newman ) , stating that he will continue to search for Dean Cyrus O 'Dell 's killer . Veronica questions Mason , but he ends up angrily walking away . Veronica and Keith recuperate , and Keith says that Cyrus 's car was taken out within the timeframe of the murder . Heather sends a radio request to play a special song from Logan to Veronica , while Veronica interrogates the hotel staff . One of them says that he heard two men yelling in the room . Veronica and Logan have a chance meeting in the elevator .
Hank Landry ( Patrick Fabian ) tells Veronica that she has successfully applied for the first part of an FBI internship with the help of a recommendation from the Dean . Keith questions Mrs. O 'Dell heavily , and she subsequently fires him from the case , although he says that he will not stop investigating . Veronica visits Josh in jail , who suspects Mason . Dick returns , getting a divorce from the older sister , and Logan and Heather remain friends . In Veronica 's criminology class , she is arrested for aiding Josh to escape from prison .
= = Production = =
" Postgame Mortem " was written by Joe Voci and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Voci 's first writing credit and Kretchmer 's thirteenth directing credit . The episode was one of series creator Rob Thomas 's favorite episodes of season three , along with " Of Vice and Men " , " Show Me the Monkey " , " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , and " Mars , Bars " . The DVD for the season contains one deleted scene of the episode . It depicts Veronica going into the police station and asking Sheriff Lamb about Josh 's recent arrest . Thomas explained in his introduction to the scene that while it was initially written for its comedic value , it became " an example of staging killing the comedy " . He explained that Lamb had to frequently turn all the way around to speak to Veronica and Deputy Sacks ( Brandon Hillock ) , a fact which he thought made the scene awkward .
Thomas described the scene in which Veronica encounters Logan and Heather in an elevator before Heather tells her that Logan is in love with her as his favorite scene of the season and that it lived up to high expectations . In writing this subplot , Thomas and the crew started with this scene and " wrote backwards " in order to make it fit in with the rest of the episode 's story . Knowing the scene 's importance to the writers , Kretchmer used more lighting setups than would be typically used in an elevator scene . Thomas also enjoyed Juliette Goglia 's performance in both the scene and the episode , referring to her as " a star " . Immediately prior to this episode , Thomas received a call from Jason Dohring , the actor of Logan , who was confused about the character 's continual state of grief following his breakup with Veronica . Thomas responded that that part in his character arc was all setup to the subplot involving Heather .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Postgame Mortem " received 2 @.@ 37 million viewers , ranking 102nd out of 104 in the weekly rankings . This was a slight decrease from the figures of the previous week 's episode , " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " , which earned 2 @.@ 40 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
BuddyTV lauded the episode , writing that it was one of the best Veronica Mars episodes in months , mainly due to the reappearances of Wallace , Weevil , and Cliff , leading to what the reviewer called " an old school Veronica Mars feel . " Logan and Heather 's subplot also garnered praise : " It ’ s a nice departure from the oft repeated scenario of Logan exercising indiscretion . " Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave a positive review , praising the case of @-@ the @-@ week and the episode 's development of the Dean O 'Dell mystery . He argued that this story arc was the best of the series so far , writing " What makes this third season 's second mystery work is that it is so balanced . [ … ] It 's a closed system with multiple possibilities . " He was also intrigued by the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , noting that it stood out from others because of the fact that it was not resolved within the episode . However , he was negative towards the Heather @-@ Logan subplot and dynamic , referring to Heather as a type of Manic Pixie Dream Girl who is not sexualized . " Heather is so ridiculously contrived as a way to help Logan out of his funk that it 's almost embarrassing . " Television Without Pity graded the episode an " A " , stating that " I 'm all for anything that gets Veronica and Keith working together on a big case . "
Reviewer Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , praised the decision to include a multiple @-@ week mystery . He thought that spreading the case out allowed the episode to focus on the main story arc and Logan 's subplot as well as allow the main mystery time to finish . He was also complimentary towards the Logan – Heather plotline , lauding Goglia 's performance ; he also stated that the episode gave him renewed interest in the Dean O 'Dell case . Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , rated the episode a 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 , indicating that it was " good " . He was highly critical of the subplot involving Logan and Heather , stating that it " rode the line of insufferable " . While opining that it had some good comedic moments , he thought that the majority of the subplot involved heavy use of clichés . However , he was more mixed to positive towards the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week . The reviewer felt a sense of anticipation about the fact that this storyline did not resolve itself in the episode : " it 's hard not to be anxious to see where this is going . "
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= Holkham Hall =
Holkham Hall ( / ˈhoʊkəm / or / ˈhɒlkəm / ) is an 18th @-@ century country house located adjacent to the village of Holkham , Norfolk , England . The house was constructed in the Palladian style for Thomas Coke , 1st Earl of Leicester ( fifth creation ) by the architect William Kent , aided by the architect and aristocrat Lord Burlington .
Holkham Hall is one of England 's finest examples of the Palladian revival style of architecture , and the severity of its design is closer to Palladio 's ideals than many of the other numerous Palladian style houses of the period . The Holkham Estate , had been built up by Sir Edward Coke , the founder of his family fortune . He bought Neales manor in 1609 , though never lived there , and many other purchases of land in Norfolk to endow to his six sons . His fourth son , John , inherited the land and married heiress Meriel Wheatley in 1612 . They made Hill Hall their home and by 1659 John had complete ownership of all three Holkham manors . It is the ancestral home of the Coke family , the Earls of Leicester of Holkham .
The interior of the hall is opulently , but by the standards of the day , simply decorated and furnished . Ornament is used with such restraint that it was possible to decorate both private and state rooms in the same style , without oppressing the former . The principal entrance is through the Marble Hall , which is in fact made of pink Derbyshire alabaster ; this leads to the piano nobile , or the first floor , and state rooms . The most impressive of these rooms is the Saloon , which has walls lined with red velvet . Each of the major state rooms is symmetrical in its layout and design ; in some rooms , false doors are necessary to fully achieve this balanced effect .
= = Architects and patron = =
Holkham was built by 1st Earl of Leicester , Thomas Coke , who was born in 1697 . A cultivated and wealthy man , Coke made the Grand Tour in his youth and was away from England for six years between 1712 and 1718 . It is likely he met both Burlington — the aristocratic architect at the forefront of the Palladian revival movement in England — and William Kent in Italy in 1715 , and that in the home of Palladianism the idea of the mansion at Holkham was conceived . Coke returned to England , not only with a newly acquired library , but also an art and sculpture collection with which to furnish his planned new mansion . However , after his return , he lived a feckless life , preoccupying himself with drinking , gambling and hunting , and being a leading supporter of cockfighting . He made a disastrous investment in the South Sea Company and when the South Sea Bubble burst in 1720 , the resultant losses delayed the building of Coke 's planned new country estate for over ten years . Coke , who had been made Earl of Leicester in 1744 , died in 1759 — five years before the completion of Holkham — having never fully recovered his financial losses . Thomas 's wife , Lady Margaret Tufton , Countess of Leicester ( 1700 – 1775 ) , would oversee the finishing and furnishing of the house .
Although Colen Campbell was employed by Thomas Coke in the early 1720s , the oldest existing working and construction plans for Holkham were drawn by Matthew Brettingham , under the supervision of Thomas Coke , in 1726 . These followed the guidelines and ideals for the house as defined by Kent and Burlington . The Palladian revival style chosen was at this time making its return in England . The style made a brief appearance in England before the Civil War , when it was introduced by Inigo Jones . However , following the Restoration it was replaced in popular favour by the Baroque style . The " Palladian revival " , popular in the 18th century , was loosely based on the appearance of the works of the 16th @-@ century Italian architect Andrea Palladio . However it did not adhere to Palladio 's strict rules of proportion . The style eventually evolved into what is generally referred to as Georgian , still popular in England today . It was the chosen style for numerous houses in both town and country , although Holkham is exceptional for both its severity of design and for being closer than most in its adherence to Palladio 's ideals .
Although Thomas Coke oversaw the project , he delegated the on @-@ site architectural duties to the local Norfolk architect Matthew Brettingham , who was employed as the on @-@ site clerk of works . Brettingham was already the estate architect , and was in receipt of £ 50 a year ( about 7 @,@ 000 pounds per year in 2016 terms ) in return for " taking care of his Lordship 's buildings " . William Kent was mainly responsible for the interiors of the Southwest pavilion , or family wing block , particularly the Long Library . Kent produced a variety of alternative exteriors , suggesting a far richer decoration than Coke wanted . Brettingham described the building of Holkham as " the great work of [ my life ] " , and when he published his " The Plans and Elevations of the late Earl of Leicester 's House at Holkham " , he immodestly described himself as sole architect , making no mention of Kent 's involvement . However , in a later edition of the book , Brettingham 's son admitted that " the general idea was first struck out by the Earls of Leicester and Burlington , assisted by Mr. William Kent " .
In 1734 , the first foundations were laid ; however , building was to continue for thirty years , until the completion of the great house in 1764 .
= = Design = =
The Palladian style was admired by Whigs such as Thomas Coke , who sought to identify themselves with the Romans of antiquity . Kent was responsible for the external appearance of Holkham ; he based his design on Palladio 's unbuilt Villa Mocenigo , as it appears in I Quattro Libri dell 'Architettura , but with modifications .
The plans for Holkham were of a large central block of two floors only , containing on the piano nobile level a series of symmetrically balanced state rooms situated around two courtyards . No hint of these courtyards is given externally ; they are intended for lighting rather than recreation or architectural value . This great central block is flanked by four smaller , rectangular blocks , or wings , and at each corners is linked to the main house not by long colonnades — as would have been the norm in Palladian architecture — but by short two @-@ storey wings of only one bay .
= = = Exterior = = =
The external appearance of Holkham can best be described as a huge Roman palace . However , as with most architectural designs , it is never quite that simple . Holkham is a Palladian house , and yet even by Palladian standards the external appearance is austere and devoid of ornamentation . This can almost certainly be traced to Coke himself . The on @-@ site , supervising architect , Matthew Brettingham , related that Coke required and demanded " commodiousness " , which can be interpreted as comfort . Hence rooms that were adequately lit by one window , had only one , as a second might have improved the external appearance but could have made a room cold or draughty . As a result , the few windows on the piano nobile , although symmetrically placed and balanced , appear lost in a sea of brickwork ; albeit these yellow bricks were cast as exact replicas of ancient Roman bricks expressly for Holkham . Above the windows of the piano nobile , where on a true Palladian structure the windows of a mezzanine would be , there is nothing . The reason for this is the double height of the state rooms on the piano nobile ; however , not even a blind window , such as those often seen in Palladio 's own work , is permitted to alleviate the severity of the facade . On the ground floor , the rusticated walls are pierced by small windows more reminiscent of a prison than a grand house . One architectural commentator , Nigel Nicolson , has described the house as appearing as functional as a Prussian riding school .
The principal , or South façade , is 344 feet ( 104 @.@ 9 m ) in length ( from each of the flanking wings to the other ) , its austerity relieved on the piano nobile level only by a great six @-@ columned portico . Each end of the central block is terminated by a slight projection , containing a Venetian window surmounted by a single storey square tower and capped roof , similar to those employed by Inigo Jones at Wilton House nearly a century earlier . A near identical portico was designed by Inigo Jones and Isaac de Caus for the Palladian front at Wilton , but this was never executed .
The flanking wings contain service and secondary rooms — the family wing to the south @-@ west ; the guest wing to the north @-@ west ; the chapel wing to the south @-@ east ; and the kitchen wing to the north @-@ east . Each wing 's external appearance is identical : three bays , each separated from the other by a narrow recess in the elevation . Each bay is surmounted by an unadorned pediment . The composition of stone , recesses , varying pediments and chimneys of the four blocks is almost reminiscent of the English Baroque style in favour ten years earlier , employed at Seaton Delaval Hall by Sir John Vanbrugh . One of these wings , as at the later Kedleston Hall , was a self @-@ contained country house to accommodate the family when the state rooms and central block were not in use .
The one storey porch at the main north entrance was designed in the 1850s by Samuel Sanders Teulon , although stylistically it is indistinguishable from the 18th @-@ century building .
= = = Interior = = =
Inside the house , the Palladian form reaches a height and grandeur seldom seen in any other house in England . It has , in fact , been described as " The finest Palladian interior in England . " The grandeur of the interior is obtained with an absence of excessive ornament , and reflects Kent 's career @-@ long taste for " the eloquence of a plain surface " . Work on the interiors ran from 1739 to 1773 . The first habitable rooms were in the family wing and were in use from 1740 , the Long Library being the first major interior completed in 1741 . Among the last to be completed and entirely under Lady Leicester 's supervision is the Chapel with its alabaster reredos . The house is entered through the Marble Hall ( though the chief building fabric is in fact pink Derbyshire alabaster ) , modelled by Kent on a Roman basilica . The room is over 50 feet ( 15 m ) from floor to ceiling and is dominated by the broad white marble flight of steps leading to the surrounding gallery , or peristyle : here alabaster Ionic columns support the coffered , gilded ceiling , copied from a design by Inigo Jones , inspired by the Pantheon in Rome . The fluted columns are thought to be replicas of those in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis , also in Rome . Around the hall are statues in niches ; these are predominantly plaster copies of classical deities .
The hall 's flight of steps lead to the piano nobile and state rooms . The grandest , the Saloon , is situated immediately behind the great portico , with its walls lined with patterned red caffoy ( a mixture of wool , linen and silk ) and a coffered , gilded ceiling . In this room hangs Rubens 's Return from Egypt . On his Grand Tour , the Earl acquired a collection of Roman copies of Greek and Roman sculpture which is contained in the extensive Statue Gallery , which runs the full length of the house north to south . The North Dining Room , a cube room of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) contains an Axminster carpet that perfectly mirrors the pattern of the ceiling above . A bust of Aelius Verus , set in a niche in the wall of this room , was found during the restoration at Nettuno . A classical apse gives the room an almost temple air . The apse in fact , contains concealed access to the labyrinth of corridors and narrow stairs that lead to the distant kitchens and service areas of the house . Each corner of the east side of the principal block contains a square salon lit by a huge Venetian window , one of them — the Landscape Room — hung with paintings by Claude Lorrain and Gaspar Poussin . All of the major state rooms have symmetrical walls , even where this involves matching real with false doors . The major rooms also have elaborate white and multi @-@ coloured marble fireplaces , most with carvings and sculpture , mainly the work of Thomas Carter , though Joseph Pickford carved the fireplace in the Statue Gallery . Much of the furniture in the state rooms was also designed by William Kent , in a stately classicising baroque manner .
So restrained is the interior decoration of the state rooms , or in the words of James Lees @-@ Milne , " chaste " , that the smaller , more intimate rooms in the family 's private south @-@ west wing were decorated in similar vein , without being overpowering . The long library running the full length of the wing still contains the collection of books acquired by Thomas Coke on his Grand Tour through Italy , where he saw for the first time the Palladian villas which were to inspire Holkham .
The Green State bedroom is the principal bedroom ; it is decorated with paintings and tapestries , including works by Paul Saunders and George Smith Bradshaw . It is said that when Queen Mary visited , Gavin Hamilton 's " lewd " depiction of Jupiter Caressing Juno " was considered unsuitable for that lady 's eyes and was banished to the attics " .
= = Grounds = =
Work to the designs of William Kent on the park commenced in 1729 , several years before the house was constructed . This event was commemorated by the construction in 1730 of the obelisk , 80 feet ( 24 m ) in height , standing on the highest point in the park . It is located over half a mile to the south and on axis with the centre of the house . An avenue of trees stretches over a mile south of the obelisk . Thousands of trees were planted on what had been windswept land ; by 1770 the park covered 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Other garden buildings designed by Kent are , near the far end of the avenue the Triumphal Arch , designed in 1739 but only completed in 1752 and the domed doric temple ( 1730 – 35 ) in the woods near the obelisk . Above the main entrance to the house within the Marble Hall is this inscription :
THIS SEAT , on an open barren Estate
Was planned , planted , built , decorated .
And inhabited the middle of the XVIIIth Century
By THO 's COKE EARL of LEICESTER
Under Coke of Norfolk , the great @-@ nephew and heir of the builder , extensive improvements were made to the park and by his death in 1842 it had grown to its present extent of over 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 km2 ) . As well as planting over a million trees on the estate Coke employed the architect Samuel Wyatt to design over a number of buildings , including a series of farm buildings and farmhouses in a simplified neo @-@ classical style and , in the 1780s , the new walled kitchen gardens covering 6 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The gardens stand to the west of the lake and include : A fig house , a peach house , a vinery , and other greenhouses . Wyatt 's designs culminated in c . 1790 with the Great Barn , located in the park half a mile south @-@ east of the obelisk . The cost of each farm was in the region of £ 1 @,@ 500 to £ 2 @,@ 600 : Lodge Farm , Castle Acre , cost £ 2 @,@ 604 6s . 5d. in 1797 – 1800 . The lake to the west of the house , originally a marshy inlet or creek off the North Sea , was created in 1801 – 03 by the landscape gardener William Eames .
After his death , Coke was commemorated by the Coke Monument , designed by William Donthorne and erected in 1845 – 8 at a cost to the tenants of the estate of £ 4 @,@ 000 . The monument consists of a Corinthian column 120 feet ( 37 m ) high , surmounted by a drum supporting a wheatsheaf and a plinth decorated with bas @-@ reliefs carved by John Henning , Jr . The corners of the plinth support sculptures of an ox , sheep , plough and seed @-@ drill . Coke 's work to increase farm yields had resulted in the rental income of the estate rising between 1776 and 1816 from £ 2 @,@ 200 to £ 20 @,@ 000 , and had considerable influence on agricultural methods in Britain .
In 1850 , Thomas Coke , 2nd Earl of Leicester , called in the architect William Burn to build new stables to the east of the house , in collaboration with W. A. Nesfield , who had designed the parterres . Work started at the same time on the terraces surrounding the house . This work continued until 1857 and included , to the south and on axis with the house , the monumental fountain of Saint George and the Dragon dated c . 1849 – 57 sculpted by Charles Raymond Smith . To the east of the house and overlooking the terrace , Burn designed the large stone orangery , with a three @-@ bay pedimented centre and three @-@ bay flanking wings . The orangery is now roofless and windowless .
= = Holkham today = =
The cost of the construction of Holkham is thought to have been in the region of £ 90 @,@ 000 . This vast cost nearly ruined the heirs of the 1st Earl , but had the result that they were financially unable to alter the house to suit the whims of taste . Thus , the house has remained almost untouched since its completion in 1764 . Today , this perfect , if severe , example of Palladianism is at the heart of a thriving private estate of some 25 @,@ 000 acres ( 100 km2 ) . Though open to the public on Sundays , Mondays and Thursdays , it is still the family home of the Earls of Leicester of Holkham .
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= Pelli Chesi Choodu =
Pelli Chesi Choodu ( English : Try to conduct a marriage ) is a 1952 Indian bilingual satirical comedy film directed by L. V. Prasad and produced by B. Nagi Reddy and Aluri Chakrapani under their company Vijaya Vauhini Studios . The film was made simultaneously in Telugu and Tamil with the title Kalyanam Panni Paar . It features N. T. Rama Rao , Garikapati Varalakshmi , Yandamuri Joga Rao and Savitri in the lead roles . S. V. Ranga Rao , Dr. Sivarama Krishnayya , Doraswamy and Suryakantham are seen in supporting roles in the Telugu version while C. V. V. Panthulu replaced Krishnayya in the Tamil version .
Pelli Chesi Choodu deals with the negative effects of the dowry system in India through the marital life of Venkata Ramana ( Rama Rao ) and Ammadu ( Varalakshmi ) . The film 's production began after the release of Vijaya Vauhini Studios ' Pathala Bhairavi ( 1951 ) . Marcus Bartley was recruited as the cinematographer and the film was edited by C. P. Jambulingam and M. S. Money . Ghantasala composed the film 's music .
Pelli Chesi Choodu was released on 19 February 1952 while Kalyanam Panni Paar was released 100 days later . Both versions were commercially successful and achieved cult status . Pelli Chesi Choodu was remade in Kannada as Maduve Madi Nodu ( 1965 ) by Vijaya Vauhini Studios and in Hindi as Shaadi Ke Baad ( 1972 ) by Prasad . While the Kannada version was commercially successful , the Hindi version was a commercial failure .
= = Plot = =
Rathamma lives in a village with her sons Raja and Kundu , and her daughter Ammadu . Raja is a teacher and a theatre enthusiast . Along with Kundu and a group of fellow actors , Raja performs plays in a local theatre during his free time . Raja 's maternal uncle Govindayya , a pleader , wants him to marry his daughter Chitti , who is in a relationship with a bodybuilder named Bheemudu . Raja rejects the proposal and Govindayya offers to find a suitable bridegroom for Ammadu if Raja marries Chitti . Raja rejects the proposal and with Kundu he sets out to find a suitable bridegroom for Ammadu .
In a distant village , Raja and Kundu meet Dhoopati Viyyanna , a zamindar ( aristocrat ) and the president of the panchayat . Viyyanna is a complex character of declining fortunes and generous spirit who believes in respecting his guests . Raju and Viyyanna 's daughter Savitri fall in love and their wedding is quickly arranged . Viyyanna also finds a bridegroom named Venkata Ramana , a pleader living in Madras ( now Chennai ) , for Ammadu . Ramana 's father , Venkatapathy , demands a large dowry , which Viyyanna promises to pay .
At the marriage venue , Govindayya plots revenge by inciting Venkatapathy to insist on the dowry being paid before the marriage . Viyyanna issues a promisory note ; Venkatapathy rejects it and drags Ramana from the marriage hall . However , Ramana leaves for Madras and lives there with Ammadu . When Venkatapathy arrives , Ramana feigns mental illness while Ammadu and Raja pretend to be a nurse and a doctor . Ammadu endears herself to Venkatapathy by showing interest in his recitals of the puranas .
Ramana ' recovers ' from the mental illness and Ammadu , who has been pregnant , gives birth to their son , causing a fresh round of gossip in the village . Govindayya tries to take advantage of this and after numerous failed attempts , he persuades Venkatapathy to conduct Ramana 's marriage with Chitti . Viyyanna considers this to be an insult and conducts the marriage of Chitti and Bheemudu at his residence . Govindayya and his wife Chukkalamma refuse to acknowledge the marriage .
When Venkatapathy asks Ramana to marry Chitti , he refuses and foregoes the wealth he is entitled to inherit in exchange for Ammadu and their newborn son . Govindayya asks Venkatapathy to marry Chitti and Chukkalamma protests , reuniting Chitti and Bheemudu . A helpless Govindayya is confronted by Viyyanna , who threatens to use his influence as a president of the panchayat to have him arrested if he does not reform himself . Govindayya begs pardon and flees with his family . The film ends with everyone present in Ramana 's house , laughing maniacally .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
After producing Shavukar ( 1950 ) and Pathala Bhairavi ( 1951 ) , B. Nagi Reddy and Aluri Chakrapani announced a film titled Pelli Chesi Choodu , which would be directed by L. V. Prasad and financed by their company Vijaya Vauhini Studios . Pelli Chesi Choodu was made as a bilingual film ; it was shot simultaneously in Telugu and Tamil , with the Tamil version titled Kalyanam Panni Paar , the first Tamil film directed by Prasad . Chakrapani wrote the film 's script , which was based on the negative effects of the dowry system in India . Marcus Bartley was recruited as the cinematographer and the film was edited by C. P. Jambulingam and M. S. Money . Madhavapeddi Gokhale and Kaladhar were the film 's art directors , and the music score was composed by Ghantasala . Chalapathi Rao and Jagannadham were the production executives . Pasumarthi Krishnamurthy choreographed the song sequences . Tatineni Prakash Rao worked as an assistant director under Prasad ; Rao directed Palletooru ( 1952 ) during the post @-@ production phase of Pelli Chesi Choodu .
N. T. Rama Rao and Garikapati Varalakshmi were chosen as one of the leading pairs of actors . During the songs ' shoot , Ghantasala taught Rama Rao to play harmonium and gave him a few music lessons so he would look believable in the film . Yandamuri Jogarao and Savitri , who had played minor roles in Shavukar and Pathala Bhairavi , were chosen as the other leading pair . In playing the role of the zamindar , S. V. Ranga Rao exhibited a strange body language , inspired by a stranger he had observed at a railway station . Dr. Sivarama Krishnayya and C.V.V. Panthulu played the role of Rama Rao 's father in the Telugu and Tamil versions . Padmanabham played two roles ; a postman and Ranga Rao 's friend .
The child artists in the film were members of Nyapathi Raghavarao 's ' Balanandam ' troupe . They were trained by Gnapadi Kameshwara Rao , whose nephew Gade Balakrishna " Kundu " Rao played a key role in the film 's Telugu and Tamil versions . Vijaya Vauhini Studios hired actors on a monthly salaried basis for this film ; one of these was M. Mallikarjuna Rao , who later directed films Prameelarjuneeyam ( 1965 ) , Muhurtha Balam ( 1969 ) , and Gudachari 116 ( 1976 ) . Differences between Chakrapani and Varalakshmi occurred during the last stage of principal photography . Chakrapani wanted to replace Varalakshmi with Anjali Devi and reshoot the entire film . However , Devi mediated between them and resolved the differences . Mohan Kanda , who later became the Chief Secretary of Andhra Pradesh before its bifurcation , also appeared in the film as a child artist .
Differences between Rama Rao and Varalakshmi due to the latter 's tantrums , also occurred . When Varalakshmi refused to touch Rama Rao 's feet in the scene in which his father drags him from the marriage hall , Prasad asked Nagi Reddy 's son B. L. N. Prasad — the second assistant cameraman working under Bartley — to wear a dhoti and stand before her . Chakrapani liked a scene in a play in which a group of police officers in ascending hierarchy , each junior gave up his chair for the senior ; he used the same idea in Savitri 's marriage sequences in the film . Similarly , Prasad incorporated part of a stage play enacted by children into the film , which Nagi Reddy 's son Venkatarami Reddy was a part of . Prasad also made a cameo appearance in the film .
= = Music = =
The official soundtracks of Pelli Chesi Choodu and Kalyanam Panni Paar were composed by Ghantasala . The sound mixing process was supervised by A. Krishnan and Siva Ram . The soundtrack was processed by N. C. Sen Gupta and was orchestrated by Master Venu . This was Ghantasala 's third film as a music director under his five @-@ film contract with Vijaya Vauhini Studios . Utkuri Satyanarayana wrote the lyrics for " Amma Noppule " and " Brahmayya O Brahmayya " , while Pingali Nagendrarao wrote the lyrics for the other fifteen songs . Four of the songs featured the child artists .
The song " Pelli Chesukoni " was composed using the Kalyani raga . Ghantasala recorded the songs " Manasa Nenevaro Neeku Thelusa " and " Yedukondalavada Venkataramana " first with Jikki . He was not satisfied and recorded them again with P. Leela ; the soundtrack 's gramophone records featured both versions . The soundtrack was released in December 1952 under the Saregama music label . It was a critical and commercial success , Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen , in their book Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema , termed the songs " Amma Nopule " and " Pelli Chesukoni " as " especially popular " .
Track listing
= = Release , reception and legacy = =
Pelli Chesi Choodu had its theatrical release on 19 February 1952 , 100 days before to that of Kalyanam Panni Paar . Both versions were released with a final reel length of 5 @,@ 243 metres ( 17 @,@ 201 ft ) and were given a " U " ( Universal ) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification with a run time of 156 minutes . Both versions were commercially successful ; the Telugu version completing a 100 @-@ day run in 11 centres , and the Tamil version completed a 100 @-@ day run in many centres . The Telugu version completed a 182 @-@ day run at Durga Kala Mandiram , Vijayawada , where celebrations marking the film 's success were held . Rama Rao and Varalakshmi did not attend the event because of the differences between them .
Reviewing the film , M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu called Pelli Chesi Choodu a " text @-@ book for filmmakers " on " how to make a clean and wholesome entertainer on a burning issue without resorting to slogan @-@ mongering , and yet driving home the point in a subtle manner " . Narasimham also said the actors " deserved full marks for excellent performance " in the film . In his book Alanati Chalana Chitram , K. N. T. Sastry wrote that Pelli Chesi Choodu is an ensemble comedy that " abounds in intrigues and disguises gearing to the making and breaking of marriage alliances " .
According to the film historian Randor Guy , Pelli Chesi Choodu was the first in a series of satirical comedies directed by Prasad and produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios . Guy said the film 's box office performance made Prasad famous in both Telugu and Tamil cinema . After Pelli Chesi Choodu , Prasad and Vijaya Vauhini Studios collaborated on Missamma ( 1955 ) and Appu Chesi Pappu Koodu ( 1959 ) . All three films were profitable ventures and achieved cult status in Telugu cinema . Pelli Chesi Choodu is considered as one of the acclaimed films in the careers of Prasad and Varalakshmi . Relangi Narasimha Rao 's 1988 Telugu film , which was also about the negative effects of dowry system in India , was titled Pelli Chesi Choodu . Pelli Chesi Choodu was also used as the title of a 2014 theatrical play staged by Sri Sai Arts , which won a Nandi Award .
= = Remakes and colourisation plans = =
Vijaya Vauhini Studios remade the film in Kannada as Maduve Madi Nodu ( 1965 ) . It was directed by Hunsur Krishnamurthy and features Rajkumar and Leelavathi in the lead roles . Maduve Madi Nodu was a profitable venture . Prasad remade the film in Hindi as Shaadi Ke Baad ( 1972 ) , in which Jeetendra , Rakhee and Shatrughan Sinha reprised the roles played by Rama Rao , Varalakshmi and Ranga Rao in the original . Shaadi Ke Baad underperformed at the box office .
In late November 2007 , a Hyderabad @-@ based company named Goldstone Technologies acquired the film negative rights to 14 Telugu films produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios , including Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Pelli Chesi Choodu , to release digitally re @-@ mastered versions in colour . The remastered and colourised version of Mayabazar was released in January 2010 and performed well in theatres , but Goldstone Technologies decided not to remaster the remaining 14 films , including Pelli Chesi Choodu ; the company said most of the producers who sold the rights of the negatives to television channels lost control over them . Goldstone added that there were many legal issues over ownership and copyright whenever other producers tried to do something on their own .
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= Reform Act 1832 =
The Representation of the People Act 1832 ( known informally as the 1832 Reform Act , Great Reform Act or First Reform Act to distinguish it from subsequent Reform Acts ) was an Act of Parliament ( indexed as 2 & 3 Will . IV c . 45 ) that introduced wide @-@ ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales . According to its preamble , the Act was designed to " take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament " . Before the reform , most members nominally represented boroughs . The number of electors in a borough varied widely , from a dozen or so up to 12 @,@ 000 . Frequently the selection of MPs was effectively controlled by one powerful patron : for example Charles Howard , 11th Duke of Norfolk controlled eleven boroughs . Criteria for qualification for the franchise varied greatly among boroughs , from the requirement to own land , to merely living in a house with a hearth sufficient to boil a pot .
There had been calls for reform long before 1832 , but without success . The Act that finally succeeded was proposed by the Whigs , led by Prime Minister Charles Grey , 2nd Earl Grey . It met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament , who had long governed the country ; opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords . Nevertheless , the bill was eventually passed , mainly as a result of public pressure . The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution , and removed seats from the " rotten boroughs " : those with very small electorates and usually dominated by a wealthy patron . The Act also increased the electorate from about 500 @,@ 000 to 813 @,@ 000 , with about one in five adult males allowed to vote , from a total population ( including women and children ) of some 14 million ( about 5 @.@ 8 % of the total population - in comparison : in Baden , Germany , it was 17 % at that time , in France 5 % ) .
The full title is An Act to amend the representation of the people in England and Wales . Its formal short title and citation is " Representation of the People Act 1832 ( 2 & 3 Wm . IV , c . 45 ) " . The Act applied only in England and Wales ; the Scottish Reform Act 1832 and Irish Reform Act 1832 brought similar changes to Scotland and Ireland , respectively .
= = The unreformed House of Commons = =
= = = Composition = = =
After the Act of Union 1800 , sometimes referred to as the Act of Union 1801 , the unreformed House of Commons was composed of 658 members , of whom 513 represented England and Wales . There were two types of constituencies ; counties and boroughs . County members were supposed to represent landholders , while borough members were supposed to represent the mercantile and trading interests of the kingdom . Counties were historical national subdivisions established between the 8th and 16th centuries . They were not merely parliamentary constituencies : many components of government ( including courts and the militia ) were organised along county lines . The members of Parliament chosen by the counties were known as Knights of the Shire . In Wales each county elected one member , while in England each county elected two members until 1826 , when Yorkshire 's representation was increased to four , following the disenfranchisement of the Cornish borough of Grampound .
Parliamentary boroughs in England ranged widely in size from small hamlets to large cities , partly because they had evolved haphazardly . The earliest boroughs were chosen in the Middle Ages by county sheriffs , and even a village might be deemed a borough . Many of these early boroughs ( such as Winchelsea and Dunwich ) were substantial settlements at the time of their original enfranchisement , but later went into decline , and by the early 19th century some only had a few electors , but still elected two MPs ; they were often known as rotten boroughs . In later centuries the reigning monarch decided which settlements to enfranchise . The monarchs seem mostly to have done so capriciously , often with little regard for the merits of the place they were enfranchising . Of the 70 English boroughs that Tudor monarchs enfranchised , 31 were later disenfranchised . Finally , the parliamentarians of the 17th century compounded the inconsistencies by re @-@ enfranchising 15 boroughs whose representation had lapsed for centuries , seven of which were later disenfranchised by the Reform Act . After Newark was enfranchised in 1661 , no additional boroughs were enfranchised , and the unfair system remained unchanged until the Reform Act of 1832 . Grampound 's disenfranchisement in 1821 was the sole exception . Most English boroughs elected two MPs ; but five boroughs elected only one MP : Abingdon , Banbury , Bewdley , Higham Ferrers and Monmouth . The City of London and the joint borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis each elected four members . The Welsh boroughs each returned a single member .
= = = The franchise = = =
Statutes passed in 1430 and 1432 , during the reign of Henry VI , standardised property qualifications for county voters . Under these Acts , all owners of freehold property or land worth at least forty shillings in a particular county were entitled to vote in that county . This requirement , known as the forty shilling freehold , was never adjusted for inflation ; thus the amount of land one had to own in order to vote gradually diminished over time . The franchise was restricted to males by custom rather than statute ; on rare occasions women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections as a result of property ownership . Nevertheless , the vast majority of people were not entitled to vote ; the size of the English county electorate in 1831 has been estimated at only 200 @,@ 000 . Furthermore , the sizes of the individual county constituencies varied significantly . The smallest counties , Rutland and Anglesey , had fewer than 1 @,@ 000 voters each , while the largest county , Yorkshire , had more than 20 @,@ 000 . Those who owned property in multiple constituencies could vote multiple times ; there was usually no need to live in a constituency in order to vote there .
In boroughs the franchise was far more varied . There were broadly six types of parliamentary boroughs , as defined by their franchise :
boroughs in which freemen were electors ;
boroughs in which the franchise was restricted to those paying scot and lot , a form of municipal taxation ;
boroughs in which only the ownership of a burgage property qualified a person to vote ;
boroughs in which only members of the corporation were electors ( such boroughs were perhaps in every case " pocket boroughs " , because council members were usually " in the pocket " of a wealthy patron ) ;
boroughs in which male householders were electors ( these were usually known as " potwalloper boroughs " , as the usual definition of a householder was a person able to boil a pot on his / her own hearth ) ;
boroughs in which freeholders of land had the right to vote .
Some boroughs had a combination of these varying types of franchise , and most had special rules and exceptions , so many boroughs had a form of franchise that was unique to themselves .
The largest borough , Westminster , had about 12 @,@ 000 voters , while many of the smallest , usually known as " rotten boroughs " , had fewer than 100 each . The most famous rotten borough was Old Sarum , which had 13 burgage plots that could be used to " manufacture " electors if necessary — usually around half a dozen was thought sufficient . Other examples were Dunwich ( 32 voters ) , Camelford ( 25 ) , and Gatton ( 7 ) .
= = = = Women 's suffrage = = = =
The claim for the women 's vote appears to have been first made by Jeremy Bentham in 1817 when he published his Plan of Parliamentary Reform in the form of a Catechism , and was taken up by William Thompson in 1825 , when he published , with Anna Wheeler , An Appeal of One Half the Human Race , Women , Against the Pretensions of the Other Half , Men , to Retain Them in Political , and Thence in Civil and Domestic Slavery : In Reply to Mr. Mill 's Celebrated Article on Government . In the " celebrated article on Government " , James Mill had stated :
... all those individuals whose interests are indisputably included in those of other individuals may be struck off without any inconvenience ... In this light also women may be regarded , the interests of almost all of whom are involved in that of their fathers or in that of their husbands .
The passing of the Act seven years later enfranchising " male persons " was , however , a more significant event ; it has been argued that it was the inclusion of the word " male " , thus providing the first explicit statutory bar to women voting , which provided a focus of attack and a source of resentment from which , in time , the women 's suffrage movement grew .
= = = Pocket boroughs , bribery = = =
Many constituencies , especially those with small electorates , were under the control of rich landowners , and were known as nomination boroughs or pocket boroughs , because they were said to be in the pockets of their patrons . Most patrons were noblemen or landed gentry who could use their local influence , prestige , and wealth to sway the voters . This was particularly true in rural counties , and in small boroughs situated near a large landed estate . Some noblemen even controlled multiple constituencies : for example , the Duke of Norfolk controlled eleven , while the Earl of Lonsdale controlled nine . Writing in 1821 , Sydney Smith proclaimed that " The country belongs to the Duke of Rutland , Lord Lonsdale , the Duke of Newcastle , and about twenty other holders of boroughs . They are our masters ! " T. H. B. Oldfield claimed in his Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland that , out of the 514 members representing England and Wales , about 370 were selected by nearly 180 patrons . A member who represented a pocket borough was expected to vote as his patron ordered , or else lose his seat at the next election .
Voters in some constituencies resisted outright domination by powerful landlords , but were often open to corruption . Electors were bribed individually in some boroughs , and collectively in others . In 1771 , for example , it was revealed that 81 voters in New Shoreham ( who constituted a majority of the electorate ) formed a corrupt organisation that called itself the " Christian Club " , and regularly sold the borough to the highest bidder . Especially notorious for their corruption were the " nabobs " , or individuals who had amassed fortunes in the British colonies in Asia and the West Indies . The nabobs , in some cases , even managed to wrest control of boroughs from the nobility and the gentry . Lord Chatham , Prime Minister of Great Britain during the 1760s , casting an eye on the fortunes made in India commented that " the importers of foreign gold have forced their way into Parliament , by such a torrent of corruption as no private hereditary fortune could resist " .
= = Movement for reform = =
= = = Early attempts at reform = = =
During the 1640s , England endured a civil war that pitted King Charles I and the Royalists against the Parliamentarians . In 1647 , different factions of the victorious parliamentary army held a series of discussions , the Putney Debates , on reforming the structure of English government . The most radical elements proposed universal manhood suffrage and the reorganisation of parliamentary constituencies . Their leader Thomas Rainsborough declared , " I think it 's clear , that every man that is to live under a government ought first by his own consent to put himself under that government . " More conservative members disagreed , arguing instead that only individuals who owned land in the country should be allowed to vote . For example , Henry Ireton stated , " no man hath a right to an interest or share in the disposing of the affairs of the kingdom ... that hath not a permanent fixed interest in this kingdom . " The views of the conservative " Grandees " eventually won out . Oliver Cromwell , who became the leader of England after the abolition of the monarchy in 1649 , refused to adopt universal suffrage ; individuals were required to own property ( real or personal ) worth at least £ 200 in order to vote . He did nonetheless agree to some electoral reform ; he disfranchised several small boroughs , granted representation to large towns such as Manchester and Leeds , and increased the number of members elected by populous counties . These reforms were all reversed , however , after Cromwell 's death and the last parliament to be elected in the Commonwealth period in 1659 reverted to the electoral system as it had existed under Charles I.
Following Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the issue of parliamentary reform lay dormant until it was revived in the 1760s by the Whig Prime Minister William Pitt , 1st Earl of Chatham ( " Pitt the Elder " ) , who called borough representation " the rotten part of our Constitution " ( hence the term " rotten borough " ) . Nevertheless , he did not advocate an immediate disfranchisement of rotten boroughs . He instead proposed that a third member be added to each county , to countervail the borough influence . The Whigs failed to unite behind the expansion of county representation ; some objected to the idea because they felt that it would give too much power to the aristocracy and gentry in rural areas . Ultimately , despite Chatham 's exertions , Parliament took no action on his proposals . The cause of parliamentary reform was next taken up by Lord Chatham 's son , William Pitt the Younger ( variously described as a Tory and as an " independent Whig " ) . Like his father , he shrank from proposing the wholesale abolition of the rotten boroughs , advocating instead an increase in county representation . The House of Commons rejected Pitt 's resolution by over 140 votes , despite receiving petitions for reform bearing over twenty thousand signatures . In 1783 , Pitt became Prime Minister but was still unable to achieve reform . King George III was averse to the idea , as were many members of Pitt 's own cabinet . In 1786 , the Prime Minister proposed a reform bill , but the House of Commons rejected it on a 174 – 248 vote . Pitt did not raise the issue again for the remainder of his term .
= = = Aftermath of the French Revolution = = =
Support for parliamentary reform plummeted after the launch of the French Revolution in 1789 . Reacting to the excesses of the revolution , many English politicians became steadfastly opposed to any major political change . Despite this reaction , several Radical Movement groups were established to agitate for reform . A group of Whigs led by James Maitland , 8th Earl of Lauderdale and Charles Grey founded an organisation advocating parliamentary reform in 1792 . This group , known as the Society of the Friends of the People , included 28 MPs . In 1793 , Grey presented to the House of Commons a petition from the Friends of the People , outlining abuses of the system and demanding change . He did not propose any specific scheme of reform , but merely a motion that the House inquire into possible improvements . Parliament 's reaction to the French Revolution was so negative , that even this request for an inquiry was rejected by a margin of almost 200 votes . Grey tried to raise the subject again in 1797 , but the House again rebuffed him by a majority of over 150 .
Other notable pro @-@ reform organisations included the Hampden Clubs ( named after John Hampden , an English politician who opposed the Crown during the English Civil War ) and the London Corresponding Society ( which consisted of workers and artisans ) . But the " Radical " reforms supported by these organisations ( for example , universal suffrage ) found even less support in Parliament . For example , when Sir Francis Burdett , chairman of the London Hampden Club , proposed a resolution in favour of universal suffrage , equally sized electoral districts , and voting by secret ballot to the House of Commons , his motion found only one other supporter ( Lord Cochrane ) in the entire House .
Despite such setbacks , popular pressure for reform remained strong . In 1819 , a large pro @-@ reform rally was held in Birmingham . Although the city was not entitled to any seats in the Commons , those gathered decided to elect Sir Charles Wolseley as Birmingham 's " legislatorial representative " . Following their example , reformers in Manchester held a similar meeting to elect a " legislatorial attorney " . Between 20 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 ( by different estimates ) attended the event , many of them bearing signs such as " Equal Representation or Death " . The protesters were ordered to disband ; when they did not , the Manchester Yeomenry suppressed the meeting by force . Eleven people were killed and several hundred injured , the event later to become known as the Peterloo Massacre . In response , the government passed the Six Acts , measures designed to quell further political agitation . In particular , the Seditious Meetings Act prohibited groups of more than 50 people from assembling to discuss any political subject without prior permission from the sheriff or magistrate .
= = = Reform during the 1820s = = =
Since the House of Commons regularly rejected direct challenges to the system of representation by large majorities , supporters of reform had to content themselves with more modest measures . The Whig Lord John Russell brought forward one such measure in 1820 , proposing the disfranchisement of the notoriously corrupt borough of Grampound in Cornwall . He suggested that the borough 's two seats be transferred to the city of Leeds . Tories in the House of Lords agreed to the disfranchisement of the borough , but refused to accept the precedent of directly transferring its seats to an industrial city . Instead , they modified the proposal so that two further seats were given to Yorkshire , the county in which Leeds is situated . In this form , the bill passed both houses and became law . In 1828 , Lord John Russell suggested that Parliament repeat the idea by abolishing the corrupt boroughs of Penryn and East Retford , and by transferring their seats to Manchester and Birmingham . This time , however , the House of Lords rejected his proposals . In 1830 , Russell proposed another , similar scheme : the enfranchisement of Leeds , Manchester , and Birmingham , and the disfranchisement of the next three boroughs found guilty of corruption ; again , the proposal was rejected .
Support for reform came from an unexpected source — a faction of the Tory Party — in 1829 . The Tory government under Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , responding to the danger of civil strife in largely Roman Catholic Ireland , drew up the Catholic Relief Act 1829 . This legislation repealed various laws that imposed political disabilities on Roman Catholics , in particular laws that prevented them from becoming members of Parliament . In response , disenchanted Tories who perceived a danger to the established religion came to favour parliamentary reform , in particular the enfranchisement of Manchester , Leeds , and other heavily Noncomformist cities in northern England .
= = Passage of the Reform Act = =
= = = First Reform Bill = = =
The death of King George IV on 26 June 1830 dissolved Parliament by law , and a general election was held . Electoral reform , which had been frequently discussed during the preceding parliamentary session , became a major campaign issue . Across the country , several pro @-@ reform " political unions " were formed , made up of both middle and working class individuals . The most influential of these was the Birmingham Political Union , led by Thomas Attwood . These groups confined themselves to lawful means of supporting reform , such as petitioning and public oratory , and achieved a high level of public support .
The Tories won a majority in the election , but the party remained divided , and support for the Prime Minister ( the Duke of Wellington ) was weak . When the Opposition raised the issue of reform in one of the first debates of the year , the Duke made a controversial defence of the existing system of government , recorded in the formal " third @-@ party " language of the time :
He was fully convinced that the country possessed , at the present moment , a legislature which answered all the good purposes of legislation , — and this to a greater degree than any legislature ever had answered , in any country whatever . He would go further , and say that the legislature and system of representation possessed the full and entire confidence of the country . [ ... ] He would go still further , and say , that if at the present moment he had imposed upon him the duty of forming a legislature for any country [ ... ] he did not mean to assert that he could form such a legislature as they possessed now , for the nature of man was incapable of reaching such excellence at once . [ ... ] [ A ] s long as he held any station in the government of the country , he should always feel it his duty to resist [ reform ] measures , when proposed by others .
The Prime Minister 's absolutist views proved extremely unpopular , even within his own party . Less than two weeks after Wellington made these remarks , on 15 November 1830 he was forced to resign after he was defeated in a motion of no confidence . Sydney Smith wrote , " Never was any administration so completely and so suddenly destroyed ; and , I believe , entirely by the Duke 's declaration , made , I suspect , in perfect ignorance of the state of public feeling and opinion . " Wellington was replaced by the Whig reformer Charles Grey , who had by this time the title of Earl Grey .
Lord Grey 's first announcement as Prime Minister was a pledge to carry out parliamentary reform . On 1 March 1831 , Lord John Russell brought forward the Reform Bill in the House of Commons on the government 's behalf . The bill disfranchised 60 of the smallest boroughs , and reduced the representation of 47 others . Some seats were completely abolished , while others were redistributed to the London suburbs , to large cities , to the counties , and to Scotland and Ireland . Furthermore , the bill standardised and expanded the borough franchise , increasing the size of the electorate ( according to one estimate ) by half a million voters .
On 22 March , the vote on the second reading attracted a record 608 members , including the non @-@ voting Speaker ( the previous record was 530 members ) . Despite the high attendance , the second reading was approved by only one vote , and further progress on the Reform Bill was difficult . During the committee stage , Isaac Gascoyne put forward a motion objecting to provisions of the bill that reduced the total number of seats in the House of Commons . This motion was carried , against the government 's wishes , by 8 votes . Thereafter , the ministry lost a vote on a procedural motion by 22 votes . As these divisions indicated that Parliament was against the Reform Bill , the ministry decided to request a dissolution and take its appeal to the people .
= = = Second Reform Bill = = =
The political and popular pressure for reform had grown so great that pro @-@ reform Whigs won an overwhelming House of Commons majority in the general election of 1831 . The Whig party won almost all constituencies with genuine electorates , leaving the Tories with little more than the rotten boroughs . The Reform Bill was again brought before the House of Commons , which agreed to the second reading by a large majority in July . During the committee stage , opponents of the bill slowed its progress through tedious discussions of its details , but it was finally passed in September , by a margin of more than 100 votes .
The Bill was then sent up to the House of Lords , a majority in which was known to be hostile to it . After the Whigs ' decisive victory in the 1831 election , some speculated that opponents would abstain , rather than openly defy the public will . Indeed , when the Lords voted on the second reading of the bill after a memorable series of debates , many Tory peers did refrain from voting . However , the Lords Spiritual mustered in unusually large numbers , and of 22 present , 21 voted against the Bill . It failed by 41 votes .
When the Lords rejected the Reform Bill , public violence ensued . That very evening , riots broke out in Derby , where a mob attacked the city jail and freed several prisoners . In Nottingham , rioters set fire to Nottingham Castle ( the home of the Duke of Newcastle ) and attacked Wollaton Hall ( the estate of Lord Middleton ) . The most significant disturbances occurred at Bristol , where rioters controlled the city for three days . The mob broke into prisons and destroyed several buildings , including the palace of the Bishop of Bristol , the mansion of the Lord Mayor of Bristol , and several private homes . Other places that saw violence included Dorset , Leicestershire , and Somerset .
Meanwhile , the political unions , which had hitherto been separate groups united only by a common goal , decided to form the National Political Union . Perceiving this group as a threat , the government issued a proclamation pursuant to the Corresponding Societies Act 1799 declaring such an association " unconstitutional and illegal " , and commanding all loyal subjects to shun it . The leaders of the National Political Union ignored this proclamation , but leaders of the influential Birmingham branch decided to co @-@ operate with the government by discouraging activities on a national level .
= = = Third Reform Bill = = =
After the Reform Bill was rejected in the Lords , the House of Commons immediately passed a motion of confidence affirming their support for Lord Grey 's administration . Because parliamentary rules prohibited the introduction of the same bill twice during the same session , the ministry advised the new king , William IV , to prorogue Parliament . As soon as the new session began in December 1831 , the Third Reform Bill was brought forward . The bill was in a few respects different from its predecessors ; it no longer proposed a reduction in the total membership of the House of Commons , and it reflected data collected during the census that had just been completed . The new version passed in the House of Commons by even larger majorities in March 1832 ; it was once again sent up to the House of Lords .
Realizing that another rejection would not be politically feasible , opponents of reform decided to use amendments to change the bill 's essential character ; for example , they voted to delay consideration of clauses in the bill that disfranchised the rotten boroughs . The ministers believed that they were left with only one alternative : to create a large number of new peerages , swamping the House of Lords with pro @-@ reform votes . But the prerogative of creating peerages rested with the king , who recoiled from so drastic a step and rejected the unanimous advice of his cabinet . Lord Grey then resigned , and the king invited the Duke of Wellington to form a new government .
The ensuing period became known as the " Days of May " , with so great a level of political agitation that some feared revolution . Some protesters advocated non @-@ payment of taxes , and urged a run on the banks ; one day signs appeared across London reading " Stop the Duke ; go for gold ! " £ 1 @.@ 8 million was withdrawn from the Bank of England in the first days of the run ( out of about £ 7 million total gold in the Bank 's possession ) . The National Political Union and other organisations sent petitions to the House of Commons , demanding that they withhold supply ( cut off funding to the government ) until the House of Lords should acquiesce . Some demonstrations called for the abolition of the nobility , and some even of the monarchy . In these circumstances , the Duke of Wellington had great difficulty in building support for his premiership , despite promising moderate reform . He was unable to form a government , leaving King William with no choice but to recall Lord Grey . Eventually the king consented to fill the House of Lords with Whigs ; however , without the knowledge of his cabinet , Wellington circulated a letter among Tory peers , encouraging them to desist from further opposition , and warning them of the consequences of continuing . At this , enough opposing peers relented . By abstaining from further votes , they allowed the legislation to pass in the House of Lords , and the Crown was thus not forced to create new peers . The bill finally received the Royal Assent on 7 June 1832 , thereby becoming law .
= = Results = =
= = = Provisions = = =
= = = = Abolition of seats = = = =
The Reform Act 's chief objective was the reduction of the number of nomination boroughs . There were 203 boroughs in England before the Act . The 56 smallest of these , as measured by their housing stock and tax assessments , were completely abolished . The next 30 smallest boroughs each lost one of their two MPs . In addition Weymouth and Melcombe Regis 's four members were reduced to two . Thus in total the Act abolished 143 borough seats in England ( one of the boroughs to be completely abolished , Higham Ferrers , had only a single representative ) .
= = = = Creation of new seats = = = =
In their place the Act created 130 new seats in England and Wales :
26 English counties were divided into two divisions with each division being represented by two members .
8 English counties and 3 Welsh counties each received an additional representative .
Yorkshire , which was represented by four MPs before the Act was given an extra two MPs ( so that each of its three ridings was represented by two MPs ) .
22 large towns were given two MPs .
Another 21 towns ( of which two were in Wales ) were given one MP .
Thus 65 new county seats and 65 new borough seats were created in England and Wales . The total number of English members fell by 17 and the number in Wales increased by four . The boundaries of the new divisions and parliamentary boroughs were defined in a separate Act , the Parliamentary Boundaries Act 1832 .
= = = = Extension of the franchise = = = =
The Act also extended the franchise . In county constituencies , in addition to forty @-@ shilling freeholders , franchise rights were extended to owners of land in copyhold worth £ 10 and holders of long @-@ term leases ( more than sixty years ) on land worth £ 10 and holders of medium @-@ term leases ( between twenty and sixty years ) on land worth £ 50 and to tenants @-@ at @-@ will paying an annual rent of £ 50 . In borough constituencies all male householders living in properties worth at least £ 10 a year were given the right to vote – a measure which introduced to all boroughs a standardised form of franchise for the first time . Existing borough electors retained a lifetime right to vote , however they had qualified , provided they were resident in the boroughs in which they were electors . In those boroughs which had freemen electors , voting rights were to be enjoyed by future freemen as well provided their freemanship was acquired through birth or apprenticeship and they too were resident .
The Act also introduced a system of voter registration , to be administered by the overseers of the poor in every parish and township . It instituted a system of special courts to review disputes relating to voter qualifications . It also authorised the use of multiple polling places within the same constituency , and limited the duration of polling to two days . ( Formerly , polls could remain open for up to forty days . )
The Reform Act itself did not affect constituencies in Scotland or Ireland . However , reforms there were carried out by the Scottish Reform Act and the Irish Reform Act . Scotland received eight additional seats , and Ireland received five ; thus keeping the total number of seats in the House of Commons the same as it had been before the Act . While no constituencies were disfranchised in either of those countries , voter qualifications were standardised and the size of the electorate was expanded in both .
= = = Effects = = =
Local Conservative Associations began to educate citizens about the Party 's platform and encouraged them to register to vote annually , as mandated by the Act . Press coverage of national politics in the local press was joined by in @-@ depth reports on provincial politics in the national press . Grassroots Conservatives therefore saw themselves as part of a national political movement during the 1830s .
The size of the pre @-@ Reform electorate is difficult to estimate . Voter registration was lacking , and many boroughs were rarely contested in elections . It is estimated that immediately before the 1832 Reform Act , 400 @,@ 000 English subjects were entitled to vote , and that after passage , the number rose to 650 @,@ 000 , an increase of more than 60 % .
Tradesmen , such as shoemakers , believed that the Reform Act had given them the vote . One example is the shoemakers of Duns , Berwickshire . They created a banner celebrating the Reform Act which declared " The battle 's won . Britannia 's sons are free . " This banner is on display at People 's History Museum in Manchester .
Many major commercial and industrial cities became separate parliamentary boroughs under the Act . The new constituencies saw party conflicts inside the middle @-@ class , and between the middle @-@ class and working @-@ class . Iwami looked at elections in the medium @-@ sized borough of Halifax , 1832 – 1852 , and reports that the party organizations , and the voters themselves , depended heavily on local social relationships and localized institutions . Having the vote encouraged many men to become much more active in the political , economic and social sphere .
= = = Tenant voters = = =
Most of the pocket boroughs abolished by the Reform Act belonged to the Tory Party . These losses were somewhat offset by the extension of the vote to tenants @-@ at @-@ will paying an annual rent of £ 50 . This clause , proposed by the Tory Marquess of Chandos , was adopted in the House of Commons despite opposition from the Government . The tenants @-@ at @-@ will thereby enfranchised typically voted as instructed by their landlords , who in turn normally supported the Tory party . This concession , together with the Whig Party 's internal divisions and the difficulties faced by the nation 's economy , allowed the Tories under Sir Robert Peel to make gains in the elections of 1835 and 1837 , and to retake the House of Commons in 1841 .
Krein examines the votes in the House and reports that the traditional landed interest " suffered very little " by the terms of the 1832 Act . They continued to dominate Commons , while losing a bit of their power to enact laws that focused on their more parochial interests . By contrast , Krein argues , the 1867 Reform Act caused serious erosion of their legislative power and the 1874 elections saw great landowners losing their county seats to the votes of tenant farmers in England and especially in Ireland .
= = = Limitations = = =
The Reform Act did very little to appease the working class by enfranchising them , since voters were required to possess property worth £ 10 , a substantial sum at the time . This split the alliance between the working class and the middle class , giving rise to the Chartist Movement .
Although it did disenfranchise most rotten boroughs , a few remained , such as Totnes in Devon and Midhurst in Sussex . Also , bribery of voters remained a problem . As Sir Thomas Erskine May observed , " it was too soon evident , that as more votes had been created , more votes were to be sold " .
The Reform Act strengthened the House of Commons by reducing the number of nomination boroughs controlled by peers . Some aristocrats complained that , in the future , the government could compel them to pass any bill , simply by threatening to swamp the House of Lords with new peerages . The Duke of Wellington lamented : " If such projects can be carried into execution by a minister of the Crown with impunity , there is no doubt that the constitution of this House , and of this country , is at an end . [ ... ] [ T ] here is absolutely an end put to the power and objects of deliberation in this House , and an end to all just and proper means of decision . " The subsequent history of Parliament , however , shows that the influence of the Lords was largely undiminished . They compelled the Commons to accept significant amendments to the Municipal Reform Bill in 1835 , forced compromises on Jewish emancipation , and successfully resisted several other bills supported by the public . It would not be until decades later , culminating in the Parliament Act 1911 , that Wellington 's fears would come to pass .
= = = Further reform = = =
During the ensuing years , Parliament adopted several more minor reforms . Acts of Parliament passed in 1835 and 1836 increased the number of polling places in each constituency , and reduced polling to a single day . Parliament also passed several laws aimed at combatting corruption , including the Corrupt Practices Act 1854 , though these measures proved largely ineffectual . Neither party strove for further major reform ; leading statesmen on both sides regarded the Reform Act as a final settlement .
There was considerable public agitation for further expansion of the electorate , however . In particular , the Chartist movement , which demanded universal suffrage for men , equally sized electoral districts , and voting by secret ballot , gained a widespread following . But the Tories were united against further reform , and the Liberal Party ( successor to the Whigs ) did not seek a general revision of the electoral system until 1852 . The 1850s saw Lord John Russell introduce a number of reform bills to correct defects the first act had left unaddressed . However , no proposal was successful until 1867 , when Parliament adopted the Second Reform Act .
An area the Reform Act did not address was the issue of municipal and regional government . As a result of archaic traditions , many English counties had enclaves and exclaves , which were mostly abolished in the Counties ( Detached Parts ) Act 1844 . Furthermore , many new conurbations and economic areas bridged traditional county boundaries by having been formed in previously obscure areas : the West Midlands conurbation bridged Staffordshire , Warwickshire and Worcestershire , Manchester and Liverpool both had hinterlands in Cheshire but city centres in Lancashire , while in the south Oxford 's developing southern suburbs were in Berkshire and London was expanding into Essex , Surrey and Middlesex . This led to further acts to reorganise county boundaries in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries .
= = Assessment = =
Several historians credit the Reform Act 1832 with launching modern democracy in Britain . G. M. Trevelyan hails 1832 as the watershed moment at which " ' the sovereignty of the people ' had been established in fact , if not in law " . Sir Erskine May notes that " [ the ] reformed Parliament was , unquestionably , more liberal and progressive in its policy than the Parliaments of old ; more vigorous and active ; more susceptible to the influence of public opinion ; and more secure in the confidence of the people " , but admitted that " grave defects still remained to be considered " . Other historians have taken a far less laudatory view , arguing that genuine democracy began to arise only with the Second Reform Act in 1867 , or perhaps even later . Norman Gash states that " it would be wrong to assume that the political scene in the succeeding generation differed essentially from that of the preceding one " . E. A. Smith proposes , in a similar vein , that " when the dust had settled , the political landscape looked much as it had done before .
Historians have long pointed out that , in 1829 – 31 , it was the Ultra @-@ Tories or " Country Party " which pressed most strongly for Reform , regarding it as a means of weakening Wellington 's ministry , which had disappointed them by granting Catholic emancipation and by its economic policies .
Evans ( 1996 ) emphasises that the Reform Act " opened a door on a new political world " . Although Grey 's intentions were conservative , Evans says , and the 1832 Act gave the aristocracy an additional half @-@ century 's control of Parliament , the Act nevertheless did open constitutional questions for further development . Evans argues it was the 1832 Act , not the later reforms of 1867 , 1884 , or 1918 , that were decisive in bringing representative democracy to Britain . Evans concludes the Reform Act marked the true beginning of the development of a recognisably modern political system .
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= B. J. Prager =
William J. " B. J. " Prager is a retired professional lacrosse attackman who played professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1999 through 2002 , where he was Ivy League rookie of the year , a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( twice third @-@ team , once honorable mention ) , a four @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( three @-@ time first team ) , a team captain and a NCAA Tournament Most Outstanding Player of a national champion team . For over a decade , he held the freshman goal scoring record at Princeton .
During his time at Princeton , the team qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship all four years , reached the championship game three times , won the championship game once and won four Ivy League championships . In his career , he has scored game @-@ winning overtime goals in both state high school and national collegiate championship games as well as participated on two championship MLL teams .
= = Background = =
Prager is from Garden City , New York on Long Island . He began playing lacrosse in fifth grade . In high school , he played both lacrosse and soccer . He led Garden City High School to an undefeated 21 – 0 season culminating on his overtime game @-@ winning goal in the 1997 New York State Public High School Athletic Association Class B Lacrosse Championship . In 1996 , the team had a 13 – 0 – 1 streak that included the Nassau County and Long Island Championships . During his high school career , he scored 154 goals .
= = College career = =
At Princeton he earned the 1999 Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year and the 2001 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament Most Outstanding Player . In both 2000 and 2002 , he was a third team USILA All @-@ American Team selection , while he was an honorable mention in 2001 . He was a first team All @-@ Ivy League selection in 1999 , 2000 & 2002 and a second team selection in 2001 . He was a 2002 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . He served as co @-@ captain of the 2002 team . His 25 goals as a freshman in 1999 was a Princeton freshman record . In 2010 , Ivy League Rookie of the Year Mike Chanenchuk totaled 28 as a Princeton freshman to surpass Prager 's record . During his four @-@ year career , Princeton won the Ivy League Conference outright each year , achieving undefeated 6 – 0 records in 1999 – 2001 and having a 5 – 1 record in 2002 .
In 2000 , Prager tore his anterior cruciate ligament while he was the leading scorer with 23 goals in his first 8 + games and was lost for the remainder of the season . In the 2001 NCAA championship semifinals , Prager scored three goals against Towson State in a 12 – 11 victory . In the finals , he scored a total of four goals , including the game @-@ winning goal in overtime with an assist from Ryan Boyle as well as the ninth goal in the 10 – 9 victory over Syracuse . In the 2002 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship semifinals , he scored five goals in an 11 – 9 victory over Johns Hopkins , but in the 13 – 12 finals loss , Syracuse defenseman Solomon Bliss held him to one goal .
= = Professional career = =
After graduating , Prager worked for Lehman Brothers in an analyst training program . He played with the Bridgeport Barrage during the 2002 and 2003 MLL seasons and then the Philadelphia Barrage from 2004 to 2006 . On July 19 , 2003 , Prager scored five goals in a 22 – 17 victory against the Baltimore Bayhawks . The Barrage won the Steinfeld Cup in both 2004 and 2006 . In 2006 , he scored the goal that ended the Denver Outlaws ' last lead possession of the game . He was second in the league in power play goals in 2004 and led both the 2004 and 2006 teams in shooting percentage . After retiring from professional play , Prager represented the New York Athletic Club .
= = Personal = =
His father is Bill Prager . Prager is from a family of competitive lacrosse players : His younger brother , Matt , who was in the class of 2005 , played at Princeton . The 2002 season was the first time the two of them played on the same organized team . Another brother , Pat , played lacrosse at C.W. Post .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Princeton University = = =
= = = MLL = = =
The following are his MLL career stats :
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= Inverted @-@ F antenna =
An inverted @-@ F antenna is a type of antenna used in wireless communication . It consists of a monopole antenna running parallel to a ground plane and grounded at one end . The antenna is fed from an intermediate point a distance from the grounded end . The design has two advantages over a simple monopole : the antenna is shorter and more compact , and the impedance matching can be controlled by the designer without the need for extraneous matching components .
The inverted @-@ F antenna was first conceived in the 1950s as a bent @-@ wire antenna . However , its most widespread use is as a planar inverted @-@ F antenna ( PIFA ) in mobile wireless devices for its space saving properties . PIFAs can be printed using the microstrip format , a widely used technology that allows printed RF components to be manufactured as part of the same printed circuit board used to mount other components .
PIFAs are a variant of the patch antenna . Many variants of this , and other forms of the inverted @-@ F , exist that implement wideband or multi @-@ band antennae . Techniques include coupled resonators and the addition of slots .
= = Evolution and history = =
The inverted @-@ F antenna is an evolution of the basic quarter @-@ wave monopole antenna . The wire F @-@ type antenna was invented in the 1940s . In this antenna the feed is connected to an intermediate point along the length of the antenna instead of to the base . The base is connected to ground . The advantage of doing this is that the input impedance of the antenna is dependent on the distance of the feed point from the grounded end . The portion of the antenna between the feedpoint and the ground plane is essentially behaving as a short @-@ circuit stub . Thus , the designer can match the antenna to the system impedance by setting the position of the feed point ( RF systems commonly have a system impedance of 50 Ω whereas a λ / 4 monopole has an impedance of 36 @.@ 5 Ω ) .
The inverted @-@ L antenna is a monopole antenna bent over to run parallel to the ground plane . It has the advantage of compactness and a shorter length than the λ / 4 monopole , but the disadvantage of a very low impedance , typically just a few ohms . The inverted @-@ F antenna combines the advantages of both these antennae ; it has the compactness of the inverted @-@ L and the impedance matching capability of the F @-@ type .
The inverted @-@ F antenna was first proposed in 1958 by the group at Harvard led by Ronold W. P. King . King 's antenna was in wire form and was intended for use in missiles for telemetry .
= = Planar implementation = =
A planar inverted @-@ F antenna ( PIFA ) is used for wireless circuitry implemented in microstrip . The microstrip format is the format of choice for modern RF electronics . It can be used to implement required distributed element RF components such as filters , while at the same time being economical because the same mass production methods are used as for printed circuit boards .
A printed inverted @-@ F antenna can be implemented in the classic inverted @-@ F shape , usually to one side of the circuit board where the ground plane has been removed from underneath the antenna . However , another approach is a modified patch antenna , the shorted patch antenna . In this approach , one edge of the patch , or some intermediate point , is grounded with grounding pins or vias through to the ground plane . This works on the same principle as an inverted @-@ F ; viewed sideways , the F shape can be seen , it is just that the antenna element is very wide in the horizontal plane . The shorted patch antenna has a wider bandwidth than the thin line type due to the greater radiation area . Like the thin line type , the shorted patch antenna can be printed on the same printed circuit board as the rest of the circuitry . However , they are commonly printed on to their own board , or on to a dielectric fixed to the main board . This is done so that the antenna , can be suspended and effectively be in air dielectric , is a greater distance from the ground plane than it would otherwise be , or the dielectric used is a more suitable material for RF performance .
The term PIFA is reserved by many authors ( e.g. Sánchez @-@ Hernández ) for the shorted patch antenna where the antenna element is wide with the ground plane underneath . The thin line type of inverted @-@ F antennae with the ground plane to one side like A and B in the diagram are just called IFA even if they are in planar format . An author may even call an IFA of this type a printed inverted @-@ F antenna but still reserve PIFA for the shorted patch type ( e.g. Hall and Wang . )
A common configuration for a shorted patch antenna is to place the shorting pin as close to one corner as possible with the feed pin relatively close to the shorting pin . In this configuration , the resonant frequency is given approximately by ,
<formula>
where
f0 is the resonant frequency
w , b are the width and breadth of the patch
c is the speed of light
εr is the dielectric constant of the substrate .
This formula only holds if the antenna is not affected by nearby dielectrics , such as the casing of the device .
Another variation that may be encountered is the meandered inverted @-@ F antenna . Where there is insufficient board space to extend an antenna to the full required length , the antenna may be meandered to reduce its height while retaining its designed electrical length . This can be compared to the spiralling of an antenna as found in the rubber ducky antenna .
Inverted @-@ F antennae have narrow bandwidths . A wider bandwidth can be achieved by lengthening the antenna , which increases its radiation resistance . Another solution is to place two antennae in close proximity . This works because coupled resonators have a bandwidth wider than the bandwidth of either resonator on its own . Most of the techniques for producing multi @-@ band antennae are also effective at broadening bandwidth .
= = Multi @-@ band antennae = =
The need for multi @-@ band antennae arises with mobile devices that need to roam between countries and networks where the frequency bands used can often be different . Perhaps the most conceptually simple design , first reported in 1997 , is to nest two PIFA patch antennae one inside the other . Another technique is to insert one or more spur lines into the patch , which has the effect of coupled resonators broadening the band . Other techniques rely on multiple modes being generated , which makes for a more compact design . Examples of this are the C @-@ slot pattern , which is a similar pattern to the interdigital filter , and the tightly meandered pattern shown as , respectively , C and D in the diagram .
= = Applications = =
Inverted @-@ F antennae are widely used in compact hand @-@ held wireless devices where space is at a premium . This includes mobile phones and tablet computers using wireless transmissions such as GSM , Bluetooth , and WiFi . The planar inverted @-@ F antenna is the most frequently used internal antenna in mobile phone designs .
These antennae are also of use for vehicle telematics . Vehicle manufacturers like to use antennae that follow the contours of the vehicle for style and aerodynamic reasons . Multiband PIFAs can be used to combine the antennae feeds for mobile phone , satellite navigation , and car radio .
An R @-@ shaped dual @-@ band PIFA has been proposed for use on military vehicles . The bands to be covered are 225 MHz and 450 MHz . These frequencies are in the same ratio as the mobile phone GSM bands at 900 MHz and 1 @.@ 8 GHz so the design could be used for this application as well if the dimensions were scaled down to suit .
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= Daedalus ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Daedalus " is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , as the crew of Enterprise help Doctor Emory Erickson ( Bill Cobbs ) conduct experimental transporter tests , a dangerous anomaly is detected on board .
It was the second script written by Alan Brennert and Ken LaZebnik , and was directed by David Straiton - his second of the season . " Daedalus " was a bottle episode which used only the standing sets . Show runner Manny Coto had sought to create an origin story for the transporter with " Daedalus " , but was not pleased with either the script or the completed episode . The episode originally aired on January 14 , 2005 , on UPN . It received a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 9 / 4 percent . Critical reception was mixed , but the relationship between Doctor Erickson , his daughter Danica ( Leslie Silva ) and Captain Archer ( Scott Bakula ) was received positively due to the character development .
= = Plot = =
Old family friends of Captain Archer , Doctor Emory Erickson and his daughter Danica , beam aboard Enterprise to test new sub @-@ quantum transporter technology Erickson has developed . Catching up , Danica confides in Archer that her father has not been himself since the loss of her brother , Quinn , some 15 years ago in an early transporter experiment . After they arrive in “ the Barrens ” — a sub @-@ space node void of starlight for a hundred light years — in order to test Erickson 's new work , a strange anomaly is detected on the ship . Crewman Burrows is sent to investigate but is found dead , having been exposed to high levels of Delta radiation .
In the meantime , Commander T 'Pol takes time to rediscover herself in the light of recent events : the teachings of Surak held in the Kir 'Shara ; the death of her mother ; the annulment of her marriage ; her apparent cure from Pa 'nar Syndrome ; and her relationship with Commander Tucker . Tucker assists Erickson with the test , but is brushed aside when he seeks to learn more about the technology . Following a successful trial @-@ run , which sets a new record for the longest transport ever conducted , Tucker confides in Archer that many of the upgrades and modifications to the ship 's power systems were not necessary for the test .
The " photonic ghost " reappears , and T 'Pol manages to visually scan it , revealing that it is Erickson 's long @-@ lost son . Archer now realizes that his old family friends have misled him , and are simply using the ship to somehow rescue Quinn from the node . Erickson freely admits the deception , and asks Archer to trust and help him . Despite the deception , he agrees , aggressively ordering a reluctant T 'Pol and a dissenting Tucker to comply . Finally , Tucker and Erickson manage to recover Quinn , but he suffers severe cellular degeneration in the process and dies soon after . Erickson , aware of the consequences he may now face , is happy to finally bring him home and put him to rest .
= = Production = =
The title of the episode was a direct reference to the namesake in Greek mythology , with Erickson taking the Daedalus while his son relates to Icarus . Of the guest stars , Bill Cobbs had previously appeared in other science fiction genre films and television shows such as Demolition Man and The Outer Limits , while Leslie Silva had appeared as Lesley Silva in Odyssey 5 - a television series created and produced by the Enterprise season four show runner Manny Coto .
In an interview with Science Fiction Weekly , Coto explained that he wanted to create an origin episode for the transporter - taking elements of classic Star Trek such as Zefram Cochrane and " The Ultimate Computer " as inspiration . However , he was not happy with the either the script or the final episode , describing it as " flawed " . He felt that the series worked better as multi @-@ episode arcs rather than as stand alone episodes .
" Daedalus " was a bottle show , which used only existing standing sets and a reduced number of special effect shots compared to those earlier in the season . The production suffered a power failure on the final day of filming , which caused a two @-@ hour delay to the filming of interviews for features for the DVD release . The episode was directed by David Straiton ; " Daedalus " was his second episode of the season following the second @-@ part of " Storm Front " . It was also the second credits for two new writers on the show , Ken LaZebnik and Alan Brennert - the former wrote " Borderland " and Brennert was credited as Michael Bryant for the episode " Cold Station 12 " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Daedalus " was first broadcast on January 14 , 2005 , on UPN within the United States . The broadcast received Nielsen ratings of 1 @.@ 9 / 4 percent . Therefore , it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all those watching television at the time of broadcast . It received lower ratings than The WB , who aired episodes of What I Like About You and Grounded for Life , and came last of all the major networks .
Michelle Erica Green while writing for TrekNation , felt that " Daedalus " was a remix of a variety of prior Star Trek episodes across a number of series including " The Ultimate Computer " , " Silicon Avatar " and " Jetrel " amongst others . She felt that the relationship between Archer and Danica worked , as did the subplot with Tucker and T 'Pol . Jamahl Epsicokhan of the website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as " an overall failed episode " and compared it to the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " The Visitor " - an episode he described as " infinitely better " than " Daedalus " . He felt that the final arc of the episode was obvious from the start , but liked how the relationship worked between Archer , Erickson , and Danica because of the character development . He gave the episode two our of four stars .
The first home media release of " Daedalus " was as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu ray release of the fourth season of Enterprise was on April 1 , 2014 .
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= Brabham BT19 =
The Brabham BT19 / ˈbræbəm / is a Formula One racing car designed by Ron Tauranac for the British Brabham team . The BT19 competed in the 1966 and 1967 Formula One World Championships and was used by Australian driver Jack Brabham to win his third World Championship in 1966 . The BT19 , which Brabham referred to as his " Old Nail " , was the first car bearing its driver 's name to win a World Championship race .
The car was initially conceived in 1965 for a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ litre ( 92 @-@ cubic inch ) Coventry Climax engine , but never raced in this form . For the 1966 Formula One season the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) doubled the limit on engine capacity to 3 litres ( 183 cu in ) . Australian company Repco developed a new V8 engine for Brabham 's use in 1966 , but a disagreement between Brabham and Tauranac over the latter 's role in the racing team left no time to develop a new car to handle it . Instead , the existing BT19 chassis was modified for the job .
Only one BT19 was built . It was bought by Repco in 2004 and put on display in the National Sports Museum in Melbourne , Australia , in 2008 . It is often demonstrated at motorsport events .
= = Concept = =
The BT19 was created by Australian designer Ron Tauranac for the Brabham Racing Organisation ( BRO ) to use in the 1965 season of the Formula One motor racing World Championship . The BT19 , and its contemporary the Lotus 39 , were built to use the new FWMW flat @-@ 16 engine from Coventry Climax . Only one example of the BT19 design was built , and it never raced in its original form . Climax abandoned the FWMW 's development before the end of 1965 , their existing FWMV V8 engines proving powerful enough to propel Jim Clark 's Lotus 33 to seven wins and the drivers ' championship .
For 1966 , the engine capacity limit in Formula One was doubled from 1 @.@ 5 litres ( 92 cu in ) to 3 litres ( 183 cu in ) . It was not feasible to enlarge existing 1 @.@ 5 @-@ litre engines to take full advantage of the higher limit and Climax chose not to develop a new 3 @-@ litre motor , leaving many teams without a viable engine for 1966 .
The new 3 @-@ litre engines under development by competing team Ferrari had 12 cylinders . Jack Brabham , owner and lead driver of BRO , took a different approach to the problem of obtaining a suitable engine . He persuaded Australian company Repco to develop a new 3 @-@ litre eight @-@ cylinder engine for him , largely based on available components ; the engine would produce less power than Ferrari 's , but would be lighter , easier to fix and more fuel efficient .
Brabham cars were designed and built by Motor Racing Developments Ltd . ( MRD ) , which was jointly owned by Tauranac and Jack Brabham and built cars for customers in several racing series . The Formula One racing team , BRO , was a separate company wholly owned by Jack Brabham . It bought its cars from MRD but Tauranac had little connection with the race team between 1962 and 1965 .
At the end of the 1965 season Tauranac was losing interest in this arrangement , reasoning that " it was just a matter of a lot of effort for no real interest because I didn 't get to go racing very much " and " I might as well get on with my main line business , which was selling production cars . " Although Brabham investigated using chassis from other manufacturers , the two men eventually agreed that Tauranac would have a greater interest in the Formula One team , which MRD eventually took over completely from BRO . This agreement was not reached until November 1965 . Repco delivered the first example of the new engine to the team 's headquarters in the United Kingdom in late 1965 , just weeks before the first Formula One race to the new regulations , the non @-@ championship South African Grand Prix on 1 January 1966 . Rather than build a new car in the limited time available , BRO pressed chassis number F1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1965 , the sole and unused BT19 , into service .
= = Chassis and suspension = =
Tauranac built the BT19 around a mild steel spaceframe chassis similar to those used in his previous Brabham designs . The use of a spaceframe was considered a conservative design decision ; by 1966 , most of Brabham 's competitors were using the theoretically lighter and stiffer monocoque design , introduced to Formula One by Lotus during the 1962 season . Tauranac believed that contemporary monocoques were not usefully stiffer than a well @-@ designed spaceframe and were harder to repair and maintain . The latter was a particular concern for Brabham , which was the largest manufacturer of customer single @-@ seater racing cars in the world at the time . The company 's reputation rested in part on BRO – effectively the official ' works ' team – using the same technology as its customers , for whom ease of repair was a significant consideration . One mildly novel feature was the use of oval @-@ section , rather than round , tubing around the cockpit , where the driver sits . In a spaceframe or monocoque racing car , the cockpit is effectively a hole in the structure , weakening it considerably . For a given cross sectional area , oval tubing is stiffer in one direction than round tubing . Tauranac happened to have a supply of oval tubing and used it to stiffen the cockpit area . The car weighed around 1250 pounds ( 567 kg ) , around 150 lb ( 68 @.@ 0 kg ) over the minimum weight limit for the formula , although it was still one of the lightest cars in the 1966 field . The race starting weight of a 1966 Brabham @-@ Repco with driver and fuel was estimated to be around 1 @,@ 415 lb ( 642 kg ) , about 280 lb ( 127 kg ) less than the more powerful rival Cooper T81 @-@ Maseratis .
The bodywork of the BT19 is glass @-@ reinforced plastic , finished in Brabham 's usual racing colours of green with gold trimming around the nose . Although the science of aerodynamics would not greatly affect Formula One racing until the 1968 season , Tauranac had been making use of the Motor Industry Research Association wind tunnel since 1963 to refine the shape of his cars . Brabham has attributed the car 's " swept @-@ down nose and the upswept rear lip of the engine cowl " to Tauranac 's " attention to aerodynamic detail " . During the 1967 season , the car appeared with small winglets on the nose , to further reduce lift acting at the front of the car .
Against the trend set by the Lotus 21 in 1961 , the BT19 's suspension , which controls the relative motion of the chassis and the wheels , is outboard all round . That is , the bulky springs and dampers are mounted in the space between the wheels and the bodywork , where they interfere with the airflow and increase unwanted aerodynamic drag . Tauranac persisted with this apparently conservative approach based on wind tunnel tests he had carried out in the early 1960s , which indicated that a more complicated inboard design , with the springs and dampers concealed under the bodywork , would provide only a 2 % improvement in drag . He judged the extra time needed to set up an inboard design at the racetrack to outweigh this small improvement . At the front the suspension consists of unequal length , non @-@ parallel double wishbones . The front uprights , the solid components upon which the wheels and brakes are mounted , were modified from the Alford & Alder units used on the British Triumph Herald saloon . The rear suspension is formed by a single top link , a reversed lower wishbone and two radius rods locating cast magnesium alloy uprights . Wheels were initially 13 inches ( 330 mm ) in diameter , but soon upgraded to 15 in ( 380 mm ) at the rear , and later still 15 in at the front as well . These increases enabled the use of larger , more powerful brakes . Steel disc brakes are used on all four wheels and were of 10 @.@ 5 in ( 270 mm ) diameter for the smaller wheels and 11 in ( 280 mm ) for the larger ones . The car ran on treaded Goodyear tyres throughout its racing career .
The BT19 continued Tauranac 's reputation for producing cars that handled well . Brabham has since commented that it " was beautifully balanced and I loved its readiness to drift through fast curves . " Brabham referred to the car as his Old Nail ; Ron Tauranac has explained this as being " because it was two years old , great to drive and had no vices . "
= = Engine and transmission = =
Repco racing engines were designed and built by a small team at a Repco subsidiary , Repco @-@ Brabham engines Pty Ltd , in Maidstone , Australia . Repco 's 620 series engine is a normally aspirated unit with eight cylinders in a ' V ' configuration . It uses American engine blocks obtained from Oldsmobile 's aluminium alloy 215 engine . Oldsmobile 's 215 engine , used in the F @-@ 85 Cutlass compact car between 1961 and 1963 , was abandoned by General Motors after production problems . Repco fitted their own cast iron cylinder liners into the Oldsmobile blocks , which were also stiffened with two Repco magnesium alloy castings and feature Repco @-@ designed cylinder heads with chain @-@ driven single overhead camshafts . The internals of the unit consist of a bespoke Laystall crankshaft , Daimler connecting rods and specially cast pistons . The cylinder head design means that the engine 's exhaust pipes exit on the outer side of the block , and therefore pass through the spaceframe before tucking inside the rear suspension , a layout which complicated Tauranac 's design work considerably . The engine is water @-@ cooled , with oil and water radiators mounted in the nose .
The 620 engine was light for its time , weighing around 340 lb ( 154 kg ) , compared to 500 lb ( 227 kg ) for the Maserati V12 , but in 3 litre Formula One form only produced around 300 brake horsepower ( 220 kW ) at under 8000 revolutions per minute ( rpm ) , compared to 330 – 360 bhp ( 250 – 270 kW ) produced by the Ferrari and Maserati V12s . However , it produced high levels of torque over a wide range of engine speeds from 3500 rpm up to peak torque of 233 pound feet ( 316 N · m ) at 6500 rpm . Installed in the lightweight BT19 chassis , it was also relatively fuel efficient ; on the car 's debut Brabham reported that the BT19 achieved 7 miles per gallon ( 40 L / 100 km ) , against figures of around 4 mpg ( 70 L / 100 km ) for its " more exotic rivals " . This meant that it could start a Grand Prix with only 35 gallons ( 160 L ) of fuel on board , compared to around 55 gallons ( 250 L ) for the Cooper T81 @-@ Maseratis . The engine had one further advantage over bespoke racing engines : parts were cheap . For example , the engine blocks were available for GB £ 11 each and the connecting rods cost £ 7 each .
The 740 series unit used in the three races for which the car was entered in 1967 has a different , lighter , Repco @-@ designed engine block . It also has redesigned cylinder heads which , among other improvements , mean that its exhausts are mounted centrally and do not pass through the spaceframe or rear suspension , unlike those of the 620 series . It produced a maximum of 330 bhp ( 250 kW ) .
The BT19 was initially fitted with a Hewland HD ( Heavy Duty ) gearbox , originally designed for use with less powerful 2 @-@ litre engines . The greater power of the 3 @-@ litre Repco engine was more than the gearbox could reliably transmit when accelerating at full power from rest , with the result that Brabham normally made very gentle starts to avoid gearbox breakages . The HD was later replaced with the sturdier DG ( Different Gearbox ) design , produced at the request of both Brabham and Dan Gurney 's Anglo American Racers team . It later became a popular choice for other constructors .
= = Racing history = =
Although regarded by its designer as a " lash @-@ up " , BT19 had a very successful Formula One racing career , almost entirely in the hands of Jack Brabham . BT19 was entered in several non @-@ championship Formula One races before the beginning of the 1966 world championship season . At the non @-@ championship South African Grand Prix at East London on 1 January , BT19 was the only new 3 @-@ litre car present . It recorded the fastest time in the qualifying session before the race – therefore taking pole position for the start of the race – and led the majority of the event before the fuel injection pump seized . Similar problems stopped the car on the second lap of the Syracuse Grand Prix in Sicily , but at the International Trophy at the Silverstone circuit , Brabham set pole position , a new lap record , and led the whole race to win ahead of 1964 champion John Surtees in a 3 @-@ litre works Ferrari .
The 1966 world championship season opened with the Monaco Grand Prix . Brabham was affected by a cold , and qualified poorly before retiring when the BT19 's gearbox failed . Surtees led the race in his Ferrari before his differential failed on lap 15 ; the race was won by Jackie Stewart in a 2 @-@ litre BRM P261 . At the following Belgian Grand Prix at the Spa circuit , Brabham survived an enormous 135 miles per hour ( 215 km / h ) slide in the rain on the first lap . The shower eliminated half the field , including Stewart , who would miss the next race with his injuries . The BT19 , using Goodyear tyres that were not suited to the conditions , came home fourth of five classified finishers . Surtees won the race for Ferrari , the last before he quit the Italian team .
At the French Grand Prix , held at the high speed Reims @-@ Gueux circuit , Brabham followed race leader Lorenzo Bandini closely from the start of the race , using the slipstream of Bandini 's more powerful Ferrari to tow him to up to 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) faster down the straights than the BT19 could manage on its own . This allowed Brabham to consolidate his lead over Ferrari 's second driver , Formula One novice Mike Parkes . After 12 laps Bandini pulled away from Brabham , eventually by over 30 seconds , but when the Italian car was delayed by a broken throttle cable on lap 32 , Brabham cruised to the finish to win from Parkes and become the first man to win a Formula One World Championship race in one of his own cars .
Although the first Brabham BT20 , the definitive 1966 car , had been available at Reims , Brabham continued with the BT19 and used it to win the next three championship races . Ferrari , competitive in all three championship races to that point , were not present for the British Grand Prix . The race was held on the tight and twisting Brands Hatch circuit , the track made slippery by oil leaking from other cars and by drizzle . Brabham set pole and led the entire race . At the next championship round , the Dutch Grand Prix , Brabham reported the low speed Zandvoort circuit to be " even more oily and treacherous than Brands . " Brabham won the race after Jim Clark 's less powerful 2 litre Lotus 33 @-@ Climax , which had passed Brabham for the lead mid @-@ race , was delayed by overheating problems . The German Grand Prix was held at the Nürburgring Nordschleife , which Brabham described as " Brands Hatch on steroids " . On the opening lap Brabham took the lead from Surtees , now driving a Cooper @-@ Maserati . Brabham won after a race @-@ long fight with the Englishman in the rain . With four wins and more finishes than any of his championship rivals , Brabham had a 22 @-@ point lead in the drivers championship and could only be caught in the championship by Surtees or Stewart if one of them won all three of the remaining races .
Jack Brabham used BT19 again at the Italian Grand Prix at Monza , another high speed circuit . A second BT20 was completed at the Italian track and Brabham tried it in practice for the race , but decided to race his Old Nail , which he felt was fitted with a stronger engine . As at Reims , Brabham successfully slipstreamed the race leaders early on , but an oil leakage stopped the car after 8 laps . Neither Surtees nor Stewart finished the race and Brabham clinched his third world championship .
Brabham used the BT19 once more that season to take pole position and victory at the non @-@ championship Oulton Park Gold Cup , before using a new BT20 for the final two races of the championship season . The BT19 was used again at three of the first four championship races in the 1967 Formula One season , debuting the new Repco 740 engine at the Monaco Grand Prix , where it took pole position , and finishing second at the Dutch Grand Prix .
Commenting on the reasons for the unexpected competitiveness of the 1966 Brabham @-@ Repcos in Formula One , motorsport historian Doug Nye has suggested that they " could score on weight over the more powerful Ferrari , BRM , Cooper @-@ Maserati , Eagle @-@ Weslake and Honda in their undeveloped forms , and on sheer ' grunt ' over such interim stop @-@ gap cars as the nimble 2 @-@ litre Climax and BRM V8 @-@ engined Lotus 33s and BRMs . "
BT19 also competed in the final two races of the 1965 / 66 Tasman Series in Australia , which was run to the pre @-@ 1961 Formula One regulations , including an engine capacity limit of 2 @.@ 5 litres . Tasman racing was the original purpose of the Repco engine and Brabham 's involvement was supposed to promote the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre version . Frank Hallam , head of the Repco @-@ Brabham organisation responsible for designing and building the Repco engines , has said that the smaller version " never put out the power per litre that the 3 litre engine produced " , which itself was not a powerful unit . Fitted with the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre engine BT19 recorded one retirement and a third place in the series .
= = Demonstrations = =
The BT19 was not raced in serious competition after 1967 . Brabham retired and moved back to Australia at the end of 1970 . He retained ownership of the car until 1976 , when it passed into the hands of Repco and was restored by the Repco Engine Parts Group . In 1986 , Automotive Components Ltd . ( ACL ) was formed by the management buyout of Engine Parts Group , which included the transfer of the BT19 to the new company . Since its restoration , the car has frequently been demonstrated at events , including the 1978 Australian Grand Prix at Sandown where Brabham was involved in a spirited demonstration with Juan Manuel Fangio driving his Mercedes @-@ Benz W196 . Brabham and the car also appeared at the first Australian Grands Prix to be held on the Adelaide ( 1985 ) and Melbourne ( 1996 ) street circuits . It also appeared at the 2004 Goodwood Revival meeting in the United Kingdom . ACL sold the car back to Repco in 2004 . In 2008 the car was installed in the Australian National Sports Museum at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , on loan from Repco .
In 2002 , at the inaugural Speed on Tweed historic meeting at Murwillumbah , Brabham , then 76 , commented : " It 's been a wonderful car over the years and it 's been very well looked after and it 's a pleasure to come and drive it . Coming to Murwillumbah was a really good excuse to get back in the car and drive it again and I 'm afraid that 's something I 'll never ever get tired of . "
= = Complete results = =
= = = Formula One World Championship = = =
( results in bold indicate pole position )
= = = Non Championship results = = =
† This race was a support to the 1966 Surfers Paradise Trophy , 14 August 1966
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= Action of 3 July 1810 =
The Action of 3 July 1810 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , in which a French frigate squadron under Guy @-@ Victor Duperré attacked and defeated a convoy of Honourable East India Company East Indiamen near the Comoros Islands . During the engagement the British convoy resisted strongly and suffered heavy casualties but two ships were eventually forced to surrender . These were the British flagship , the Windham , which held off the French squadron to allow the surviving ship Astell to escape , and the Ceylon . The engagement was the third successful French attack on an Indian Ocean convoy in just over a year , the French frigates being part of a squadron operating from the Île de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin .
Although a British frigate squadron under Josias Rowley was under orders to eliminate the French raiders , Rowley was distracted by the planned invasion of Île Bonaparte , which began the following week . Combined with limited British resources in the region , this allowed the French frigates significant freedom to attack British interests across the Ocean . The attack on Île Bonaparte was however part of a wider British strategy to seize and capture French raiding bases , and the success of the operation severely limited future French operations as Hamelin 's squadron was required for the defence of Île de France . As a result , this was the last successful attack on a British merchant convoy in the Indian Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars .
= = Background = =
Since the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 , French privateers and naval frigates operating from the fortified island bases of Île de France and Île Bonaparte had attacked British shipping in the Indian Ocean . The huge distances involved , restrictions on supplies and the presence of Royal Navy warships and heavily armed East Indiamen had prevented these relatively weak French ships from attacking the convoys that transported millions of pounds worth of goods from British India and the Far East to the United Kingdom . When one French squadron under Admiral Linois had tried to seize a convoy in 1805 , it had been driven off by the aggressive tactics of the merchant captains .
In late 1808 , the French Navy despatched five frigates to the Indian Ocean to rendezvous at Île de France under the command of Commodore Jacques Hamelin . Although only four frigates eventually reached the French island , these were new vessels carrying 40 heavy guns each under orders to attack British shipping in the Bay of Bengal , in particular the large East Indiamen of the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) . The first frigate to discover a convoys was Caroline , which attacked a Europe @-@ bound convoy in the Action of 31 May 1809 . Capturing two East Indiamen carrying over £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk , Caroline brought her prizes back to the fortified port of Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte .
The British commander at the Cape of Good Hope , Albemarle Bertie , had also been planning an operation in the Indian Ocean during 1809 and assembled a squadron under Commodore Josias Rowley with orders to blockade the French islands , probe their defences and capture them if practical . Rowley found that his small squadron was unable to engage the French frigates and that the nearest British military base , Madras in British India , was much too far to be practical for staging amphibious operations . To remedy the latter problem , Rowley seized the small French island of Rodriguez with a force of British and Indian soldiers and garrisoned it as a supply base for his ships and as a military reserve to use in landings on the French islands . The first such operation was the Raid on Saint Paul in September 1809 , in which the town of Saint Paul was captured , Caroline and her prizes seized and Île Bourbon 's commander Nicolas Des Bruslys driven to suicide .
= = Continued raiding = =
Despite the British attack on Saint Paul , French frigates continued to operate in the Indian Ocean , Hamelin personally leading a cruise in the Bay of Bengal during the autumn . His ships seized a number of small merchantmen and in the Action of 18 November 1809 he personally defeated and captured three large East Indiamen in convoy . Before his squadron and their prizes returned to Île de France in late December , they had also captured the British brig HMS Victor and the large Portuguese frigate Minerva . During the winter few ships were at sea , as the risk of being caught in a seasonal hurricane was considered too severe to operate between December and March . Rowley correspondingly withdrew most of his forces to the Cape of Good Hope , leaving a handful of smaller ships to watch the French islands . Hamelin too kept his forces in harbour at Île de France , replenishing his ships and recruiting sailors from the large pool of unemployed men in Port Napoleon .
On 14 March , before Rowley could return to his blockade , Hamelin ordered a squadron to sea . This force consisted of the large frigate Bellone , the captured Minerva now renamed Minerve and the captured brig Victor . The force was led by Guy @-@ Victor Duperré on Bellone , with Pierre Bouvet in Minerve as his second in command . Avoiding the remaining frigates of the British blockade , Duperré 's ships escaped unnoticed and began cruising in the Bay of Bengal , capturing a few small vessels but making no serious impression on British trade in the region . By the 1 June , Duperré had moved to the Western Indian Ocean , sailing off Madagascar in the hope of sighting British ships from Cape Town . Due to the extended period at sea , his ships were in a poor state of repair and much of the following month was spent conducting repairs at isolated beaches .
= = Battle = =
At 06 : 00 on 3 July , Duperré 's squadron was cruising off the small island of Mayotta when sails were sighted 36 nautical miles ( 67 km ) to the north east . Giving chase immediately , Duprée discovered that his quarry was a convoy of three large East Indiamen , Ceylon , Windham , under Captain Stewart , and Astell , commanded by Henry Meriton in Ceylon . Meriton was a highly experienced HEIC captain , who had twice been involved in successfully defending his convoy from French raiders : firstly at the Action of 4 August 1800 , when his ship Exeter had actually forced the surrender of the Médée , and then at the Battle of Pulo Aura in 1804 . The convoy had departed from Cape Town on 13 June with five ships , but two had to turn back after the Euphrates struck a rock and began to take in water . The others continued their journey to Madras via the Mozambique Channel . One of the East Indiamen , Windham , her captain John Stewart and many of her crew had been engaged and captured by Hamelin on 22 November 1809 in the Bay of Bengal and recaptured a month later by HMS Magicienne off Île de France . While Duperré 's three ships mounted 108 guns and carried fully trained naval crews , the HEIC ships had approximately 75 cannon between them and only a handful of their sailors were trained to military standards . Primarily crewed by lascar seamen , who had proven unreliable in the previous convoy actions , the merchant ships ' advantages lay in their large size and the 250 soldiers of the 24th Regiment of Foot that were aboard the ships . These troops were on passage to India and would be able to provide musket fire and repel boarders should the French attempt to board .
Confident that his squadron outclassed his opponent , Duperré ordered his ships to chase the East Indiamen , who , at Stewart 's suggestion , attempted to close with the shore where the wind and waves would not be as strong and they could better resist the French attack . By 09 : 30 however the Astell was forced to reduce sail or risk snapping her topmasts . This slowed the British convoy , Windham and Ceylon slowing too to protect Astell . Realising that he could not outrun Duperré , Meriton decided to turn his ships about and engage the French frigates . At 11 : 30 , Bellone closed the gap between the squadron and convoy to just 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) and Meriton ordered his ships to form an improvised battle line to meet the French attack .
The French attacked at 14 : 15 , Minerve approaching the British line and opening fire on the central ship Ceylon . In the intervening time , the British battleline had become disorganised , with Astell too far to the rear to properly support the other ships . With the British line wavering , Minerve and Victor closed with the convoy and began to exchange fire with the three merchant ships in a general action , during which Robert Hay , captain of Astell was seriously wounded . At 16 : 00 , Bouvet in Minerve pulled ahead of the struggling convoy and turned as if to ram and board Windham . Hoping to use the soldiers aboard to drive off the French ship , Captain Stewart turned to meet her . The damage done to Windham was however so severe that she was unable to make the turn correctly and Minerve passed just ahead of her , raking Windham and causing severe damage , the soldiers on Windham responding with musket fire .
As Minerve turned back towards the British convoy with the intention of cutting off the rearmost ships , Astell passed her more damaged companions to become the first ship in line . This left Windham , now at the rear , to face Minerve alone . Fortunately for Stewart , Minerve lost two topmasts as she turned to face his ship and had to pull away from the British to effect repairs . An hour and a half later , at 18 : 30 , Bellone joined the action , attacking Windham directly . Victor supported Bellone and accompanied the flagship as she moved ahead to attack Ceylon and Astell . By 19 : 00 , with Ceylon damaged so severely that she could no longer effectively sail or fight , third officer Tristam Fleming hauled the ship out of the battle line and ordered his crew to cease firing : Meriton and his second officer Thomas Oldham had both been seriously wounded by grape shot .
With Ceylon no longer engaged , Duperré pulled ahead to engage Astell but found that Stewart had brought his battered Windham between the French frigate and the third East Indiaman . In the growing darkness , Stewart attempted to hail Astell to propose boarding Bellone together , but the remaining officers either ignored or did not hear the suggestion as Astell extinguished all her lights and made all sail to escape the action , receiving a final broadside from Bellone as she pulled away . Alone , Stewart continued to engage the French ships to enable Astell to make her escape . At 19 : 20 the repaired Minerve returned and took possession of Ceylon , and at 19 : 45 Stewart surrendered for the second time in less than a year : his ship badly damaged and casualties mounting among his crew and passengers .
= = Aftermath = =
Astell was the only HEIC ship to escape , disappearing in the darkness and later reaching a safe port from which despatches were sent to London recounting the action . On the basis of these accounts , the crew and officers of Astell were rewarded with £ 2 @,@ 000 from the company directors to be shared among them . Casualties in the British convoy had been heavy , Windham losing six killed and 18 wounded , Ceylon six killed and 21 wounded ( including Meriton and Oldham ) and Astell eight killed and 37 wounded ( including Hay ) . In all , 20 British sailors and soldiers were killed and 76 wounded during the engagement , a figure which was matched by the French losses of 22 killed and 38 wounded : four killed and six wounded on Bellone , 17 killed and 29 wounded on Minerve and one killed and three wounded on Victor . The prizes were very severely damaged and Duperré was forced to take his squadron to an isolated beach on Anjouan until 17 July to effect repairs , before returning to Île de France . Command of Ceylon , renamed Ceylan was awarded to Lieutenant Vincent Moulac , of Minerve , and that of Windham , to ensign d 'Arod .
Duperré did not meet any British ships on his journey back to the French island , as most of the British blockade squadron were engaged in the aftermath of the Invasion of Île Bonaparte , conducted during July by Commodore Rowley . With the British distracted by this amphibious operation , it was simple for Duperré to reach Grand Port on the south east coast of Île de France in spite of the small blockade squadron under Captain Samuel Pym . This narrow and well @-@ protected anchorage was considered to be the best place to refit the battered French squadron , but in August it came under attack by a British squadron in the Battle of Grand Port . This action was a disaster for the British as their ships became grounded in the unfamiliar shoals of the harbour and four frigates were lost under fire from shore batteries and Duperré 's squadron .
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= North American Piedmontese cattle =
North American Piedmontese cattle are a breed of domestic beef cattle originating from an imported herd of select Italian purebred Piedmontese cattle ( Piemontese or razza bovina Piemontese ) . The foundation line of breeding stock was first imported from Italy into Canada in 1979 , and into the United States in the early 1980s . Piedmontese cattle are distinguished by a unique , naturally occurring gene identified as the myostatin allele mutation , or inactive myostatin gene . Myostatin prohibits muscle growth whereas an inactive gene has the opposite effect . Purebred Piedmontese are homozygous , ( 2 copy ) , which means they have two identical alleles present for this unique gene . Research indicates the presence of the myostatin allele mutation produces morphological characteristics unique to the breed , such as double @-@ muscling , beef tenderness , reduced fat content and high yield . According to the North American Piedmontese Association ( NAPA ) , they are the first breed registry to base animal registration requirements on the presence of this specific gene which can be easily verified by DNA testing .
= = Evolution and history = =
North American Piedmontese cattle originated from a line of Italian purebred Piedmontese cattle , ( Italian : Piemontese or razza bovina Piemontese ) , in the region of Piedmont in northwest Italy . They continue to be cultivated in Italy as a " dual @-@ purpose animal ... having very rich milk used for specialty cheese production and beef marketed as a premium product . " There is much speculation on the breed 's evolution , but one theory by Italian professor , Silvano Maletto , is based on evidence obtained from fossil records and cave writings , and concludes that the breed descends from the ancient Aurochs cattle , and the Pakistan Zebu cattle . Reports of the first historical evidence for breeding Piedmontese cattle dates back only to the late 1800s , however , and credits the work of Italian professor , Domenico Vallada .
In 1979 , the Piedmontese Breeding Co @-@ operative , Ltd. of Saskatchewan , Canada ( PBL Co @-@ op of Canada ) began preparations to import the first Piedmontese cattle into North America . There had been prior attempts at importation of the breed by the PBL Co @-@ op of Canada and other cattle breeders , but until that time the Italian Association , comprising small local farmers who wanted to maintain control of this unique gene pool , were reluctant to sell any of their purebred breeding stock . Another obstacle to overcome was the range of health protocols required for international shipping . The first successful importation occurred in the fall of 1979 with the arrival of five animals into Canada . Obtaining authorization and transfers to import the first five animals was the culmination of a half decade of effort , the cost of which is estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 per animal based on 2014 values . The following year , Canada received more Italian imports of Piedmontese cattle , including five more bulls . The next year , Italian imports arrived in the US , including three additional sire lines and two cows . It was from that genetic base that the North American breed of Piedmontese cattle first began . In 1983 , the Canadian Piedmontese Association ( CPA ) was formed , followed by the Piedmontese Association of the United States ( PAUS ) in 1984 . By the 1990s , imports of semen and embryos were more substantial . Today there are several bloodlines available to cattle raisers in North America .
= = Genetics and crossbreeding = =
Like the original Italian Piedmontese , North American Piedmontese cattle are distinguished genetically by the presence of the myostatin allele mutation which causes the breed 's hypertrophic muscle growth , or " double muscling " . Compared with normal breeds of beef cattle , North American Piedmontese cattle are more proficient in converting feed into lean muscle . They also produce a higher percentage of the most desirable cuts of meat . They average 20 % more muscle with less bone and fat . Research indicates that there is less connective tissue within the muscle of " double @-@ muscled " cattle ; this would imply less background toughness and therefore more tender meat .
= = Prevalence among United States cattle = =
There are an estimated 28 – 30 million head of cattle currently in the United States . Of that total , nearly 70 % of all beef cattle are derived from Angus cattle . Less than one @-@ half of one percent are Piedmontese , or bred to Piedmontese cattle . As of 2014 , the number of registered Piedmontese pure @-@ blood breeding stock in the United States is estimated to be around 2 @,@ 000 head .
In the United States Piedmontese beef is regulated by the USDA , which requires that organisations involved in the sale of Piedmontese beef meet labeling and nutritional verification requirements .
= = Characteristics = =
The color of fullblood Piedmontese males is gray @-@ white with a considerable amount of black hairs on the head , most notable around the eyes , neck , shoulders , and on the distal regions of the legs . They occasionally have dark stains or spots on their hind legs or lateral faces of the trunk . The cows are primarily white with varying shades of gray or light red . Calves are born a pale fawn color which changes to gray @-@ white as they mature . Fullbloods are naturally horned , and have black pigmentation on the muzzle , eyelids , ears , tongue , tassel of the tail , anal opening , and on the outer skin of the sexual organs .
The color of Naturalean composites or crossbred cattle can be solid black or solid red with black or reddish pigmentation in the same areas as the pigmentation on fullbloods . They may be horned or polled , and homozygous ( 2 copy ) , or heterozygous ( 1 copy ) . Fullbloods and Naturalean bulls are often crossed with traditional beef breeds like Black Angus or Hereford cattle because of substantial benefits in the crossbred results , including a higher protein meat that is lower in saturated fat , improved tenderness , and an approximate 7 % yield increase in salable carcass . Calving problems are also reduced in the crossbreds .
= = North American Piedmontese Association ( NAPA ) = =
The North American Piedmontese Association ( NAPA ) was organized in September 2000 , and is the official breed registry for North American Piedmontese cattle . It is a member @-@ based , nonprofit breed registry headquartered in Washington , U.S. , and the first cattle breed registry with mandatory registration requirements based on the presence of the Piedmontese @-@ specific myostatin allele mutation . There are different categories of registration and recordation within the registry . Only homozygous animals ( 2 copy ) can be registered , therefore breed true , and are eligible for registration in either the Fullblood ( based on pedigree record ) , or Naturalean divisions .
The Naturalean division is for Piedmontese cattle that are either crossbred or could have qualified for Fullblood registration but failed to meet the pedigree requirements , perhaps because of unregistered or unverified parentage . Prior to registration or recording , DNA testing is required to confirm the animal carries at least 1 copy of the Piedmontese @-@ specific myostatin gene . Naturalean animals that are DNA tested heterozygous ( 1 @-@ copy ) are not registered , rather they are issued a registration number with the prefix " recorded " . The 0 @-@ copy ( non @-@ carriers ) cattle are ineligible for registration in any category .
According to the North American Piedmontese Cattle Association , in the last decade of the 20th century , there was a noticeable upsurge in the importation of genetic material ( i.e. , embryos and semen ) . Thus , it is said that " there are now a wealth of blood lines " available from which to choose .
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= Sue v Hill =
Sue v Hill was an Australian court case decided in the High Court of Australia on 23 June 1999 . It concerned a dispute over the apparent return of a candidate , Heather Hill , to the Australian Senate in the 1998 federal election . The result was challenged on the basis that Hill was a dual citizen of the United Kingdom and Australia , and that section 44 ( i ) of the Constitution of Australia prevents any person who is the citizen of a " foreign power " from being elected to the Parliament of Australia . The High Court found that , at least for the purposes of section 44 ( i ) , the United Kingdom is a foreign power to Australia .
= = Background = =
= = = Australian independence from the United Kingdom = = =
The degree to which Australia is and has been independent from the United Kingdom is a topic of much debate . The common view is that there has been an evolutionary process by which Australia has gained more and more independence .
The 1926 Imperial Conference resulted in the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 , and the Balfour Declaration 1926 , which granted the Dominions equal status to the United Kingdom . However , laws passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom still had force in Australia , and laws passed by Australian parliaments would be invalid if they contradicted United Kingdom laws ( the doctrine of repugnancy ) . The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 ended the doctrine of repugnancy , and provided that United Kingdom laws would only have force in Australia at Australia 's request .
The Australia Act 1986 ended all legal ties between Australia and the United Kingdom . The Act , enacted by the Parliament of Australia and the Parliament of the United Kingdom , ended the ability of the United Kingdom to make laws for Australia or enact the doctrine of repugnancy , and stopped all remaining avenues of appeal to the Privy Council from Australian courts , unless authorised by the High Court of Australia .
= = = 1998 election = = =
Heather Hill , a woman with Australian and United Kingdom dual citizenship , was a Queensland candidate for the Australian Senate for One Nation who contested the 1998 federal election . At the election on 3 October 1998 , Hill received 295 @,@ 903 first preference votes and was accordingly elected without the need to consider the distribution of preferences .
Henry Sue , a voter from Queensland , disputed the election of Hill and filed a petition under the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 in the High Court of Australia , sitting in its capacity as the Court of Disputed Returns . Sue argued that on the date of Hill 's nomination to the Senate she was still a citizen of the United Kingdom and thus , because of the operation of section 44 of the Australian Constitution , was ineligible to be elected to the Parliament of Australia .
Terry Sharples , a former One Nation candidate who had stood for the Senate in the 1998 election as an independent candidate , made a similar petition . Because both cases involved constitutional questions , and were substantially identical , they were heard together from 11 – 13 May 1999 .
= = Arguments = =
= = = Eligibility of Hill = = =
Sue argued that Hill was ineligible because of section 44 ( i ) of the Constitution of Australia , which provides that :
44 . Any person who - ( i ) Is under any acknowledgement of allegiance , obedience , or adherence to a foreign power , or is a subject or a citizen or entitled to the rights or privileges of a subject or citizen of a foreign power : ... shall be incapable of being chosen or of sitting as a senator or a member of the House of Representatives .
Sue argued that , since Australia was now an independent nation , the United Kingdom should properly be regarded as a foreign power .
Sue also raised the example of section 51 ( xix ) of the Australian Constitution , which grants the Parliament of Australia the power to make laws with respect to " naturalization and aliens " , and argued that since the word " aliens " in that section had come to be regarded to include people from the United Kingdom , so too should the word " foreign power " be understood to include the United Kingdom .
The Government of Australia decided to intervene in the case , and the Solicitor @-@ General of Australia , David Bennett , also argued that the United Kingdom was a " foreign power " .
Hill , on the other hand , argued that : " The United Kingdom was not a foreign power at Federation , is not a foreign power now and never will be a foreign power while the Constitution remains in its present form . " Hill said that because the Constitution was enacted as part of a statute of the British Imperial Parliament it derived its validity from British law . Further , she argued that because section 128 of the Australian Constitution provides that the Constitution cannot be changed except in accordance with that section , then only a constitutional referendum could change this special status of the United Kingdom , and the Australia Act had no effect , " so long as the United Kingdom retained any residual influence upon legislative , executive or judicial processes in Australia , it could not be regarded as ' foreign ' to Australia . "
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
Another question in the case was whether the High Court , sitting as the Court of Disputed Returns , had jurisdiction to hear the case . Hill argued that because of the structure of the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 , the court could not hear the case . She argued that elections could not be disputed by petition if the dispute was about the eligibility of a candidate , as another provision of the Act meant that it would require a resolution of the relevant house of Parliament , the Senate in this case .
The Government argued that the sections of the Act dealing with disputation by petition encompassed any question about the validity of an election , including the eligibility of a candidate , and that the sections should be interpreted broadly . Sue made a similar argument , saying that the sections allowing disputes by petition and the sections allowing disputes by the relevant house of Parliament were not mutually exclusive and that elections could be disputed by either the Parliament or the people .
= = = Separation of powers = = =
Hill also argued that if the Electoral Act actually appeared to confer jurisdiction on the court , it was nevertheless invalid , as the determination of disputes about election results is a non @-@ judicial function . Also , the doctrine of separation of powers meant that non @-@ judicial power cannot be conferred on a Chapter III Court such as the High Court .
Both the Government and Sue argued that two previous decisions , which may have inter alia suggested that determining disputed returns is a non @-@ judicial function , were incorrect . They said that the jurisdiction conferred by the Act required the court to consider real issues and not " abstract or hypothetical questions " . They also said that the Act gave the court a wide discretion and allowed it to function in a manner entirely consistent with the exercise of judicial power .
= = Judgment = =
The High court ruled that Senator @-@ elect Hill had not been duly elected to the national parliament because at the time of her election she was a subject or citizen of a foreign power .
Five judgments were delivered , with Chief Justice Gleeson and Justices Gummow and Hayne writing a joint judgment , and Justices Gaudron , McHugh , Kirby and Callinan writing individual judgments .
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
Gaudron , and jointly Gleeson , Gummow and Hayne , decided that the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 validly conferred the jurisdiction to determine disputed elections on the High Court , in its capacity as the Court of Disputed Returns . They said that if Hill 's argument about the structure of the Act were correct , there would be the odd result that the court could hear disputes about a candidate 's eligibility under the Act itself ( which imposes certain requirements for candidates ) , but it would not be able to hear disputes about a candidate 's eligibility under the Constitution . They also said that if only a house of Parliament could dispute a candidate 's constitutional eligibility , then in the time it took for that house to determine the issue , an ineligible candidate would be able to participate in the business of that house , including passing laws and other activities .
The four judges then went on to decide that the jurisdiction involved an exercise of judicial power , mentioning an earlier decision of Justice Isaacs , in which he had taken a functional approach , and determined that some functions , when conferred upon a legislative or executive body , can involve the exercise of non @-@ judicial power , but the same functions when conferred on a judicial body involve the exercise of judicial power . The four judges found that the powers conferred on the court , to take evidence and compel witnesses and such , when vested in a judicial body such as the court , involved the exercise of judicial power . As such , the jurisdiction did not offend the separation of powers .
= = = Foreign power = = =
On the important issue of whether the United Kingdom was a " foreign power " , only Gaudron , and jointly Gleeson , Gummow and Hayne , decided the matter , the other three judges having already found that the court did not have jurisdiction to hear the case . All four judges deciding did find that the United Kingdom was a " foreign power " , because it no longer retained any legislative , executive or judicial influence over Australia . Gleeson , Gummow and Hayne said that the question was :
" ... not about whether Australia 's relationships with that power are friendly or not , close or distant , or meet any other qualitative description . Rather , the words invite attention to questions of international and domestic sovereignty . "
Thus , the question would revolve around legal connections , and not around " Australia 's strong historical and emotional ties with the United Kingdom . "
They first considered whether the United Kingdom had any legislative power over Australia . Section 1 of the Australia Act 1986 provides that :
1 . No Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend , or be deemed to extend , to the Commonwealth , to a State or to a Territory as part of the law of the Commonwealth , of the State or of the Territory .
They held that this section completely removed any power held by the United Kingdom to exercise legislative power over Australia . Some commentators had suggested that section 1 of the Australia Act could pose constitutional problems in the United Kingdom , because of A. V. Dicey 's proposition that the Parliament cannot restrict its future actions . To this , Gleeson , Gummow and Hayne said :
" Provisions such as s 1 may present doctrinal questions for the constitutional law of the United Kingdom , in particular for the dogma associated with Dicey 's views as to the sovereignty of the Parliament at Westminster . Professor Sir William Wade pointed out more than forty years ago that Dicey never explained how he reconciled his assertions that Westminster could destroy or transfer sovereignty and the proposition that it could not bind future Parliaments . The effect in the United Kingdom of any amendment or repeal by the United Kingdom Parliament of s 1 would be for those adjudicating upon the constitutional law of that country . But whatever effect the courts of the United Kingdom may give to an amendment or repeal of the 1986 UK Act , Australian courts would be obliged to give their obedience to s 1 of the statute passed by the Parliament of the Commonwealth . "
Thus they decided that the position in Australia was not affected at all by the position in the United Kingdom , and for Australian purposes , the United Kingdom has no legislative power over Australia .
Similarly they decided that the United Kingdom could not exercise any judicial power over Australia , with the end of appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , and the court 's previous decision , in Kirmani v Captain Cook Cruises Pty Ltd ( No 2 ) not to grant any more certificates of appeal . They also decided that no executive power existed over Australia , as although the sovereign monarch of Australia and the sovereign monarch of the United Kingdom are the same person , it had been accepted for a long time that the monarch acts in Australian matters on the advice of Australian ministers , and does not accept the advice of United Kingdom ministers in Australian matters at all .
Ultimately , they concluded that the United Kingdom was a distinct sovereign power and a distinct legal personality from Australia , and as such was a " foreign power " for the purposes of section 44 of the Australian Constitution .
= = = Hill 's renunciation = = =
The decision noted in paragraph 176 that an Australian having dual citizenship must take some step to renounce his or her former citizenship before he or she can be treated under Australian law as having renounced it , and noted in paragraph 104 that Hill had on 18 November 1998 become aware of steps that could be taken to renounce her British citizenship , and had taken steps to effect the renunciation on the following day . The election , however , had taken place on 3 October 1998 , on which date Hill was still a dual national .
However , it is important to note that the High Court also ruled that dual citizenship on its own will not be enough to disqualify someone under s 44 ( i ) . At paragraph 176 , the High Court makes the point that a person must take reasonable steps to renounce their non @-@ Australian citizenship . If renunciation is not possible , for example by either the laws of the foreign power not permitting it or the process being unreasonable , then the person will not be disqualified by operation of s 44 ( i ) .
= = Consequences = =
The court declared that Hill was not validly elected at the 1998 federal election . However , they did not declare the whole election invalid , acting on an earlier decision of the court , because although no effect could be given to voters ' preferences for Hill , their other preferences were not invalid , and those could be used to determine who should be elected in Hill 's stead . The court did not reach a definite decision about what action should be taken , remitting that question to a lower court . Eventually , Len Harris , the number two candidate on the One Nation ticket , was elected in Hill 's stead , taking up his seat on 1 July 1999 .
The invalidation of Hill 's election caused some controversy in Australian political life . Hill herself viewed the challenge to her election as an attempt by big business and the rich to destroy her , as revenge for One Nation 's critique of them during the election campaign . One Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent observed the irony that One Nation , a populist nationalist party , was " now suspected of not being quite Australian enough . " Australian Greens Senator Bob Brown , despite being politically opposed to One Nation , attacked the decision for disenfranchising the people who had voted for Hill .
Aside from this immediate effect , the case represented a clear recognition that the Australia Act 1986 finally and completely ended all legal ties between the United Kingdom and Australia , and that Australia has been a fully independent and sovereign nation in its own right since at least 3 March 1986 , when the Act came into force . Some commentators have criticised the evolutionary approach adopted by the court , and the court 's resultant failure to find a certain date on which Australia became independent , arguing that the distinction is more than merely symbolic and could have real consequences . However , even Justice Callinan , who questioned the evolutionary approach in this case , affirmed in a later case ( Attorney @-@ General Western Australia v Marquet ) that the effect of the Australia Act in finally recognising independence could not be doubted .
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= Interstate 280 ( New Jersey ) =
Interstate 280 ( abbreviated I @-@ 280 ) is a 17 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 28 @.@ 73 km ) Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It provides a spur from I @-@ 80 in Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills , Morris County to Newark , and I @-@ 95 ( the New Jersey Turnpike ) in Kearny , Hudson County . In Kearny , access is provided toward the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel to New York City . The western part of the route runs through suburban areas of Morris and Essex counties , crossing the Watchung Mountains . Upon reaching The Oranges , the setting becomes more urbanized and I @-@ 280 runs along a depressed alignment before ascending again in Newark . I @-@ 280 includes a lift bridge , the William A. Stickel Memorial Bridge over the Passaic River between Newark and Harrison . The highway is sometimes called the Essex Freeway . I @-@ 280 interchanges with several roads , including the Garden State Parkway in East Orange and Route 21 in Newark .
A part of present @-@ day I @-@ 280 in Newark west of the Stickel Bridge was legislated as Route 25A in 1939 , a spur of Route 25 ( U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) that was to run from Jersey City west to Newark . This portion of road would become Route 58 in 1953 ( the Route 58 designation was removed in the 1990s ) . When the Interstate Highway System was being planned , the Route 3 freeway was planned to become an Interstate . The New Jersey State Highway Department favored the Essex Freeway instead between I @-@ 80 in Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills to I @-@ 95 in Kearny . The latter would become the Interstate and be designated I @-@ 280 . This road was built in the 1960s and completed west from Newark in 1973 . The portion east of Newark to the New Jersey Turnpike opened in 1980 . I @-@ 280 was once planned to continue east to I @-@ 78 near the Holland Tunnel but never was extended east of the New Jersey Turnpike . In the 2000s , the Stickel Bridge was reconstructed after the original structure was determined to be structurally deficient . Interstate 280 is one of two 3 digit interstate designations to appear on opposite coasts . Interstate 110 in California and Florida is the other one .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 280 begins at I @-@ 80 and US 46 in Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills , Morris County and heads southeast into wooded surroundings as a four @-@ lane highway . The road comes to its first interchange with New Road before crossing the Whippany River into East Hanover . The freeway runs near some fields before heading back into woods and entering Roseland , Essex County at the crossing of the Passaic River . Shortly after the Passaic River , I @-@ 280 has a cloverleaf interchange with the Eisenhower Parkway ( CR 609 ) . At this point , the roadway widens to six lanes and runs near wooded suburban areas before reaching CR 527 at another cloverleaf interchange . Past CR 527 , I @-@ 280 makes a turn to the east before heading southeast into Livingston and intersecting CR 634 . Following this exit , the road enters West Orange and passes through Second Watchung Mountain in a cut . Past the mountain , the road heads back into suburban areas and comes to the exit for CR 636 , where the highway widens to eight lanes here and heads east to an interchange with CR 577 . After CR 577 , I @-@ 280 makes a sharp turn to the south and goes through First Watchung Mountain in another cut , resuming into suburbs again and heading south @-@ southeast as it comes interchanges at CR 660 and CR 508 Spur .
The terrain becomes urban soon after exit 10 , when it enters Orange . Here , I @-@ 280 narrows back to six lanes and heads onto a depressed alignment with frequent overpasses , running a short distance to the south of New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line . Along this portion , the roadway has ramps to Essex Avenue , Day Street , and Center Street . Continuing into East Orange , the freeway passes under more streets as it runs next to the Morristown Line , interchanging with Harrison Street and Clinton Street . At a full interchange with the Garden State Parkway , I @-@ 280 also has access to CR 509 and Oraton Parkway . Following this junction , the highway widens to eight lanes before becoming ten lanes at the border with Newark .
After crossing under more city streets , the roadway comes to exit 13 , a left @-@ side exit and entrance to and from the west accessing 1st Street and a ramp from the east to Orange Street . At this point , the total amount of lanes on the road decreases from ten to four and I @-@ 280 eastbound heads up and over the exit 13 ramps , rejoining the westbound lanes on a bridge over First Street , Orange Street and the Newark City Subway . As the road returns to surface level and begins to parallel the Morris & Essex Lines and Montclair @-@ Boonton Line to the north , an unused bridge carries the western end of the 1954 section of freeway over the railroad to Orange Street east of Duryea Street . After this , I @-@ 280 passes under Clifton Avenue , which it has access to , and Nesbitt Street . It rises again to pass over Martin Luther King Boulevard , which is also has access to , Broad Street and Route 21 . Just after a large interchange with Route 21 , I @-@ 280 crosses the Passaic River again on the six @-@ lane William A. Stickel Memorial Bridge , a 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) vertical lift bridge , into Harrison , Hudson County .
I @-@ 280 continues to run just north of the railroad as a six @-@ lane freeway through Harrison , reaching an interchange with CR 508 . The road continues southeast through urban surroundings before turning east and passing to the north of a railroad yard , splitting from the railroad line as it runs into Kearny and enters the New Jersey Meadowlands . At the final interchange with CR 508 , I @-@ 280 has access to the Holland Tunnel via Route 7 , US 1 / 9 Truck and Route 139 . Past CR 508 , the freeway narrows to four lanes and comes to the toll plaza for the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) at exit 15W , at which point I @-@ 280 ends . Full access is provided with the Western Spur of the New Jersey Turnpike , which carries through I @-@ 95 traffic ; ramps to and from the north on the Eastern Spur of the New Jersey Turnpike allow for access to the Lincoln Tunnel via Route 495 .
Replacement of partial access in central Harrison with service roads , a new interchange , and an overpass ( to improve access to Harrison Avenue , the PATH station , and Red Bull Arena , and to give north @-@ south passage to local street traffic ) is in the planning stages .
= = History = =
What is now the easternmost part of I @-@ 280 was legislated as Route 25A in 1939 . This route was a branch of Route 25 ( US 1 / 9 ) that ran from Jersey City west through Kearny and Harrison across the Passaic River and into Newark , connecting with Route 21 and Clifton Avenue . The William A. Stickel Memorial Bridge opened in 1949 , with approaches stretching east to Harrison Avenue ( now CR 508 ) in Harrison ( crossing Cleveland Avenue and Hamilton Street at @-@ grade ) and west beyond Route 21 to Broad Street . Route 25A was redesignated as Route 58 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and the next year an extension opened west beyond Clifton Avenue to Orange Street east of Duryea Street .
Around the time the Stickel Bridge opened , the Essex Freeway was planned to connect US 46 in Morris County east to the New Jersey Turnpike in Hudson County , with the intention of alleviating traffic along Route 10 . During planning for the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s , the Bureau of Public Roads proposed an Interstate Highway along Route 3 , to the north of Newark . The New Jersey State Highway Department countered with the proposed Essex Freeway , which would run from I @-@ 80 to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) via the existing Route 58 , saying that the Route 3 corridor " does not meet Interstate standards , and cannot be economically converted to such standards . " The Essex Freeway was selected as the interstate corridor , which was called FAI Corridor 105 before being designated I @-@ 280 in 1958 .
Construction progressed slowly , starting in 1960 near Orange . There were many obstacles that had to be overcome when constructing I @-@ 280 . The first was whether to build the highway on an elevated or depressed alignment through urbanized areas of East Orange and Newark . Following opposition to the elevated option , it was decided to build I @-@ 280 on a depressed alignment through the area . In addition , there was an issue of building the road across First Watchung Mountain in West Orange . A tunnel had initially been considered , although the expense of such a project caused this alternative to be rejected . Instead , a rock cut along a longer route was built through the mountain . Much of the material that was excavated from this section of I @-@ 280 and east was removed via a temporary rail line that was built in the center of the right @-@ of @-@ way west to I @-@ 80 .
The construction of I @-@ 280 destroyed a large part of the historic urban cores of Orange , East Orange , and Newark . The Interstate passed through the historic downtown cores of East Orange and Orange , and many commercial buildings and historic Victorian homes were demolished in the process .
I @-@ 280 fully opened west from Newark to I @-@ 80 in Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills in 1973 . The portion of I @-@ 280 east of Newark was planned onto an alignment that would disrupt the fewest homes and would utilize existing railroad and utility right @-@ of @-@ way . The section east from Newark to the New Jersey Turnpike was built in 1979 @-@ 80 . In the 1966 plans , I @-@ 280 was to continue east to I @-@ 78 in Jersey City near the Holland Tunnel , following the CR 508 and Route 7 corridors ; this was planned again in the 1970s but never built .
In the 1990s , the Route 58 designation was officially removed from I @-@ 280 through Newark . In 2001 , the state determined the Stickel Bridge over the Passaic River and its approaches were structurally deficient and was going to need to be replaced after sections of it were falling apart . Instead of replacing the bridge , in 2007 the NJDOT decided to rehabilitate it at a lower cost . Reconstruction of the bridge was completed in April 2009 at a cost of $ 33 million .
I @-@ 280 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar powered emergency call boxes every 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , however with the advent of cell phones the usage of these call boxes became extremely limited . To save on maintenance costs , the NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .
= = Exit list = =
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= Dimetrodon =
Dimetrodon ( / daɪˈmiːtrədɒn / ; meaning " two measures of teeth " ) is an extinct genus of synapsid that lived during the Early Permian period , around 295 – 272 million years ago ( Ma ) . It is a member of the family Sphenacodontidae . The most prominent feature of Dimetrodon is the large sail on its back formed by elongated spines extending from the vertebrae . It walked on four legs and had a tall , curved skull with large teeth of different sizes set along the jaws . Most fossils have been found in the southwestern United States , the majority coming from a geological deposit called the Red Beds in Texas and Oklahoma . More recently , fossils have been found in Germany . Over a dozen species have been named since the genus was first described in 1878 .
Dimetrodon is often mistaken for a dinosaur or as a contemporary of dinosaurs in popular culture , but it became extinct some 40 million years before the first appearance of dinosaurs . Reptile @-@ like in appearance and physiology , Dimetrodon is nevertheless more closely related to mammals than to modern reptiles , though it is not a direct ancestor or descendant of mammals .
Dimetrodon is assigned to a group traditionally called " mammal @-@ like reptiles " — more recently termed " stem @-@ mammals " or " non @-@ mammalian synapsids " . That is , many vertebrate paleontologists today group Dimetrodon together with mammals in an evolutionary group , or clade , called Synapsida , while they place dinosaurs with living reptiles and birds in a separate clade , Sauropsida . Single openings in the skull behind each eye , known as temporal fenestrae , and other skull features distinguish Dimetrodon and mammals from most of the earliest sauropsids .
Dimetrodon was probably one of the top predators in Early Permian ecosystems , feeding on fish and tetrapods , including reptiles as well as amphibians . Smaller Dimetrodon species may have had different ecological roles . The sail of Dimetrodon may have been used to stabilize its spine or to heat and cool its body as a form of thermoregulation . Some recent studies argue that the sail would have been ineffective at removing heat from the body , and was most likely used in sexual display .
= = Description = =
Dimetrodon was a quadrupedal , sail @-@ backed synapsid . Most Dimetrodon species ranged in length from 1 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 to 15 @.@ 1 ft ) and are estimated to have weighed between 28 and 250 kilograms ( 62 and 551 lb ) . The largest known species of Dimetrodon is D. angelensis at 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) and the smallest is D. teutonis at 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) . The larger species of Dimetrodon were among the largest predators of the Early Permian , although the closely related Tappenosaurus , known from skeletal fragments in slightly younger rocks , may have been even larger at an estimated 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in total body length .
= = = Skull = = =
A single large opening on either side of the back of the skull links Dimetrodon with mammals and distinguishes it from most of the earliest sauropsids , which either lack openings or have two openings . Features such as ridges on the inside of the nasal cavity and a ridge at the back of the lower jaw are thought to be part of an evolutionary progression from early tetrapods ( four @-@ limbed vertebrates ) to mammals .
The skull of Dimetrodon is tall and compressed laterally , or side @-@ to @-@ side . The eye sockets are positioned high and far back in the skull . Behind each eye socket is a single hole called an infratemporal fenestra . An additional hole in the skull , the supratemporal fenestra , can be seen when viewed from above . The back of the skull ( the occiput ) is oriented at a slight upward angle , a feature that it shares with all other early synapsids . The upper margin of the skull slopes downward in a convex arc to the tip of the snout . The tip of the upper jaw , formed by the premaxilla bone , is raised above the part of the jaw formed by the maxilla bone to form a maxillary " step . " Within this step is a diastema , or gap in the tooth row .
= = = = Teeth = = = =
The size of the teeth varies greatly along the length of the jaws , lending Dimetrodon its name , which means " two measures of tooth " in reference to sets of small and large teeth . One or two pairs of caniniforms ( large pointed canine @-@ like teeth ) extend from the maxilla . Large incisor teeth are also present at the tips of the upper and lower jaws , rooted in the premaxillae and dentary bones . Small teeth are present around the maxillary " step " and behind the caniniforms , becoming smaller further back in the jaw .
Many teeth are widest at their midsections and narrow closer to the jaws , giving them the appearance of a teardrop . Teardrop @-@ shaped teeth are unique to Dimetrodon and other closely related sphenacodontids , and help distinguish them from other early synapsids . As in many other early synapsids , the teeth of most Dimetrodon species are serrated at their edges . The serrations of Dimetrodon teeth were so fine that they resembled tiny cracks . The dinosaur Albertosaurus had similarly crack @-@ like serrations , but , at the base of each serration was a round void , which would have functioned to distribute force over a larger surface area and prevent the stresses of feeding from causing the crack to spread through the tooth . Unlike Albertosaurus , Dimetrodon teeth lacked adaptations that would stop cracks from forming at their serrations . The teeth of D. teutonis lack serrations , but still have sharp edges .
A study in 2014 shows that Dimetrodon was in an arms race against its prey . The smaller species , D.milleri had no serrations since it ate small prey . As the prey grew larger , Dimetrodon started developing serrations and increasing in size . D.limbatus had enamel serrations that help it cut through flesh , and the same serrations can be found on Secodontosaurus . The second largest dimetrodon species , D.grandis , has denticle serrations similar to sharks and theropod dinosaurs , making its teeth even more specialized to slice through flesh . This study not only shows the evolution of Dimetrodon over millions of years , but also shows that Dimetrodon was in an arms race against its prey . As prey grew larger , Dimetrodon countered it by growing larger and having sharper teeth .
= = = = Nasal cavity = = = =
On the inner surface of the nasal section of skull are ridges called nasoturbinals , which may have supported cartilage that increased the area of the olfactory epithelium , the layer of tissue that detects odors . These ridges are much smaller than those of later synapsids from the Late Permian and Triassic , whose large nasoturbinals are taken as evidence for warm @-@ bloodedness because they may have supported mucous membranes that warmed and moistened incoming air . Thus , the nasal cavity of Dimetrodon is transitional between those of early land vertebrates and mammals .
= = = = Jaw joint and ear = = = =
Another transitional feature of Dimetrodon is a ridge in the back of the jaw called the reflected lamina . The reflected lamina is found on the articular bone , which connects to the quadrate bone of the skull to form the jaw joint . In later mammal ancestors , the articular and quadrate separated from the jaw joint while the articular developed into the malleus bone of the middle ear . The reflected lamina became part of a ring called the tympanic annulus that supports the ear drum in all living mammals .
= = = Tail = = =
The tail of Dimetrodon makes up a large portion of its total body length and includes around 50 caudal vertebrae . Tails were missing or incomplete in the first described skeletons of Dimetrodon ; the only caudal vertebrae known were the eleven closest to the hip . Since these first few caudal vertebrae narrow rapidly as they progress farther from the hip , many paleontologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries thought that Dimetrodon had a very short tail . It was not until 1927 that a largely complete tail of Dimetrodon was described .
= = = Sail = = =
The sail of Dimetrodon is formed by elongated neural spines projecting from the vertebrae . Each spine varies in cross @-@ sectional shape from its base to its tip in what is known as " dimetrodont " differentiation . Near the vertebra body , the spine cross section is laterally compressed into a rectangular shape , and closer to the tip , it takes on a figure @-@ eight shape as a groove runs along either side of the spine . The figure @-@ eight shape is thought to reinforce the spine , preventing bending and fractures . A cross section of the spine of one specimen of Dimetrodon giganhomogenes is rectangular in shape but preserves figure @-@ eight shaped rings close to its center , indicating that the shape of spines may change as individuals age . The microscopic anatomy of each spine varies from base to tip , indicating where it was embedded in the muscles of the back and where it was exposed as part of a sail . The lower or proximal portion of the spine has a rough surface that would have served as an anchoring point for the epaxial muscles of the back , and also has a network of connective tissues called Sharpey 's fibers that indicate it was embedded within the body . Higher up on the distal ( outer ) portion of the spine , the bone surface is smoother . The periosteum , a layer of tissue surrounding the bone , is covered in small grooves that presumably supported the blood vessels that vascularized the sail . The large groove that runs the length of the spine was once thought to be a channel for blood vessels , but since the bone does not contain vascular canals , the sail is not thought to have been as highly vascularized as once thought . Some specimens of Dimetrodon preserve deformed areas of the neural spines that appear to be healed @-@ over fractures . The cortical bone that grew over these breaks is highly vascularized , suggesting that soft tissue must have been present on the sail to supply the site with blood vessels . Layered lamellar bone makes up most of the neural spine 's cross @-@ sectional area , and contains lines of arrested growth that can be used to determine the age of each individual at death . In many specimens of D. gigashomogenes the distal portions of spines bend sharply , indicating that the sail would have had an irregular profile in life . Their crookedness suggests that soft tissue may not have extended all the way to the tips of the spines , meaning that the sail 's webbing may not have been as extensive as it is commonly imagined .
= = = Skin = = =
No fossil evidence of Dimetrodon 's skin has yet been found . Impressions of the skin of a related animal , Estemmenosuchus , indicate that it would have been smooth and well @-@ provided with glands . Dimetrodon also may have had large scutes on the underside of its tail and belly , as other synapsids did .
= = Species = =
= = Classification history = =
= = = First descriptions by Cope = = =
Fossils now attributed to Dimetrodon were first studied by American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in the 1870s . Cope had obtained the fossils along with those of many other Permian tetrapods ( four @-@ limbed vertebrates ) from several collectors who had been exploring a group of rocks in Texas called the Red Beds . Among these collectors were Swiss naturalist Jacob Boll , Texas geologist W. F. Cummins , and amateur paleontologist Charles Hazelius Sternberg . Most of Cope 's specimens went to the American Museum of Natural History or to the University of Chicago 's Walker Museum ( most of the Walker fossil collection is now housed in the Field Museum of Natural History ) .
Sternberg sent some of his own specimens to German paleontologist Ferdinand Broili at Munich University , although Broili was not as prolific as Cope when it came to describing specimens . Cope 's rival Othniel Charles Marsh also collected some bones of Dimetrodon , which he sent to the Walker Museum . The first use of the name Dimetrodon came in 1878 when Cope named the species Dimetrodon incisivus , Dimetrodon rectiformis , and Dimetrodon gigas in the scientific journal Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society .
However , the first description of a Dimetrodon fossil came a year earlier , when Cope named the species Clepsydrops limbatus from the Red Beds of Texas . ( The name Clepsydrops was first coined by Cope in 1875 for sphenacodontid remains from Vermilion County , Illinois , and was later employed for many sphenacontid specimens from Texas ; many new species of sphenacodontids from Texas were assigned to either Clepsydrops or Dimetrodon in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . ) C. limbatus was reclassified as a species of Dimetrodon in 1940 , meaning that Cope 's 1877 paper was the first record of Dimetrodon .
Cope was the first to describe a sail @-@ backed synapsid with the naming of Clepsydrops natalis in his 1878 paper , although he called the sail a fin and compared it to the crests of the modern basilisk lizard ( Basilicus ) . Sails were not preserved in the specimens of D. incisivus and D. gigas that Cope described in his 1878 paper , but elongated spines were present in the D. rectiformis specimen he described . Cope commented on the purpose of the sail in 1886 , writing , " The utility is difficult to imagine . Unless the animal had aquatic habits , and swam on its back , the crest or fin must have been in the way of active movements ... The limbs are not long enough nor the claws acute enough to demonstrate arboreal habits , as in the existing genus Basilicus , where a similar crest exists . "
= = = Early 20th century descriptions = = =
In the first few decades of the twentieth century , American paleontologist E. C. Case authored many studies on Dimetrodon and described several new species . He received funding from the Carnegie Institution for his study of many Dimetrodon specimens in the collections of the American Museum of Natural History and several other museums . Many of these fossils had been collected by Cope but had not been thoroughly described , as Cope was known for erecting new species on the basis of only a few bone fragments .
Beginning in the late 1920s , paleontologist Alfred Romer restudied many Dimetrodon specimens and named several new species . In 1940 , Romer coauthored a large study with Llewellyn Ivor Price called " Review of the Pelycosauria " in which the species of Dimetrodon named by Cope and Case were reassessed . Most of the species names considered valid by Romer and Price are still used today .
= = = New specimens = = =
In the decades following Romer and Price 's monograph , many Dimetrodon specimens were described from localities outside Texas and Oklahoma . The first was described from the Four Corners region of Utah in 1966 and another was described from Arizona in 1969 . In 1975 , Olson reported Dimetrodon material from Ohio . A new species of Dimetrodon called D. occidentalis ( meaning " western Dimetrodon " ) was named in 1977 from New Mexico . The specimens found in Utah and Arizona probably also belong to D. occidentalis .
Before these discoveries , a theory existed that a Midcontinental seaway separated what is now Texas and Oklahoma from more western lands during the Early Permian , isolating Dimetrodon to a small region of North America while a smaller sphenacodontid called Sphenacodon dominated the western area . While this seaway probably did exist , the discovery of fossils outside Texas and Oklahoma show that its extent was limited and that it was not an effective barrier to the distribution of Dimetrodon .
In 2001 , a new species of Dimetrodon called D. teutonis was described from the Lower Permian Bromacker locality at the Thuringian Forest of Germany , extending the geographic range of Dimetrodon outside North America for the first time .
= = Phylogenetic classification = =
Dimetrodon is an early member of a group called synapsids , which include mammals and many of their extinct relatives , though it is not an ancestor any mammal ( which appeared millions of year later ) . It is often mistaken for a dinosaur in popular culture , despite having become extinct some 40 million years ( Ma ) before the first appearance of dinosaurs in the Triassic period . As a synapsid , Dimetrodon is more closely related to mammals than to dinosaurs or any living reptile . By the early 1900s most paleontologists called Dimetrodon a reptile in accordance with Linnean taxonomy , which ranked Reptilia as a class and Dimetrodon as a genus within that class . Mammals were assigned to a separate class , and Dimetrodon was described as a " mammal @-@ like reptile " . Paleontologists theorized that mammals evolved from this group in ( what they called ) a reptile @-@ to @-@ mammal transition .
= = = Phylogenetic taxonomy of Synapsida = = =
Under phylogenetic systematics , the descendants of the last common ancestor of Dimetrodon and all living reptiles would include all mammals because Dimetrodon is more closely related to mammals than to any living reptile . Thus , if it is desired to avoid the clade that contains both mammals and the living reptiles , then Dimetrodon must not be included in that clade — nor any other " mammal @-@ like reptile " . Descendants of the last common ancestor of mammals and reptiles ( which appeared around 310 Ma in the Late Carboniferous ) are therefore split into two clades : Synapsida , which includes Dimetrodon and mammals , and Sauropsida , which includes living reptiles and all extinct reptiles more closely related to them than to mammals .
Within clade Synapsida , Dimetrodon is part of the clade Sphenacodontia , which was first proposed as an early synapsid group in 1940 by paleontologists Alfred Romer and Llewellyn Ivor Price , along with the groups Ophiacodontia and Edaphosauria . All three groups are known from the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian . Romer and Price distinguished them primarily by postcranial features such as the shapes of limbs and vertebrae . Ophiacodontia was considered the most primitive group because its members appeared the most reptilian , and Sphenacodontia was the most advanced because its members appeared the most like a group called Therapsida , which included the closest relatives to mammals . Romer and Price placed another group of early synapsids called varanopids within Sphenacodontia , considering them to be more primitive than other sphenacodonts like Dimetrodon . They thought varanopids and Dimetrodon @-@ like sphenacodonts were closely related because both groups were carnivorous , although varanopids are much smaller and more lizard @-@ like , lacking sails .
The modern view of synapsid relationships was proposed by paleontologist Robert R. Reisz in 1986 , whose study included features mostly found in the skull rather than in the postcranial skeleton . Dimetrodon is still considered a sphenacodont under this phylogeny , but varanodontids are now considered more basal synapsids , falling outside clade Sphenacodontia . Within Sphenacodontia is the group Sphenacodontoidea , which in turn contains Sphenacodontidae and Therapsida . Sphenacodontidae is the group containing Dimetrodon and several other sail @-@ backed synapsids like Sphenacodon and Secodontosaurus , while Therapsida includes mammals and their mostly Permian and Triassic relatives .
Below is the cladogram Clade Synapsida , which follows this phylogeny of Synapsida as modified from the analysis of Benson ( 2012 ) .
= = = Clade Synapsida = = =
The below cladogram shows the relationships of a few Dimetrodon species , from Brink et al . , ( 2015 ) .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Function of neural spines = = =
Paleontologists have proposed many ways in which the sail could have functioned in life . Some of the first to think about its purpose suggested that the sail may have served as camouflage among reeds while Dimetrodon waited for prey , or as an actual boat @-@ like sail to catch the wind while the animal was in the water . Another is that the long neural spines could have stabilized the trunk by restricting up @-@ and @-@ down movement , which would allow for a more efficient side @-@ to @-@ side movement while walking .
= = = = Thermoregulation = = = =
In 1940 , Alfred Romer and Llewellyn Ivor Price proposed that the sail served a thermoregulatory function , allowing individuals to warm their bodies with the sun 's heat . In the following years , many models were created to estimate the effectiveness of thermoregulation in Dimetrodon . For example , in a 1973 article in the journal Nature , paleontologists C. D. Bramwell and P. B. Fellgett estimated that it took a 200 kilograms ( 440 lb ) individual about one and a half hours for its body temperature to rise from 26 to 32 ° C ( 79 to 90 ° F ) . In 1986 , Steven C. Haack concluded that the warming was slower than previously thought and that the process probably took four hours . Using a model based on a variety of environmental factors and hypothesized physiological aspects of Dimetrodon , Haack found that the sail allowed Dimetrodon to warm faster in the morning and reach a slightly higher body temperature during the day , but that it was ineffective in releasing excess heat and did not allow Dimetrodon to retain a higher body temperature at night . In 1999 , a group of mechanical engineers created a computer model to analyze the ability of the sail to regulate body temperature during different seasons , and concluded that the sail was beneficial for capturing and releasing heat at all times in the year .
Most of these studies give two thermoregulatory roles for the sail of Dimetrodon : one as a means of warming quickly in the morning , and another as a way to cool down when body temperature becomes high . Dimetrodon and all other Early Permian land vertebrates are assumed to have been cold @-@ blooded or poikilothermic , relying on the sun to maintain a high body temperature . Because of its large size , Dimetrodon had high thermal inertia , meaning that changes in body temperature occurred more slowly in it than in smaller @-@ bodied animals . As temperatures rose in the mornings , the small @-@ bodied prey of Dimetrodon could warm their bodies much faster than could something the size of Dimetrodon . Many paleontologists including Haack have proposed that the sail of Dimetrodon may have allowed it to warm quickly in the morning in order to keep pace with its prey . The sail 's large surface area also meant heat could dissipate quickly into the surroundings , useful if the animal needed to release excess heat produced by metabolism or absorbed from the sun . Dimetrodon may have angled its sail away from the sun to cool off or restricted blood flow to the sail to maintain heat at night .
In 1986 , J. Scott Turner and C. Richard Tracy proposed that the evolution of a sail in Dimetrodon was related to the evolution of warm @-@ bloodedness in mammal ancestors . They thought that the sail of Dimetrodon enabled it to be homeothermic , maintaining a constant , albeit low , body temperature . Mammals are also homeothermic , although they differ from Dimetrodon in being endothermic , controlling their body temperature internally through heightened metabolism . Turner and Tracy noted that early therapsids , a more advanced group of synapsids closely related to mammals , had long limbs which can release heat in a manner similar to that of the sail of Dimetrodon . The homeothermy that developed in animals like Dimetrodon may have carried over to therapsids through a modification of body shape , which would eventually develop into the warm @-@ bloodedness of mammals .
Recent studies on the sail of Dimetrodon and other sphenacodontids support Haack 's 1986 contention that the sail was poorly adapted to releasing heat and maintaining a stable body temperature . The presence of sails in small @-@ bodied species of Dimetrodon such as D. milleri and D. teutonis does not fit the idea that the sail 's purpose was thermoregulation because smaller sails are less able to transfer heat and because small bodies can absorb and release heat easily on their own . Moreover , close relatives of Dimetrodon such as Sphenacodon have very low crests that would have been useless as thermoregulatory devices . The large sail of Dimetrodon is thought to have developed gradually from these smaller crests , meaning that over most of the sail 's evolutionary history , thermoregulation could not have served an important function .
Larger bodied specimens of Dimetrodon have larger sails relative to their size , an example of positive allometry . Positive allometry may benefit thermoregulation because it means that , as individuals get larger , surface area increases faster than mass . Larger @-@ bodied animals generate a great deal of heat through metabolism , and the amount of heat that must be dissipated from the body surface is significantly greater than what must be dissipated by smaller @-@ bodied animals . Effective heat dissipation can be predicted across many different animals with a single relationship between mass and surface area . However , a 2010 study of allometry in Dimetrodon found a different relationship between its sail and body mass : the actual scaling exponent of the sail was much larger than the exponent expected in an animal adapted to heat dissipation . The researchers concluded that the sail of Dimetrodon grew at a much faster rate than was necessary for thermoregulation , and suggested that sexual selection was the primary reason for its evolution .
= = = = Sexual selection = = = =
The allometric exponent for sail height is similar in magnitude to the scaling of interspecific antler length to shoulder height in cervids . Furthermore , as Bakker ( 1970 ) observed in the context of Dimetrodon , many lizard species raise a dorsal ridge of skin during threat and courtship displays , and positively allometric , sexually dimorphic frills and dewlaps are present in extant lizards ( Echelle et al . 1978 ; Christian et al . 1995 ) . There is also evidence of sexual dimorphism both in the robustness of the skeleton and in the relative height of the spines of D. limbatus ( Romer and Price 1940 ) .
= = = Sexual dimorphism = = =
Dimetrodon may have been sexually dimorphic , meaning that males and females had slightly different body sizes . Some specimens of Dimetrodon have been hypothesized as males because they have thicker bones , larger sails , longer skulls , and more pronounced maxillary " steps " than others . Based on these differences , the mounted skeletons in the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH 4636 ) and the Field Museum of Natural History may be males and the skeletons in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science ( MCZ 1347 ) and the University of Michigan Museum of Natural History may be females .
= = Paleoecology = =
Fossils of Dimetrodon are known from the United States ( Texas , Oklahoma , New Mexico , Arizona , Utah and Ohio ) and Germany , areas that were part of the supercontinent Euramerica during the Early Permian . Within the United States , almost all material attributed to Dimetrodon has come from three geological groups in north @-@ central Texas and south @-@ central Oklahoma : the Clear Fork Group , the Wichita Group , and the Pearce River Group . Most fossil finds are part of lowland ecosystems which , during the Permian , would have been vast wetlands . In particular , the Red Beds of Texas is an area of great diversity of fossil tetrapods , or four @-@ limbed vertebrates . In addition to Dimetrodon , the most common tetrapods in the Red Beds and throughout Early Permian deposits in the southwestern United States , are the amphibians Archeria , Diplocaulus , Eryops , and Trimerorhachis , the reptiliomorph Seymouria , the reptile Captorhinus , and the synapsids Ophiacodon and Edaphosaurus . These tetrapods made up a group of animals that paleontologist Everett C. Olson called the " Permo @-@ Carboniferous chronofauna , " a fauna that dominated the continental Euramerican ecosystem for several million years . Based on the geology of deposits like the Red Beds , the fauna is thought to have inhabited a well @-@ vegetated lowland deltaic ecosystem .
= = = Food web = = =
Olson made many inferences on the paleoecology of the Texas Red beds and the role of Dimetrodon within its ecosystem . He proposed several main types of ecosystems in which the earliest tetrapods lived . Dimetrodon belonged to the most primitive ecosystem , which developed from aquatic food webs . In it , aquatic plants were the primary producers and were largely fed upon by fish and aquatic invertebrates . Most land vertebrates fed on these aquatic primary consumers . Dimetrodon was probably the top predator of the Red Beds ecosystem , feeding on a variety of organisms such as the large shark Xenacanthus , the aquatic amphibians Trimerorhachis and Diplocaulus , and the terrestrial tetrapods Seymouria and Trematops . Insects are known from the Early Permian Red Beds and were probably involved to some degree in the same food web as Dimetrodon , feeding small reptiles like Captorhinus . The Red Beds assemblage also included some of the first large land @-@ living herbivores like Edaphosaurus and Diadectes . Feeding primarily on terrestrial plants , these herbivores did not derive their energy from aquatic food webs . According to Olson , the best modern analogue for the ecosystem Dimetrodon inhabited is the Everglades . The exact lifestyle of Dimetrodon ( amphibious to terrestrial ) has long been controversial , but bone microanatomy supports a terrestrial lifestyle , which implies that it would have fed mostly on land , on the banks , or in very shallow water .
The only species of Dimetrodon found outside the southwestern United States is Dimetrodon teutonis from Germany . Its remains were found in the Tambach Formation in a fossil site called the Bromacker locality . The Bromacker 's assemblage of Early Permian tetrapods is unusual in that there are few large @-@ bodied synapsids serving the role of top predators . D. teutonis is estimated to have been only 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , too small to prey on the large diadectid herbivores that are abundant in the Bromacker assemblage . It more likely ate small vertebrates and insects . Only three fossils can be attributed to large predators , and they are thought to have been either large varanopids or small sphenacodonts , both of which could potentially prey on D. teutonis . In contrast to the lowland deltaic Red Beds of Texas , the Bromacker deposits are thought to have represented an upland environment with no aquatic species . It is possible that large @-@ bodied carnivores were not part of the Bromacker assemblage because they were dependent on large aquatic amphibians for food .
= = = Juveniles = = =
Although some Dimetrodon species could grow very large , many juvenile specimens are known .
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= Hurricane Isabel =
Hurricane Isabel was the costliest , deadliest , and strongest hurricane in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . The ninth named storm , fifth hurricane , and second major hurricane of the season , Isabel formed near the Cape Verde Islands from a tropical wave on September 6 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day .
In North Carolina , the storm surge from Isabel washed out a portion of Hatteras Island to form what was unofficially known as Isabel Inlet . Damage was greatest along the Outer Banks , where thousands of homes were damaged or even destroyed . The worst of the effects of Isabel occurred in Virginia , especially in the Hampton Roads area and along the shores of rivers as far west and north as Richmond and Washington , DC . Virginia reported the most deaths and damage from the hurricane . About 64 % of the damage and 68 % of the deaths occurred in North Carolina and Virginia . Electric service was disrupted in areas of Virginia for several days , some more rural areas were without electricity for weeks , and local flooding caused thousands of dollars in damage .
Moderate to severe damage extended up the Atlantic coastline and as far inland as West Virginia . Roughly six million people were left without electric service in the eastern United States from the strong winds of Isabel . Rainfall from the storm extended from South Carolina to Maine , and westward to Michigan . Throughout the path of Isabel , damage totalled about $ 5 @.@ 7 billion ( 2003 USD , $ 7 @.@ 33 billion 2016 USD ) . 16 deaths in seven U.S. states were directly related to the hurricane , with 35 deaths in six states and one Canadian province indirectly related to the hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 1 . An area of low pressure associated with the wave moved slowly westward , and its convection initially appeared to become better organized . On September 3 , as it passed to the south of the Cape Verde islands , organization within the system degraded , though convection increased the next day . The system gradually became better organized , and Dvorak classifications began early on September 5 . Based on the development of a closed surface circulation , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen early on September 6 . Hours later , it intensified into Tropical Storm Isabel , though operationally the National Hurricane Center did not begin issuing advisories until 13 hours after it first developed .
Located within an area of light wind shear and warm waters , Isabel gradually organized as curved bands developed around a circular area of deep convection near the center . It steadily strengthened as it moved to the west @-@ northwest , and Isabel strengthened to a hurricane on September 7 subsequent to the development of a large , yet ragged eye located near the deepest convection . The eye , overall convective pattern , and outflow steadily improved in organization , and deep convection quickly surrounded the 40 @-@ mile ( 60 km ) -wide eye . Isabel intensified on September 8 to reach major hurricane status while located 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda . On September 9 , Isabel reached a primary peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) for around 24 hours , a minimal Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Early on September 10 , the eyewall became less defined , the convection near the eye became eroded , and northeasterly outflow became slightly restricted . As a result , Isabel weakened slightly to a Category 3 hurricane . The hurricane turned more to the west due to the influence of the Bermuda @-@ Azores High . Later on September 10 , Isabel restrengthened to a Category 4 hurricane after convection deepened near the increasingly organizing eyewall . The hurricane continued to intensify , and Isabel reached its peak intensity of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) on September 11 , a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Due to an eyewall replacement cycle , Isabel weakened slightly , though it retained Category 5 status for 24 hours . As Isabel underwent another eyewall replacement cycle , outflow degraded in appearance and convection around the eye weakened , and early on September 13 Isabel weakened to a strong Category 4 hurricane . A weakness in the ridge to its north allowed the hurricane to turn to the west @-@ northwest . After completing the replacement cycle , the hurricane 's large 40 mile ( 65 km ) wide eye became better defined , and late on the 13th Isabel re @-@ attained Category 5 status . A NOAA Hurricane Hunter Reconnaissance Aircraft flying into the hurricane launched a dropsonde which measured an instantaneous wind speed of 233 mph ( 375 km / h ) , the strongest instantaneous wind speed recorded in an Atlantic hurricane . Cloud tops warmed again shortly thereafter , and Isabel weakened to a strong Category 4 hurricane early on September 14 . Later that day , it re @-@ organized , and for the third time it attained Category 5 status while located 400 miles ( 650 km ) north of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
Cloud tops around the center warmed again early on September 15 and Isabel weakened to a Category 4 hurricane . Later that day , the inner core of deep convection began to deteriorate while the eye decayed in appearance . As a ridge to its northwest build southeastward , it resulted in Isabel decelerating as it turned to the north @-@ northwest . Increasing vertical wind shear contributed in weakening the hurricane further , and Isabel weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on September 16 while located 645 miles ( 1035 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Convection remained minimal , though outflow retained excellent organization , and Isabel remained a Category 2 hurricane for two days until making landfall between Cape Lookout and Ocracoke Island on September 18 with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . It weakened after it made landfall , though due to its fast forward motion Isabel remained a hurricane until reaching western Virginia early on September 19 . After passing through West Virginia as a tropical storm , Isabel became extratropical over Western Pennsylvania including Pittsburgh . The system crossed Lake Erie into Canada . Early on September 20 , the extratropial remnant of Isabel was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm over the Cochrane District of Ontario .
= = Preparations = =
Two days before Isabel made landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch from Little River , South Carolina to Chincoteague , Virginia , including the Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds and the lower Chesapeake Bay . The NHC also issued a tropical storm watch south of Little River , South Carolina to the mouth of the Santee River , as well as from Chincoteague , Virginia northward to Little Egg Inlet , New Jersey . Hurricane and tropical storm warnings were gradually issued for portions of the East Coast of the United States . By the time Isabel made landfall , a tropical storm warning existed from Chincoteague , Virginia to Fire Island , New York and from Cape Fear , North Carolina to the mouth of the Santee River in South Carolina , and a hurricane warning existed from Chincoteague , Virginia to Cape Fear . Landfall forecasts were very accurate ; from three days prior , the average track forecast error for its landfall was only 36 miles ( 58 km ) , and for 48 hours in advance the average track error was 18 miles ( 29 km ) .
Officials declared mandatory evacuations for 24 counties in North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland , though in general not many left . According to a survey conducted by the United States Department of Commerce , evacuation rates were estimated as follows ; 45 % in the Outer Banks , 23 % in the area around the Pamlico Sound , 23 % in Virginia , and about 15 % in Maryland . The threat of Isabel resulted in the evacuation of hundreds of thousands of residents , primarily in North Carolina and Virginia , and included more than 12 @,@ 000 residents staying in emergency shelters .
19 major airports along the East Coast of the United States were closed , with more than 1 @,@ 500 flights canceled . The Washington Metro and Metrobus system closed prior to the arrival of the storm , and Amtrak canceled nearly all trains south of the nation 's capital . Schools and businesses throughout its path closed prior to Isabel 's arrival to allow time to prepare ; hardware and home improvement stores reported brisk business of plywood , flashlights , batteries , and portable generators , as residents prepared for the storm 's potential impact . The federal government was closed excluding emergency staff members . The United States Navy ordered the removal of 40 ships and submarines and dozens of aircraft from naval sites near Norfolk , Virginia .
A contingency plan was established at the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery that , should the winds exceed 120MPH , the guards could take positions in the trophy room ( above the Tomb Plaza and providing continual sight of the Tomb ) but the plan was never implemented . However , it spawned an urban legend that the Third Infantry sent orders to seek shelter , orders that were deliberately disobeyed .
On September 18 , the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued heavy rainfall and wind warnings for portions of southern Ontario . A gale warning was also issued for Lake Ontario , eastern Lake Erie , the Saint Lawrence River and Georgian Bay . A news report on September 14 warned conditions could be similar to the disaster caused by Hurricane Hazel 49 years prior , resulting in widespread media coverage on the hurricane . Researchers on a Convair 580 flight studied the structure of Isabel transitioning into an extratropical storm , after two similar studies for Hurricane Michael in 2000 and Tropical Storm Karen in 2001 . While flying in a thunderstorm , ice build forced the plane to descend .
= = Impact = =
Strong winds from Isabel extended from North Carolina to New England and westward to West Virginia . The winds , combined with previous rainfall which moistened the soil , downed many trees and power lines across its path , leaving about 6 million electricity customers without power at some point . Parts of coastal Virginia , especially in the Hampton Roads and Northeast North Carolina areas , were without electricity for almost a month . Coastal areas suffered from waves and its powerful storm surge , with areas in eastern North Carolina and southeast Virginia reporting severe damage from both winds and the storm surge . Throughout its path , Isabel resulted in $ 3 @.@ 6 billion in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 4 @.@ 63 billion 2016 USD ) and 51 deaths , of which 16 were directly related to the storm 's effects .
The governors of Pennsylvania , West Virginia , Maryland , New Jersey , and Delaware declared states of emergency . Isabel was the first major hurricane to threaten the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and the Upper South since Hurricane Floyd in September 1999 . Isabel 's greatest effect was due to flood damage , the worst in some areas of Virginia since 1972 's Hurricane Agnes . More than 60 million people were affected to some degree — a similar number to Floyd but more than any other hurricane in recent memory .
= = = Caribbean and Southeast United States = = =
Powerful surf affected the northern coastlines of the islands in the Greater Antilles . Strong swells also lashed the Bahamas . During most hurricanes , the location of the Bahamas prevents powerful swells of Atlantic hurricanes from striking southeast Florida . However , the combination of the location , forward speed , and strength of Isabel produced strong swells through the Providence Channel onto a narrow 10 mile ( 16 km ) stretch of the southeastern Florida coastline ; wave heights peaked at 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) at Delray Beach . The swells capsized a watercraft and injured its two passengers at Boynton Beach , and a swimmer required assistance to be rescued near Juno Beach . Minor beach erosion was reported in Palm Beach County . In the northern portion of the state , waves reached up to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) in height at Flagler Beach , causing the Flagler Beach Pier to be closed due to damaged boards from the waves . Rip currents from Isabel killed a surfer at an unguarded beach in Nassau County , with an additional six people requiring rescue from the currents . The beaches were later closed during the worst of the rough surf .
In northeastern South Carolina , the outer rainbands produced moderate winds reaching 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at Myrtle Beach . Rainfall was light , peaking at 1 @.@ 34 inches ( 34 mm ) in Loris .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Isabel produced moderate to heavy damage across eastern North Carolina , totaling $ 450 million ( 2003 USD , $ 579 million 2016 USD ) . Damage was heaviest in Dare County , where storm surge flooding and strong winds damaged thousands of houses . The storm surge produced a 2 @,@ 000 foot ( 600 m ) wide inlet on Hatteras Island , unofficially known as Isabel Inlet , isolating Hatteras by road for two months . Strong winds downed hundreds of trees of across the state , leaving up to 700 @,@ 000 residents without power . Most areas with power outages had power restored within a few days . The hurricane directly killed one person and indirectly killed two in the state .
= = = Virginia = = =
The storm surge assailed much of southeastern Virginia causing the worst flooding seen in the area since the 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , peaking at an estimated 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) in Richmond along the James River . The surge caused significant damage to homes along river ways , especially along the middle reaches of the James River basin . The strong storm surge surpassed the floodgate to the Midtown Tunnel while workers attempted to close the gate ; about 44 million US gallons ( 170 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water flooded the tunnel entirely in just 40 minutes , with the workers barely able to escape . The damage to the electrical grid and flooding kept Old Dominion University , Norfolk State University , Virginia Commonwealth University and many of the region 's other major educational institutions closed for almost a week . Further inland , heavy rainfall was reported , peaking at 20 @.@ 2 inches ( 513 mm ) in Sherando , Virginia , causing damage and severe flash flooding . Winds from the hurricane destroyed over 1 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 9 @,@ 000 more ; damage in the state totaled about $ 1 @.@ 85 billion ( 2003 USD , $ 2 @.@ 38 billion 2016 USD ) , among the costliest tropical cyclones in Virginia history . The passage of Isabel also resulted in 32 deaths in the state , 10 directly from the storm 's effects and 22 indirectly related .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
About 1 @.@ 24 million people lost power throughout Maryland and Washington , D.C. The worst of Isabel 's effects came from its storm surge , which inundated areas along the coast and resulted in severe beach erosion . In Eastern Maryland , hundreds of buildings were damaged or destroyed by the storm surge and related tidal flooding . The most severe flooding occurred in the southern portions of Dorchester and Somerset counties and on Kent Island in Queen Anne 's County . Thousands of houses were affected in Central Maryland , with severe storm surge flooding reported in Baltimore and Annapolis . Washington , D.C. sustained moderate damage , primarily from the winds . Throughout Maryland and Washington , damage totaled about $ 945 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 22 billion 2016 USD ) , with only one direct fatality due to flooding .
The effects of the hurricane in Delaware were compounded by flooding caused by the remnants of Tropical Storm Henri days before . Moderate winds of up to 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Lewes downed numerous trees , tree limbs , and power lines across the state , leaving at least 15 @,@ 300 without power . Numerous low @-@ lying areas were flooded due to high surf , strong storm surge , or run @-@ off from flooding further inland . The passage of Hurricane Isabel resulted in $ 40 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 51 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) and no casualties in the state .
= = = Northeast United States = = =
The winds from Isabel downed hundreds of trees and power lines across New Jersey , leaving hundreds of thousands without power ; a falling tree killed one person . Rough waves and a moderate storm surge along the coastline caused moderate to severe beach erosion , and one person was killed from the rough waves . Damage in the state totaled $ 50 million ( 2003 USD , $ 64 @.@ 3 million 2016 USD ) .
The passage of Hurricane Isabel in Pennsylvania resulted in $ 160 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 206 million 2016 USD ) and 2 indirect deaths in Pennsylvania . One person suffered from carbon monoxide poisoning , believed to be caused due to improperly ventilated generators in an area affected by the power outages . Moderate winds left about 1 @.@ 4 million customers without power across the state as a result of trees falling into power lines , with dozens of houses and cars damaged by the trees .
Damage in New York totaled $ 90 million ( 2003 USD , $ 116 million 2016 USD ) , with Vermont reporting about $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 129 @,@ 000 2016 USD ) . Falling trees from moderate winds downed power lines across the region , causing sporadic power outages . Two people died in the region as a result of the hurricane , both due to the rough surf from Isabel .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In West Virginia , the storm produced moderate rainfall across the state that peaked at 6 @.@ 88 in ( 175 mm ) near Sugar Grove . The rainfall resulted in mudslides and flash flooding , covering several roads and washing away two bridges . The South Branch Potomac River crested at 24 @.@ 7 feet ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) , 9 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) above flood state near Springfield . The flooding broke a levee at Michael Field , and in Mineral County one school and 14 basements were flooded . In Jefferson County , two people required rescue after a car drove into floodwaters . Although sustained winds were weak in the state , wind gusts reached 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) at Martinsburg . With the wet grounds , the wind gusts toppled thousands of trees , which fell onto homes , roads , and power lines . About 1 @.@ 4 million residents across the state were left without power . Damage in the state totaled $ 20 million ( 2003 USD , $ 25 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) . No deaths were reported , and three were injured from the hurricane .
Isabel dropped light to moderate precipitation across the eastern half of Ohio , with isolated locations reporting over 3 in ( 75 mm ) . Moisture from Isabel dropped light rainfall across eastern Michigan and peaked at 1 @.@ 55 inches ( 39 mm ) at Mount Clemens . Additionally , Doppler weather radar estimated rainfall approached 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) in St. Clair County . No damage was reported from Isabel in the region .
Swells from Isabel produced moderate surf along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia , particularly in the Gulf of Maine . Isabel also produced rough surf in Lake Ontario , with waves reaching 4 m ( 13 ft ) along the western portion . At Hamilton , the waves surpassed seawalls and produced spray onto coastal streets . Rainfall peaked at 59 mm ( 2 @.@ 3 in ) , which caused minor flooding and led to one traffic fatality . About 27 @,@ 000 people lost power , mostly near Toronto . The strong pressure gradient between Isabel and a high pressure system over eastern Canada produced strong easterly winds across lakes Ontario and Erie . A buoy in Lake Ontario reported a peak gust of 78 km / h ( 49 mph ) , and gusts reached as strong as 81 km / h ( 51 mph ) at Port Colborne , Ontario .
= = Aftermath = =
By about a week after the passage of the hurricane , President George W. Bush declared disaster areas for 36 North Carolina counties , 77 counties and independent cities in Virginia , the entire state of Maryland , all three counties in Delaware and six West Virginia counties . The disaster declaration allocated the use of federal funds for rebuilding and providing aid in the aftermath of hurricane Isabel . By about four months after the passage of the hurricane , disaster aid totaled about $ 516 million ( 2003 USD , $ 664 million 2016 USD ) , primarily in North Carolina and Virginia . Over 166 @,@ 000 residents applied for individual assistance , with about $ 117 million ( 2003 USD , $ 151 million 2016 USD ) approved for residents to assist with temporary housing and home repairs . About 50 @,@ 000 business owners applied for Small Business Administration loans , with about $ 178 million ( 2003 USD , $ 229 million 2016 USD ) approved for the assistance loans . About 40 @,@ 000 people visited local disaster recovery centers , designed to provide additional information regarding the aftermath of the hurricane .
In North Carolina , hundreds of residents were stranded in Hatteras following the formation of Isabel Inlet . People who were not residents were not allowed to be on the Outer Banks for two weeks after the hurricane due to damaged road conditions . When visitors were allowed to return , many ventured to see the new inlet , despite a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 @-@ km ) walk from the nearest road . Initially , long term solutions to the Isabel Inlet such as building a bridge or a ferry system were considered , though they were ultimately canceled in favor of pumping sand and filling the inlet . Coastal geologists were opposed to the solution , stating the evolution of the Outer Banks is dependent on inlets from hurricanes . Dredging operations began on October 17 , about a month after the hurricane struck . The United States Geological Survey used sand from the ferry channel to the southwest of Hatteras Island , a choice made to minimize the impact to submerged aquatic vegetation and due to the channel being filled somewhat during the hurricane . On November 22 , about two months after the hurricane struck , North Carolina Highway 12 and Hatteras Island were reopened to public access . On the same day , the ferry between Hatteras and Ocracoke was reopened .
In West Virginia , the power outages were restored within a week . Power workers throughout Canada assisted the severely affected power companies from Maryland to North Carolina . Hydro @-@ Québec sent 25 teams to the New York City area to assist in power outages .
Because of widespread property damage and extensive death tolls the name " Isabel " was retired after the 2003 season , and will not be used for future Atlantic hurricanes . It was replaced by " Ida " for the naming list for the 2009 season . The names Ina and Ivy were also suggested as possible replacement names .
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= Upgrade U =
" Upgrade U " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her second studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The song features additional vocals from American rapper Jay @-@ Z. It was composed by Swizz Beatz , Cameron Wallace , Beyoncé , MK , Makeba , Sean Garrett , Angela Beyincé , Jay @-@ Z , Willie Clarke , Clarence Reid , and Beyoncé 's sister , Solange . Columbia Records released " Upgrade U " as a promotional single on November 27 , 2006 in the United States only . " Upgrade U " draws from the genres of hip hop and contemporary R & B. The concept of the song revolves around a woman offering luxuries to a man to upgrade his lifestyle .
" Upgrade U " was generally well received by music critics , some praising Knowles ' assertiveness while singing about her desire to give luxuries to her man . Many also praised the natural chemistry that Knowles and Jay @-@ Z have in the song . After the release of B 'Day , " Upgrade U " started to gain popularity on R & B and hip hop radio stations in the United States . This prompted its pre @-@ release debut on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and later on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; after its promotional release , the song peaked at number 11 and at number 59 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the Hot 100 charts respectively .
The music video for the song was directed by Melina Matsoukas , and took one and a half days of shooting . Knowles did an impersonation of Jay @-@ Z in the clip and is also seen amidst gold watches and jewelry , continuing the motif of luxury that is alluded to in the song . It finally emerged as the forty @-@ fifth best R & B / Hip @-@ Hop song of 2007 in the United States . Although Knowles did not perform " Upgrade U " in any televised appearances , the song was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience tour ( 2007 ) , and I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , as well as her and Jay Z 's joint On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Upgrade U " was written by Knowles , MK , Makeba , Sean Garrett , Angela Beyincé , Jay @-@ Z , Willie Clarke , Blowfly and Solange Knowles ; with production from Swizz Beatz , Cameron Wallace , and Knowles . It was recorded at Sony Music Studios in New York City . T.I. was to be the original guest on the song ; however , he was not able to record his verse for the song due to business reasons . Ultimately , Jay @-@ Z was selected as the featuring artist ; " Upgrade U " becoming his second collaboration with Knowles on B 'Day – the first being " Déjà Vu " ( 2006 ) . The song was released as a twelve @-@ inch promotional single on November 27 , 2006 , in the United States only .
= = Music structure , theme and lyrics = =
" Upgrade U " is a hip hop song , with influences of pop , soul , and modern R & B. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is set in the key of D minor , with a moderate groove of 92 beats per minute in common time . Knowles ' vocals range from the note of G ♯ 3 to E5 . The song features a synth @-@ horn backdrop as well as a bounce @-@ based hand clap beat . Like most of the tracks on the album , the beat is reinforced by the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , while the song also features a heavy bass . " Upgrade U " samples Betty Wright 's 1968 song " Girls Can 't Do What the Guys Do " , composed by Willie Clarke and Clarence Reid . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted that similarities between " Upgrade U " and songs from the Destiny 's Child era in the sense that it could make a " female self @-@ empowerment " anthem . According to Mike Joseph of PopMatters , " Upgrade U " contains " the natural chemistry " that Knowles and Jay @-@ Z have in real life . The concept of the song revolves around a woman offering luxuries to a man , to upgrade the lifestyle and the reputation of the latter ; similar to the concept of " Suga Mama " , another track from B 'Day . Similarly , Phil Harrison of Timeout commented that the song has " a strange business @-@ like " quality , which seems to posit a love affair as a business arrangement .
Throughout the song , both Jay @-@ Z and Knowles name @-@ check a list of goods from prestige brands , companies , and personalities : " Audemars Piguet " , a Swiss watchmaker ; " Jacob the Jeweler " , a celebrity jeweler ; " Cartier " , a jeweler and watch manufacturer ; " Hermès " , a luxury goods company ; " Lorraine Schwartz " , a celebrity jeweler ; " Ralph Lauren Purple Label " , a higher @-@ end division of the famous designer 's clothing line ; " Natura Bisse Diamond Cream " , a diamond dust mixed with cream ; " 6 star pent suites " ( penthouse ) , of which only a handful exist in the world , such as at Crown Macau in China and Dreams Los Cabos near San Jose del Cabo in Mexico ; " The Amalfi Coast " , located in Southern Italy ; " Fendi " , a luxury goods company ; and " The Bloomberg Luxury Accommodation Group " , partly owned by the Calangian and Zobel families and located around the world catering to Hollywood @-@ millionaire types . According to Eb Haynes of AllHipHop , Knowles displays " a lot of strength and confidence " when she mentions the assets she will gift her man to upgrade his lifestyle .
The song opens with a dialogue between Knowles and Jay @-@ Z , with his verse rap sampling the lyrics , " How you gon ' upgrade me ? What 's higher than number one ? You know I used to beat that block . Now I be 's the block . " In the first verse , Knowles sings , " I hear you be the block but I 'm the lights that keep the streets on " . The chorus samples the lyrics : " You need a real woman in your life , that 's a good look [ ... ] Take care of home and still fly , that 's a good look [ ... ] Let me upgrade you , flip a new page " . In the second verse , according to Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe , Knowles " disturbingly conflates transforming her man into a leader " by providing him with Veblen goods with " what Martin [ Luther King , Jr . ] did for the people " , and after declaring herself the equal of her man offers to " let [ him ] take the lead role " . Describing the lyrics of the second verse as Knowles ' " funnier and more idiosyncratic than ever " , Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media commented that she boasts of the song 's " extreme makeover hard @-@ sell " as she probably knows that she is " the only R & B singer " who could deliver those lines " with a straight face . " Before the song ends , Jay @-@ Z performs another verse @-@ rap where he compares " the rock on his lady ’ s finger to a tumor " . In the third verse , Knowles declares to her love interest that his dynasty will ever remain incomplete without " a chief like [ her ] " . She then delivers the chorus again before switching to her fourth and last verse : " Hermes briefcase , Cartier top clips , silk @-@ lined blazers " and the song ends .
= = Critical reception = =
" Upgrade U " received positive reviews from music critics , including those who complimented the assertive way in which Knowles expresses her desire of upgrading her partner with valuable assets . Eb Haynes of AllHipHop called the track " the finest of the Bonnie and Clyde , Ride or Die series " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe complimented the way that Knowles " declares herself an equal " and " disturbingly conflates transforming her man into a leader " . Chris Williams of The Washington Post described the track a reflection of " buy @-@ me @-@ love sentiments " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic considered " Upgrade U " the " most potent track on the album " , which he described as a " low @-@ slung Cameron Wallace production where Beyoncé wears and buys the pants while making her proposition sound more like empowerment than emasculation " . Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media called it a " stiffly blaring " track and praised its lyrics , describing them to paraphrase as eccentric in a pleasant manner . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine found " Upgrade U " could very well be a Destiny 's Child track .
Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald referred to it as a " mechanical " track . Phil Harrison of Timeout commented that " [ ' Upgrade U ' ] hints at ambivalence towards bling aspirations . " Mike Joseph of PopMatters wrote that the song survives not only due to Knowles ' confident vocals , but also due to the chemistry that she and Jay @-@ Z have both in the song and in real @-@ life . He also added that Jay @-@ Z ’ s rhymes strongly suggest that " this rhyme animal is hungrier than ever " . Carolyn Davis of US Magazine described " Upgrade U " as a " catchy track " where Knowles and Jay @-@ Z address rumors concerning " a possible engagement " .
Joy Rosen of Entertainment Weekly 's listed " Upgrade U " at number five on his list of The 10 Best Songs of 2007 , complimenting the collaboration of Knowles and Jay @-@ Z in the song as " both halves of music 's power couple pay tribute to the virtues of materialism . " Shaheem Reid , Jayson Rodriguez and Rahman Dukes of MTV News placed the song at number 11 on his year @-@ end list of 27 Essential R & B Songs of 2007 . " Upgrade U " was nominated in the category of Best Duet / Collaboration at the 2007 BET Awards , but lost to " Runaway Love " by Ludacris ( featuring Mary J. Blige ) .
= = Chart performance = =
After the release of B 'Day , and before " Upgrade U " ' s official release as a single , the song gained popularity on R & B and hip hop radio stations in the United States . Consequently , it entered the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and later the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 92 in the issue dated November 18 , 2006 . After its release as a promotional single , it reached a peak at number fifty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 chart and a peak at number 11 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song re @-@ entered the " Hot 100 " chart on four occasions : it first fell out of the chart on January 13 , 2007 ; re @-@ entered on January 20 , 2007 , at number 94 and charted for two weeks only ; it re @-@ entered the chart on February 10 , 2007 , and was given the title of ' Best Comeback ' , though it fell off the chart the following week ; it re @-@ entered seven weeks later on March 24 , 2007 , at number 98 , and stayed there for two weeks ; The song made its last comeback on the Hot 100 chart on April 14 , 2007 , at number eighty , once again gaining the title of the ' Best Comeback ' . This time it remained in the chart for five weeks . Overall , it remained on the Hot 100 for eighteen non @-@ consecutive weeks . Although not officially released in the United Kingdom , " Upgrade U " charted for three weeks on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number 176 on May 19 , 2007 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Upgrade U " was shot during the two @-@ week filming for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album . It was directed by Melina and Knowles herself . The video was shot between those of " Kitty Kat " and " Green Light " , and took about one and half days of filming . Jay @-@ Z performed his rap scenes first , afterwards Knowles studied his scene , and then did her impersonation of him . Melina said : " If anybody knows Jay @-@ Z , it would be Beyoncé " . Knowles commented on her impersonation of Jay @-@ Z on MTV , " I love what I did in [ ' Upgrade U ' ] because it 's completely out of my character , or at least the character that people think I am . I was pretending to be Jay [ -Z ] , and he was there , and I told him he had to leave , because I couldn 't do it with him in the room — it was way too embarrassing . I think I did a pretty good job . I had the lip curl down ! " The video premiered on February 28 , 2007 , on BET 's 106 & Park , with the video for Knowles ' other single release , " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) featuring Shakira , premiering the same day on Total Request Live ( TRL ) .
In the beginning of the video , Beyoncé is seen mouthing the words of Jay @-@ Z 's lyrics , dressed in masculine hip @-@ hop style clothing . She is later seen wearing vintage Cazal 907 sunglasses while singing in the backseat of a Rolls Royce Silver Cloud III . During the choruses she dances in a gold minidress , in front of a group of male back @-@ up dancers . She continues the Jay @-@ Z imitation through his rapped verse and , halfway through it , Jay @-@ Z appears to finish the rap himself with Beyoncé dancing around him , wearing a classic white dress @-@ shirt . Beyoncé is seen amidst gold watches and jewelry , continuing the motif of luxury that is alluded to in the song . The music video for " Upgrade U " peaked at number six on Black Entertainment Television 's 106 & Park while it peaked at number one in the United Kingdom on MTV Base 's Chart Show on May 16 , 2007 . The music video has been used as a commercial to advertise high definition satellite television from DirecTV ; though portions of the video were re @-@ shot for her announcement .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Although Knowles did not perform the song in any televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience with Jay @-@ Z in Los Angeles on September 2 , 2007 , and her worldwide I Am ... Tour . When Knowles performed the song in Sunrise , Florida , on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittering gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders , and other nightclub equipment pulsed behind her , her dancers and the musicians . Knowles was accompanied by two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three backup vocalists ( collectively called Suga Mama ) , and guitarist Bibi McGill . " Upgrade U " was included as the fourteenth and twenty @-@ second tracks on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) , respectively . " Upgrade U " was part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) .
2 Pistols ' debut single " She Got It " which features T @-@ Pain phrases " let me upgrade u " has been used on his 2008 debut album , Death Before Dishonor . Additionally , Fabolous ' " Make Me Better " featuring Ne @-@ Yo phrases " front page ya " has been used on From Nothin ' to Somethin ' . The phrase " let me upgrade U " from the song has also been used in Lil ' Mama 's " Lip Gloss " , Kanye West 's first verse in the freestyle of Rich Boy 's " Throw Some D 's " , and Bow Wow 's rap verse on the remix of Paula DeAnda 's " Easy " . Lil Wayne performed a freestyle over the beat of " Upgrade U " on his mixtape Da Drought 3 that was also included on Nicki Minaj 's mixtape " Playtime Is Over " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
12 " single
Side I
" Upgrade U " ( album version ) – 4 : 32
" Upgrade U " ( instrumental ) – 4 : 32
Side II
" Upgrade U " ( album version ) – 4 : 32
" Upgrade U " ( a cappella ) – 4 : 32
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .
Beyoncé Knowles and Jay @-@ Z – Vocals
Jason Goldstein – Mixing
Steve Tolle – Assistant Mixer
Sony Music Studios , New York City – Recording Location
Rob Kinelski – Recording Assistant
= = Charts = =
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= A Song Flung Up to Heaven =
A Song Flung Up to Heaven is the sixth book in author Maya Angelou 's series of autobiographies . Set between 1965 and 1968 , it begins where Angelou 's previous book All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ends , with Angelou 's trip from Accra , Ghana , where she had lived for the past four years , back to the United States . Two " calamitous events " frame the beginning and end of the book — the assassinations of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King , Jr . Angelou describes how she dealt with these events and the sweeping changes in both the country and in her personal life , and how she coped with her return home . The book ends with Angelou at " the threshold of her literary career " , writing the opening lines to her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings .
As she had begun to do in Caged Bird , and continued throughout her series , Angelou upheld the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . At the same time she made a deliberate attempt to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Most reviewers agreed that the book was made up of a series of vignettes . By the time Song was written in 2002 , sixteen years after her previous autobiography , Angelou had experienced great fame and recognition as an author and poet . She recited her poem On the Pulse of Morning at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton in 1993 , becoming the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at John F. Kennedy 's in 1961 . She had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . Angelou was , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become , as reviewer Richard Long stated , " a major autobiographical voice of the time " .
The title of Song was based upon the same poem , by African @-@ American poet Paul Lawrence Dunbar , the basis of her first autobiography . Like Angelou 's other autobiographies , the book was greeted with both praise and disappointment , although reviews were generally positive . Reviewers praised Angelou for " the culmination of a unique autobiographical achievement " , while others criticized her for coming across as " smug " . The 2002 spoken @-@ word album by the same name , based on the book , received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 2003 .
= = Background = =
A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) is the sixth of Maya Angelou 's series of autobiographies , and at the time of its publication it was considered to be the final installment . It was completed 16 years after the publication of her previous autobiography , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) and over thirty years after the publication of her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . Angelou wrote two collections of essays in the interim , Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now ( 1993 ) and Even the Stars Look Lonesome ( 1997 ) , which writer Hilton Als called her " wisdom books " and " homilies strung together with autobiographical texts " . She also continued her poetry with several volumes , including a collection of her poems , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) . In 1993 , Angelou recited her poem On the Pulse of Morning at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton , becoming the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 . Her recitation resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " .
By 2002 , when Song was published , Angelou had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . She was , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called her first autobiography " a work of art that eludes description " , stated that Angelou 's series set a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole .
Als called Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , while Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and to " be honest about it " . " Song " took 16 years to write because it was so painful for her to relive the events she described , including the assassinations of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King , Jr . She did not celebrate her birthday , April 4 , for many years because it was also the anniversary of King 's death , choosing instead to send his widow Coretta Scott King flowers . Although Song was considered the final installment in her series of autobiographies , Angelou continued writing about her life story through essays , and at the age of 85 , published her seventh autobiography Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) , which focused on her relationship with her mother . The spoken word album based on Song and narrated by Angelou received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 2003 .
= = = Title = = =
Angelou returned to the same poem she based the title of Caged Bird upon for the title of A Song Flung Up to Heaven , from the third stanza of the Paul Laurence Dunbar poem " Sympathy " . Along with Shakespeare , Angelou has credited Dunbar with forming her " writing ambition " . The caged bird , a symbol for the chained slave , is an image Angelou uses throughout all her writings .
I know why the caged bird sings , ah me ,
When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore ,
When he beats his bars and would be free ;
It is not a carol of joy or glee ,
But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core ,
But a plea , that upward to Heaven he flings —
I know why the caged bird sings .
= = Plot summary = =
A Song Flung Up to Heaven , which takes place between 1965 and 1968 , picks up where Angelou 's previous book , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , ends , with Angelou 's airplane trip from Accra , Ghana , where she has spent the previous four years , back to the United States . Two " calamitous events " frame the beginning and end of the book — the assassinations of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King , Jr . Her nineteen @-@ year @-@ old son Guy has become an adult and is attending college in Ghana , and she is leaving a controlling relationship — her " romantic other " , whom she described as " a powerful West African man who had swept into my life with the urgency of a Southern hurricane " . She had also been invited to return to the US by Malcolm X , whom she had become friends with during his visit to Accra , to help her create the Organization of African Unity .
She postpones meeting with Malcolm X for a month and visits her mother and brother in San Francisco . Malcolm X is assassinated two days later . Devastated and grief @-@ stricken , she moves to Hawaii to be near her brother and to resume her singing and performing career , which she had given up before leaving for Africa several years earlier . She realizes , after seeing Della Reese perform , that she lacks the desire , commitment , and talent to be a singer . She instead returns to her writing career , but this time in Los Angeles instead of in New York City as she had earlier in her life . To earn extra money , Angelou becomes a market researcher in Watts and gets to know the neighborhood and its people . She witnesses the 1965 Watts Riots , knowing that doing so could lead to her arrest , and she is genuinely disappointed that it does not .
At one point , Angelou 's lover from Ghana , whom she calls " the African " , arrives in Los Angeles to take her back to Accra . Angelou enlists the aid of her mother and brother ; they come to her rescue once again by diverting the African first to Mexico and then back to Ghana . Guy , during a visit to his grandmother in San Francisco , gets into another car accident , similar to what happened before he began college in Ghana . His maturity is striking to his mother , and she leaves him in the care of his grandmother .
Angelou returns to New York , where she dedicates herself to her writing and renews many of the friendships made there in the past . She also describes her personal and professional relationships with Ruby Dee , Ossie Davis , Beah Richards , and Frank Silvera . Martin Luther King , Jr. asks her to travel around the country promoting the Southern Christian Leadership Conference . She agrees , but " postpones again " , and he is assassinated on her 40th birthday . Again devastated , she isolates herself until invited to a dinner party also attended by her friend James Baldwin and cartoonist Jules Feiffer and his wife Judy . Judy Feiffer , inspired by her tales about Angelou 's childhood , contacts editor Robert Loomis , who challenges Angelou to write her autobiography as literature . She accepts his challenge , and Song ends with Angelou at " the threshold of her literary career " , writing the opening lines to her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings :
" What are you looking at me for . I didn 't come to stay " .
= = Style and genre = =
Starting with Caged Bird , Angelou made a deliberate attempt while writing all her autobiographies , including Song , to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction . Angelou stated in a 1989 interview that she was the only " serious " writer to choose the genre to express herself . As critic Susan Gilbert stated , Angelou was reporting not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agreed , and viewed Angelou as representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that spoke for an entire group of people . Angelou 's editor Robert Loomis was able to dare her into writing Caged Bird by challenging her to write an autobiography that could be considered " high art " , which she continued throughout her series , including her final autobiography .
Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the genre 's standard structure : they were written by a single author , they were chronological , and they contained elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou called her books autobiographies . When speaking of her unique use of the genre , Angelou acknowledged that she has followed the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . Reviewer Elsie B. Washington agreed , and stated that A Song Flung Up to Heaven " offers a glimpse into the life of a literary icon in the making " influenced by historical events and personalities such as Malcolm X , Martin Luther King , Jr . , and James Baldwin .
Angelou recognized that there were fictional aspects to all her books ; she tended to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . Her approach paralleled the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Author Lyman B. Hagen has placed Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insisted that she has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . In a 1998 interview with journalist George Plimpton , Angelou discussed her writing process , and " the sometimes slippery notion of truth in nonfiction " and memoirs . When asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she has used these facts to make an impact with the reader . As Hagen stated , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " . Hagen also stated that Angelou " fictionalizes , to enhance interest " . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis , agreed , stating that she could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader .
= = Critical reception = =
Like Angelou 's previous autobiographies , Song received mostly positive reviews , although as the Poetry Foundation has said : " Most critics have judged Angelou 's subsequent autobiographies in light of her first , and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings remains the most highly praised . " Kim Hubbard of People Magazine , for example , found Song unsatisfying and " hastily assembled " , but poetic like Caged Bird . Many reviewers appreciated what Kirkus Reviews called Angelou 's " nice structural turn " of framing Song with two assassinations . Paula Friedman of The New York Times Book Review appreciated Angelou 's " occasions of critical self @-@ assessment and modesty " not present in many other autobiographies . Patricia Elam of New Crisis agreed , stating that there is much to admire both about the book and about the " large life " , full of tension , laughter , and love , it describes . Elam also called Song " a spirit @-@ moving work that describes Angelou 's journey through an authentic and artistic life " .
Reviewer Margaret Busby , who saw this book " not so much an ending as a beginning " , called Song " the culmination of a unique autobiographical achievement , a glorious celebration of indomitable spirit " . Like other reviewers , Busby considered Song a series of " beautifully crafted vignettes " and found the book concise and readable . Scholar John McWhorter did not look at Angelou 's use of vignettes as positively , and stated that all of her books were short , divided into " ever shorter " chapters as her series progressed , and " sometimes seem written for children rather than adults " . McWhorter recognized , however , that Angelou 's precise prose and " striking and even jarring simplicity " was due to Angelou 's purposes of depicting African @-@ American culture in a positive way . Busby also recognized Angelou 's ability to find inspirational lessons from adversity , both nationally and personally , although the emphasis in this book was on the personal , especially her dilemmas as a mother and as a lover .
Amy Strong of The Library Journal , perhaps because Angelou 's life during the time the book took place was full of more personal loss than conflict and struggle , considered Song less profound and intense than the previous books in Angelou 's series . She predicted that Song ′ s direct and plainspoken style would be popular . Publishers Weekly , in its review of the book , agreed with Strong and saw " a certain resignation " in Song , instead of " the contentiousness " in Angelou 's other autobiographies . The reviewer also stated that those who lived through the era Angelou described would appreciate her assessment of it , and that Song was " a story of tragedy and triumph , well stated and clearly stamped by her own unique blend of Afro @-@ Americanism " . The assassinations in Song provided the book with depth as Angelou described the events of her life , which would be " mere meanderings " if described by a less skilled writer . The reviewer was able to see Angelou 's " gracious spirit " and found the book " satisfying " , although he considered it a " sometimes flat account " that lacked " the spiritual tone of Angelou 's essays , the openness of her poetry and the drama of her other autobiographies " .
Both McWhorter and scholar Hilton Als found Angelou 's writing throughout her series self @-@ important . Although McWhorter has admitted to being charmed by Angelou 's sense of authority she has inserted into her works , which he calls her " black @-@ mother wit " , he considered Angelou 's autobiographies after Caged Bird " smug " , and has stated that she " implicitly dares the reader to question her private line to God and Truth " . Als agreed , stating what made Song different from her preceding volumes is her " ever @-@ increasing unreliability " . Als stated that Angelou , in her six autobiographies , " has given us ... the self @-@ aggrandizing , homespun , and sometimes oddly prudish story of a black woman who , when faced with the trials of life , simply makes do " . Als believed that Angelou 's essays , written in the 1990s , were a better culmination of her work as an autobiographer .
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= Jif ( lemon juice ) =
Jif is a brand of natural strength lemon juice prepared using lemon juice concentrate and water , whereby the concentrate is reconstituted using water . After reconstitution , it is packaged and marketed . It is sold in the United Kingdom and Ireland by Unilever . Jif is used as a flavourant and ingredient in dishes , and as a condiment . Two tablespoons is around the equivalent of the juice of one lemon . The product has a shelf life of six months .
Jif is packaged in a unique squeeze pack container shaped like a lemon , and in bottles . Development of the plastic container began in the 1950s , and was one of the original blow moulded containers used for food applications . Jif brand lemon juice was established in 1956 . The product is well known for its distinctive packaging , which itself has a unique history .
The original notion of lemon juice being packaged inside lemon @-@ shaped and coloured containers was the brainchild of Edward Hack in the 1950s . Bill Pugh , an English plastics designer , created a prototype based upon Hack 's concept . The company Edward Hack , Ltd. then produced and marketed Hax brand lemon juice in the plastic containers , using juice from Sicily . Stanley Wagner of Coldcrops , Ltd. also independently designed a very similar package , which was used for Realemon brand lemon juice . Realemon was later renamed to ReaLem by Coldcrops . Hax lemon juice was the first to be packaged and marketed in said lemon @-@ shaped container , with Coldcrops following shortly thereafter . A later agreement between Hax and Coldcrops led to Hax leaving the lemon juice business , whereby Coldcrops acquired the marketing rights for lemon juice in plastic lemon containers under the ReaLem brand . Coldcrops was acquired by Reckitt and Colman in 1956 , which rebranded the product under the Jif brand name .
" The Jif Lemon case " occurred in the 1980s , whereby The U.S. company Borden introduced lemon juice packaged in a similar plastic container to the United Kingdom . This resulted in a lawsuit initiated by Reckitt & Coleman against Borden , based upon the notion that Realemon was attempting to copy Jif 's packaging in attempts to mislead consumers , by passing off their product as Jif . The case was settled in 1990 in the Court of Appeal , which ruled in Reckitt & Coleman 's favour .
Jif is sometimes used on pancakes , and was marketed in the past to be used on pancakes for Shrove Tuesday . Due to the extensive advertising campaign and marketing efforts , some consumers referred to Shrove Tuesday as " Jif Lemon Day " .
= = Formulation = =
Jif is prepared from reconstituted lemon concentrate and water as primary ingredients , and is formulated to be the same strength as natural lemons . The concentrate is reconstituted using water . The product contains the food preservative E223 ( sodium metabisulphite ) . Jif has a shelf life of six months . Two tablespoons is the equivalent of the juice of one lemon .
= = = Nutrition information = = =
A 5 ml serving size of Jif provides 1 kcal ( kilocalorie ) of energy and 0 @.@ 1 grams of carbohydrate .
= = = Uses = = =
Jif is used as an ingredient and flavourant in dishes and foods , and as a condiment , such as on pancakes . It may be used to add flavour to salads , sauces , fish and seafood , among other foods . It can be used in recipes that require or recommend the use of lemon juice .
= = Packaging = =
Aside from its unique and well @-@ known plastic , lemon @-@ shaped containers containing 55 ml of juice , usually known as " jiffy lemons " or " jif lemons " , Jif lemon juice is also sold in bottles . The plastic container is a squeeze pack container , whereupon squeezing the container releases juice from its nozzle . Jif containers were embossed with the brand name " Jif " in 1956 , the same year the company came into existence . Contemporary Jif containers have the phrase " Jif real lemon juice " embossed on the side of the squeeze pack .
The Jif plastic containers were originally made from polythene , and were one of the original and first blow moulded containers used for food applications . The plastic containers served to replace glass bottles used to package lemon juice . The plastic container was the brainchild of Edward Hack , and the container 's design was undertaken by Bill Pugh , the chief plastics designer at Cascelloid . In its development , Pugh carved a core made of wood , covered it with fresh lemon peel to give it a realistic texture , and then cast a plaster mould . This led to the realistic @-@ looking container that significantly resembles a lemon .
Some sources have stated that similar plastic lemon packaging existed in Italy at the time of the end of World War II , prior to the time of the packaging design in the United Kingdom .
= = History = =
= = = Hax , Realemon and ReaLem brands = = =
Edward Hack developed the original idea and model of lemon juice being contained inside lemon @-@ shaped and coloured packaging in the 1950s . The product was then designed and produced by Cascelloid Ltd . Hack presented Cascelloid with a fresh lemon he acquired at Covent Garden , upon which to base the plastic container . Hack had performed significant searches at several markets to find an optimal model . Cascelloid stated that Hack reviewed and evaluated the entire inventory of lemons at Fortnum and Mason ’ s , Selfridges , Harrods and Covent Garden , the latter of which involved examining three cases of lemons that contained around 300 lemons in each case .
Bill Pugh , the chief plastics designer at Cascelloid , based in Leicester , and former Royal Air Force pilot , created a prototype of the blown lemon @-@ shaped plastic shaped container based upon Hack 's idea sometime in the 1950s , as well as other types of blown containers . Pugh 's experimented with the initial design until he was satisfied with its appearance . This plastic lemon product was then used for Hax lemon juice . Edward Hack , Ltd. produced and marketed Hax brand squeezable plastic lemon containers filled with two ounces of Sicilian lemon juice . Per Edward Hack , Ltd . , the juice was unfiltered , had no water added to it , and contained a preservative to prevent spoilage . Retailers could purchase the product in packs of six bags that contained 12 squeeze packs each , totalling 72 units . Upon introduction to the marketplace , Hax juice and the plastic lemon design received some press coverage per the unique nature and newness of the design . The Hax logo used on Hax lemon juice dates back to at least 1935 , at which time it was used in advertisements for Hax brand iodine pencils and Hax brand aspirin .
The plastic lemon container and the idea of marketing lemon juice in this manner was also undertaken independently by Stanley Wagner , a businessperson in the frozen food industry , and also a former Royal Air Force fighter pilot . Wagner 's plastic lemon was produced by Shipton , a plastics company . Wagner was with the company Coldcrops , Ltd . , which produced Realemon . The Realemon trademark was developed and used for a lemon juice product based upon reconstitution in the 1940s . Realemon was later renamed to ReaLem by Coldcrops . Hax lemon juice was the first to be packaged and marketed in said lemon @-@ shaped container , with Coldcrops following shortly thereafter with their own design . It is of intrigue to some that both Pugh and Wagner were both former Royal Air Force pilots .
Over the course of a ten @-@ month period from mid @-@ 1955 to early 1956 more than six million of the plastic juice lemons were sold by Coldcrops . This initially began under the brand name " Realemon " , and then after an objection by the then Board of Trade , the name was changed to " ReaLem " and marketed with the slogan " juice in a jiffy " . The Board of Trade objected because it was perceived that Coldcrops was possibly passing off their product as the Realemon brand from the United States . During this same time period , Hax was marketing tomato ketchup and brown sauce in custom @-@ shaped plastic containers , for use on restaurant tables . After a long argument about plastic containers , the two companies agreed that they would not compete with one @-@ another , and Coldcrops took the marketing rights for plastic lemons under the ReaLem brand . Coldcrops would market ReaLem lemon juice and agreed to not enter other plastic container markets .
= = = Jif brand = = =
Reckitt and Colman approached Stanley Wagner to buy Coldcrops , and after a very long negotiation a deal was concluded . A letter from Barclays Bank dated 21 June 1956 reads " Dear Mr Wagner , I have pleasure in enclosing two copies of the Draft for £ ......... credited to your account , which the Bank will be pleased if you will accept as a souvenir of this most successful transaction " . The deal transferred ownership of the packaging and concept from Coldcrops to Reckitt & Coleman , and the new Jif @-@ brand lemon juice was launched in 1956 . All parties were delighted , Stanley Wagner with a substantial sum of money , for those days and a large profit from the six million lemons that had been sold , Reckitt 's even more so because the negotiating team had permission to pay far more for the business than they were able to achieve . Lemon farmers in Sicily were also pleased , because the demand had increased for Sicilian lemon juice , which was largely a by @-@ product of Sicilian lemon oil production . For many years , whilst producing lemon oil , Sicilians had found little use for the juice . Now there was a rapidly growing market for their near @-@ waste product . In 1970 , Jif continued to be prepared with lemon juice from Sicily . Later on , Unilever acquired the Jif brand in 1995 for the price of £ 250m , when it purchased Colman 's of Norwich .
At the time of Jif 's product launch in 1956 , it was marketed with the tagline ' Real lemon juice in a Jif ' . In 1956 , Jif was the sole brand of lemon juice packaged in a squeeze pack container in the United Kingdom . The new Jif brand used the packaging developed by Edward Hack .
= = = Competitors = = =
The U.S. company Borden acquired the rights to the ReaLemon brand of lemon juice in the United States in 1962 when it purchased the ReaLemon @-@ Puritan Company for around $ 12 @.@ 4 million . ReaLemon had began production in the U.S. in the 1930s .
Sales of ReaLemon realized successful profits in Europe in 1975 , at which time Borden expanded into the United Kingdom market , purveying a 250 ml bottle of lemon juice . By 1980 , ReaLemon comprised around 25 % of the U.K. lemon juice market . In response to this competition , Reckitt & Coleman began producing Jif in 150 ml- and 250 ml @-@ sized bottles . Borden then began making plans to market ReaLemon in a lemon @-@ shaped package that was similar to Jif 's packaging . This resulted in a lawsuit initiated by Reckitt & Coleman against Borden , based upon the notion that ReaLemon was attempting to copy Jif 's packaging in attempts to mislead consumers , by passing off their product as Jif .
The case became known as " The Jif Lemon case " , and was settled in 1990 in the Court of Appeal . It was ruled that a sufficient public recognition of Jif 's packaging was existent , which created an established reputation for the brand . The ruling stated that consumers would be " likely to believe that the ReaLemon was a Jif Lemon when they saw it on a supermarket shelf . " The ruling in Reckitt & Colman 's favour occurred even though Reckitt & Colman did not register the plastic lemon packaging .
= = Marketing = =
Jif is sometimes used on pancakes . A well @-@ known advertising campaign introduced the catch @-@ phrase " Don 't forget the pancakes on Jif lemon day , " in reference to Shrove Tuesday , which is also referred to as Pancake Day . The campaign and slogan was devised by Reckitt and Colman . The Jif lemon @-@ shaped packaging aligned Jif with the consumption of pancakes on Shrove Tuesday in consumers ' minds , creating a strong link between the product and Shrove Tuesday . Due to the advertising campaign and marketing efforts , some consumers referred to Shrove Tuesday as " Jif Lemon Day " . Jif and pancakes is a popular combination on Shrove Tuesday . In 2000 , over 80 @,@ 000 Jif lemons were being produced per day to meet consumer demand for Pancake Day , beginning five weeks prior to Pancake Day . This occurred despite fresh lemons having greater availability during this time compared to other time periods .
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= The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse =
The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and published by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1910 . The tale is about housekeeping and insect pests in the home , and reflects Potter 's own sense of tidiness and her abhorrence of insect infestations . The character of Mrs. Tittlemouse debuted in 1909 in a small but crucial role in The Tale of The Flopsy Bunnies , and Potter decided to give her a tale of her own the following year . Her meticulous illustrations of the insects may have been drawn for their own sake , or to provoke horror and disgust in her juvenile readers . 25 @,@ 000 copies of the tale were initially released in July 1910 and another 15 @,@ 000 between November 1910 and November 1911 in Potter 's typical small book format .
Mrs. Tittlemouse is a woodmouse who lives in a " funny house " of long passages and storerooms beneath a hedge . Her efforts to keep her dwelling tidy are thwarted by insect and arachnid intruders who create all sorts of messes about the place : a lost beetle leaves dirty footprints in a passage and a spider inquiring after Miss Muffet leaves bits of cobweb here and there . Her toad neighbour Mr. Jackson lets himself into her parlour , stays for dinner , and searches her storerooms for honey but leaves a mess behind . Poor Mrs. Tittlemouse wonders if her home will ever be tidy again , but after a good night 's sleep , she gives her house a fortnight 's spring cleaning , polishes her little tin spoons , and holds a party for her friends .
Potter 's life had become complicated with the demands of ageing parents and the business of operating a farm before the composition of Mrs. Tittlemouse , and , as a consequence , her literary and artistic productivity began a decline following the tale 's publication . She continued to publish sporadically but much of her work was drawn from decades @-@ old concepts and illustrations . Mrs. Tittlemouse marks the end of her two books a year output for Warnes . Scholars find the book 's depictions of the insects its great attraction . One critic finds a " nightmarish quality " in the tale reflected in Mrs. Tittlemouse 's almost endless war waged against insect pests . Characters from the tale have been modelled as porcelain figurines by Beswick Pottery beginning in 1948 , and the mouse 's image appeared on a Huntley & Palmer biscuit tin in 1955 . Other merchandise has been marketed depicting Mrs. Tittlemouse and her friends . Mrs. Tittlemouse was a character in a 1971 ballet film and her tale was adapted to an animated television series in 1992 .
= = Plot = =
Mrs. Tittlemouse is a tale in which no humans play a part and one in which events are treated as though they have occurred since time immemorial and far from human observance . It is a simple story , and one likely to appeal to young children .
Mrs. Tittlemouse is a " most terribly tidy little mouse always sweeping and dusting the soft sandy floors " in the " yards and yards " of passages and storerooms , nut @-@ cellars , and seed @-@ cellars in her " funny house " amongst the roots of a hedge . She has a kitchen , a parlour , a pantry , a larder , and a bedroom where she keeps her dust @-@ pan and brush next to her little box bed . She tries to keep her house tidy , but insect intruders leave dirty footprints on the floors and all sorts of messes about the place .
A beetle is shooed away , a ladybird is exorcised with " Fly away home ! Your house is on fire ! " , and a spider inquiring after Miss Muffet is turned away with little ceremony . In a distant passage , Mrs. Tittlemouse meets Babbitty Bumble , a bumble bee who has taken up residence with three or four other bees in one of the empty storerooms . Mrs. Tittlemouse tries to pull out their nest but they buzz fiercely at her , and she retreats to deal with the matter after dinner .
In her parlour , she finds her toad neighbour Mr. Jackson sitting before the fire in her rocking chair . Mr. Jackson lives in " a drain below the hedge , in a very dirty wet ditch " . His coat tails drip with water and he leaves wet footmarks on Mrs. Tittlemouse 's parlour floor . She follows him about with a mop and dish @-@ cloth .
Mrs. Tittlemouse allows Mr. Jackson to stay for dinner , but the food is not to his pleasing , and he rummages about the cupboard searching for the honey he can smell . He discovers a butterfly in the sugar bowl , but when he finds the bees , he makes a big mess pulling out their nest . Mrs. Tittlemouse fears she " shall go distracted " as a result of the turmoil and takes refuge in the nut @-@ cellar . When she finally ventures forth , she discovers everybody has left but her house is a mess . She takes some moss , beeswax , and twigs to partly close up her front door to keep Mr. Jackson out . Exhausted , she goes to bed wondering if her house will ever be tidy again .
The fastidious little mouse spends a fortnight spring cleaning . She rubs the furniture with beeswax and polishes her little tin spoons , then holds a party for five other little wood @-@ mice wearing their Regency finery . Mr. Jackson attends but is forced to sit outside because Mrs. Tittlemouse has narrowed her door . He takes no offence at being excluded from the parlour . Acorn @-@ cupfuls of honeydew are passed through the window to him and he toasts Mrs. Tittlemouse 's good health .
= = Background = =
Helen Beatrix Potter was born on July 28 , 1866 in London to barrister Rupert William Potter and his wife Helen ( Leech ) Potter . She was educated by governesses and tutors , and passed a quiet and solitary childhood reading , painting , drawing , tending a nursery menagerie of small animals , and visiting museums and art exhibitions . Her interests in the natural world and country life were nurtured with holiday trips to Scotland , the English Lake District , and Camfield Place , the Hertfordshire home of her paternal grandparents .
Potter 's adolescence was a quiet as her childhood . She grew into a spinsterish young woman whose parents groomed her to be a permanent resident and housekeeper in their home . She wanted to lead a useful life independent of her parents and considered a career in mycology , but the all @-@ male scientific community regarded her as an amateur and she abandoned fungi . She continued to paint and draw , and experienced her first professional artistic success in 1890 when she sold six designs of humanised animals to a greeting card publisher .
In 1900 , Potter revised a tale about a rabbit named Peter she had written for a child in 1893 , and prepared a dummy book of it in imitation of Helen Bannerman 's 1889 best @-@ seller The Story of Little Black Sambo . Unable to find a buyer , she published the book for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901 . Frederick Warne & Co. had earlier rejected the tale , but , anxious to compete in the booming small format children 's book market , reconsidered and accepted it following the recommendation of their prominent children 's book artist L. Leslie Brooke . Potter agreed to colour the pen and ink illustrations of the private edition , and chose the then @-@ new Hentschel three @-@ colour process for reproducing her watercolours . On October 2 , 1902 The Tale of Peter Rabbit was released .
Potter continued to publish children 's books with Warnes and used her sales profits and a small legacy from an aunt to buy Hill Top , a working farm of 34 acres ( 13 @.@ 85 ha ) in the Lake District in July 1905 . On August 25 , Potter 's fiancé and editor Norman Warne died suddenly ; she became very depressed and was ill for many weeks , but rallied to complete the last few tales she had planned or discussed with him .
= = Development and publication = =
In the years following Warne 's death and the purchase of Hill Top , Potter produced tales and illustrations inspired by her farm , its woodland surroundings , and nearby villages . She provided Warnes with two books per annum , but , by 1910 , she was juggling the demands of ageing parents with the business of operating Hill Top , and , as a result , her literary and artistic productivity began to decline . She published only one book in 1910 , The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse , and wrote to a friend on New Year 's Day 1911 :
I did not succeed in finishing more than one book last year ... I find it very difficult lately to get the drawings done . I do not seem to be able to go into the country for a long enough time to do a sufficient amount of sketching and when I was at Bowness last summer I spent most of my time upon the road going backwards & forwards to the farm – which was amusing , but not satisfactory for work .
Mrs. Tittlemouse actually made her debut in 1909 in Potter 's The Tale of The Flopsy Bunnies where she rescued the six children of Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny from Mr. McGregor 's grasp and was rewarded for her heroism with a quantity of rabbit wool at Christmas . In the last illustration , she is wearing a cloak and hood , and a muff and mittens fashioned from the wool . Mrs. Tittlemouse is a key ( not a central ) character in the tale , but a character incompletely personified , and one whose story Potter chose to develop in 1910 .
Potter was an unsentimental naturalist who thought no creature either good or bad , and had no qualms describing earwigs in Mrs. Tittlemouse 's passage or woodlice in her pantry . Her publisher Harold Warne however had different ideas about what was appropriate for a children 's book . He had become accustomed to Potter 's unusual choice of animal subjects through the years , but , ever sensitive to public reaction , thought she had gone a bit too far in Mrs. Tittlemouse with the earwig and the woodlice . The earwig was , at his behest , transmogrified into a beetle and the woodlice into " creepy @-@ crawly people " hiding in Mrs. Tittlemouse 's plate rack . " I can alter the text , when I get the proofs , " she wrote , " and will erase the offensive word ' wood @-@ lice ' ! " Potter argued for the generic term " slaters " for the woodlice , but was overruled . It was decided that an illustration of a centipede ( Miss Maggie Manylegs ) would be withdrawn and replaced with a butterfly .
Potter usually tested a new work on an audience by writing the tale into an exercise book , pasting a few watercolour or pen and ink illustrations into the volume , and presenting the whole as a gift to a child . In the case of Mrs. Tittlemouse , Potter wrote the tale in a small leather @-@ covered notebook 150 by 85 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in × 3 @.@ 3 in ) with twenty @-@ one pages of text and eight watercolours as a New Year 's gift for Warne 's youngest daughter , Nellie . Its inscription read , " For Nellie with love and best wishes for A Happy New Year . Jan. 1 . 1910 " .
The family called it " Nellie 's little book " and , when the book was published with twenty @-@ six colour pictures , the dedication remained the same . 25 @,@ 000 copies of The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse were released in July 1910 and available in a 138 by 104 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 in × 4 @.@ 1 in ) small book format in either blue @-@ grey or buff paper boards at 1 / - or decorated cloth at 1 / 6 . 10 @,@ 000 copies were released in November 1910 and another 5 @,@ 000 copies in November 1911 . Potter was pleased with the bound copies she received . " The buff is the prettiest colour , though it may not keep so clean " , she wrote to Warnes , " I think it should prove popular with little girls . " Her father wrote to the Warne children that his daughter 's sense of humour was ever @-@ fresh and never dull .
Potter intended to follow Mrs. Tittlemouse with a tale about a pig in a large format book similar to the original Ginger and Pickles . On one occasion , she passed an hour sketching inside the pig sty at Hill Top while the pig nibbled at her boots . She abandoned the pig book after fruitless attempts to make progress on it , and , instead , occupied the winter of 1910 – 11 with supervising the production of Peter Rabbit 's Painting Book , and the composition of The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes .
Almost sixty years after the publication of Mrs. Tittlemouse , the character appeared in the 1971 Royal Ballet film , The Tales of Beatrix Potter , and , in 1992 , her tale and The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies were integrated into a single animated episode for the BBC series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends .
= = Illustrations = =
Mrs. Tittlemouse called upon Potter 's keen observation of insects , arachnids , and amphibians , and her youthful experience drawing them . Their depictions in text and illustration reflect her understanding of insect anatomy , colouration , and behaviour ; they are rendered with accuracy , humour , and true to their individual natures – she knew that toads only seek water during the spawning season , for example , and that they can smell honey . The spider and the butterfly are very much like those she drew from microscopic studies in the 1890s .
Potter 's source for the wildlife and the insect drawings in Mrs. Tittlemouse were those she had executed in her early adulthood , either directly from nature or by observing specimens in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum . The interest in the book 's illustrations lies in the microscopic accuracy of the insects rather than in any human qualities exhibited by Mrs. Tittlemouse or Mr. Jackson . Potter is uncharacteristically careless in the depiction of the insects however . They appear to be drawn for their own sake , or seem to be out of scale with the heroine , or to change scale without reason . The ladybird seems larger than Mrs. Tittlemouse , and the spider appears first larger than Mrs. Tittlemouse in one picture and then smaller in another . The bees are sometimes out of scale with both the toad and the mouse .
The nature artist and the fantasy artist in Potter are at odds : the mouse , the toad , and the insects share the same habitat but there seems no logical reason for the mouse and the toad to be humanised while the insects remain their natural selves . Logically , they should be humanised , too . While the toad is an invader like the insects , he does Mrs. Tittlemouse the service of ridding her house of the bees yet is inexplicably excluded from the party , an affront to the reader 's sense of social right and wrong . It is possible Potter 's carelessness in the details of Mrs. Tittlemouse can be attributed to a desire on her part to simply display her ability to draw from nature or to her interest in book production being supplanted by a growing interest in farming and local life and politics in Sawrey .
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
Ruth K. MacDonald of the New Mexico State University writes in Beatrix Potter ( 1986 ) that the tale is about housekeeping and dealing with insect pests in the home , and points out that it reflects Potter 's pride and pleasure in keeping her house at Hill Top tidy . Tales about humanised mice came easily to Potter , but , unlike the urban mice in The Tailor of Gloucester and The Tale of Two Bad Mice , Mrs. Tittlemouse is a country mouse living beneath a hedge somewhere near Potter 's Sawrey . With its narrow passages , small rooms , low ceilings , and well @-@ stocked storerooms , Mrs. Tittlemouse 's dwelling is similar to Potter 's own at Hill Top . The author 's obvious approval of Mrs. Tittlemouse 's fastidious housekeeping has its source in her own pleasure in keeping her farmhouse neat , and ( like Mrs. Tittlemouse ) in being the mistress of her domain . Mrs. Tittlemouse 's abhorrence of insect pests reflects Potter 's own , but the artist in Potter preserves their beauty in the illustrations – she does not censor their antennae or their groping limbs . Potter thought girls would like the tale best , and would experience the same sort of reaction to insect pests she did – to wit , complete horror and disgust .
M. Daphne Kutzer , Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code ( 2003 ) , points out that the tale is a comic one taking place completely indoors and one with an obvious anxiety about dirt . There is not the sort of revelry one would expect in a tale about a miniature household but rather a " desperate sense " of wanting to keep that household free of invaders and unwanted outsiders . The Tale of Two Bad Mice is another tale about a miniature household , but there Potter is on the side of the invading two bad mice . Mrs. Tittlemouse is concerned as much about middle class proprieties as the dolls Lucinda and Jane in The Tale of Two Bad Mice but , in Mrs. Tittlemouse , Potter is on the side of the invaded rather than the invaders , who are purely animals with no human characteristics .
Kutzer attributes some of the tale 's anxiety to Potter 's own unhappiness over her fame as a writer and the intrusiveness of visitors at Hill Top who assumed a presumptuous familiarity with the author or regarded her as nothing more than an exhibit for the tourist to take in . Potter was proprietary over Hill Top and jealously guarded it to and for herself and some of this jealousy is projected onto Mrs. Tittlemouse 's anxiety about the sanctity of her home . She is not a recluse – she invites her friends to a party – but like Potter she needs to be in complete control .
Kutzer thinks the tale has a " nightmarish quality " . Poor Mrs. Tittlemouse cannot keep one step ahead of the various intruders . Although the house is her own , she has no control over who inhabits it : she finds bees nesting in an empty storeroom and woodlice hiding in the plate rack . She is trapped in her own home , her hours occupied with fighting off invaders from without to the point where she is sure she will " go distracted " . Although Mr. Jackson drives the unwanted intruders away , he leaves behind a mess of honey smears , moss , thistledown , and dirty footprints that Mrs. Tittlemouse invests two weeks of her life into cleaning up .
= = Merchandise = =
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with spinoffs such as a Peter Rabbit doll , an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game , and a Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905 . Similar " side @-@ shows " ( as she termed the ancillary merchandise ) were produced over the following two decades .
In 1947 , Frederick Warne & Co. gave the John Beswick Factory of Longton , Staffordshire rights and licences to produce the Potter characters in porcelain . Mrs. Tittlemouse was among the first ten Beswick figurines produced in 1948 , and was followed by Mr. Jackson in 1974 , Mother Lady Bird in 1989 , Babbitty Bumble in 1989 , and another Mrs. Tittlemouse in 2000 . A Mrs. Tittlemouse embossed plate was produced between 1982 and 1984 .
Mrs. Tittlemouse appeared on the lid of a Huntley & Palmer biscuit tin in 1955 , and in 1973 , The Eden Toy Company of New York became the first and only American company to be granted licensing rights to manufacture stuffed Beatrix Potter characters in plush . Mrs. Tittlemouse was released in 1975 . In 1975 , Crummles of Poole , Dorset began manufacturing Beatrix Potter enamelled boxes , and eventually released a 32 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) diameter enamelled box depicting Babbitty Bumble and Mrs. Tittlemouse holding her book .
In 1977 , Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph , Massachusetts was granted licensing rights to Beatrix Potter , and produced a Mrs. Tittlemouse music box playing " It 's a Small World " the same year . A Mr. Jackson flat ceramic Christmas ornament followed in 1984 , and a hanging ornament depicting Mrs. Tittlemouse in her little box bed in 1987 .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all 23 of Potter 's small format books remain in print , and are available as complete sets in presentation boxes . A 400 @-@ page omnibus edition is also available . First editions , early reprints , and limited edition facsimiles of the Mrs. Tittlemouse manuscript are available through antiquarian booksellers .
The English language editions of Potter 's books still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 , despite the company being sold to Penguin Books in 1983 . In 1985 Penguin remade the book 's printing plates from new photographs of the original drawings , and in 1987 released the entire collection as The Original and Authorized Edition .
Potter 's books have been translated into almost 30 languages , including Greek and Russian . The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse was translated into Afrikaans in 1930 as Die Verhaal van Mevrou Piekfyn and into Dutch in 1970 as Het Verhaal die Minetje Miezemuis . Under licence to Fukuinkan @-@ Shoten of Tokyo , in the 1970s The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse and 11 other stories were released in Japanese . In 1986 , MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English @-@ speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated .
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= Striptease ( film ) =
Striptease is a 1996 American erotic comedy film directed , produced , and written by Andrew Bergman , and stars Demi Moore , Burt Reynolds and Ving Rhames . The film is based on Carl Hiaasen 's novel of the same name , and is about a stripper who becomes involved in both a child @-@ custody dispute and corrupt politics .
Striptease was generally reviled by critics . It wound up winning several Golden Raspberry Awards , which are given to the worst in cinema . Among these awards given to Striptease was the Award for Worst Picture of 1996 .
= = Plot = =
The film revolves around former FBI secretary Erin Grant , who loses custody of her young daughter Angela ( Rumer Willis ) to her ex @-@ husband Darrell , who is a criminal and cost Erin her job . To afford an appeal to get her daughter back , Erin becomes a stripper at the Eager Beaver , a Miami strip club . A Congressman named David Dilbeck visits the club and immediately begins to adore Erin . Aware of Dilbeck 's embarrassing indulgences , another Eager Beaver patron approaches Erin with a plan to manipulate the congressman to settle the custody battle and help her get Angela back . However , Dilbeck has powerful business connections who want to ensure he remains in office . Consequently , those who can embarrass him in an election are murdered . Meanwhile , Erin retrieves her daughter from Darrell 's negligent care .
Dilbeck 's personal interest in Erin persists , and she is invited to perform privately for him . He asks her to become his lover and later his wife , despite his staff 's concerns that she knows too much . A debate occurs as to whether to kill Erin or simply keep her quiet by threatening to take away her daughter . However , Erin and a police officer ( Armand Assante ) begin to suspect the congressman 's guilt in the murders , and Erin concocts a plan to bring the congressman to justice . She tricks him into confessing on tape , and he is soon after arrested . Thus , Erin regains full custody of Angela , gets her job in the FBI back , and retires from stripping , and Darrell returns to prison after he is convicted of his crimes .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Castle Rock Entertainment produced Striptease . The film is based on the novel Strip Tease by Floridian crime writer Carl Hiaasen . It was published in 1993 and was a bestseller . The screenplay itself was written by Andrew Bergman , who also directed . According to one critic , the novel 's plot is " quite faithfully followed " by the screenplay , but in bringing the complicated story to the screen , " Bergman forgets to explain persuasively what a nice girl like Erin — smart , spunky and a former FBI employee — is doing in a dump called the Eager Beaver . "
Concerns that the ending of the film was not comical enough resulted in rewrites and reshoots , causing a one @-@ month delay . Part of these concerns owed to test screenings , where audiences objected to a scene where Dilbeck becomes violent . Later test screenings also turned up less than favorable reactions .
= = = Casting = = =
Moore played the main female character , Erin Grant . For the film , she was paid $ 12 @.@ 5 million , which was at the time a record for an actress . To prepare for her role , Moore visited strip clubs in New York City , California , and Florida , and she met with strippers . Moore really did dance topless in the part , and this was the sixth time she showed her breasts on film . She also read the novel , exercised , and practiced yoga . Moore was cast before other important parts were cast , creating some interest in the project . In the first attempt at filming Moore stripping , two hundred actors were used to portray the audience . Although their salaries were small , many accepted the role to see Moore nude . After waiting for a while , when Moore finally appeared and started dancing the crowd turned so loud and wild that the shooting had to temporarily cease . As Moore said , " After my experience , I felt very confident . "
The cast included some notable real @-@ world strippers such as Pandora Peaks . Rhames plays a bouncer named Shad . The filmmakers , in trying actors out for Shad 's part , looked for someone " at least 6 ' 2 and physically massive ... any ethnicity . " ( Rhames is African American ) . Reynolds played Congressman Dilbeck , and he based his performance after politicians he knew in his early life , through his father , a police chief . Reynolds was not an actor that the filmmakers originally had in mind for the part , but Reynolds wanted it , contacted Castle Rock head Rob Reiner , and traveled to Miami to audition . He accepted a salary lower than what he had made in his earlier career . Moore 's own daughter Rumer Willis , who was 7 years old when the film was released , played Erin 's daughter Angela . As Moore explained , " she [ Willis ] wanted it so badly " that Moore asked that Willis be considered for the part . In reality this required Willis to see Moore dancing topless , for a scene in which Angela sees Erin performing . However , Moore said that this was acceptable , as " We don 't shame the body , we encourage the body as something beautiful and natural , and my children bathe with me , and I walk around naked . "
= = Soundtrack = =
Striptease : Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on June 25 , 1996 . While the soundtrack did not include every song heard in the film , a notable exclusion were most tracks Erin ( Demi Moore 's character ) danced to in the film , which , aside from " If I Was Your Girlfriend " by Prince , were all sung by Annie Lennox ( whether as part of the Eurythmics or solo ) . While " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " was featured on the disc , " Money Can 't Buy It " , " Cold " and " Little Bird " were left off , as was " Missionary Man " , which was played during the end credits . Furthermore , it excluded the song " ( Pussy , Pussy , Pussy ) Whose Kitty Cat Are You ? " by the Light Crust Doughboys which won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song .
= = Release = =
Striptease was distributed by Sony and was finally released in the United States on June 28 , 1996 , after a June 23 premiere in New York City . It opened in Australia , France and Germany in August , and Argentina , Italy , Bolivia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , Brazil and Japan in September .
Nudity was heavily emphasized in advertisements . The Motion Picture Association of America raised concerns regarding a posters which it felt revealed too much of Moore 's naked body . A Castle Rock employee argued : " There are racier perfume ads . "
The previous year 's film about nude dancers , Showgirls , was generally disliked , so filmmakers feared audiences would pre @-@ judge Striptease on this basis . To avoid any association , advertisements were designed to make Striptease look more comedic than Showgirls , which was a drama . Besides the subject matter , Striptease and Showgirls did have two notable connections . The choreography in these films was by the same person , Marguerite Derricks . Both also featured performances by Rena Riffel , who plays a dancer in each . To promote the film , Moore appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman and a Barbara Walters special . In both cases , she danced or otherwise exhibited her body .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Striptease received generally negative reviews from film critics . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times complimented some of the characters , but ultimately concluded the film failed because " all of the characters are hilarious except for Demi Moore 's . " He felt the drama surrounding the main character " throws a wetblanket over the rest of the party . " Ebert also found the nudity not too sexy . Leonard Maltin was harsher , writing in his book that the film was too depressing , and " Not funny enough , or dramatic enough , or sexy enough , or bad enough , to qualify as entertainment in any category . " Barbara Cramer concurred with Ebert that Moore 's character was written too dramatically , compared to other characters . She said the film was predictable and would appeal mostly to " post @-@ pubescent schoolboys or closet voyeurs . " However , Cramer also cited Reynolds ' " his best role in years , " and that Rhames was " worth the price of admission . " Brian D. Johnson of Maclean 's , who thought Moore 's acting was terrible , predicted that despite Moore 's financial success , her career depended on the success of this film and the film was " tacky , pretentious @-@ and boring . " This critic described Striptease as displaying Moore 's vanity . Dave Ansen of Newsweek , sharing Ebert 's view on Moore 's character , also claimed Striptease failed as a drama because it had no mystery , revealing the identity of its villains early . Moreover , the " damsel @-@ in @-@ distress angle generates zero tension . " Daniel P. Franklin , in his book Politics and Film : The Political Culture of Film in the United States went so far as to call Striptease " the worst film ever made " and stated " The film pays homage to Moore 's surgical breast enhancement " . Nathan Rabin , reviewing the film for his series " My Year of Flops " , described the film thus : " Moore 's dour lead performance sabotages the film from the get @-@ go . It 's as if director Andrew Bergman told Moore she was acting in a serious drama about a struggling single mother ... and then told everyone else in the cast that they were making a zany crime comedy filled with kooky characters , sleazy hustlers , dumbass opportunists , and outsized caricatures . " Striptease currently holds a 12 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 68 reviews .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film received seven Golden Raspberry nominations and won six , namely for Worst Picture , Worst Director , Worst Screenplay , Worst Actress , Worst Original Song ( " ( Pussy Pussy Pussy ) Whose Kitty Cat Are You ? " ) , and Worst Screen Couple . The only category the film lost was Worst Supporting Actor for Burt Reynolds , which went to Marlon Brando for The Island of Dr. Moreau . In winning the Worst Picture Razzie , Striptease defeated The Island of Dr. Moreau , Barb Wire , The Stupids , and Ed . Moore won for Worst Actress while she and Reynolds shared for Worst Screen Couple .
= = = Box office = = =
Striptease made $ 12 @,@ 322 @,@ 069 in its first weekend , falling behind The Nutty Professor with Eddie Murphy , Eraser starring Arnold Schwarzenegger , and Disney 's The Hunchback of Notre Dame , in which Moore voiced one of the main characters . Ultimately , Striptease made $ 33 @,@ 109 @,@ 743 in the United States , and domestically it was the 47th highest grossing film of 1996 . It made $ 113 @,@ 309 @,@ 743 internationally , having grossed £ 2 @,@ 104 @,@ 480 in the UK and ¥ 102 @,@ 419 @,@ 500 in Japan .
The film 's distribution rights were transferred to Warner Bros. in 1999 .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1997 , Striptease made news again when it was shown in a fourth @-@ grade class in Chicago , Illinois . The teacher claimed the students chose the film , but he drew criticism since the film was risqué . ( The violent 1996 film Scream was shown in the same school on the same day , causing further controversy . ) In 2000 in Ireland , some viewers criticized the Radio Telefís Éireann for running Striptease . These viewers questioned the film 's appropriateness and some considered it demeaning to women . However , the station felt it was not pornography and it was aired at night .
In 2003 , Radioactive Films used a scene from Striptease featuring Moore nude in a video called Hollywood 's Hottest . This raised a dispute as to whether use of the scene qualified as fair use . A lawsuit was launched as a consequence .
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= My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic fandom =
My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic is an animated television series produced by Hasbro as part of the My Little Pony toy franchise , which is tied in with the 2010 launch of dolls and play sets , and original programming for U.S. cable channel Discovery Family ( formerly Hub Network ) . Lauren Faust was selected as the creative developer and executive producer for the show , based on her previous animation experience with shows like The Powerpuff Girls and Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends . Under Hasbro 's guidance , Faust developed the show to appeal to the target demographic of young girls and their parents , but created characters and settings that challenged formerly stereotypical norms of " girly " images , and added adventure and humorous elements to keep parents interested . The show is animated using Flash , and produced at DHX Media 's animation studio in Vancouver , Canada . Its production is overseen by director Jayson Thiessen , who took over as showrunner after Faust stepped down after the second season .
The show received praise from television critics and parental groups . It also found an unlikely audience in a large group of adult Internet users in late 2010 and early 2011 . These fans , mostly male , were drawn to the show 's characters , stories , animation style , and influence of the show 's propagation as an Internet meme . The fandom adopted the name brony ( plural bronies ) , a portmanteau of " bro " and " pony " . Though initially considered to propagate the humorous and ironic concept of people enjoying a show for young girls , the fandom has shown deeper appreciation for the show far beyond this concept , and is considered part of a New Sincerity trend . Its technology @-@ savvy members have created numerous works in writing , music , art , and video based on the show , have established websites and fan conventions for the show , and have participated in charitable events around the show and those that create it . Bronies are a subculture .
The appreciation of the show by an older audience came as a surprise to Hasbro , Faust , and others involved with its development , but they have embraced the older fans while staying focused on the show 's intended audience . Such reciprocity has included participation in fan conventions by the show 's voice actors and producers , recognition of the brony fandom in official promotional material , and incorporating background characters popularized by the fans ( such as the fandom @-@ named " Derpy Hooves " ) into in @-@ jokes within the show . As a result of these efforts in part , My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic has become a major commercial success with the series becoming the highest rated original production in Hub Network 's broadcast history .
= = History = =
One of the first critical reviews of Friendship Is Magic , published shortly after the initial broadcast in October 2010 , was written by Amid Amidi for the animation website Cartoon Brew . Amidi wrote that the show was a sign of " the end of the creator @-@ driven era in TV animation " . Amidi 's essay expressed concern that assigning a talent like Faust to a toy @-@ centric show was part of a trend towards a focus on profitable genres of animation , such as toy tie @-@ ins , to deal with a fragmented viewing audience , and overall " an admission of defeat for the entire movement , a white flag @-@ waving moment for the TV animation industry . " Although the article said this concern was over the fact that more and more shows seem to be driven by company executives who want to sell their products , rather than creators . Though the show had been discussed on 4chan 's cartoon forum before the essay 's publication , the alarmist nature of the essay led to more interest in the show , resulting in a positive response for the series for its plot , characters , and animation style . This reaction soon spread to the other boards of 4chan , where elements of the show quickly inspired recurring jokes and memes on the site . Some of these included adopting phrases from the show like " anypony " , " everypony " , and " nopony " , instead of " anybody " , " everybody " , and " nobody " , or jokingly stating that they watch the show for the " plot " , a reference to the ponies ' flanks .
The number of Friendship Is Magic posts drew attention on the site . Fans of the show defended it against various trolling attacks from other 4chan boards , leading to a temporary ban on the discussion of anything related to ponies . Christopher Poole , the founder of 4chan , briefly acknowledged the popularity of the show on the site at the 2011 South by Southwest festival . Poole has since created a dedicated board for discussion of the show and its fandom . Though the discussion of the show continued at 4chan , fans created other venues to discuss it , and the fandom spread to other Internet forums .
The adult interest in the show is comparable to that of The Magic Roundabout , Tiny Toon Adventures , Rocko 's Modern Life , Animaniacs , Dexters Laboratory , The Powerpuff Girls , SpongeBob SquarePants , Yo Gabba Gabba ! , and Phineas and Ferb : older audiences appreciate jokes aimed at adult viewers and a sense of nostalgia for older cartoons and animated films . Many of the aforementioned shows had attracted college @-@ aged fans who , when Friendship Is Magic was airing , would be raising children of their own . The show references works that older viewers would recognize , such as I Love Lucy , The Benny Hill Show , X @-@ Men , 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Diamond Dogs , The Big Lebowski , The Avengers , Star Wars , and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas . Most of these fans are surprised by their fondness for the show . Shaun Scotellaro , operator of Equestria Daily , one of the main fan websites for the show , said , " Honestly , if someone were to have told me I 'd be writing a pony blog seven months ago , I would have called them insane . " He commented that the spread among adults was accelerated by its presence in online gaming . Mike Fahey , an editor for the gaming website Kotaku , noted that the fandom was " building friendships among a diverse group of people that otherwise might have just sat on either side of the Internet , flinging insults at each other " . Dr. Patrick Edwards , who performed several " Brony Studies " to survey and analyze the fandom , observed that the brony fandom is unlike most other fandoms which " aren 't welcoming to people who are different " , and promote the show 's message of love and tolerance . Further interest came from the furry community , which includes a large number of animation fans . One contributor to " The Brony Study " ( below ) , Dr. Marsha Redden said that the adult fans are " a reaction to the US having been engrossed in terrorism for past ten years " in a manner similar to the Cold War , and are " tired of being afraid , tired of angst and animosity " ; the show and its fandom are outlets from those strifes . She compared the brony fandom to that of the bohemian and beatniks after World War II and of the hippies after the Vietnam War . In a similar vein , Amy Keating Rogers , one of the show 's writers , believes that the fans have come to like Friendship Is Magic due to " so much cynicism and negativity out there in so many [ other ] shows " , while the show " has such a positive message " that counters this .
= = Fan activities = =
Older fans of the show use the word " brony " , a portmanteau of the words " bro " and " pony " . Though this generally refers to male fans , the term is often applied to fans of either gender . Another term , " Pegasister " , has been used to refer to older female fans of the show . Two informal surveys of 2 @,@ 300 and 9 @,@ 000 participants respectively revealed that the average age of adult fans is around 21 , that approximately 86 % were male , and that 63 % were currently pursuing a college degree or higher qualification . A subsequent 2013 survey with over 21 @,@ 000 respondents showed similar numbers , and highlighted that the majority of fans were in the 15 @-@ 30 age range , with the average age between 19 and 20 , and over 65 % were heterosexual . Further , using the Jungian personality test , the survey revealed that the largest fraction of respondents ( approximately 27 % ) fell into the " INTJ " classification , which normally only occurs in 1 @-@ 3 % of the population , according to the surveyors . Many in the fandom who had difficulty in meeting others or being treated fairly by others found the fandom as a way to meet people with similar interests and become more social . Hub Network 's CEO and President Margaret Loesch , who was the executive producer of the 1980s and 1990s animated My Little Pony television shows , noted that there were male fans of those past shows , but there are considerable more for Friendship Is Magic due to the quality of the show and the influence of social media and the Internet .
Some bronies are enlisted personnel in various United States Armed Forces , who have included the various " cutie marks " symbols from the show as insignia on their uniforms or equipment , despite not being appropriate practice for most branches , or worn only during training operations . Margaret Loesch , the CEO and President of The Hub , noted from an email from a group of United States enlisted personnel in Afghanistan explained how they came by the show through way of their daughters , but found the emphasis on teamwork and covering each other 's backs resonated with their military onset . An informal statistical census suggests that as of September 2012 , there are between 7 and 12 @.@ 4 million people in the United States that would identify themselves as bronies .
A more detailed study , " The Brony Study " , is currently being conducted by Dr. Patrick Edwards , a psychology professor at Wofford College with his neuropsychologist associate Dr. Redden . The two had initially compiled one of the forementioned informal surveys and Edwards has presented the results at the ongoing brony conventions . Edwards noted that the brony culture provided " the opportunity to study a fan phenomenon from its inception " , and planned to continue the survey to watch the evolution of the culture . Professor emeritus Bill Ellis of Penn State University has compared the brony culture to that of otaku , fans of Japanese anime . Ellis , speaking at the 2012 AnimeNEXT convention , considered that both bronies and otaku fans are " psychologically and developmentally normal " and are simply " non @-@ majoritarian " in their choice of active interests . Ellis noted that fans of both groups often are ridiculed for their interest in media targeted for the opposite gender .
Though the initial growth of the fandom may have come from 4chan participants enjoying the ironic nature of grown men enjoying a show for girls , the fandom continues to grow based on sincere appreciation of the work . Robert Thompson , a professor of media studies at Syracuse University , stated that " It 's one thing for guys to like motorcycles and muscle cars and soccer . For a guy to like My Little Pony , it 's so out there that it becomes almost avant garde . It has a hip quality to it . " According to Angela Watchcutter of Wired , the fandom is an example of internet neo @-@ sincerity , where these older viewers watch the show " un @-@ ironically " and " without guilt " breaking gender stereotypes , furthermore creating new material around it . Prof. Roberta Pearson of the University of Nottingham in film and television studies stated that " This is a level of fan devotion I 've not seen before , " while Prof. Charles Soukup of the University of Northern Colorado in communication studies suggested that this effort is an indication of the " ultra @-@ cult era " that bronies exhibit , where " media consumers discover extremely unexpected and obscure media texts to cultivate uniqueness and distinctiveness for their mediated identities " .
= = = Online = = =
Websites such as Equestria Daily and Ponychan were created for fans to share artwork , stories , music , and news about the show . Founded in January 2011 , Equestria Daily had over 36 million pageviews in its first 9 months , and has since surpassed 500 million views in June 2014 ; the blog , that receives more than 175 @,@ 000 visits a day and is fully funded by advertising revenue , was established by 23 @-@ year @-@ old college student Shaun Scotellaro for the purpose of collecting fan fiction and news specific to Friendship Is Magic . Shaun eventually cut back on his community college classes in order to continue running the site out of his parents ' house in Glendale , Arizona , when it grew in popularity . He believed the show needed a unified fan base at the time , as there existed an overarching concern that Hasbro would not be authorizing a second season .
= = = Conventions = = =
Fans commonly organize local meet @-@ ups and conventions in their local areas . One of the first published conventions was BronyCon , which was first held in New York City at which the show 's supervising director Thiessen was as a guest . The first convention attracted 100 people , but the third , held in January 2012 , was attended by 800 , and the fourth , where developer Lauren Faust and voice actors John de Lancie , Tara Strong , Andrea Libman , Peter New , Lee Tockar , Amy Keating Rogers , Cathy Weseluck and Meghan McCarthy were special guests which expanded to a two @-@ day event in June 2012 at the Meadowlands Exposition Center in New Jersey , with more than 4 @,@ 000 attending . Tara Strong had even attended the convention Canterlot Gardens in a full Twilight Sparkle cosplay to surprise fans . Subsequent BronyCon events since 2013 moved to a larger space provided by the Baltimore Convention Center , with more than 8 @,@ 000 attending . Other brony conventions include Everfree Northwest in Seattle , Washington , Midwestria in Chicago , Illinois , Canterlot Gardens in Cleveland , Ohio , Equestria LA in Los Angeles , BABSCon in Burlingame , California , Ponycon NY in the metropolitan New York City region , BronyCAN in British Columbia , Canada , GalaCon in Germany , BUCK in Manchester , United Kingdom , PonyCon AU in Sydney , Australia , Crystal Mountain Pony Con in Salt Lake City , Utah and Pacific PonyCon in San Diego , California . Nearly a dozen brony conventions were planned in 2012 . In addition , established My Little Pony conventions prior to the Friendship Is Magic show , such as the " My Little Pony Fair " or " UK PonyCon " , have seen increases in their numbers due to the attendance of bronies . A long @-@ running annual art show , the " My Little Pony Project " , where artists re @-@ imagine My Little Pony figurines and toys into works of art , has also seen additional attendance and contributions from the brony community .
= = = Charity and fundraising = = =
The fandom is considered to be charitable , raising money for a number of different efforts . The Brony Thank You Fund was originally established to create a fan @-@ funded advertisement to air on Hub Network as a thank you to the show 's creators in November 2012 . The charitable drive far exceeded its goal , with additional funds used to give money to provide toys for children through Toys For Tots . The fund has since incorporated in the state of New Hampshire , and successfully registered as a non @-@ profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization under United States law . They claim to be the first such media @-@ related fandom to achieve this status . In December 2013 , the Fund donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to endow an animation scholarship in perpetuity at the California Institute of the Arts . Similarly , a group called " Bronies for Good " ran blood drives and raised over $ 60 @,@ 000 during 2012 for charities like the Children 's Cancer Association , Room to Read , CureSearch , and Your Siblings . Voice actress Tara Strong has gained help from the fandom for her " Kiki 's Cancer Fund " to help the daughter of a close friend who had been diagnosed with a brain tumor , and has stated that the child " wouldn 't be alive today without the My Little Pony fans " ; raising $ 100 @,@ 000 to help however , the girl subsequently died of her illness . Faust enlisted help from the bronies to raise money for the Wildlife Learning Center in California , with the Center offering to name some of its animals after characters in the show when certain donation levels were raised .
In January 2014 , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Morones became hospitalized after attempting suicide from being bullied by others at his school for being a fan of the show ; the brony community subsequently reached out to the family and with several of the show 's production and voice actors , started a charity drive to help pay for his medical bills and starting a non @-@ profit organization to help combat bullying ; the efforts raised over $ 48 @,@ 000 within a week and more than $ 72 @,@ 000 a month later . Many of these donations were raised by Tony Wayne and other tattoo artists across the country , with the funds going to Michael 's family and anti @-@ bullying charities . Thousands of men and women received pony tattoos to both support Michael and show their support for anti @-@ bullying .
The documentary film , Bronies : The Extremely Unexpected Adult Fans of My Little Pony , was funded several times over its requested Kickstarter amount , allowing the filmmakers to expand the scope of the project . An organized group of fans , calling themselves the " Humble Brony Bundle " , accepted donations from its members towards the Humble Indie Bundle , a charitable independent video game sales drive for Child 's Play and the American Red Cross , which topped the contribution list for one sale and contributed the largest single donation for a later sale after a friendly competition with Minecraft developer Markus Persson . In the next major bundle , the same friendly rivalry topped the donation charts ; the Humble Brony Bundle donated over US $ 13 @,@ 000 and exceeded Persson 's and the rest of the leaderboard 's donation .
= = = Arts and entertainment = = =
Many artists use sites such as deviantArt to display fan art based on existing and fan @-@ created characters , more than 500 @,@ 000 pieces of Friendship Is Magic artwork were present on deviantArt by June 2012 . Adult fans have also created a number of plush toys and other figures based on the show 's and fandom @-@ created characters , which they sell on eBay and other auction sites to other fans , sometimes for over 100 US dollars .
Videos that incorporate footage from the show , including music videos , parodies and remakes of movie and video game trailers , are posted regularly on YouTube . One early video that caught media attention was made by high school student Stephen Thomas , using science to dissect some of the physical impossibilities on My Little Pony as part of a class presentation ; it was later featured on the Tosh.0 website . Remixed versions of professional works using Friendship Is Magic footage have been noticed by their creators ; filmmaker Edgar Wright noted My Little Pony versions of the trailers for his films Scott Pilgrim vs. the World and Hot Fuzz . Top Gear 's UK blog team and the UK edition of the Top Gear magazine noted a video using clips of their show featuring pony characters . A fan @-@ made Friendship Is Magic version of South Korean rapper Psy 's " Gangnam Style " music video incorporating an " invisible horse dance " has been highlighted by media outlets as one of the top takes on the video . One fan , Zachary Rich , created a full @-@ length Flash @-@ based fan episode , " Double Rainboom " , as part of his college coursework at the Savannah College of Art and Design . Pony @-@ based videos of " Weird Al " Yankovic 's songs that Yankovic had highlighted in his Twitter feed led to discussions between the musician and the show directors and eventually guest appearance in the show in the fourth season episode " Pinkie Pride " .
The fan community has produced numerous fan fiction works , one of the longest being " Fallout : Equestria " written by " Kkat " based on the Fallout video game series . Some fans have created video games based on Friendship Is Magic , such as the fighting game My Little Pony : Fighting Is Magic , modifications of existing games like Team Fortress 2 and The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , or crossover artwork between the animated show and video game settings . Flash @-@ based applications allow fans to create their own pony characters in the artistic style of the show .
The fandom has been noted for the quantity and diversity of music produced by its members , including cover versions of songs from the show and original songs inspired by the show and its fandom . In January 2014 , BronyTunes ( an iOS and web app ) was released that collected over 7 @,@ 000 songs and remixes inspired by the show . " Everfree Network " , a brony media network , compiled more than 4 @,@ 800 pieces of fan music by over 500 different musicians in late December 2011 . Thiessen commented that many of these fan productions approach the quality of his studio 's work , and suggested the possibility of crowd @-@ sourcing some aspects of future production , while the show 's composer , Daniel Ingram , often features fan @-@ made songs on his personal webspace . A group of fan musicians compiled a charity album of original songs , entitled Smile , which raised over $ 21 @,@ 000 within a month for the Children 's Cancer Association .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Production staff and cast = = =
Lauren Faust , the then @-@ executive producer , expressed appreciation for show 's adult fans on her deviantArt page . Faust had not expected men without children to watch it , but said , " The fact that they did and that they were open @-@ minded and cool enough and secure in their masculinity enough to embrace it and love it and go online and talk about how much they love it — I 'm kind of proud . " Of her surprise to the unexpected fandom , Faust said , " From the messages I 've received , these episodes have lifted spirits , brought parents and kids together , changed perspectives and inspired the most unlikely of people in the most unlikely of places . Who would have thought it from a show about candy colored ponies ? "
Faust noted the cynicism about the brony fandom , and commented that in considering the idea of grown men watching a show for little girls , " They think there 's something wrong with that , something devious about it " ; she noted that it was " upsetting to me that people jump to those conclusions " . Faust believes that her future animated shows aimed at girls will be easier to sell considering the male adult fandom of Friendship Is Magic , and that that type of programming is not as great a risk as is perceived . After Hasbro issued a cease and desist to the Fighting Is Magic project over the use of copyrighted and trademarked characters , Faust offered to provide the developers with original character arts to allow them to continue to develop the game without copyright issues .
The Internet groups surrounding the fandom have enabled the show 's producers to quickly assess their work ; Thiessen stated " As soon as the episode airs , I can go online and see people 's responses in real time " . Many of the creative staff are on various social media services and directly interact with the fandom , including doing questions @-@ and @-@ answer sessions live during the broadcast of new episodes . Ingram was pleased with the fan 's reaction to the show 's music but said , " I never forget about the original demographic of our show , which is six @-@ year @-@ old girls . Just because it 's for kids ... I don 't think that influences me in terms of how sophisticated I want to make the music . "
The voice actors also showed appreciation for adult fans . Andrea Libman , who plays Pinkie Pie and Fluttershy , found that more people wanted to meet her as a result of the show , and commented that among the fan community , " there 's some really talented artists doing really amazing stuff " . Tara Strong , who voices Twilight Sparkle , used Twitter to interact with fans and started a " Twilightlicious " meme trend . Ashleigh Ball , who voices Rainbow Dash and Applejack , attributes increased attention her band Hey Ocean ! has received to the brony community . Child voice actress Michelle Creber , who voices Apple Bloom and provides the singing voice for Sweetie Belle , has collaborated with fan musicians to create new works .
John de Lancie was enthralled by the sudden surge in fandom from the brony community after the broadcast of a two @-@ part second season episode featuring his voice work as Discord ( which Faust had modeled after a character previously voiced by de Lancie , Q from Star Trek : The Next Generation ) , and has embraced the attention . He compared the male fandom of a girl @-@ oriented show to the large number of female fans of the original Star Trek series , and the parallels of what the fans did to support the respective shows . De Lancie helped to make a Kickstarter @-@ funded documentary at the fourth BronyCon convention about the growing fandom , Bronies : The Extremely Unexpected Adult Fans of My Little Pony . Faust , de Lancie and Strong were credited as executive producers on the project . The funding drive ended with over $ 320 @,@ 000 in pledges , making it the second most funded film project on Kickstarter at the time . After its release , the project has announced plans to remake the documentary to incorporate additional footage taken at European fandom gatherings . This has been shown at film festivals in 2013 and released for home media distribution .
Similarly , Ball 's surprise at the appreciation of the fandom led her to participate in another documentary , A Brony Tale , directed by Brent Hodge , recording her participation at the January 2012 BronyCon event in New York City , as well as discussions with members of the fandom . The film , which was picked up for distribution by Morgan Spurlock , debuted to critical praise at the 2014 Tribeca Film Festival , and reached theatrical and home media markets in July 2014 .
At times , portions of the brony fandom have often reacted passionately to changes in the direction of the show , such as in the above change to " The Last Roundup " episode involving the Derpy Hooves character . Similarly , the Season 3 finale episode " Magical Mystery Cure " ended with the main character Twilight Sparkle transforming into a winged unicorn ( alicorn ) and being named a princess . This change was revealed prior to the episode 's airing , and a portion of the fandom were critical of the change , comparing it to a " jump the shark " moment for the show , while others considered that it was a significant change of one of the show 's more popular characters that most of the brony fandom could relate with . The showrunners had to offer that while Twilight 's physical appearance would change , this would not otherwise alter her personality or the general concept of the show . On the announcement of the My Little Pony : Equestria Girls feature @-@ length animated film , in which the pony characters are re @-@ envisioned as human teenage girls going to high school , a large fraction of the adult fandom reacted negatively towards the premise . Several stated that it was a corporate play by Hasbro and veered away from the direction that Faust had envisioned for the show at its onset , while others commented on the cliched aspect of a high school comedy , the overly thin appearance of the human characters , and other factors . The fan site Equestria Daily had issued a caution to its readers to not lash out at the show 's creators who had also worked on the film , and other more predominate figures of the fandom urged others to continue to support the staff . Equestria Daily 's Shaun Scotellaro considered the fandom 's behavior to be " your typical overreaction to something changing in your favorite series " .
= = = = Allusion within the show = = = =
Faust and the production team have acknowledged some of the fandom and fan @-@ created elements of the show and incorporated them into the animation . Though Hasbro 's priority is to deliver a child @-@ friendly show , the writers and production staff , according to Linda Steiner , senior vice president of Hasbro Studios , " We will certainly , for fun , do the ' bronie ' [ sic ] check to see if this could pass with them , but our job is to deliver to the kids first . " Margaret Loesch , president and chief executive of Hub Network , said that they have kept their nods to the fandom to subtle hints . She added , " We haven 't driven this movement , the fans have , and we don 't want to get ahead of that . We want to nourish this phenomenon , not manipulate it . " A writer for the show , Meghan McCarthy , said , " Some pop culture @-@ y things are thrown in , but we don 't want to do anything that 's too ' wink wink ' . It detracts from the story that we 're trying to tell " . Many of the nods to the older audience are drawn in by the storyboard artists and animators , who are challenged to populate scripted scenes with background ponies ; McCarthy points the example of ponies fashioned after the main characters from The Big Lebowski due to having to fill in space for scenes set in a bowling alley for the episode " The Cutie Pox " .
In the first episode , a background Pegasus pony is shown in one scene with a cross @-@ eyed stare , the result of an overlooked animator 's joke . The 4chan boards quickly dubbed the character " Derpy Hooves " ( based on the internet slang word " derp " ) and created a more detailed personality for her despite having minimal on @-@ screen time . Faust responded to the fans , and the production team has kept the " Derpy " character with the cross @-@ eyed look starting with " Feeling Pinkie Keen " , where the team incorporated her into a slapstick sight gag . The character has since become a mascot of the fandom . According to supervising director Jayson Thiessen , the teams considered the character " like a little Easter Egg for people to catch " .
At the conclusion of the first season , one of the show 's animators confirmed that " Derpy " would be a scripted background character in the second season , and was a part of several sight gags . In the original broadcast of the mid @-@ season episode " The Last Roundup " as well as on the home media The Friendship Express release , " Derpy " was called out by name by Rainbow Dash , and given lines ( as voiced by St. Germain ) and klutzy mannerisms as a direct call @-@ out to the brony fandom . Though most of the fans appreciated the inclusion , some viewers had a negative response to the character , believing it insulted the mentally handicapped . Hasbro subsequently modified these scenes , and while " Derpy " is still present in subsequent broadcast and digital versions of the episode , she is not named , and a different voice is used . According to Hasbro 's Nicole Agnello , " Some viewers felt that aspects of the episode ' The Last Roundup ' did not stay true to the core message of friendship which is the heart and soul of the series . Hasbro Studios decided to make slight audio alterations to this single episode . " Despite Hasbro 's intentions , some members of the brony community were disappointed , and some made efforts to restore the original voice . " Derpy " remained in background cameos throughout other episodes in season 2 and 3 . Within season 4 , Derpy was re @-@ introduced , remaining silent and unnamed but with her original wall @-@ eyed look , as a side character in the main story of " Rainbow Falls " . The appearance was planned as a big reveal for the brony fans , according to co @-@ director Jim Miller , and that " she is here to stay " according to Hasbro 's vice president for entertainment Mike Vogel . The Derpy character is used often on Hasbro 's marketing of the show . For example , Hasbro 's exclusive pony toy at the Comic @-@ Con International and My Little Pony Fair in 2012 was based on " Derpy " , and has the same cross @-@ eye look .
Other non @-@ speaking background characters that caught the attention of the fandom have also had expanded roles . A female unicorn pony character , sporting neon colors , wearing sunglasses , and manning a DJ mixer that briefly appeared in " Suited for Success " , was given the stage name " DJ P0N @-@ 3 " in an online poll held by Equestria Daily . This name was reused in the " Equestria Girls " advertisement . The character also appeared as a DJ in the season 2 finale , " A Canterlot Wedding - Part 2 " , and became part of the new release of My Little Pony toys in late 2012 , and was the 2013 San Diego Comic Convention exclusive figurine . The character additionally had an expanded yet non @-@ speaking role in the second Equestria Girls film , Rainbow Rocks .
Fans of the show nicknamed a male character with a brown coat , messy brown mane , and an hourglass Cutie Mark " Doctor Whooves " because of a purported likeness to David Tennant 's portrayal of The Doctor from the long @-@ running BBC television series Doctor Who . The character had a minor speaking role in the episode " Call of the Cutie " and a brief role as a time @-@ keeper in the episode " The Super Speedy Cider Squeezy 6000 " . Other licensed media further carry the homage ; Enterplay 's trading card line associate the character , named " Time Turner " , as dealing with " all things timey @-@ wimey " around Ponyville , alluding to a famous quote from the episode " Blink " , while one of the store @-@ exclusive covers for the Friendship Is Magic comic set the Doctor Whooves character among many iconic Doctor Who elements . The character was openly named Doctor Hooves in The Elements of Harmony : The Official Guidebook , published by Little , Brown and Company . Prof. Colin Burnett of Washington University of St. Louis considered the adoption of these fan names and characteristics within the show as demonstration of co @-@ creative collaboration that can exist in modern media , emphasized by unexpected demographics of bronies that helped to bolster the creators ' success with the work .
As a tribute to the older fan base as well as all other fans of the show , the milestone 100th episode , " Slice of Life " , which was first broadcast in 2015 was produced to feature on several of the background characters that the fans had made popular , including Derpy ( now named " Muffin " ) , Doctor Whooves , and DJ P0N @-@ 3 , among others .
= = = Hasbro and Hub Network = = =
Hasbro and Hub Network ( prior to its rebranding as Discovery Family ) have also sought to market to bronies . Steiner said , " You develop the best show you can , and hope the humour will translate to a broader audience . But I 've been in the business for 25 years and I 've never seen anything like this . " A company spokeswoman said that bronies are " a small group of My Little Pony fans who don 't necessarily fit what one might expect to be the brand 's target audience " , while its core audience in the older market is predominantly females . Despite being an unusual and unexpected audience , Hasbro and Hub Network chose to " salute and embrace all the viewers who have embraced our brand " , according to Margaret Loesch , CEO of Hub Network and former executive producer of the original My Little Pony animated series . Hasbro has allowed the fandom to be an organic movement leading to its growth and success , according to Stephen Davis , head of Hasbro Studios .
Before the brony fandom arose , Hasbro had introduced new My Little Pony toys , including convention @-@ exclusives , at the San Diego Comic Con International . With a brony element in attendance , the convention @-@ exclusive toys have reflected the brony culture ; a large poster was published in 2011 that included several background characters that had attracted the fandom 's interest . A pony toy named " Derpy " was made available for both the convention and My Little Pony Fair in 2012 . Toys " R " Us provided early , limited numbers of new toy based on the zebra character Zecora , due for release in late 2012 by Hasbro . Both Zecora and " Derpy " toys sold out within the first day of the convention . In 2014 , Shapeways announced an association with Hasbro to create 3D printed versions of Friendship Is Magic characters , with fan artists creating and selling their designs under Hasbro 's license and approval . Shapeways had previous published fan @-@ financed and -created models without Hasbro 's license prior to being asked to cease and desist such practice , the new approach with Hasbro 's blessing as been seen as helping to break down the walls between content and fans in the age of social media .
Teenage and adult fans have shown interest in clothing with images from the show ; Erin Comella , brand manager for My Little Pony , said that these fans are " literally dressed in the brand " . Hasbro has been providing its licensed clothing vendors such as Hot Topic with My Little Pony @-@ themed shirts and other apparel for all genders and multiple age groups . In part of the older fanbase , Hasbro has come to consider My Little Pony as a " lifestyle " brand , and as of February 2013 , has arranged over 200 licenses across fifteen categories of products . According to Julie Duffy , Hasbro 's vice president of global brand publicity , while their primary market is the young demographic , " [ Hasbro has ] found ways to strike the right balance by working with licensees to offer [ their ] adult fans exciting merchandise geared just for them " . Though Hasbro has not revealed how much of My Little Pony product sales are bolstered by the brony fandom , Caitlin Dewey of The Washington Post suggests that the continued success of the franchise four years after its introduction is tied in part to bronies ' interest in the show and products , and Hasbro 's williness to market products towards the adult audience .
Hasbro and Hub Network have used advertising parodying others works that are more geared towards the adult fans . Hub Network used a promotional billboard in Los Angeles showing the pony characters parodying the films Bridesmaids and Poltergeist . Hub Network also made a parody of Apple 's technorati @-@ oriented App Store , which included the phrase , " There 's a pony for that . " A promotional campaign leading up to the second season finale , " A Canterlot Wedding " , in which Twilight 's brother Shining Armor marries Princess Cadance , parodied elements of the 2011 British royal wedding , including the placement of an advertisement in the New York Times wedding announcement section .
At the onset of the fandom , Hasbro was generally tolerant of uploads of content and derivative works on sites such as YouTube . However , in late 2011 , a fan @-@ run website called " Ponyarchive " that was reposting the complete , high @-@ definition episodes that were being sold on iTunes for no cost closed down after receiving cease and desist letters from Hasbro . The otherwise " hands @-@ off " policy has enabled the growth of the fandom . In another case , Hasbro was required to take legal action to protect the My Little Pony trademark against a group working on a massively multiplayer online game , MLP : Online , though the developers , after working with Hasbro 's legal team , are seeking to develop a new Friendship Is Magic @-@ related game without the trademark issues . Though many fan @-@ created videos combine copyright footage of Friendship Is Magic with adult elements from films inappropriate for children like Inglourious Basterds or foul language from musical artists such as Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Hasbro has not taken a stance against these videos and has recognized that the parodies and remixes form a culture of participation that has helped to draw larger attention to the show . In light of the Stop Online Piracy Act , Daniel Nye Griffiths of Forbes considered the fans ' re @-@ use of copyrighted works and creation of new works from them as examples of the inevitable result of any media gaining a fandom , and praised Hasbro for embracing the means to extend the brand through this instead of trying endlessly to stop such infringements . More recently , Hasbro has taken a more proactive nature , such as issuing cease and desist letters to more visible projects such as My Little Pony : Fighting Is Magic and MLP Online , and selling episodes on YouTube which in turn has caused some fan videos to run afoul of YouTube 's Content ID system .
A monthly My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic comic began its run in November 2012 by IDW Publishing . The comic , like the show , is aimed to appeal to younger children with their parents , but includes various pop culture and fandom nods to draw in the older readers . IDW has reported that over 100 @,@ 000 copies of the first issue were been pre @-@ ordered , outselling numerous other comic for that month , and making it the best selling issue in IDW 's history , as well as one of the best selling single issue comics of 2012 . IDW have made plans to reprint the first issue to meet further demand as well as republish the first set as a standalone volume early in 2013 . The monthly comic and its separate " micro @-@ series " , featuring single issue stories that focus on one character , have regularly broken in the top 100 issues sold each month , one of the few non @-@ DC , non @-@ Marvel outside of The Walking Dead that appear in this list , and remain IDW 's top @-@ selling publication .
In addition to release official digital albums of songs from the show due to brony demand , Hasbro has worked with Lakeshore Records to create an album of EDM remixes of the show 's songs , entitled DJPON3 Presents My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic Remixed inspired by the numerous fan remixes .
= = = Criticism = = =
The adult fandom has been perceived negatively by others , with coverage of the brony fandom overshadowing the show itself . Much of the fandom 's ridicule from others comes from the perception of the mostly adult male fanbase enjoying a show that is marketed to the young female demographic . Through this , the brony community has encountered ridicule through trolling on internet forums , not only from its inception at 4chan , but after moving away from the site . This has also been called out in popular media . The Fox News Channel comedy talk program Red Eye poked fun at the fandom because it largely consists of young adult males . Kurt Schlichter of BigHollywood.com called the phenomenon a " terrifying new trend " , and wrote , " Hollywood , do you really need to enable the creepy immaturity of these geebos ? No . It 's time to stop the insanity . " Commenting on Schlichter 's article , Greg Pollowitz of the National Review Online wrote that considering the target audience he could not understand the show 's appeal to adult men . Jerry Springer attempted to bring bronies onto his talk for a segment on " Outrageously Guilty Pleasures " , though the fandom warned others about the potential ridicule .
The gender @-@ based criticism has also affected younger male fans of the show , such as with Michael Morones above . Another story that gained national attention was that of Grayson Bruce , a nine @-@ year @-@ old fan who was told to stop bringing a Rainbow Dash backpack to school to prevent bullying that he was receiving . An online campaign to show support for Grayson gained over 32 @,@ 000 supporters on its Facebook page , and the brony fanbase , the show 's creators and voice actors , and various news commentators like Glenn Beck , Ronan Farrow and Eugene Volokh have stood up for the boy 's actions . The school later revised its decision after speaking to the family and clarifying it was not trying to blame the student for the incident .
Some media have been critical of the adult @-@ oriented material created by fans . In some cases , these videos may appear in internet searches that children may perform while looking for online copies of the program or while searching for images of characters from the show , forcing parents to have to discuss pornography and sex with their children . One parody series , drawn by animator Max Gilardi in the style of John Kricfalusi , places the characters in explicit adult situations and was described by the web site io9 as " disgusting ... and most certainly NSFW " . A segment on the The Howard Stern Show in July 2012 weighed on the pornographic aspect of the brony fandom , often referred to as " clop " . Slate 's Amanda Marcotte opined that the transformation of the pony characters into teenage girls for the My Little Pony : Equestria Girls feature film was a move to satisfy the adult fans who " have expressed a strong interest in seeing the Ponies in sexy , humanized forms " . In one case , several media outlets highlighted a letter written by a brony that claimed to be marrying Twilight Sparkle to a fan artist that drew the character in erotic situations to cease such work , as to highlight of the ridiculous nature of the fandom and Internet as a whole . The fandom acknowledges that such material is generated by a subset of the group , but considers it " an unavoidable part of any online fandom " , as described by TV Guide 's Sadie Gennis , and not worry about this facet . A study performed by graduate students from the University of Connecticut found that " a particularly extreme subset " of the brony fandom shows characteristics of hegemonic masculinity , where male members strive to keep their majority in the numbers by purposely excluding and alienating females .
Rebecca Angel , writing for Wired 's Geekmom column , described some of the negative feedback from fellow writers about the mostly male brony culture that included accusations of pedophilia , homosexuality , and immaturity . Angel defended the fandom 's culture , describing adult fans ' interest as a form of escapism , and that the show provides characters they can relate to and talk about with other fans . She also acknowledged the double @-@ standard whereas females can watch male @-@ oriented entertainment without question , while male bronies receive criticism about their interest in the show . Angel later described the brony fandom as rebellious towards gender roles , stating that " having interests that go against what men are supposed to embrace is the sneakiest kind of rebellion " . In a similar vein , an " Idea Channel " segment from the Public Broadcasting Service said that the ridicule received by the brony community is partly because the male appreciation for the show challenges preconceived notions of gender roles in the mass media .
= = = Other media = = =
The My Little Pony toys have been collected mainly by women who grew up with the toys during the 1980s and 1990s , before Hasbro revived the toy series with its Friendship Is Magic line . Bonnie Zacherle , the original creator of the franchise , noted that the toys and show were originally conceived to appeal to preschool children of both genders , and considers it a " good thing " for the adult fandom to have the same appreciation of the show as the collectors . According to Summer Hayes , author of six books about My Little Pony toy collections and organizer of the annual My Little Pony collectors ' fair , some of these collectors appreciated the attention of the brony community . Hayes said that the brony community has participated in the toy fair , and that other collectors resent the sudden popularity of Friendship Is Magic . She said that that these earlier fans and collectors had thought ; " ... what about us ? We 've been here forever , and nobody seemed to care . But now that there are all these guys in their 20s that are crazy about it , it 's suddenly important and it means something . " Hayes also said , " To the bronies , I say , I think My Little Pony is awesome , so more power to you " .
The adult fandom has gained media attention through outlets such as Wired , Fox News Channel and The Wall Street Journal . Stephen Colbert gave a shout @-@ out to the brony fandom at least twice on his comedy news show , The Colbert Report , although since then his positive connection with the fan base has become questionable . Erin Burnett of CNN 's Outfront reported on the 2012 Summer BronyCon , and ended the segment with a recolored character from the show representing the pony version of herself . The fans gave her some artwork of her character as a way of " welcoming [ her ] to the herd " . NPR 's comedy radio show Wait Wait ... Don 't Tell Me ! highlighted the brony fandom in an episode in June 2011 , and the following week quizzed former US President Bill Clinton about elements from the show during a telephone interview segment called " Not My Job " ; Clinton correctly answered the three multiple choice questions , leading at least one journalist to jokingly refer to him as a brony . An episode of Hot In Cleveland dealing with fan conventions included references to the brony fandom .
Lexicographer Grant Barrett listed " brony " as a memorable new word of 2011 . Time named " the bronies " as the ninth @-@ best meme of 2011 , the Internet meme research site Know Your Meme listed it among its top ten memes of 2011 , and PC Magazine named it one of 2011 's top memes .
= = In popular culture = =
The adult fandom of My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic has led to references to the program in popular culture . Musician Andrew W.K. , a fan of the show , said that he strongly identifies with the over @-@ enthusiastic character of Pinkie Pie . He said , " She 's another creature , much like I am in this world , who is doing everything she can to have fun , " and that he feels inspired by the character spreading excitement and joy to others . He hosted a panel called " What Would Pinkie Pie Do ? " at the Canterlot Gardens convention in September 2012 , and described it as " the most intense experience of [ his ] life " . Rapper MC Chris released a song called " Discord ( My Little Brony ) " on April 1 , 2012 , that showed high familiarity with the show and its culture . Broadway actress Lena Hall has stated she watches the show as it makes her feel " super happy " and appreciates the lessons the show teaches , and considers herself a " Pegasister " . In winning the 2014 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical , Hall ended her acceptance speech mentioning the television show 's subtitle , " Friendship Is Magic " .
The animated television show Mad spoofed Friendship Is Magic at least twice ; one segment was called " My Little War Horse " . An episode of Bob 's Burgers , " The Equestranauts " , was made as a homage to bronies and their conventions . A secret level in the video game Diablo III included enemies named " Rainbow Western " , " Midnight Sparkle " and " Nightmarity " , alluding to Friendship Is Magic . In interviews for the video game @-@ related podcast series Geek a Week , both Markus Persson of Mojang and Gabe Newell of Valve said they are fans of Friendship Is Magic . Owlchemy Labs added a " Brony Mode " to their video game Snuggle Truck as free downloadable content in October 2012 specifically as a nod to the brony community . The mode replaces the fuzzy animals in the game with Friendship Is Magic @-@ inspired ponies which the user must drive safely across a landscape . An extended character , the Mechromancer , available as downloadable content for the game Borderlands 2 , includes numerous references to the show and the fans through the character 's skill tree . Bronies : The Musical is a 2014 off @-@ Broadway production written by Tom Moore and Heidi Powers that is inspired by the brony culture , and won for Best Musical in the Hollywood Fringe Festival . The popularity of the show as a result of the brony fandom led to a brief bit of animation created by the show to be used in an NFL advertisement during Super Bowl XLIX .
The Pirate Party Germany 's parliamentary group in the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin ( the Berlin state parliament ) has insisted on the inclusion of a break called " pony time " , in which an episode from the series is shown , during their meetings at their parliamentary office , which displeased many other members in the Berlin parliament . The internet activist group Anonymous used the character Rainbow Dash to deface the website of the Social Democratic Party of Austria in 2011 and 2012 . A teenage white hat hacker used the name " Pinkie Pie " for anonymity and a fan drawing of the character wielding an axe as part of a successful entry in an early 2012 contest sponsored by Google Chrome to break the security of the web browser ; the same user also was the first to break the security in a second contest held later in 2012 , and found an important security flaw in the Linux kernel A May 2013 update to Google Hangouts included an easter egg that would have Friendship Is Magic @-@ inspired ponies run across the chat window . A similar update in August 2013 as part of YouTube 's " Geek Week " added two easter eggs , one that would cause ponies to cross the screen on searching for " bronies " , and a second that , if searching on a number of different pony names like " Twilight Sparkle " , would change the site 's title bar to a representative color of that pony .
An article that appeared in the New York Times on December 26 , 2011 , " Navigating Love and Autism " by Amy Harmon , described how a young woman with Asperger syndrome used My Little Pony characters to relieve stress . She visualized the character Twilight Sparkle whenever she " found herself in a bad @-@ mood rut " . The story misidentified Twilight Sparkle as Fluttershy on initial publication and the paper issued a correction , which some journalists have jokingly considered as " the best New York Times correction ever " , though others saw it as a sign of the journalistic integrity of the Times . Harmon was contacted by fans about the mistake , and said , " I hate to get anything wrong , but I confess to some enjoyment in finding the right way to phrase this one . " In 2015 , the New York Times reported that Dylann Roof , the suspect in the Charleston church shooting , was a fan of My Little Pony , but later corrected itself after recognizing it had been duped in a experiment run by a blogger , who had faked the claim but made it as credible as possible as to test how much fact checking major news sources were doing on a high @-@ interest topic .
In March 2014 , conservative / libertarian radio / television host and entrepreneur Glenn Beck voiced support for Grayson Bruce , a bullied 9 year old MLP fan , and the brony community . Bruce was told by school officials that he was no longer allowed to bring his My Little Pony backpack to school after he was being bullied for wearing it , claiming that his backpack was a trigger for the bullies . Beck challenged critics of bronies , and the school officials , saying " The only ones being responsible here , I think , is the 9 @-@ year @-@ old kid Grayson . He ’ s being authentic . He ’ s being responsible . He ’ s saying , ‘ This who I am . I don ’ t care what anybody else says about me . This is what I like . ’ Everybody else is not being responsible ... What are we doing ? " Beck concluded with , " " We ’ re not aficionados on My Little Pony . But I am an aficionado on what it takes to be a man in today ’ s world . And just because you like little ponies means nothing . You having the courage to be who you are and stand up no matter what society says , that is worth its weight in gold . " Beck also asked his listeners to send in pictures of them with pony plushies to support Grayson . During two episodes of both his morning show and evening show , Beck and his co @-@ hosts had My Little Pony plushies and backpacks on their desks , made Grayson 's story a major talking point , and interviewed Grayson and his mother on his evening program .
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= The American Males =
The American Males were a professional wrestling tag team in World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) composed of Marcus Bagwell and Scotty Riggs . Their gimmick was of two " pretty boys " who were fond of their own bodies and popular with women . Riggs was Bagwell 's third partner with whom he won the WCW World Tag Team Championship , the previous two being 2 Cold Scorpio and The Patriot . The American Males won the tag team title soon after they began teaming together but soon dropped the belts back to Harlem Heat , the previous champions . Bagwell and Riggs did not return to main @-@ event status , and they eventually split up and feuded with each other .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Marcus Bagwell had competed in the tag team division in WCW since 1993 , during which time he held the WCW World Tag Team Championship with two different partners . Teaming with 2 Cold Scorpio , he held the title belts for three weeks . He later won the title twice more while teaming with The Patriot , a team that was dubbed Stars and Stripes due to the patriotic theme both wrestlers were using at the time . After being left behind by both partners , he expressed a desire to form a new tag team to challenge for the title again . According to WCW 's storylines , his former partners believed that he was too demanding , and he was unable to find anyone interested in teaming with him due to his reputation as being " difficult to work with " .
= = = Formation = = =
The team was formed in August 1995 when Scott Antol signed a WCW contract and was placed with " tag team specialist " Marcus Alexander Bagwell . In the process , both men changed their ring names , Antol changing his last name to " Riggs " and Bagwell shortening his name to simply Marcus Bagwell . Once together , they both wore short shorts and leather vests ( later wrestling tights and suspenders ) to the ring and began clapping their hands over their head in time with their entrance music , which sang their praises between choruses of the team name being repeated over and over . They wrestled on the first episode of Nitro , defeating World Tag Team Champions Dick Slater and Bunkhouse Buck in a non @-@ title match . Their first major appearance together came at the Fall Brawl pay @-@ per @-@ view , where they defeated The Nasty Boys in a match that aired on Main Event . Pro Wrestling Illustrated magazine stated that the team " work [ ed ] well as a unit and could soon challenge for the belts " . Bagwell commented on the team in a scripted interview , saying that he believed that his previous tag teams had failed because they were in a rush to win the title belts and that he planned to work slowly toward a title victory with Riggs .
= = = World Tag Team Champions = = =
On the episode of Nitro after Fall Brawl , Riggs and Bagwell won the World Tag Team Championship after defeating then @-@ champions Harlem Heat ( Booker T and Stevie Ray ) in an upset win in an impromptu match . The American Males had been scheduled to face The Blue Bloods , but Harlem Heat attacked both members of the Blue Bloods prior to the match and volunteered to take their place . As champions , the pair defeated Harlem Heat and the team of Dick Slater and Bunkhouse Buck . However , Bagwell and Riggs lost the titles back to Harlem Heat one week later on Saturday Night . The American Males remained top challengers for the title belts for the rest of 1995 but were unable to regain the championship from Harlem Heat .
By the end of 1995 , The American Males were no longer being pushed by WCW ; they competed at Starrcade 1995 in a dark match and defeated The Blue Bloods . Through most of 1996 , they competed in the tag team division with no major storylines and never reached the same heights as when they were champions . They were able to defeat other mid @-@ card teams like the Faces of Fear , and they competed in a dark match prior to Slamboree 1996 , defeating The Shark and Maxx . They were consistently defeated by the company 's top tag teams , and Pro Wrestling Illustrated noted that they were getting lost in a " very deep " tag team division that included The Road Warriors , Public Enemy , Harlem Heat , The Nasty Boys , the Blue Bloods , Lex Luger and Sting , Four Horsemen , The Steiner Brothers , and The Outsiders , among others .
In October 1996 , the team began showing signs of splitting , which intensified over the weeks . At World War 3 on November 24 , 1996 , the frustration came to a head as Bagwell attacked Riggs following both men 's elimination from the three @-@ ring battle royal that served as the main event .
The next night on Nitro Eric Bischoff , representing the New World Order ( nWo ) stable , informed all WCW wrestlers that they would become targets of the nWo if they did not join the group within 30 days . Bagwell and Riggs walked to the ring shortly after Bischoff 's statement , with Bagwell looking to join and Riggs trying to talk him out of it . Bagwell decided to join the nWo , turning on Riggs and dissolving the team in the process . In a scripted interview , Bagwell stated , " Who needs Riggs anymore when I have the nWo ? ! " He also later stated that the team 's lack of success after their first title reign was the fault of Riggs ' ineptitude , stating " I couldn 't make up for all his weaknesses . "
= = = Split = = =
Following the breakup , the former partners feuded for a while with Bagwell getting the better of Riggs . Riggs would go on to briefly feud with Raven , later joining The Flock , while Bagwell formed Vicious and Delicious with Scott Norton before suffering a severe neck injury that kept him out of action for a while . Bagwell later returned to WCW , teaming with Shane Douglas to win another tag team championship . After losing the championship , he formed another tag team , pairing with Lex Luger to form Totally Buffed .
In 2000 , when Riggs joined Extreme Championship Wrestling , he did a parody of the American Males gimmick by calling himself " The U.S. Male " and using their overhead clap taunt .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Championship Wrestling
WCW World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
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= Wilhelm Reich =
Wilhelm Reich ( 24 March 1897 – 3 November 1957 ) was an Austrian psychoanalyst , a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud . The author of several influential books , most notably Character Analysis ( 1933 ) , The Mass Psychology of Fascism ( 1933 ) and The Sexual Revolution ( 1936 ) , Reich became known as one of the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry .
Reich 's work on character contributed to the development of Anna Freud 's The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence ( 1936 ) , and his idea of muscular armour – the expression of the personality in the way the body moves – shaped innovations such as body psychotherapy , Gestalt therapy , bioenergetic analysis and primal therapy . His writing influenced generations of intellectuals ; he coined the phrase " the sexual revolution " and according to one historian acted as its midwife . During the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin , students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police .
After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922 , Reich became deputy director of Freud 's outpatient clinic , the Vienna Ambulatorium . Described by Elizabeth Danto as a large man with a cantankerous style who managed to look scruffy and elegant at the same time , he tried to reconcile psychoanalysis with Marxism , arguing that neurosis is rooted in sexual and socio @-@ economic conditions , and in particular in a lack of what he called " orgastic potency . " He visited patients in their homes to see how they lived , and took to the streets in a mobile clinic , promoting adolescent sexuality and the availability of contraceptives , abortion and divorce , a provocative message in Catholic Austria . He said he wanted to " attack the neurosis by its prevention rather than treatment . "
From the 1930s he became an increasingly controversial figure , and from 1932 until his death in 1957 all his work was self @-@ published . His message of sexual liberation disturbed the psychoanalytic community and his political associates , and his vegetotherapy , in which he massaged his disrobed patients to dissolve their " muscular armour , " violated the key taboos of psychoanalysis . He moved to New York in 1939 , in part to escape the Nazis , and shortly after arriving coined the term " orgone " – from " orgasm " and " organism " – for a biological energy he said he had discovered , which he said others called God . In 1940 he started building orgone accumulators , devices that his patients sat inside to harness the reputed health benefits , leading to newspaper stories about sex boxes that cured cancer .
Following two critical articles about him in The New Republic and Harper 's in 1947 , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration obtained an injunction against the interstate shipment of orgone accumulators and associated literature , believing they were dealing with a " fraud of the first magnitude . " Charged with contempt in 1956 for having violated the injunction , Reich was sentenced to two years ' imprisonment , and that summer over six tons of his publications were burned by order of the court . He died in prison of heart failure just over a year later , days before he was due to apply for parole .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Reich was born the first of two sons to Leon Reich , a farmer , and his wife Cäcilie ( née Roniger ) in Dobzau , Galicia , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , now in Ukraine . There was a sister too , born one year after Reich , but she died in infancy . Shortly after his birth the family moved to Jujinetz , a village in Bukovina , where his father ran a cattle farm leased by his mother 's uncle , Josef Blum .
His father was by all accounts a cold and jealous man . Both parents were Jewish , but decided against raising the boys as Jews . Reich and his brother , Robert , were brought up to speak only German , were punished for using Yiddish expressions and forbidden from playing with the local Yiddish @-@ speaking children .
As an adult Reich wrote extensively , in his diary , about his sexual precocity . He maintained that his first sexual experience was at the age of four when he tried to have sex with the family maid ( with whom he shared a bed ) , that he would regularly watch the farm animals have sex , that he used a whip handle sexually on the horses while masturbating , and that he had almost daily sexual intercourse from the age of 11 with another of the servants . He wrote of regular visits to brothels , the first when he was 15 , and said he was visiting them daily from the age of around 17 . He also developed sexual fantasies about his mother , writing when he was 22 that he masturbated while thinking about her .
It is impossible to judge the truth of these diary entries , but Reich 's second daughter , the psychiatrist Lore Reich Rubin , told Christopher Turner that she believed Reich had been a victim of child sexual abuse , and that this explained his lifelong interest in sex and childhood sexuality .
= = = Death of parents = = =
Reich was taught at home until he was 12 , when his mother was discovered having an affair with his live @-@ in tutor . Reich wrote about the affair in 1920 in his first published paper , " Über einen Fall von Durchbruch der Inzestschranke " ( " About a Case of Breaching the Incest Taboo " ) , presented in the third person as though about a patient . He wrote that he would follow his mother when she went to the tutor 's bedroom at night , feeling ashamed and jealous , and wondering if they would kill him if they found out that he knew . He briefly thought of forcing her to have sex with him , on pain of threatening to tell his father . In the end , he did tell his father , and after a protracted period of beatings , his mother committed suicide in 1910 , for which Reich blamed himself .
With the tutor ordered out of the house , Reich was sent to an all @-@ male gymnasium in Czernowitz . It was during this period that a skin condition appeared , diagnosed as psoriasis , that plagued him for the rest of his life , leading several commentators to remark on his ruddy complexion . He visited brothels every day and wrote in his diary of his disgust for the women . His father died of tuberculosis in 1914 , and because of rampant inflation the father 's insurance was worthless , so no money was forthcoming for the brothers . Reich managed the farm and continued with his studies , graduating in 1915 with Stimmeneinhelligkeit ( unanimous approval ) . The Russians invaded Bukovina that summer and the Reich brothers fled , losing everything . Reich wrote in his diary : " I never saw either my homeland or my possessions again . Of a well @-@ to @-@ do past , nothing was left . "
= = 1919 – 1930 : Vienna = =
= = = Undergraduate studies = = =
Reich joined the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army during the First World War , serving from 1915 to 1918 , for the last two years as a lieutenant at the Italian front with 40 men under his command . When the war ended he headed for Vienna , enrolling in law at the University of Vienna , but found it dull and switched to medicine after the first semester . He arrived with nothing in a city with little to offer ; the overthrow of the Austria @-@ Hungarian empire a few weeks earlier had left the newly formed Republic of German @-@ Austria in the grip of famine . Reich lived on soup , oats and dried fruit from the university canteen , and shared an unheated room with his brother and another undergraduate , wearing his coat and gloves indoors to stave off the cold . He fell in love with another medical student , Lia Laszky , with whom he was dissecting a corpse , but it was largely unrequited .
Myron Sharaf , his biographer , wrote that Reich loved medicine but was caught between a reductionist / mechanistic and vitalist view of the world . Reich wrote later of this period :
The question , " What is Life ? " lay behind everything I learned . ... It became clear that the mechanistic concept of life , which dominated our study of medicine at the time , was unsatisfactory ... There was no denying the principle of creative power governing life ; only it was not satisfactory as long as it was not tangible , as long as it could not be described or practically handled . For , rightly , this was considered the supreme goal of natural science .
= = = Introduction to Freud = = =
Reich first met Sigmund Freud in 1919 when he asked Freud for a reading list for a seminar concerning sexology . It seems they left a strong impression on each other . Freud allowed him to start meeting with analytic patients in September that year , although Reich was just 22 years old and still an undergraduate , which gave him a small income . He was accepted as a guest member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association , becoming a regular member in October 1920 , and began his own analysis with Isidor Sadger . He lived and worked out of an apartment on Berggasse 7 , the street on which Freud lived at no . 19 , in the Alsergrund area of Vienna .
One of Reich 's first patients was Lore Kahn , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old woman with whom he had an affair . Freud had warned analysts not to involve themselves with their patients , but in the early days of psychoanalysis the warnings went unheeded . According to Reich 's diaries , Kahn became ill in November 1920 and died of sepsis after sleeping in a bitterly cold room she had rented as a place for her and Reich to meet ( both his landlady and her parents had forbidden their meetings ) . Kahn 's mother suspected that her daughter had died after a botched illegal abortion , possibly performed by Reich himself . According to Christopher Turner , she found some of her daughter 's bloodied underwear in a cupboard .
It was a serious allegation to make against a physician . Reich wrote in his diary that the mother had been attracted to him and had made the allegation to damage him . She later committed suicide and Reich blamed himself . If Kahn did have an abortion , Turner wrote , she was the first of four of Reich 's partners to do so : his first wife had several , and his long @-@ term partners Elsa Lindenberg and Ilse Ollendorf ( his second wife ) each had one at Reich 's insistence .
= = = First marriage , graduation = = =
Two months after Kahn 's death , Reich accepted her friend , Annie Pink ( 1902 – 1971 ) , as an analysand . Pink was Reich 's fourth female patient , a medical student three months shy of her 19th birthday . He had an affair with her too , and married her in March 1922 at her father 's insistence , with psychoanalysts Otto Fenichel and Edith Buxbaum as witnesses . Annie Reich became a well @-@ known psychoanalyst herself . The marriage produced two daughters , Eva ( 1924 – 2008 ) and Lore ( b . 1928 ) , both of whom became physicians ; Lore Reich Rubin also became a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst .
Because he was a war veteran , Reich was allowed to complete a combined bachelor 's and M.D. in four years instead of six , and graduated in July 1922 . After graduating he worked in internal medicine at the city 's University Hospital , and studied neuropsychiatry from 1922 to 1924 at the hospital 's neurological and psychiatric clinic under Professor Julius Wagner von Jauregg , who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927 .
= = = Vienna Ambulatorium = = =
In 1922 Reich began working in Freud 's psychoanalytic outpatient clinic , known as the Vienna Ambulatorium , which was opened on 22 May that year at Pelikangasse 18 by Eduard Hitschmann . Reich became the assistant director under Hitschmann in 1924 and worked there until his move to Berlin in 1930 .
Between 1922 and 1932 the clinic offered free or reduced @-@ cost psychoanalysis to 1 @,@ 445 men and 800 women , many suffering from shell shock after World War I. It was the second such clinic to open under Freud 's direction ; the first was the Poliklinik in Berlin , set up in 1920 by Max Eitingon and Ernst Simmel .
Sharaf writes that working with labourers , farmers and students allowed Reich to move away from treating neurotic symptoms to observing chaotic lifestyles and anti @-@ social personalities . Reich argued that neurotic symptoms such as obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder were an unconscious attempt to gain control of a hostile environment , including poverty or childhood abuse . They were examples of what he called " character armour " ( Charakterpanzer ) , repetitive patterns of behaviour , speech and body posture that served as defence mechanisms . According to Danto , Reich sought out patients at the Ambulatorium who had been diagnosed as psychopaths , believing that psychoanalysis could free them of their rage .
Reich joined the faculty of the Psychoanalytic Institute in Vienna in 1924 and became its director of training . According to Danto , he was well @-@ regarded for the weekly technical seminars he chaired at the Ambulatorium , where he gave papers on his theory of character structure , arguing that psychoanalysis should be based on the examination of unconscious character traits , later known as ego defences . The seminars were attended , from 1927 , by Fritz Perls , who went on to develop Gestalt therapy with his wife , Laura Perls . Several commentators remarked on how captivating the seminars were and how eloquently Reich spoke . According to a Danish newspaper in 1934 :
The moment he starts to speak , not at the lectern , but walking around it on cat 's paws , he is simply enchanting . In the Middle Ages , this man would have been sent into exile . He is not only eloquent , he also keeps his listeners spellbound by his sparking personality , reflected in his small , dark eyes .
= = = Der triebhafte Charakter = = =
Reich 's first book , Der triebhafte Charakter : Eine psychoanalytische Studie zur Pathologie des Ich ( " The Impulsive Character : A Psychoanalytic Study of the Pathology of the Self " ) , was published in 1925 . It was a study of the anti @-@ social personalities he had encountered in the Ambulatorium , and argued the need for a systematic theory of character . The book won him professional recognition , including from Freud , who in 1927 arranged for his appointment to the executive committee of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society . The appointment was made over the objection of Paul Federn , who had been Reich 's second analyst in 1922 and who , according to Sharaf , regarded Reich as a psychopath . Reich found the society dull and wrote that he behaved " like a shark in a pond of carps . "
= = = Orgastic potency = = =
Beginning in 1924 Reich published a series of papers on the idea of " orgastic potency , " the ability to release the emotions from the muscles and lose the self in an uninhibited orgasm , an idea that Freud came to call Reich 's " Steckenpferd " ( hobby horse ) . Reich argued that psychic health and the ability to love depended on orgastic potency , the full discharge of the libido : " Sexual release in the sex act must correspond to the excitement which leads up to it . " He wrote : " It is not just to fuck ... not the embrace in itself , not the intercourse . It is the real emotional experience of the loss of your ego , of your whole spiritual self . " He argued that orgastic potency was the goal of character analysis .
Whereas Reich 's work on character was well received by the psychoanalytic community , Sharaf writes , his work on orgastic potency was unpopular from the start and later ridiculed . He came to be known as the " prophet of the better orgasm " and the " founder of a genital utopia . "
= = = Rest cure in Switzerland = = =
Reich 's brother died of tuberculosis ( TB ) in 1926 , the same disease that had killed their father . Turner writes that a quarter of deaths in Vienna were caused by TB in the 1920s . Reich himself contracted it in 1927 and spent several weeks in the winter of that year in a sanitorium in Davos , Switzerland , where TB patients went for rest cures and fresh air before antibiotics became widely available around 1945 . Turner writes that Reich underwent a political and existential crisis in Davos ; he returned home in the spring angry and paranoid , according to Annie Reich . Some months later he and Annie were on the streets during the July Revolt of 1927 in Vienna , when 84 workers were shot and killed by police and another 600 were injured . It seems that the experience changed Reich ; he wrote that it was his first encounter with human irrationality . He began to doubt everything , and in 1928 joined the Communist Party of Austria :
As if struck by a blow , one suddenly recognizes the scientific futility , the biological senselessness , and the social noxiousness of views and institutions , which until that moment had seemed altogether natural and self @-@ evident . It is a kind of eschatological experience so frequently encountered in a pathological form in schizophrenics . I might even voice the belief that the schizophrenic form of psychic illness is regularly accompanied by illuminating insight into the irrationalism of social and political mores .
= = = Sex @-@ pol movement = = =
Partly in response to the shooting he had witnessed in Vienna , Reich , then 30 , opened six free sex @-@ counselling clinics in the city in 1927 for working @-@ class patients . Each clinic was overseen by a physician , with three obstetricians and a lawyer on call , and offered what Reich called Sex @-@ Pol counselling . Sex @-@ Pol stood for the German Society of Proletarian Sexual Politics . Reich offered a mixture of " psychoanalytic counseling , Marxist advice and contraceptives , " Danto writes , and argued for a sexual permissiveness , including for young people and the unmarried , that unsettled other psychoanalysts and the political left . The clinics were immediately overcrowded by people seeking help .
He also took to the streets in a mobile clinic , driving to parks and out to the suburbs with other psychoanalysts and physicians . Reich would talk to the teenagers and men , while a gynaecologist fitted the women with contraceptive devices , and Lia Laszky , the woman Reich fell in love with at medical school , spoke to the children . They also distributed sex @-@ education pamphlets door to door .
= = = Die Funktion des Orgasmus = = =
Reich published Die Funktion des Orgasmus ( " The Function of the Orgasm " ) in 1927 , dedicating it to Freud . He had presented a copy of the manuscript to Freud on the latter 's 70th birthday on 6 May 1926 . Freud had not appear impressed . He replied " that thick ? " when Reich handed it to him , and took two months to write a brief but positive letter in response , which Reich interpreted as a rejection . Freud 's view was that the matter was more complicated than Reich suggested , and that there was no single cause of neurosis . He wrote in 1928 to another psychoanalyst , Dr. Lou Andreas @-@ Salomé :
We have here a Dr. Reich , a worthy but impetuous young man , passionately devoted to his hobby @-@ horse , who now salutes in the genital orgasm the antidote to every neurosis . Perhaps he might learn from your analysis of K. to feel some respect for the complicated nature of the psyche .
= = = Visit to Soviet Union = = =
In 1929 Reich and his wife visited the Soviet Union on a lecture tour , leaving the two children in the care of the psychoanalyst Berta Bornstein . Sharaf writes that he returned even more convinced of the link between sexual and economic oppression , and of the need to integrate Marx and Freud . In 1929 his article " Dialectical Materialism and Psychoanalysis " was published in Unter dem Banner des Marxismus , the German Communist Party journal . The article explored whether psychoanalysis was compatible with historical materialism , class struggle and proletarian revolution . Reich concluded that they were compatible if dialectical materialism was applied to psychology . This was one of the central theoretical statements of his Marxist period , which included The Imposition of Sexual Morality ( 1932 ) , The Sexual Struggle of Youth ( 1932 ) , The Mass Psychology of Fascism ( 1933 ) , “ What is Class Consciousness ? ” ( 1934 ) and The Sexual Revolution ( 1936 ) .
= = 1930 – 1934 : Germany , Denmark , Sweden = =
= = = Verlag für Sexualpolitik = = =
Reich and his wife moved to Berlin in November 1930 , where he set up clinics in working @-@ class areas , taught sex education and published pamphlets . He joined the Communist Party of Germany , but grew impatient over their delay in publishing one of his pamphlets , Der Sexuelle Kampf der Jugend ( 1932 ) , published in English as The Sexual Struggle of Youth ( 1972 ) . He set up his own publishing house , Verlag für Sexualpolitik , and published the pamphlet himself .
His subsequent involvement in a conference promoting adolescent sexuality caused the party to announce that it would no longer publish his material . In March 1933 Freud told him that his contract with the International Psychoanalytic Publishers to publish Character Analysis had been cancelled . Sharaf writes that this was almost certainly because of Reich 's stance on teenage sex .
= = = Character Analysis = = =
Reich published what Robert Corrington called his masterpiece , Charakteranalyse : Technik und Grundlagen für studierende und praktizierende Analytiker , in 1933 . It was revised and published in English in 1946 and 1949 as Character Analysis . The book sought to move psychoanalysis toward a reconfiguration of character structure .
For Reich , character structure was the result of social processes , in particular a reflection of castration and Oedipal anxieties playing themselves out within the nuclear family . Les Greenberg and Jeremy Safran write that Reich proposed a functional identity between the character , emotional blocks , and tension in the body , or what he called character ( or muscular / body ) armour ( Charakterpanzer ) .
Reich proposed that muscular armour was a defence that contained the history of the patient 's traumas . For example , he blamed Freud 's jaw cancer on his muscular armour , rather than his smoking : Freud 's Judaism meant he was " biting down " impulses , rather than expressing them . Dissolving the armour would bring back the memory of the childhood repression that had caused the blockage in the first place .
= = = End of first marriage = = =
Reich had several affairs during his marriage to Annie Reich , which ended in 1933 after he began a serious relationship in May 1932 with Elsa Lindenberg , a dancer and pupil of Elsa Gindler . He was living with Lindenberg in Germany when Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933 . On March 2 that year the Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter published an attack on Der Sexuelle Kampf der Jugend . Reich and Lindenberg left for Vienna the next day . They moved from there to Denmark , where Reich was excluded from the Danish Communist Party in November 1933 ( without ever having joined it ) because of his promotion of teenage sex and the publication that year of The Mass Psychology of Fascism , which they regarded as " counterrevolutionary . " There were multiple complaints about his promotion of abortion , sex education , and the attempted suicide of a teenage patient . According to Turner , when Reich 's visa expired , it was not renewed .
He tried to find support among psychoanalysts in the UK so that he could settle there , and was interviewed in London by Ernest Jones , Melanie Klein , Joan Riviere and James Strachey . They decided that he had been " insufficiently analysed " and had an unresolved hostility toward Freud . Anna Freud , Freud 's daughter – whom Jones had contacted about Reich 's desire to relocate to England – wrote in 1938 : " There is a wall somewhere where he stops to understand the other person 's point of view and flies off into a world of his own ... He is an unhappy person ... and I am afraid this will end in sickness . "
Reich and Lindenberg moved instead to Malmö in Sweden , which Reich described as " better than a concentration camp , " but he was placed under surveillance when police suspected that the hourly visits of patients to his hotel room meant he was running a brothel , with Lindenberg as the prostitute . The government declined to extend his visa , and the couple had to move briefly back to Denmark , Reich under an assumed name .
= = = Vegetotherapy = = =
From 1930 onwards , Reich began to treat patients outside the limits of psychoanalysis 's restrictions . He would sit opposite them , rather than behind them as they lay on a couch ( the traditional psychoanalyst 's position ) , and began talking to them and answering their questions , instead of offering the stock , " Why do you ask ? " analyst 's response . He had noticed that after a successful course of psychoanalysis his patients would hold their bodies differently , so he began to try to communicate with the body using touch . He asked his male patients to undress down to their shorts , and sometimes entirely , and his female patients down to their underclothes , and began to massage them to loosen their body armour . He would also ask them to simulate physically the effects of certain emotions in the hope of triggering them .
He first presented the principles of what he called character @-@ analytic vegetotherapy in August 1934 , in a paper entitled " Psychischer Kontakt und vegetative Strömung " ( " Psychological Contact and Vegetative Current " ) at the 13th International Congress of Psychoanalysis at Lucerne , Switzerland . His second wife , Ilse Ollendorf , said vegetotherapy replaced the psychoanalytic method of never touching a patient with " a physical attack by the therapist . "
The method eliminated the psychoanalytic doctrine of neutrality . Reich argued that the psychoanalytic taboos reinforced the neurotic taboos of the patient , and that he wanted his patients to see him as human . He would press his thumb or the palm of his hand hard ( and painfully ) on their jaws , necks , chests , backs , or thighs , aiming to dissolve their muscular , and thereby characterological , rigidity . He wrote that the purpose of the massage was to retrieve the repressed memory of the childhood situation that had caused the repression . If the session worked , he would see waves of pleasure move through their bodies , which he called the " orgasm reflex . " According to Sharaf , the twin goals of Reichian therapy were the attainment of this orgasm reflex during sessions and orgastic potency during intercourse . Reich briefly considered calling it " orgasmotherapy , " but thought better of it .
Just before the Lucerne conference , Reich was asked to resign from the International Psychoanalytical Association for prioritizing his revolutionary agenda over Freud 's ideas . He arrived at the conference furious about his treatment . Turner writes that he cemented his reputation as a madman , camping in a tent outside the conference hall and reportedly carrying a large knife in his belt . According to the psychiatrist Grete Bibring , Paul Federn declared , " Either Reich goes or I go . "
= = 1934 – 1939 : Norway = =
= = = Bioelectricity = = =
In October 1934 Reich and Lindenberg moved to Oslo , Norway , where Harald K. Schjelderup , professor of psychology at the University of Oslo , had invited Reich to lecture on character analysis and vegetotherapy . They ended up staying for five years .
During his time in Norway , Reich attempted to ground his orgasm theory in biology , exploring whether Freud 's metaphor of the libido was in fact electricity or a chemical substance , an argument Freud had proposed in the 1890s but had abandoned . Reich argued that conceiving of the orgasm as nothing but mechanical tension and relaxation could not explain why some experience pleasure and others do not . He wanted to know what additional element had to be present for pleasure to be felt .
Reich was influenced by the work of the Austrian internist Friedrich Kraus , who argued in his paper Allgemeine und Spezielle Pathologie der Person ( 1926 ) that the biosystem was a relay @-@ like switch mechanism of electrical charge and discharge . Reich wrote in an essay , " Der Orgasmus als Elektro @-@ physiologische Entladung " ( " The Orgasm as an Electrophysiological Discharge " , 1934 ) , that the orgasm is just such a bioelectrical discharge and proposed his " orgasm formula " : mechanical tension ( filling of the organs with fluid ; tumescence ) → bioelectrical charge → bioelectrical discharge → mechanical relaxation ( detumescence ) .
In 1935 Reich bought an oscillograph and attached it to friends and students , who volunteered to touch and kiss each other while Reich read the tracings . One of the volunteers was a young Willy Brandt , the future chancellor of Germany . At the time , he was married to Reich 's secretary , Gertrude Gaasland , and was living in Norway to organize protests against the Nazis . Reich also took measurements from the patients of a psychiatric hospital near Oslo , including catatonic patients , with the permission of the hospital 's director . Reich described the oscillograph experiments in 1937 in Experimentelle Ergebniße Über Die Elektrische Funktion von Sexualität und Angst ( The Bioelectrical Investigation of Sexuality and Anxiety ) .
= = = Bion experiments = = =
From 1934 to 1939 Reich conducted what he called the bion experiments , which he published as Die Bione : Zur Entstehung des vegetativen Lebens in Oslo in February 1938 ( published in English in 1979 and later called The Bion Experiments on the Origin of Life ) . He examined protozoa and grew cultured vesicles using grass , sand , iron and animal tissue , boiling them and adding potassium and gelatin . Having heated the materials to incandescence with a heat @-@ torch , he wrote that he had seen bright , glowing , blue vesicles . He called them " bions " and believed they were a rudimentary form of life , halfway between life and non @-@ life . He wrote that when he poured the cooled mixture onto growth media , bacteria were born , dismissing the idea that the bacteria were already present in the air or on other materials .
In what Sharaf writes was the origins of the orgone theory , Reich said he could see two kinds of bions , the blue vesicles and smaller red ones shaped like lancets . He called the former PA @-@ bions and the latter T @-@ bacilli , the T standing for Tod , German for death . He wrote in his book The Cancer Biopathy ( 1948 ) that he had found T @-@ bacilli in rotting cancerous tissue obtained from a local hospital , and when injected into mice they caused inflammation and cancer . He concluded that , when orgone energy diminishes in cells through aging or injury , the cells undergo " bionous degeneration . " At some point the deadly T @-@ bacilli start to form in the cells . Death from cancer , he believed , was caused by an overwhelming growth of the T @-@ bacilli .
= = = Opposition to his ideas = = =
Scientists in Oslo reacted strongly to Reich 's work on bions , deriding it as nonsense . Tidens Tegn , a leading liberal newspaper , launched a campaign against him in 1937 , supported by scientists and other newspapers . Between March and December 1938 , more than 165 articles or letters appeared in 13 Norwegian newspapers denouncing him .
In 1937 the Norwegian pathologist Leiv Kreyberg was allowed to examine one of Reich 's bion preparations under a microscope . Kreyberg wrote that the broth Reich had used as his culture medium was indeed sterile , but that the bacteria were ordinary staphylococci . He concluded that Reich 's control measures to prevent infection from airborne bacteria were not as foolproof as Reich believed . Kreyberg accused Reich of being ignorant of basic bacteriological and anatomical facts , while Reich accused Kreyberg of having failed to recognize living cancer cells under magnification .
Reich sent a sample of the bacteria to a Norwegian biologist , Theodor Thjøtta of the Oslo Bacteriological Institute , who also blamed airborne infection . Kreyberg and Thjøtta 's views were published in the country 's largest newspaper , Aftenposten , on 19 and 21 April 1938 . Kreyberg alleged that " Mr. Reich " knew less about bacteria and anatomy than a first @-@ year medical student . When Reich requested a detailed control study , Kreyberg responded that his work did not merit it .
By February 1938 Reich 's visa had expired . Several Norwegian scientists argued against an extension , Kreyberg saying , " If it is a question of handing Dr. Reich over to the Gestapo , then I will fight that , but if one could get rid of him in a decent manner , that would be the best . " The writer Sigurd Hoel asked : " When did it become a reason for deportation that one looked in a microscope when one was not a trained biologist ? " Reich received support from overseas , first from the anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski , who in March wrote to the press in Norway that Reich 's sociological works were " a distinct and valuable contribution toward science , " and from A.S. Neill , founder of Summerhill , a progressive school in England , who argued that " the campaign against Reich seems largely ignorant and uncivilized , more like fascism than democracy ... "
Norway was proud of its intellectual tolerance , so the " Reich affair , " especially following the country 's 1936 expulsion of Leon Trotsky , put Nygaardsvold 's government on the spot . A compromise was found . Reich was given his visa , but a royal decree was issued stipulating that anyone wanting to practice psychoanalysis needed a licence , and it was understood that Reich would not be given one . Throughout the affair Reich issued just one public statement , when he asked for a commission to replicate his bion experiments . Sharaf writes that the opposition to his work affected his personality and relationships . He was left humiliated , no longer comfortable in public , and seething with bitterness against the researchers who had denounced him .
= = = Personal life = = =
According to Sharaf , 1934 – 1937 was the happiest period of Reich 's personal life , despite the professional problems . His relationship with Elsa Lindenberg was good and he considered marrying her . When she became pregnant in 1935 , they were initially overjoyed , buying clothes and furniture for the child , but doubts developed for Reich , who saw the future as too unsettled . To Lindenberg 's great distress , Sharaf writes , Reich insisted on an abortion , at that time illegal . They went to Berlin , where the psychoanalyst Edith Jacobson helped to arrange it .
In 1937 Reich began an affair with a female patient , an actress who had been married to a colleague of his . According to Sigurd Hoel , the analysis would stop because of the relationship , then the relationship would end and the analysis would start up again . The patient eventually threatened to go to the press , but was persuaded that it would harm her as much as it would Reich . Around the same time , Reich also had an affair with Gerd Bergersen , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old Norwegian textile designer .
Despite the affairs , Sharaf writes that , as the newspaper campaign against Reich gained pace , he developed an intense jealousy toward Lindenberg , demanding that she not have a separate life of any kind . He even physically assaulted a composer with whom she was working . Lindenberg considered calling the police but decided Reich could not afford another scandal . His behaviour took its toll on their relationship , and when Reich asked her to accompany him to the United States , she said no .
= = 1939 – 1957 : United States = =
= = = Teaching , second marriage = = =
When Hitler annexed Austria in March 1938 , Reich 's ex @-@ wife and daughters had already left for the United States . Later that year , Theodore P. Wolfe , a professor of psychiatry at Columbia University , traveled to Norway to study under Reich . Wolfe offered to help Reich settle in the States , and managed to arrange an invitation from The New School in New York for Reich to teach a course on " Biological Aspects of Character Formation . " Wolfe and Walter Briehl , a former student of Reich 's , put up $ 5 @,@ 000 to guarantee his visa . Wolfe also pulled strings with Adolph Berle , an official in the State Department . Reich wrote in his diary in May 1939 :
I am sitting in a completely empty apartment waiting for my American visa . I have misgivings as to how it will go . ... I am utterly and horribly alone !
It will be quite an undertaking to carry on all the work in America . Essentially , I am a great man , a rarity , as it were . I can 't quite believe it myself , however , and that is why I struggle against playing the role of a great man .
He received the visa in August 1939 and sailed out of Norway on 19 August on the SS Stavangerfjord , the last ship to leave for the United States before the war began on 3 September . He began teaching at The New School , where he remained until May 1941 , living first at 7502 Kessel Street , Forest Hills , Queens , where he conducted experiments on mice with cancer , injecting them with bions . He built a small Faraday cage to examine the vapors and lights he said the bions were producing . In October 1939 his secretary Gertrud Gaasland introduced him to Ilse Ollendorf , 29 years old at the time . Reich was still in love with Lindenberg , but Ollendorf started organizing his life for him , becoming his bookkeeper and laboratory assistant . They began living together in the Kessel Street house on Christmas Day 1939 . She was eight weeks pregnant , but according to Turner he insisted that she have an abortion . Five years later , in 1944 , they had a son , Peter , and were married in 1946 .
Sharaf writes that Reich 's personality changed after his experience in Oslo . He became socially isolated and kept his distance even from old friends and his ex @-@ wife . His students in the United States came to know him as a man that no colleague , no matter how close , called by his first name . In January 1940 he wrote to Lindenberg to end their relationship once and for all , telling her that he was in despair and that he believed he would end up dying like a dog .
= = = Orgonomy = = =
It was shortly after he arrived in New York in 1939 that Reich first said he had discovered a biological or cosmic energy , an extension of Freud 's idea of the libido . He called it " orgone energy " or " orgone radiation , " and the study of it " orgonomy . " Reich said he had seen orgone when he injected his mice with bions and in the sky at night through an " organoscope , " a special telescope . He argued that it is in the soil and air ( indeed , is omnipresent ) , is blue or blue @-@ grey , and that humanity had divided its knowledge of it in two : aether for the physical aspect and God for the spiritual . The colour of the sky , the northern lights , St Elmo 's Fire , and the blue of sexually excited frogs are manifestations of orgone , he wrote . He also argued that protozoa , red corpuscles , cancer cells and the chlorophyll of plants are charged with it .
In 1940 he began to build insulated Faraday cages , " orgone accumulators , " that he said would concentrate the orgone . The earliest boxes were for laboratory animals . The first human @-@ sized , five @-@ foot @-@ tall box was built in December 1940 , and set up in the basement of his house . Turner writes that it was made of plywood lined with rock wool and sheet iron , and had a chair inside and a small window . The boxes had multiple layers of these materials , which caused the orgone concentration inside the box to be three to five times stronger than in the air , Reich said . Patients were expected to sit inside them naked .
The accumulators were tested on plant growth and mice with cancer . Reich wrote to his supporters in July 1941 that orgone is " definitely able to destroy cancerous growth . This is proved by the fact that tumors in all parts of the body are disappearing or diminishing . No other remedy in the world can claim such a thing . "
Although not licensed to practise medicine in the United States , he began testing the boxes on human beings diagnosed with cancer and schizophrenia . In one case the test had to be stopped prematurely because the subject heard a rumour that Reich was insane ; there were stories , which were false , that he had been hospitalized in the Utica State Mental Hospital . In another case the father of an eight @-@ year @-@ old girl with cancer approached him for help , then complained to the American Medical Association that he was practising without a licence . He asked his supporters to stick with him through the criticism , believing that he had developed a grand unified theory of physical and mental health .
= = = Experiment with Einstein = = =
In December 1940 Reich wrote to Albert Einstein saying he had a scientific discovery he wanted to discuss , and , in January 1941 , visited Einstein at his home in Princeton , where they talked for nearly five hours . He told Einstein that he had discovered a " specific biologically effective energy which behaves in many respects differently to all that is known about electromagnetic energy . " He said it could be used against disease , and as a weapon " in the fight against the Fascist pestilence " . ( Einstein had signed a letter to President Roosevelt in August 1939 to warn of the danger of Nazi Germany building an atom bomb , and had urged the United States to establish its own research project . ) Einstein agreed that if an object 's temperature could be raised without an apparent heating source , as Reich was suggesting , it would be " a bomb . "
Reich was much encouraged by the meeting and hoped he would be invited to join Princeton 's Institute for Advanced Study . During their next meeting , he gave Einstein a small accumulator , and over the next 10 days Einstein performed experiments with it in his basement , which involved taking the temperature above , inside and near the device , and stripping it down to its Faraday cage to compare temperatures . He observed an increase of temperature , which Reich argued was caused by orgone . One of Einstein 's assistants pointed out that the temperature was lower on the floor than on the ceiling . Einstein concluded that the effect was simply due to the temperature gradient inside the room . " Through these experiments I regard the matter as completely solved , " he wrote to Reich on 7 February 1941 .
Reich responded with a 25 @-@ page letter in which he tried to change Einstein 's mind . To rule out the influence of convection he told Einstein that he had taken certain measures , including introducing a horizontal plate above the accumulator , wrapping it in a blanket , hanging it from the ceiling , burying it underground and placing it outside . He wrote that in all these circumstances the temperature difference remained , and was in fact more marked in the open air . Einstein did not respond to this or to Reich 's future correspondence – Reich would write regularly reporting the results of his experiments – until Reich threatened three years later to publish their previous exchange . Einstein replied that he could not devote any further time to the matter and asked that his name not be misused for advertising purposes . Reich believed that Einstein 's change of heart was part of a conspiracy of some kind , perhaps related to the communists or prompted by the rumours that Reich was ill . Reich published the correspondence in 1953 as The Einstein Affair .
= = = Arrested by the FBI = = =
Reich lost his position at the New School in May 1941 after writing to its director , Alvin Johnson , to say he had saved several lives in secret experiments with the accumulator . Johnson was aware of Reich 's claims that he could cure cancer , and told him the New School was not an appropriate institution for the work . Reich was also evicted from Kessel Street after his neighbours complained about the animal experiments . His supporters , including Walter Briehl , gave him $ 14 @,@ 000 to buy a house , and he settled into 9906 69th Avenue .
On 12 December 1941 , five days after Pearl Harbor and the day after Germany declared it was at war with the United States , Reich was arrested in his home at 2 a.m. by the FBI and taken to Ellis Island , where he was held for over three weeks . He identified himself at the time as the Associate Professor of Medical Psychology , Director of the Orgone Institute . He was at first left to sleep on the floor in a large hall , surrounded by members of the fascist German American Bund , who Reich feared might kill him , but when his psoriasis returned he was transferred to the hospital ward . He was questioned about several books the FBI found when they searched his home , including Hitler 's Mein Kampf , Trotsky 's My Life , a biography of Lenin and a Russian alphabet book for children . After threatening to go on hunger strike he was released , on 5 January , but his name remained on the " key figures list " of the Enemy Alien Control Unit , which meant he was placed under surveillance .
Turner writes that it seems Reich was the victim of mistaken identity ; there was a William Reich who ran a bookstore in New Jersey , which was used to distribute Communist material . The FBI acknowledged the mistake in November 1943 and closed Reich 's file . In 2000 it released 789 pages of the file :
This German immigrant described himself as the Associate Professor of Medical Psychology , Director of the Orgone Institute , President and research physician of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation and discoverer of biological or life energy . A 1940 security investigation was begun to determine the extent of Reich 's communist commitments . A board of Alien Enemy Hearing judged that Dr. Reich was not a threat to the security of the U.S. In 1947 , a security investigation concluded that neither the Orgone Project nor any of its staff were engaged in subversive activities or were in violation of any statute within the jurisdiction of the FBI .
= = = Purchase of Orgonon = = =
In November 1942 Reich purchased an old farm for $ 4 @,@ 000 on Dodge Pond , Maine , near Rangeley , with 280 acres ( 1 @.@ 1 km2 ) of land . Calling it Orgonon , he started spending summers there , and had a one @-@ room cabin built in 1943 , a laboratory in 1945 , a larger cabin in 1946 and an observatory in 1948 .
In 1950 he decided to live there year @-@ round , and in May that year moved from New York with Ilse , their son , Peter , and Reich 's daughter Eva , with the idea of creating a centre for the study of orgone . Several colleagues moved there with him , including two physicians with an interest in orgone , and Lois Wyvell , who ran the Orgone Press Institute . The artist William Moise joined Reich as an assistant at Orgonon , later marrying Eva Reich .
Orgonon still houses the Wilhelm Reich Museum , as well as holiday cottages available to rent , one of which is the cottage in which the Reichs lived .
= = 1947 – 1957 : Legal problems = =
= = = Brady articles , FDA = = =
Until 1947 Reich enjoyed a largely uncritical press in the United States . One journal , Psychosomatic Medicine , had called orgone a " surrealist creation , " but his psychoanalytic work had been discussed in the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry , The Nation had given his writing positive reviews , and he was listed in American Men of Science .
His reputation took a sudden downturn in April and May 1947 , when articles by Mildred Edie Brady were published in Harper 's and The New Republic , the latter entitled " The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich , " with the subhead , " The man who blames both neuroses and cancer on unsatisfactory sexual activities has been repudiated by only one scientific journal . " Brady 's ultimate target was not Reich but psychoanalysis , which according to Turner she saw as akin to astrology .
Of Reich she wrote : " Orgone , named after the sexual orgasm , is , according to Reich , a cosmic energy . It is , in fact , the cosmic energy . Reich has not only discovered it ; he has seen it , demonstrated it and named a town – Orgonon , Maine – after it . Here he builds accumulators of it , which are rented out to patients , who presumably derive ' orgastic potency ' from it . "
She claimed , falsely , that he had said the accumulators could cure not only impotence but cancer . Brady argued that the " growing Reich cult " had to be dealt with . On his copy of the New Republic article , Reich wrote " THE SMEAR . " He issued a press release , but no one published it .
In July 1947 Dr. J. J. Durrett , director of the Medical Advisory Division of the Federal Trade Commission , wrote to the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) asking them to investigate Reich 's claims about the health benefits of orgone . The FDA assigned an investigator to the case , who learned that Reich had built 250 accumulators . The FDA concluded that they were dealing with a " fraud of the first magnitude . " According to Sharaf , the FDA suspected a sexual racket of some kind ; questions were asked about the women associated with orgonomy and " what was done with them . " From that point on , Reich 's work came increasingly to the attention of the authorities .
= = = Orgonomic Infant Research Center = = =
Reich established the Orgonomic Infant Research Center ( OIRC ) in 1950 , with the aim of preventing muscular armouring in children from birth . Meetings were held in the basement of his house in Forest Hills . Turner wrote that several children who were treated by OIRC therapists later said they had been sexually abused by the therapists , although not by Reich . One woman said she was assaulted by one of Reich 's associates when she was five years old . Children were asked to stand naked in front of Reich and a group of 30 therapists in his basement , while Reich described the children 's " blockages . " Reich 's daughter , Lore Reich Rubin , told Turner that she believed her father was an abuser , although she did not say she had been abused by him , and she acknowledged that she had no evidence . She believed that Reich himself had been abused as a child , which is why he developed such an interest in sex and childhood sexuality .
The sexual allegations apart , several people discussed how the vegetotherapy had hurt them physically as children , as therapists pressed hard on the body to loosen muscular armour . Reich 's son , Peter , wrote in his autobiography , Book of Dreams ( 1973 ) about the pain this had caused him . Susanna Steig , the daughter of William Steig , the New Yorker cartoonist , wrote about being pressed so hard during Reichian therapy that she had difficulty breathing , and said that a woman therapist had sexually assaulted her . According to Turner , a nurse complained in 1952 to the New York Medical Society that an OIRC therapist had taught her five @-@ year @-@ old son how to masturbate . The therapist was arrested , but the case was dropped when Reich agreed to close the OIRC .
= = = Divorce , cloudbusters = = =
Reich and Ilse Ollendorff divorced in September 1951 , ostensibly because he thought she had had an affair . She continued working with him for another three years . Even after the divorce , he suspected her of having affairs , and persuaded her to sign confessions about her feelings of fear and hatred toward him , which he locked away in the archives of his Orgone Institute . He wrote several documents denouncing her , while having an affair himself with Lois Wyvell , who ran the Orgone Institute Press .
In 1951 Reich said he had discovered another energy that he called Deadly Orgone Radiation ( DOR ) , accumulations of which played a role in desertification . He designed a " cloudbuster , " rows of 15 @-@ foot aluminium pipes mounted on a mobile platform , connected to cables that were inserted into water . He believed that it could unblock orgone energy in the atmosphere and cause rain . Turner described it as an " orgone box turned inside out . "
He conducted dozens of experiments with the cloudbuster , calling his research " Cosmic Orgone Engineering . " During a drought in 1953 , two farmers in Maine offered to pay him if he could make it rain to save their blueberry crop . Reich used the cloudbuster on the morning of 6 July , and according to Bangor 's Daily News – based on an account from an anonymous eyewitness who was probably Peter Reich – rain began to fall that evening . The crop survived , the farmers declared themselves satisfied , and Reich received his fee .
= = = Injunction = = =
Over the years the FDA interviewed physicians , Reich 's students and his patients , asking about the orgone accumulators . A professor at the University of Oregon who bought an accumulator told an FDA inspector that he knew the device was phoney , but found it helpful because his wife sat quietly in it for four hours every day .
The attention of the FDA triggered belligerent responses from Reich , who called them " HiGS " ( hoodlums in government ) and the tools of red fascists . He developed a delusion that he had powerful friends in government , including President Eisenhower , who he believed would protect him , and that the U.S. Air Force was flying over Orgonon to make sure that he was all right . On 29 July 1952 three inspectors arrived at Orgonon unannounced . Sharaf writes that Reich detested unannounced visitors ; he had once chased some people away with a gun just for looking at an adjacent property . He told the inspectors they had to read his work before he would interact with them , and ordered them to leave .
In February 1954 the United States Attorney for the District of Maine filed a 27 @-@ page complaint seeking a permanent injunction under Sections 301 and 302 of the Federal Food , Drug , and Cosmetic Act to prevent interstate shipment of orgone accumulators and to ban promotional literature . Reich refused to appear in court , arguing that no court was in a position to evaluate his work . In a letter to Judge John D. Clifford , Jr. in February , he wrote :
My factual position in the case as well as in the world of science of today does not permit me to enter the case against the Food and Drug Administration , since such action would , in my mind , imply admission of the authority of this special branch of the government to pass judgment on primordial , pre @-@ atomic cosmic orgone energy . I , therefore , rest the case in full confidence in your hands .
The injunction was granted by default on 19 March 1954 . The judge ordered that all accumulators , parts and instructions be destroyed , and that several of Reich 's books that mentioned orgone be withheld .
= = = Chasing UFOs = = =
According to Turner , the injunction triggered a further deterioration in Reich 's mental health . From at least early 1954 , he came to believe that the planet was under attack by UFOs , or " energy alphas , " as he called them . He said he often saw them flying over Orgonon – shaped like thin cigars with windows – leaving streams of black Deadly Orgone Radiation in their wake , which he believed the aliens were scattering to destroy the Earth .
He and his son would spend their nights searching for UFOs through telescopes and binoculars , and when they believed they had found one would roll out the cloudbuster to suck the energy out of it . Reich claimed he had shot several of them down . Armed with two cloudbusters , they fought what Reich called a " full @-@ scale interplanetary battle " in Arizona , where he had rented a house as a base station . In Contact with Space ( 1956 ) , he wrote of the " very remote possibility " that his own father had been from outer space .
In late 1954 Reich began an affair with Grethe Hoff , a former patient . Hoff was married to another former student and patient of his , the psychologist Myron Sharaf , who decades later , with his Fury on Earth ( 1983 ) , became Reich 's main biographer . Hoff and Sharaf had had their first child the year before Hoff left him for Reich ; the marriage was never repaired although the affair had ended by June 1955 . Two months later Reich began another relationship , this time with Aurora Karrer , a medical researcher , and , in November , he moved out of Orgonon to an apartment in Alban Towers , Washington , D.C. , to live with her , using the pseudonym Dr. Walter Roner .
= = = Contempt of court = = =
While Reich was in Arizona in May 1956 , one of his associates sent an accumulator part through the mail to another state , in violation of the injunction , after an FDA inspector posing as a customer requested it . Reich and another associate , Dr. Michael Silvert , were charged with contempt of court ; Silvert had been looking after the inventory in Reich 's absence . Reich at first refused to attend court , and was arrested and held for two days until a supporter posted bail of $ 30 @,@ 000 .
Representing himself during the hearing , he admitted the violation but pleaded not guilty and hinted at conspiracies . During a recess the judge apparently suggested a psychiatric evaluation to Reich 's ex @-@ wife , Ilse Ollendorff , but this was not communicated to Reich . The jury found him guilty on 7 May 1956 , and he was sentenced to two years ' imprisonment . Silvert was sentenced to a year and a day , the Wilhelm Reich Foundation was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 , and the accumulators and associated literature were to be destroyed .
= = = Book burning = = =
On 5 June 1956 two FDA officials arrived at Orgonon to supervise the destruction of the accumulators . Most of them had been sold by that time and another 50 were with Silvert in New York . Only three were at Orgonon . The FDA agents were not allowed to destroy them , only to supervise the destruction , so Reich 's friends and his son , Peter , chopped them up with axes as the agents watched . Once they were destroyed , Reich placed an American flag on top of them .
On 26 June the agents returned to supervise the destruction of the promotional material , including 251 copies of Reich 's books . The American Civil Liberties Union issued a press release criticizing the book burning , although coverage of the release was poor , and Reich ended up asking them not to help because he was annoyed that they had failed to criticize the destruction of the accumulators . In England A.S. Neill and the poet Herbert Read signed a letter of protest , but it was never published . On 23 July the remaining accumulators in New York were destroyed by S. A. Collins and Sons , who had built them .
On 23 August six tons of Reich 's books , journals and papers were burned in New York , in the Gansevoort incinerator , the public incinerator on 25th Street . The material included copies of several of his books , including The Sexual Revolution , Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of Fascism . Although these had been published in German before Reich ever discussed orgone , he had added mention of it to the English editions , so they were caught by the injunction . It has been cited as one of the worst examples of censorship in U.S. history . As with the accumulators , the FDA was supposed only to observe the destruction . The psychiatrist Victor Sobey ( d . 1995 ) , an associate of Reich 's , wrote :
All the expenses and labor had to be provided by the [ Orgone Institute ] Press . A huge truck with three to help was hired . I felt like people who , when they are to be executed , are made to dig their own graves first and are then shot and thrown in . We carried box after box of the literature .
= = = Imprisonment = = =
Reich appealed the lower court 's decision in October 1956 , but the Court of Appeals upheld it on 11 December . He wrote several times to J. Edgar Hoover , director of the FBI , requesting a meeting , and appealed to the Supreme Court , which decided on 25 February 1957 not to review the case . On 12 March 1957 Reich and Silvert were sent to Danbury Federal Prison . ( Silvert committed suicide in May 1958 , five months after his release . ) Richard C. Hubbard , a psychiatrist who admired Reich , examined him on admission , recording paranoia manifested by delusions of grandiosity , persecution , and ideas of reference :
The patient feels that he has made outstanding discoveries . Gradually over a period of many years he has explained the failure of his ideas in becoming universally accepted by the elaboration of psychotic thinking . " The Rockerfellows ( sic ) are against me . " ( Delusion of grandiosity . ) " The airplanes flying over prison are sent by the Air Force to encourage me . " ( Ideas of reference and grandiosity . )
On 19 March Reich was transferred to the Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary and examined again . This time it was decided that he was mentally competent and that his personality seemed intact , though he might become psychotic when stressed . A few days later , on his 60th birthday , he wrote to his son , Peter , then 13 :
I am in Lewisburg . I am calm , certain in my thoughts , and doing mathematics most of the time . I am kind of " above things , " fully aware of what is up . Do not worry too much about me , though anything might happen . I know , Pete , that you are strong and decent . At first I thought that you should not visit me here . I do not know . With the world in turmoil I now feel that a boy your age should experience what is coming his way – fully digest it without getting a " belly ache , " so to speak , nor getting off the right track of truth , fact , honesty , fair play , and being above board – never a sneak ... .
He applied for a presidential pardon in May , to no avail . Peter visited him in jail several times , where one prisoner said Reich was known as the " flying saucer guy " and the " Sex Box man . " Reich told Peter that he cried a lot , and wanted Peter to let himself cry too , believing that tears are the " great softener . " His last letter to his son was on 22 October 1957 , when he said he was looking forward to being released on 10 November , having served one third of his sentence . A parole hearing had been scheduled for a few days before that date . He wrote that he and Peter had a date for a meal at the Howard Johnson restaurant near Peter 's school .
= = = Death = = =
Reich failed to appear for roll call on 3 November 1957 and was found at 7 a.m. in his bed , fully clothed but for his shoes . The prison doctor said he had died during the night of " myocardial insufficiency with sudden heart failure . " He was buried in a vault at Orgonon that he had asked his caretaker to dig in 1955 . He had left instructions that there was to be no religious ceremony , but that a record should be played of Schubert 's " Ave Maria " sung by Marian Anderson , and that his granite headstone should read simply : " Wilhelm Reich , Born March 24 , 1897 , Died ... " None of the academic journals carried an obituary . Time magazine wrote on 18 November 1957 :
Died . Wilhelm Reich , 60 , once @-@ famed psychoanalyst , associate and follower of Sigmund Freud , founder of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation , lately better known for unorthodox sex and energy theories ; of a heart attack ; in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary , Pa ; where he was serving a two @-@ year term for distributing his invention , the " orgone energy accumulator " ( in violation of the Food and Drug Act ) , a telephone @-@ booth @-@ size device that supposedly gathered energy from the atmosphere , and could cure , while the patient sat inside , common colds , cancer , and impotence .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Psychotherapy = = =
The psychoanalyst Richard Sterba wrote in 1982 that Reich had been a brilliant clinician and teacher in the 1920s ; even the older analysts had wanted to attend his technical seminars in Vienna . But according to Sharaf , they came to consider Reich as paranoid and belligerent . Psychologist Luis Cordon wrote that Reich 's slide from respectability concluded with the consensus inside and outside the psychoanalytic community that he was at best a crackpot and perhaps seriously ill .
There were inaccurate rumours from the late 1920s that he had been hospitalized . Paul Federn became Reich 's second analyst in 1922 ; he later said he had detected " incipient schizophrenia " and called Reich a psychopath . Similarly , Sandor Rado had Reich as an analyst and in 1931 and declared him schizophrenic " in the most serious way . " Reich 's daughter Lore Reich Rubin , a psychiatrist , believed that he was bipolar and had been sexually abused as a child .
Sharaf argued that psychoanalysts tended to dismiss as ill anyone from within the fold who had transgressed , and this was never done so relentlessly as with Reich . His work was split into the pre @-@ psychotic " good " and the post @-@ psychotic " bad , " the date of the illness 's onset depending on which parts of his work a speaker disliked . Psychoanalysts preferred to see him as sane in the 1920s because of his work on character , while political radicals regarded him as sane in the 1930s because of his Marxist @-@ oriented research .
Despite Reich 's precarious mental health , his work on character and the idea of muscular armouring contributed to the development of what is now known as ego psychology , gave rise to body psychotherapy , and helped shape the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls , the bioenergetic analysis of Reich 's student Alexander Lowen , and the primal therapy of Arthur Janov .
= = = Humanities = = =
Reich 's work influenced a generation of intellectuals , including Saul Bellow , William Burroughs and Norman Mailer , and the founder of Summerhill School in England , A. S. Neill . The French philosopher Michel Foucault wrote in The History of Sexuality ( 1976 ) that the impact of Reich 's critique of sexual repression had been substantial .
The Austrian @-@ American philosopher Paul Edwards said that the FDA 's pursuit of Reich had intensified Edwards ' attachment to him . He wrote in 1977 that for years he and his friends regarded Reich as " something akin to a messiah . " Paul Mathews and John M. Bell started teaching a course on Reich in 1968 at New York University through its Division of Continuing Study , and it was still being taught at the time Sharaf was writing Reich 's biography in 1983 , making it the longest @-@ running course ever taught in that division .
Several well @-@ known figures used orgone accumulators , including Orson Bean , Sean Connery , Allen Ginsberg , Paul Goodman , Jack Kerouac , Isaac Rosenfeld , J. D. Salinger , William Steig and Robert Anton Wilson . Mailer – who owned several orgone accumulators , including some in the shape of eggs – wrote about Reich enthusiastically in The Village Voice , as a result of which Orgonon became a place of pilgrimage and the orgasm a symbol of liberation .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Reich continued to influence popular culture after his death . Turner writes that the evil Dr. Durand Durand in Barbarella ( 1968 ) seems to be based on Reich ; he places Barbarella ( Jane Fonda ) in his Excessive Machine so that she dies of pleasure , but rather than killing her the machine burns out . W.R. : Mysteries of the Organism ( 1971 ) was directed by Yugoslavian director Dušan Makavejev . An orgone accumulator made an appearance as the Orgasmatron in Woody Allen 's Sleeper ( 1973 ) .
Patti Smith 's " Birdland " on her album Horses ( 1975 ) is based on Reich 's life and Hawkwind 's song " Orgone Accumulator , " on their album Space Ritual ( 1973 ) , on his invention , as is Love Camp 7 's " Orgone Box " ( 1997 ) . In Bob Dylan 's " Joey " from Desire ( 1975 ) , the eponymous gangster spends his time in prison reading Nietzsche and Reich . Reich is also a character in the opera Marilyn ( 1980 ) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero .
Kate Bush 's single " Cloudbusting " ( 1985 ) described Reich 's arrest through the eyes of his son , Peter , who wrote his father 's story in A Book of Dreams ( 1973 ) . The video for the song features Donald Sutherland as Reich and Bush as Peter . Robert Anton Wilson 's play , Wilhelm Reich in Hell ( 1987 ) , is about Reich 's confrontation with the American government . Four @-@ beat Rhythm : The Writings of Wilhelm Reich ( 2013 ) is a compilation album on which Reich 's writings are adapted to music . The Australian designer Marc Newson has produced a range of orgone furniture , most famously his Orgone Chair ( 1993 ) .
= = = Science = = =
The mainstream scientific community dismissed Reich 's orgone theory as pseudoscience . James Strick , an historian of science at Franklin and Marshall College , wrote in 2015 that the dominant narrative since Reich 's death has been that " there is no point in looking more closely at Reich 's science because there was no legitimate science from Reich . "
From 1960 , apparently in response to the book burning , the New York publisher Farrar , Straus and Giroux began republishing his major works . Reichian physicians organized study groups . In 1967 one of his associates , Dr. Elsworth Baker , established the bi @-@ annual Journal of Orgonomy , still published as of 2015 , and in 1968 founded the American College of Orgonomy in Princeton , New Jersey . According to Sharaf , contributors to the Journal of Orgonomy who worked in academia often used pseudonyms . The Orgone Biophysical Research Laboratory was founded in 1978 by James DeMeo and the Institute for Orgonomic Science in 1982 by Morton Herskowitz .
There was renewed interest in November 2007 , when the Reich archives at the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine at Harvard University were unsealed ; Reich had left instructions that his unpublished papers be stored for 50 years after his death . James Strick began studying Reich 's laboratory notebooks from the 1935 – 1939 bion experiments in Norway . In 2015 Harvard University Press published Strick 's Wilhelm Reich , Biologist , in which he writes that Reich 's work in Oslo " represented the cutting edge of light microscopy and time @-@ lapse micro @-@ cinematography . " He argues that the dominant narrative of Reich as a pseudoscientist is incorrect and that Reich 's story is " much more complex and interesting . "
Speaking to Christopher Turner in 2011 , Reich 's son , Peter , said of his father :
He was a nineteenth @-@ century scientist ; he wasn 't a twentieth @-@ century scientist . He didn 't practice science the way scientists do today . He was a nineteenth @-@ century mind who came crashing into twentieth @-@ century America . And boom !
= = Works = =
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= Halloween ( The Office ) =
" Halloween " is the fifth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's eleventh episode overall . It was written by executive producer and showrunner Greg Daniels and was directed by Paul Feig . The episode first aired on NBC in the United States on October 18 , 2005 . Guest stars in this episode included Devon Abner , Hugh Dane , George Gaus , Annabelle Kopack , Ava Nisbet and Alec Zbornak .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the employees at Dunder Mifflin celebrate Halloween at the office . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) struggles with making the decision of whom to fire . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) post Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) resume on the internet .
Due to the Halloween concept of the episode , the cast members of The Office were allowed to wear costumes rather than their " usual , realistically plain suits " . B.J. Novak , writer for the series as well as actor , called the experience " fun " . The episode features the last on @-@ screen appearance of the background character Devon until the series finale . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 1 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Although informed early in October that he must fire somebody by the end of the month , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) waits until the last day of the month , Halloween , and still hasn 't fired anyone . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) post Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) résumé on the internet , and when a prospective employer calls , Jim pretends to be Michael and gives Dwight a great reference . When the company , Cumberland Mills , calls Dwight to set up an interview , Dwight immediately ruins his chances by arguing with the caller over the importance and relevance of martial arts in his résumé . Later in the day , Pam suggests that Jim should apply for the Cumberland Mills position . Jim is quietly hurt by the suggestion that Pam would not miss him if he left .
After several failed attempted firings of other employees , Michael calls Creed Bratton ( played by Creed Bratton as a fictional version of himself ) into his office to fire him . Creed , in turn , convinces Michael to let Devon ( Devon Abner ) go . After Michael fires Devon , Devon angrily rebuffs Michael 's attempts to save their friendship , and invites everyone in the office ( except Michael , Creed , Dwight and Angela ) to join him at a local bar . As Jim leaves , Pam apologizes for pushing him into taking the Cumberland job and assures him that she would " blow her brains out " if he ever left . Jim admits to the camera that Pam is the only thing keeping him there . When the group leaves the office , Devon smashes a pumpkin over Michael 's car in revenge .
At the end of the episode , Michael is alone at his home in front of the television , upset over firing Devon . When trick @-@ or @-@ treaters come , Michael cheerfully gives them a generous amount of candy .
= = Production = =
" Halloween " is the third episode written by the series developer , executive producer , and show runner Greg Daniels . The episode was directed by Paul Feig , his second credit after " Office Olympics " . This episode is the only episode to date to have a quote to play over the Deedle @-@ Dee Productions title card in the closing credits . The quote features Dwight Schrute exclaiming " Quiet , you ! " The episode is rated TV @-@ PG on television in the United States .
During the pre @-@ production for the episode , the cast and crew realized that the Halloween conceit would allow the various cast members to wear costumes , rather than their " usual , realistically plain suits " . B.J. Novak called the dress @-@ up experience " fun " , noting that " seeing the most serious of our plotlines play out alongside such silly and bizarre visuals was , I think , one of the most inspired ideas of the episode 's writer , Greg Daniels . " The idea for Pam to be dressed as a cat was inspired by several unused stories , created by Gene Stupnitsky , in which " Pam Beesley must disguise herself as a cat " . The plot lines were vetoed by the shows writers , but Stupnitsky successfully petitioned to allow Pam to wear a cat costume .
" Halloween " marks the last appearance of Devon in an episode until the series finale , seven seasons later . Although Devon was only a background character , he is mentioned during " The Dundies " , seen in the background of " The Fire " , and is seen in a deleted scene during " Diversity Day " . Devon is later seen in a deleted scene on " Valentine 's Day " , when Michael passes by a homeless Devon in New York . Devon then chases Michael , presumably still angry over the events of " Halloween " . Guest stars in this episode included Devon Abner , Hugh Dane , George Gaus , Annabelle Kopack , Ava Nisbet and Alec Zbornak .
= = Cultural references = =
Due to the presence of Halloween , many of the employees costumes reflect movie and literary characters . Kelly is dressed as Dorothy Gale , but Michael makes an insensitive remark about Bend It Like Beckham . Dwight is dressed as a Sith , one of the characters in the Star Wars universe capable of using the " dark side " of the Force . Phyllis , however , confuses him for " some sort of monk " . Kevin is dressed as a Dunder Mifflin super hero , with a costume design similar to Mr. Incredible . Creed is dressed like a vampire and Devon is dressed like a hobo . Pam , Phyllis , and Angela are all dressed up as cats . Oscar is dressed as a woman , and Michael asks him if he is " flying his true colors " , to which Oscar reacts defensively .
= = Reception = =
" Halloween " was originally broadcast on NBC in the United States on October 18 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 8 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 1 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the number one ranked episode among adults , men , and women in the 18 – 34 demographic , and achieved its highest 18 – 49 rating since the season 's premiere . " Halloween " retained 73 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name Is Earl audience , its best lead @-@ in retention at the time .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " . He felt that the plot revolving around downsizing was " fitting " , because the episode takes place on " Halloween " , and that this plot returned Michael to the role of villain . Adams also felt that " director Paul Feig and credited writer Greg Daniels had a lot of fun dressing the show up for “ Halloween , ” framing Dwight like a shrouded Emperor Palpatine and making John Krasinski step into Steve Carell ’ s shoes for a couple of great punchlines . "
The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad gave the episode a relatively positive review and noted that he " could certainly relate to [ the ] episode . " Sciannamea also said that " great moment " in the episode was when " Michael tells Creed , who is dressed as a vampire , that he can spread his wings and fly to wherever he wants . " " Miss Alli " of Television Without Pity rated " Halloween " a B + . Entertainment Weekly named Michael Scott 's line , " I just hope that you and I can remain friends , " one of " TV 's funniest lines " for the week ending October 24 , 2005 .
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= Bommarillu =
Bommarillu ( English : Dollhouse ) ( pronunciation ) is a 2006 Telugu romantic comedy film directed and co @-@ written by Bhaskar , and produced by Dil Raju . The film stars Siddharth Narayan , Genelia D 'Souza , Prakash Raj and Jayasudha . Following the film 's box office success it was remade in Tamil as Santosh Subramaniam ( 2008 ) , in Bengali as Bhalobasa Bhalobasa ( 2008 ) , in Oriya as Dream Girl ( 2009 ) and in Hindi as It 's My Life ( 2013 ) .
The film primarily revolves around the relationship between a father and son , in which the father 's excessive concern for his son , and interference in his life , leads to the latter harbouring bitterness towards his overbearing father . The film opened to Indian audiences on 9 August 2006 . On its way to winning state honors and rave reviews , the film went on to win the South Filmfare Awards among other prominent awards . The film 's success broke several records at the box office during its prime and is one of the highest grossing Telugu films .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with a baby taking his first steps on a beach supported by his father . The narrator ( Murali Mohan ) states that , it is right for a father to support his child in his infancy , but questions whether the father should continue to hold the child 's hand even after he is 24 years old . As the credits roll , a visibly angry Siddharth Siddhu Addala ( Siddharth Narayan ) begins verbally abusing all the fathers in the world . When queried about his disgust , he says that his father , Aravind ( Prakash Raj ) , gives him more than what he asks for . He cites instances where his choices of dressing , hairstyle , and many others are overruled by his father 's . However , he vows that his career and the woman he marries will be his own choice .
Satti ( Sunil ) , Addala household 's dutiful servant wakes up Siddhu in the morning . In the background , Siddhu 's mother , Lakshmi ( Jayasudha ) , is seen singing a devotional Telugu song while cooking . At the dining table , Aravind , Managing Director of their construction company , asks if Siddhu will join their office . When Siddhu deliberates , his father becomes impatient and plans for his marriage despite Siddhu 's silent protest . The next week , Siddhu returns home to realize that he is going to get engaged to Subbulakshmi ( Neha ) against his wishes . He speaks with her only to realize that she is a daddy 's girl ( Tanikella Bharani being the father ) and does not take a liking to her . However , with Aravind 's final say , they eventually get engaged .
While contemplating on his options in a temple , Siddhu accidentally meets Hasini ( Genelia D 'Souza ) , an engineering student . Siddhu is attracted by her cheerful nature and energy , and the couple begin to meet on a regular basis . As the days go by , Siddhu grows to admire the ever @-@ friendly Hasini as someone who does what she loves , and he discovers many small things which make him happy to be in her company ; he realizes that he has fallen in love with her .
Alongside this , Siddhu applies for a bank loan to start his construction company . When his love for Hasini deepens , he wishes to propose to her . He confesses to her that he is engaged to Subbulakshmi against his wishes , but who he really wants is her . On learning of his engagement , Hasini gets dejected , but comes back a few days later and asks him to do what he wishes for and accepts his proposal . At this juncture , the ecstatic Siddhu is seen by a furious Aravind . Siddhu is admonished back home and he expresses his disinterest in marrying Subbulakshmi . When asked for his reason to like Hasini , Siddhu replies that if Hasini can stay with their family for a week , then all their questions shall be answered . He convinces Hasini to stay at his house after lying to her father , Kanaka Rao ( Kota Srinivasa Rao ) that she is going on a college tour .
When Hasini is introduced to Siddhu 's family , she gets a lukewarm welcome . As she settles down in the house , the other family members begin to like her . Even though getting used to the living habits of the authoritarian Aravind 's household is difficult , Hasini stays for Siddhu 's sake . In the meanwhile , Aravind reprimands Siddhu when he finds out about his bank loan and his career plans , only to further enrage Siddhu .
One day , the entire family along with Hasini attends a marriage ceremony . A cheerful Hasini cheers up the ceremony with her playful nature . Coincidentally , Kanaka Rao who happens to be around , recognizes Siddhu as the drunken young man whom he encountered on an earlier occasion . Hasini realizes her father 's presence and quickly exits to avoid his attention . After saving their face , Siddhu admonishes Hasini for her antics at the marriage . A sad and angry Hasini moves out of the house saying that she does not find Siddhu the same and that she cannot put on an act if she stays in their house . After getting back to her house , she rebuilds the trust her father has in her while Siddhu is left forlorn . Lakshmi confronts Aravind on Siddhu 's choices and wants . In the process , Siddhu opens up his heart , leaving Aravind to repent on his over @-@ protectiveness . Siddhu requests Subbulakshmi and her parents to call off the marriage . While they relent , Aravind manages to convince Kanaka Rao about Siddhu and Hasini 's love . When Kanaka Rao disagrees to get the two lovers married , Aravid suggests letting Siddhu stay with them for a week and the story returns to the pre @-@ credits scene . The viewers are left to assume that the two lovers have a happy union .
= = Cast = =
Siddharth Narayan as Siddharth " Siddu " Addala
Genelia D 'Souza as Hasini Rao
Prakash Raj as Aravind Addala , Siddu 's father
Kota Srinivasa Rao as Kanaka Rao , Hasini 's father
Jayasudha as Lakshmi Addala , Siddu 's mother
Satya Krishnan as Siddu 's sister @-@ in @-@ law
Sudeepa Pinky as Siddu 's sister
Surekha Vani as Siddu 's elder sister
Sunil as Satti
Neha Bamb as Subbalaxmi
Tanikella Bharani as Subbulaxmi 's father
Ravi Varma as Ravi
Dharmavarapu Subramanyam as Kismat Kumar
Brahmanandam as loan officer
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The shooting of the film took about three and a half months . Prior to Bommarillu , Bhaskar assisted Dil Raju in Telugu films such as Arya ( 2004 ) and Bhadra ( 2005 ) .
On the sets of the film Arya , Raju offered Bhaskar a film to direct . On the sets of Bhadra , Bhaskar narrated the story to Raju and the saga began . Thus , Bommarillu became the first directorial venture for Bhaskar . In an interview , he said that the story for the film began taking shape in as early as 1997 when he wrote about a father and a son 's relationship . However , when the plans of making the film arose , an element of love between the protagonists was added . In the interview , he said that the script , to an extent , is autobiographical . He cites personal examples of some scenes from the film such as the choice of clothes for Siddhu by Aravind , the head @-@ bump between the lead actors and Lakshmi singing in the kitchen .
In an interview , Vijay C Chakravarthy , the cinematographer for the film , said that Dil Raju offered him the position in November 2005 . For the film , Vijay said that he made use of Arriflex 435 camera and Hawk lenses . In another interview , Bhaskar said working with Abburi Ravi , his co @-@ writer , was unique . They used to converse in a closed room with a voice recorder , allowing the dialogues in the script to be natural . He also heaped praise on Marthand K. Venkatesh , the film 's editor . After filming , the length of the film reel came to 16 @,@ 200 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) which amounted to a runtime of 3 hours and 15 minutes . The presence of Marthand brought this down to 15 @,@ 100 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . This meant a reduction in the runtime by 25 minutes .
= = = Casting , location and music = = =
The choice of Siddharth was because of the sheer relevance to the character in real life . However , they finalized the choice of the actor only after the script was ready . The choice of Genelia was based on her natural vivacity in real life . This and her eyes , according to Bhaskar , made her an obvious choice for her character . More so , she liked the one line story that Raju told and also a few scenes that he narrated to her . She immediately liked the character and consented for the role . The fact that her co @-@ actor , Siddharth and she acted earlier together in Boys ( 2003 ) , made them more comfortable to work with . The camaraderie that the lead actors shared during the filming , added to their good performances . The choice of Prakash Raj was easy as he befitted the character he portrayed while , Jayasudha was persuaded to play the role of the lead actor 's mother .
The palatial house where the entire family stayed in the film is part of Ramanaidu Studios at Nanakramguda , Hyderabad . Several modifications were done by the art director , Prakash . A couple of the songs were shot in a montage , another couple in Frankfurt am Main and other places in Germany and one song each in this house set and at a temple in Kakinada .
For the film 's music and soundtrack , Raju renewed his previous association ( Arya and Bhadra ) with Devi Sri Prasad . Savitha Reddy rendered the voice for Genelia 's character in the film . A feature of this film is Siddharth singing one of the tracks from the film .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
Bommarillu was released worldwide with 72 prints . Owing to the success of the film , the number of reels grew to about hundred . It collected a distributors share of ₹ 5 crore in its opening week in India . Released in six major metros in the United States , the film collected $ 73 @,@ 200 ( then approximately ₹ 0 @.@ 3 crore ) within the first four days of screening . A September 2006 survey done in the United States by a popular entertainment portal revealed that the film was watched by an Indian expatriate population of 65 @,@ 000 , which generated a revenue of ₹ 3 crore at that time . A cumulative gross revenue for the film was reported to be as ₹ 25 crore including ₹ 3 @.@ 5 crore from overseas , the largest for any Telugu film at that time .
= = = Critical acclaim , controversies , awards and remakes = = =
The film received rave reviews right for the story and the performances . One entertainment portal has given a rating of 4 @.@ 5 / 5 tagging the film 's review with Picture Perfect . Another such portal suggests the film to the entire family . It goes on to applaud Siddharth Narayan , Genelia D 'Souza and Prakash Raj , the three prime actors from the film for their performances . Similar reviews were voiced out by other such portals , many of which pointing out no real flaws from the film . HOURDOSE reviewed it by stating " ‘ Bommarillu ’ is a pure example of a director ’ s faith in his script and his screenplay . All the wonderful performances of the lead cast and some nice talent from the crew made the film a grand success . This film is surely one of the most well @-@ written and innovative films that Tollywood has produced in recent years . "
The film had its own share of controversies . A news report showcased the omnipresent piracy in the Telugu film industry by quoting the cheap prices at which the film was being sold . The film 's lead actor , Siddharth even went on to request the audiences to buy the original audio CD . The film 's producer , Dil Raju , ensured a special code on each distributed print to track piracy with a warning for copyright violation which would incur a fine or a jail term .
In April 2007 , a case of copyright infringement was filed on the film 's producer and director that prompted a court to stall the screening of the film . The allegation pointed out that the film was made based on a compilation of short stories that was released in 1997 .
The film won the 2006 Golden Nandi Award . While director Bhaskar , won awards for the Debut director and Screenplay , Abburi Ravi won the award for his dialogues . Actors Prakash Raj and Genelia D 'Souza received the Best Actor in a Supporting role and Special jury awards respectively while Savitha Reddy won the Nandi Award for Best Female Dubbing Artist for her work . At the 2007 Filmfare Awards South , the film won awards for the Best Film , Best Actress and Best Music Director .
Jayasudha 's efforts to remake this film in Hindi with Amitabh Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan were unsuccessful . The film is being remade in Hindi as It 's My Life starring Harman Baweja opposite Genelia D 'Souza . The film was remade in Tamil , Bengali and Oriya languages under the titles Santosh Subramaniam , Bhalobasa Bhalobasa and Dream Girl , respectively , in 2008 and 2009 .
= = Home media = =
The DVD version of the film was released on 4 June 2007 and distributed by I Dream Dvd internationally . It is available in 16 : 9 Anamorphic widescreen , Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround , progressive 24 FPS , widescreen and NTSC format .
= = Awards = =
Nandi Awards
Best Film ( Gold Nandi ) - Dil Raju
Best Supporting Actor - Prakash Raj
Best First Film of a Director - Bhaskar
Best Screenplay - Bhaskar
Best Dialogue Writer - Abburi Ravi
Best Female Dubbing Artist - Savitha Reddy
Special Jury - Genelia D 'Souza
Filmfare Awards South
Best Film – Telugu - Dil Raju
Best Actress – Telugu - Genelia D 'Souza
Best Music Director – Telugu - Devi Sri Prasad
= = Soundtrack = =
The film has seven songs composed by Devi Sri Prasad with the lyrics primarily penned by Chandrabose , Ravi Kumar Bhaskarabhatla , Kulasekhar and Sirivennela Sitaramasastri . The audio of the film released nationwide on 18 July 2006 . A repository of Indian songs has recommended the feel @-@ good soundtracks to the audiences .
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= The Bells of Saint John =
" The Bells of Saint John " is the sixth episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who . It premiered in the United Kingdom on 30 March 2013 on BBC One ; the episode was the first of the second half of the series . It was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Colm McCarthy .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is looking for Clara Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) , a woman whom he has met by chance on two previous occasions only for her to die both times . He manages to find a third version of her in the present @-@ day London , where Miss Kizlet ( Celia Imrie ) is helping the Great Intelligence use the world 's Wi @-@ Fi to upload people to a datacloud via robots known as Servers , casually referred to as Spoonheads .
" The Bells of Saint John " was designed to be an " urban thriller " , in that it is taking " something omnipresent in your life and making it sinister " . It was watched by 8 @.@ 44 million viewers in the UK . The episode received generally positive reviews , although several critics felt that the plot and threat were lacking .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequel = = =
On 23 March 2013 , BBC released a short prequel video to the episode , written by Steven Moffat . In the prequel , the Doctor is sitting at the swings of a children 's playground when he meets a little girl . They talk about losing things , and the Doctor states that he has lost someone twice and he hopes he might be able to find her again . The girl tells him that , when she loses something , she goes to a quiet place for a think , and then can remember where she put it . As the girl leaves , it is revealed that she is Clara Oswald .
= = = Synopsis = = =
A man on a computer screen describes how human souls are uploaded to the Internet when people use their computers to log in to a certain Wi @-@ Fi network . The man reveals he has been uploaded and is lost .
The Doctor ( Matt Smith ) has retreated to a monastery in Cumbria in the year 1207 to contemplate the mystery of Clara Oswin Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) , a woman he has met twice previously but who died both times . The monks disturb him one day to tell him that " the bells of Saint John " are ringing . The Doctor goes to his TARDIS and finds its exterior phone ringing . On the other end is Clara , whom the Doctor initially does not recognise . Clara , having been given the TARDIS ' number by " a woman in the shop " and believing it is a computer help line , asks for help to connect to the Internet . When Clara uses the phrase " Run , you clever boy , and remember " as a mnemonic for her password , the Doctor realises who she is . He sets off to meet her in person .
When he arrives , Clara refuses to talk to him due to his bizarre appearance and erratic behaviour , so the Doctor changes out of his monk 's clothing into a variation of his usual clothing . When he returns , he finds Clara being " uploaded " via a mobile robotic server disguised as a young girl . The Doctor halts the upload , sending the uploaders a message that Clara is under his protection . The head of the uploaders , Miss Kizlet ( Celia Imrie ) , informs her client that the Doctor has intervened as feared . The Doctor and Clara are outside when the uploaders cause an airplane to descend at them . The Doctor and Clara board the TARDIS and land on the plane , and the Doctor saves it from crashing .
The Doctor takes Clara to the next morning in the TARDIS , and they go to a cafe to try to understand the happenings . Clara uses computer skills that she picked up from her uploading experience to track the uploaders to their base at the Shard . The Doctor encounters people inside the café under the control of Miss Kizlet who distract him long enough for a server disguised as the Doctor to upload Clara completely . An angered Doctor sets out to the Shard on an anti @-@ gravity motorbike and crashes it into Miss Kizlet 's office . He demands that she release all the minds that have been uploaded , but Miss Kizlet refuses . The Doctor then reveals that he is still at the café and she was talking to the server he had hacked which he then uses to upload Miss Kizlet to the network . Trapped in the network , she orders her subordinates to release her . By doing this , everyone else including Clara , is restored .
The restored Miss Kizlet contacts her client to report her failure to him . The client is shown to be the Great Intelligence , who orders her to reset all people working there , including herself , clearing their memories in the process . As UNIT storms in to shut them down , the uploaders all lose their memories . Miss Kizlet is reduced to the mentality of a small child . Meanwhile , the Doctor takes Clara home and offers her a chance to travel with him , which she refuses . She tells him to come back the next morning , as she may change her mind by then .
= = = Continuity = = =
Summer Falls , the book that Clara spots Artie , one of her charges , reading is written by " Amelia Williams " , the married name of the Doctor 's previous companion Amy Pond ; she had been a travel writer in the 21st century before being permanently sent back to the early 20th century , and becoming the editor of her daughter 's detective novel / guidebook .
The episode was the official beginning for Clara Oswald , but Coleman had appeared twice before , as two different characters .
The Great Intelligence makes its second appearance in a row after appearing in the preceding episode , " The Snowmen " . From the Intelligence 's perspective , more than a century has elapsed . In the intervening time , the Great Intelligence has encountered the Doctor 's second incarnation twice , once in the Himalayan mountains during the 1930s and once in the London Underground in the 1970s .
The woman in the shop who gave Clara the Doctor 's number is brought up in " Deep Breath " . The Twelfth Doctor remarks it seems as if someone is trying to bring the Doctor and Clara together . The episode " Death in Heaven " reveals it was the Master , in a female incarnation , who gave the number to Clara .
= = Production = =
Writer Steven Moffat described the premise as
" the traditional ' Doctor Who ' thing of taking something omnipresent in your life and making it sinister , if something did get in the Wi @-@ Fi , we 'd be kind of screwed . Nobody had really done it before , so I thought , ' It 's time to get kids frightened of Wi @-@ Fi ! ' "
However , he denied that his intention was to give a warning about technology , but rather tell an adventure story about a " new way [ for aliens ] to invade " based on something viewers were familiar with . Producer Marus Wilson suggested that the episode be an " urban thriller " , as the story would already be set in contemporary London to introduce Clara and the Wi @-@ Fi monsters . Moffat compared the style to James Bond and The Bourne Identity . Moffat said that the episode was " an action roller coaster " rather than a story intended to be scary .
Despite being announced as the actress to portray the new companion , Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman had first appeared as two different characters , called Oswin and Clara respectively , in " Asylum of the Daleks " and " The Snowmen " , but " The Bells of Saint John " introduces the character who will be the Doctor 's travelling companion . Coleman played each version of the character as individuals with " trust that there would be a payoff " to her mystery . Moffat described this version of Clara as " more real @-@ world " , and Smith stated that Clara " reignites [ the Doctor 's ] curiosity in the universe and gives him his mojo back " .
The read @-@ through for " The Bells of Saint John " took place on 19 September 2012 at Roath Lock . It is the first Doctor Who episode to be directed by Colm McCarthy . Filming began on 8 October ; some occurring in London , at the Westminster Bridge and alongside the River Thames , with motorbike scenes at the London locations shot around 16 October 2012 . The rooftop scenes were filmed at Grange St Paul 's Hotel . The location was intended to be in Covent Garden , but was changed to a location with a better view of the Shard .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Bells of Saint John " first aired in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 30 March 2013 , and on the same date in both the United States on BBC America and in Canada on Space . It aired on 31 March in both Australia on ABC1 , and in South Africa on BBC Entertainment . The episode aired on 11 April in New Zealand on Prime .
The episode received an overnight rating of 6 @.@ 18 million viewers in the UK , peaking at 6 @.@ 68 million , a 29 @.@ 8 % audience share ; which put it in third place for the night . When time @-@ shifted viewers were accounted for , the figure rose to 8 @.@ 44 million viewers , placing second for the week on BBC One . " The Bells of Saint John " also received 0 @.@ 96 million requests on BBC iPlayer for March , and 1 @.@ 3 million requests for April . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 87 . In 2013 the episode received 2 @.@ 61 million iPlayer views .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Bells of Saint John " received generally positive reviews , but several critics felt underwhelmed by the story . Nick Setchfield of SFX gave the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . He was positive towards the visual style and the plot , as well as the performances of Smith , Coleman , and Imrie . A Radio Times reviewer was pleased that Coleman was playing Clara as a straightforward companion , and highlighted her chemistry with Smith . He described it as " a hugely enjoyable episode that revels in its modern London setting " , praising the way its ideas were realised visually on @-@ screen . MSN 's Hilary Wardle gave " The Bells of Saint John " episode four out of five stars , noting that it moved at a fast pace and the plot was similar to " The Idiot 's Lantern " ( 2006 ) but was " very well done " . She especially praised the chemistry between Smith and Coleman .
Ben Lawrence , writing in The Daily Telegraph , gave the episode four out of five stars , saying that it had much to " enthral " a present @-@ day viewer and showed how Doctor Who was constantly reinventing itself . A similar statement was made by Euan Ferguson of The Observer , who also wrote that the episode was " splendid " with good villains , though he felt that the plot was " insanely complicated " and hard to understand . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery also rated " The Bells of Saint John " four stars , feeling that the threat " leaves a little to be desired " and the Spoonheads ' physical appearance was not memorable . However , he said that " practically everything else here is wonderful " , especially Clara 's new characterisation . IGN reviewer Mark Snow rated the episode 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . He praised the Wi @-@ Fi concept but was underwhelmed by the Spoonheads , and felt that it was more low @-@ key than it was promoted .
The A.V. Club 's Alasdair Wilkins gave " The Bells of Saint John " a grade of B , explaining that the plot suffered just as previous companion introductions had because the threat was secondary to establishing Clara . He also wrote that the episode " struggles to make all its chosen genre elements compelling " and was not positive towards the menace of the Wi @-@ Fi and questioned how realistic the technology seen was . Despite this , he said that it was still " fun " with good performances . Dan Martin of The Guardian was disappointed , writing that it " makes a hearty meal of its iconic London locations ... But after the tour de force that was " The Snowmen " , it feels as though this handsome episode constantly just misses the mark " . He found the monsters and plot familiar to past episodes , but noted that a " generic " opening episode had been common for the show when it was introducing a new companion , which was done successfully with Clara . Neela Debnath in The Independent echoed similar sentiments , feeling that it did not live up to the hype and reused several elements from previous episodes . Jon Cooper of the Daily Mirror wrote that " The Bells of Saint John " " had its moments " but " as a whole it didn 't reach the heights of previous episodes " . While he welcomed the departure in tone , he felt that the set @-@ pieces were shoehorned in , and also expressed concern that Clara , despite Coleman 's success , was too similar to previous companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) .
In Doctor Who Magazine , Graham Kibble @-@ White gave it a positive review , describing it as " zestful and exciting Doctor Who . " He complimented the fact that " the action sequences are played at a fury and the current anything 's @-@ possible flourishes continue unabated " . He noted that " there 's something pointless but pleasing in having Clara 's charge , Artie , reading Summer Falls – a book written by Amelia Williams " . Additionally , he described the Spoonheads as " a very effective threat , albeit written as one of the foot soldiers of the Doctor Who world , with only the verbal facility to paraphrase back what 's been said , " and stated that " the revelation of the concave absence at the back of the skull is horrific . " However , he complained that to him , Clara 's guess that the TARDIS was a " snogging booth " seemed like " something a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy would conjure , not a 24 @-@ year @-@ old woman " .
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= Non @-@ fatal offences against the person in English law =
Non @-@ fatal offences against the person , under English law , are generally taken to mean offences which take the form of an attack directed at another person , that do not result in the death of any person . Such offences where death occurs are considered homicide , whilst sexual offences are generally considered separately , since they differ substantially from other offences against the person in theoretical basis and composition . Non @-@ fatal offences against the person mainly derive from the Offences against the Person Act 1861 , although no definition of assault or battery is given there .
Offences against the person include minor forms of battery ( any unlawful touching of another person ) ; its complimentary offence , assault ( causing the apprehension of a battery , even when one has not yet occurred ) ; and various more serious offences which are based on assault and battery ( together called " common assault " ) . This includes assault occasioning actual bodily harm , where the victim suffers injuries such as bruising or skin abrasions ( the converse being an injury that is " transient and trifling " ) ; wounding ( a piercing of all layers of the skin ) ; and causing grievous bodily harm ( injuries more serious than in actual bodily harm , for example broken bones ) . The latter two offences may be committed " with intent " , meaning there is an additional mens rea component that makes the defendant more culpable for their actions . Whilst recklessness is sufficient for most offences against the person – that the defendant foresaw the risk of the proscribed injury occurring without necessarily intending it to happen – this is insufficient for crimes of intent .
= = General characteristics = =
Common to all crimes against the person is the infringement of the right to bodily integrity . It extends to the touching of clothing , for example , and where no physical harm actually results . However , if all touchings were criminalised , this would interfere with the right to liberty . It is the very touching , and not the harm , that is the violation of principle . This is related to the right to privacy under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights . The central statute on this topic is Offences against the Person Act 1861 , which brought together a multitude of difference offences , with much overlap and inconsistent terminology . These include both the actual infliction and the threat of violence . Although criticised , the Act has not been replaced .
In the context of the law of attempts , the Crown Prosecution Service advises that " where the evidence demonstrates that the suspect intended to cause an injury that is substantially more serious than that ( if any ) which was in fact caused , prosecutors should consider the circumstances of the case as a whole as well as the relevant sentencing guideline to determine the appropriate charge . "
= = Assault and battery = =
A distinction is drawn betwixt the offence of assault and that of battery . Assault is the apprehension of the possibility of immediate unlawful violence , and battery that of the infliction of such violence . Several proposals , including one from the Criminal Law Revision Committee in 1980 have proposed merging the offences . However , the distinction was confirmed in DPP v Little in 1992 . There , the conflation of assault and battery was criticised as duplicitous . If D throws a punch at V , who dodges , this is likely to be an assault but not a battery ; if V is attacked from behind , this may constitute a battery without an assault . Actions which constitute ordinary daily life are not considered assault or battery , for example , jostling on a crowded train . The term " common assault " is used to refer to either a technical assault or a battery .
= = = Assault = = =
Assault is a summary offence in England and Wales , with the case heard only at a Magistrates ' Court . Although R v Little considered assault a statutory offence , none of the statutes referred to contain any definition of assault . The actus reus , endorsed in R v Ireland , is any act by D that causes V to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence . The term " force " rather than " violence " is used by the Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) . As a definition , this has proven stable , but its interpretation has varied . The force must be unlawful – outside the realm of defensive or preventative force , for example . Consent of the victim may be enough to prevent the commission of a crime . There is to debate as to whether lack of consent is an element of the actus reus , making it inherent to the commission of a crime , or whether consent is a defence . Andrew Simester and Bob Sullivan argue that the former is more correct , since lack on consent is vital to the crime ; since the act may not constitute a harm even if enacted . The disregard for the victim 's autonomy and privacy is the actionable part of the offence . The victim need not be frightened by the apprehension of violence , merely not want the person concerned to do it .
Assault requires a positive act , not an omission . Mere lawful presence in a location is not enough to satisfy the conduct requirement ; illegal trespass , however , is sufficient . John Cyril Smith has suggested that wilfully refusing to retract an inadvertent act that causes the victim to apprehend violence may constitute an assault by omission . It is arguable that there was once a rule that " mere words " could not constitute an assault , but the case of R v Ireland confirmed that even silent phone calls would be grounds for the charge of assault . R. v Constanza added threatening letters to this category .
Although assault involves a threat of an immediate battery , the perpetrator need not actually intend to carry out that battery . It is enough that he , intentionally or recklessly , caused the victim to apprehend such an occurrence . The term " immediate " has also been used in different ways . Following Ireland , it seems likely that even where the victim knew the defendant was some distance away , this may be sufficient . As Lord Steyn said there , " what , if not the possibility of imminent personal violence , was the victim terrified about ? " . This would widen the crime of assault considerably . It is perfectly conceivable that the victim was fearful , but did not believe an attack was imminent . That she actually apprehended " immediate violence " , rather than merely " immediately apprehended " , is doubtful . In Constanza , it was sufficient for the prosecution to show that the victim feared an attack in the future , which may have been imminent . It also suggested that the anticipated harm could be psychological rather than physical .
Blake v Barnard established a rule that conditional threats could not amount to an assault . However , the court 's reliance on Tuberville v Savage was tenuous at best . Such threats would normally be considered assault .
The mens rea requirement is that the defendant must have intend to , or recklessly , cause the victim to fear the possibility of immediate unlawful violence . There is no authority that suggests that " intend " or " recklessly " ought to mean something from their normal meanings . Cunningham recklessness – that the defendant himself foresaw the risk of harm – is applied . Assault is a crime of " basic intent " for the purposes of the Majewski test concerning voluntary intoxication .
= = = Battery = = =
The defendant commits a battery if they intentionally or recklessly apply unlawful force to another , without their consent . It is subject to the same " everyday life " exception common to assault . Cases have included kissing , spitting and cutting someone 's hair without their consent . This also includes contact with the victim 's clothing , a rule dating back to 1845 in R v Day . It is not necessary that the victim feels the touching .
The required causation may be quite oblique . As well as weaponry held in the hand , weaponry thrown is included , as is causing people to touch each other by creating a sense of panic . The general law on liability for omissions also applies to batteries , for example those of the continuing act ( as in Fagan v MPC ) and of a duty of care . However , in R v Ireland the court ruled out psychological injury by means of a telephone as a form of battery , although it was not an important point in the case as other charges were brought . Poisoning is not a battery where there is no accompanying violence .
The case of R v Brown established a further requirement : hostility . This is not easily called an actus reus nor mens rea requirement . It was not clear what role it played in that case , but could apply to other cases as a way of clarifying the " everyday behaviour " guidance . It has been strongly criticised by Lord Goff and other judicial and academic writers . It could apply to future cases where the bodily harm was unintended or unforeseen .
The mens rea requirement for battery is similar to assault . It is the intention to apply unlawful force to another , or be reckless as to whether such force is applied . It employs Cunningham recklessness – that the defendant must have foreseen the risk of the infliction of unlawful force upon V. In theory , at least , combining the mens rea of battery with the actus reus of assault , or vice versa , is not a crime . The Majewski test is applied to cases of voluntary intoxication , as battery is also a crime of " basic intent " in this scenario .
= = Assault occasioning actual bodily harm = =
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm carries a maximum sentence of 5 years under section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 . It is triable either way . Both assault ( fear of violence ) and battery ( infliction of violence ) are included , although it is possible to consider section 47 as creating two offences – one involving an assault , and one a battery . " Occasioning " is generally taken to mean " causing " although John Gardner has argued that it is wider than that . In discussing causation , ' frightened ' people are not expected to act entirely rationally ; instead , a relevant test is that of R v Roberts . There , any conduct of the victim short of " daft " could be considered caused by the defendant 's actions . Only the seriousness of the injury separates an assault from an assault occasioning actual bodily harm .
The concept of " actual bodily harm " is wide . Almost all injuries are included – for example , bruising or skin abrasions . Injuries are not included if they are " transient or trifling " , but this did not cover even momentary unconsciousness . The wide range of injuries give prosecutors considerable discretion about which charge to bring against a defendant . Psychological injury is included , so long as it forms a recognised medical condition . Mere fright or anxiety is insufficient for actual bodily harm . It is limited only by the need for an actual assault or battery to have taken place .
There is no separate mens rea element from the assault or battery , making this a crime of constructive liability . This has been defended by John Gardner , a proponent of the moral threshold theory . However , this is opposed by Simester and Sullivan .
= = Maliciously wounds or inflicts grievous bodily harm = =
Section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 criminalises " whosoever shall unlawfully and maliciously wound or inflict any grievous bodily harm upon any other person , either with or without any weapon or instrument " . The maximum penalty , five years , is the same as that for actual bodily harm , but a section 20 offence is considered more serious by the courts and the Crown Prosecution Service . A judge is free on the facts of the case to allow a jury find a defendant guilty of assault occasioning actual bodily harm where a defendant is charged with a section 20 offence .
The actus reus is the wound or infliction of grievous bodily harm ( GBH ) . A " wound " is something that breaks all layers of the skin , and must have an external component – internal bleeding , however serious , is not a wound . Serious wounds would also fall under grievous bodily harm , but some qualifying wounds ( a pin prick , for example ) are very minor . Some wounds would therefore not qualify as grievous bodily harm .
The phrase " really serious harm " was used to describe grievous bodily harm in R v Metheram . The case of R v Grundy confirmed that injuries should be taken in their totality ; that many small injuries may form a serious harm . R v Bollom confirmed the Grundy approach , and also showed that grievous bodily harm against a child was likely to require less bodily harm that that against an adult . R v Burstow extended " bodily harm " to include psychological trauma if it formed a recognised serious mental condition . Simester et al said that this could have wide @-@ reaching consequences , but it is unlikely to be taken to include commonplace occurrences ( relationship breakups , verbal cruelty , broken promises ) – in Burstow , the conduct included a prolonged and intense campaign of harassment .
For a long time , R v Clarence was taken as an authority on the meaning of " inflict " , which the court took to mean " an assault or battery of which a wound or grievous bodily harm is the manifest immediate and obvious result " . This narrow definition was extended in R v Martin and R v Halliday to include , for example , injuries sustained during an attempt of the victim to flee . An injury is said to be " inflicted " if it is the result of an impact or percussion set in motion by the defendant ; the injury must relate directly to the impact or percussion , but the impact or percussion may be an indirect effect of the defendant 's actions . R v Burstow established that " inflict " was a near synonym of cause : in Lord Hope 's view , they were synonymous , except that the outcome of the former must be unpleasant . This was applied in R v Dica and R v Konzani , two cases of knowingly risking passing on HIV without explicit consent .
The mens rea element is that of " malice " , which means either intention or recklessness . Cunningham recklessness is applied . However , for the purposes of recklessness , foresight of even minor harm is sufficient – it does not require foresight of serious harm . This has been criticised since it breaks the correspondence principle , that the mens rea should match the actus reus of an offence .
= = Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent = =
The crime of wounding with intent is created by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 . It reads , since amended , as : " Whosoever shall unlawfully and maliciously by any means whatsoever wound or cause any grievous bodily harm to any person ... with intent ... to do some ... grievous bodily harm to any person , or with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension or detainer of any person ... " . This creates four forms of the offence : unlawfully and maliciously wounding , with intent to either do grievous bodily harm ( 1 ) or resist arrest ( 2 ) ; and unlawfully and maliciously causing grievous bodily harm , with intent to either do grievous bodily harm ( 3 ) or resist arrest ( 4 ) . Thus forms ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) differ from section 20 offences mainly in that there is a specific intention to cause serious harm rather than some harm , and they are therefore the more serious charges . On an indictment under section 18 , the jury is open to convict under section 20 or section 47 if properly directed .
" Wounding " and " causing grievous bodily harm " are defined in the same way as they are in the crime of maliciously wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm . Grievous bodily harm includes serious psychological trauma and serious infection ; however , these are less controversial here because of the inclusion of intent . Intent narrows the crime considerably , and the term " inflict " is not used . In form ( 3 ) , intent can be simply decided in the case of a direct attack , or " virtual certainty " , with knowledge of the virtual certainty – the Woollin principle . In form ( 1 ) , where an injury does not amount to grievous bodily harm , intent to cause grievous bodily harm ( in the advancement of a different cause ) must be shown . Practically , the " virtual certainty " clause cannot come into force , since grievous bodily harm was not actually caused , by definition . In forms ( 2 ) and ( 4 ) , the concept of " malice " has a role to play that it does not in ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) . The defendant must foresee the risk of wounding or grievous bodily harm , where the core intent is to resist arrest . The defendant cannot be reckless to the resisting of arrest , it must be an intention . Concerning the requirement to resist a lawful arrest , the defendant only lacks the required mens rea if he believes in facts which , if true , would make the arrest unlawful ; not just that he believes the facts as they are make the arrest illegal – a mistake of fact suffices , a mistake of law does not .
= = Other offences and issues = =
There also exist alternative forms of aggravated assault in English law , for example : assault or battery with intent to resist arrest ( as above , the arrest must be lawful ) ; and assault on , resistance to , and obstruction of constables . Under the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 , it is also possible to commit a racially aggravated assault . This is where the commission of the assault in combination to hostility towards the victim , based on their race or believed race , or association with a race . " Race " includes skin colour , nationality , citizenship , and ethnic or national origins . Administering poison , either contrary to section 23 or 24 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 , is also an offence ; as is false imprisonment – including unlawful arrest , kidnap and hostage situations . Legislation aimed at the possession or use of firearms may also come into this category , as may bomb hoaxes .
There are also offences of aggravated assault , created under the Offences against the Person Act 1861 , that now go almost completely unused : for example , assaulting or obstructing a clergyman in the discharge of his duties , and assaulting a magistrate or other person in the exercise of his duties concerning the preservation of a vessel in distress or a wreck .
An assault is not caused if a defendant threatens to shoot the victim , but the victim is aware that the gun is not loaded or fake . However , it would be the actus reus of an assault if the victim wrongly believes the gun is , or may be , loaded . Since assault is a summary offence , no prosecutions take place for attempted assault . However , it is possible to commit attempts of aggravated forms of assault .
= = = Cases cited = = =
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= SMS Tegetthoff ( 1912 ) =
SMS Tegetthoff was an Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought battleship of the Tegetthoff class named after Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , a 19th @-@ century Austrian admiral most notable for defeating the Italian Navy in the Battle of Lissa .
Tegetthoff was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino yard in Trieste as part of the first and only class of dreadnought battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . After her construction in 1912 , an earlier armoured battleship named SMS Tegetthoff was renamed Mars .
During World War I , Tegetthoff participated in the bombardment of the Italian city of Ancona . She remained in port in Pola for the rest of the war until she participated in an ill @-@ fated raid on the Otranto Barrage in 1918 that resulted in the loss of her sister ship , SMS Szent István . Following the end of the war in late 1918 , Tegetthoff was surrendered to Italy and later scrapped in 1924 .
= = Characteristics = =
Tegetthoff was ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1908 . She was the second battleship of the class that shared her name to be built , the first dreadnoughts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The keel of Tegetthoff was laid down in Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 24 September 1910 . Following a year and a half of construction , Tegetthoff was launched on 21 March 1912 . Following her fitting out , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy on 14 July 1913 .
The ship had an overall length of 152 metres ( 498 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 27 @.@ 9 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 7 metres ( 28 ft 7 in ) at deep load . She displaced 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 684 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load .
The propulsion consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 134 kW ) , which was theoretically enough to attain her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her speed trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
Her armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Eighteen 70 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivots on the upper deck above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 530 @-@ millimetre ( 21 in ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried .
The waterline armour belt of Tegetthoff measured 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) thick between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes and thinned to 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) further towards the bow and stern , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . It was continued to the bow by a small patch of 110 – 130 @-@ millimetre ( 4 – 5 in ) armour . The upper armour belt had a maximum thickness of 180 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) , but it thinned to 110 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) from the forward barbette all the way to the bow . The casemate armour was also 180 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The sides of the main gun turrets , barbettes and main conning tower were protected by 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) of armour , except for the turret and conning tower roofs which were 60 to 150 millimetres ( 2 to 6 in ) thick . The thickness of the decks ranged from 30 to 48 millimetres ( 1 to 2 in ) in two layers . The underwater protection system consisted of the extension of the double bottom up to the lower edge of the waterline armour belt , with a thin 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) plate acting as the outermost bulkhead . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of two layered 25 @-@ millimetre plates . The total thickness of this system was only 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 ft 3 in ) which made it incapable of containing a torpedo warhead detonation or mine explosion without rupturing .
= = World War I = =
Prior to the war , Tegetthoff was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . During World War I , the battleship saw limited service due to the Otranto Barrage which prohibited Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships from leaving the Adriatic sea . As a result , she hardly ever left Pola .
Tegetthoff , along with her sister ships SMS Viribus Unitis , SMS Prinz Eugen , and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , was mobilized on the eve of World War I to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops and vessels and make their way to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy . Tegetthoff also participated in the bombardment of the Italian city of Ancona in May 1915 . Following these operations Tegetthoff remained in Pola for most of the remainder of the war .
Aside from the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau in the early months of the war , Tegetthoff and her sister ships only conducted one operation during the course of the war until the ill fated attack on the Otranto Barrage in 1918 , the bombardment of Ancona following Italy 's declaration of war on Austria @-@ Hungary in May 1915 .
Tegetthoff would remain in port for another three years . The most significant moments of her stay in Pola were two inspections by dignitaries , the first by the new Emperor Karl I on 15 December 1916 and the second by the German Kaiser Wilhelm II on 12 December 1917 . The second came during the Kaiser 's inspection of the port city 's German submarine base . While there the port of Pola and the vessels therein were subject to over eighty air raids by the newly formed Italian Air Force .
= = = The Otranto Raid = = =
By mid 1918 , the new commander of the Austrian fleet , Konteradmiral Miklós Horthy decided to conduct another attack on the Otranto Barrage , similar to the Otranto Raid from December 1916 , to allow more German and Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats to safely get through the heavily defended strait of Otranto . During the night of 8 June , Horthy left the naval base of Pola with Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen . Tegetthoff and her sister ship SMS Szent István , along with one destroyer and six torpedo boats departed Pola on 9 June . At about 3 : 15 on the morning of 10 June , two Italian MAS boats , MAS 15 and MAS 21 , spotted the Austrian fleet steaming south . The MAS platoon was commanded by Capitano di fregata Luigi Rizzo while the individual boats were commanded by Capo timoniere Armando Gori and Guardiamarina di complemento Giuseppe Aonzo respectively . Both boats successfully penetrated the escort screen and split to engage each of the dreadnoughts . MAS 21 attacked Tegetthoff , but her torpedoes missed the battleship . Despite missing Tegetthoff , the other boat , MAS 15 , managed to hit Tegetthoff 's sister ship Szent István with her torpedoes at about 3 : 25 am . Both boats were then chased away from the scene by Austrian escort vessels . Immediately following the attack , Tegetthoff thought that the torpedoes were fired by submarines instead of MAS boats and pulled out of the formation of battleships and destroyers and began to zigzag to throw off any more possible submarine attacks . She continually fired on suspected submarine periscopes until she rejoined Szent István at 4 : 45 .
Following Szent István being hit by torpedoes and Tegetthoff pulling out of formation , Tegetthoff attempted to take the crippled Szent István into tow . However this attempt , as well as training the ship 's turrets and placing her crew to port as well as throwing any ready ammunition overboard failed and the battleship continued to sink . The attempt to tow Szent István was then abandoned . A few minutes after 6 : 00 am Szent István capsized and sank . Admiral Horthy soon canceled the attack because he thought that the Italians had discovered his plan and ordered the ships to return to Pola . On the contrary the Italians did not even discover that the Austrian dreadnoughts had departed Pola until later on 10 June when aerial reconnaissance photos revealed that they were no longer there . This was the last military operation that Tegetthoff was to take part in and she spent the rest of her career at port in Pola .
After the war , Tegetthoff was moved to Venice where she was shown as a war trophy by the Italians . During that time period , she starred in the movie Eroi di nostri mari which depicts the sinking of her sister ship . From 1924 to 1925 , she was scrapped at La Spezia .
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= Edward M. Cotter ( fireboat ) =
Edward M. Cotter is a fireboat in use by the Buffalo Fire Department at Buffalo , New York , United States . Originally named William S. Grattan , she was built in 1900 by the Crescent Shipyard of Elizabeth Port , New Jersey . Due to age she was rebuilt in 1953 and renamed Firefighter upon her return to service . The following year she was renamed Edward M. Cotter . Her namesake , Edward Cotter , was a Buffalo firefighter and leader of the local firefighters union who had recently died .
Edward M. Cotter is considered to be the oldest active fireboat in the world and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1996 .
Along with her firefighting duties , during the winter Edward M. Cotter is used as an icebreaker on Buffalo 's rivers . Edward M. Cotter mounts five fire monitors that are capable of pumping 15 @,@ 000 US gallons per minute ( 0 @.@ 95 m3 / s ; 12 @,@ 000 imp gal / min ) . She can often be seen sailing out of her berth and south @-@ west to Lake Erie , returning north through the breakwall and firing her fire monitors .
= = Construction = =
The ship that was to become Edward M. Cotter was built in 1900 by the Crescent Shipyard of Elizabeth Port , New Jersey . She was originally named William S. Grattan after the first paid fire commissioner for the city of Buffalo . Construction was started on March 24 , 1900 and she was christened on September 5 , 1900 by Virginia Pearson , the young daughter of one of the city 's fire commissioners . The final construction cost for the ship was $ 91 @,@ 000 .
The completed ship was 118 ft ( 36 m ) in length , had a beam of 24 ft ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) , and drew 10 ft 10 in ( 3 @.@ 30 m ) . A 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 @.@ 1 mm ) -thick belt @-@ line of Swedish steel was included around the hull for icebreaking duties . William S. Grattan was powered by two Babcock & Wilcox coal @-@ fired boilers with steam engines rated at 900 horsepower ( 670 kW ) . A single propeller provided propulsion . The rated speed of the ship was 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The ship was also equipped with three double action steam pumps that supplied water at 9 @,@ 000 US gallons per minute ( 0 @.@ 57 m3 / s ; 7 @,@ 500 imp gal / min ) to the three fire monitors used for firefighting . Two of the fire monitors were mounted on the forward section of the ship and one was on the stern section .
= = History = =
At the beginning of the twentieth century , Buffalo 's waterfront was an extremely busy center of commerce . Grain elevators , warehouses and shipping traffic had overtaxed the two existing fireboats : John T. Hutchinson ( Engine 23 ) and George R. Potter ( Engine 29 ) . Also , the city of Buffalo had shoreline hookups to allow the fireboats to serve as floating pumping stations supplying high pressure water to a fire hydrant system that covered the downtown area . The decision was made by city officials to order a third boat that would also have icebreaking capability along with her normal firefighting duties .
Upon completion she traveled up the Atlantic coast , down the St. Lawrence River , across Lake Ontario , through the Welland Canal and finally across Lake Erie in an uneventful trip that took 14 days . She was met 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) out of the harbor by her sister fireboats and escorted in .
= = = 1928 fire = = =
On July 28 , 1928 William S. Grattan responded to the oil barge James F. Cahill , loaded with 5 @,@ 000 barrels of crude oil , that was aflame . After burning 17 hours , the barge 's mooring lines gave way and the barge began to drift . William S. Grattan 's crew attempted to attach tow lines to the drifting barge but it struck a dock at an oil company where the empty oil tanker B.B. McColl was moored . The fumes on the B.B. McColl ignited causing an explosion and fire that engulfed William S. Grattan . Captain Thomas Hylant along with his crew abandoned ship and swam through the flames to shore . Chief Engineer Thomas Lynch of William S. Grattan lost his life and seven other crew members were injured . The unattended boilers on William S. Grattan soon ran dry and exploded , leaving the ship burned out and heavily damaged .
William S. Grattan sat boarded @-@ up for eighteen months while city and fire department officials decided whether to replace her at a cost of $ 225 @,@ 000 dollars or rebuild her for $ 99 @,@ 000 dollars , which was $ 8 @,@ 000 dollars more than her original cost . The decision was made to rebuild and in 1930 she was rebuilt at the Buffalo Dry Dock Company of Buffalo , New York . During this refit some improvements were made to William S. Grattan . One improvement was that her boilers were converted from burning coal to burning oil . The engines were rebuilt and her firefighting system was updated and could now handle foam fire retardant . Also , the pilot house was raised to the upper boat deck level and a fixed turret tower with a fire monitor was constructed on the stern of the ship . A fourth fire monitor was added to the top of the pilot house of the ship as well . As part of her acceptance ceremony she participated in a race against the harbor tug Kentucky , which was considered to be one of the fastest tugs on the Great Lakes .
= = = 1953 refit = = =
In the early 1950s , it was noticed that William S. Grattan was showing signs of age . Her boilers were only able to operate at 40 percent capacity and an engine room steam leak in 1951 injured part of her crew . During November 1952 , William S. Grattan was sent to the Sturgeon Bay Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Sturgeon Bay , Wisconsin for a refit .
During this refit her boilers and steam engines were replaced by diesel engines , the pumps for the firefighting system were replaced , the single propeller was replaced with twin propellers , the fixed firefighting platform was replaced with a hydraulically operated platform and the twin funnels were replaced with lower dummy funnels . Upon her return in 1954 , she was renamed Firefighter . In 1955 she was renamed again in honor of Edward M. Cotter , a respected Buffalo firefighter and the leader of the local firefighters union , who had recently died . After the refit Edward M. Cotter mounted five fire monitors capable of pumping 15 @,@ 000 US gallons per minute ( 0 @.@ 95 m3 / s ; 12 @,@ 000 imp gal / min ) .
= = = International firefighting = = =
On October 7 , 1960 Edward M. Cotter came to the aid of firefighting authorities in Port Colborne , Ontario , Canada . Two days previously , on October 5 , 1960 , a set of grain elevators caught fire at the eight @-@ story Maple Leaf Milling Company . The Port Colborne Fire Department did not have its own fireboat and they were unable to bring the fire under control . The Buffalo Fire Department was asked to send Edward M. Cotter to lend assistance . Escorted by a United States Coast Guard cutter , because she had never needed navigational equipment of her own , Edward M. Cotter proceeded across the international border . The voyage to Port Colborne took two hours with an additional four hours needed to bring the fire under control . This mission is said to have been the first instance that a United States fire boat had crossed an international border to help authorities in another country .
= = = Notable rescues = = =
In 1978 USS Little Rock , a retired United States Naval guided missile cruiser on display at the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park , began taking on water and listing . Edward M. Cotter and several Buffalo Fire Department fire engines pumped water out of Little Rock for five days keeping the ship afloat and level while repairs were made . Edward M. Cotter also assisted the disabled United States Coast Guard cutter Ojibwa during the winter of 1983 . Ojibwa , while on Lake Erie , had lost her steering and was taking on water . Edward M. Cotter towed Ojibwa to her base in Buffalo and helped keep her afloat while repairs were made . Another rescue occurred on July 31 , 1984 when Edward M. Cotter towed the Polish tall ship Zawisza Czarny off a sand bar during the ship 's visit to Buffalo .
= = Heritage = =
As commerce declined on Buffalo 's waterfront , Edward M. Cotter was transferred from the Buffalo Fire Department to the Public Works Department in 1992 for icebreaking duties . In 1996 Edward M. Cotter was designated a National Historic Landmark. and was transferred back to the Buffalo Fire Department in 1997 .
A non @-@ profit group named " Friends of the Cotter " , founded in 2005 , has been running fund @-@ raising events to overhaul Edward M. Cotter . Along with her normal duties Edward M. Cotter has been sent to various festivals and boat shows around the Great Lakes .
= = Other fire boats = =
Edward Cotter is one of a few fireboats to ply the Great Lakes :
William Lyon Mackenzie is operated by Toronto Fire Service and operates in Lake Ontario .
Curtis Randolph is operated by Detroit Fire Department and operates in the Detroit River
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= Mixes ( Kylie Minogue album ) =
Mixes is the fourth remix album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue . It was released on 3 August 1998 , by Deconstruction Records . The album contains remixes of tracks from her sixth studio album , Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . The remixes were done by DJs such as Brothers in Rhythm , Junior Vasquez , and Todd Terry . The remixes was influenced by various genres of dance music , such as electronica and dance @-@ pop . The album was originally scheduled for a 1999 release , but Deconstruction pre @-@ poned the release date of Mixes in the United Kingdom to August 1998 , since the Australian counterpart , Impossible Remixes ( 1998 ) , had been released earlier than its original date . With favourable critical reception , Mixes charted in the United Kingdom at number sixty @-@ three on the UK Albums Chart , her highest remix album at the time . The Brothers in Rhythm remix of " Too Far " was released as a promotional single in the UK and North America .
= = Background = =
In October 1997 , Minogue released her sixth studio album , Impossible Princess . Then in January 1998 , Minogue begun rehearsals on the low @-@ budget tour , Intimate and Live . Minogue intended to only perform in Australia , but strong public demand in the United Kingdom prompted her to schedule dates there . With tickets selling out instantly , more shows were announced in both Australia and the UK . Minogue started the tour in early June 1998 and confirmed that she would release " Cowboy Style " , the fourth single from the Impossible Princess album , and revealed plans of two remix albums , one for Australia and one for the UK .
In July 1998 , Deconstruction and Mushroom confirmed the release of two remix albums entitled Mixes and Impossible Remixes respectively . Deconstruction said the Mixes album would be released as a triple @-@ vinyl set and set the release date for the following year . However , fans voiced their concerns on expensive import prices for global shipping and with increasingly popular demand , Deconstruction scrapped the idea and released the remixes on a two @-@ set compact disc , and forward the triple vinyl at a later date . This allowed Deconstruction to release the album earlier and Mixes was released on 3 August 1998 in the UK . Mushroom released Impossible Remixes on 8 July 1998 , but initial pressings were on sale two months earlier .
= = Material = =
The album shares nine remixes from the Impossible Remixes album ; four remixes of " Breathe " , two remixes of " Did It Again " and one remix of " Some Kind of Bliss " , along with three remixes of Minogue 's promotional single " Too Far " . The remixes had all been previously featured in Minogue 's CD singles . All tracks were co @-@ written by Minogue , with additional song writing assistance by James Dean Bradfield , Dave Ball , Ingo Vauk , Steve Anderson and David Seaman . In 1997 , Minogue travelled to Los Angeles , California to re @-@ record her vocals for the " Breathe " remixes .
Mixes is a dance – remix album , and according to Brendan Swift at AllMusic , the songs are well @-@ noted " where constant repetition is heard at it 's most catchy with a hint of something we know : other dance melodies used ' again and again . ' " Charlie Porter from Amazon.co.uk commented about some songs remixes ; " Brothers In Rhythm work their slinky magic on " Too Far " , Sash ! Takes the album down a Euro @-@ trance path , then the good old Trouser Enthusiasts turn " Did It Again " even more saucy . "
= = Release and reception = =
The artwork was photographed by British photographer Simon Emmett and designed by Farrow Design , who both contributed to the cover sleeve of Impossible Remixes . The artwork shows a " simple yet subtle " silhouette of Minogue which later appeared on the tour guide for the Intimate and Live concerts . After completing the shoot , Emmett was asked by Minogue to shoot the sleeve for her single " Cowboy Style " , and his most recent work with Minogue was shooting her on Glamour magazine in July 2012 .
Jenny Stanley @-@ Clarke , who wrote the biography Kylie : Naked , felt the release " seemed nothing more than to run out Kylie 's contractual obligation for a required third Deconstruction album . " She favoured the contributions of " high profiled " DJ 's . Charlie Porter from Amazon.co.uk discussed Impossible Princess ' " sob story " , highlighting the albums title change , single releases , and album release as factors to it . He then stated " This remix album takes away some of that records pretensions ( yes , it was a touch flawed ) , and puts our favourite Australian back on the party floor , where she belongs . " He concluded " Yes sir , that girl can boogie — please don 't try and turn into an indie queen again . " Mixes debuted at sixty @-@ three on the UK Albums Chart on the entry date 15 August 1998 . The album was Minogue 's highest charting remix album in the UK , until it was taken over by Boombox , which peaked at twenty @-@ eight . Mixes also charted on the UK Physical Albums Chart , which compile the top 100 albums based on physical CD sales ; it also reached at number sixty @-@ three . It is also Minogue 's final album from Deconstruction .
= = Singles and promotion = =
The Brothers in Rhythm remix of " Too Far " served as the albums promotional single on 21 May 1998 . " Too Far " was originally selected as a potential single for Impossible Princess , but Deconstruction decided to release " Some Kind of Bliss " instead . " Too Far " was released as a promotional single in the UK by Deconstruction and North America by BMG , but Deconstruction refused to promote it after BMG released it without discussion . The vinyl included a bonus remix side by Junior Vasquez . Both the original version , and the remix version received critical acclaim from most critics , whom highlighted it as an album stand out . " Too Far " has been included on two of her concert tours ; Intimate and Live Tour and Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
All credits and personnel adapted from Mixes liner notes :
= = Charts = =
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= Forti =
Forti Corse , commonly known as Forti , was an Italian motor racing team chiefly known for its brief , and unsuccessful , involvement in Formula One in the mid @-@ 1990s . It was established in the late 1970s and competed in lower formulae for two decades . The team 's successes during this period included four Drivers ' Championships in Italian Formula Three during the 1980s , and race wins in the International Formula 3000 championship , in which it competed from 1987 to 1994 . From 1992 , team co @-@ founder Guido Forti developed a relationship with the wealthy Brazilian businessman Abílio dos Santos Diniz that gave Diniz 's racing driver son , Pedro , a permanent seat in the team and the outfit a sufficiently high budget to consider entering Formula One .
Forti graduated to Formula One as a constructor and entrant in 1995 , but its first car — the Forti FG01 — proved to be uncompetitive , and the team failed to score a point . Despite this setback , Forti was committed to a three @-@ year deal with Diniz , which was broken when Pedro moved to the Ligier team prior to the 1996 season , taking most of the team 's sponsorship money with him . Nevertheless , Forti continued to compete in the sport , and produced the much @-@ improved FG03 chassis , before succumbing to financial problems mid @-@ season after an ultimately fruitless deal with a mysterious entity known as Shannon Racing . The team competed in a total of 27 Grands Prix , scoring no points , and is recognised as one of the last truly privateer teams to race in an era when many large car manufacturers were increasing their involvement in the sport .
= = Establishment and early years = =
Forti was founded by Italian businessmen Guido Forti , a former driver , and Paolo Guerci , an engineer , in the late 1970s and was based in Alessandria in northern Italy . It was registered as a Società a Responsabilità Limitata , or Limited liability company . It was initially run in lower motor racing categories such as Formula Ford and Formula Three , both at Italian and European levels . The team was well equipped and soon became a regular winner . Forti drivers Franco Forini , Enrico Bertaggia , Emanuele Naspetti and Gianni Morbidelli ( who would all go on to drive in Formula One ) won Italian Formula Three titles in 1985 , 1987 , 1988 and 1989 respectively . In addition , Bertaggia won the prestigious Macau F3 Grand Prix and the Monaco Grand Prix F3 support race in 1988 , and Morbidelli won the FIA European Formula Three Cup in 1989 . Teo Fabi and Oscar Larrauri also raced for the team in its early years , the former winning the Italian FFord 2000 championship in 1977 , and the latter racing as far afield as South America , in the Argentine Formula Three Championship . Forti continued racing in Formula Three until the end of 1992 , when it quit the formula in order to concentrate solely on International Formula 3000 .
= = Formula 3000 = =
For 1987 , Forti moved up to International Formula 3000 with less immediate success than experienced in Formula Three . The main reason for this was the chassis the team chose to compete with . Instead of using customer Lolas , Marches or Ralts , all of which were produced by established companies who had many years ' experience of designing and building such cars , Forti stuck with their Italian Formula Three chassis supplier Gian Paolo Dallara , who had just designed his company 's first F3000 machine . Forti was the first team to use this machine , which was dubbed the Dallara 3087 ( a chassis which later would make a single appearance in Formula One for the BMS Scuderia Italia team , as that team 's car was not ready for the first race of the 1988 season ) . This combination of an inexperienced team and an untested car did not score any points in its first F3000 year , nor did the team attend every race on the schedule . Forti used 1988 to gain valuable experience in F3000 , and this helped the team to perform better in following seasons , as did a change to more competitive Lola and then Reynard chassis .
After a full season in 1988 and the team 's first championship points , courtesy of Claudio Langes in 1989 , it became apparent that Forti was improving as a competitive force . In 1990 , Gianni Morbidelli scored Forti 's first victory in an F3000 race , and although no Forti driver won a championship title in this category , the team established itself as a frequent front @-@ runner , scoring nine wins and five pole positions in International F3000 . From 1993 onwards , Forti concentrated solely on F3000 , and ran drivers such as Naspetti , Fabrizio Giovanardi , Andrea Montermini and Hideki Noda . 1991 was Forti 's most successful season in F3000 , with Naspetti finishing third in the Drivers ' Championship , ten points behind champion Christian Fittipaldi . Although the team 's form dipped over subsequent years , by 1994 Forti was the most experienced team in the championship , employing Noda and Pedro Diniz as drivers .
= = Formula One = =
= = = Preparation = = =
As his team became more successful , Guido Forti started to think about a move upwards , into Formula One . However , there had been several discouragingly recent examples of teams , such as Coloni and Onyx , which had graduated from F3000 into Formula One and failed more or less immediately due to a lack of finance . Conversely , Eddie Jordan had shown that the move could be made successfully , with an impressive performance in 1991 with his Jordan team , which had finished fifth in the Constructors ' Championship with a total of seven points @-@ scoring finishes . Forti considered a solid financial base to be the most important factor for success . In 1991 he therefore started working on his Formula One project . At the end of 1992 , he signed a deal with wealthy Brazilian driver Pedro Diniz , whose personal fortune and sponsorship connections proved invaluable in increasing the team 's budget . Diniz 's father , Abílio dos Santos , was the owner of the large Brazilian distribution company Companhia Brasileira de Distribuição and the supermarket chain Pão de Açúcar . By offering companies preferential product @-@ placement in the Brazilian market , the Diniz family was able to obtain personal sponsorship deals with brands such as Arisco , Duracell , Gillette , Kaiser , Marlboro , Parmalat and Sadia , in addition to backing from Unibanco , to fund Pedro 's career . By 1993 , through Abílio dos Santos , Forti met Carlo Gancia , an Italo @-@ Brazilian businessman . Gancia became a co @-@ owner of the team , buying Guerci 's shares , and started working on the team 's Formula One project . He finally managed to ensure a respectable budget for Formula One by late 1994 , which was " effectively underwritten by the Diniz family " . He also hired several experienced personnel , including designer Sergio Rinland and former Ferrari team manager Cesare Fiorio . Furthermore , retired driver René Arnoux was employed as a consultant and driver coach for Diniz . Guerci remained with Forti as one of its race engineers .
This securing of financial assistance and recruitment of staff meant that Forti 's ability to participate in Formula One for 1995 was assured . Financed by the companies brought in by Abílio Diniz , the team was guaranteed financial stability in the short term , with a claimed first year budget of around $ 17 million . In addition , this was only the first year of a planned three @-@ year contract with Diniz and his backers .
= = = Forti FG01 car = = =
The hardest task for the team was designing and building its own car for the first time , instead of buying one from a general supplier such as Dallara or Lola , as was required by the Formula One Technical Regulations . Guido Forti 's first attempt at an F1 chassis , the Forti FG01 , resulted in an outdated , overweight and very slow machine , and has been described as nothing more than " a revised F3000 car " and , more harshly , " a fearful pile of junk " .
The FG01 had many influences . Design consultant Rinland had previously worked on the Brabham BT60 chassis in 1991 and Fondmetal GR02 chassis in 1992 , the latter under the auspices of his own company , Astauto , before moving to the United States to work on a Champ Car project . In late 1994 , Forti bought the remaining assets of the now defunct Fondmetal team , including the remaining GR02 chassis , and requested Rinland 's assistance in developing the bespoke Forti chassis based on a planned Fondmetal chassis for the 1993 season . Rinland thus provided a great deal of input on the FG01 chassis , assisting experienced Italian engineers Giorgio Stirano and Giacomo Caliri in designing and building the car . The car 's aerodynamics were completed by former Brabham , Fondmetal and Astauto employee Hans Fouche using wind tunnels in South Africa , and composite work was done by the Belco Avia company . However , it was rumoured that the FG01 was little more than a re @-@ working of the GR02 .
Thus the FG01 did not promise much in terms of performance . It was angular and bulky , with poor aerodynamic performance negatively affecting grip and handling ; it had a plump nose , initially no airbox , and was overweight and under @-@ powered , using a small Ford @-@ Cosworth ED V8 customer engine largely financed by Ford do Brasil , which developed an estimated 100 bhp less than the most powerful engine in the field , the Renault V10 supplied to the Benetton and Williams teams . It was also the only car to have a manual gearbox in the 1995 F1 season . The car was liveried in a distinctive yellow @-@ and @-@ blue colour scheme accompanied by fluorescent green wheel @-@ rims , illustrating the team 's Brazilian influence in its first year . The precise hue of each colour was chosen as a tribute to Ayrton Senna , who had been killed at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix ; the cars were liveried in identical shades to those used on the Brazilian 's helmet design .
= = = 1995 season = = =
Forti 's number one driver for the 1995 season was rookie Pedro Diniz who had raced for Forti in F3000 , but without much success . However , he was guaranteed a seat as his family and sponsors were paying a significant amount of the team 's budget . The second driver was later confirmed as his more experienced compatriot Roberto Moreno , who had last competed in F1 back in 1992 when he had a disastrous year driving for the infamous Andrea Moda team . However , his seat was initially only guaranteed on a race @-@ by @-@ race basis , as Portuguese driver Pedro Lamy , in addition to the team 's former F3000 drivers Emanuele Naspetti and Andrea Montermini , were also considered . It was speculated that whoever joined the team would be contractually bound to be number two to Diniz and that his father had insisted on an all @-@ Brazilian driver line @-@ up . A Forti spokesman indeed confirmed that Moreno 's nationality , in addition to his experience , was the main reason for his selection . The team later attempted to enter its former F3000 driver Hideki Noda for the 1995 Pacific Grand Prix , but he was refused an FIA Super Licence .
Unlike some of the existing teams , Forti was able to test its chassis extensively prior to the start of the season . However , Diniz proved to be around seven seconds per lap off the pace of the leading runners in group testing at the Estoril circuit in March , indicating that the team was likely to be mired at the back of the field . Diniz finished 10th in the season @-@ opening Brazilian GP , but was seven laps down on winner Michael Schumacher . In Argentina , this situation became worse , as , although both drivers finished , they were both nine laps down on winner Damon Hill at the end of the race ( with Diniz ahead ) and neither were classified , as they had failed to complete 90 % of the race distance . The drivers ' similar fastest laps during the race were over ten seconds slower than Schumacher 's fastest race lap , and almost five seconds slower than the next slowest runner 's fastest lap ( Domenico Schiattarella in the Simtek ) . Imola was similarly poor , as both drivers finished seven laps down ( with Diniz again ahead ) and again failed to reach the 90 % threshold for classification . Forti was already the butt of paddock jokes , and were far slower than the other ( and financially poorer ) backmarkers : Pacific , Simtek , and Minardi . However , the budget enabled improvements to be made to the car . During the season , its weight was reduced by a significant 60 kilograms ( approximately 10 % of the F1 minimum weight limit of 595 kg ) , and a semi @-@ automatic gearbox , an airbox and redesigns of the front wing , sidepods and monocoque were introduced . The personnel count also doubled during the course of the season . This resulted in a gradual improvement in pace throughout the year , and there were no more non @-@ classified finishes .
In between the Brazilian and Argentine Grands Prix , Rinland returned to Europe full @-@ time to take the official post of the team 's Technical Director . His long @-@ term task was to establish an English @-@ based design office for the team , but his initial job was to improve the competitiveness of the FG01 through a series of technical upgrades . However , Rinland subsequently left the team after a few weeks , after falling out with the team 's management over the car 's lack of competitiveness .
Indeed , Forti 's finishing record was good for rookies at 50 % ( excluding the non @-@ classifications ) , helping Diniz to establish a reputation as a steady , dependable driver . Forti were then elevated when Simtek folded after the Monaco GP , and Pacific 's lack of finance and development enabled Forti to start matching them from the half @-@ way point of the season . At the German GP , both Fortis outqualified both the Pacifics for the first time , and this happened on two further occasions during 1995 . Forti 's improvement was also aided by Pacific taking on two slower pay drivers , Giovanni Lavaggi and Jean @-@ Denis Délétraz , to ensure that the team finished the season . At the final race of the season , in Adelaide , Forti seemed to have established a firm base for the 1996 season , emphasised by Moreno qualifying within 107 % of pole position for the first time - a crucial result , as this percentage of the pole time would be used to determine non @-@ qualifiers in 1996 - and Diniz scoring the team 's best result in F1 , with a reliable run to seventh place , ahead of Gachot in the Pacific . This was only one position behind the points @-@ scoring placings . Nevertheless , despite not scoring any points , Forti finished a de facto 11th in the Constructors ' Championship , ahead of Pacific and Simtek by virtue of better finishes outside of the points .
Post @-@ championship , Forti took part in the 1995 Bologna Motor Show , where three FG01s — driven by Montermini , Lavaggi and Vittorio Zoboli — raced against , and lost to three Minardis in the Formula One Indoor Trophy .
Despite the progress made by Forti during the course of the season , 1995 was still regarded as a failure . The team had spent more money than its immediate rivals in designing , building and developing a fundamentally inefficient car . Diniz and his sponsors were described as " throwing their money away " , and the Brazilian 's reputation as a serious F1 driver was damaged , as it took him several years to prove that he was not just in the sport because of his funding . In addition , Moreno 's participation with Forti was lamented by many observers , who felt that the experienced driver did not deserve the ignominy of such an uncompetitive car . The only positives were the reasonable reliability record and the fact that the Diniz family were contracted to fund the team for the next two years .
= = = 1996 season = = =
With a solid base to build on and a healthy budget , 1996 looked promising for Forti . The team negotiated for the most powerful and expensive Cosworth V8 engines in late 1995 to replace the outdated and underpowered ED models , and its financial security was demonstrated by rumours during the 1995 season that the more competitive but less well @-@ funded Minardi team was considering a merger with Forti as a means of maintaining its own presence in the sport . However , these aspirations were dealt a devastating blow when Pedro Diniz signed for the more competitive Ligier team , taking Martin Brundle 's vacated seat as the latter moved to Jordan . Forti 's sponsors brought in by the Diniz family , including Parmalat and Marlboro , all left ; the budget was significantly dented . For a time it seemed that the team would not compete in 1996 at all , and its survival was constantly questioned . The new car was delayed , and the team was forced to use the uprated FG01B car for the start of the season with the only slightly more competitive Ford Zetec @-@ R V8 engine ( instead of the " JS " unit it had been negotiating for ) , and to rely on temporary sponsors . Nevertheless , Forti remained in the sport for the 1996 season . Moreno was not retained ; the team signed Minardi and Pacific refugees Luca Badoer and Montermini to take the two empty seats ( although Hideki Noda was also considered ) , both drivers bringing a small amount of personal backing . Frenchman Franck Lagorce was also signed as a test driver . Pacific had folded during the off @-@ season , and it was clear that Forti would be some way behind the rest of the field in the slow FG01B . Badoer and Montermini failed to make the new 107 % cut in qualifying for the Australian Grand Prix and thus did not start the race , but both then managed to qualify for the Grands Prix held in Brazil and Argentina , scoring a 10th- and an 11th @-@ place finish between them in the races . Badoer , however , attracted attention in Argentina for a different reason . As Diniz attempted to lap him , the two collided and Badoer 's car flipped over ; the Italian escaping injury . Both cars then failed to qualify at the Nürburgring .
Forti produced a new chassis , the FG03 , for the next race of the season in Imola . It had been designed by the same personnel as the previous year , with further work carried out by George Ryton after the latter moved to the team from Ferrari and took up the post of Technical Director mid @-@ season . Both drivers judged it a significant improvement over the old car , with increased aerodynamic downforce and directional sensitivity , but there was only one FG03 available , and Montermini failed to qualify in the old car . Badoer , however , qualified last , but comfortably within the 107 % cut @-@ off , and only 0.7s behind Ricardo Rosset in the Footwork . Badoer finished 10th and last , but had suffered reliability problems in the new car and was two laps behind Pedro Lamy 's Minardi . Both drivers qualified in Monaco , but Montermini crashed in the wet warm @-@ up session and did not start the race , whilst Badoer struggled in the slippery conditions and took out Jacques Villeneuve as he was being lapped by the Williams . He was fined $ 5000 and received a two @-@ race suspended ban .
= = = Deal with Shannon Racing = = =
After the Monaco GP , there were rumours that Forti would not survive the season without some form of takeover . In the period before the next race , the Spanish GP , Belco Avia boss Arron Colombo announced that a deal had been reached between Guido Forti and an entity known as Shannon Racing for the latter to buy a 51 % share of the team . The deal was concluded later in the month , on June 30 . Shannon Racing and its parent company FinFirst were Irish @-@ registered sections of a Milanese financial group , and had already established teams in various Formula Three championships and in International Formula 3000 in 1996 . The group was keen to move into Formula One , and Forti provided an opportunity for this to happen . It was believed that Colombo had organised the deal , which was scheduled to continue throughout 1996 with an option for 1997 , because Belco Avia was owed money by Forti . As part of the management change , Cesare Fiorio left the team to join Ligier and was replaced by Daniele Coronna , whilst designer George Ryton joined from Ferrari .
For the Spanish GP , the cars therefore appeared in a new green @-@ and @-@ white livery , apparently confirming Shannon Racing 's acquisition of 51 % of Forti . This financial boost appeared to ensure the team 's survival . With the off @-@ track confusion , both drivers again failed to qualify . Nevertheless , at the Canadian and French Grands Prix , both Fortis made it to the grid , Badoer even outqualifying Rosset in Montréal . However , Forti had lost its good 1995 reliability record , as these starts only resulted in four retirements . By this time , Forti 's financial problems , caused by a conflict of team ownership between Guido Forti and Shannon Racing , were becoming increasingly urgent in nature . Both cars retired with " engine problems " at the French GP , although it was widely rumoured that this was due to the team running out of engine mileage as it went into debt with engine suppliers Cosworth .
= = = Bankruptcy and withdrawal = = =
Guido Forti alleged that Shannon Racing had not paid him any money within the stipulated six @-@ day deadline after the deal was concluded and refuted the claim that it now owned 51 % of his team . As the team ran out of money , it was doubtful whether it would turn up at the British GP . In the end , Forti took part , only for the cars to complete a mere handful of laps each in practice and thus failing to set a time quick enough to qualify . This was because it was becoming increasingly in debt to Cosworth and was running out of engine mileage for its cars , only having enough to make a token effort at participation . The team made it to the next race - the German GP - but both cars remained unassembled in the pit garages throughout the weekend after the engine supply was finally cut off .
Guido Forti , after discussing the matter with commercial rights @-@ owner Bernie Ecclestone , had decided to withdraw the team from the German GP as negotiations over the team 's ownership between himself and Shannon continued , despite the threat of the FIA ( F1 's governing body ) imposing a fine on the outfit for missing the race . Following the failure of these negotiations , he then announced that Shannon 's deal had fallen through and that he was back in charge of the team . He hoped to finalise some more sponsorship deals which would allow Forti to compete in the Hungarian GP . Shannon responded by claiming it still owned 51 % of the team , and that it intended to solve Forti 's financial problems itself , in addition to replacing Guido Forti as Team Principal . He duly took the company to court over the matter , an arduous process in the Italian legal system .
With the team in limbo whilst the ownership dispute was judged , Forti 's situation was bleak . The team faced the prospect of further heavy FIA @-@ imposed fines for missing races if the situation did not improve , or even exclusion from the championship for bringing the sport into disrepute , as had happened to the Andrea Moda team in 1992 . Forti withdrew his team from the sport ; it did not make an appearance at the Hungarian GP , the Belgian GP , nor at any further point in the championship . Badoer and Montermini were left without drives , and the promising FG03 chassis would no longer race . By the time Shannon Racing won the court case in September , Forti had ceased to exist . Shannon Racing 's teams in the lower motorsport categories also closed down . Coincidentally , Guido Forti had signed the 1997 Concorde Agreement shortly before his team 's demise , which could have given his team a chance of surviving if it had made it into that year due to the extra television revenue that was duly granted to each of the teams under the terms of the agreement .
= = Legacy = =
Forti 's withdrawal marked not only the end of its participation in Formula One , but also terminated a team which had enjoyed success in International Formula 3000 and other minor categories . It is generally agreed that Forti may have succeeded if it had its 1995 budget and the FG03 car at the same time , and that Diniz 's departure meant that it stood little chance of survival , but the team has become another example of a small , backmarking team unable to finance its aspirations ; one of the final " privateer " teams to enter the sport in an era of increasing influence and participation from the large car manufacturers . Forti is often cited along with Pacific and Simtek as prime examples of this tendency . It was also argued that the increasing amount of money involved in financing an F1 team which was forcing many of the smaller teams to withdraw in the early to mid @-@ 1990s was a long @-@ term threat to the future of the sport . Alternatively , some saw Forti and similar tail @-@ enders as undeserving of a place in F1 , and it has been suggested that the imposition of the 107 % rule by the FIA in 1996 was a move to force them to raise their game or leave the sport altogether .
However , the Forti F1 cars have since been used for other purposes . Examples of the FG03 are currently being used as part of F1 @-@ themed track days in the United Kingdom at motor racing circuits such as Rockingham .
= = Racing record = =
= = = Championships and notable race wins = = =
= = = Complete International Formula 3000 results = = =
( key ) ( results in bold indicate pole position ; results in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( results in bold indicate pole position ; results in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Books = = =
Domenjoz , Luc ( ed . ) ( 1995 ) . Formula 1 Yearbook 1995 . Silbermann , Eric ( translator ) . Chronosports Editeur . ISBN 2 @-@ 940125 @-@ 06 @-@ 6 .
Hamilton , Maurice ( ed . ) ( 1987 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1987 @-@ 88 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 47 @-@ 3 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1988 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1988 @-@ 89 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 57 @-@ 0 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1989 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1989 @-@ 90 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 62 @-@ 7 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1990 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1990 @-@ 91 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 74 @-@ 0 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1991 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1991 @-@ 92 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 87 @-@ 2 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1992 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1992 @-@ 93 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 96 @-@ 1 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1993 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1993 @-@ 94 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 874557 @-@ 15 @-@ 2 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1994 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1994 @-@ 95 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 874557 @-@ 95 @-@ 0 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1995 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1995 @-@ 96 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 874557 @-@ 36 @-@ 5 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1996 ) . AUTOCOURSE 1996 @-@ 97 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 874557 @-@ 91 @-@ 8 .
Higham , Peter ( 1995 ) . The Guinness Guide to International Motor Racing . Guinness Publishing Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 85112 @-@ 642 @-@ 1 .
Jones , Bruce ( 1997 ) . The Official ITV Formula One 1997 Grand Prix Guide . Carlton Books Limited . ISBN 1 @-@ 85868 @-@ 319 @-@ X.
Ménard , Pierre ( 2006 ) . The Great Encyclopedia of Formula 1 ( 3rd Edition ) . Chronosports S.A. ISBN 2 @-@ 84707 @-@ 123 @-@ 7 .
Tremayne , David ( 1996 ) . Formula One - a Complete Race by Race Guide . Parragon . ISBN 0 @-@ 7525 @-@ 1762 @-@ 7 .
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= Marcel Lefebvre =
Marcel François Marie Joseph Lefebvre ( French : [ maʁsɛl fʁɑ ̃ swɑ maʁi josɛf ləfɛːvʁ ] ; 29 November 1905 – 25 March 1991 ) was a French Roman Catholic archbishop .
Ordained a diocesan priest in 1929 , he joined the Holy Ghost Fathers for missionary work and was assigned to teach at a seminary in Gabon in 1932 .
In 1947 , he was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Dakar , Senegal , and the next year as the Apostolic Delegate for West Africa .
Upon his return to Europe he was elected Superior General of the Holy Ghost Fathers and assigned to participate in the drafting and preparation of documents for the upcoming Council announced by Pope John XXIII , and was a major leader of the conservative bloc during its proceedings . He would later take the lead in opposing certain changes within the Church associated with the Second Vatican Council .
Refusing to implement council @-@ inspired reforms demanded by its members , he resigned from the leadership of the Holy Ghost Fathers in 1968 .
In 1970 , Lefebvre founded the Society of St. Pius X ( SSPX ) as a small community of seminarians in the village of Écône , Switzerland , with the permission of Bishop François Charrière of Fribourg . In 1975 , after a flare of tensions with the Holy See , Lefebvre was ordered to disband the society , but ignored the decision .
In 1988 , against the expressed prohibition of Pope John Paul II , he consecrated four bishops to continue his work with the SSPX . The Holy See immediately declared that he and the other bishops who had participated in the ceremony had incurred automatic excommunication under Catholic canon law , a status Lefebvre refused to acknowledge to his death three years later .
In 2009 , 18 years after Lefebvre 's death , Pope Benedict XVI lifted the excommunication of the four surviving bishops at their request but not to Lefebvre , therefore his excommunication remains until today .
= = Early life and family = =
Marcel Lefebvre was born in Tourcoing , Nord . He was the second son and third child of eight children of textile factory @-@ owner René Lefebvre and Gabrielle , born Watine , who died in 1938 .
His parents were devout Catholics who brought their children to daily Mass . His father was an outspoken monarchist , devoting his life to the cause of the French Dynasty , seeing in a monarchy the only way of restoring to his country its past grandeur and a Christian revival .
Marcel 's father René had run a spy @-@ ring for British Intelligence when Tourcoing was occupied by the Germans during World War I. René would die at age 62 in 1944 in the German concentration camp at Sonnenburg ( in East Brandenburg , Germany ) , where he had been imprisoned by the Gestapo because of his work for the French Resistance and British Intelligence ; the body was never recovered .
= = Initial priesthood = =
In 1923 Lefebvre began studies for the priesthood ; at the insistence of his father he followed his brother to the French Seminary in Rome , as his father suspected the diocesan seminaries of liberal leanings . He would later credit his conservative views to the rector , a Breton priest named Father Henri Le Floch . His studies were interrupted in 1926 and 1927 when he did his military service . On 25 May 1929 he was ordained deacon by Cardinal Basilio Pompilj in the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome . On 21 September 1929 he was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop ( soon to be Cardinal ) Achille Liénart in Lille , the diocese in which he was incardinated . After ordination , he continued his studies in Rome , completing a doctorate in theology in July 1930 .
In August 1930 Cardinal Liénart assigned Lefebvre to be assistant curate in a parish in Lomme , a suburb of Lille . Even before this , Lefebvre had already asked to be released for missionary duties as a member of the Holy Ghost Fathers . But the cardinal insisted that he consider this for a year while he engaged in parish work in the Diocese of Lille . In July 1931 Liénart released Lefebvre from the diocese . In September Lefebvre entered the novitiate of the Holy Ghost Fathers at Orly . A year later , on 8 September 1932 , he took simple vows for a period of three years .
= = Holy Ghost Father = =
Lefebvre 's first assignment as a Holy Ghost Father was as a professor at St. John 's Seminary in Libreville , Gabon . In 1934 he was made rector of the seminary . On 28 September 1935 he made his perpetual vows . He served as superior of a number of missions of the Holy Ghost Fathers in Gabon . In October 1945 Lefebvre was ordered by the superior general to return to France and take up new duties as rector of the Holy Ghost Fathers seminary in Mortain .
= = = Bishop in Africa = = =
Lefebvre 's return to France was not to last long . On 12 June 1947 , Pope Pius XII appointed him Vicar Apostolic of Dakar in Senegal ; he received the titular episcopal see of Anthedon ( El Blakiyeh near Gaza in Palestine ) . On 18 September 1947 he was consecrated a bishop in his family 's parish church in Tourcoing by Achille Liénart ( who had previously ordained him a priest ) ; acting as co @-@ consecrators were Bishop Jean @-@ Baptiste Fauret , C.S.Sp. and Bishop Alfred @-@ Jean @-@ Félix Ancel .
In his new position Lefebvre was responsible for an area with a population of three and a half million people , of whom only 50 @,@ 000 were Catholics .
On 22 September 1948 , Lefebvre , while continuing as Vicar Apostolic of Dakar , received additional responsibilities : Pope Pius XII appointed him Apostolic Delegate to French Africa . In this capacity he was the papal representative to the Church authorities in 46 dioceses " in continental and insular Africa subject to the French Government , with the addition of the Diocese of Reunion , the whole of the island of Madagascar and the other neighbouring islands under French rule , but excluding the dioceses of North Africa , namely those of Carthage , Constantine , Algiers and Oran . " With this new responsibility he was appointed Archbishop of the titular see of Arcadiopolis in Europa .
As Apostolic Delegate , Lefebvre 's chief duty was the building up of the ecclesiastical structure in French Africa . Pope Pius XII wanted to move quickly towards a proper hierarchy ( with bishops instead of vicariates and apostolic prefectures ) . Lefebvre was responsible for selecting these new bishops , increasing the number of priests and religious sisters , as well as the number of churches in the various dioceses .
On 14 September 1955 , the Apostolic Vicariate of Dakar became an archdiocese , and Lefebvre thus became the first Metropolitan Archbishop of Dakar . Archbishop Lefebvre was the first and foremost advisor to Pius XII during the writing of the encyclical Fidei Donum ( 1957 ) , which instructed the clergy and laity on the missions in the Third World countries and called for more missionaries .
In 1958 Pope Pius XII died and was succeeded by Pope John XXIII , who , in 1959 , after giving Lefebvre the choice between remaining either as Apostolic Delegate or as Archbishop of Dakar , appointed another to the post of Apostolic Delegate for French Africa . Lefebvre continued as Archbishop of Dakar until 23 January 1962 , when he was transferred to the diocese of Tulle in France , retaining his personal title of archbishop .
= = Second Vatican Council = =
In 1960 , Pope John XXIII appointed Lefebvre to the Central Preparatory Commission for the Second Vatican Council . Lefebvre took part in the discussions about the draft documents to be submitted to the bishops for consideration at the Council .
= = = Superior General of the Holy Ghost Fathers = = =
On 26 July 1962 the Chapter General of the Holy Ghost Fathers elected Lefebvre as the Superior General . Lefebvre was widely respected for his experience in the mission field . On the other hand , certain progressive members of his congregation , particularly in France , considered his administrative style authoritarian and desired radical reforms . On 7 August 1962 Lefebvre was given the titular archiepiscopal see of Synnada in Phrygia .
= = = Coetus Internationalis Patrum = = =
As a member of the Central Preparatory Commission the Archbishop worked for several years upon the draft documents which the Council Fathers were to discuss , a total of seventy @-@ two preparatory schemas .
Within the first two weeks of the first session of the Council ( October to December 1962 ) all seventy @-@ two of the preparatory schemas had been rejected from consideration . The council rules had stipulated a necessary two @-@ thirds supermajority to reject the schemas . Although only 60 % had voted against the schemas , they were regardless discarded at the intervention of Pope John XXIII , upon the request of the liberal Council Fathers .
Lefebvre became concerned about the direction the Council 's deliberations were taking , taking a leading part in a study group of bishops at the Council which became known as the Coetus Internationalis Patrum ( International Group of Fathers ) , with other traditional @-@ leaning bishops Antônio de Castro Mayer , Bishop of Campos and Geraldo de Proença Sigaud , Archbishop of Diamantina .
A major area of concern at the Council was the debate about the principle of religious liberty . During the Council 's third session ( September to November 1964 ) Archbishop Pericle Felici announced that Lefebvre , with two other like @-@ minded bishops , was appointed to a special four @-@ member commission charged with rewriting the draft document on the topic , but it was soon discovered that this measure did not have papal approval , and major responsibility for preparing the draft document was given to the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity . Instead of the draft entitled " On Religious Liberty " , Lefebvre and Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani had supported instead a text dealing with " Relations between the Church and State , and religious tolerance . "
The Coetus Internationalis Patrum did , however , manage to get the preliminary vote ( with suggestions for modifications ) on the document put off until the fourth session of the Council , but were unable to prevent the adoption , on 7 December 1965 , of the final text of the declaration Dignitatis humanae by the overwhelming majority of the Council . The expressed view of some that this overwhelming majority was only due to intense lobbying by the reformist wing of Council Fathers among those prelates who initially had reservations or even objections , however , is not accepted by all observers . Lefebvre was one of those who voted against the declaration , but he was one of those who added their signature to the document , after that of the Pope , though not all present did sign . Lefebvre later declared that the sheet of paper that he signed and that was " passed from hand to hand among the Fathers of the Council and upon which everyone placed his signature , had no meaning of a vote for or against , but signified simply our presence at the meeting to vote for four documents . " However , the paper on which his signature appears , and which was not " the relatively unimportant attendance sheet which Lefebvre recalled in his interview " , bears " the title Declaratio de Libertate Religiosa ( along with the titles of three other documents ) at the top , " and " ( t ) he fathers were informed that if they wished to sign one or more documents , but not all of them , they could make a marginal annotation beside their name , specifying which documents they did or did not wish to sign . No such annotation is found beside the names of either Lefebvre or de Castro Mayer , which proves that they were prepared to share in the official promulgation of that Declaration on Religious Liberty which they later publicly rejected . "
= = = Padre Pio and Marcel Lefebvre = = =
In April 1967 , three years before founding the SSPX , Archbishop Lefebvre ( left ) briefly met the Italian saint and mystic Padre Pio of Pietrelcina to ask his blessing on a forthcoming general chapter of the Holy Ghost Fathers .
Pascal Cataneo , a priest claiming to be an associate of Padre Pio , claimed in the book " Padre Pio Gleanings " that the saint had prophesied about Abp . Lefebvre . He wrote :
" Padre Pio looked at Lefebvre very sternly and said : " Never cause discord among your brothers and always practise the rule of obedience ; above all when it seems to you that the errors of those in authority are all the more serious . There is no other road than that of obedience , especially for those of us who have made this vow . " ... It seems Archbishop Lefebvre did not see things in quite the same way even if he did respond to Padre Pio with : " I will remember that , Father . " Padre Pio looked at him intensely and , seeing what would soon happen , said : " No ! You will forget it ! You will tear apart the community of faithful , oppose the will of your superiors and even go against the orders of the pope himself and this will happen quite soon ... "
However , Lefebvre dismissed the allegation as a " slander , a fabrication " , giving his own account of the event , as well as photographic evidence backing his counter @-@ claim :
" The meeting which took place after Easter in 1967 lasted two minutes … I told him in a few words the purpose of my visit : for him to bless the Congregation of the Holy Ghost which was due to hold an extraordinary General Chapter meeting … Then Padre Pio cried out . ' Me , bless an archbishop , no , no , it is you who should be blessing me ! ' And he bowed , to receive the blessing . I blessed him , he kissed my ring and continued on his way to the confessional ... That was the whole of the meeting , no more , no less ... "
Author Griff Ruby pointed out that Padre Pio had no known associate or acquaintance by the name " Pascal Cataneo " .
= = = Resignation from the Holy Ghost Fathers = = =
Lefebvre was increasingly criticized by influential members of his large religious congregation who considered him to be out @-@ of @-@ step with modern Church leaders and the demand of the bishops ' conferences , particularly in France , for modernization and reforms . An Extraordinary General Chapter of the Holy Ghost Fathers was convened in Rome in September 1968 to debate the direction of the congregation after the changes of the Second Vatican Council . The first action of the chapter was to name several moderators to lead the chapter 's sessions instead of Lefebvre . Lefebvre then handed in his resignation as Superior General to Pope Paul VI . He would later say that it had become impossible for him to remain superior of an institute that no longer wanted or listened to him .
= = Theological and political positions = =
= = = Background = = =
Lefebvre belonged to an identifiable strand of right @-@ wing political and religious opinion in French society that originated among the defeated royalists after the 1789 French Revolution . Lefebvre 's political and theological outlook mirrored that of a significant number of conservative members of French society under the French Third Republic ( 1870 – 1940 ) . The Third Republic was reft by conflicts between the secular Left and the Catholic Right , with many individuals on both sides espousing distinctly radical positions ( see , for example , the article on the famous Dreyfus affair ) . Thus it has been said that " Lefebvre was ... a man formed by the bitter hatreds that defined the battle lines in French society and culture from the French Revolution to the Vichy regime " .
Lefebvre 's first biographer , the English traditionalist writer Michael Davies , wrote in the first volume of his Apologia Pro Marcel Lefebvre :
In France political feeling tends to be more polarized , more extreme , and far more deeply felt than in England . It can only be understood in the light of the French Revolution and subsequent history ... At the risk of a serious over @-@ simplification , it is reasonable to state that up to the Second World War Catholicism in France tended to be identified with right @-@ wing politics and anti @-@ Catholicism with the left ... [ Lefebvre 's ] own alleged right @-@ wing political philosophy is nothing more than straight @-@ forward Catholic social teaching as expounded by the Popes for a century or more ...
In similar vein , the pro @-@ SSPX English priest Fr . Michael Crowdy wrote , in his preface to his translation of Lefebvre 's Open Letter to Confused Catholics :
We must remember that Lefebvre is writing against the background of France , where ideas are generally more clear ‑ cut than they are in Great Britain .... Take the word " socialism , " for example ; that means to some of us , first and foremost , a social ideal of brotherhood and justice . We have had our Christian socialists . On the Continent , however , Socialism is uncompromisingly anti ‑ religious , or almost a substitute for religion , and Communism is seen as the natural development from it . This is the Socialism the Archbishop is writing about . And when he rejects Liberalism , he is not thinking of the [ British ] Liberal Party ... but of that religious liberalism that exalts human liberty above the claims of God or of His Church ...
= = = Theological positions = = =
Lefebvre was associated with the following positions :
The rejection of ecumenism in favor of Catholic exclusivism ;
The espousal of pragmatic religious tolerance instead of the principle of religious liberty ;
The rejection of collegiality within the Church in favor of strict Papal supremacy ;
Opposition to the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Mass of Paul VI .
Lefebvre , however , forbade the members of his society from questioning the validity of the reigning Popes , only the prudence of their decisions , referring to Sedevacantist ideology as " imprudent " .
= = = Political positions = = =
Political positions espoused by Lefebvre included the following :
Condemnation of the 1789 French Revolution and what he called its " Masonic and anti @-@ Catholic principles " .
Support for the " Catholic order " of the authoritarian French Vichy government ( 1940 – 1944 ) of Marshal Philippe Pétain .
Support for authoritarian governments . In 1985 , he spoke approvingly of the governments of Francisco Franco of Spain and António Salazar of Portugal , noting that their neutrality in World War II had spared their peoples the suffering of the war .
Support for the French nationalist leader Jean @-@ Marie le Pen . In 1985 , the French periodical Présent quoted Lefebvre as endorsing Le Pen on the grounds that he was the only leading French politician who was clearly opposed to abortion .
Opposition to Muslim immigration into Europe . In 1990 , Lefebvre was convicted in a French court and sentenced to pay a fine of 5 @,@ 000 francs when he stated in this connection that " it is your wives , your daughters , your children who will be kidnapped and dragged off to a certain kind of places [ sic ] as they exist in Casablanca " .
= = Society of Saint Pius X = =
= = = Lawful formation = = =
After retiring from the post of Superior General of the Holy Ghost Fathers , Lefebvre was approached by traditionalists from the French Seminary in Rome who had been refused tonsure , the rite by which , until 1973 , a seminarian became a cleric . They asked for a conservative seminary to complete their studies . After directing them to the University of Fribourg , Switzerland , Lefebvre was urged to teach these seminarians personally . In 1969 , he received permission from the local bishop to establish a seminary in Fribourg which opened with nine students , moving to Écône , Switzerland in 1971 .
Lefebvre proposed to his seminarians the establishment of a society of priests without vows . In November 1970 , Bishop François Charrière of Fribourg established , on a provisional ( ad experimentum ) basis for six years , the International Priestly Society of Saint Pius X ( SSPX ) as a " pious union " .
= = = Initial attempts at suppression = = =
In November 1972 , the bishops of France , gathered as the Plenary Assembly of French Bishops at Lourdes , whose theological outlook was quite different from Lefebvre 's , treated the then @-@ legal Écône seminary with suspicion and referred to it as Séminaire sauvage or " Outlaw Seminary " . They indicated that they would incardinate none of the seminarians . Cardinal Secretary of State Cardinal Villot accused Lefebvre before Pope Paul VI of making his seminarians sign a condemnation of the Pope , which Lefebvre vigorously denied .
= = = Apostolic Visitors = = =
In November 1974 , two Belgian priests carried out a rigorous inspection on the instructions of a commission of cardinals , producing , it was said , a favourable report . However , while at Écône , they expressed a number of theological opinions , such as that ordination of married men will soon be a normal thing , that truth changed with the times , and the traditional conception of the Resurrection of Our Lord were open to discussion , which the seminarians and staff objected to as scandalous . In what he later described as a mood of " doubtlessly excessive indignation " , Lefebvre wrote a " Declaration " in which he strongly attacked the modernist and liberal trends that he saw as apparent in the reforms being undertaken within the Church at that time .
" We adhere with all our heart and all our soul to Catholic Rome , guardian of the Catholic Faith and the traditions necessary to maintain it , and to Eternal Rome , mistress of wisdom and truth . On the other hand we refuse and have always refused to follow the Rome of the neo @-@ Modernist and the new Protestant trend which was clearly evident in the Second Vatican Council and , after the Council in all the reforms which flowed from it . "
The Commission of Cardinals declared in reply that the declaration was " unacceptable on all points " .
In January 1975 the new Bishop of Fribourg , Mgr . Pierre Mamie , stated his wish to withdraw the SSPX 's pious union status .
On 13 February , Lefebvre then was invited to Rome for a meeting with the commission of Cardinals , which he described as " a close cross examination of the judicial type " , regarding the contents of his " Declaration " , followed by a second on 3 March . In May , the commission issued a notification that it had decided to grant approval to the Mgr . Mamie to carry out his intentions , with Lefebvre arguing that according to Canon 493 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law , only the Pope , which he interpreted to mean a direct decree from the Pope rather than mere retroactive approbation , could suppress a religious congregation .
The Bishop put his intention into effect on 6 May 1975 , thereby officially dissolving the Society . This action was subsequently upheld by Pope Paul VI , who wrote to Archbishop Lefebvre in June 1975 . Lefebvre continued his work regardless because " having taken legal advice from competent canon lawyers who advised him that , despite the letter from Pope Paul dated 29 June 1975 , the entire legal process taken against the Fraternity had been so irregular that it could not be considered as having been legally suppressed . The Archbishop was further advised that , as the Vatican had permitted priests to be incardinated directly into the Fraternity on three separate occasions , it could be considered that the privilege of incardinating priests directly into the Fraternity now existed . " Lefebvre also argued that there were insufficient grounds for suppression as the Apostolic Visitors , by the Commission 's own admission , delivered a positive report , and that since his Declaration had not been condemned by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith ( CDF , formerly known as the Holy Office , or Inquisition ) , he appealed , twice , to the appellate court of the Church , the Apostolic Signatura . Cardinal Villot blocked the move , reportedly threatening the Prefect of the Apostolic Signatura Cardinal Staffa with dismissal if the appeals were not struck out .
In May 1977 , Mamie warned Marcel Lefebvre that saying a Mass in the Tridentine Rite could be a break with orthodox Catholicism .
= = = Clash with the Vatican = = =
In the consistory of 24 May 1976 , Pope Paul VI criticized Archbishop Lefebvre by name and appealed to him and his followers to change their minds .
On 29 June 1976 , Lefebvre went ahead with planned priestly ordinations without the approval of the local Bishop and despite receiving letters from Rome forbidding them . As a result Lefebvre was suspended a collatione ordinum , i.e. , forbidden to ordain any priests . A week later , the Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops informed him that , to have his situation regularized , he needed to ask the Pope 's pardon . Lefebvre responded with a letter claiming that the modernisation of the Church was a " compromise with the ideas of modern man " originating in a secret agreement between high dignitaries in the Church and senior Freemasons prior to the Council . Lefebvre was then notified that , since he had not apologised to the Pope , he was suspended a divinis , i.e. , he could no longer legally administer any of the sacraments . Lefebvre remarked that he had been forbidden from celebrating the new rite of Mass . Pope Paul VI apparently took this seriously and stated that Lefebvre " thought he dodged the penalty by administering the sacraments using the previous formulas . " In spite of his suspension , Lefebvre continued to pray Mass and to administer the other Sacraments , including the conferral of Holy Orders to the students of his seminary .
Pope Paul VI received Lefebvre in audience on 11 September 1976 , and one month later wrote to him admonishing him and , repeating the appeal he had made at the audience . Pope John Paul II received Lefebvre in audience sixty days after his 1978 election , again without reaching agreement .
= = Ecône consecrations = =
In a 1987 sermon Lefebvre , at age 81 , experiencing failing health , announced his intention to consecrate a bishop to carry on his work after his death . This was controversial because , under Catholic canon law , the consecration of a bishop requires the permission of the Pope .
On 5 May 1988 , Lefebvre signed an agreement with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger ( the future Pope Benedict XVI ) , who was then Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , to regularize the situation of the Society of St Pius X. The cardinal agreed that one bishop would be consecrated for the society .
= = = " Operation Survival " = = =
Shortly after , however , Lefebvre announced that he had received a note from Cardinal Ratzinger in which he " was asked to beg pardon for [ his ] errors " and thereupon decided that he was obliged both to reject the arrangement he had agreed to and to consecrate a successor — if necessary , without papal approval . As Cardinal Ratzinger did not specify a date for the episcopal consecration , should he have died before the consecration was granted , the Society would be unable to ordain any seminarians and thus forced into capitulation with the Holy See . He dubbed his plan " Operation Survival " .
" That is why , taking into account the strong will of the present Roman authorities to reduce Tradition to naught , to gather the world to the spirit of Vatican II and the spirit of Assisi , we have preferred to withdraw ourselves and to say that we could not continue . It was not possible . We would have evidently been under the authority of Cardinal Ratzinger , President of the Roman Commission , which would have directed us ; we were putting ourselves into his hands , and consequently putting ourselves into the hands of those who wish to draw us into the spirit of the Council and the spirit of Assisi . This was simply not possible . "
The Pope appealed to him not to proceed in " a schismatic act " , warning of " theological and canonical consequences " .
On 30 June 1988 , Archbishop Lefebvre , with Bishop Emeritus Antônio de Castro Mayer of Campos , Brazil , as co @-@ consecrator , consecrated four SSPX priests as bishops : Bernard Tissier de Mallerais , Richard Williamson , Alfonso de Galarreta and Bernard Fellay .
Shortly before the consecrations , Lefebvre gave the following sermon :
" ... this ceremony , which is apparently done against the will of Rome , is in no way a schism . We are not schismatics ! If an excommunication was pronounced against the bishops of China , who separated themselves from Rome and put themselves under the Chinese government , one very easily understands why Pope Pius XII excommunicated them . There is no question of us separating ourselves from Rome , nor of putting ourselves under a foreign government , nor of establishing a sort of parallel church as the Bishops of Palmar de Troya have done in Spain . They have even elected a pope , formed a college of cardinals ... It is out of the question for us to do such things . Far from us be this miserable thought to separate ourselves from Rome ! "
The next day , 1 July , the Congregation for Bishops issued a decree stating that this was a schismatic act and that all six people directly involved had thereby incurred automatic excommunication .
= = = Aftermath = = =
On 2 July , Pope John Paul II condemned the consecration in his apostolic letter Ecclesia Dei , in which he stated that the consecration constituted a schismatic act and that by virtue of Canon 1382 of the Code of Canon Law , the bishops and priests involved were automatically excommunicated .
Lefebvre declared that he and the other clerics involved had not " separated themselves from Rome " and were therefore not schismatic . He invoked canon 1323 of the 1983 Code of Canon law that they " found themselves in a case of necessity " , not having succeeded , as they said , in making " Rome " understand that " this change which has occurred in the Church " since the Second Vatican Council was " not Catholic " . In a letter addressed to the four priests he was about to consecrate as bishops , Lefebvre wrote : " I do not think one can say that Rome has not lost the Faith . "
On July 18 , twelve priests and a some seminarians , led by Father Josef Bisig left the SSPX due to the Ecône Consecrations . Father Josef Bisig became the first superior general of the newly formed Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter , coming to a compromise with and placing themselves under the Holy See .
= = Death = =
Lefebvre died on 25 March 1991 at the age of 85 from cancer in Martigny , Switzerland , less than three years after being excommunicated for carrying out the episcopal consecrations . Eight days later he was buried in the crypt at the society 's international seminary in Écône , Switzerland . Archbishop Edoardo Rovida , Apostolic Nuncio to Switzerland , and Bishop Henri Schwery of Sion , the local diocese , came and prayed at the body of the dead prelate . Later that year , on 18 September 1991 , Cardinal Silvio Oddi , who had been Prefect of the Congregation for the Clergy from 1979 to 1986 , visited Lefebvre 's tomb , knelt down at it and prayed , afterwards saying aloud : " Merci , Monseigneur " . Thereafter Cardinal Oddi said he held Lefebvre to have been " a holy man " and suggested that the Society of St Pius X could be granted a personal prelature by the Holy See like that of Opus Dei . In January 1992 , the then @-@ superior general of the society , Fr . Franz Schmidberger , rejected this hypothetical offer by an unpublished private letter to the Holy See . The letter 's content was described by Bishop Richard Williamson ( subsequently expelled from the SSPX ) as basically saying that , " as long as Rome remains Conciliar , a fruitful and open collaboration between the two [ the SSPX and the Holy See ] does not seem possible . "
= = = Lifting of excommunications = = =
In 2009 , at the request of the four surviving bishops , Pope Benedict XVI lifted their excommunications .
The episcopal lineage originated by the 1988 consecrations amounts to 8 bishops as of 2016 , out of whom 7 are alive :
Bp Alfonso Ruiz de Galarreta
Bp Licinio Rangel ( ordained by Bp Bernard Tissier de Mallerais - plus Bp Alfonso Ruiz de Galarreta operating as a consecrator )
Bp Bernard Fellay
Bp Bernard Tissier de Mallerais
Bp Licinio Rangel ( + )
Bp Fernando Arêas Rifan ( ordained by Cal Dario Castrillon Hoyos - plus Bp Licinio Rangel operating as a consecrator )
Bp Richard Nelson Williamson
Bp Licinio Rangel ( ordained by Bp Bernard Tissier de Mallerais - plus Bp Richard Nelson Williamson operating as a consecrator )
Bp Jean @-@ Michel Faure
Bp Dom Tomás de Aquino Ferreira da Costa ( ordained Bp Richard Nelson Williamson - plus Bp Jean @-@ Michel Faure operating as a consecrator )
= = Works = =
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 1998 ) . A Bishop Speaks : Writings & Addresses , 1963 – 1974 . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 935952 @-@ 16 @-@ 0 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 1998 ) . I Accuse the Council ! ( 2nd ed . ) . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 935952 @-@ 68 @-@ 1 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 1987 ) . Open Letter to Confused Catholics . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 935952 @-@ 13 @-@ 1 . Translated from the original book : Lefèbvre , Marcel ( 1985 ) . Lettre Ouverte aux Catholiques Perplexes ( in French ) . Paris : A. Michel . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 226 @-@ 02325 @-@ 4 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 1997 ) . Against the Heresies . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 935952 @-@ 28 @-@ 5 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 1988 ) . They have Uncrowned Him : from Liberalism to Apostasy , the Conciliar Tragedy . Dickinson , Tex : Angelus Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 935952 @-@ 05 @-@ 5 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 2000 ) . The Mystery of Jesus : the Meditations of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 892331 @-@ 02 @-@ 1 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 2001 ) . Religious Liberty Questioned – The Dubia : my Doubts about the Vatican II Declaration of Religious Liberty . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 892331 @-@ 12 @-@ 0 .
Lefebvre , Marcel ( 2007 ) . The Mass of all time : the hidden treasure . Kansas City , Mo . : Angelus Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 892331 @-@ 46 @-@ 5 .
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= Michael Myers ( Halloween ) =
Michael Myers is a character from the Halloween series of slasher films . He first appears in John Carpenter 's Halloween ( 1978 ) as a young boy who murders his older sister , then fifteen years later returns home to murder more teenagers . In the original Halloween , the adult Michael Myers , referred to as The Shape in the closing credits , was portrayed by Nick Castle for most of the film , with Tony Moran and Tommy Lee Wallace substituting in during the final scenes . The character was created by Debra Hill and John Carpenter and has appeared in nine films , as well as novels , a video game , and several comic books .
The character is the primary antagonist in the Halloween film series , except Halloween III : Season of the Witch , which is not connected in continuity to the rest of the films . Since Castle , Moran , and Wallace put on the mask in the original film , six people have stepped into the role . Tyler Mane is the only actor to have portrayed Michael Myers in consecutive films , and one of only two actors to portray the character more than once . Michael Myers is characterized as pure evil , both directly in the films , by the filmmakers who created and developed the character over nine films , as well as by random participants in a survey .
= = Appearances = =
Michael Myers is the primary antagonist in all of the Halloween films except Halloween III : Season of the Witch , which does not feature any of the characters from the preceding two films and had nothing to do with Michael Myers . Michael returned following Halloween III , in the aptly titled Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers . The silver screen is not the only place Michael Myers has appeared : there have been literary sources that have created an expanded universe for Michael Myers .
= = = Films = = =
Michael Myers made his first appearance in the original 1978 film , Halloween , although the masked character is credited as " The Shape " in the first two films . In the beginning of Halloween , a six @-@ year @-@ old Michael ( Will Sandin ) murders his teenage sister Judith ( Sandy Johnson ) on Halloween , 1963 . Fifteen years later , Michael ( Nick Castle ) escapes Smith 's Grove Sanitarium and returns to his hometown of Haddonfield , Illinois . He stalks teenage babysitter Laurie Strode ( Jamie Lee Curtis ) on Halloween , while his psychiatrist Dr. Sam Loomis ( Donald Pleasence ) attempts to track him down . Murdering her friends , Michael finally attacks Laurie , but she manages to fend him off long enough for Loomis to save her . Loomis shoots Michael six times , before Michael falls over the house 's second @-@ story balcony ledge ; when Loomis goes to check Michael 's body , he finds it missing . Michael returns in the sequel , Halloween II ( 1981 ) . The film picks up directly where the original ends , with Dr. Loomis still looking for Michael . Michael ( Dick Warlock ) follows Laurie Strode ( Curtis ) to the local hospital , where he wanders the halls in search of her , killing security guards , doctors , and nurses that get in his way . Loomis learns that Laurie Strode is Michael 's younger sister , and rushes to the hospital to find them . He causes an explosion in the operating theater , allowing Laurie to escape as he and Michael are engulfed by the flames .
Michael Myers does not appear in Halloween III : Season of the Witch , which does not include any story elements from the first two installments . Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers ( 1988 ) picks the story up ten years after the events of Halloween II . Michael ( George P. Wilbur ) and Dr. Loomis are revealed to have survived the explosion , although Michael has been in a coma at the Ridgemont Federal Sanitarium for a decade . Michael wakes from his coma when he learns Laurie Strode has died , but also learns that she has a seven @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Jamie Lloyd ( Danielle Harris ) . Returning to Haddonfield , he causes a city @-@ wide blackout and massacres the town 's police force , before being shot down a mine shaft by the state police . Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers ( 1989 ) begins immediately after the fourth film ends , with Michael Myers ( Donald L. Shanks ) escaping the mine shaft and being nursed back to health by a local hermit . The next year , Michael kills the hermit and returns to Haddonfield to find Jamie ( Harris ) again , chasing her through his childhood home in a trap set up by Loomis ( Pleasence ) . Michael is eventually captured and taken to the local police station , but an unseen figure kills the officers and frees him . Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers ( 1995 ) takes place six years after the events of The Revenge of Michael Myers ; both Jamie ( J. C. Brandy ) and Michael ( Wilbur ) have disappeared from Haddonfield . Jamie has been kidnapped and impregnated by the Cult of Thorn , led by Dr. Terence Wynn ( Mitchell Ryan ) , Loomis ' friend and colleague from Smith 's Grove . Wynn is revealed to have been manipulating Michael Myers all along , and was his mysterious savior in Halloween 5 . Michael kills Jamie , but not before she hides her infant , who is discovered and taken in by Tommy Doyle ( Paul Rudd ) . While trying to protect the baby from Michael and Wynn , Tommy learns that the cult may be the cause of Michael 's obsession with killing his entire family , in addition to his seemingly supernatural abilities .
Ignoring the events of the previous three films , Halloween H20 : 20 Years Later ( 1998 ) establishes that Michael Myers ( Chris Durand ) has been missing since the explosion in 1978 . Laurie Strode ( Curtis ) has faked her death to escape her brother , and is now living in California under an assumed name with her teenage son John ( Josh Hartnett ) . On the twentieth anniversary of their last meeting , Michael tracks Laurie and her son to the private boarding school where she is headmistress , and murders John 's friends . Getting her son to safety , Laurie willingly goes back to face Michael , and succeeds in decapitating him . Halloween : Resurrection ( 2002 ) , which picks up three years after H20 , retcons Michael 's death , establishing that the man Laurie decapitated was a paramedic whom Michael had attacked and swapped clothes with . Michael ( Brad Loree ) tracks down an institutionalized Laurie ( Curtis ) and kills her . Returning to Haddonfield , he finds and kills a group of college students filming an internet reality show inside his childhood home . Contestant Sara Moyer ( Bianca Kajlich ) and show producer Freddie Harris ( Busta Rhymes ) escape by trapping Michael in a burning garage .
A new version of Michael Myers appears in Rob Zombie 's Halloween ( 2007 ) , a reboot of the franchise . The film follows the basic premise of the original film , with an increased focus on Michael 's childhood : ten @-@ year @-@ old Michael ( Daeg Faerch ) is shown killing animals and suffering verbal abuse from Judith ( Hanna R. Hall ) and his mother 's boyfriend Ronnie ( William Forsythe ) , both of whom he later murders . During his time in Smith 's Grove , Michael takes up the hobby of creating papier @-@ mâché masks and receives unsuccessful therapy from Dr. Sam Loomis ( Malcolm McDowell ) . As an adult , Michael ( Tyler Mane ) returns to Haddonfield to reunite with his beloved younger sister Laurie ( Scout Taylor @-@ Compton ) . Laurie , however , is terrified of him and ends up shooting him in self @-@ defense . Zombie 's story is continued in the sequel , Halloween II ( 2009 ) , which picks up right where the remake leaves off and then jumps ahead one year . Here , Michael ( Mane ) is presumed dead , but resurfaces after a vision of his deceased mother Deborah ( Sheri Moon Zombie ) informs him that he must track Laurie ( Taylor @-@ Compton ) down so that they can " come home " . In the film , Michael and Laurie have a mental link , with the two sharing visions of their mother . During the film 's climax , Laurie apparently kills Michael by stabbing him repeatedly in the chest and face with his own knife .
= = = Literature = = =
Michael Myers made his literary debut in October 1979 when Curtis Richards released a novelization of the film . The book follows the events of the film , but includes references to the festival of Samhain . A prologue provides a possible explanation for Michael 's murderous impulses , telling the story of Enda , a disfigured Celtic teenager who butchers the Druid princess Deirdre and her lover as revenge for rejecting him ; the king subsequently has his shaman curse Enda 's soul to walk the earth reliving his crime for eternity . It is later revealed that Michael Myers suffers nightmares about Enda and Deirdre , as did Michael 's great @-@ grandfather before shooting to death two people at a Halloween harvest dance in the 1890s . The novel shows Michael 's childhood in more detail ; his mother voices concern over her son 's anti @-@ social behavior shortly before he murders Judith , and Dr. Loomis notices the boy 's effortless control and manipulation of the staff and patients at Smith 's Grove during his incarceration . Later in the story , Michael 's stalking of Laurie and her friends is depicted as more explicitly sexual than was apparent in the film , with several references to him having an erection . Michael returned to the world of literature with the 1981 adaptation of Halloween II written by Jack Martin ; it was published alongside the first film sequel , with the novel following the film events , with an additional victim , a reporter , added to the novel . The final novelization to feature Michael was Halloween IV , released October 1988 . The novel was written by Nicholas Grabowsky , and like the previous adaptations , follows the events of Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers .
Over a four @-@ month period , Berkley Books published three young adult novels written by Kelly O 'Rourke ; the novels are original stories created by O 'Rourke , with no direct continuity with the films . The first , released on 1 October 1997 , titled The Scream Factory , follows a group of friends who set up a haunted house attraction in the basement of Haddonfield City Hall , only to be stalked and killed by Michael Myers while they are there . The Old Myers Place is the second novel , released 1 December 1997 , and focuses on Mary White , who moves into the Myers house with her family and takes up residence in Judith Myers ' former bedroom . Michael returns home and begins stalking and attacking Mary and her friends . O 'Rourke 's final novel , The Mad House , was released on 1 February 1998 . The Mad House features a young girl , Christine Ray , who joins a documentary film crew that travels to haunted locations ; they are currently headed to Smith Grove Mental Hospital . The crew is quickly confronted by Michael Myers .
The character 's first break into comics came with a series of comics published by Brian Pulido 's Chaos ! Comics . The first , simply titled Halloween , was intended to be a one @-@ issue special , but eventually two sequels spawned : Halloween II : The Blackest Eyes and Halloween III : The Devil 's Eyes . All of the stories were written by Phil Nutman , with Daniel Farrands — writer for Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers — assisting on the first issue ; David Brewer and Justiniano worked on the illustrations . Tommy Doyle is the main protagonist in each of the issues , focusing on his attempts to kill Michael Myers . The first issue includes backstory on Michael 's childhood , while the third picks up after the events of the film Halloween H20 .
In 2003 , Michael appeared in the self @-@ published comic One Good Scare , written by Stefan Hutchinson and illustrated by Peter Fielding . The main character in the comic is Lindsey Wallace , the young girl who first saw Michael Myers alongside Tommy Doyle in the original 1978 film . Hutchinson wanted to bring the character back to his roots , and away from the " lumbering Jason @-@ clone " the film sequels had made him . On 25 July 2006 , as an insert inside the DVD release of Halloween : 25 Years of Terror , the comic book Halloween : Autopsis was released . Written by Stefan Hutchinson and artwork by Marcus Smith and Nick Dismas , the story is about a photographer assigned to take pictures of Michael Myers . As the photographer , Carter , follows Dr. Loomis ; he begins to take on Loomis 's obsession himself , until finally meeting Michael Myers in person , which results in his death .
In 2008 , Devil 's Due Publishing began releasing more Halloween comic books , starting with a four issue mini series , titled Halloween : Nightdance . Written by Stefan Hutchinson , Nightdance takes place in Russellville , and follows Michael 's obsession with Lisa Thomas , a girl who reminds him of his sister Judith . Lisa is afraid of the dark after Michael trapped her in a basement for days , and years later , he starts sending her disturbing , childlike drawings and murdering those around her on Halloween . Meanwhile , Ryan Nichols is hunting Michael down after seeing him attack and kidnap his wife . In the end , Michael frames Ryan for the murders and buries Lisa alive . Hutchinson explains that Nightdance was an attempt to escape the dense continuity of the film series and recreate the tone of the 1978 film ; Michael becomes inexplicably fixated on Lisa , just as he did with Laurie in the original Halloween , before the sequels established that a sibling bond was actually his motivation for stalking her . Included in the Nightdance trade paperback is the short prose story Charlie , which features Charlie Bowles , a Russellville serial killer who taps into the same evil force which motivates Michael Myers . To celebrate the anniversary of the Halloween series , Devil 's Due released a one @-@ shot comic entitled Halloween : 30 Years of Terror in August 2008 , written by Hutchinson . An anthology collection inspired by John Carpenter 's original film , Michael appears in various stories , tampering with Halloween candy , decapitating a beauty queen , tormenting Laurie Strode , and killing a school teacher .
= = Characterization = =
A common characterization is that Michael Myers is evil . John Carpenter has described the character as " almost a supernatural force - a force of nature . An evil force that 's loose , " a force that is " unkillable " . Professor Nicholas Rogers elaborates , " Myers is depicted as a mythic , elusive bogeyman , one of superhuman strength who cannot be killed by bullets , stab wounds , or fire . " Carpenter 's inspiration for the " evil " that Michael would embody came when he was in college . While on a class trip at a mental institution in Kentucky , Carpenter visited " the most serious , mentally ill patients " . Among those patients was a young boy around twelve to thirteen years @-@ old . The boy gave this " schizophrenic stare " , " a real evil stare " , which Carpenter found " unsettling " , " creepy " , and " completely insane " . Carpenter 's experience would inspire the characterization that Loomis would give of Michael to Sheriff Brackett in the original film . Debra Hill has stated the scene where Michael kills the Wallaces ' German Shepherd was done to illustrate how he is " really evil and deadly " .
The ending scene of Michael being shot six times , and then disappearing from the ground outside the house , was meant to terrify the imagination of the audience . Carpenter tried to keep the audience guessing as to who Michael Myers really is — he is gone , and everywhere at the same time ; he is more than human ; he may be supernatural , and no one knows how he got that way . To Carpenter , keeping the audience guessing was better than explaining away the character with " he 's cursed by some ... " For Josh Hartnett , who portrayed John Tate in Halloween H20 , " it 's that abstract , it 's easier for me to be afraid of it . You know , someone who just kind of appears and , you know [ mimics stabbing noise from Psycho ] instead of an actual human who you think you can talk to . And no remorse , it 's got no feelings , that 's the most frightening , definitely . " Richard Schickel , film critic for TIME , felt Michael was " irrational " and " really angry about something " , having what Schickel referred to as " a kind of primitive , obsessed intelligence " . Schickel considered this the " definition of a good monster " , by making the character appear " less than human " , but having enough intelligence " to be dangerous " .
Dominique Othenin @-@ Girard attempted to have audiences " relate to ' Evil ' , to Michael Myers 's ' ill ' side " . Girard wanted Michael to appear " more human [ ... ] even vulnerable , with contradicting feelings inside of him " . He illustrated these feelings with a scene where Michael removes his mask and sheds a tear . Girard explains , " Again , to humanize him , to give him a tear . If Evil or in this case our boogeyman knows pain , or love or demonstrate a feeling of regrets ; he becomes even more scary to me if he pursues his malefic action . He shows an evil determination beyond his feelings . Dr. Loomis tries to reach his emotional side several times in [ Halloween 5 ] . He thinks he could cure Michael through his feelings . "
Daniel Farrands , writer of The Curse of Michael Myers , describes the character as a " sexual deviant " . According to him , the way Michael follows girls around and watches them contains a subtext of repressed sexuality . Farrands theorizes that , as a child , Michael became fixated on the murder of his sister Judith , and for his own twisted reasons felt the need to repeat that action over and over again , finding a sister @-@ like figure in Laurie who excited him sexually . He also believes that by making Laurie , Michael 's literal sister , the sequels took away from the simplicity and relatability of the original Halloween . Nevertheless , when writing Curse , Farrands was tasked with creating a mythology for Michael which defined his motives and why he could not be killed . He says , " He can 't just be a man anymore , he 's gone beyond that . He 's mythical . He 's supernatural . So , I took it from that standpoint that there 's something else driving him . A force that goes beyond that five senses that has infected this boy 's soul and now is driving him . " As the script developed and more people became involved , Farrands admits that the film went too far in explaining Michael Myers and that he himself was not completely satisfied with the finished product .
Michael does not speak in the films ; the first time audiences ever hear his voice is in the 2007 Rob Zombie reboot . Michael speaks as a child during the beginning of the film , but while in Smith 's Grove he stops talking completely . Rob Zombie originally planned to have the adult Michael speak to Laurie in the film 's finale , simply saying his childhood nickname for her , " Boo " . Zombie explained that this version was not used because he was afraid having the character talk at that point would demystify him too much , and because the act of Michael handing Laurie the photograph of them together was enough .
Describing aspects of Michael Myers which he wanted to explore in the comic book Halloween : Nightdance , writer Stefan Hutchinson mentions the character 's " bizarre and dark sense of humor " , as seen when he wore a sheet over his head to trick a girl into thinking he was her boyfriend , and the satisfaction he gets from scaring the characters before he murders them , such as letting Laurie know he is stalking her . Hutchinson feels there is a perverse nature to Michael 's actions : " see the difference between how he watches and pursues women to men " . He also suggests that Michael Myers ' hometown of Haddonfield is the cause of his behavior , likening his situation to that of Jack the Ripper , citing Myers as a " product of normal surburbia - all the repressed emotion of fake Norman Rockwell smiles " . Hutchinson describes Michael as a " monster of abjection " . When asked his opinion of Rob Zombie 's expansion on Michael 's family life , Hutchinson says that explaining why Michael does what he does " [ reduces ] the character " . That being said , Hutchinson explores the nature of evil in the short story Charlie — included in the Halloween Nightdance trade paperback — and says that Michael Myers spent fifteen years " attuning himself to this force to the point where he is , as Loomis says , ' pure evil ' " . Nightdance artist Tim Seeley describes the character 's personality in John Carpenter 's 1978 film as " a void " , which allows the character to be more open to interpretation than the later sequels allowed him . He surmises that Michael embodies a part of everyone ; a part people are afraid will one day " snap and knife someone " , which lends to the fear that Michael creates on screen .
In 2005 , a study was conducted by the Media Psychology Lab of California State University , Los Angeles on the psychological appeal of movie monsters — Vampires , Freddy Krueger , Frankenstein 's monster , Jason Voorhees , Godzilla , Chucky , Hannibal Lecter , King Kong , The Alien , and the shark from Jaws — which surveyed 1 @,@ 166 people nationwide ( United States ) , with ages ranging from 16 to 91 . It was published in the Journal of Media Psychology . In the survey , Michael was considered to be the " embodiment of pure evil " ; when compared to the other characters , Michael Myers was rated the highest . Michael was characterized lending to the understanding of insanity , being ranked second to Hannibal Lecter in this category ; he also placed first as the character who shows audiences the " dark side of human nature " . He was rated second in the category " monster enjoys killing " by the participants , and believed to have " superhuman strength " . Michael was rated highest among the characters in the " monster is an outcast " category .
= = In popular culture = =
In Robot Chicken 's nineteenth episode , " That Hurts Me " , Michael Myers ( voiced by Seth Green ) appears as a housemate of " Horror Movie Big Brother " , alongside fellow horror movie killers Jason Voorhees , Ghostface , Freddy Krueger , Pinhead , and Leatherface . Myers is evicted from the house , and takes off his mask to reveal himself to be the comedian Mike Myers , and utters his Austin Powers catchphrase , " I feel randy , baby , yeah ! " He then proceeds to kill the host . Michael appeared on 25 April 2008 episode of Ghost Whisperer , starring Jennifer Love Hewitt , titled " Horror Show " . Here , a spirit communicates with Hewitt 's character by placing her in scenes from the deceased 's favorite horror movies , and one of the scenes involved Michael Myers . The Cold Case episode " Bad Night " has the main characters reopening a 1978 murder case after new evidence indicates the victim was not killed by a mentally disturbed man who , after seeing Halloween in theatres , went on a killing spree dressed as Michael . Michael Myers makes a cameo appearance in Rob Zombie 's The Haunted World of El Superbeasto , released on 22 September 2009 . Michael Myers also makes an appearance in the DLC pack for the video game Call of Duty : Ghosts , Onslaught , as a playable character .
In one of the various merchandises to feature the character , Michael Myers made his video game debut with the 1983 Atari video game Halloween . The game is rare to find , often being played on emulators . No characters from the films are specifically named , with the goal of the game focusing on the player , who is a babysitter , protecting children from a " homicidal maniac [ who ] has escaped from a mental institution " . Michael was one of several horror icons to be included in the 2009 version of Universal Studios Hollywood 's Halloween Horror Nights event , as a part of a maze entitled Halloween : The Life and Crimes of Michael Myers . Pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Michael Myers out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his " Totally Sweet " series in 2013 .
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= Hurricane Henri ( 1979 ) =
Hurricane Henri was a rare tropical cyclone that entered the Gulf of Mexico without having made landfall ; it was the second of four times this occurred during the 20th century . The eighth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed on September 14 in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Throughout much of its duration , Henri moved erratically and initially maintained a general westward track . On September 16 it attained tropical storm status , and a day later it reached hurricane status . By two days later , after experiencing hostile conditions , Henri weakened to tropical depression status as it turned to the northeast , and on September 24 it merged with a frontal low in the northeast Gulf of Mexico . Due to its slow and erratic motion , the hurricane forced evacuations along the Mexican coastline . Its remnants brought rainfall and flooding to the Florida Panhandle .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Henri developed as Tropical Depression Eighteen in the extreme northwestern Caribbean Sea on September 14 from a tropical wave , which had previously moved off the coast of Africa . The formation of a tropical depression was confirmed by reports from Hurricane Hunters . The depression tracked northward , brushing the eastern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico it turned sharply westward , with a ridge preventing further northward movement . The depression turned southwestward , and intensified into Tropical Storm Henri on September 16 .
Tropical Storm Henri continued to intensify as it tracked through the Bay of Campeche . On September 17 , the storm turned northwestward after the ridge to its north weakened , and later that day Henri reached hurricane status ; six hours later , it reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about 150 miles ( 245 km ) northeast of Veracruz . Subsequently , a broad low pressure area developed over the western Gulf of Mexico , causing the motion of Henri to become erratic . On September 18 , the cyclone began a steady weakening trend , believed to have been caused by land interaction and the funneling of moisture toward a developing disturbance near the Texas coast . Henri turned eastward on September 19 and weakened to tropical depression status . It failed to regain significant convection , and it turned northeastward along an extended cold front . On September 24 , Henri merged with the frontal trough in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico .
Hurricane Henri was one of only four tropical cyclones to enter the Gulf of Mexico without making landfall during the 20th century . The others were Laurie of 1969 , Jeanne of 1980 , and Alberto of 1982 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although Henri did not affect land in any way as a hurricane , the developing system threatened several states along the southwestern coastline in Mexico . Mexican forecasting officials issued an advisory for the Gulf coast towns of Tampico in Tamaulipas , and Tuxpan and Nautla in Veracruz , to evacuate to higher ground . The government of Veracruz issued warnings on radio and television of possible flooding in oil @-@ rich coastlines . The storm affected cleanup operations of the Ixtoc I oil spill as it passed over the spill area , damaging a 310 @-@ ton steel cap designed to stop the blowout . Henri caused driving rains , strong winds , and floods in Ciudad del Carmen , Campeche , forcing over 2000 people from their homes . Waters swelled in the town to about 12 inches ( 305 mm ) above sea level . Maximum rainfall recorded in Mexico in association with Henri was 19 @.@ 59 inches ( 498 mm ) at Solosuchiapan .
The remnants of Henri brought showers and thunderstorms to west @-@ central Florida , causing river flooding and some evacuations .
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= Steve Bégin =
Joseph Denis Stéphan Bégin ( French pronunciation : [ stefɑ ̃ beʒɛ ̃ ] ) ; born June 14 , 1978 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in 13 National Hockey League ( NHL ) seasons . He was a second @-@ round selection of the Calgary Flames , 40th overall , in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft , and played with the Flames , Montreal Canadiens , Dallas Stars , Boston Bruins and Nashville Predators in his NHL career . After missing a full season due to injury , Bégin made a successful comeback by rejoining the Flames in 2012 – 13 before another injury forced his retirement .
Bégin played junior hockey in Quebec with the Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs where he was a member of their Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) championship winning team in 1998 . He also led the Saint John Flames to the American Hockey League ( AHL ) ' s Calder Cup championship in 2001 and won the Jack A. Butterfield Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs . Bégin adopted a role as a defensive specialist and grinder in an NHL career where he has played over 500 games .
= = Personal life = =
A native of Trois @-@ Rivières , Quebec , Bégin grew up in a single parent household , raised by his father Gilles on a welfare income . Gilles worked as a landscaper , while Steve often helped his father at work until he was 18 years old .
Introduced to hockey by family friends , Bégin began playing at age six and was an offensively minded player in his minor hockey years . He wore second @-@ hand equipment as his father struggled to pay the costs of hockey , but from a young age expressed his confidence he would make it to the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Bégin moved to Val @-@ d 'Or , Quebec to play junior hockey , where he met his wife , Amélie . The couple have two daughters and eventually settled in Montreal .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Bégin played three years for the Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) between 1995 and 1998 , where he scored 44 goals and recorded 117 points to go along with 520 penalty minutes in 157 games . The Calgary Flames selected him with their second round pick , 40th overall , in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft . Following the 1996 – 97 QMJHL season , the Flames assigned Bégin to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Saint John Flames , with whom he recorded two assists in four playoff games .
Bégin earned a spot with the Calgary Flames to begin the 1997 – 98 season . He made his NHL debut on October 1 , 1998 , against the Detroit Red Wings , and appeared in five games before he was returned to Val @-@ d 'Or for the remainder of the season on October 28 . The Foreurs went on to win the President 's Cup as QMJHL champions .
Bégin made his lone appearance with the Canadian national team that season , playing and serving as an alternate captain with the junior team at the 1998 World Junior Hockey Championship . He had no points and ten penalty minutes in seven games in what was an eighth place finish for Team Canada .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
After graduating from junior hockey , Bégin played his first full professional season with Saint John in 1998 – 99 . He had 20 points and 156 penalty minutes in 73 games , and scored his first professional goal on October 8 , 1998 , against the St. John 's Maple Leafs . Bégin spent the majority of the next two seasons in Saint John , but made sporadic appearances with Calgary . He appeared in 13 games with the Flames in 1999 – 2000 and scored his first NHL goal on February 12 , 2000 , on goaltender Sean Burke of the Phoenix Coyotes . He played in four NHL games in 2000 – 01 while enjoying the best statistical season of his professional career in Saint John , scoring 28 points in 58 games . In the playoffs , Bégin led Saint John to the Calder Cup championship . He scored 17 points in 19 games and was named the recipient of the Jack A. Butterfield Trophy as the most valuable player of the post @-@ season . His 17 points were fourth best in the AHL , and 10 goals were second .
Bégin played his first full NHL season in 2001 – 02 , appearing in 53 games for the Flames where he scored 7 goals and 12 points to go along with 79 penalty minutes . He had 4 goals and 4 assists in 50 games for Calgary in 2002 – 03 . He left Calgary in the offseason as he was part of a three team trade on July 3 , 2003 . Bégin was dealt to the Buffalo Sabres along with Chris Drury in exchange for Rhett Warrener and Steve Reinprecht , whom the Sabres acquired from the Colorado Avalanche to complete the deal .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
Bégin was promoted by Buffalo coach Lindy Ruff as a hard working , " blue collar " type player that Sabres fans would enjoy watching , but he never played a game with the Sabres . He was exposed to the waiver draft prior to the start of the 2003 – 04 NHL season and claimed by the Montreal Canadiens . He played an energy role for the Canadiens , and scored 10 goals for Montreal in 52 games .
After playing through injury in 2003 – 04 , Bégin underwent shoulder surgery that caused him to miss five months of playing time . When he returned to action , an ongoing labour dispute in the NHL led to his being assigned to the AHL 's Hamilton Bulldogs in February 2005 , with whom he was immediately counted upon to play a leadership role . Bégin returned to the Canadiens in 2005 – 06 and set career highs in goals ( 11 ) , points ( 23 ) and penalty minutes ( 113 ) . The Montreal media named him the recipient of the Jacques @-@ Beauchamp Molson Trophy , a team award given to a Canadiens ' player who played a " dominant role " with the team , without earning any other honours . Plagued by injuries , Bégin missed time due to rib and shoulder injuries . He appeared in only 52 games in 2006 – 07 and 44 games in 2007 – 08 and scored 18 points combined over the two seasons .
= = = Dallas , Boston and Nashville = = =
Bégin was increasingly left out of the Canadiens ' playing lineup in 2008 – 09 , and after being sat out of the lineup for five consecutive games , expressed a desire to be traded if the team had no use for his services . The Canadiens obliged , completing a deal on February 26 , 2009 , that sent him to the Dallas Stars in exchange for defenceman Doug Janik . Stars ' general manager Les Jackson promoted Bégin 's qualities as a checking @-@ line forward : " Steve is a gritty , honest player with a very strong work ethic . He 's good on the penalty kill and he is a competitor in every sense of the word . " Bégin had 12 points in 62 games combined between Montreal and Dallas .
Leaving Dallas following the season , Bégin signed a one @-@ year contract with the Boston Bruins for the 2009 – 10 season . He played in 77 games for Boston , the most of any single season in his career , and recorded 14 points . He scored his first career playoff goal , in his 30th post @-@ season game , against the Philadelphia Flyers . The Bruins opted not to re @-@ sign the 32 @-@ year @-@ old Bégin , due both to their salary cap constraints and a desire to build a younger lineup .
Without a contract , Bégin remained a free agent as the 2010 – 11 season began . He eventually signed a one @-@ year contract with the Nashville Predators on October 22 , 2010 , but was assigned to their AHL affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals . Bégin spent the majority of the season in Milwaukee and appeared in only two games with Nashville .
= = = Return to Calgary = = =
Plagued by a hip injury , Bégin was again left a free agent prior to the 2011 – 12 season . He signed a professional tryout offer with the Vancouver Canucks , but was released by the team during the pre @-@ season . Bob Hartley , coach of ZSC Lions in the Swiss National League A offered him a spot on their team . Though he had already scheduled surgery to repair his hip , Bégin was willing to put it off to play in Switzerland , but was convinced by Hartley to complete the procedure . His recovery prevented Bégin from playing anywhere during the season .
When Hartley took over as the Flames ' head coach prior to the 2012 – 13 NHL season , he offered Bégin a tryout in Calgary . Bégin 's work ethic during the team 's training camp prior to the lockout @-@ shortened season earned him a contract with the Flames , who believed he could serve as a penalty killer and energy player . Over two years since his last NHL game , Bégin returned to the league , and appeared in his 500th game on February 24 , 2013 , against the Coyotes . He appeared in 36 games for the Flames , scoring four goals and adding four assists . In recognition of his successful comeback , the Calgary chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association named him the Flames ' nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance .
Bégin was signed to a one @-@ year , AHL contract with the Abbotsford Heat for the 2013 – 14 season . He was unable to play due to another injury and , after doctors informed him that he would miss the entire season , Bégin announced his retirement on January 16 , 2014 .
= = Playing style = =
Bégin 's father taught his son that his best chance of making a career in hockey was as a defensive specialist and impressed on him the need for a strong work ethic . He was raised to follow role players like Mario Tremblay , Guy Carbonneau and Bob Gainey rather than stars such as Guy Lafleur or Wayne Gretzky . Bégin has played the majority of his career as a grinder , willing to play a physical game . His style often results in bruises and injuries , a part of the game he relishes . Speaking of his comeback with the Flames in 2013 , he noted : " What I missed the most was the pain of playing hockey . The pain from blocking shots , getting hit , hitting people ... I missed it a lot . " That attitude impressed his coaches ; Bob Hartley argued that players like Bégin are a valuable commodity : " Players with the commitment of Steve Begin , I really believe that there ’ s not enough ( of them ) in the NHL . I always admired the way that he played . I look at the spirit , the leadership . Pretty amazing what he ’ s done for us . "
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= No. 33 Squadron RAAF =
No. 33 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) strategic transport and air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling squadron . It operates Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports from RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The squadron was formed in February 1942 for service during World War II , operating Short Empire flying boats and a variety of smaller aircraft . By 1944 it had completely re @-@ equipped with Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakota transports , which it flew in New Guinea prior to disbanding in May 1946 .
The unit was re @-@ established in February 1981 as a flight , equipped with two Boeing 707s for VIP and other long @-@ range transport duties out of RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . No. 33 Flight was re @-@ formed as a full squadron in July 1983 . By 1988 it was operating six 707s , four of which were subsequently converted for aerial refuelling . The 707s saw active service during operations in Namibia , Somalia , the Persian Gulf , and Afghanistan . One of the transport jets was lost in a crash in October 1991 . No. 33 Squadron relocated to Amberley and was temporarily without aircraft following the retirement of the 707s in June 2008 . It began re @-@ equipping with KC @-@ 30As in June 2011 , and achieved initial operating capability with the type in February 2013 . One of its aircraft was deployed to the Middle East in September 2014 , as part of Australia 's contribution to the military coalition against ISIS .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 33 Squadron is responsible for aerial refuelling and long @-@ range transport . It is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 86 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . The unit headquarters comprises executive , administrative and operational components . As well as aircrew , the squadron is staffed by maintenance personnel responsible for regular aircraft service . Heavier maintenance is conducted by Northrop Grumman Integrated Defence Services ( formerly Qantas Defence Services ) .
The squadron operates five Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports , the first of which entered service in June 2011 . Two more are due for delivery in 2018 . The aircraft are crewed by pilots , refuelling operators and flight attendants . Air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling is considered a force multiplier , permitting the RAAF to increase the range and loiter time of its aircraft . The ability to refuel in flight also enables aircraft to take off with more ordnance than they might otherwise .
The KC @-@ 30 can carry up to 100 tonnes of fuel . Its dual delivery systems — probe @-@ and @-@ drogue in the wings and boom under the tail — are designed to refuel the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and Boeing F / A @-@ 18 Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters , Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy airlifters , Boeing E @-@ 7 Wedgetail early warning aircraft , or other KC @-@ 30s . The tanker is also capable of refuelling future acquisitions including the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35A Lightning II stealth fighter , the Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growler electronic warfare aircraft , and the Boeing P @-@ 8A Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft . In its transport configuration , the KC @-@ 30 can carry 270 passengers or 40 tonnes of cargo . As well as its aircraft , No. 33 Squadron operates a KC @-@ 30 simulator at Amberley .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
During February and March 1942 , the RAAF formed four transport units : Nos. 33 , 34 , 35 and 36 Squadrons . No. 33 Squadron was established on 16 February at Townsville , Queensland , under the control of North @-@ Eastern Area Command . It was equipped with four ex @-@ Qantas Short Empire flying boats transferred from No. 11 Squadron , along with several smaller types including de Havilland Dragons and Tiger Moths , Avro Ansons , and Vultee Vigilants . Less than two weeks later the squadron suffered its first loss when one of the Empires crashed on landing at Townsville ; the six crew members were killed . A second Empire was destroyed at its mooring during a Japanese air attack on Broome , Western Australia , on 3 March ; another Empire was impressed from Qantas to replace the lost aircraft . One of the squadron 's tasks was search @-@ and @-@ rescue ; it lost another Empire on 8 August 1942 after it sank in heavy seas off the coast of New Guinea while trying to rescue survivors of a torpedoed ship .
No. 33 Squadron transferred to Port Moresby in January 1943 , providing air transport to Australian forces involved in the New Guinea campaign . Transport needs were so desperate in New Guinea that even the Tiger Moths were employed , delivering a total of 77 kilograms ( 170 lb ) per trip . In September – October 1943 , the squadron began taking delivery of fifteen Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas to replace its assortment of aircraft . By the time it transferred to Milne Bay on 1 January 1944 , it was operating Dakotas exclusively , and continued to do so for the rest of the war . The squadron relocated to Lae on 15 January 1945 . Following the end of hostilities in August 1945 , it was tasked with repatriating service personnel and former prisoners of war . No. 33 Squadron returned to Townsville on 11 March 1946 , and disbanded there on 13 May .
= = = Post @-@ war re @-@ establishment = = =
In 1978 , the Australian government decided to purchase two passenger jets for strategic transport , primarily to mitigate what it saw as the risk of terrorist attack inherent in carrying VIPs on commercial flights . Its attempts to procure one Boeing 727 each from domestic carriers Ansett and TAA were unsuccessful but , in December , Qantas agreed to sell the government two Boeing 707s for $ 14 @.@ 5 million . Purchasing big jets for VIPs was controversial , but the 707s were also intended for general long @-@ range transport , being capable of carrying cargo or up to 160 passengers . The first was transferred to the RAAF in March 1979 , and its inaugural Air Force flight took place on 22 April . Located at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , the 707s were initially operated by No. 37 Squadron . They were formed into No. 33 Flight under the command of Wing Commander J.D. Grierson on 2 February 1981 . The flight 's first mission took place the same day , when it ferried RAAF members and their families to RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaysia , a task that had previously necessitated a Qantas charter .
On 1 July 1983 , after the government procured two more 707s for $ 7 @.@ 5 million from Worldways Canada , No. 33 Flight was reorganised as No. 33 Squadron under Grierson 's command . Responsible for transporting VIPs such as members of the British Royal Family , the Governor @-@ General , the Prime Minister , and the Pope , the 707 also became the first RAAF aircraft to land in the Soviet Union , the occasion being the funeral of Konstantin Chernenko in 1985 . Along with Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons , operating Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules , No. 33 Squadron came under the control of No. 86 Wing , part of the newly established Air Lift Group ( later Air Mobility Group ) , in February 1987 . Routine servicing of the 707s and Hercules was the responsibility of No. 486 Squadron , another component of No. 86 Wing . Qantas undertook heavier maintenance of the 707s at its jet base in Mascot . The RAAF acquired three more 707s on 25 February 1988 , following a $ 25 million purchase from Boeing Military . One of the airframes was non @-@ flying , for spares only , and was nicknamed " Hulksbury " .
A consortium of Israel Aerospace Industries and Hawker de Havilland converted four of No. 33 Squadron 's six serviceable aircraft to in @-@ flight refuelling tankers between December 1988 and May 1992 . Their probe @-@ and @-@ drogue configuration allowed them to refuel the RAAF 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornets and the Royal New Zealand Air Force 's Douglas A @-@ 4K Skyhawks , but not the RAAF 's General Dynamics F @-@ 111 bombers , which required a boom system ; the other two 707s continued to be used purely for long @-@ range transport . The RAAF had argued for an air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling capability for both the F / A @-@ 18s and the F @-@ 111s , but the Australian government refused to fund the latter , considering the F @-@ 111 's existing range sufficient for deterrent purposes . Observers such as journalist Frank Cranston speculated that aside from any cost issues , the government was concerned that extending the bombers ' range would signal to the region that Australia was adopting a more aggressive defence posture .
In April 1989 , one of the 707s transported 300 Australian Army personnel in two flights to Namibia as part of the Australian contribution to UNTAG , the United Nations Transition Assistance Group policing the country 's transition to independence . Later that year , the squadron helped ferry members of the Australian public when the two domestic airlines were grounded during an industrial dispute ; it was similarly employed in 1991 following the demise of Compass Airlines . On 29 October 1991 , one of the transport @-@ configured 707s crashed into the sea during a training flight out of East Sale , Victoria ; all five crew members were killed . The coronial inquest into this accident found that training in the asymmetric handling manoeuvre that caused the crash was deficient , and that the RAAF lacked a proper understanding of the handling characteristics of its 707s . No. 33 Squadron transported Australian troops to and from Somalia as part of Operation Solace in 1993 .
In January 1998 , still based at Richmond , No. 33 Squadron joined Nos. 32 and 34 Squadrons under No. 84 Wing . Two of No. 33 Squadron 's aircraft were soon employed to form No. 84 Wing Detachment A in Kuwait , as part of Operation Southern Watch . On 5 March , one of the 707s undertook the first operational aerial tanker mission since the squadron 's re @-@ formation in 1983 , when it refuelled six Panavia Tornados of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) over Saudi Arabia . The detachment subsequently refuelled US F / A @-@ 18 Hornets , Northrop Grumman EA @-@ 6 Prowlers and McDonnell Douglas AV @-@ 8 Harriers , and RAF British Aerospace Harriers , as well as the Tornados . From March to September 2002 , two 707s formed No. 84 Wing Detachment as part of Australia 's contribution to the war in Afghanistan . Located at Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan , the 707s provided aerial refuelling to coalition aircraft operating in the theatre , their efforts earning No. 84 Wing a Meritorious Unit Citation .
= = = Re @-@ equipment = = =
By the mid @-@ 1990s , the ageing 707s carrying Australian VIPs overseas were no longer compliant with foreign noise and emission regulations . No. 33 Squadron relinquished its VIP transport role in 2002 , following the entry into service of No. 34 Squadron 's Boeing 737 Business Jets and Bombardier Challenger 604s . The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup in May 2007 , " in recognition of its high levels of proficiency demonstrated over the year " in spite of the challenges of operating the obsolescent 707s , and for having " performed superbly on a number of high @-@ profile missions " . The 707s were retired in 2008 , bringing to an end the 29 @-@ year operational history of the type in the RAAF . The last one in service , an ex @-@ Qantas jet named " Richmond Town " , made a low @-@ level farewell flight over Sydney on 30 June in the company of smaller aircraft filming the occasion , which gave rise to fear in some quarters that a 9 / 11 @-@ style terrorist attack was in progress . Three 707s remained at Richmond until 2011 , when they were flown out by their new operator , the US @-@ based Omega Air Services ; Omega also procured the RAAF 's Boeing simulator , which had been operated by No. 285 Squadron .
Following the retirement of the Boeing 707 , No. 33 Squadron relocated to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , on 1 July 2008 . It was presented with a Squadron Standard by Queensland Governor Penelope Wensley on 2 June 2010 , to commemorate " 25 years of faithful and outstanding service " . Having been without aircraft for three years , the squadron began re @-@ equipping with the first of five Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports on 1 June 2011 . The KC @-@ 30 could carry one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times as much fuel as the 707 and was configured with both probe @-@ and @-@ drogue and boom delivery systems . These aircraft had originally been scheduled to enter service late in 2008 , and the RAAF had to lease tankers from the United States Air Force and Omega Air to meet its aerial refuelling needs while Airbus rectified problems with the boom system and completed essential technical documentation . In March 2012 , one of the KC @-@ 30s set a record for the number of passengers carried on an RAAF aircraft , 220 cadets from the Australian Defence Force Academy .
The squadron received its fifth KC @-@ 30 on 3 December 2012 , and achieved initial operating capability in February 2013 . It expected to reach final operating capability , with both boom and probe @-@ and @-@ drogue delivery systems , in 2014 . On 14 September that year , the Federal government committed to deploying one of the squadron 's KC @-@ 30s to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates , as part of a coalition to combat Islamic State forces in Iraq . The aircraft was only cleared for operations with the probe @-@ and @-@ drogue system , as by this stage the boom system was not ready . The KC @-@ 30 began flying missions in Iraq on 1 October 2014 . The first successful contact using the boom system ( in concert with another RAAF KC @-@ 30 ) took place near Amberley on 13 May 2015 . In July , the Federal government announced the purchase of two more KC @-@ 30s for delivery in 2018 , taking No. 33 Squadron 's fleet to seven aircraft ; the airframes were to be ex @-@ Qantas A330 @-@ 200 passenger liners , converted by Airbus Defence and Space at Getafe , near Madrid . The KC @-@ 30 deployed to Iraq undertook the first operational use of the boom system in late October 2015 , refuelling an RAAF E @-@ 7 Wedgetail . In March 2016 , No. 33 Squadron was awarded the Duke of Gloucester Cup as the RAAF 's most proficient squadron of the previous year , as well as the RAAF Maintenance Trophy .
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= Fix You =
" Fix You " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written by all four members of the band for their third studio album , X & Y ( 2005 ) . The track is built around an organ accompanied by slow tempo drums and vocals .
It was released on 5 September 2005 as the second single from X & Y and has reached number four on the UK Singles Chart . The song reached number 18 in the United States Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks . Promo singles were released for the UK and US . Blythe Danner , the mother of Gwyneth Paltrow and former mother @-@ in @-@ law of Chris Martin , stated in an interview in May 2012 that Martin ' wrote the song for Gwyneth when her father died and I weep every time I hear it ' .
" Fix You " was critically acclaimed by music critics . It has been widely sampled , with different covers and sounds . The song was nominated for multiple awards in the categories of Best Song Musically and Lyrically and Anthem of the Summer . The music video was garnered as a tribute to the 7 July 2005 London bombings . The guitar solo of " Fix You " is currently used as the player introduction at all of the National Hockey League 's Montreal Canadiens ' home games , during the three stars of the game selection after every Los Angeles Kings home win , and was played at Staples Center as the Stanley Cup was brought on the ice after the Kings ' victory in the 2014 Stanley Cup Final . The song is also used for the 2015 – 16 New York Islanders inaugural season in Barclays Center .
The song was played live at the Steve Jobs memorial / celebration @-@ of @-@ life event at Apple headquarters on 19 October 2011 in Cupertino , California .
= = Background = =
When writing the song , vocalist Chris Martin originally intended to use a church @-@ style organ for the track . Unable to gain access to the instrument , Martin instead used an old keyboard that his late father @-@ in @-@ law , Bruce Paltrow , gave to his daughter Gwyneth . However , in other instances Martin has claimed that " Fix You " is influenced by English alternative rock band Elbow 's 2003 anthem " Grace Under Pressure " .
When asked about the development of the song , Martin said : " My father @-@ in @-@ law Bruce Paltrow bought this big keyboard just before he died . No one had ever plugged it in . I plugged it in , and there was this incredible sound I 'd never heard before . All these songs poured out from this one sound . Something has to inspire you , and something else takes over . It 's very cloudy . " Martin also noted that the song is " probably the most important song we 've ever written " .
During a track @-@ by @-@ track reveal , bassist Guy Berryman admitted that the song takes " a bit of inspiration " from Jimmy Cliff 's 1969 song " Many Rivers to Cross " . Berryman also added , " It becomes its own thing , kind of like points of inspiration that kind of lead you down certain paths . Whenever you want to write a song like someone else , it ultimately ends up sounding like something different anyway . "
While studying at University College London the band lived in Ramsay Hall , reminiscing on the experience they said that the lyric " lights will guide you home " comes from living next to the BT Tower , a notable landmark in London which they would follow coming back from nights out .
= = Composition = =
The song , which is written in the key of E @-@ flat major , features an organ and piano sound . The song starts with a hushed electric organ ballad , including Martin 's falsetto . The song then builds with both acoustic guitar and piano . The sound then shifts with a plaintive three @-@ note guitar line , ringing through a rhythmic upbeat tempo . Subtle instrumentation includes the background sound of church @-@ style organ throughout. piano notes , acoustic and electric guitar riffs , drums , and a singalong chorus .
The message throughout the song , in which Martin sings , is words of encouragement : " Lights will guide you home / And ignite your bones / And I will try to fix you . " Michele Hatty of USA Weekend reported that Martin sings about recovering from grief in the song . Travis Gass of the Bangor Daily News wrote that Martin offers his sympathies for the downtrodden , with " When you love someone but it goes to waste / Could it be worse ? " . Gass goes on to interpret that the " booming drums " and chorus is that of Queen 's 1975 song " Bohemian Rhapsody " .
= = Release = =
Coldplay released " Fix You " in the UK and US on 5 September 2005 as the second single of their third album . The single was pressed with two B @-@ side 's : " The World Turned Upside Down " and " Pour Me " . On 14 September 2005 , the band released the Fix You EP in the iTunes Store . In response to Hurricane Katrina , all of the sales went to the American Red Cross Hurricane 2005 Relief and the National Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences ' MusiCares Hurricane Relief Fund . Promotional singles were released in the UK and US .
The track peaked at number four in the UK Singles Chart on 17 September 2005 . As of 30 July 2011 , the song had spent 122 weeks on that chart . It peaked at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 18 on the Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks . The song also charted on the Billboard Pop 100 and Hot Digital Songs . The single appeared in Australia 's Singles Chart in the number four position on 18 September 2005 , after retiring in the 58 spot . It also appeared at number eight on the Irish Singles Chart and spent seven consecutive weeks on the chart . On 14 November 2010 , the song re @-@ entered the Australian singles chart at number 37 .
In 2009 , the song also appeared on Coldplay 's live album , LeftRightLeftRightLeft .
= = Reception = =
The song received widespread acclaim from music critics . In the Rolling Stone review of the album , critic Kelefa Sanneh wrote : " One of the best is ' Fix You ' , an unabashedly sentimental song where Martin delivers words of encouragement in a gentle falsetto [ ... ] Proving once more that no band can deliver a stately rock ballad like this one . " Paul McNamee of NME magazine wrote : " It ’ s a wonderful song that shifts from simple stark piano and voice to a ringing , clattering burst of intent and proto @-@ prog four @-@ part harmony . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters in his review of the album , noted the song as the " best ballad " off X & Y. In 2005 , the song appeared at number two on Q magazine 's " 100 Greatest Tracks of the Year " , and was listed as one of the " Tracks of the Year " by NME in 2005 .
In 2005 , Coldplay performed the song live on Saturday Night Live and the Live 8 event in July . " Fix You " was also played on Shelter from the Storm . It has also become a tribute song for the victims and eventually became the anthem for the event . The song was featured in an episode of the American teen drama television series The O.C. , and then in Without a Trace , Cold Case and Brothers & Sisters . The half part of the song was played over the trailer for the 2006 film World Trade Center . It was also featured in the 2006 movie You , Me and Dupree . The track was nominated for an Ivor Novello Award in the category of Best Song musically and lyrically . The song was also nominated for an UK Festival Award in the category of Anthem of the Summer . On 14 March 2009 , the band performed a rendition of the song at the relief concert , Sound Relief , in Sydney , Australia . On 19 October 2011 , the band played the song at the " Celebrating Steve " event for Apple employees over a global media stream to all the Apple Stores . This event was also available for Apple customers via the company website .
The song appears in The Acoustic Album ( 2006 ) . It was performed in 2006 by the New England octogenarian chorus group Young @ Heart . The group 's performance was led by former chorus member Fred Knittle , who suffered from congestive heart failure and breathed with assistance from an oxygen tank . The performance was originally planned to be a duet between Knittle and Bob Salvini , another former chorus member , but Salvini died shortly before the show . Knittle performed it as a solo , as a tribute to his friend . The performance was initially recorded for a British documentary that aired on Channel 4 ; footage of the performance was uploaded to YouTube in November 2006 to positive response . An expanded version of the film , titled Young @ Heart , debuted at the 2007 Los Angeles Film Festival and was released in US theatres in 2008 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Fix You " was directed by Sophie Muller , who had previously worked with the band for their 2002 video " In My Place " . The video was filmed at the end of two concerts on 4 and 5 July 2005 at the Reebok Stadium in Bolton , England . The concert goers doubled as extras for the video shoot , which required two takes on each day to complete .
In the first half of the video the band 's lead singer , Chris Martin , wanders the streets of London starting at Tooley Street under London Bridge Station , while the slogan " Make Trade Fair " is projected onto the Royal National Theatre , using the same ITA2 colour scheme on the cover of X & Y. The tunnels that Martin is seen wandering within are located both in and around London St Pancras and King 's Cross railway stations , and the filming for the video took place during the time of the redevelopment and expansion of London St Pancras International . Martin is then seen walking across Waterloo Bridge , which crosses the River Thames , connecting the Southbank with The Strand . As soon as the electric guitar kicks in , Martin 's walk turns into a run as he darts through streets of London , until very quickly reaching the side of the stage at the Reebok Stadium in Bolton , where he joins the rest of the band for the song 's finale . The audience sings along with the song 's final refrain , and at the end of the video Martin thanks them for their support and wishes them goodnight .
The video debuted on 1 August 2005 . The music video was nominated at the 15th annual Music Video Production Association Awards in the category of Adult Contemporary . After its release , the music video was repurposed as a tribute to the victims of the 7 July 2005 London bombings , although it was filmed before they occurred .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Cover versions = = =
On 21 June 2011 , The Voice contestant and eventual winner Javier Colon sang the song during the semi @-@ finals of season 1 of the show . The studio version of the song was also released the following day as a download .
On the NBC show The Sing @-@ Off runners @-@ up Street Corner Symphony performed the song on the Season 2 finale .
The song also gets covered by Secondhand Serenade using only guitar riffs during the first half of the cover .
On 31 July 2011 , at " The Black Star Tour " live in Rio de Janeiro , the Canadian singer Avril Lavigne sang the song .
The song was covered on 4 October 2011 episode of Glee entitled " Asian F " , and is sung by Matthew Morrison and the Glee cast .
On The X Factor UK , Janet Devlin covered this song on the first Live Show on 8 October 2011 .
Ronan Parke covered this song on his debut album Ronan Parke .
On The X Factor US , Drew Ryniewicz covered this song on the third Live Show on 9 November 2011 . On the Thanksgiving episode of the second season , the top 10 performed this song .
Kelly Clarkson covered this song on one of her shows during her Stronger Tour .
Straight No Chaser covered this song on their album With a Twist .
On 19 January 2011 , Rianne Selwyn sang an orchestral , female version to this song .
YouTube cover artists Boyce Avenue and Tyler Ward collaborated to cover this song on Boyce Avenue 's album Cover Collaborations , Vol . 2 .
Alternative rock band Secondhand Serenade produced a secondary creation of the song in their album A Twist in My Story .
Country artist Carrie Underwood performed the song on her Blown Away Tour .
Marit Larsen performed the song at a session for Radio Hamburg on December 2011 .
Charlie Lubeck performed this song as a last chance performance on the second season of The Glee Project .
On 13 August 2012 , Yellowcard released a cover as a bonus track on their album Southern Air .
Country group Little Big Town performed a cover for the American Red Cross : Music Builds disaster relief effort .
Gabrielle Aplin covered the song during a session at BBC 's Maida Vale studio .
Alexandra Burke covered the song for her second EP , # NewRules .
Red Hot Chilli Pipers covered the song , and also performed the song live at HebCelt Fest 2013 .
Gregorian and Amelia Brightman performed the song live on their Dark Side of the Chant tour in 2011 .
Naturally 7 covered the song on their album Hidden In Plain Sight in 2015 .
On November 24 , 2014 , The Voice contestant Matt McAndrew covered it during the top10 week .
In December 2015 the song was used , alongside " Bridge over Troubled Water " , in the UK charity Christmas No 1 mashup song " A Bridge Over You " , by the choir of the Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust , selling more than 127 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Media = = =
The song has been used on the final sequences of the episode " I 'll Try To Fix You " of the 2012 HBO 's television series The Newsroom , as well as an episode of Scrubs , and the final scene of the episode " Cargo " of the CBS series Cold Case . The song also briefly featured in the Australian family drama Packed to the Rafters . In 2013 " Fix You " was used in the final episode of the first season of British public television Channel 4 's comedy @-@ drama Derek . " Fix You " was played during an episode of Brothers & Sisters .
On an episode of the BBC comedy game show Never Mind the Buzzcocks , the Coldplay song " Violet Hill " was used in a segment , and when regular panelist Noel Fielding said that he " genuinely hated Coldplay , " host David Tennant then played a snippet of " Fix You " and mouthed the line " And I will try ... to fix you . " Comedian Catherine Tate also finished the lyrics of the chorus correctly in a different segment of the same episode . The song was also played at the wedding of the Swedish prince Carl Philip and Sofia Hellqvist on the 13th of June 2015 , performed by Salem al Fakir . " Fix You " was also used in the 2006 film , You , Me , and Dupree .
American ice dance team Maia Shibutani and Alex Shibutani used the song for their free dance in the 2015 @-@ 2016 season .
= = Track listing = =
" Fix You " ( edit ) – 4 : 37
" The World Turned Upside Down " – 4 : 32
" Pour Me " ( Live at the Hollywood Bowl ) – 5 : 01 ( featured on the UK Enhanced CD , Australian , and US iTunes EP versions )
" Fix You " ( video ) ( featured on the UK Enhanced CD )
= = Personnel = =
Chris Martin – lead vocals , organ , piano , acoustic guitar
Jonny Buckland – electric guitar , backing vocals
Guy Berryman – bass guitar , backing vocals
Will Champion – drums , backing vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= M @-@ 227 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 227 is a 6 @.@ 834 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 998 km ) north – south state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . It consists largely of a segment of old U.S. Highway 27 ( US 27 ) along the south and west sides of Marshall . The highway passes the airport and serves an industrial section of town north of the Kalamazoo River . M @-@ 227 was created as a part of a program to add additional routes into the state 's highway system under the leadership of Governor John Engler .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 227 starts at a diamond interchange with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) at exit 32 between Tekonsha and Marshall . From I @-@ 69 , M @-@ 227 runs east on F Drive South north of Pine and Long lakes for approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The highway runs through agricultural land and turns north to follow Old US 27 / 17 Mile Road . At Division Drive , M @-@ 227 passes into Marshall on Kalamazoo Avenue . The highway runs past the Brooks Field airport and the Alwin Downs Golf Course . Kalamazoo Avenue crosses the Kalamazoo River , and M @-@ 227 turns west along Industrial Road . This section of town is an industrial park , and M @-@ 227 curves north onto West Drive , crossing the Norfolk Southern Railroad . The northern terminus is BL I @-@ 94 ( Michigan Avenue ) on the west side of Marshall , near I @-@ 69 . It lies only within Calhoun County and is entirely an undivided surface route .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 227 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 8 @.@ 408 vehicles used the highway daily in Marshall south of Industrial Dive and 1 @,@ 862 vehicles did so each day along F Drive , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 227 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Before the completion of I @-@ 69 near Marshall in late 1967 , US 27 followed 17 Mile Road and Kalamazoo Avenue into Marshall . That routing was turned back to local control after the completion of I @-@ 69 to I @-@ 94 . M @-@ 227 came into existence nearly 35 years after the completion of I @-@ 69 in southern Michigan and , except for the section of old US 27 , was long a collection of unnumbered local surface roads . It was designated as a part of Governor John Engler 's Rationalization program on October 1 , 1998 and first signed in 2001 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Calhoun County .
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= George Went Hensley =
George Went Hensley ( May 2 , 1881 – July 25 , 1955 ) was an American Pentecostal minister best known for popularizing the practice of snake handling . A native of rural Appalachia , Hensley experienced a religious conversion around 1910 : on the basis of his interpretation of scripture , he came to believe that the New Testament commanded all Christians to handle venomous snakes .
Hensley was part of a large family that had moved between Tennessee and Virginia , before settling in Tennessee shortly after his birth . Following his conversion , he traveled through the Southeastern United States , teaching a form of Pentecostalism that emphasized strict personal holiness and frequent contact with venomous snakes . Although illiterate , he became a licensed minister of the Church of God ( Cleveland , Tennessee ) in 1915 . After traveling through Tennessee for several years conducting Church of God @-@ sanctioned services , he resigned from the denomination in 1922 . Hensley was married four times and fathered thirteen children . He had many conflicts with his family members because of his drunkenness , frequent travels , and inability to earn steady income , factors cited by his first three wives as reasons for their divorces .
Hensley was arrested in Tennessee on moonshine @-@ related charges during the Prohibition era and sentenced to a term in a workhouse , from which he escaped and fled the state . Hensley traveled to Ohio , where he held revival services , though he and his family rarely stayed long in one location . He established churches , known as the Church of God with Signs Following , in Tennessee and Kentucky . His services ranged from small meetings held in houses to large gatherings that drew media attention and hundreds of attendees . Although he conducted many services , he made little money , and he was arrested for violating laws against snake handling at least twice . During his ministry , Hensley claimed to have been bitten by many snakes without ill effect , and toward the end of his career , he estimated that he had survived more than 400 bites . In 1955 , while conducting a service in Florida , he was bitten by a snake and became violently ill . He refused to seek medical attention and died the following day . Despite his personal failings , he convinced many residents of rural Appalachia that snake handling was commanded by God , and his followers continued the practice after his death . Although snake handling developed independently in several Pentecostal ministries , Hensley is generally credited with spreading the custom in the Southeastern United States .
= = Early life = =
Hensley told his children he was from West Virginia and that his family 's roots were in Pennsylvania . In reality , his family lived in Hawkins County , East Tennessee , in 1880 , the year historian David Kimbrough argues Hensley was born . One of 13 children , Hensley lived in Tennessee in Hawkins County and Loudon County in the 1880s . His family lived in Big Stone Gap , Virginia , in the 1890s , and there he witnessed an elderly woman handle a snake during a revival service at a coal mining camp . His mother and sisters were very religious , and he was reared a Baptist .
Hensley left the Baptist church in 1901 , the year he married Amanda Winniger . The couple moved to her brother 's 400 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) farm in Ooltewah , where they lived in a shack . Hensley worked in local ore mines , helped in his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's lumber business , and was involved in making moonshine , a common practice in the region . Hensley experienced a conversion while attending a Holiness Pentecostal Church of God service in Ooltewah , led by an evangelist 's teenage son . He forsook alcohol , tobacco , and friendships with those he deemed " worldly " .
= = Ministry = =
Hensley was initially content following his experience at the Church of God , but he began to question whether he was living a sufficiently righteous life . He became fixated on a passage in the Gospel of Mark ( Mark 16 : 17 – 18 , KJV : " And these signs shall follow them that believe ; In my name ... They shall take up serpents " which suggested that Christians might take up " serpents " without injury . Psychologists Ralph W. Hood and W. Paul Williamson , as well as one of Hensley 's children , have proposed that his preoccupation with this verse arose from a childhood memory of witnessing snake handling in Virginia . Hensley later recalled that he began to doubt his salvation and withdrew to a nearby hill to pray and seek God 's will . In a 1947 newspaper interview , he claimed to have seen a snake while walking on the hill . He said that he knelt in prayer , took hold of it , then brought it to his church and told the congregation to also prove their salvation by holding the snake .
Hensley 's first experience with snake handling occurred between 1908 and 1914 , after which he held snake @-@ handling services in parts of rural Tennessee . His supporters later asserted that a revival broke out at the start of his ministry , a claim considered dubious by historians . At first , the Church of God did not object to his snake @-@ handling services , and , in 1914 , he held a snake @-@ handling meeting with a Church of God bishop in Cleveland , Tennessee . The next year , Hensley applied to be licensed as a Church of God minister , but required his wife 's assistance to complete the paperwork owing to his illiteracy . He had memorized some Bible verses but also stated that he received divine revelation while speaking . After being licensed , Hensley held Church of God services throughout Tennessee , including revival services at church general assemblies . He preached about the Baptism of the Holy Spirit , a Pentecostal teaching that referred to an additional spiritual experience after conversion . His ministry was often mentioned in Church of God newsletters , and his wife Amanda contributed an article about him . In the 1910s , Hensley is thought to have led churches in Grasshopper Valley ( northwest of Cleveland , Tennessee ) ; Cleveland ; and Birchwood , Tennessee .
Hensley was short , normally soft @-@ spoken , and friendly with churchgoers . Most attendees at his services were miners or farmers from the Appalachian Mountains ; congregants typically arrived at services on horseback or in a Ford Model A. Many were from Holiness Pentecostal backgrounds , but unfamiliar with the snake @-@ handling practice . Hensley 's sister Bertha , who lived in Ohio , was also a licensed minister with the Church of God . In 1922 , he conducted services with her in Ohio . Around that time , more articles documenting his ministry were published in the denomination 's newsletter , and by the early 1920s snakes were regularly handled in Church of God services .
= = = Resignation and return to ministry = = =
In 1922 , Hensley resigned from the Church of God , citing " trouble in the home " . His resignation marked the zenith of the practice of snake handling in the denomination . He separated from Amanda around this time , possibly owing to his temper or drunkenness . Arrested on moonshine @-@ related charges in 1923 , he was sentenced to four months in jail and fined $ 100 . ( This occurred during the Prohibition Era , when alcohol production and consumption were illegal in the U.S. ) In lieu of jail time , he was permitted to serve the sentence at the Silverdale workhouse . He was initially placed on a chain gang constructing roads , but the guards found him likable and gave him other assignments . After being sent to a nearby well for water , Hensley fled and evaded recapture , possibly by hiding in the mountains near his sister 's farm in Ooltewah . While a fugitive , he may have been arrested and released on unrelated charges . He ultimately fled Tennessee to his sister 's house in Ohio .
After arriving in Ohio , Hensley returned to his personal ministry and held services in the area . Because he was illiterate , Bertha would read passages from the Bible during services , after which Hensley would deliver a sermon on a theme drawn from the verses . He also frequently preached on the topic of faith healing during this period . He remained in Ohio for several years , divorcing Amanda in 1926 .
While ministering at a Salvation Army church in Ohio in 1926 , Hensley met Irene Klunzinger . He married her in 1927 , although he was about 25 years her senior . After the wedding , they moved to Washingtonville , Ohio , near one of Hensley 's brothers . There Hensley found employment at a coal mine and Irene gave birth to their first child . They later moved to nearby Malvern , Ohio , where she bore their second child .
In 1932 , Hensley and his family moved to Pineville , Kentucky , after a religious layman , who had seen Hensley handle snakes in Chattanooga , entreated him to come to the area . He returned to ministry and built the Pineville Church of God . Hensley established the church himself and characterized it as a " free Pentecostal " church . He continued to move frequently , a practice which Thomas Burton of East Tennessee State University attributes to " wanderlust " . In July 1935 , Irene gave birth to a child in Pennington Gap , Virginia , and a month later , they were living in St. Charles , Virginia , while Hensley performed snake @-@ handling services in the area . He successfully drew crowds to his preaching . In Norton , Virginia , 500 people attended an event , although that service was thrown into disarray after a boy in the audience killed one of the snakes . In 1936 , Hensley built a house on the back of a trailer truck and drove to Florida to hold revival services . By March 1936 , he had reached Tampa , Florida , where he drew over 100 people to a snake @-@ handling service . He traveled to Bartow , Florida , where over 700 people attended one of his tent meetings . He subsequently ministered in Bloomingdale , Florida , before traveling north to Barrow County , Georgia , in late April . During a service in Barrow , a young agricultural worker was bitten by a snake and became ill . Hensley spoke to reporters and claimed that the man was bitten because he was " not quite ready for the demonstrations of the power " . He predicted that the young man would miraculously recover , but the man died . This was the first death by snakebite to occur at one of Hensley 's services . He conducted the man 's funeral and left the area for fear of prosecution . His conduct was condemned by a local newspaper .
Hensley traveled to Ohio to bring one of his sons to live with a sister of Irene while attending school . Hensley then returned to Pineville , where he worked as a railroad conductor and pastored the East Pineville Church of God . He was arrested for handling snakes and moved to Knoxville , Tennessee , in 1939 . He subsequently bought a farm near Knoxville .
= = = Ministry in Tennessee and final years = = =
Hensley lived in Tennessee until at least late 1941 . He then moved to Evansville , Indiana , after separating from Irene . After a brief stay in Pineville , Hensley returned to Ooltewah in 1943 . There he stayed with family members and held religious services . Snake handling had lost popularity since the late 1920s and groups that promoted nontrinitarianism had become popular . Various churches in the area barred those who practiced snake handling from membership .
In 1943 , Raymond Hayes , a young adherent of Hensley 's teachings , arrived in the Ooltewah area and began successfully preaching about snake handling . Hensley and Hayes started a church together in 1945 , which they named the " Dolly Pond Church of God with Signs Following " . Later in 1945 , a member of the church was bitten by a snake and died . The members of the church continued to handle snakes at services , including at the funeral of the man who died from snakebite . The man 's death was viewed as ordained by God to test the faith of the congregants , and to demonstrate to non @-@ believers that the snakes they handled were , in fact , dangerous . That year , Hensley was arrested for snake handling in Chattanooga , Tennessee . He was given a $ 50 fine , which he refused to pay even when threatened with a workhouse sentence . He was released after members of his church appealed to authorities .
Hensley continued to travel around Tennessee , receiving a mixed reception from those who were aware of his past . Some who knew him were willing to forgive him and welcome him back in a ministerial role , but he remained estranged from most of his family . His son Roscoe saw him preach in 1944 . The younger Hensley was also a pastor by then , but had never seen his father conduct a service .
In 1946 , Hensley married for the third time , but his wife , Inez Hutcheson , left him after less than a year of marriage . After their separation , Hensley began to preach in Chattanooga . During services , he began asserting that he had been miraculously healed after being paralyzed for a year following a coal @-@ mining accident . Kimbrough disputes his claim , noting that there is no one @-@ year gap in the records of Hensley moving or actively ministering . Hensley continued to live in Chattanooga until the early 1950s ; he moved to Athens , Georgia , in the early to mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Personal life = =
Hensley was the father of eight children with his first wife , Amanda . They separated in 1922 . One of their children claimed that the separation occurred after an incident in which Hensley became drunk and fought a neighbor . Amanda left the area and found work in a Chattanooga hosiery mill but soon became ill and bedridden . Hensley 's sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law traveled to Chattanooga to care for her .
Hensley had five children with his second wife , Irene . She was from a prosperous Lutheran family of German descent but believed that she was suffering a curse . She and her family had hoped that Hensley could free her from the curse , but ultimately felt that he was unable to . The marriage was contentious because of Hensley 's frequent unemployment and poor treatment of Irene . He found intermittent work , including bricklaying , but Irene 's family had to help support them ; her mother provided the family with clothing . After seven years of marriage , Irene left Hensley and returned to her family , although she returned to Hensley and reconciled with him . One of their sons recalled that Irene was much more religious than Hensley , whom he claims only spoke about spiritual matters if there were church leaders present . Hensley was again separated from Irene around 1941 . The cause of the estrangement is unknown , although one of their sons claimed that she threatened to have him arrested . She reconciled with him after he promised to find steady employment , and they returned to Pineville with their children . Hensley wanted to put their children in an orphanage so Irene could travel with him , but she refused . After a visit from her sister , Irene again left him ; she and her children went to live with Hensley 's children from his first marriage . A divorce was granted in 1943 . Irene later died of complications following surgery for goiter . Hensley attended the wake and visited his children , but departed without them and did not return .
Hensley met Inez Hutcheson , a widow with ten children , in 1946 while performing a service in Soddy @-@ Daisy , Tennessee . After Hensley spoke with her , she accepted the doctrine of snake handling . He soon proposed marriage , which she accepted . They lived in the Soddy @-@ Daisy area for several months . Although he had hoped that she would travel with him and read Bible passages during his services , she left him after less than a year of marriage , and their union was soon dissolved . In 1951 , Hensley married Sally Norman in Chattanooga . After their marriage , she traveled with him as he ministered in Tennessee and Kentucky .
= = Death = =
In early July 1955 , Hensley began a series of meetings near Altha , Florida . He conducted the meetings without snakes for three weeks , before procuring a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) snake and bringing it to a Sunday afternoon service on July 24 . Several dozen people gathered at an abandoned blacksmith shop for the observance . During the service , Hensley loudly delivered a sermon on the topic of faith . He removed the snake from the lard can in which it was stored , wrapped it around his neck , and rubbed it on his face . He walked around the audience while preaching and then returned the snake to the can . As he placed the snake into the can , it bit him on his wrist . After a few minutes , Hensley became visibly ill , experiencing severe pain , a discolored arm , and hematemesis . He refused medical attention , although he remained in pain and was urged to seek treatment both by congregants and the Calhoun County Sheriff . One eyewitness claimed that Hensley attributed his suffering to the congregation 's lack of faith , although his wife Sally stated that she believed it was the will of God . Hensley died early the next morning . Calhoun County Judge Hannah Gaskin ruled his death a suicide .
Hensley 's relatives traveled from Tennessee to Florida for his funeral , at which a country music band played . He was buried two days after his death at a cemetery 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the blacksmith shop where he was bitten . After the funeral , some of the congregants met and declared their intention to continue handling snakes . Sally resolved to continue spreading her late husband 's teachings , saying after the incident that she had not lost " an ounce of faith " .
= = Theology = =
Hensley 's theology , with the exception of his snake handling , was typical of other fundamentalist Pentecostal churches . His teachings on personal holiness bore a resemblance to doctrines of the Wesleyan Holiness tradition . In his sermons he condemned a number of practices as sinful , including gambling , consuming alcohol , wearing lipstick , and playing baseball .
The 17th and 18th verses in chapter 16 of the Gospel of Mark , the " longer ending " of disputed authenticity , formed the core of Hensley 's justification of snake handling and other miraculous activities ( he also drank poison in some services , including strychnine and battery acid ) . He interpreted the passage as a command , rather than an observation of events that occurred in the lives of some Apostles , as Christians have traditionally interpreted the verses . By handling snakes , he saw himself as part of a continuing tradition that originated in a New Testament injunction . He upheld the ability to handle venomous snakes without harm as proof of salvation and evidence of steadfast faith , linking the practice to speaking in tongues . To him , snake handling was a modern @-@ day confirmation of God 's power to supernaturally deliver people from harm . He often cast snakes as a representation of the Devil and interpreted the legal difficulties he encountered as religious persecution . He labeled those who rejected the observance of snake handling " unbelievers " .
= = Legacy = =
Many writers have attempted to designate one person , often Hensley , as the progenitor of Appalachian religious snake handling . Although these writers have emphasized Hensley 's role in propagating the practice , Kimbrough notes that claims that he originated it are usually unsubstantiated by research , and the origins of the observance are unclear . Hood and Williamson argue that the beginnings of Pentecostal snake handling rites cannot be ascribed to a single person , and that the observance arose independently on multiple occasions . There is no doubt among historians , however , that Hensley helped spread Pentecostal snake handling throughout the Southeast , and that media coverage of Hensley 's ministry was influential in prompting various churches to include the practice in their services .
Media coverage of the movement has focused on popular leaders , such as Hensley , and the deaths of ministers by snakebite have received particular attention . Practitioners of snake handling continue to view Hensley as a great man . Kimbrough recorded a discussion with an advocate of snake handling who dismissed Hensley 's personal failings as slanderous fabrications . His advocacy , leadership , and – in particular – his personal charisma were important factors in the advancement of the movement .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Vedaranyam =
Vedaranyam / vɛðɑːrɑːnjɑːm / ( also spelt as Vedaraniam and Vedaranniyam ) is a town in Nagapattinam district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . The town is named after the presiding deity of the Vedaranyeswarar Temple . The recorded history of Vedaranyam is known from medieval Chola period of the 9th century and has been ruled , at different times , by the Medieval Cholas , Later Cholas , Later Pandyas , Vijayanagar Empire and the British . During India 's independence struggle , C. Rajagopalachari , who would later become independent India 's first Governor @-@ General , launched a salt march in Vedaranyam parallel to the Dandi March launched by Gandhi in 1930 to protest against the sales tax levied on salt extraction .
Vedaranyam comes under the Vedaranyam assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Nagapattinam ( Lok Sabha constituency ) which elects its Member of Parliament ( MP ) once in five years . The town is administered by the Vedaranyam municipality , which covers an area of 36 @.@ 26 km2 ( 14 @.@ 00 sq mi ) . As of 2011 , the town had a population of 34 @,@ 266 . Vedaranyam was a part of Thanjavur District till 1991 and Nagapattinam District from then on . The town is a part of the fertile Cauvery delta region , but salt extraction and prawn cultivation are the major occupations . Roadways are the major mode of transportation to Vedaranyam and the nearest Airport is Tiruchirapalli Airport , located 135 km ( 84 mi ) away from the town .
= = Etymology and legend = =
Vedaranyam is named after Vedaranyeswarar , the presiding deity of the Vedaranyeswarar Temple , a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva . The place was earlier known as " Tirumaraikadu " , meaning the place where Vedas , oldest scriptures of Hinduism , originated . The 7th century Saiva canonical work Tevaram by Appar and Tirugnanasambandar mentions the place as " Tirumaraikadu " . As per Hindu legend , the Vedas worshipped Shiva in this place , giving the name " Vedaranyam " to the place . According to another Hindu legend , Rama , the seventh avatar of god Vishnu , is believed to have visited Vedaranyam to absolve himself from sins committed in the war against the demon king Ravana . The footprints of Rama is preserved in a place called Ramar Padam near Vedaranyam . According to a Tamil legend , the Vedas locked the gates of the temple after worshipping Shiva . The Nayanmars ( Saiva saints ) Appar and Tirugnanasambandar could not enter the locked temple . At this , on Tirugnanasambandar 's request , Appar sang devotional hymns praising Shiva , after which the gates opened . Tirugnanasambandar 's devotional hymns locked the gates again .
= = History = =
The recorded history of Vedaranyam is found from the inscriptions in Vedaranyeswarar Temple . The inscriptions date from the reign of Aditya Chola ( 871 – 907 ) , Rajaraja Chola I ( 985 – 1014 ) , Rajendra Chola I ( 1012 – 1044 ) and Kulothunga Chola I ( 1070 – 1120 ) indicating various grants to the temple . Paranjothi Munivar , a 13th @-@ century saint , who wrote the book Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam , was born at Vedaranyam .
Vedaranyam continued to be a part of the Chola Empire and the Chola region emerged as a centre of Saivism during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I ( 1070 – 1120 ) . After the fall of Cholas during the reign of Rajendra Chola II in the 13th century , the erstwhile Chola region was caught under a power struggle between Pandyas and Hoysalas . The royal patronage continued to the temple during the rule of the Nayaks . The Negapatam region ( modern day Nagapattinam district ) was briefly captured by French troops led by Lally ( 1702 – 66 ) in 1759 . The Tanjore district was annexed by British after the French failed to subdue the king of Tanjore . During the British period , Vedaranyam was part of Thiruthuraipoondi Taluk under Tanjore district . Salt from Vedaranyam was transported to Nagapttinam port through a 32 mi ( 51 km ) long canal . The channel was constructed in 1869 because road transportation facilities between these two towns were limited .
During India 's independence struggle , Gandhi launched the Dandi March along India 's west coast to protest against the sales tax levied on salt extraction . His close associate C. Rajagopalachari , who would later become independent India 's first Governor @-@ General , carried out a salt march in parallel , on the east coast starting from Trichonopoly ( modern day Tiruchirappalli ) in Vedaranyam . His group , having people like Sardar Vedaratnam , started from Tiruchirappalli , in Madras Presidency ( now part of Tamil Nadu ) , to the coast of the town . After making illegal salt there on 30 April 1930 , the group was arrested by the British . After India 's independence , Vedaranyam continued to be a part of Thanjavur district until 1991 , and later became part of the newly created Nagapattinam district .
= = Geography = =
Vedaranyam has an average elevation of 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) and is located on the Coramandel coast of Bay of Bengal . The Vedaranyam swamp is located parallel to the Palk Strait for 48 km ( 30 mi ) . The river Cauvery was flowing south easterly direction from Trichy and had its confluence at Vedaranyam due to the emergence of Vedaranyam nose ( the nose shaped stretch from Vedaranyam to Kodiyakarai ) during the pleistocene period . Due to the rise of teritiary rocks in the Pattukottai – Mannargudi region and also due to the increase of sediments in the Vedaranyam area , the river migrated northwards . There is lesser marine activity in the Vedaranyam shore due to the presence of Vedaranyam nose in the north and Sri Lanka in the south , both causing weak shore currents .
The quality of ground water is poor compared to the northern shores of Tamil Nadu due to the presence of marine and semi @-@ marine origin in sediments . The images from the satellite IRS 1A shows Thiruthuraipoondi was a coastal town ( which is an inland in modern times ) and the sea has regressed up to Vedaranyam in modern times . The analysis of backwaters from 1932 to 1992 indicates considerable enlargement in the region and occurrence of number of sandbodies .
Modern day Vedaranyam has five fresh water channels from river Cauvery draining into the swamp . The total area of the swamp is about 349 km2 ( 135 sq mi ) , with 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) width in the northwestern part and 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) width in the western side . The Kodikarai wildlife reserve is located in the extreme eastern portion of the swamp . The northern tip of the swamp obtains continuous source of fresh , saline or brackish water during the south west monsoon and dries up during the summer season . The swamp is used for salt extraction and other marine based industries . The swamps are filled by two periodical high tides that occur during the full moon days of May and June . The swamp along with the sanctuary is the important wintering and staging area for waders and water birds .
= = Demographics and economy = =
According to 2011 census , Vedaranyam had a population of 34 @,@ 266 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 068 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 3 @,@ 261 were under the age of six , constituting 1 @,@ 711 males and 1 @,@ 550 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 14 @.@ 91 % and .2 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 77 @.@ 86 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of : 8665 households . There were a total of 12 @,@ 694 workers , comprising 835 cultivators , 912 main agricultural labourers , 98 in house hold industries , 3 @,@ 440 other workers , 7 @,@ 409 marginal workers , 421 marginal cultivators , 2 @,@ 277 marginal agricultural labourers , 175 marginal workers in household industries and 4 @,@ 536 other marginal workers . As per the religious census of 2011 , Vedaranyam had 90 @.@ 17 % Hindus , 8 @.@ 93 % Muslims , 0 @.@ 74 % Christians , 0 @.@ 09 % Jains and 0 @.@ 07 % following other religions .
The primary economic activities of the region are salt @-@ manufacturing , fishing , salt water prawn culture and agriculture . Saltpans ( crystallisers ) are spread over 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) along the coastline , including those of small , medium and large salt manufacturers . According to estimates , about 3 @.@ 5 lakh tonnes of salt is produced annually in the region . The salt industry employs around 20 @,@ 000 people . Some of the major private companies like Chemplast Sanmar have salt manufacturing units in Vedaranyam . Salt manufacturing , the traditional occupation of the town , has been overshadowed by prawn cultivation since the 90s . All major nationalized banks such as Indian Bank , Canara Bank and Indian Overseas Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank , City Union Bank have their branches in Vedaranyam .
= = Municipal administration and politics = =
Vedaranyam is administered by a second grade a municipality . It was originally declared a third grade municipality on 28 August 2004 and promoted to a second grade municipality on 9 August 2010 . The municipality has 21 wards and there is an elected councillor for each of those wards . The municipality has 3 revenue villages namely Vedaranyam , Thoputhurai and Agasthyanpalli . The functions of the municipality are devolved into five departments : General administration , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health and Town planning . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 21 members , one each from the 21 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson . The town became part of Nagapattinam district since January 1997 when the Nagapattinam district was created as a separate district .
Vedaranyam comes under the Vedaranyam assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . From the 1977 elections , the assembly seat was won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) five times during 1977 , 1984 , 1996 , 2001 and 2006 elections , Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) twice during 1980 and 2011 elections and Indian National Congress for two times during 1989 and 1991 elections . The current MLA of the constituency is N.V. Kamaraj from the ADMK party .
Vedaranyam is a part of the Nagapattinam ( Lok Sabha constituency ) – it has the following six assembly constituencies – Thiruvarur , Nagapattinam , Thiruthuraipoondi , Vedaranyam , Kilvelur ( SC ) and Nannilam . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is A.K.S. Vijayan from the DMK . From 1957 , the Nagapattinam parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress for five times during 1957 – 1961 , 1962 – 67 , 1967 – 71 , 1991 – 96 , and 1996 – 98 elections . CPI won the seat for 5 times during 1971 – 77 , 1977 – 80 , 1989 – 91 , 1996 – 98 and 1998 elections . DMK won 4 times during 1980 – 84 , 1999 – 2004 , 2004 – 09 and 2011 elections . ADMK won the seat once during 1984 – 89 .
Law and order in Vedaranyam is maintained by the Nagapattinam sub division of Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent . There is one police station in the town . There are special units like prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Landmarks = =
The Vedaranyeswarar temple , an ancient Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva , is located in Vedaranyam . The temple has a shrine for Thyagaraja ( a form of Shiva ) , known for " Hamsapthanathaanam " , the dance pose similar to the gait of a swan . According to legend , a Chola king named Mucukunta obtained a boon from Indra ( a celestial deity ) to receive an image of Thyagaraja from the Hindu god Vishnu . Indra tricked the king with six other duplicate images , but the king chose the right image which was later installed at Thyagaraja Temple , Tiruvarur . The remaining six images were installed in Dharbaranyeswarar Temple , Kayarohanaswamy Temple , Kannayariamudayar Temple , Brahmapureeswarar Temple , Vaimoornaathar Temple and Tiruvarur Thyagaraja Temple . All seven Thyagaraja images are believed to possess different dance styles and the temples are classified as Saptha Vidangam , meaning temples with the seven dance moves . The twin festivals celebrated during the full moon days of Tamil month Adi ( July – August ) and Thai ( January – February ) attract large number of pilgrims from whole of Tamil Nadu . Pilgrims take a holy dip in the seashore round the year and the holy dip is considered similar to the worship practises at Rameswaram .
The Salt Sathyagraga Memorial Stupe built in memory of the salt march during India 's independence movement is another prominent landmark in Vedaranyam . The tourist destinations around the town are Ayurvedic Medicinal Forest , Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary located Point Calimere at a distance of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , Historical Light House , Ramar Paatham , Ettukudi Murugan temple located at a distance of 40 km ( 25 mi ) and Our Lady of Good Health , Velankanni located at a distance of 37 km ( 23 mi ) from the town .
= = Transport , education and utility services = =
Vedaranyam municipality accommodates 102 @.@ 5 km ( 63 @.@ 7 mi ) of roads : 2 @.@ 05 km ( 1 @.@ 27 mi ) of cement roads , 58 @.@ 85 km ( 36 @.@ 57 mi ) of bituminous roads , 8 @.@ 7 km ( 5 @.@ 4 mi ) of WBM roads and 32 @.@ 9 km ( 20 @.@ 4 mi ) of earthern roads . The municipality maintains a bus stand that accommodates local as well as long distance buses . Bus is the primary mode of public transport from the town . There was a railway branch line connecting Vedaranyam to Mayiladuthurai via Thiruthuriapoondi and ending at Agastiyampalli . The line was opened to passenger traffic on 15 May 1919 . The railway line is discontinued and in turn affects the economy of the town . The nearest railway station is located at Thiruthuraipoondi , located 35 km ( 22 mi ) away from the town . The nearest Airport is Tiruchirapalli Airport , located 135 km ( 84 mi ) away from Vedaranyam .
Vedaranyam has three elementary schools , three middle schools , four high schools and three higher secondary schools . The Bharathidasan University started the Bharthidasan University Model College in 2011 , the first government college in the town . The college offers arts and science related courses .
Electricity supply to Vedaranyam is regulated and distributed by the Nagapattinam circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply project through the Vedaranyam Municipality is approved by the Commissioner of Municipal Administration , Chennai . Water is obtained from hand pumps and fountains located in various parts of the town . Door to door collection of garbage is done by sanitary workers of the municipality and about 6 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the town every day . Vedaranyam municipality does not have underground drainage system and the current sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks and public conveniences .
Vedaranyam comes under the Nagapattinam Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service There is a government hospital and two private hospitals in the town . Rajaji Park and Gandhi Park are the two parks maintained by the municipality .
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= Charles R. Forbes =
Charles Robert Forbes ( February 14 , 1878 – April 10 , 1952 ) was appointed the first Director of the Veterans ' Bureau by President Warren G. Harding on August 9 , 1921 and served until February 28 , 1923 . Caught for army desertion in 1900 , he returned to the military and was a decorated World War I veteran . He first became active in politics in the Pacific Northwest . In 1912 , Forbes moved to Hawaii and served as chairman on various federal commissions . While Senator Warren G. Harding was on vacation in Hawaii the two met by chance and became friends . After the 1920 U.S. Presidential election , President Harding appointed Forbes director to the newly created Veterans ' Bureau , a powerful position in charge of millions of dollars in government expenditures and supplies .
His tenure as the first Veterans ' Bureau director was characterized by corruption and scandal . Forbes was considered the " dashing playboy " of Washington and a favorite of President Harding . Having returned to the United States after fleeing to Europe in 1923 , he was convicted of conspiracy to defraud the U.S. Government and sent to federal prison in 1926 , where he was a cellmate of Frederick Cook , the person who often claimed to be the first to reach the North Pole . Forbes was released eight months later in 1927 . He died in 1952 .
= = Early life = =
Forbes was born February 14 , 1878 in Scotland . As a child , he and his parents emigrated to America and the family lived in New York and Boston . When Forbes was 16 years old he joined the marines as a musician and was eventually stationed in the Washington Navy Yard . Trained as an engineer , Forbes attended Philips Exeter Academy , Cooper Institute in New York , Columbia University , and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He enlisted in the army in 1900 ; however , two months later he was charged with desertion . He was found , sent back to the army , and restored to duty without a trial . Forbes went on to serve in the Philippines after completing his enlistment , and was honorably discharged from the army in the rank of sergeant first class in 1908 .
= = Pacific Northwest and Hawaii = =
After leaving the Army , Forbes engaged in construction work in the Pacific Northwest , moving to Seattle . He became active for the first time in state politics . He got married in Seattle to his wife Katherine and started a family having one daughter , Marcia . In 1912 , Forbes and family moved to Hawaii , at that time a United States territory , and worked at the Pearl Harbor naval station as an engineer for the next five years . While in Hawaii , he served in four federal government appointments as Commissioner of Public Works , Chairman of the Public Service Commission , Chairman of the Harbor Commission and chairman of the Reclamation Commission appointed by President Woodrow Wilson . During this time in Hawaii , Forbes became acquainted with then Senator Warren G. Harding , who was on vacation with his wife at the time , a meeting that would eventually change both of their lives . His charismatic personality and hospitality created a positive impression with Harding , and soon the two became good friends . Forbes ' wife became a close friend of Mrs. Harding .
= = World War I = =
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , Forbes enlisted again into the U.S. Army . He served notably overseas in France in the United States 41st and 33rd Infantry Divisions . He was awarded both the international Croix de Guerre Medal and the United States Distinguished Service Medal . Forbes ' final promotion was to the rank of lieutenant colonel . After World War I , Forbes returned to Washington from France and worked for the Hurley @-@ Mason Construction company in Tacoma . Forbes worked his way up to vice president of Hurley @-@ Mason Construction and was in charge of the Spokane division .
= = Harding Campaign 1920 = =
When Forbes found out his good friend Warren G. Harding was running for president in 1920 , he traveled to Marion , Ohio and swung the Washington delegate vote for Harding at the 1920 Republican presidential convention held in Chicago . Harding would go on to win the election of 1920 with the motto for America to " return to normalcy " ; giving businesses tariff protection and tax relief , and keeping America out of foreign affairs .
= = War Risk and Veterans ' Bureaus = =
Initially , Forbes desperately tried to be appointed chairman of the United States Shipping Board , a board that controlled vast amounts of government shipping resources to private shippers . President Harding , however , denied him the position and instead appointed Forbes to the Bureau of War Risk Insurance on April 28 , 1921 . Forbes 's salary at the War Risk Bureau was $ 10 @,@ 000 a year . On August 9 , 1921 Congress passed what was known as the " Sweet Bill " creating the Office of the Veterans ' Bureau . After World War I , thousands of wounded and disabled veterans did not have adequate facilities for proper care and needed job skills . The Veterans ' Bureau was created to remedy this dilemma for the World War I veterans who desperately needed medical attention , hospitals , and employment . Across the country there were fourteen regional offices that were semi @-@ independent from Washington D.C. Bureau . Congress awarded the Veterans ' Bureau millions of dollars in expenditures to take care of the needs of the veterans . In August 1921 , President Harding appointed Forbes the first director of the Veterans ' Bureau . Forbes controlled $ 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 5 @.@ 99 billion 2009 ) a year in government expenditures for the World War I veterans . Forbes wife Katherine had direct access to the White House , having been given special privileges under Mrs. Harding 's authority .
= = = Veterans ' Bureau tenure = = =
With millions of dollars at his disposal , Forbes hired 30 @,@ 000 new workers at the Veterans ' Bureau , many of whom were personal friends to Forbes . The Veterans ' Bureau under Forbes was overstaffed and many appointed agents looked for means to justify their paid positions . During his tenure as director , Forbes ignored the needs of the wounded veterans . In the less than two years that Forbes held his position , he embezzled approximately $ 2 million , mainly in connection with the building of veterans ' hospitals , from selling hospital supplies intended for the bureau , and from kickbacks from contractors . The budget for the Veterans ' Bureau during his tenure was $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in total . Forbes had rejected thousands of legitimate claims by veterans .
Although 300 @,@ 000 soldiers had been wounded in combat , Forbes had only allowed 47 @,@ 000 claims for disability insurance , while many were denied compensation for reasons that Congress called " split hairs " . Even fewer veterans received any vocational training under Forbes ' direction of the bureau . According to the Charleston Gazette , Forbes toured with his contractor friends to the Pacific Coast , known as " Joy @-@ Rides " , inspecting veterans ' hospital construction sites . Forbes and his contractor associates allegedly indulged in parties and drinking . Forbes and corrupt contractors developed a secret code in order to communicate insider information and ensure government contracts . According to congressional testimony , in Chicago , on one of his many inspection trips , Forbes gambled and took a $ 5 @,@ 000 bribe from contractor J. W. Thompson and E. H. Mortimer at the Drake Hotel to secure $ 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in veterans ' hospital construction contracts . Mortimer was the middleman man who had handed Forbes the bribe in one of the rooms at the Drake . Forbes said the $ 5 @,@ 000 payment was a loan . Mortimer stated that Forbes had an affair with Mortimer 's wife while on the inspection tours . After Forbes returned from his inspection tours he began to sell hospital supplies at severely discounted prices . According to a Highbeam Business report , he sold nearly $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of much needed hospital supplies for $ 600 @,@ 000 , a fraction of their worth . Forbes was suspected of receiving kickbacks from contractors . When President Harding ordered Forbes to stop , Forbes insubordinately disobeyed and kept selling supplies .
On January 24 , 1923 Forbes awarded Hurley @-@ Mason Construction a sizable contract of $ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 to construct a new veterans ' hospital at American Lake , near Tacoma . Forbes had resigned his vice presidency at Hurley @-@ Mason Construction upon assuming his federal position under the Harding Administration . By January 1923 , rumor was spread by Forbes 's close friends that Forbes would resign from the Veterans ' Bureau on June 1 , 1923 . During the summer of 1922 on one of Forbes 's " joy rides " , Forbes had come back to Spokane and visited the F. Lewis Clark House while he was looking for a possible site for a veterans ' hospital at Hayden Lake , Idaho . Forbes was accompanied by Dr. Stanley Rhinehart . The F. Lewis Clark House was one of the most prestigious summer homes in the Pacific Northwest ; it had been offered to Forbes and the Veterans ' Bureau at a low cost . Colonel Forbes stayed there for several days . The Spokane division office of Hurley @-@ Mason Construction had been closed down .
= = = Resignation = = =
Forbes 's resignation , however , would come earlier than June 1 , 1923 as his friends had predicted . When President Harding was informed that Forbes had disobeyed a direct order to stop selling hospital supplies , Harding summoned him to the White House in January 1923 . Forbes pleaded with Harding to allow him to go to Europe to settle family matters . Harding allowed him to flee to Europe only on the condition he would resign from the Veterans ' Bureau . While in Europe , he voluntarily resigned from office on February 15 , 1923 . When Forbes took Elias H. Mortimer 's wife to Europe with him , Mortimer decided to testify against him in a Congressional investigation that started on March 2 , 1923 . Upon his return from Europe , Forbes visited President Harding at the White House . The six @-@ foot @-@ tall President grabbed Forbes by the throat and began violently shaking him " as a dog would a rat " . Forbes was saved from this attack when a guest who had an appointment with the President interrupted the altercation . President Harding was angered over Forbes ' duplicity in stopping the Perryville shipments . The Senate investigation revealed Forbes had left 200 @,@ 000 unopened pieces of mail from veterans at the Bureau . Belligerent before the Senate committee , Forbes renounced involvement in illegal activities . Mortimer provided damaging information that Forbes took a $ 5 @,@ 000 payment in Chicago and got kickbacks for land deals and building contracts for veterans ' hospitals . Forbes was indicted and tried by jury in 1924 .
= = Family neglect and divorce = =
On October 4 , 1923 , Forbes and his wife , Katherine Forbes , were formally divorced at a Seattle court house . Katherine 's attorney , Eugene Mecham , stated that Forbes had overly neglected their home life while he was traveling on his Pacific Coast hospital inspection tours . Mrs. Forbes said that her husband 's cruel treatment caused her to be in poor health . The judge ordered that Forbes pay alimony : $ 75 a month to Mrs. Forbes for two years and $ 75 a month to their 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Marcia , until she turned 18 . The Forbes ' divorce proceedings , which took place during the Congressional investigation into corruption at the Veterans ' Bureau , were held in secret from the public until the divorce was final .
= = Trial , conviction , and prison sentence = =
Forbes was prosecuted and convicted of conspiracy to defraud the U.S. Government , fined $ 10 @,@ 000 , and sentenced to a prison term of two years . He was put in prison on March 21 , 1926 . He served one year , eight months and six days at the Leavenworth federal penitentiary . Forbes was prisoner number 25021 . On entering prison Forbes said , " I don 't suppose any prison is a pleasant place to go , but I shall try to make the best of it . " Forbes had appealed his trial , however , the United States Circuit Court of Appeals in Chicago upheld his conviction .
= = Prison release = =
On November 26 , 1927 Forbes was released from Leavenworth Penitentiary . He stated after his release that he would make sure that Harding 's legacy would be exonerated . He said he would prove that Dr. Frederick Cook , his cellmate at Leavenworth , discovered the North Pole .
= = New York World article = =
After being released from prison , in an effort to exonerate President Harding , Forbes wrote an article for the New York World , published December 4 , 1927 , that alleged Harding was " duped " by his appointees and cabinet known as the Ohio Gang . He claimed to have found Jess Smith picking up $ 70 @,@ 000 in $ 1 @,@ 000 bills scattered on a Justice Department office floor . Smith was an aide to President Harding 's U.S. Attorney General Harry Daugherty . While he helped Smith pick up the money from the floor , Smith told him the money was Daugherty 's . Forbes said that the ability to buy narcotics was rampant at Atlanta and Leavenworth federal prisons while Daugherty was attorney general . Forbes stated that Harding 's personal physician , Charles E. Sawyer , was a " pernicious meddler " . Forbes made a blanket statement that President Harding had not profited in any way from the scandals during the Harding Administration . Forbes claimed that President Harding was " excessively loyal " with his friends , to a fault . At a poker game in the White House , Forbes said that Harding would remove a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine imposed on prize fighter Jack Johnson who had been released from Leavenworth Penitentiary in 1921 .
On December 16 , 1927 , after the publication of his New York World article , Forbes testified before a grand jury in Kansas City that concerned his statement in the article that alleged narcotics was easily obtained at USP Leavenworth . Forbes had also stated in the article that Leavenworth warden , E.B. White , was understaffed and that in turn allowed the purchase of narcotics to be readily available in the prison . After Forbes ' lengthy several @-@ hour testimony before the grand jury , he said he was sworn to secrecy and would not make a statement to the press .
= = Illness and Death = =
In October 1949 , Forbes underwent a major operation . He died at the Walter Reed Hospital in Washington D.C. at the age of 74 on April 10 , 1952 , after a long illness . He was interred at Arlington National Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , Katherine T. Forbes , and one daughter , Marcia Forbes , who had married Fred Barry of Hatboro , Pennsylvania . The Forbes corruption at the Veterans ' Bureau was one of the many scandals involving the Harding administration and the Ohio Gang .
= = = Books = = =
Dean , John Wesley ( 2004 ) . Warren G. Harding . New York , New York : Times Books Henry Holt and Company , LCC . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 6956 @-@ 9 .
Pusey , Merlo J. ( 1951 ) . Charles Evans Hughes Vol . 2 . New York : Macmillan .
Werner , M. R. ( 1935 ) . Privileged Characters ( PDF ) . New York : R.M. McBride & Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 405 @-@ 05905 @-@ 1 . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 .
= = = Newspapers = = =
" Col. C. Forbes Dies ; Led Veterans ' Unit " . New York Times ( New York , New York ) . April 12 , 1952 .
" Parties , Joy @-@ Rides Featured Tours of Forbes , Irwin Says " . The Charleston Gazzette ( Charleston , West Virginia ) . February 13 , 1924 @.@ pp. 1 , 9 .
" Forbes Divorced by His Wife Who Charges Cruelty " . The Bee ( Danville , Virginia ) . October 26 , 1923 @.@ p . 4 .
" Forbes Admitted to Penitentiary " . Joplin News Herald ( Joplin , Missouri ) . March 20 , 1926 .
" Charles Forbes and St. Louis Contractor are Found Guilty of Government Fraud Charge " . Joplin Globe ( Joplin , Missouri ) . January 31 , 1925 @.@ pp. 1 , 2 .
= = = Magazines = = =
" Milestones , Apr. 21 , 1952 " . Time . April 21 , 1952 . Retrieved April 8 , 2010 .
= = = Online = = =
" Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount - 1774 to Present " . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 .
" Administration of Veterans ' Affairs ( excluding Health and Insurance ) " . 2010 . Retrieved April 8 , 2010 .
" Veterans ' Bureau Scandal " . Retrieved April 8 , 2010 .
" Name Index to Inmate Case Files , U.S. Penitentiary , Leavenworth , Kansas , 1895 - 1931 " . Retrieved November 22 , 2010 .
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= New Jersey Route 58 =
Route 58 is a former state highway in the city of Newark , New Jersey and nearby borough of Harrison , New Jersey . The highway ran from Orange and Hecker Streets in Newark , eastbound as a four @-@ lane freeway across the William A. Stickel Memorial Bridge ( known as the Stickel Bridge ) to Harrison , where it terminated at an intersection with County Route 508 . The route originates as an alignment of Route 25A , a suffixed spur designated in 1939 of State Highway Route 25 . The route was rechristened as Route 58 in the 1953 state highway renumbering . The highway was constructed into Interstate 280 in the 1950s , and the route persisted internally until the 1990s , when it was finally removed as a designation . A stub alignment of Route 58 remains near Hecker and Orange Streets .
= = Route description = =
Route 58 began at an intersection with Orange Street and Hecker Street in the center of Newark . Paralleling Lackawanna Drive , the highway crossed over the Gladstone Branch , Montclair Branch and Morristown Lines maintained by New Jersey Transit . A four @-@ lane divided highway , Route 58 headed eastward along the Essex Freeway , a short freeway in Newark . The highway interchanged with Clifton Avenue heading westbound and Martin Luther King Boulevard a short distance later . The interchange with Martin Luther King Boulevard accessed the nearby Newark Broad Street Station . A short distance later , Route 58 interchanged with Route 21 nearby . After Route 21 , the Essex Freeway crossed on the Stickel Bridge over the Passaic River and into Harrison , where Route 58 interchanged with County Route 508 . There the designation terminated .
= = History = =
Route 58 originates as an alignment of State Highway Route 25 @-@ A , designated in 1939 as a suffixed spur of State Highway Route 25 from Jersey City to Clifton Avenue in Newark . The route was designated to cross through Kearny and Harrison , crossing the Passaic at the Bridge Street Bridge in Harrison . From there , it continued along , intersecting with State Highway Route 21 and Clifton Avenue . In 1949 , a new bridge for the four @-@ lane road was constructed , this bridge was named after William Stickel , an engineer from Essex County . That year , the New Jersey State Highway Department proposed construction of a new freeway to help alleviate traffic on the State Highway Route 10 corridor , designated as the Essex Freeway from the New Jersey Turnpike in Hudson County westward to U.S. Route 46 in Morris County .
On January 1 , 1953 , as part of the 1953 state highway renumbering , State Highway Route 25 @-@ A was rechristened as Route 58 . In 1954 , the State Highway Department decided to find a state highway to include in the new Eisenhower Interstate System . Originally proposed to use the Route 3 alignment for Federal Aid Interstate Route 105 , the upgrading of Route 3 for standards would be too great . After Route 3 was deemed unusable , they moved focus to short portion of Route 58 that was constructed . In 1958 , the State Highway Department gave Route 58 its official new designation , Interstate 280 , when construction began on an extended Essex Freeway . Although Interstate 280 was designated onto Route 58 's alignment , the Route 58 designation persisted throughout maps and straight line diagrams until at least 1997 , when the designation was removed . A short , unused concrete portion of Route 58 remains at the northern end of Hecker Street , crossing over the New Jersey Transit tracks ending near Interstate 280 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= HMS Duncan ( D99 ) =
HMS Duncan was a D @-@ class destroyer leader built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Duncan returned to the Mediterranean Fleet just after World War II began in September 1939 . She was transferred to the Home Fleet in December 1939 , although she was badly damaged in a collision the following month , and required repairs that lasted until July 1940 . The ship joined Force H at Gibraltar in October , escorting the larger ships and various convoys until March 1941 when she was transferred to West Africa for convoy escort duties for a few months . Duncan rejoined the 13th Destroyer Flotilla at Gibraltar in July and escorted several convoys to Malta during the rest of the year . After a refit , she briefly returned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla before joining the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean to participate in Operation Ironclad in May 1942 . The ship was recalled home to be converted into an escort destroyer in late 1942 .
Duncan was assigned to Escort Group B @-@ 7 in the North Atlantic after her conversion was complete in May 1943 . She escorted a number of convoys before she required a lengthy refit from November to May 1944 . She helped to sink two German submarines in October 1943 . The ship was assigned to anti @-@ submarine duties in the Western Approaches after her refit was finished in May 1944 , and Duncan remained there until April 1945 . At that time she was transferred to coastal anti @-@ submarine patrols to counter any last @-@ gasp effort by the Kriegsmarine to interfere with the Allied supply lines to the Continent . Placed in reserve the following month , Duncan was in bad shape and was sold for scrap later that year . The demolition , however , was not completed until 1949 .
= = Design and construction = =
Duncan displaced 1 @,@ 400 long tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) at standard load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Duncan carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Duncan had a single 12 @-@ pounder AA gun between her funnels and two quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine guns mounted on the sides of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . In 1936 , the 12 @-@ pounder was replaced by two QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns . Sometime after the Dunkirk evacuation , the ship 's rear torpedo tube mount was removed and replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun and the quadruple 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch machine guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon AA guns .
Duncan was ordered under the 1930 Naval Estimates on 2 February 1931 from Portsmouth Dockyard . She was laid down on 25 September 1931 , launched on 7 July 1932 and finally commissioned into the Navy on 31 March 1933 . Built as a flotilla leader , she displaced 25 long tons more than the rest of her class and carried an extra 30 personnel . These personnel formed the staff of the Captain ( D ) of the flotilla .
= = Career = =
The ship was initially assigned as the leader of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . After refitting at Portsmouth between 3 September and 23 October , Duncan led most of her flotilla to the China Station , arriving at Hong Kong on 3 January 1935 . The next few years were spent " showing the flag " around the Far East , and visiting Japan , the Philippines , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , Thailand and Malaya . The ship was under repairs between 14 December 1936 and 4 January 1937 from damage sustained when testing refuelling at sea techniques . She was in Shanghai during the Japanese invasion of 1937 and evacuated British civilians to Woosung , together with the sloop HMS Falmouth . On 28 October 1938 , Duncan was struck by the Greek steamer Pipina whilst lying at anchor at Foo Chow , China . The ship was repaired and given a refit at Hong Kong between 31 October and 14 January 1939 . She was lightly damaged when struck by a high @-@ speed target at Wei Hai Wei , China , in July 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
With the outbreak of war , Duncan and her sisters Diana , Daring , and Dainty , were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , arriving at Alexandria on 30 September . All the ships were in poor condition , and , after repair , they conducted contraband control duties . In December Duncan , along with her sister Duchess , was assigned to escort the battleship Barham back to the UK , and they departed Gibraltar on 6 December . During the morning of 10 December , Barham collided with Duchess off the Mull of Kintyre in heavy fog , sinking the destroyer with the loss of 124 lives . Duncan was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet on 12 December .
She was damaged in a collision with a merchant vessel on 17 January whilst escorting Convoy ON18 , causing a twenty @-@ foot hole in her side but fortunately she did not sink and was taken under tow . After temporary repairs at Invergordon , she was towed to Grangemouth for repairs that were not completed until 22 July . She carried out post @-@ refit trials and returned to Scapa Flow to rejoin the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla . She transferred to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla based at Gibraltar in October , escorting the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , Barham , the heavy cruiser Berwick , and the light cruisers Glasgow and Sheffield from the Firth of Clyde to Gibraltar . Joining Force H , she escorted Ark Royal during Operation Coat , the carrier Argus when she flew off Hawker Hurricane fighters to Malta during Operation White and escorted Force F to Malta during Collar during November . During the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late November , Duncan was detailed to escort the convoy away from the Italians .
On 1 January 1941 , she led four ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla as they intercepted a Vichy French convoy near Mellila and seized all four merchant ships of the convoy . A few days later she took part in Operation Excess , a military convoy taking stores to Piraeus and Alexandria . During Operation Grog in early February , the ship escorted the larger ships of Force H as they bombarded Genoa . She then escorted the battlecruiser Repulse and the carrier Furious from Gibraltar to West Africa in early March and remained there afterwards . Based at Freetown , the ship escorted convoys through West African waters until July when she was recalled to the Mediterranean to escort the Operation Substance convoy from Gibraltar to Malta in July 1941 Reassigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla , Duncan remained at Gibraltar and was part of the close escort for the Operation Halberd convoy in late September .
In October she was assigned as part of the escort for Convoy HG 75 , from Gibraltar to Liverpool , because she was scheduled for a refit in the Sheerness Dockyard . It began on 16 November and lasted until 23 January 1942 , after which Duncan rejoined the 13th Destroyer Flotilla at Gibraltar . In late February and March , the ship escorted the carriers Eagle and Argus as they flew off fighters for Malta . The following month , Duncan was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Eastern Fleet to support Operation Ironclad , the invasion of Diego Suarez . After four months of operations in the Indian Ocean , the Admiralty decided to convert her to an escort destroyer , and accordingly she returned to the United Kingdom via the Cape of Good Hope as an escort for the battleship Royal Sovereign . The ship arrived in Greenock on 16 November , but did not begin her conversion at Tilbury until 24 November .
This involved the replacement of ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , the removal of her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar , exchanging her two 2 @-@ pounder AA guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform , and the removal of her 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased to 98 depth charges .
In March 1943 , Duncan carried out sea trials and went to Tobermory to work up . In April she joined Escort Group B @-@ 7 as the Senior Officer 's ship , with Commander Peter Gretton in command at the height of the Battle of the Atlantic . She escorted Convoy ONS @-@ 5 in early May , a major convoy battle which saw the destruction of six U boats for the loss of thirteen ships , although Duncan was forced to withdraw for lack of fuel before the battle was over . Later that month , she escorted Convoy SC @-@ 130 , in which three U @-@ boats were destroyed for the loss of no ships . Duncan continued on North Atlantic escort duty until October 1943 ; on 16 October the ship rescued 15 survivors from U @-@ 470 which had been sunk earlier by an Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber of the Royal Air Force . Whilst defending Convoy ON @-@ 207 on 23 October , Duncan , together with the destroyer Vidette and a Liberator of No. 224 Squadron RAF , sank U @-@ 274 . Later the same month , on 29 October , Duncan shared the sinking of U @-@ 282 with Vidette and the corvette Sunflower whilst protecting Convoy ON @-@ 208 .
By this time the ship was in poor shape and required an extensive refit ; the work last from 12 November to 17 May 1944 at the North Woolwich , London shipyard of Harland and Wolff . After working up , she was assigned to the 14th Escort Group for anti @-@ submarine operations in the Western Approaches . Duncan conducted convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine operations with the group through April 1945 when she was assigned to the Greenock Coastal Escort Pool . The ship was placed in reserve on 13 May and was transferred to Barrow on 9 June . She approved for immediate disposal on 8 July as she was leaking five tons of water a day . Duncan was turned over to BISCO for scrapping immediately afterwards , but demolition was not completed until 1949 .
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= Annabel Breuer =
Annabel Breuer ( born 23 October 1992 ) is a wheelchair fencer and 1 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player . She has played for SKV Ravensburg and Sabres Ulm in the German wheelchair basketball league . In December 2012 she was contracted to play for first division club RSV Lahn @-@ Dill as well as Sabres Ulm . She has also played the national team , with which she won two European titles , was runner @-@ up at 2010 World Championships , and won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . After the London Games , President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Annabel Breuer was born on 23 October 1992 . She lives with her three siblings , her parents and her dog in Birkenhardt , a small town in Swabia roughly halfway between Lake Constance and Ulm . She became a paraplegic as a result of an automotive accident when she was a child .
Breuer started playing wheelchair fencing recreationally . She won silver at the 2006 Wheelchair Fencing World Cup in Turin at the age of 13 @.@ but was unable to participate in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing due to surgery on her spinal cord . At the 2009 European Championships in Warsaw she won gold with the German epee team , and silver and bronze in the singles . As a result , the German Sports Foundation named 16 @-@ year @-@ old Breuer as its Junior Sportsman of the Year for 2009 in Disability Sport . She competed in the 2010 World Championships in Paris , but was placed fifth and did not medal . She was awarded the Hilde Frey Prize in 2011 , and said that her goal was to be at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London .
Breuer attended the Paralympics in London , but as a wheelchair basketball player rather than as a fencer . She was introduced to the sport by a friend , and spot by a national trainer . Breuer played for Sabines Ulm , where she was the only woman on a mixed gender side . She is classified as a 1 @.@ 5 point player , but women get a 1 @.@ 5 point bonus when playing on a mixed team , making her in effect a zero @-@ point player . Her classification , along with her high technical acumen , means that she is a valuable asset on any team .
Breuer was part of the German national team which won win gold at the 2011 European Championships in Nazareth , Israel , defeating the Netherlands in the final , 48 – 42 . In June 2012 she was named as one of the team that competed at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . In the Gold Medal match , the team faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , a team that had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . They defeated the Australians 44 – 58 in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal , They were awarded another Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 . In a ceremony in Ulm , Breuer was congratulated by the Lord Mayor , Ivo Gönner , and her name was entered in the Golden Book of the city . In December 2012 , it was announced that in addition to playing for second division Sabres Ulm , she would also play for five @-@ time Champions League winning first division club RSV Lahn @-@ Dill in 2013 .
As of February 2013 , due to the constant interruptions to her education due to training and competitions , Breuer , who speaks English , French , German and Spanish , had yet to complete her final high school examinations at Matthias Erzberger school in Biberach .
= = Achievements = =
2006 : Silver Wheelchair Fencing World Cup ( Turin , Italy )
2009 : Gold ( team ) , Silver and Bronze ( individual ) European Championships ( Warsaw , Poland )
2010 : Silver World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
= = Awards = =
2009 : Junior Sportsman of the Year in Disability Sport
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2012 : Entry in the Golden Book of the city of Ulm .
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
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= 1994 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1994 Pacific hurricane season was the final season of the eastern north Pacific 's most recent active string of hurricane seasons that unofficially started in 1981 . The season officially started on May 15 , 1994 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1994 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1994 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first tropical cyclone formed on June 18 , while the last system dissipated on October 26 . This season , twenty @-@ two tropical cyclones formed in the north Pacific Ocean east of the dateline , with all but two becoming tropical storms or hurricanes . A total of 10 hurricanes occurred , including five major hurricanes .
Of note in this season is an unusual spree of very intense storms . Hurricanes Emilia , Gilma , John , and Olivia all reached a pressure below 930 millibars . Longevity @-@ wise , no tropical cyclone of any basin had previously persisted for as long as Hurricane John , which lasted 31 days . Elsewhere , Hurricane Rosa caused four casualties in Mexico as the basin 's lone landfalling tropical storm or hurricane , and later was responsible for flooding in Texas .
= = Season summary = =
This season , twenty @-@ two tropical cyclones formed in the north Pacific Ocean east of the dateline . All but two of them became tropical storms or hurricanes . In the Eastern Pacific region ( 140 ° W to North America ) , nineteen tropical depressions formed , of which seventeen became tropical storms , nine further intensifying into hurricanes , and five ultimately reaching major hurricanes of Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir Simpson Scale . These numbers are slightly above the long @-@ term averages of fifteen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and four major hurricanes .
In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( 140 ° W to the International Date Line ) , three depressions , two tropical storms , and one hurricane formed . Overall , there were eleven tropical cyclones , eight tropical storms , five hurricanes , and three major hurricanes that formed or entered the Central Pacific region . These numbers are well above the long @-@ term average of four tropical cyclones , two hurricanes , one tropical storm , and two depressions . The exceptionally high activity was contributed to by an El Niño ongoing at the time .
The only named storm to make landfall this year was Hurricane Rosa , which killed four people in Western Mexico and forced over 400 to be evacuated . Other notable storms include Hurricane Olivia , a high @-@ end Category 4 system , the three Category 5 hurricanes Emilia , Gilma , and John . Both John and Hurricane Li existed in two of the three basins ( East , and West ) of the Pacific Ocean .
This season marked the end of the Northeastern Pacific 's most recent active period , which began in 1982 , and includes the five most active Pacific hurricane seasons . Beginning in 1995 , multi @-@ decadal factors switched to a phase that suppresses Pacific hurricane activity . Since then , Pacific hurricane seasons have generally been below normal ; the lone abnormally active season since then was in 1997 , where a strong El Nino event was observed .
The 1994 Pacific hurricane season set several records . First , three hurricanes reached Category 5 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , setting a record later tied in 2002 . Hurricane John lasted longer and spent more time tropical than any other tropical cyclone on Earth in recorded history . Eleven tropical cyclones entered or formed in the central Pacific , a record shared with the 1992 season until the 2015 season broke the record . Finally , of the four most intense hurricanes recorded in the Central Pacific , three of them occurred this season .
The season began with the formation of Tropical Depression One @-@ E on June 18 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Nona on October 26 . No named systems formed in May , three in June , four in July , five in August , six in September , two in October , and none in November . The total length of the season , from the formation of the first depression to the dissipation of the last , was 130 days .
Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) is a measure of how active a hurricane season is . It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm @-@ force winds every six hours , summing the results , and dividing that total by 104 . As a tropical cyclone does not have gale @-@ force winds until it becomes a tropical storm , tropical depressions are not included in these tables . For all storms , ACE is given to three significant figures . The ACE in the east Pacific proper ( 140 ° W to North America ) is given ; the ACE in the central Pacific ( the International Date Line to 140 ° W ) is given in brackets . The table includes the ACE for Li and John only during those storm 's time east of the dateline . Their ACE west of the dateline is part of the totals of the 1994 typhoon season .
The National Hurricane Center uses ACE to rank hurricane seasons as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal , and below @-@ normal . It defines below @-@ normal as having an ACE less than 95 * 104 kt2 kt2 ; It defines above normal as having an ACE above 150 * 104 kt2 along with the numbers of any two of the following above average : tropical storms ( 15 ) , hurricanes ( 9 ) , or major hurricanes ( 4 ) ; It defines near @-@ normal as having an ACE between 100 * 104 kt2 and 150 * 104 kt2 , or an ACE above 150 * 104 kt2 with fewer than two of the numbers of the following above average : tropical storms ( 15 ) , hurricanes ( 9 ) , or major hurricanes ( 4 ) .
This season has a total of seventeen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and five major hurricanes . The total ACE of this season is 185 * 104 kt2 . This qualifies this season as above @-@ normal .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Aletta = = =
Tropical Depression One @-@ E formed from an area of disturbed weather on June 18 . It strengthened to Tropical Storm Aletta the next day . It continued intensifying and reached its peak intensity on June 20 . Vertical wind shear began to weaken the storm thereafter . The weakening trend continued , weakening Aletta to a depression on June 21 . The system dissipated June 23 . Aletta 's remnant low , however , could be tracked on satellite images for days following the storm . The low finally dissipated north of Hawaii . Aletta never affected land , and no damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Bud = = =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E formed on June 27 about 575 miles ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of the tip of the Baja California Peninsula . The depression headed west @-@ northwest , gradually turned to the northwest , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Bud on June 27 . Early the next day , Bud peaked in intensity . Shear caused by a nearby upper level low slowly weakened Bud . Later on June 28 , a second center of circulation developed . The two centers started a Fujiwhara interaction . The second center then became dominant and the first one vanished . This confused structure is similar to what happened to 1993 's Tropical Storm Arlene . This confused structure also weakened Bud to a tropical depression on the afternoon of the same day the second center formed . Bud then headed westward over cool waters and dissipated on June 29 . Tropical Storm Bud spent its entire life over the open ocean far from land areas . No casualties or damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Carlotta = = =
The tropical depression that would be Carlotta formed on June 28 . It quickly became Tropical Storm Carlotta , and a large eye became visible . Because of this , the NHC upgraded the storm to a hurricane . Carlotta peaked in intensity on July 1 , as a 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) hurricane . It gradually weakened as it moved into cooler waters , dissipating on July 5 . Carlotta did not threaten land .
Carlotta buffeted Socorro Island with sustained winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) on June 30 . Other than there , Carlotta caused no damage or deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Daniel = = =
On July 8 , a disturbance located about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula developed a circulation and became Tropical Depression Four @-@ E. Convection increased , and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Daniel . Upper @-@ level outflow improved , and Daniel peaked in intensity on July 9 . Daniel slowly declined as it continued westward . It entered the central Pacific on July 11 . Wind shear weakened Daniel as it approached the Big Island , and by July 15 had degenerated into an open wave .
When Daniel was approaching Hawaii , moderate surf of 4 to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) impacted the south and southeast shores of the Big Island on July 13 and 14 . Daniel 's remnants also passed about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of South Point , Hawaii on July 15 . That day , they caused rainfall on windward slopes of the Big Island locally reaching 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . No reports of damage or casualties were received .
= = = Hurricane Emilia = = =
On July 16 , an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Emilia later that day . It moved west @-@ northwest and strengthened into a hurricane . It entered the central Pacific on July 17 . It continued intensifying , reaching Category 5 intensity on July 19 , the first Category 5 Pacific hurricane since Ava . Emilia started weakening quickly on July 21 . It weakened to a tropical storm on July 23 and dissipated two days later .
Emilia passed south of the Hawai ’ ian Islands , producing swells of 6 to 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height near the Puna and Ka ‘ ū coasts . Winds caused minor damage , and rain was moderate . No one was killed .
= = = Tropical Storm Fabio = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 19 . Later that day , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Fabio . Fabio headed generally west or northwestward . It entered the central Pacific as a tropical depression , and dissipated on July 24 .
Fabio 's remnants brought locally heavy rainfall to Hawaii , reaching 3 to 4 inches ( 76 to 102 mm ) . No one was killed and there was no damage .
= = = Hurricane Gilma = = =
Part of a tropical wave organized into a tropical depression on July 21 . It headed westward and out to sea , strengthening into a tropical storm the next day . Gilma rapidly strengthened and became a hurricane exactly one day after it was named . It continued to intensify as it entered the central Pacific . Shortly after entering the central Pacific , Gilma reached Category 5 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , the second of the season . It then suddenly weakened for unexplained reasons , and weakened into a tropical storm on July 27 . It became a depression three days after that and dissipated on July 31 . Hurricane Gilma had minor impact on Johnston Atoll . That atoll received light rain , wind gusts to near gale force , and surf . No casualties or damage were reported .
Hurricane Gilma was the second most @-@ intense Pacific at the time . As of 2016 , it remains the ninth @-@ most intense . Gilma is also the strongest July storm in the eastern or central Pacific .
= = = Hurricane Li = = =
A tropical disturbance southwest of Cabo San Lucas organized into Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E on July 31 . It headed west @-@ northwest without strengthening much , and crossed into the central Pacific on August 2 . Eight @-@ E developed a second center of circulation , which became dominant , and then became bound up in the intertropical convergence zone . Eight @-@ E then became disorganized , with multiple centers of circulation , and advisories were discontinued on August 5 . The depression 's remains continued their westward path well south of the Hawaiian Islands . The depression regenerated on August 8 . It soon strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Li , which is Hawaiian for " Lee " . Li approached the dateline on its generally westward heading . Just before crossing , it intensified into a minimal Category 1 hurricane . It crossed the dateline on August 12 and became a storm in the 1994 Pacific typhoon season . Wind shear from a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough weakened back into a tropical storm as it crossed the dateline , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center downgraded Li with its first advisory . Li stayed a tropical storm until August 16 , where it weakened into a tropical depression . The system then began recurving , and dissipated on August 18 . A weakening Tropical Depression Li caused showers on Wake Island . Other than there , Li had no impact on any land , and no casualties or damage were reported .
Hurricane Li is one of only seven tropical cyclones to exist on all three tropical cyclone basins in the Pacific Ocean . It is also one of only five systems to form as a depression in the east Pacific but be named in the central ; the others are Lala , Iniki , Lana and Ela .
= = = Tropical Storm Hector = = =
On August 7 , a tropical depression formed from a tropical wave a few hundred miles south of Baja California . It became Tropical Storm Hector quickly , and as it paralleled the coast of Mexico , it began to weaken , dissipating on August 10 . No damage was reported anywhere .
Tropical Storm Hector was forecast to approach the Baja California Peninsula . A tropical storm watch was issued for part of the peninsula on August 8 . It was lifted later the same day . Hector 's most significant impact was rain . The tropical storm dumped rain along a discontinuous zone of coastal and inland Mexico . The highest point maxima were 7 @.@ 87 inches ( 200 mm ) at Cerro de Ortega / Ixtlahua and 7 @.@ 60 inches ( 193 mm ) at Caduano / Santiago . No damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression on August 9 while located 740 miles ( 1 @,@ 190 km ) southeast of Hilo , Hawaii . The depression moved westward without organizing , and dissipated on August 14 .
Moisture from the system produced heavy rainfall over the island of Hawaii , totaling to over 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . The flooding closed all major roads in Hilo , and was considered the worst flooding in 40 years . The rainfall destroyed two homes and damaged 214 , 14 severely . It also damaged roads and businesses . Damage throughout the island totaled to $ 5 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 7 @.@ 98 million 2016 USD ) . Flooding occurred in Maui as well , where landslides blocked portions of the Hana Highway . One @-@ C 's point maximum of 15 in ( 380 mm ) makes it Hawaii 's seventh wettest known tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Ileana = = =
A disturbance that was part of the intertropical convergence zone developed several centers of circulation . After it organized , it separated from the ITCZ and became Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E on August 10 while the system was about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . It was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ileana at the second advisory , at the same time as John , the next storm . An eye appeared , and Ileana became a hurricane on August 12 . It began weakening almost immediately thereafter , as it passed over cooler waters and encountered increasing wind shear . Ileana was a tropical storm on August 13 , and the next day it was a dissipating swirl low @-@ level clouds located about 520 miles ( 840 km ) west of Punta Eugenia . Although Ileana paralleled the coast of Mexico , watches and warnings were not issued because winds of tropical storm @-@ force were not expected to affect land . No one was killed and there was no damage reported in association with this cyclone .
= = = Hurricane John = = =
Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E formed on August 11 south of Mexico . It headed generally westward , and was upgraded into a tropical storm twelve hours after it formed and was named John . John fluctuated in strength as it headed west , always managing to stay at tropical storm strength . On August 20 , steady intensification began , and John was a major hurricane when it entered the central Pacific . It continued westward , reaching Category 5 intensity on August 23 . It passed around 245 miles ( 394 km ) south of Hawaii , and passed just north of Johnston Atoll on August 26 . John stayed at hurricane intensity until it crossed the dateline on August 28 , becoming a typhoon of the 1994 Pacific typhoon season . After weakening into a tropical storm , John recurved , looped , and recurved again . It reintensified , and was a hurricane when it recrossed the dateline to reenter the central Pacific . John headed north @-@ northeast until it went extratropical on September 10 , thirty one days after it formed .
Ahead of the hurricane , the 1100 people at Johnston Atoll evacuated . On the atoll , John caused $ 15 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 23 @.@ 9 million 2016 USD ) in damage . No deaths were reported . Other than on Johnston , Hurricane John had minor effects in Hawaii . Its remnants also affected Alaska .
Hurricane John was the longest lasting and farthest traveling tropical cyclone on Earth in recorded history . It is also one of six tropical cyclones to exist in all three basins of the Pacific Ocean , an uncommon west @-@ to @-@ east dateline crosser , and one of the few tropical cyclone to cross the dateline more than once .
= = = Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E = = =
On August 14 , an area of convection organized enough to be considered a tropical depression . It was steered by John 's circulation , and it was never expected to strengthen much because it was close to cool waters . The cyclone drifted north , then northeast , north again , northwest , and then west . The National Hurricane Center declared the depression dissipated on August 15 . The depression had no effects anywhere .
= = = Hurricane Kristy = = =
On August 28 , Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E formed about 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . It was named Tropical Storm Kristy on August 30 . As it crossed into the central Pacific , a banding @-@ type eye formed and it became a hurricane . Twelve hours later , it reached Category 2 intensity . Kristy weakened steadily from that point due to wind shear . It passed about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Hawaii , and dissipated on September 5 . The lowest central pressure of Kristy is unknown . The last estimate was made when Kirsty was still a tropical storm .
As it approached the Hawaiian Islands , a high surf advisory and a high wind warning were issued for the Big Island of Hawaii . No damage or deaths were reported in association with this system . Its remnants crossed 180th meridian very early on September 7 and was absorbed by a tropical depression which became Typhoon Melissa in the Western Pacific basin .
= = = Hurricane Lane = = =
The same tropical wave that spawned Tropical Depression Five in the Atlantic became Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E on September 3 . It quickly became Tropical Storm Lane . A high pressure ridge centered itself north of Lane , keeping the storm on a westward track . This brought Lane into very favorable conditions , and Lane intensified . When the tropical storm reached hurricane strength , it entered a phase of rapid intensification , reaching winds of about 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) , making it a category four hurricane . The high pressure ridge shifted eastward , and allowed Lane to enter unfavorable conditions . Lane dissipated on September 10 .
= = = Tropical Storm Mele = = =
A tropical disturbance became Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on September 6 . It reached tropical storm strength the next day , being named Mele . The name Mele means " song " in the Hawaiian language and is also the Hawaiian form of " Mary " . Mele headed west @-@ northwest and weakened back into a tropical depression on September . It dissipated later that day without incident .
= = = Tropical Storm Miriam = = =
Miriam formed from a weak disturbance on September 15 . It strengthened slightly into Tropical Storm Miriam , and dissipated on September 21 , having led an uneventful life without impact . In an interesting occurrence , the low @-@ level remnants of Miriam were still visible for weeks after the storm dissipated near 140 ° W.
= = = Tropical Storm Norman = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 19 , and became Tropical Storm Norman the next day . After tracking northwest , it began to turn north in response to a trough , and convection began to diminish . Norman dissipated on September 22 without having ever affected land .
= = = Hurricane Olivia = = =
Hurricane Olivia ultimately formed from a disturbance that had separated from the intertropical convergence zone and become distinct by September 19 . The disturbance slowly headed westward and it organized into a tropical depression on September 22 while located about 720 miles ( 1 @,@ 160 km ) south of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . The depression headed west @-@ northwestwards and strengthened into Tropical Storm Olivia on September 22 . It steadily intensified and was a hurricane on September 24 . It then rapidly strengthened into a powerful major hurricane . It slowly curled to the northwest as it was observed by NOAA research aircraft . Olivia peaked in intensity on September 25 . Meanwhile , a large cyclone off the extreme southern part of California induced a northward path . As Olivia started a small anticyclonic loop , wind shear began to weaken the hurricane . When Olivia was finished the loop , it had weakened to a tropical storm . It then headed westward . It weakened into a tropical depression on September 28 and dissipated the next day . No impact was reported .
At the time , Olivia was the third @-@ most intense Pacific hurricane on record . It has since dropped to Eleventh . The storm also had the lowest barometric pressure of a Category 4 Pacific hurricane on record . In 2001 , Hurricane Juliette joined Olivia as the most intense Cat . 4 on record . In 2014 , Hurricane Odile beat both storms when it attained a minimum pressure of 918 mbars . Olivia was also the most intense September hurricane . Since , Hurricane Linda beat Olivia . Olivia remains the third most intense September hurricane .
= = = Tropical Storm Paul = = =
A nearly stationary cluster of thunderstorms and convection that had been hanging around since September 15 and escaped destruction by Tropical Storm Miriam organized into Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 24 . It was located between Miriam 's remnants and the developing Olivia . It became Tropical Storm Paul on the afternoon of September 25 . It peaked in intensity on September 27 . Then , upper outflow from the nearby Olivia started shearing the tropical cyclone . Paul had been completely destroyed by September 30 . The tropical cyclone never threatened land , and consequently , no damage or deaths were reported .
= = = Hurricane Rosa = = =
An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression at midday on October 8 . It had trouble organizing , and advisories were discontinued for a while . The cyclone finally became a tropical storm on October 11 and was named Rosa . It moved glacially , but eventually a trough steered Rosa north and then northeast . Rosa intensified quickly , peaking at Category 2 intensity just before landfall near La Concepción on the morning of October 14 . Rosa quickly decayed over the mountains of Mexico , and its cloud shield rapidly accelerated northward through the United States , spreading moisture .
On October 12 , a hurricane watch was issued for the coast from Culiacán to Manzanillo and the Baja California Peninsula south of latitude 24 ° N. At the same time , a tropical storm warning was issued from Manzanillo to Tepic . On October 14 , a hurricane warning was issued for the coast between Culiacán and Cabo Corrientes , and a tropical storm warning south of Cabo Corrientes to Manzanillo . All watches and warnings were lifted later that day .
Four deaths , two in each of Nayarit and Durango , were reported . Four people were missing in Sinaloa . All of the deaths were due to drowning . More than 100 @,@ 000 people had their homes damaged in Nayarit . Telephone poles and power lines were downed in Sinaloa . Rain caused landslides and flash @-@ flooding in mountainous areas . In Jalisco , mudslides forced the evacuation of 400 people from two coastal villages . The highest rainfall total in Mexico was 14 @.@ 09 inches ( 358 mm ) at Mesa de Pedro Pablo . The moisture Rosa sent into the United States was a contributing factor in record rains in parts of southeastern Texas from October 15 to 19 . Those rains caused flooding that killed 22 people , destroyed over 3000 homes , and caused US $ 700 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Nona = = =
Tropical Depression Three @-@ C formed on October 21 in the Central Pacific basin . It traveled westward for about 4 days before strengthening to Tropical Storm Nona on October 25 . The name " Nona " is Hawaiian for the Latin name spelled the same way . Nona immediately weakened back into a tropical depression . Upper @-@ level westerlies from a nearby trough destroyed the depression on October 26 . No deaths or damage were reported . Nona was a tropical storm for six hours , the minimum possible time .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Yuri = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on October 21 a tropical depression formed west of the International Dateline , and soon it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . As it entered into western Pacific , it strengthened as a tropical storm and received the name Yuri .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean during 1994 . Names that were not assigned this season are marked in gray . No names were retired , so this same list was used again in the 2000 season . This is the same list used for the 1988 season except for Ileana , which replaced Iva and was used for the first time in 1994 .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1994 are shown below . Three of them , Li , Mele , and Nona , were used throughout the course of the year .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all the storms that have formed in the 1994 Pacific hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) , denoted in parentheses , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all the damage figures are in 1994 USD .
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= United States Institute of Peace Headquarters =
The United States Institute of Peace Headquarters houses staff offices and other facilities for the government @-@ funded think tank focused on peacemaking and conflict avoidance . The building is the first permanent home for the United States Institute of Peace ( USIP ) , established in 1984 . The headquarters is sited on a prominent location near the National Mall and Potomac River in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington , D.C. The environmentally friendly building , noted for its unique roof , was designed by architect Moshe Safdie and completed in 2011 . Critics ' reviews of the building 's design have been mixed .
= = History = =
In the 1980s , Democratic Senator Jennings Randolph of West Virginia led a group of lawmakers calling for a federal peace institute . USIP was established by Congress in 1984 and for many years rented office space in various buildings in downtown Washington , the last being 1200 17th Street NW . In 1996 , Congress approved a site on the National Mall for USIP . The site chosen for a new headquarters , the first permanent home for the USIP , was on the corner of 23rd Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Foggy Bottom . It was previously a parking lot for Bureau of Medicine and Surgery employees at the adjacent Old Naval Observatory . The land was transferred to the USIP without charge with an agreement that underground parking spaces would be built for the Navy employees . The site is on the northwest corner and last buildable site available on the National Mall , overlooking the Lincoln Memorial , and across the street from the historic American Institute of Pharmacy Building .
In 2004 , Congress authorized $ 100 million for construction of USIP 's headquarters , in part due to the efforts of Republican Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska , while the institute was required to raise the remaining $ 86 million . The funds raised by USIP included a $ 10 million donation from Chevron Corporation . Another corporate donor to the building fund , defense contractor Lockheed Martin , was named a " Founding Corporate Partner " after donating $ 1 million . William Hartung of the Center for International Policy criticized the USIP for " taking money from the world 's largest producer of the weapons of war . "
In April 2001 , USIP issued solicitations for a design and twenty @-@ six architects submitted proposals . Moshe Safdie had never heard of USIP before receiving the design request , but he was one of the five finalists chosen . The other four were Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects , Michael Graves and Associates , Polshek Partnership ( now known as Ennead Architects ) , and Weiss / Manfredi ( which withdrew ) . According to USIP president Richard H. Solomon , Safdie 's design was chosen because the other designs " were basically square buildings . " USIP 's headquarters is the second building in Washington , D.C. designed by Safdie . The first was the fortress @-@ like headquarters of the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives , completed in 2008 , which dominates the busy intersection of Florida and New York Avenues NE .
The National Capital Planning Commission ( NCPC ) unanimously approved plans for the building in 2007 . The groundbreaking ceremony took place the following year in June . Dignitaries in attendance included President George W. Bush , Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi , Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice , former Defense Secretary Frank Carlucci , and former Secretaries of State Henry Kissinger , George P. Shultz , and Madeleine Albright . During the ceremony , some of the speakers hinted their opposing views of Bush 's use of preventive war . Construction of the 154 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 14 @,@ 300 m2 ) headquarters , which is LEED Gold certified , was carried out by Clark Construction Group of Bethesda , Maryland . The U.S. Green Building Council certified it as the first environmentally friendly building on the National Mall . The headquarters , which is managed by real estate services firm Akridge , was dedicated in October 2011 . That same year , the Samuel W. Lewis Hall was dedicated in honor of the former ambassador to Israel and USIP president . "
= = Design = =
According to Safdie , the building " is by definition the physical symbol of peace in the capital 's skyline " and needed to convey the spirit of peace . Safdie stated : " I 'm not one who believes in overt symbolism , but my sense of a building dedicated to peace was a sense of the lightness of being , ... It should be a serene building . It should not be an aggressive building . It should be full of light . " Safdie achieved this by designing a glass curtain wall facing the Lincoln Memorial and a billowing glass ceiling . The ceiling is one of the building elements in common with Safdie 's design for the Yitzhak Rabin Center in Israel . The 8 inches ( 20 cm ) thick roof is made of 1 @,@ 482 white glass panels and supported by steel frames while the interior of the roof is covered by a translucent plastic film . It is opaque and white during the day and glows at night .
There are two main entrances to the building , one facing Constitution Avenue , and another facing 23rd Street NW . The building is made of acid @-@ etched precast @-@ concrete and resembles limestone . The design is centered around two atria , a large one facing the National Mall that is designed for the public , and a smaller private one for staff that overlooks the Potomac River . The larger atrium , the George P. Shultz Great Hall , measures 11 @,@ 800 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) and features the 80 ft ( 24 m ) high glass curtain wall facing the National Mall . The 230 @-@ seat Frank C. Carlucci III Auditorium , Jacqueline and Marc Leland Atrium , and 20 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 900 m2 ) Global Peacebuilding Center , an interactive museum dedicated to peacemaking , are accessible via this atrium . The roof over the Great Hall , designed to convey a dove 's wings , is called Ansary Peace Dove . The second atrium , also known as the International Women ’ s Commons , measures 3 @,@ 600 sq ft ( 330 m2 ) and is lined with offices , a library , meeting rooms , conference center , and the Farooq Kathwari Amphitheatre . The roof over this atrium is a simplified version of Ansary Peace Dove . There is a 2 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 190 m2 ) outdoor terrace and adjoining boardroom facing the Lincoln Memorial . A three @-@ story underground parking garage can accommodate 230 vehicles ; 140 of those spaces are reserved for Navy personnel .
= = Reception = =
Katherine Gustafson of ArchitectureWeek thought the building " succeeds as a monumental edifice befitting its place in the urban frame of the National Mall " while Nathan Guttman of The Jewish Daily Forward described the headquarters as an " architectural gem . " Architect Roger K. Lewis , professor emeritus of architecture at the University of Maryland , had mixed feelings about the building . He said it was " most visible and aesthetically enticing after dark " , while its " unique , idiosyncratic form appears somewhat less enticing " during the day . During the NCPC meeting in 2007 giving final approval to the building , a National Park Service representative said " This building will be a foreign object in the landscape of classical architecture of this city " , criticizing the design compared to the neoclassical and Beaux @-@ Arts buildings along Constitution Avenue . The building is highly visible to commuters on Interstate 66 as they enter the city , a fact lamented by Philip Kennicott , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning critic for The Washington Post . In two scathing reviews of the headquarters , Kennicott said " If it were not for the roof , the building would be unexceptional , just another exercise in boxy architecture pierced by deadening rows of identical rectangular windows " and " The institute ’ s design marks yet another low point in Safdie ’ s long descent into repetitive corporate architecture . "
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= Wilfrid Eggleston =
Wilfrid Eggleston OBE ( 25 March 1901 – 13 June 1986 ) was an Anglo @-@ Canadian journalist , author and civil servant . Born in Lincoln to middle @-@ class English parents , he relocated to Netherfield , Nottinghamshire where his father was convinced to move the family to a ranch in Orion , Alberta . Suffering from boredom in his teenage years , Eggleston advanced his basic English education through a fast @-@ track course at Regina College , which qualified his entrance to Queen 's University in 1926 . Graduating in 1928 , he found journalistic work at the Lethbridge Herald before occupying his role as Ottawa correspondent for the Toronto Star by the following year , becoming parliamentary correspondent before his resignation in 1936 .
Joining the civil service through his productive membership of the secretariat in the Rowell @-@ Sirois Commission of 1937 , the Canadian government entrusted him with the position of Chief Censor of the nation in 1942 to combat negative coverage of Canada 's role in the Second World War at home and overseas . Resigning in 1944 , much to the regret of the authorities , Eggleston found work as an academic at Carleton University in 1947 , establishing the Carleton School of Journalism upon accepting his lectureship ; he directed the faculty until 1966 . Eggleston died in Ottawa on 13 June 1986 at the age of 85 .
= = Early life = =
Wilfrid Eggleston was born on 25 March 1901 in Lincoln to English parents who had moved from Spalding two years earlier , where his older sister Margaret had been born . His father was a former tax collector , his mother , a shop assistant and dressmaking apprentice ; they had married in Grantham come 1897 after meeting as choristers in the town 's Methodist chapel . Eggleston 's father , one of nine children from a Nottinghamshire farm , relocated the family regularly through his successful work at an insurance firm . His mother , similarly privileged , is said to have received an education from a " Victorian private school for young ladies " . The family purchased a grocer 's shop in Netherfield , Nottinghamshire , briefly resettling there until 1909 . During this short period , Wilfrid was educated at the newly established Chandos Street Secondary School , which amalgamated in 1973 to form Carlton le Willows School .
Following this , Wilfrid moved to a ranch in the emerging settlement of Orion , Alberta with his family on the advice of a neighbor ; the farming of wheat was a predominant activity . However , following a major crop failure in 1917 , he became the town 's bank clerk after employment in a convenience store , but later left for Kronau , Saskatchewan due to a combination of poor business and boredom ; the family ranch was later abandoned in 1923 . After skipping several years of high school education through a fast @-@ track course at Regina College , Eggleston enrolled for a Bachelor of Arts program at Queen 's University in 1926 .
= = Career = =
After graduating from Queen 's in 1928 , Wilfrid Eggleston began writing for the locally printed Lethbridge Herald . He wrote under Canadian Senator William Ashbury Buchanan , whom had acquired ownership of the newspaper in 1905 . Eggleston held Buchanan and his politics in high regard during his short stay at the publication . After just one year writing in Lethbridge , he became Ottawa correspondent for the Toronto Star in 1929 , and witnessed significant political events in this position , including the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the British Empire Economic Conference of 1932 .
He also began writing through the media agency Reuters in the late 1920s by means of a syndicated weekly newspaper column , with a selection of his political pieces featuring in Time Magazine and a plethora of other noted publications . By the time Eggleston had resigned from the Toronto Star in 1936 , he had risen to become the newspaper 's parliamentary correspondent ; he 'd finished reporting through Reuters within the same year .
Whilst maintaining his journalistic status as a freelance reporter , he began governmental service in 1937 . He was a member of the secretariat in the Rowell – Sirois Commission , which sought to ease the encumbrance of the Great Depression by analyzing perceived flaws in the Canadian constitution . The outcome of the commission , supported by Eggleston , allowed for greater involvement in regard to unemployment insurance and pensions from the federal government . During this time he liaised with notable figures including Newton Rowell , James McGregor Stewart and Henry Angus ( all of whom were also members of the venture ) .
After gaining the trust of the Canadian government , he became Chief Censor for war @-@ time Canada from 1942 until 1944 ; Eggleston 's predecessor , Major James Haig @-@ Smith , was ordered to ban some 600 published works due to leftist sympathies . Among the high @-@ profile censorship requests that Eggleston didn 't oblige to include the Battle of the St. Lawrence , after he discovered that it was merely an attempt to , as he put it , " give the Minister of Naval Affairs a scoop when he announced it to the House " , and the Conscription Crisis of 1944 , to which he was personally objected , despite pressure from then Prime Minister , Mackenzie King . Upon being discharged from the post , General Léo Richer Laflèche commented in the Ottawa Citizen that he was " largely responsible for the efficient functioning of censorship in Canada " . He was succeeded in the role by fellow journalist Fulgence Charpentier .
Later in life , Wilfrid was involved in more academic pursuits . He had received a basic teacher @-@ training education from the Calgary Normal School ( latterly a part of the University of Alberta ) , and taught for some years in the Golden Prairie School District before lecturing at Carleton University in 1947 . In the same year , he became founder and director of the Carleton School of Journalism , a post he held until 1966 . The Canadian Encyclopedia claims that Eggleston " was considered the father of journalism education in Canada , emphasizing its roots in the liberal arts and social sciences " .
= = Honours , recognition and death = =
He was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1943 by George VI in the Birthday Honours of that year , shortly after resigning his censor post . Approaching the conclusion of the Second World War , Eggleston made several public appearances in his native United Kingdom on behalf of the Ministry of Information , including at the White Rock Pavilion on 20 April 1945 , where he expressed Canadian support for the British war effort , with particular admiration for the Battle of Britain .
Becoming a prominent author on Canadian history and politics upon retirement from the civil service , Eggleston earned the recognition of the Writers ' Guild of Alberta , which established the ' Wilfrid Eggleston Award for Nonfiction ' in 1982 . Dying in Ottawa on 13 June 1986 at 85 years of age , Eggleston 's extensive book collection of some 3 @,@ 000 works was donated to the University of Lethbridge in 2006 , despite interest from Carleton and Queen 's universities , his academic institution and alma mater respectively .
= = Published works = =
Eggleston published a total of 17 books throughout his life ; these included seven on Canadian history , five on its politics and three personal memoirs . He further published poetry anthologies in 1927 , and again in 1978 with his wife Magdalena Raškevičiutė , herself a noted Lithuanian @-@ Canadian author , to commemorate their fiftieth wedding anniversary . Perhaps most notable of their children was classical pianist and composer Anne Eggleston ( 1934 – 1994 ) , who through her association with the The Royal Conservatory of Music became a distinguished contemporary of figures including Robert Fleming , John Weinzweig , Oskar Morawetz and Godfrey Ridout , in addition to others .
History
The High Plains ( 1938 )
Why & How Canada Federated ( 1947 )
The Green Gables Letters : From L. M. Montgomery to Ephraim Weber , 1905 – 1909 ( 1960 )
Newfoundland : the Road to Confederation ( 1974 )
The Frontier and Canadian Letters ( 1977 )
Prairie Symphony ( 1978 )
National Research in Canada : The NRC 1916 – 1966 ( 1978 )
Politics
The Road to Nationhood : a Chronicle of Dominion @-@ Provincial Relations ( 1946 )
Scientists at War ( 1950 )
Canada at Work ( 1953 )
The Queen 's Choice : a Story of Canada 's Capital ( 1961 )
Canada 's Nuclear Story ( 1966 )
Memoirs
While I Still Remember : a Personal Record ( 1968 )
Literary Friends ( 1980 )
Homestead on the Range ( 1982 )
Poetry
Prairie Moonlight and other Lyrics ( 1927 )
Lyrics by Magdalena and Wilfrid Eggleston ( 1978 )
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= Iloilo International Airport =
Iloilo International Airport ( Hiligaynon : Pangkalibutan nga Hulugpaan sang Iloilo , Tagalog : Paliparang Pandaigdig ng Iloilo ) ( IATA : ILO , ICAO : RPVI ) , also known as Iloilo Airport , and as Cabatuan Airport , after the municipality of Cabatuan , Iloilo where it is located and sometimes Santa Barbara Airport for the nearby municipality of Santa Barbara , Iloilo . The airport serves the Province of Iloilo , including its capital city , Iloilo City , the regional center of the Western Visayas region in the Philippines . It opened its doors to commercial traffic on June 14 , 2007 after a decade of planning and construction , replacing the old Iloilo Airport in Mandurriao , Iloilo City and inherited its IATA and ICAO airport codes . It is the fourth @-@ busiest airport in the Philippines , from its predecessor . It is the first airport in both Western Visayas and the island of Panay to be built to international standards , and one of the four airports in the region planned to be an international gateway .
The airport is located in Cabatuan , Iloilo , 19 kilometers ( 12 mi ) northwest of Iloilo City on a 188 @-@ hectare ( 460 @-@ acre ) site in Barangay Tabucan , Barangay Gaub , Barangay Duyan @-@ Duyan and Barangay Manguna , all in Cabatuan , Iloilo . The airport can be reached using either the Barangay Tabucan and Barangay Tiring access road , or the Barangay Duyan @-@ Duyan , Cabatuan access road . The airport complex consists of a single runway , various administrative and maintenance buildings , waste @-@ sorting and water @-@ treatment facilities , a power @-@ generating station , a cargo terminal , and a main passenger terminal . Its location on the Tomas Confesor Highway , a major highway transversing the island , makes the airport accessible from all parts of Iloilo and Panay by road , while its proximity to the currently defunct Panay Railways network could potentially link the airport to the rest of Panay by rail .
Built in slightly over 30 months , Iloilo International Airport is one of the largest airports to be constructed in the Philippines . At its inauguration , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo remarked that the airport was the most beautiful and modern in the country and called it a symbol of both political will and economic maturity .
= = History = =
= = = The situation at Mandurriao Airport = = =
Prior to the construction of Iloilo International Airport , Iloilo City was served by the old Iloilo Airport in Mandurriao , Iloilo City , which had been in operation since 1937 . Though continually expanded in order to accommodate the changing demands of the city throughout much of its history , Iloilo City 's rapid urbanization had made this feat impossible by the 1990s . The 2 @,@ 202 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 23 @,@ 700 sq ft ) terminal building , constructed in 1982 to handle the passenger demands of a single airline ( Philippine Airlines , being the Philippines ' aviation monopoly at the time ) , was unable to cope with the liberalization of the Philippine aviation industry and the subsequent boom in air travel , when as many as four airlines served the airport at the same time and where the passenger terminal needed to have an area of at least 7 @,@ 800 square meters ( 84 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in order to absorb all peak @-@ hour demand .
The airport 's problems continued to linger with it into the new millennium . The increasing incidence of terrorism in the Philippines for example forced aviation officials to restrict airport access only to passengers , the sealing of doors and windows at airport terminals being an essential component thereof . However , the airport 's architecture ( which took advantage of natural ventilation ) and lack of air conditioning made the airport 's pre @-@ departure and arrival areas very uncomfortable for passengers to stay in . To counteract this , the Air Transportation Office ( the forerunner of the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines ) installed six air @-@ conditioning units at the pre @-@ departure area . Although the installed units were able to provide a degree of comfort to passengers , the ATO recognized that their efforts were inadequate : in order to effectively provide a comfortable environment for passengers throughout the entire terminal building , twenty @-@ three air conditioners needed to be installed . Passenger complaints meanwhile were not limited to just the lack of air conditioning : despite the existence of a baggage X @-@ ray machine , passengers flying other airlines were forced to have their baggage manually checked as the machine was ostensibly for the sole use of Philippine Airlines passengers .
In addition to problems with the terminal building , both the airport 's location and surrounding infrastructure were the subject of much complaint as well . For one , although some 1 @,@ 700 cars visited the airport daily , the parking lot had only 129 slots , and could not be expanded any further . The airport complex likewise was located directly alongside major city thoroughfares , in particular the city 's main highway , the Tomas Confesor Highway , which complicated the flow of traffic in and around the area . At one point , the ATO , which was already having difficulty managing vehicular traffic around the airport , proposed banning cargo and delivery trucks from passing through the road in front of the terminal building . However , the city government did not respond .
Beset with a myriad of problems , authorities eventually concluded that a new airport had to be built outside the city , and thus Iloilo International Airport was born .
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In October 1995 , the Iloilo city government announced its intention to construct a new airport outside the city in cooperation with the private sector . A year later , the Department of Transportation and Communications ( DOTC ) announced its intention to construct a new airport in Iloilo with German assistance , originally to serve as a reliever for a larger airport to be built in Silay City , Negros Occidental ( which would later become the Bacolod @-@ Silay International Airport ) . Although two sites were initially proposed : north of the city in Santa Barbara and south of the city in the province of Guimaras , the ATO decided to keep the airport in Iloilo , citing the lack of demand in Guimaras to justify construction there . The Regional Development Council for Western Visayas ( RDC ) endorsed the project to the National Economic and Development Authority ( NEDA ) in July 1997 . Despite the endorsements , the NEDA , citing an internal rate of return below the set " hurdle rate " of fifteen percent and the impossibility of acquiring some 415 hectares ( 1 @,@ 030 acres ) of land for the project in one year , rejected the airport proposal in February 1998 , and the project was subsequently excluded from the 1998 development cooperation program of the German government .
Concurrent though with the planning of the new airport , the Japan International Cooperation Agency ( JICA ) initiated a study on the master planning and long @-@ term development plans of four key domestic airports in the Philippines . The report cited Mandurriao Airport , Bacolod City Domestic Airport , Legazpi Airport and Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport in Tacloban City as these key domestic airports , noting the high growth of passenger and cargo volume there and the eventual need for expansion . Heeding the recommendations of the JICA report , President Joseph Estrada signed a memorandum in November 1998 creating the Iloilo Airport Coordinating Committee , headed by Iloilo @-@ born senator Franklin Drilon . The coordinating committee decided that a new airport was needed for Iloilo City as Mandurriao Airport was deemed unexpandable due to operational obstacles and the presence of slums and other natural and civic structures that would restrict expansion efforts . In addition , the committee , objecting to the idea that the new airport would serve merely as a reliever for the new Bacolod airport , successfully lobbied for an international airport to be built in lieu of a domestic one . The project finally received NEDA approval in March 2000 , with Cabatuan as the location of the new airport based on a study performed by both the DOTC and the JICA later that year .
Although multiple funding sources were originally considered by the NEDA to fund the airport 's construction , it was decided that the project should avail of an official development assistance facility offered by the Japanese government through the then @-@ newly formed Japan Bank for International Cooperation ( JBIC ) . After almost two years of negotiations , and after initially refusing to bankroll the project , the JBIC extended a 6 @.@ 2 billion peso ( US $ 152 million ) loan to the Philippine government in August 2000 .
The Iloilo International Airport project was inaugurated by President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo on January 25 , 2004 , and construction work on the new airport started on April 14 that year . The original expected deadline of completion was June 2007 , although this was moved to the first quarter of 2007 . A joint venture between the Taisei Corporation and the Shimizu Corporation of Japan served as the contractor for the project , with Phil @-@ Japan Airport Consultants , Inc. managing the project and serving as the government 's consultant to the project . The project was 75 percent complete as of July 14 , 2006 and fully complete by March 18 , 2007 . While construction was completed ahead of schedule , the airport was constructed over budget , with a final cost of around 8 @.@ 8 billion pesos ( $ 201 million ) caused by increases in the cost of civil works and consultancy services .
= = = Name = = =
During construction , the airport was officially called the New Iloilo Airport Development Project , or NIADP . However , as the airport was nearing completion , there were three main contenders for the airport 's name : Iloilo International Airport , the original name of the airport which had the support of the Iloilo provincial and city governments ; Panay International Airport , proposed by the President and supported by the RDC , which at the time was led by Antique governor Salvacion Perez ; and Graciano Lopez @-@ Jaena International Airport , named after the Iloilo @-@ born Graciano López Jaena , proposed by the Dr. Graciano Lopez @-@ Jaena Foundation with the support of the RDC and Antique governor Perez , who is also a member of the foundation , and endorsed by the National Historical Institute .
Out of the two proposals , the name Panay International Airport was dropped due to opposition by the Iloilo city and provincial governments , the mayor of Cabatuan and Justice Secretary Raul Gonzalez , all citing that it is illogical to rename an airport after an island as large as Panay . Prospects for Graciano Lopez @-@ Jaena International Airport were better , with then Iloilo governor Niel Tupas , Sr. saying that the feasibility of renaming the airport after López Jaena or any other Ilonggo should be studied first .
Local newspaper The News Today issued an informal survey asking Iloilo City residents what should be the name of the airport and why . Although the survey is non @-@ scientific , a plurality of the nineteen respondents suggested that the name be kept as Iloilo International Airport .
More recently , after the opening of the airport , the local government of Cabatuan suggested renaming the airport after Tomas Confesor , a native of Cabatuan who once served as governor of Iloilo , a senator , and is known for being one of the founders of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines . This was opposed by Tupas ' successor , Arthur Defensor , Sr. , who says that the current name has geographic value . Opposition to the proposed name change has also come from Senator Drilon , the Iloilo Business Club , and the regional office of the Department of Tourism .
= = = Inauguration and start of operations = = =
Iloilo International Airport was originally scheduled to open on March 19 , 2007 , when its inaugural flight would land ; however , this was moved to April 16 , with commercial operations commencing on April 21 . This date was likewise scrapped due to the inability of the President to attend because of the hospitalization of First Gentleman Jose Miguel Arroyo , with a new date scheduled for sometime in late April . Some sources indicated that the airport would open on May 10 , 2007 during a major TEAM Unity rally in Iloilo City that President Arroyo was expected to attend , although this date was not considered in favor of a date after the 2007 elections , specifically in June , in order to avoid political overtones from dominating the airport 's opening . The final date chosen for the airport 's inauguration was June 13 , 2007 , with commercial services commencing the next day . By that time , airlines had already transferred their offices to the new airport .
The airport was formally opened on June 13 with the arrival of the presidential aircraft at the new airport at around 9 : 50 am PST , with Governor Tupas leading provincial and city officials in welcoming the President to the new facility . The inauguration of the new airport also included figures such as Japanese ambassador Ryuchiro Yamazaki and Transportation and Communications Secretary Leandro Mendoza , who assisted the President in leading the inaugural rites . The facility itself was formally commissioned at 5 : 00 am PST on June 14 , coinciding with the simultaneous decommissioning of Mandurriao Airport . The first commercial flight to land at the new airport was Air Philippines Flight 987 , a Boeing 737 @-@ 200 that departed from Ninoy Aquino International Airport ( Manila ) and landed at 6 : 05 am PST the same day .
Operations on the first day of the airport 's commercial activity ran smoothly , although a baggage conveyor belt and X @-@ ray machines malfunctioned due to a sudden surge in passengers trying to catch their early morning flights . Some tension marred the airport 's first day after baggage porters who worked at the old airport insisted on working at the new airport . The ATO , DOTC and the porters have since agreed to a closed @-@ door conference and later on to refer the problem to DOTC Assistant Secretary Red Kapunan , the person in charge of international airports in the Philippines .
= = Structure = =
= = = Runway = = =
Iloilo International Airport has one primary 2 @,@ 500 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) runway 45 meters ( 148 ft ) wide . The runway runs at a direction of 02 ° / 20 ° , the same as Mandurriao Airport . Unlike the runway at Mandurriao , the longer runway at Iloilo International Airport can support aircraft as large as the Airbus A321 , Airbus A330 , Airbus A340 , Boeing 757 , Boeing 767 and Boeing 787 . Runway lights and an Instrument Landing System were installed , making the airport capable of supporting low @-@ visibility and night landings under any weather condition .
= = = Terminals = = =
= = = = Passenger terminal = = = =
The airport has a 13 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 147 @,@ 000 sq ft ) main passenger terminal designed to accommodate around 1 @.@ 2 million passengers annually . Believed to be one of the most beautifully designed airport terminals in the Philippines , its architectural style is said to be reminiscent of Hong Kong International Airport , albeit on a smaller scale . It is divided into three levels : arrivals and baggage claim on the first floor , check @-@ in on the second floor and departures on the third floor . The pre @-@ departure area at Iloilo International Airport has a capacity of 436 passengers . Three jet bridges protrude from the terminal above a 48 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 520 @,@ 000 sq ft ) apron , enabling Iloilo International Airport to handle up to six aircraft simultaneously . When fully extended , the jet bridges stretch to a length of 35 meters ( 115 ft ) .
The terminal is equipped with six X @-@ ray machines , as well as escalators and staircases for departing and arriving passengers ' use . There are also two elevators , one for very important persons and one for disabled passengers . Two pocket gardens have been installed at the terminal , one each for both the departure and arrival halls . The building features ten modern check @-@ in counters with LCD monitors . The terminal makes extensive use of natural lighting , designed for energy efficiency . Other amenities available to passengers include a special smoking room , a duty @-@ free shop , a VIP lounge , a Mabuhay Lounge for Philippine Airlines business class passengers and counters for hotel and car rental bookings , as well as areas for airport stores and payphones .
= = = = Cargo terminal = = = =
Iloilo International Airport has a 1 @,@ 281 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 13 @,@ 790 sq ft ) cargo terminal , designed to handle up to 11 @,@ 500 tons of cargo annually . The three @-@ storey building , built in an architectural style similar to that of the main terminal building , has a covered platform , bathrooms , government offices and cargo handling areas , as well as its own parking lot . Airline offices also occupy the structure , secured by means of a perimeter fence with a guard house .
= = = Other structures = = =
Iloilo International Airport has a modern 35 @-@ meter ( 115 ft ) tall control tower equipped with air navigation equipment and radar systems . A briefing room for pilots is found inside the control tower . Additionally , the airport complex has a fire station equipped with three fire trucks , a maintenance building , a mechanical building and an administrative building . In front of the passenger terminal is a 415 @-@ slot parking lot for the use of passengers , employees and airport visitors .
The airport has a power back @-@ up system and a power generating station that enables the airport to run in the event of a power outage , returning the supply of electric power to the facility within three seconds . The airport has water treatment facilities and a 6 @-@ hectare ( 15 @-@ acre ) man @-@ made pond used for flood control and drainage purposes as well as for the irrigation of nearby farmland . A waste treatment and sorting facility on the airport grounds converts solid waste into fertilizer for the use of surrounding farms .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
In 2011 , Iloilo International Airport serviced an average of 42 flights daily on four domestic routes . At the time of its opening , the ATO believed that international flights out of and to the airport might not begin until 2008 , although international passenger flights could commence once Iloilo International Airport meets ICAO standards . A study was conducted on the feasibility of the airport serving international flights , and the CAAP recently announced that the airport meets ICAO standards , allowing for international flights to land at the airport .
The DOTC plans to stage international cargo flights out of the airport , as sixty percent of Philippine seafood exports come from Panay . Japan and Hong Kong have been cited as potential first destinations of these cargo flights .
On January 31 , 2008 , the Iloilo city government announced that Cebu Pacific was considering starting international services from Iloilo , initially with a route to Hong Kong to cater to the large number of Overseas Filipinos there . Philippine Airlines later announced its intent to serve this route as well , suggesting that Iloilo tourism authorities mount thrice @-@ weekly charter flights to the city using PAL Airbus A320 aircraft . City government officials also believed that the opening of a Cathay Pacific office in Iloilo City may bode well for future service to Hong Kong . In addition to Hong Kong flights , the Center for Research and Communication of the University of Asia and the Pacific has called for flights from Iloilo City to Japan , South Korea and mainland China . The first international flight from Iloilo International Airport departed on November 8 , 2012 , to Hong Kong .
PAL Express , a subsidiary of Philippine Airlines , is considering a direct route from Iloilo to Malay to boost Boracay @-@ bound tourism traffic . A resolution passed by the Iloilo City Local Development Council ( ICLDC ) called on PAL president Jaime Bautista to institute direct flights to Malay from Iloilo , with onward service to Cebu City on the return portion from Malay . However , PAL has questioned the route 's feasibility , citing congestion at Godofredo P. Ramos Airport which serves that municipality .
= = Access and transportation = =
= = = Road = = =
Iloilo International Airport is connected to Iloilo City proper via the Tomas Confesor Highway . The access road is wide enough to be able to accommodate four lanes of traffic . The estimated travel time to the airport from Iloilo City proper is around thirty minutes .
To relieve crowding on the main access road during peak hours , a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) secondary access road was constructed , connecting the airport to Cabatuan proper through Barangay Duyan @-@ Duyan . The 124 million @-@ peso ( $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) road is expected to improve connectivity between the airport and both northern Iloilo and southern Capiz , as well as reduce travel times from there to the airport by at least fifteen minutes . The two @-@ lane road opened in July 2010 .
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Although public transport routes to and from the airport are being studied , no franchises for transport services to the airport have been granted yet by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board ( LTFRB ) . Some transport operators , however , are showing interest in starting shuttle services to the airport from Iloilo City , while others have drawn proposals for public transport routes from Iloilo City directly to the airport . A shuttle service is currently available to the airport from Iloilo City , with pick @-@ up and drop @-@ off points at SM City Iloilo and Jaro Plaza .
All taxi cabs in Iloilo may be hired to get from the airport to Iloilo City Proper or vice @-@ versa . The taxi drivers will most likely opt for a fixed rate rather than using the taxi meter . The taxi fare going to the airport from Iloilo City Proper range between 350 — 400 pesos as of 216 .
Iloilo International Airport is accessible via jeepney to Santa Barbara town proper , after which travelers may take a share taxi to the airport . Travelers may also take jeepneys en route to Cabatuan , Calinog or Janiuay , all of which stop at Santa Barbara .
= = = Rail = = =
A train linking Iloilo International Airport to Iloilo City proper , similar to the Airport Express in Hong Kong and similar systems in other cities , has been proposed . A study to determine the feasibility of a train service has since been commissioned by the city government . Other proposals to connect the airport to the city via rail include the revival of the currently defunct Panay Railways network which has a station in Santa Barbara town proper .
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= Meteorological history of Hurricane Ivan =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Ivan , the longest tracked tropical cyclone of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , lasted from late August through late September . The hurricane developed from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 31 . Tracking westward due to a ridge , favorable conditions allowed it to develop into Tropical Depression Nine on September 2 in the deep tropical Atlantic Ocean . The cyclone gradually intensified until September 5 , when it underwent rapid deepening and reached Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ; at the time Ivan was the southernmost major North Atlantic hurricane on record .
Ivan quickly weakened due to dry air , but it gradually reorganized , passing just south of Grenada as a major hurricane on September 7 . The hurricane attained Category 5 status in the central Caribbean Sea . Over the subsequent days its intensity fluctuated largely due to eyewall replacement cycles , and Ivan passed just south of Jamaica , the Cayman Islands , and western Cuba with winds at or slightly below Category 5 status . Turning northward and encountering unfavorable conditions , Ivan gradually weakened before making landfall just west of Gulf Shores , Alabama on September 16 with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . The cyclone quickly weakened to tropical depression status as it turned to the northeast , and Ivan transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 18 .
The remnant low of Ivan turned to the south and southwest , and after crossing Florida on September 21 it began to reacquire tropical characteristics . It became a tropical depression again on September 22 to the southeast of Louisiana , and Ivan reached winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before weakening and moving ashore along southwestern Louisiana as a tropical depression ; the circulation of Ivan dissipated after crossing into Texas on September 25 . The cyclone broke several intensity records , and its duration was the tenth longest on record for an Atlantic hurricane .
= = Formation and intensification = =
On August 31 , a large tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa . A tropical system along the wave axis contained a low pressure area as well as an impressive outflow pattern , though initially its convection was disorganized and limited . By September 1 a cyclonic circulation with a diameter of 690 mile ( 1115 km ) was evident on satellite imagery , well to the southeast of the Cape Verde Islands , and several hurricane forecast models anticipated development and strengthening . As it tracked quickly westward , the convection organized and developed into rainbands – bands of showers and thunderstorms that spiral cyclonically toward the storm center – and late on September 1 meteorologists began tracking the system using the Dvorak technique . Low amounts of wind shear and favorable outflow allowed vigorous deep convection to develop and persist near the center , and by 1800 UTC on September 2 the system developed into Tropical Depression Nine about 450 miles ( 730 km ) southwest of Praia , Cape Verde .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the depression was embedded within a deep easterly steering current provided by a ridge to its north . Expected to track across sea surface temperatures greater than 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , the cyclone was forecast to gradually strengthen and within four days attain hurricane status ; the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory predicted the depression to reach Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale within three days . Increased northeasterly wind shear shifted the center to the northeastern edge of the deep convection , and despite the shear and its relatively low latitude of 9 @.@ 7 ° N , the depression strengthened to attain tropical storm status early on September 3 ; upon reaching the intensity , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as Tropical Storm Ivan .
Tropical Storm Ivan gradually became better organized as wind shear decreased , and its outflow expanded in all quadrants . Satellite imagery late on September 3 depicted a well @-@ defined curved band wrapping around much of the circulation . The next day , the deep convection temporarily became ill @-@ defined , before reorganizing and developing an eye feature . Convection strengthened further as the feature transitioned into an eye , and Ivan became a hurricane at around 0600 UTC on September 5 . After reaching hurricane status , Ivan began to rapidly intensify with continued favorable conditions , and in an 18 ‑ hour period the pressure dropped 39 mbar ( 1 @.@ 15 inHg ) as the winds increased by 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) ; early on September 6 Ivan attained an initial peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) while located about 825 miles ( 1330 km ) east of the island of Tobago in the southern Lesser Antilles .
While at major hurricane status , Ivan maintained very strong convection in its core with a well @-@ defined eye . Operationally , the probability for further rapid strengthening was considered nearly nine times the average of a typical hurricane . Accordingly , Ivan was forecast to pass near Barbados with winds of about 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Shortly after attaining Category 4 status , the outer convection of the hurricane became ragged . Hurricane Hunters found a Saharan Air Layer in the northern portion of the eye , leaving the eyewall eroded which caused a marked decrease in winds ; by late on September 6 Ivan weakened to winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The inner eyewall dissipated as a 23 mile ( 37 km ) outer eyewall became dominant , and concurrently the overall organization of the hurricane improved . Ivan again attained major hurricane status as it approached the Lesser Antilles , and at 2130 UTC on September 7 the cyclone passed 7 miles ( 11 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Grenada , its closest approach to the island . At the time , the hurricane maintained an eye diameter of 12 miles ( 19 km ) , with the northern portion of the eyewall producing strong winds on the island . The hurricane brought strong winds to Grenada , and tropical storm force winds were reported as far north as Dominica .
= = Caribbean Sea = =
Hurricane Ivan again reached Category 4 status as it entered the Caribbean Sea . Subsequently , it underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , and for about 18 hours the intensity remained constant as it paralleled the northern coast of Venezuela offshore . Another period of rapid deepening began late on September 8 as its motion turned to the west @-@ northwest . Hurricane Hunters recorded flight @-@ level sustained winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) to the north and northeast of the eye , and a dropsonde about 630 feet ( 190 m ) above the surface recorded winds of 200 mph ( 325 km / h ) and an extrapolated pressure of 916 mbar ( 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Based on the reports , it is estimated Ivan attained Category 5 status at 0600 UTC on September 9 , while located about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north of Aruba . At the time , the cyclone was forecast to strike southern Florida as a major hurricane .
After maintaining Category 5 status for about 12 hours , Ivan began a steady weakening trend due to another eyewall replacement cycle until reaching winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) on September 10 . Early next day , the hurricane reorganized as it reached winds just shy of Category 5 status . However , weakening occurred again due to an eyewall replacement cycle , and at 0330 UTC on September 11 Ivan passed 23 miles ( 37 km ) south of Portland Point , Jamaica , its closest approach , with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The hurricane was previously forecast to make landfall on the island , though the weakening and a turn to the west kept the strongest winds offshore ; however , sustained winds of Category 4 status were reported . While passing to the south of the island , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall , with several stations reporting over 2 feet ( 60 cm ) of precipitation . Ivan 's last @-@ minute turn to the west was due to a mid @-@ level high pressure system over the eastern Gulf of Mexico . A slight weakening trend continued after passing the island , due to its northern outflow being disrupted by an upper @-@ level low over the Bahamas . As it tracked further away from Jamaica , Ivan again rapidly intensified to Category 5 status , and early on September 12 it reached its peak intensity of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) with a pressure of 910 mbar ( 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , the hurricane again weakened as it underwent an eyewall replacement cycle . At 1415 UTC on September 12 Ivan passed 25 miles ( 40 km ) south @-@ southwest of George Town , Cayman Islands , with sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) were reported . The storm surge from the hurricane flooded all of Grand Cayman Island . After its eyewall became re @-@ established Ivan attained Category 5 status for a third time early on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , a trough created a weakness in the ridge to its north , causing the hurricane to turn to the northwest . The combination of enhanced outflow from the trough and very warm waters allowed Ivan to maintain Category 5 status for 30 hours . Early on September 14 the hurricane passed through the Yucatán Channel about 17 miles ( 28 km ) southwest of Cabo San Antonio , Cuba , with the eastern portion of the eyewall crossing the western portion of the island . Only the extreme western portion of the island experienced hurricane force winds , although rainfall from the hurricane was reported across the island .
= = Gulf of Mexico and Alabama landfall = =
After entering the southern Gulf of Mexico , Hurricane Ivan weakened to Category 4 status by 0600 UTC on September 14 . As it gradually turned to the north , southwesterly flow from a large trough over the central United States increased wind shear over the hurricane . An eyewall replacement cycle , along with dry air and restricted outflow , contributed to the weakening . By late on September 14 the weakening trend ceased as the eyewall became better defined , and Ivan was expected to restrengthen slightly over an area of warmer water temperatures . The eye diameter expanded to 60 miles ( 95 km / h ) , though concurrently westerly wind shear and dry continued to increase . As Ivan approached the Gulf Coast of the United States , Hurricane Hunters reported erosion of the southern portion of the eyewall , and cooler waters just offshore contributed to further weakening . At around 0650 UTC on September 16 , Hurricane Ivan made landfall just west of Gulf Shores , Alabama with an intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) ; the strongest winds occurred over a narrow area near the southern Alabama and western Florida border . Its landfall was accompanied by a 10 – 15 feet ( 3 – 4 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge from Destin , Florida westward to Mobile Bay .
Upon moving ashore , the National Hurricane Center expected the forward path of Ivan to be blocked , and accordingly forecast the hurricane to stall in the southern Appalachian Mountains before dissipating . As the hurricane crossed Mobile Bay it turned to the north @-@ northeast , and within twelve hours Ivan rapidly weakened to tropical storm status . The circulation became less @-@ defined , and early on September 17 the cyclone deteriorated into a tropical depression over northeastern Alabama . Ivan accelerated to the northeast ahead of an approaching cold front , dropping heavy rainfall along its path and also producing a widespread tornado outbreak from Alabama through Maryland . Late on September 18 , the remnants of Ivan transitioned into an extratropical low as it merged with the cold front over the Delmarva Peninsula .
= = Redevelopment and demise = =
After becoming an extratropical low , the remnants of Ivan turned to the southeast and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean , due to the building of an upper @-@ level ridge to its east . As an extratropical cyclone , Ivan remained identifiable in both surface and upper @-@ level data , and the system turned south and southwestward over the subsequent days . By September 20 , the system was located off the east coast of Florida , producing scattered thunderstorms ; unfavorable wind shear prevented tropical redevelopment , though forecasters indicated the possibility for more favorable conditions a few days later . On September 21 the low crossed southern Florida and emerged into the Gulf of Mexico , and as it moved across the warm waters of the region the low began to re @-@ acquire tropical characteristics ; the low @-@ level circulation became increasingly better defined , and convection redeveloped over the center . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated the low redeveloped into Tropical Depression Ivan late on September 22 while located about 175 miles ( 280 km ) south @-@ southeast of the mouth of the Mississippi River .
In its first advisory on the re @-@ developed cyclone , the National Hurricane Center classified the system Ivan " after considerable and sometimes animated in @-@ house discussion of [ its demise ] ... in the midst of a low @-@ pressure and surface frontal system over the eastern United States ... based primarily on the reasonable continuity observed in the analysis of the surface and low @-@ level circulation . " Despite unfavorable shear and its disorganized cloud structure , the cyclone intensified to tropical storm status early on September 23 , based on Hurricane Hunter reports . As an area of deep convection developed over the center , Ivan reached winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , though the winds decreased as thunderstorm activity diminished . Ivan weakened to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 24 , and two hours later it moved ashore near Holly Beach , Louisiana . Initial computer models forecast the low @-@ level circulation to turn southwestward and re @-@ emerge into the Gulf of Mexico . However , the storm rapidly weakened over land , and by 1200 UTC on September 24 Ivan degenerated into a remnant low pressure area over southeastern Texas . The low turned to the south and the circulation dissipated early on September 25 . The remnant trough reached the northwestern Gulf of Mexico later that day , briefly producing scatter thunderstorms before it diminished .
= = Records = =
Reaching Category 3 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale at 10 @.@ 2 ° N , Ivan became the southernmost major hurricane on record . Additionally , the hurricane attained Category 4 and Category 5 status further south than any other North Atlantic hurricane , at 10 @.@ 6 ° N and 13 @.@ 7 ° N , respectively . At the time , Ivan was the sixth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record ; it has since dropped to tenth . Throughout its duration , Ivan maintained winds of major hurricane status or greater for a total of 10 days , establishing an Atlantic hurricane record . Lasting as a tropical cyclone for a total of 450 hours , Ivan was the tenth longest tracked Atlantic hurricane on record .
Upon making its first landfall in the United States , the hurricane spawned a total of 117 tornadoes , which is the largest tornado outbreak associated with a tropical cyclone ; this broke the previous record of 115 set by Hurricane Beulah in 1967 .
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= U.S. Route 41 in Michigan =
US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from Miami , Florida , to the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that enters the state via the Interstate Bridge between Marinette , Wisconsin , and Menominee , Michigan . The 278 @.@ 769 miles ( 448 @.@ 635 km ) of US 41 that lie within Michigan serve as a major conduit . Most of the highway is listed on the National Highway System . Various sections are rural two @-@ lane highway , urbanized four @-@ lane divided expressway and the Copper Country Trail National Scenic Byway . The northernmost community along the highway is Copper Harbor at the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula . The trunkline ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac east of Fort Wilkins State Park after serving the Central Upper Peninsula and Copper Country regions of Michigan .
US 41 passes through farm fields and forest lands , and along the Lake Superior shoreline . The highway is included in the Lake Superior Circle Tour and the Lake Michigan Circle Tour and passes through the Hiawatha National Forest and the Keweenaw National Historical Park . Historical landmarks along the trunkline include the Marquette Branch Prison , Peshekee River Bridge and the Quincy Mine . The highway is known for a number of historic bridges such as a lift bridge , the northernmost span in the state and a structure referred to as " one of Michigan 's most important vehicular bridges " by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . Seven memorial highway designations have been applied to parts of the trunkline since 1917 , one of them named for a Civil War general .
US 41 was first designated as a US Highway in 1926 . A section of the highway originally served as part of Military Road , a connection between Fort Wilkins and Fort Howard during the Civil War . US 41 replaced the original M @-@ 15 designation of the highway which dated back to the formation of the Michigan state trunkline highway system . M @-@ 15 ran from Menominee through Marquette to Houghton and ended in Copper Harbor . Realignments and construction projects have expanded the highway to four lanes in Delta and Marquette counties and have created three business loops off the main highway .
= = Route description = =
US 41 is a major highway for Michigan traffic in the Upper Peninsula . The 278 @.@ 769 @-@ mile ( 448 @.@ 635 km ) highway comprises mostly two lanes ; it is undivided except for the sections that are concurrent with US 2 near Escanaba and M @-@ 28 near Marquette . US 41 / M @-@ 28 is a four @-@ lane expressway along the " Marquette Bypass " , and segments of the highway in Delta and Marquette counties have four lanes . The route from the southern terminus to downtown Houghton is part of the National Highway System , a system of roadways considered important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . Sections of the trunkline are on the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan circle tours .
= = = Menominee to Rapid River = = =
US 41 enters Michigan on the Interstate Bridge connecting Marinette , Wisconsin , and Menominee , Michigan . In the city of Menominee , US 41 follows 10th Avenue and 10th Street just west of downtown . The highway meets the southern terminus of M @-@ 35 , with the Menominee @-@ Marinette Airport to its west , and the waters of the Green Bay less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) to the east , following 10th Street out of town . The trunkline runs north through rolling farmland in the central Menominee County communities of Wallace , Stephenson , and the twin communities of Carney and Nadeau . At Powers , US 41 joins with US 2 ; the two highways run concurrently and turn east toward Escanaba . US 2 / US 41 crosses into the Hannahville Indian Community at the communities of Harris in Menominee County and Bark River in Delta County . The county line between the two communities marks the boundary between the Central and Eastern time zones .
Just west of downtown Escanaba , US 2 / US 41 joins M @-@ 35 at the intersection of Ludington Street and Lincoln Road , the center of the Escanaba street grid . The trunkline enters Escanaba from the west on Ludington Street , turns north on Lincoln Road , and joins M @-@ 35 . The combined highway then runs north adjacent to Little Bay de Noc using a four @-@ lane divided highway to the city of Gladstone , where M @-@ 35 turns west along 4th Avenue North . US 2 / US 41 continues on a four @-@ lane expressway north to Rapid River at the end of Little Bay de Noc . There , US 2 turns east , and US 41 turns north and inland to cross the Upper Peninsula .
The section of US 41 between Menominee and Escanaba illustrates an anomaly in the highway routing : between these two cities M @-@ 35 is the shortest state trunkline highway . Under American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials guidelines , US Highways are to follow the most direct path between two locations , but US 41 runs inland and M @-@ 35 goes more directly up the Lake Michigan shoreline . According to the 2007 MDOT state highway map , the US 41 routing runs for 65 miles ( 105 km ) versus 55 miles ( 89 km ) for M @-@ 35 . The original map for the US Highway System shows US 41 continuing north from Powers on a direct line to Marquette . This routing would be more direct than the current US 41 routing via Escanaba and Rapid River , but has not been built .
= = = Rapid River to Covington = = =
This stretch of US 41 runs north through the western edge of the Hiawatha National Forest . At Trenary , US 41 turns northwest through the southwest corner of Alger County , crossing into Marquette County north of Kiva . M @-@ 94 follows US 41 for approximately 2 miles ( 3 km ) near Skandia , before it turns westward to provide access to K. I. Saywer , a former air force base . US 41 continues northerly into the Chocolay Township community of Harvey . It meets the eastern junction with M @-@ 28 in Harvey , and the two highways run concurrent for nearly 60 miles ( 97 km ) , during which they follow the Lake Superior Circle Tour .
US 41 / M @-@ 28 runs north along the Lake Superior shoreline , passing the Marquette Branch Prison and crossing the Carp River before cresting Shiras Hill on the way into the city of Marquette , entering town on Front Street . South of downtown , the highway turns west on the Marquette Bypass , a four @-@ lane expressway complete with two overpasses . The bypass moves traffic around the former routing of US 41 / M @-@ 28 along Front and Washington streets , a routing that was used for Business US 41 ( Bus . US 41 ) until 2005 . West of Washington Street , US 41 / M @-@ 28 follows a heavily trafficked business corridor . The 2006 average annual daily traffic ( AADT , the yearly traffic count divided by 365 ) along this corridor ranged from 31 @,@ 700 to 34 @,@ 700 vehicles . US 41 / M @-@ 28 climbs hilly terrain into the cities of Negaunee and Ishpeming , running west and slightly south . The two cities host Bus . M @-@ 28 , which was once designated as ALT US 41 as well . Between the twin cities , US 41 / M @-@ 28 skirts the shores of Teal Lake in Negaunee and then narrows to two lanes west of Ishpeming .
US 41 / M @-@ 28 continues west through rural Marquette County and passes along the north shore of Lake Michigamme between Champion and Michigamme , crossing the Peshekee River . In eastern Baraga County , the highway runs along an isthmus between Lake George and Lake Ruth in the community of Three Lakes . Further west , US 41 meets the northern terminus of US 141 , which marks the western junction with M @-@ 28 near Covington , and the end of the M @-@ 28 concurrency .
= = = Covington to Copper Harbor = = =
US 41 turns north solo from Covington , crossing the Sturgeon River , on the way to the historic sawmill town of Alberta . Henry Ford built the village to serve the sawmill in 1935 . The Alberta mill supplied wood for Ford Motors until it was closed by Henry Ford II ; the property was donated to Michigan Technological University ( MTU ) in 1954 .
Continuing north from Alberta , US 41 enters the town of L 'Anse on the east side of Keweenaw Bay , rounding the bay to the town of Baraga . Both towns are a part of the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community . US 41 continues along the shores of the bay north into Houghton County , turning along Portage Lake near Chassell .
US 41 enters Houghton along Townsend Drive on the campus of MTU . After crossing the campus , it uses College Avenue into downtown . There , US 41 is split along the one @-@ way pairing of Sheldon Avenue for northbound and Montezuma Avenue for southbound traffic . The two streets merge west of downtown at the south end of the Portage Lake Lift Bridge . Downtown Houghton marks the start of the Copper Country Trail National Scenic Byway .
North of the lift bridge , US 41 turns west through the downtown of Hancock using the one @-@ way pairing of Quincy Street northbound and Hancock Street southbound . The trunkline then follows Lincoln Drive after merging the two directions west of downtown . The highway continues up Quincy Hill and out of town , passing the Quincy Mine at the top of the hill . North of Hancock , US 41 passes the Houghton County Memorial Airport before reaching the towns of Calumet and Laurium . US 41 merges with M @-@ 26 in Calumet , and they follow the center of the Keweenaw Peninsula to the community of Phoenix . M @-@ 26 turns northwesterly in Phoenix to loop through Eagle River and Eagle Harbor , while US 41 turns easterly through the rural communities of Central and Delaware . The two highways meet one last time in Copper Harbor where M @-@ 26 ends . US 41 turns east on Gratiot Street to pass through town towards Fort Wilkins State Park . A mileage sign in Copper Harbor gives the distance down US 41 to Miami , Florida , as 1 @,@ 990 miles ( 3 @,@ 203 km ) . The roadway continues east , crossing Fanny Hooe Creek near the state park . Past the park entrance , US 41 ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac , marked by a large wooden sign .
= = History = =
There are two major eras of the history of US 41 . The first dates back to the Civil War and a wagon road built by the federal government . The Military Road was built to connect the Copper Country with Wisconsin . After the establishment of the state trunkline highway system , a segment of the Military Road was used for M @-@ 15 , the predecessor of US 41 .
= = = Military Road = = =
The northernmost section of the modern US 41 between Houghton and Copper Harbor originated in the 19th century as the Military Road . The road was one of 13 roads built between 1817 and 1864 by the federal government . Construction of the road was proposed as early as two years after the US acquired the last tracts of land in the Upper Peninsula . Congress asked Secretary of War William Wilkins for funding to build such a road in 1844 , since the area depended on a land connection to Green Bay , Wisconsin , for up to six months a year for supplies and mail . The estimate for a 220 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 350 km ) , 33 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 10 m ) crude road was $ 37 @,@ 400 ( equivalent to $ 21 @.@ 8 million in 2015 ) . The matter died until 1848 when the Michigan Legislature petitioned Congress for an appropriation to build to connect Green Bay to the Keweenaw Bay . The appeal went unfulfilled by the government , but private groups stepped in . Mail service was available overland once a month during the winter from Green Bay . In 1857 , the Legislature enacted a law to provide a road from Eagle Harbor south to Ontonagon . This road was extended south to the state line pursuant to two laws in 1859 .
The Civil War refocused discussions about the road . There were fears that Great Britain would enter on the side of the Confederacy during the early days of the war . British troops were as close to Michigan as Ontario , and more than half of the copper used in the US came from mines along the proposed roadway . Control of the area could have been established by seizing the Soo Locks at Sault Ste . Marie , severing communication lines through the Great Lakes . If the locks fell to an enemy force , no troops or supplies could be moved to the Copper Country except by land . The road was also needed during the five or six months of the year that transportation on the Great Lakes was barred by ice or stormy weather .
Congress passed a law to build a military wagon road on March 3 , 1863 from Fort Wilkins to Houghton and then south to the state line . The road was laid out in 1864 following what is today M @-@ 26 between Copper Harbor and Phoenix , US 41 south to Houghton , M @-@ 26 south to Winona and Federal Forest Highway 16 ( FFH @-@ 16 ) to the state line . Wisconsin authorities ran the road along what is now Highway 29 between Green Bay and Shawano and Highway 55 north to the state line . Military Road would connect Fort Wilkins with Fort Howard near Green Bay .
The laws setting up the construction of the Military Road established a five @-@ year deadline for construction . The war removed laborers in mining , lumbering and shipping as well as soldiers from the available workforce , and Congress extended the deadline an additional 21 months in June 1868 . A second extension was granted in May 1870 . The Wisconsin section of the highway was completed on June 20 , 1870 . The Houghton County segment was finished in January 1871 . The Keweenaw County section was completed by August 1871 . A third and final extension on the deadline was needed in April 1872 , and the roadway was completed south to the state line in September 1873 , shifting the southern segment in the Upper Peninsula west to the modern US 45 corridor in place of the FFH @-@ 16 alignment .
In payment for the completion of the road , close to 221 @,@ 000 acres ( 89 @,@ 000 ha ) were awarded by the federal government to the corporation , including some 174 @,@ 000 acres ( 70 @,@ 000 ha ) to Dr James Ayer of Lowell , Massachusetts , for his investments in the company . Most of the remaining land grants went to the company behind the Portage Lake Canal near Houghton and Hancock . Ayer 's holdings were controlled by the trustees of his estate after his death in July 1878 . A few thousand acres were sold over time , and the trustees benefitted from the sale of timber and the mineral rights . The profits had been exhausted by 1921 , and the remaining tracts were sold to a lumberman from Grand Rapids for $ 2 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 187 million in 2015 ) .
Railroads built near the Military Road attracted more traffic than the road . The road was not well built ; except in the winter when the weather froze the ground or covered it in snow , the road was barely passable . Most of the 140 @-@ mile ( 225 km ) highway was converted into a state trunkline between 1913 and 1920 , mostly as M @-@ 15 or M @-@ 26 . Remnants of the original Military Road can be found as backwoods trails labeled " Old Military Road " on maps , or as a street in Ripley near Hancock called " Military Road " .
= = = State trunkline = = =
The first state trunkline highway designated along the path of the modern US 41 was M @-@ 15 , in use as far back as 1919 . The 1925 draft plan for the establishment of the US Highway System would have replaced M @-@ 15 with three different US Highways . Between Menominee and Powers , M @-@ 15 was to follow the route that US 41 follows today . East of Powers to Rapid River , the trunkline would have been just US 2 . The next segment between Rapid River and Covington was planned as US 102 while the remainder north to Copper Harbor was planned as US 41 In between Powers and Covington , US 41 was planned to follow US 2 west to Iron Mountain and then route of the modern US 141 between Powers and Covington . When the system was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 41 was the only US Highway routed along the alignment of M @-@ 15 . The original map showed US 41 following an unbuilt alignment between Powers and Marquette . The new US 41 designation was instead routed to follow the former M @-@ 15 .
The 1927 edition of the official Michigan highway service map was the first to show M @-@ 28 extended along US 41 into Marquette County and east over the former M @-@ 25 through Munising and Newberry , before ending in downtown Sault Ste . Marie . At Negaunee , M @-@ 28 was shown along the previous routing of M @-@ 15 between Negaunee and Marquette for 10 miles ( 16 km ) , while US 41 ran along a portion of M @-@ 35 . This southern loop routing of M @-@ 28 lasted until approximately 1936 , when M @-@ 28 was displayed as concurrent with US 41 . The former route is now Marquette County Road 492 ( CR 492 ) . Around 1930 , the northern terminus of US 41 was extended east from Copper Harbor to Fort Wilkins State Park . Another realignment shown in 1937 marked the transfer of US 41 / M @-@ 28 out of downtown Ishpeming and Negaunee . This former routing later became Bus . M @-@ 28 . The highway was realigned due north between Rapid River and Trenary according to the 1938 service map . US 41 was completely paved in 1951 . The final two sections to be paved were in Baraga County and Keweenaw County .
M @-@ 35 was routed concurrently with US 41 between Negaunee and Baraga by 1953 . This extra concurrency connected the two previously disconnected segments of M @-@ 35 . The Portage Lake Bridge opened in 1959 at a cost of $ 13 million ( equivalent to $ 246 million in 2015 ) .
The Marquette Bypass was opened in November 1963 as a four @-@ lane expressway south of downtown Marquette at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ 281 million in 2015 ) . Washington and Front streets in Marquette were redesignated as Bus . US 41 at this time . While the expressway was being built , a large vein of jasper exposed , and gifts fashioned from the mineral were presented to local and state politicians . A set of cufflinks to be given to President John F. Kennedy was never presented because he was killed in Dallas just hours after the Marquette Bypass opened to traffic .
The concurrency with M @-@ 35 through Marquette and Baraga counties was removed from maps in 1968 . M @-@ 35 west of Baraga was designated as a new M @-@ 38 and M @-@ 35 was shortened to its current northern terminus . Another expressway section of US 41 was denoted along US 2 / US 41 between Gladstone and Rapid River in 1972 . A Bus . M @-@ 28 designation was added to Bus . US 41 on the MDOT map in 1975 , making it similar to the former Bus . US 41 / Bus . M @-@ 28 designation along Bus . M @-@ 28 in Ishpeming and Negaunee . This second designation was removed by 1982 .
US 41 in the Copper Country was recognized on September 26 , 1995 , as the state 's first scenic heritage route ( now a Pure Michigan Byway ) . The first section given the designation ran from Central to Copper Harbor . The designation was extended south to Mohawk in 2002 and Houghton in 2004 . On September 22 , 2005 , US 41 north of Houghton was designated the Copper Country Trail of the National Scenic Byways program . This section of the highway was named one of Country magazine 's 10 " Best Scenic Roads in America " in November 2014 .
Construction started on November 1 , 2004 , to replace the Interstate Bridge carrying US 41 between Marinette , Wisconsin , and Menominee . The project wrapped up on November 22 , 2005 , when the new bridge opened to traffic . A ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony was held on December 3 , 2005 , to celebrate the replacement of the 1929 structure . In 2011 , MDOT raised the speed limit along the expressway section in Delta County to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , although truck traffic remains set at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) .
= = = Marquette roundabout = = =
MDOT unveiled plans on March 31 , 2009 , to rebuild the intersection between Front Street and the eastern end of the Marquette Bypass during 2010 as a roundabout , replacing several intersecting roadways that connect the north and south sections of Front Street with US 41 / M @-@ 28 through the existing intersection . The previous intersection configuration dated back to November 1963 . It had been labeled as " dangerous and [ causing ] significant traffic delays " by the designers of the replacement . A traffic study concluded in 2007 that the intersection would need either the roundabout or a traffic signal with several turning lanes to accommodate the traffic needs in the area . MDOT decided in favor of a two @-@ lane , 150 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 46 m ) roundabout retaining the right @-@ turn lanes from the previous intersection layout . These lanes will be used by right @-@ turning traffic to bypass the circle at the center of the intersection .
MDOT engineers touted the constant @-@ flowing nature of the design as a benefit to the new intersection , and city planners promoted the enhanced safety aspects of the project . Both parties stated the planned intersection was less expensive than a conventional stop light . Residents have expressed concerns about snow plowing and truck traffic in the intersection . The designers consulted officials of Avon , Colorado , where several roundabouts are situated in a location that averages over 300 inches ( 760 cm ) of annual snowfall . Designers planned the size of the new intersection to accommodate truck traffic . MDOT has stated that many of the concerns expressed are due to misconceptions and unfounded assumptions about the design . The department held an informational meeting with the residents on April 15 , 2010 before construction began . Topics ranges from emergency vehicles , plowing , trucks , accidents and detour plans .
Construction started on the project in May . One lane of traffic in each direction was maintained for US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Motorist seeking access to downtown were detoured via Grove Street or Lakeshore Boulevard . The Downtown Development Authority had plans to purchase billboards helping to direct customers to the downtown shopping district . A section of the intersection was opened in July to traffic from the south that turns west . The lanes northbound into downtown were opened in the beginning of August , and the city held a ribbon cutting ceremony on August 19 , 2010 . The remaining lanes were opened the next day . To address residents ' concerns about truck traffic through the intersection , the mayor noted that a large lumber truck successfully navigated the roundabout after the ribbon was cut . " It just cruised right around and through . All of these people who are wondering is it big enough , can you get a firetruck on it ? Yes , you can , " stated Mayor John Kivela .
= = = Keweenaw Bay relocation = = =
In 2010 , officials from MDOT announced a $ 2 @.@ 3 million project to move a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) section of US 41 about 100 feet ( 30 m ) inland along a set of cliffs five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Baraga . The sandstone cliffs were eroding next to Keweenaw Bay , and a 2007 study from MTU said that action at that time would be needed within a decade . The department had funding available in 2010 and decided to take on the project at the time . Local homes were not affected by the project , although the state had to purchase property to accommodate the shift . A parallel rail line was removed in the project . Rail service from Baraga to Chassell has been suspended for several years , and the right @-@ of @-@ way had been overgrown with brush ; the rails will be replaced if needed in the future . The project was completed in October 2010 .
= = Historic bridges = =
Seven bridges along the US 41 corridor have been recognized for their historic character by various organizations . Six of the seven are listed on MDOT 's Historic Bridge Inventory ; the seventh not listed by MDOT is on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) and Michigan 's State Register of Historic Sites ( SRHS ) along with four of the others .
= = = Portage Lake Lift Bridge = = =
The Portage Lake Lift Bridge connects the cities of Hancock and Houghton by crossing over the Portage Waterway , an arm of Portage Lake that cuts across the Keweenaw Peninsula . A canal links the final several miles of the lake arm to Lake Superior to the northwest .
This lift bridge features a middle section capable of being raised from a low point of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of clearance over the water to a clearance of 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) to allow boats to pass underneath . The Portage Lake Lift Bridge is the widest and heaviest double @-@ decked vertical lift bridge in the world . The lower deck of the span was originally open to rail traffic when it was built in 1959 , but this level is now closed to trains and is used in the winter for snowmobile traffic .
The lift bridge is the last of several previous crossings over the waterway . A wooden swing bridge was built in 1875 . A newer , iron swing bridge was built in 1897 ; this structure was partially destroyed in 1905 when it was struck by a ship . This second crossing was rebuilt in 1906 and remained in service until the lift bridge was opened in December 1959 . The current bridge was last used for railroad traffic in the summer of 1982 , after the Soo Line rail lines north of Houghton were abandoned starting in 1976 . The middle section is left in an intermediate position for the warmer nine months of the year so that vehicle traffic can use the lower deck of the lift span and pleasure craft can pass under the bridge . In the winter , the lift span is lowered so snowmobiles and skiers can use the lower deck while cars and trucks use the upper deck .
= = = Interstate Bridge = = =
The Interstate Bridge was built in 1929 for $ 700 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 13 @.@ 2 million in 2015 ) to carry US 41 over the Menominee River at the state line . This span replaced a series of bridges built to connect Marinette , Wisconsin , and Menominee , Michigan , across the river . The first bridge was built in 1865 with a second built in 1872 that was replaced in 1929 with the third bridge . This third crossing was 850 feet ( 259 m ) in length , consisting of eleven 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) spans . The bridge was rehabilitated in 1970 in a project that included widening the deck and replacing the guard rails . Another construction project in 1999 repaired the Michigan side and the slough bridge portion of the Wisconsin side of the structure ; the project closed the bridge for six months .
The Interstate Bridge was completely replaced starting on November 1 , 2004 , in a joint project between the MDOT and the Wisconsin Department of Transportation . The 13 @-@ month project was budgeted to cost $ 6 @.@ 45 million ( equivalent to $ 8 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) . Demolition started in the center of the crossing , sawing the deck into pieces for disposal . This reconstruction was completed ahead of schedule , and the span reopened on November 22 , 2005 . The project completely replaced the bridge above the water line with wider traffic lanes , a new bicycle lane and wider sidewalks . Images of wild rice were sculpted into the concrete because " Menominee " in the local Menominee language means " wild rice " . These sculptures were added to the other decorative elements placed on the new bridge including the railings and light poles . The new Interstate Bridge was dedicated on December 3 , 2005 , in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony that replicated the 1930 ceremony on the previous crossing .
= = = NRHP @-@ listed bridges = = =
Five other bridges are listed on the NRHP and the Michigan SRHS as well as on the MDOT Historic Bridge Inventory . The first is in Limestone Township in Alger County . Designated Trunk Line Bridge No. 264 , it carries King Road across the Whitefish River along a former alignment of US 41 built in 1919 . Constructed of two 35 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) through girders , the span continues to carry traffic although it is no longer on a state trunkline highway .
Drivers cannot use the Peshekee River Bridge south of US 41 / M @-@ 28 in western Marquette County 's Michigamme Township . The structure was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999 for its engineering and architectural significance . MDOT has listed it on their Historic Bridge Inventory as " one of Michigan 's most important vehicular bridges " . It was the first bridge designed by the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) , the forerunner to MDOT , in 1914 . As the first crossing , it was designated " Trunk Line Bridge No. 1 " and served as the prototype for hundreds of similar concrete through @-@ girder bridges built in the state before the design fell out of favor in 1930 . It was bypassed by a new structure built over the Peshekee River for US 41 / M @-@ 28 and subsequently abandoned as a roadway , deteriorating in a county park .
Another abandoned bridge is now privately owned and in use at the mouth of the Backwater Creek on the Keweenaw Bay near L 'Anse . The span was constructed in 1918 for $ 4 @,@ 536 ( equivalent to $ 345 @,@ 451 in 2015 ) . It is an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) Warren truss design now situated on private property . This abandoned bridge was listed on the National Register in 1999 .
One bridge still in use crosses the Sturgeon River in Baraga County , known locally as the Canyon Falls Bridge . The structure was completed in 1948 as a steel arch bridge to span the river near the falls as part of a reconstruction project of US 41 between Ishpeming and L 'Anse . The crossing has a main span of 128 feet ( 39 m ) flanked by two 52 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) approach spans .
The last historic bridge on US 41 is located near the northern terminus east of Copper Harbor . The Fanny Hooe Creek crossing was listed on the NRHP in 1999 , but as of 2012 , MDOT has not included the structure on its inventory of historic bridges online . The creek crossing is just west of the Fort Wilkins State entrance . MSHD and the Keweenaw County Road Commission designed and built the span in 1927 – 28 for $ 8 @,@ 132 ( equivalent to $ 556 @,@ 003 in 2015 ) . The bridge is unique for its stonework decoration on the 25 @-@ foot ( 8 m ) span over the creek . This stonework includes fieldstones not usually associated with Michigan highway bridges . The crossing has remained in service since construction without alteration .
= = Memorial designations = =
Seven memorial designations have been applied to sections of US 41 . Some of these designations follow other highways that run concurrently with US 41 . Most of the designations are no longer in use , but the Jacobetti and Veterans memorial highways still have signage posted on the side of the road .
The Great Lakes Automobile Route was established in 1917 by the Upper Peninsula Development Bureau . A predecessor of the Great Lakes Circle Tours years later , the route followed " ... a circular journey along the banks of lakes Michigan and Superior and Green Bay ... " This route followed the modern US 41 from the M @-@ 28 junction in Harvey to Copper Harbor . A branch of the route followed US 2 / US 41 between Powers and Rapid River . The name fell out of use before its first anniversary because of World War I. The route was originally intended to entice motorists to drive around Lake Michigan ; the side trips to Lake Superior distracted from this mission .
Sheridan Road was created in the early 20th century connecting Chicago with Fort Sheridan north of the city . Both the road and the fort were named in honor of Philip Sheridan , Union general during the Civil War . Sheridan , who served as colonel of the 2nd Michigan Cavalry in 1862 , was later promoted to the rank of major general during the war . The Greater Sheridan Road Association started to promote an extension of the road south to St. Louis and north through Wisconsin and Michigan to end at Fort Wilkins in Copper Harbor by 1922 . The roadway followed US 41 's predecessor , M @-@ 15 , and included numerous road signs bearing Sheridan 's silhouette mounted on his horse Rienzi . Towns along the way were encouraged to rename city streets as Sheridan Road on Labor Day 1923 . The road was promoted until the Great Depression in the 1930s . All that remains are signs in Menominee noting that First Street was once Sheridan Road .
The Townsend National Highway was named for Charles E. Townsend , a former congressman and senator from Michigan . As a senator , he introduced the federal highway aid bill in 1919 . The Michigan Good Roads Association promoted a highway in his name between Mobile , Alabama , and Michigan . The Michigan segment followed a number of highways through the two peninsulas , including the modern US 41 between Harvey and Calumet . Only Townsend Drive in Houghton retains the name in part .
Memory Lane was created in 1947 along US 41 in Baraga . The local Lions Club planted over 100 red maple trees at the recommendation of a state highway department forester to honor the veterans of World War I and World War II .
The Amvets Memorial Drive designation was created for the section of US 2 / US 41 / M @-@ 35 between the northern Escanaba city limits and CR 426 in Delta County . The American Veterans ( AMVETS ) organization in Michigan petitioned the Michigan Legislature to grant this designation which was granted under Public Act 144 in 1959 .
The D. J. Jacobetti Memorial Highway follows the segment of US 41 concurrent with M @-@ 28 between Harvey and the Ishpeming – Negaunee city limits in Marquette County . The designation was created in 1986 and continues east along M @-@ 28 to honor the longest serving member of the Michigan Legislature , elected to a record 21 terms before his death in 1994 .
A section of US 41 is one of six unrelated Veterans Memorial Highway designations in Michigan . The Upper Peninsula designation follows the western end of M @-@ 28 , including the section of US 41 between Ishpeming and Covington . This memorial was created in Public Act 10 of 2003 and dedicated on Memorial Day in 2004 .
= = Business loops = =
There have been three business loops for US 41 : Ishpeming – Negaunee , Marquette and Baraga . Only the business loop serving Ishpeming and Negaunee is still a state @-@ maintained trunkline , but it is no longer designated Bus . US 41 . US 41 / M @-@ 28 was relocated to bypass the two cities ' downtowns in 1937 . The highway through downtown Ishpeming and Negaunee later carried the ALT US 41 / ALT M @-@ 28 designation before being designated Bus . M @-@ 28 in 1958 . The western end of the business loop was transferred to local government control when Bus . M @-@ 28 was moved along Lakeshore Drive in 1999 .
Bus . US 41 in Marquette was first shown on a map in 1964 after the construction of the Marquette Bypass . It was later designated Bus . US 41 / Bus . M @-@ 28 on a map in 1975 ; this second designation was removed from maps by 1982 . The entire business loop was turned back to local control in a " route swap " between the City of Marquette and MDOT announced in early 2005 . The proposal transferred jurisdiction on the unsigned M @-@ 554 and the business route from the state to the city . The state would take jurisdiction over a segment of McClellan Avenue to be used to extend M @-@ 553 to US 41 / M @-@ 28 . In addition , MDOT would pay $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 2 million in 2015 ) for reconstruction work planned for 2007 . The transfer would increase Marquette 's operational and maintenance liability expenses by $ 26 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 32 @,@ 781 in 2015 ) and place the financial burden of the future replacement of a stop light on the city . On October 10 , 2005 , MDOT and Marquette transferred jurisdiction over the three roadways . As a result , Bus . US 41 was decommissioned when the local government took control over Washington and Front streets . As a result of the decommissioning , the 2006 maps did not show the former business loop .
The third business loop was in Baraga in the early 1940s . As shown on the maps of the time , US 41 was relocated in Baraga between the publication of the December 1 , 1939 , and the April 15 , 1940 , MSHD maps . A business loop followed the old routing through downtown . The last map that shows the loop was published on July 1 , 1941 . Bus . US 41 is shown under local control on the June 15 , 1942 , map .
= = Major intersections = =
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= E 'Twaun Moore =
E 'Twaun Donte Moore ( born February 25 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was drafted by the Boston Celtics in the 2011 NBA draft and also played for the Orlando Magic after playing college basketball at Purdue University . In high school , he led East Chicago 's Central High School to a state championship .
He was a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Big Ten selection as both a freshman and a sophomore and a First @-@ Team All @-@ Big Ten selection as a junior and a senior for Purdue Boilermakers men 's basketball . He was a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ Big Ten selection , as well as a Second @-@ Team Academic All @-@ American selection at the conclusion of the 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference regular season . As a junior , as well , he was named a Yahoo ! Sports Third @-@ Team All @-@ American and an AP Honorable Mention All @-@ American . He repeated as an AP honorable mention selection and was named NABC Third Team @-@ All America as a senior .
= = High school career = =
= = = East Chicago ( 2003 – 2007 ) = = =
Moore played high school basketball at Central High School in East Chicago , where he averaged 21 @.@ 2 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists per game during his senior year . That same season , along with 6 ' 11 " teammate Ángel García , he led his team to the 2007 4A State Championship by scoring 28 points against Indianapolis North Central High School , which starred 2007 Indiana Mr. Basketball and current NBA player , Eric Gordon . Moore earned the tournament 's Trester Award . Moore was named to the Indiana All @-@ Star Team , and was also honored as a third @-@ team Parade All @-@ American .
= = = = Recruitment = = = =
Moore was ranked as the number eight high school basketball shooting guard in the nation by Scout.com. Rivals.com ranked him as the number seven shooting guard in the nation , the second best player in Indiana ( to Gordon ) and the 35th best player in the nation . Hoopmaster.com ranked him as the 26th best player in the nation , sixth best shooting guard and second best Indianan . ESPN evaluated him as a point guard and rated him as the 4th best point guard and 20th best player in the nation .
He received scholarship offers from Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Miami , Tennessee , and Virginia Tech . Following Indiana 's struggles with head coach , Mike Davis ' resignation , Purdue swept the best talent from the Indiana class of 2007 . Moore was expected to make the transition to the next level and contribute immediately . As a top 40 recruit , he joined Robbie Hummel , Scott Martin and JaJuan Johnson as part of the nations number 5 and 6 ranked recruiting class according to Scout.com and Rivals.com , respectively . Moore , Hummel and Martin were teammates in the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball program and were united with Johnson on the Indiana State All @-@ Star squad .
= = College career = =
= = = 2007 – 2008 = = =
Moore attended Purdue University to play under head coach Matt Painter . He became roommates with fellow freshman teammate , Robbie Hummel , and shared a common bathroom with JaJuan Johnson and Scott Martin . On February 4 , 2008 , Moore was named co @-@ Big Ten Player of the Week for his efforts against the Iowa Hawkeyes and the Illinois Fighting Illini on January 30 and February 2 . He led the " baby boilers " in scoring with 12 @.@ 9 points a game , becoming the first true freshman in Boilermaker history to lead in that category . He broke the Purdue freshmen record with most three point field goals made with 66 . Chris Lutz had previously set the record for the 2006 team when he finished with 53 . He also reached second place among Purdue Freshmen in total points scored with 437 behind Russell Cross ' 540 . Moore helped lead Purdue to a 2nd straight NCAA Tournament appearance , losing to a senior @-@ led Xavier team in the Second Round after defeating the Baylor Bears , and led the Boilers to a 25 – 9 overall record . He was named a Second Team All @-@ Big Ten selection , while selected to the Big Ten All @-@ Freshmen Team .
= = = 2008 – 2009 = = =
Moore finished his sophomore season for the 2008 – 09 Boilermakers as the leading scorer for the team again and ranked second in assists as well as third in rebounds . He earned his second conference player of the week award on December 1 , 2008 following his performance in the final week of the 2008 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off , where he helped Purdue finish second in the 16 @-@ team field . In the semifinals at Madison Square Garden , he led the team to a 71 – 64 victory of Boston College with 19 points . Then , in the championship game , he helped the team reach overtime against Oklahoma despite Blake Griffin 's double double by scoring 22 points . He scored in double figures 30 times ( 23 – 7 ) , including three 20 + point performances ( 1 – 2 ) . He helped lead the Boilers to an 11 – 2 preseason record and an 11 – 7 record in conference play . Moore scored a season high 26 points against Indiana and recorded two double @-@ doubles in league play . He was named Second Team All @-@ Big Ten . He was also recognized as a Conference All @-@ Academic selection . He helped lead Purdue to its first Big Ten Tournament Championship in school history and was one of three Boilers to be named to the all @-@ conference tournament team . Moore then led them to the program 's 2009 NCAA Tournament , its third straight appearance and onto its first Sweet Sixteen appearance in 9 years . Moore played in 1 @,@ 222 minutes on the season , the second most in school history behind Joe Barry Carroll 's 1 @,@ 235 in the 1979 – 80 season . The 37 games in which he appeared in is a season @-@ school record , which he shares with JaJuan Johnson , Marcus Green and Keaton Grant .
= = = 2009 – 2010 = = =
To start the 2009 – 10 season , Moore was named a preseason candidate for the John R. Wooden Award along with teammate , Robbie Hummel . With a 22 @-@ point performance against Tennessee and being named the 2009 Paradise Jam Tournament MVP , he became the 43rd Boilermaker to score his 1,000th career point . He helped lead Purdue to a 14 – 0 season start , which tied the Glenn Robinson @-@ led 1993 – 94 team as the best start in school history . He was named to the District 5 First Team Academic All @-@ District Team , as selected by ESPN The Magazine and College Sports Information Directors of America , making him one of 40 finalists for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ American team , in which he was eventually selected as a Second Team Academic All @-@ American . E 'Twaun had a 28 @-@ game double @-@ digit scoring streak that extended from November 20 – March 3 . The streak consisted of eight 20 + point performances , which included a career high 28 points on March 12 , 2010 in the quarterfinals of the 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Northwestern . Leading Purdue in scoring with 16 @.@ 5 points a game and shooting beyond the arc at 34 @.@ 3 percent , he was also second on the team with 2 @.@ 7 assists per outing behind Lewis Jackson 's 3 @.@ 5 mark . With a 14 – 4 record in conference play , Moore helped Purdue to its share of the first Big Ten Conference regular season title in fourteen years . Moore was named a First Team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media at the conclusion of the regular season . He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to the 10 @-@ man All @-@ District V team covering college basketball players in the states of Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Minnesota , and Wisconsin . Moore was a Third @-@ Team All @-@ American selection by Yahoo ! Sports and an Honorable Mention All @-@ American by the Associated Press . , while being recognized as an All @-@ District First @-@ Team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches . Moore led Purdue to a 4 seed in the NCAA Tournament , culminating with a consecutive Sweet Sixteen after beating Siena and Texas A & M. Eventually losing to Duke for the second time in his career , he led Purdue to a 29 – 6 record , which tied for the most season wins in school history . He concluded the season sixth in the Big Ten Conference in scoring ( teammates Hummel and Johnson finished seventh and eighth ) and ninth in steals . With 93 assists to go along with his scoring , he is only the third boilermaker to lead the team in total points and assists since Larry Weatherford did in the 1970 – 1971 season . He is the first person to lead the team in scoring three straight seasons since Troy Lewis did in the late @-@ eightees . He earned repeat recognition as an Academic All @-@ Big Ten selection .
= = = 2010 – 2011 = = =
After being named First Team All @-@ Big Ten in his junior season , Moore decided to enter the 2010 NBA Draft along with teammate JaJuan Johnson . On the deadline of May 8 , both players decided to pull out of the draft and return for their senior seasons . E 'Twaun began his senior season as a Preseason First Team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the Big Ten media for the 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season . , a preseason top 50 candidate for the Wooden Award and a candidate for the Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award . On November 26 , 2010 , Moore recorded his first 30 @-@ point game performance when he scored 31 points by going 9 of 18 from the floor against Southern Illinois . E 'Twaun had another 31 point performance New Year 's Eve against Northwestern , which included a career @-@ high of 7 made three @-@ point field goals in a game . He recorded season highs of 7 assists against Alcorn State on November 17 , 9 rebounds ( 4 times ) , and 4 steals against Austin Peay . On January 3 , he was named Co @-@ Big Ten Player of the Week . In early @-@ mid January , Moore went cold , making only 15 of his 57 shot attempts from the floor , while not attempting a single free throw in four games ( 2 – 2 ) . On February 20 , Moore led # 11 Purdue with a career @-@ high 38 points over # 3 Ohio State , which included a career @-@ high 7 three @-@ point field goals , while scoring his 2,000th career point . It was the most points scored by a Boilermaker in a single game since Glenn Robinson in 1994 . The performance earned Moore Big Ten Player of the Week recognition . Moore was named one of ten finalists for the Lowe 's Senior Class Award , as well as selected to both the midseason Naismith Award and midseason Wooden Award top @-@ 30 lists . Moore helped lead # 9 Purdue to a 2nd @-@ place finish in conference play with a 14 @-@ 4 record and 25 @-@ 6 overall . Moore was again selected for the First @-@ Team All @-@ Big Ten along with teammate JaJuan Johnson . Moore was also a National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) Division I District 7 All ‐ District second team choice . Since the Big Ten Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big Ten by the NABC . Moore was selected by the United States Basketball Writers Association to its 2010 – 11 Men 's All @-@ District Team . Moore was among the 20 players on the final ballot for the John R. Wooden Award . Moore finished his senior year averaging career highs of 18 points ( 2nd on team ) , 5 @.@ 1 rebounds ( 2nd ) , 3 @.@ 2 assists ( 2nd ) , and .5 blocks . He shot 44 @.@ 7 from the floor , 71 percent from the line , and 40 percent from beyond the arc . He scored 20 + points in eleven games , including three 30 + point games . The National Association of Basketball Coaches named Moore a third team All @-@ American Selection , and he was picked as a Third Team All @-@ American by Fox Sports . The Associated Press named Moore an honorable mention .
= = = Career notes = = =
E 'Twaun Moore became the third player in Big Ten history to tally 2 @,@ 000 points ( 2 @,@ 136 ) , 500 rebounds ( 611 ) , and 400 assists ( 400 ) in a career , joining Michigan State 's Steve Smith , and Penn State 's Talor Battle . He left Purdue being the third highest scorer , trailing only Rick Mount and Joe Barry Carroll . E 'Twaun holds program records with most minutes played ( 4 @,@ 517 ) , three @-@ point field @-@ goals made ( 243 ) , games won ( 107 ) , games played ( 140 ) , and starts ( 137 ) . He led Purdue in scoring in each of his first three seasons ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) . Moore had career averages of 15 @.@ 3 points , 4 @.@ 4 rebounds , 2 @.@ 9 assists , 1 @.@ 2 steals , .5 blocks , and shot 44 percent from the field , 73 percent from the line , and 38 percent beyond the arc during his time at Purdue .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Boston Celtics ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
Moore was selected with the 55th overall in the 2nd round of the 2011 NBA Draft by the Boston Celtics . Due to the lockout , Moore signed a deal with Italy 's Benetton Treviso that featured an opt @-@ out clause that let him return to the Celtics once the lockout ended . On December 9 , 2011 Moore signed a guaranteed contract with the Celtics . He debuted briefly ( for less than 1 minute ) in the Celtics ' season @-@ opener against the New York Knicks on Christmas Day . He posted his first rebound and assist on December 28 against the Charlotte Bobcats . He scored his first points on January 4 , 2012 against the New Jersey Nets . He got significant minutes for the first time in a game against the Indiana Pacers at Bankers Life Fieldhouse in his home state , when he played 20 minutes . In the subsequent weeks with Keyon Dooling and Sasha Pavlović injured he often received a significant amount of playing time . He recorded 16 points on January 26 , 2012 , against the Orlando Magic , going 4 – 4 from distance . On April 24 , Moore established a career high of 7 rebounds against the Miami Heat .
= = = Orlando Magic ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
On July 20 , 2012 , Moore was traded to the Houston Rockets in a three team deal between the Celtics , Rockets and Portland Trail Blazers that sent Moore , JaJuan Johnson , Sean Williams and Jon Diebler to the Rockets , Courtney Lee to the Celtics and Sasha Pavlović to the Trail Blazers . He was waived by the Rockets shortly afterwards . On September 6 , 2012 , he signed with the Orlando Magic . With Jameer Nelson and Hedo Türkoğlu beginning the season injured for the 2012 – 13 Orlando Magic , Moore began the 2012 – 13 NBA season as a starter . Moore posted a career @-@ high 17 points on November 6 , 2012 against the Chicago Bulls . He topped this with 18 points on November 6 against the Brooklyn Nets . Nelson returned to the starting lineup on November 16 after missing the first six games of the season . On December 28 , Moore suffered an elbow sprain when he and Cartier Martin landed on his arm during a loose ball scramble against the Washington Wizards . The injury made his status day @-@ to @-@ day . Moore was unable to play the following night . He did not practice with the team again until January 13 . Moore returned to the lineup the following day . He again scored 18 points to tie his career high on January 28 against the Detroit Pistons . When Nelson incurred a bruised left forearm , Moore returned to the starting lineup on February 2 against the Milwaukee Bucks . As a starter on February 4 , he again tied his career high with 18 points against Philadelphia 76ers . Although Nelson returned to the starting lineup after two starts , J. J. Redick was injured prior to the game on February 4 and Arron Afflalo continued to be injured , necessitating Moore 's continued role as a starter . On February 13 , both Redick and Afflalo returned to the lineup , relegating Moore to a reserve role . On February 21 , the Magic traded away Redick , and Nelson was diagnosed with a strained left knee patella tendon . Thus , Moore returned to the starting lineup on February 22 . On March 1 , Moore posted a career @-@ high 11 assists against the Houston Rockets . On March 5 , Nelson returned to the starting lineup .
For the first 15 games of the 2013 – 14 NBA season , Nelson started at point guard for the Orlando Magic , but on November 29 , he missed the game due to injury . Victor Oladipo moved from shooting guard to point guard , while Moore became the starting shooting guard against the San Antonio Spurs . Moore missed some action due to injury with the game against Sacramento on December 21 . He returned to the lineup three games later on December 29 . On February 18 against the Milwaukee Bucks , Moore had 17 points and 2 blocks , which were season highs . Moore tied his season high of 17 points on 6 @-@ for @-@ 6 shooting , including 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 on three point shots on April 9 against the Brooklyn Nets .
= = = Chicago Bulls ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
On September 18 , 2014 , Moore signed with the Chicago Bulls . With injuries sidelining Derrick Rose , Jimmy Butler and Taj Gibson on March 5 , 2015 , Moore scored a career @-@ high 19 points and hit the game winning three @-@ point shot with 2 @.@ 1 seconds remaining to help the Bulls defeat the Oklahoma City Thunder 108 @-@ 105 . On January 14 , 2016 with Rose again sidelined , Moore scored Chicago 's first 7 points in overtime as the Bulls overcame both a 24 @-@ point deficit and a 4 @-@ point overtime deficit to defeat the Philadelphia 76ers . Starting in place of Butler on February 3 , Moore posted a career @-@ high 24 points , including 13 points on 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 shooting in the first half , against the Sacramento Kings . On February 21 against the Los Angeles Lakers , Moore scored 24 points again on the night that Kobe Bryant made his farewell visit to the United Center .
= = = New Orleans Pelicans ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 21 , 2016 , Moore signed with the New Orleans Pelicans .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = Personal = =
Moore was born in East Chicago , Indiana to parents Ezell and Edna Moore . He has a brother , Ezell , Chris , and a sister , Ekeisha .
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= Representative democracy in Singapore =
Singapore has a multi @-@ party parliamentary system of representative democracy in which the President of Singapore is the head of state and the Prime Minister of Singapore is the head of government . Executive power is vested in the President and the Cabinet . Cabinet has the general direction and control of the government and is collectively responsible to the Parliament . There are three separate branches of government : the legislature , executive and judiciary .
Representative democracy began in the 1940s when the number of elected seats in the legislature gradually increased , until a fully elected Legislative Assembly of Singapore was established in 1958 . At present , Singapore legislation establishes various mechanisms that fulfil the doctrine of representative democracy . Parliamentary elections in Singapore are required to be held regularly to elect the Parliament through universal suffrage . Although the right to vote in Singapore law is not expressly mentioned in the Constitution , the Government has affirmed that the right may be implied into the constitutional text .
The Constitution vests the three branches of the state with different aspects of governmental power . The executive is made up of the President and the Cabinet , which is headed by the Prime Minister . The Cabinet is accountable to the electorate and is an embodiment of representative democracy . The President is elected by the people to act as a constitutional safeguard in protecting the national reserves and preserving the integrity of the public service . To qualify as a presidential candidate , stringent criteria must be satisfied .
The Constitution further provides for the composition of a parliament which encompasses members of parliament ( MPs ) elected through Single Member Constituencies and Group Representation Constituencies , Non @-@ constituency Members of Parliament ( NCMPs ) and Nominated Members of Parliament ( NMPs ) . MPs are representatives of the electorate and have the role of raising concerns that the people may have . The Government 's view is that representative democracy is better understood as regarding political parties rather than individual MPs as the fundamental element in the political system . While the judiciary is not a direct manifestation of the concept of representative democracy , it serves as a check on the Government and the legislature by ensuring that their powers are exercised within the limits established by the Constitution , such as the fundamental liberties in Part IV .
The right to freedom of speech and expression , which is guaranteed to Singapore citizens by Article 14 of the Constitution of Singapore , is essential to the concept of representative democracy . Mechanisms available for the exercise of the right include the freedom of speech and debate in Parliament , Speakers ' Corner , and the new media . However , Article 14 enables Parliament to restrict the right to free speech on various grounds . One of these is the protection of reputation . Critics have charged that Cabinet ministers and members of the ruling People 's Action Party have used civil defamation suits against opposition politicians to inhibit their activities and exclude them from Parliament . The Government has said that there is no evidence substantiating such claims . In addition , both media ownership and content are carefully regulated by the Government . Article 14 protects the right to freedom of assembly which is relevant to free speech as the latter is often exercised at assemblies and gatherings . Free assembly is restricted in Singapore through laws that require permits to be obtained before events are held , though an exception is made for indoor events involving organizers and speakers who are citizens .
The Government has been accused of slowing down the progress of democracy by using the Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) to detain political opponents and suppress political criticism . In response , the Government has asserted that no person has been detained purely for their political beliefs .
= = Government 's understanding of representative democracy = =
Representative democracy has been described as " a system of government where the people in free elections elect [ ] their representatives to the legislative chamber which occupies the most powerful position in the political system " . The meaning of the term was discussed in the Parliament of Singapore on 27 August 2008 upon a motion moved by Nominated Member of Parliament Thio Li @-@ ann , a professor of constitutional law at the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law , for the House to affirm the importance of representative democracy and to call on the Government to amend the Parliamentary Elections Act to make the calling of by @-@ elections mandatory in Group Representation Constituencies ( GRCs ) in certain situations . According to Thio , under the view of representative democracy taken by the 18th @-@ century British Member of Parliament ( MP ) and philosopher Edmund Burke , " an MP is no mere delegate who simply mouths his constituents ' views . An MP is chosen for his ' mature judgment ' and ' enlightened conscience . ' " Thus , an MP " has to represent his constituents in tending to municipal affairs " , but also " be concerned with national affairs " , and , " as a party member , he must toe the party line " . In addition , an MP of a minority ethnic group in a GRC " has to carry the concerns of his particular minority community as well " . For this reason , she felt that if the seat of a minority MP in a GRC became vacant , it should be incumbent on the Government to call a by @-@ election to fill it .
Opposing the motion , Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong noted that the Burkean model of representative democracy " puts the emphasis on choosing candidates to become MPs as the fundamental element of the whole scheme " , with the result that " if an MP dies or resigns , ... he has to be replaced , so a by @-@ election has to be held promptly without delay " . However , in the Government 's view , representative democracy is better understood as having an " emphasis on choosing political parties to form the government and to have political parties as the fundamental element in the system " :
Parties will field candidates to contest in general elections . They have to be high quality people – with integrity , ability , commitment , drive – all the attributes which we look for in an ideal candidate . But the candidate is not on his own . He carries the banner of the party . ... [ H ] e identifies himself for the party 's manifesto , the programmes and the promises that the party makes . ... In this scheme , if voters in the general election support the party and vote its candidates in , and they form a majority in Parliament , then that party with a majority in Parliament forms the government . And that party has a mandate , not only because it so happens that this specific group of MPs , at this moment , supports it , but because it stood in a general election and the voters gave it the mandate , and indirectly , through the MP , voted for this party to form the government of the country , and to govern the country until the next general elections are called . Therefore , the emphasis in this system is on the ruling Party delivering on its programmes and promises .
Consequently , if a parliamentary seat falls vacant mid @-@ term , it does not have to be filled immediately as " [ t ] he vacancy does not affect the mandate of the Government , nor its ability to deliver on its programmes or promises . And this mandate continues until the next general election is called , when the incumbent team will render account to the electorate . " The Prime Minister said that the Singapore system of government was based on this model for two reasons : first , to " encourage voters to think very carefully when they are voting during general elections , because you are not only voting for your representative in the constituency , you are voting for the government in the country " ; and , secondly , " to maximise the chances of a stable , effective government in between general elections " .
= = History = =
Singapore was colonized by the British in the 19th century , during which society was ruled according to English law . The result was the transplantation of the Western idea of representative democracy into Singapore 's legal system . This idea has taken root and developed tremendously since the end of World War II into what it is today .
= = = Before World War II = = =
After Singapore was founded in 1819 , she was under the jurisdiction of British rule . For a long time , representative democracy was non @-@ existent . In 1920 , a select committee which was established to reform the Legislative Council argued that Singapore was not ready for democratic ideas – to allow people to elect members into the Legislative Council might result in giving the " professional politician the opportunity of obtaining power by playing on religious and social prejudices " . Even though the Council lacked popular representation of the locals , the population was generally satisfied with the system and the policies of the Governor of the Straits Settlements were influenced by opinions expressed by the public and in the press .
= = = After World War II = = =
It was only in 1946 , after the Japanese Occupation and the disbanding of the Straits Settlements , that the people were allowed to elect members into the Legislative Council . The Council then consisted of at least 22 but not more than 24 members . Only nine members were elected , out of which the Singapore Chamber of Commerce , the Chinese Chamber of Commerce and the Indian Chamber of Commerce were each allotted one seat . The other six seats were to be filled by democratic elections based on universal suffrage . Elections were held for the first time on 20 March 1948 .
Even so , the general public was apathetic towards the new political situation and the British regarded this as the major impediment to the development of democratic government in Singapore . Thus , a constitutional commission headed by Sir George Rendel was set up in 1953 to recommend changes in the constitutional system , with the aim of increasing widespread participation in the central and local government of Singapore .
The Government accepted most of the Rendel Commission 's recommendations in its report of February 1954 . One suggested reform was to transform the Legislative Council into an Assembly of 32 members , of whom 25 would be elected . The " Leader of the House " or " Chief Minister " would be the leader of the largest political party in the Assembly or of a coalition of parties assured of majority support . Representation by the Chambers of Commerce was also removed .
The amended Constitution of Singapore also provided for a Council of Ministers appointed by the Governor upon the recommendation of the Chief Minister , consisting of three unelected Official Members and six Elected Members . As the Constitution was unclear on the powers of the ministers , the discretion to make crucial decisions and formulate policies was understood to reside in the Governor and the Official Members .
= = = Self @-@ governance , merger with Malaysia , and independence = = =
A fully elected Legislative Assembly was finally established in 1958 , when Singapore relinquished its colonial status to become a self @-@ governing state . Its powers extended to areas not previously under its purview , such as defence and foreign policy . This situation remained throughout merger with Malaysia in 1963 , and after separation from Malaysia and full independence in 1965 . In the Proclamation of Singapore contained in the Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965 entered into between Malaysia and Singapore , Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew proclaimed on behalf of the people and Government of Singapore that as from 9 August 1965 Singapore " shall be forever a sovereign democratic and independent nation , founded upon the principles of liberty and justice and ever seeking the welfare and happiness of her people in a more just and equal society " .
After independence , the Parliament of Singapore remained fully elected until 1984 , when amendments to the Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act were passed to provide for Non @-@ constituency Members of Parliament ( " NCMPs " ) . NCMPs , who are declared elected by the returning officer , consist of the best performing losers in general elections based on the percentage of votes cast . The scheme ensures that opposition representation is accounted for in the Parliament . In 1990 , yet another type of unelected Member was introduced – the Nominated Member of Parliament ( " NMP " ) . These non @-@ partisan Members were brought in to provide alternate views on policies that differed from the opinions espoused by the political parties represented in Parliament .
= = Voting = =
= = = Role in a representative democracy = = =
Voting is regarded as key to representative democracy , which requires that the leaders of a country are elected by the people . The basis of this concept is that everyone should be treated equally and everyone has equal rights . Every person , therefore , has a right to one vote , and no more , in the choice of representatives . The right to vote is a primary right , a right of fundamental importance by which other rights are protected . It is one of the important bulwarks of a representative democracy and in this regard , the ballot box is the people 's ultimate mechanism to control the shaping of government policies . However , it must be recognized that voting is not an infallible litmus test for democracy ; rather , it functions as a procedural device that is normally regarded as the best instrument for securing the ideal of self @-@ governance .
= = = Right to vote = = =
The right to vote in Singapore is an implied constitutional right arising from various provisions in the Constitution . These include Articles 65 and 66 , which provide for a maximum term of five years for each Parliament and for a general election to be held within three months after Parliament is dissolved . In a parliamentary debate in 2009 , NMP Thio Li @-@ ann suggested that the Government should amend the Constitution to expressly include a right to vote . She said :
A right of fundamental importance should be recognised as a fundamental right and constitutionally entrenched . Only the most important rights and interests are constitutionalised ... The right to vote is not an ancillary or new @-@ fangled right ; it is fundamental and long @-@ established .
Thio noted that in 1966 the Wee Chong Jin Constitutional Commission had considered it " necessary and wise " to constitutionally entrench the right to vote by making it removable only by a majority of two @-@ thirds of the electorate voting at a national referendum . In addition , she cited the case of Taw Cheng Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 1988 ) , where the High Court had made a statement which seemed to indicate that the right to vote is a privilege rather than a right . In reply , Minister for Law K. Shanmugam affirmed that the right to vote is indeed a constitutional right . He noted that it cannot be a privilege in a representative democracy since that would imply that there exists an institution superior to the body of citizens which can grant such a privilege . He also asserted that , ultimately , " it is the mettle of the people and its leadership " that determine whether the Constitution is abided by as the supreme law of the land .
In response to Thio 's point on the views of the Wee Chong Jin Constitutional Commission , Shanmugam said that at the time the report was rendered the electorate was immature and unfamiliar with the importance of voting , a result of the country 's history of colonial rule . In contrast , the high voter turnout rates in every election since then evidenced that Singaporeans have realized this point . With regard to the Taw Cheng Kong case , Shanmugam stated that since the Court 's observations were obiter , they were unlikely to be treated as setting a precedent .
= = = First @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post system = = =
The " first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " voting system , also known as the simple plurality voting system , is used in Singapore for electing the President as well as Members of the Parliament . This system has been criticized as undemocratic because the eventual winner may have won only a minority of the total votes cast , despite having secured the most number of votes in absolute terms among all the candidates . Thus , there might be cases where an elected politician can be said to have won the mandate of only a minority of voters , and that his or her election is therefore not an accurate reflection of the voters ' will . As constitutional lawyer Sir William Wade has said : " If it is accepted that a democratic Parliament ought to represent so far as possible the preferences of the voters , this system is probably the worst that could be devised . "
In the 2006 general election , despite only achieving 66 @.@ 6 % of the total votes cast , the ruling People 's Action Party ( " PAP " ) was returned to power with 82 out of the 84 seats . While there were more opposition members elected to the Parliament in the 2011 general election , PAP held on to 81 of 87 seats in the Parliament despite securing only 60 @.@ 1 % of the votes . Also , during the 2011 presidential election , President Tony Tan Keng Yam won with only 35 @.@ 2 % of the total votes .
= = = Eligibility to vote = = =
Voting in Singapore is compulsory . Any citizen above 21 years of age who is not disqualified by the factors in section 6 of the Parliamentary Elections Act is required to vote in person . There is no constitutional provision stipulating any qualifications for voters , and as the Act is an ordinary piece of legislation the disqualifying factors may be changed by a simple majority ( more than 50 % ) of votes in Parliament .
To be eligible to vote at a contested election in any constituency , a voter 's name must be on the latest certified register of electors for that constituency . The name of the voter will be included in the register of electors for a constituency if on the cut @-@ off date for the production of the register of electors the voter is a citizen of Singapore , at least 21 years old , and ordinarily resident or deemed to be ordinarily resident in Singapore at an address that is in that constituency . For the purpose of preparing or revising a register of electors , information stated on a voter 's National Registration Identity Card is used to determine that he or she complies with the above requirements , unless the facts are shown to be otherwise .
= = Democratic institutions = =
= = = Legislature = = =
The Legislature of Singapore consists of the President and the Parliament . The concept of representative democracy is embodied in the Legislature and is given effect in part through various parliamentary innovations that have been introduced over the years , such as Group Representation Constituencies , Non @-@ constituency Members of Parliament and Nominated Members of Parliament .
= = = = Constituencies = = = =
There are two types of constituencies ( electoral divisions ) in Singapore : Single Member Constituencies ( SMCs ) and Group Representation Constituencies ( GRCs ) . In SMCs candidates vie individually for parliamentary seats , whereas in GRCs the contest is between teams of candidates . Under the GRC scheme , which came into effect on 1 June 1988 , the Government may , having regard to the number of voters in a particular constituency , advise the President to declare it to be a GRC and designate it as a constituency in which at least one of the candidates is from the Malay community , or from the Indian or some other minority community in Singapore . Each team in a GRC may have between three and six candidates .
The GRC scheme seeks to ensure a multiracial Parliament and seeks to secure " the long @-@ term political stability of Singapore ... by ensuring that Parliament will always be multi @-@ racial and representative of our society , and ... by encouraging the practice of multi @-@ racial politics by all political parties " . It also encourages political parties to appeal to all races with moderate policies , and not to one race or another with chauvinist or extremist policies . Further , it has been suggested that the scheme puts a " premium on parties which can field credible teams " , thereby demonstrating that they are " fit not just to become MPs but to form the government " .
The GRC scheme has been criticized as weakening the candidate – voter relationship , because it may be more difficult for voters to feel that candidates actually represent them when there are a number of candidates in a team to vote for . Most voters elect MPs whom they can identify with and are better able to represent their interests . It would be much easier for voters to identify with a single candidate than with a team of , say , four individuals . Also , since there will be key vote pullers in every GRC , the unknown or unpopular candidate is " dragged into Parliament on the coat @-@ tails of the major vote @-@ puller " . This alienates the electorate from its representatives , thereby undermining the idea of representation . Since the people " cannot clearly identify themselves with the candidates ... responsibility for choices cannot be ascribed to the people " .
In addition , it has been suggested that the GRC scheme merely provides an appearance of a united , multiracial Parliament . In fact , minority representatives are required to vote according to their party line ; they are not allowed to vote specifically in the interests of their racial groups . The multiracial element in Parliament has been artificially imposed by way of a racial quota to ensure that the minorities are represented .
= = = = Non @-@ constituency Members of Parliament = = = =
The NCMP Scheme was introduced in 1984 to ensure the presence of Opposition Members in Parliament . The NCMP Scheme serves to ensure that the voices of the minority are still heard . Thus , to qualify as an NCMP , the candidate must have won at least 15 % of the total number of votes . The powers of an NCMP are restricted in Art 39 ( 2 ) of the Constitution : an NCMP cannot vote on a bill to amend the Constitution ; a supply , supplementary supply or final supply bill ; a money bill ; a vote of no confidence in the Government ; or a motion for removing the President from office .
Despite the aim of the NCMP scheme to ameliorate the impacts of the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post system , its legitimacy is highly doubted . It is based neither on a clear electoral mandate like ordinary MPs , nor on expertise or specialization ( as in the case of NMPs ) . As a result , the privileges of NCMPs are severely curtailed and this limits their effectiveness as alternative voices in Parliament .
Further , critics question the exact purpose of the scheme . It is unclear as to whether NCMPs serve to represent the minority in the first @-@ past @-@ the post system , or is an apparent representation that would not affect PAP 's decision @-@ making . Nevertheless , it still seems to be a mechanism for representation of the minority opposition .
= = = = Nominated Members of Parliament = = = =
The NMP scheme was introduced in 1990 and serves to introduce into Parliament alternative , independent and non @-@ partisan views from minorities and experts . This is said to effectively raises the level of political discourse . Women , for example , who are usually under @-@ represented in parliament , may be appointed as an NMP to provide alternate views . A special select committee of Parliament nominates candidates to be appointed as NMPs by the President on the advice of the Cabinet . In 2010 , the number of NMPs was increased from six to nine . NMPs share the same powers and privileges as NCMPs .
The NMP scheme was not introduced without controversy , which may lead one to question the effectiveness of the scheme in strengthening representative democracy . Despite the protests of many PAP MPs , the party whip was enforced to effect the passing of this scheme . Criticism of the scheme mainly revolved around the dilution of the democratic legitimacy of the Parliament since the electorate has no say in choosing the NMP based on his or her merits . Further , there may be doubts as to the NMP 's commitment and willingness to serve as an MP , since the NMP bypasses the electoral process . The scheme has also given rise to allegations that it serves as another platform for the PAP to undercut support for the opposition .
On the other hand , NMP Paulin Tay Straughan has argued that NMPs , being non @-@ partisan , do not replace either PAP or opposition MPs . During general elections , Singaporeans still continue to elect MPs who best represent their interests , and NMPs do not feature in the equation . In other words , the NMP scheme has never compromised the democratic process of free elections .
= = = = By @-@ elections = = = =
A by @-@ election is an election held in between general elections to fill a vacant parliamentary seat . Article 49 of the Constitution states that a vacancy not due to a dissolution of Parliament " shall be filled by election in the manner provided by or under any law relating to the Parliamentary elections " . However , when a vacancy arises in a GRC , no election needs to be held unless all the MPs have vacated their seats . The Prime Minister has full discretion with regards to the timing of the by @-@ election and he is not obliged to call a by @-@ election within any fixed timeline .
Whether a timeframe should be imposed for the calling of by @-@ elections has been subject to much debate . Several arguments have been advanced by the Government . First , when a voter casts a vote for a candidate , he is also voting for the political party that the candidate is a member of . Thus , once the party has received the voter 's mandate , a vacant seat will not affect this mandate . Requiring the other members in a GRC to vacate their seats so that a by @-@ election can be called would be unfair to them . Secondly , the Government believes that a GRC can function if it is lacking a member , as MPs from other constituencies can help to address the needs of residents in that GRC .
However , Thio Li @-@ ann believes that it is undesirable that the law does not impose a timeframe for the calling of by @-@ elections . If a by @-@ election is not called promptly upon a parliamentary seat falling vacant , the electors in the GRC in question will be represented to a lesser extent . This is particularly pertinent where more than one MP vacates his or her seat or when the seat vacated is that of a minority candidate . Should the latter situation arise , the rationale behind the GRC scheme – to guarantee minority representation in Parliament – would be defeated .
In an SMC , only one candidate is elected to represent the constituency in question . Thus , if an SMC parliamentary seat is vacated and the Prime Minister exercises discretion not to call a by @-@ election in the SMC , the constituency 's residents will not only lack a representative in Parliament but will also be without a Town Council chairman .
Finally , where an MP of the ruling party vacates his or her seat , a counterpart in a neighbouring ward may take over his or her functions , thus eliminating the need for a by @-@ election . However , this arrangement may not work if an opposition MP vacates his or her seat and no by @-@ election is called , because of the dearth of opposition MPs in Parliament . Therefore , the voters in the opposition ward will be denied of representation until the next general election .
= = = Elected President = = =
Singapore 's Elected Presidency scheme was created as a constitutional safeguard for the nation 's future to prevent irresponsible governance . Being directly elected by the people gives the President legitimacy and moral authority to serve as a check on the executive 's powers . The President 's two main responsibilities are the protection of Singapore 's past reserves and the preservation of the integrity of the public service . However , the President 's role is custodial and ceremonial – he does not exercise executive powers . In fact , the President is generally required to act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet , or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet , in the exercise of his functions under the Constitution or any other written law , unless the contrary is expressly provided for .
= = = = Stringent eligibility requirements and the Presidential Elections Committee 's role = = = =
Thio Li @-@ ann has said that the democratic character of the process for electing the President may be hampered by the application of stringent , elitist criteria , such that it becomes a " clear obstacle to the unmediated expression of the citizens ' preferences " .
Imposing more stringent criteria for the President than for the Prime Minister appears unreasonable , considering how the Prime Minister 's governing powers are far more substantial than that of the President . Among other things , candidates have to be above 45 years of age and must either presently hold or in the past have held high public office or directorships in private sector companies with paid @-@ up capitals of at least S $ 100 million . It has been estimated that " only just over 400 people have the necessary financial or administrative experience to qualify as spelt out in the constitution " . These onerous qualifying criteria have greatly reduced the pool of candidates , and have been criticized as " technocratic rather than democratic " .
In response to the criticisms , Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong argued that the qualification process is necessary and was " carefully designed to ensure that the electorate is presented with qualified candidates " . The Prime Minister asserted it would be " reckless " to adopt less stringent criteria , though such criteria can be " refined further over time " .
Potential presidential candidates are vetted by an unelected three @-@ member Presidential Elections Committee ( " PEC " ) . The PEC is not constitutionally obliged to give reasons behind its decisions to award or deny a certificate of eligibility . Its decision is not subject to legal or political scrutiny , and its verdict is final . There has been criticism of how Andrew Kuan , who applied to be a candidate in the 2005 presidential election , was denied a certificate of eligibility . Before the PEC could reach a decision on the matter , he was reportedly discredited though statements from various people which were published in the media that alleged incompetence and cast doubt on his character . Subsequently , Kuan was denied a certificate , the PEC stating that his seniority and responsibility as the Jurong Town Corporation 's Group Chief Financial Officer were not comparable to the experience of a chairman or chief executive officer of a statutory board or a company with a paid @-@ up capital of at least $ 100 million , as required by the Constitution . There is no legal requirement for the PEC to interview prospective candidates , and it did not do so to allow Kuan to explain his side of the story . As a result , the unopposed incumbent S.R. Nathan was declared the President for a second term .
Possible reforms might be for prospective candidates to have the right to publicly respond to negative accusations before the PEC , and for the PEC to be more transparent with regard to the reasons for their decisions concerning the eligibility of candidates . A more democratized process open to public scrutiny would give citizens a role to play , thus enhancing the notion of representative democracy .
= = = = Uncontested elections = = = =
After Ong Teng Cheong , the first Elected President , had stepped down , the subsequent presidential elections in 1999 and 2005 were uncontested , and S.R. Nathan was deemed to have been elected unopposed for two consecutive terms . Thio has commented :
The right to vote in competitive elections is integral to a functioning democracy and its underlying principles of representation , participation , and legitimacy . Unfortunately , the phenomenon of election by default , a regular feature of Singapore 's parliamentary and presidential elections , only harms the practice of democracy .
She has suggested that to ensure that the institution of the Elected President continues to be legitimate , even if there is only one candidate in an election a vote should be held , and the candidate only declared elected if he or she receives at least a specified percentage of votes .
= = = Prime Minister and the Cabinet = = =
Singapore 's Prime Minister is the Head of the Government of Singapore . The President appoints as Prime Minister an MP who , in his judgment , is likely to command the confidence of a majority of the MPs . This is a power that the President exercises in his personal discretion . The President then acts in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister to appoint other Ministers from among the Members of Parliament . These Ministers , together with the Prime Minister , form the Cabinet . The Cabinet has the general direction and control of the Government and is collectively responsible to Parliament .
This scheme can be seen as a mechanism for representation . First , MPs are chosen by the electorate to represent their concerns and needs in Parliament . Secondly , the Prime Minister , who is vested with the confidence of majority of the MPs , and the Cabinet which is made up of popularly elected MPs , effectively represent the views of the electorate as he heads the Government . The structure of the executive is therefore based on the concept of political representation .
= = Role of the judiciary = =
= = = Appointment and independence of judges = = =
Article 93 of the Constitution vests judicial power in the judiciary . Rather than being elected , the Chief Justice , Judges of Appeal , and the judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President if he , acting in his discretion , concurs with the advice of the Prime Minister . In the Subordinate Courts , district judges and magistrates are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Chief Justice . The idea of the rule of the majority means that people should only be governed by laws passed by their elected representatives . Thus , unelected judges influencing the laws that govern people through the making of decisions seems incompatible with the idea of representative democracy . It has also been said that a judicial " last word " would put the judiciary at odds with Parliament , as the judiciary is not directly accountable to the people . However , even though the appointment of judges is counter @-@ majoritarian in nature , this does not mean that the concept of representative democracy is undermined , as it appears that a counter @-@ majoritarian judiciary more effectively upholds the Constitution and the concept of representative democracy .
Because of this vital responsibility that the judiciary has , it is important that the judiciary is independent of the political branches of government . As Alexander Hamilton put it : " The complete independence of the courts of justice is peculiarly essential in a limited constitution " . Singapore 's judiciary , however , has been criticized as lacking independence and impartiality .
According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers , the criticisms involving judicial bias " could have stemmed from the very high number of cases won by the government or members of the ruling party in either contempt or defamation suits brought against government critics , whether media or individual " . The Government is alleged to have used the judiciary as a tool to deluge their political opponents like J.B. Jeyaretnam , Tang Liang Hong and Dr. Chee Soon Juan with litigation , in some cases causing bankruptcy and , eventually , removal from the political scene . In a 2008 report , the International Bar Association Human Rights Institute ( " IBAHRI " ) claimed that the " slim likelihood " of a successful defence to defamation , combined with high damages awarded in cases involving PAP officials , " sheds doubt on the independence of the judiciary in these cases " .
Allegations of this nature have previously been denied in parliamentary debates , and the Ministry of Law has said the IBAHRI 's allegation that there are reasons to worry about the executive 's influence over judicial decision @-@ making is not supported by evidence . In 2000 , Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew noted that " [ o ] ur judiciary and the rule of law are rated by WEF [ World Economic Forum ] , IMD [ International Institute for Management Development ] and PERC [ Political and Economic Risk Consultancy ] as the best in Asia " .
= = = Upholding the Constitution = = =
The Constitution embodies the idea of representative democracy , as it provides for alternative voices and minority representation in Parliament through the GRC , NCMP and NMP schemes . The Chief Justice of Canada , Beverley McLachlin , has commented that democracy itself is a lot more complicated than elected persons making law . Democracy not only requires majority rule , but rule that protects individuals and groups of individuals whilst promoting fairness . As Martin Taylor puts it :
As our understanding of the nature of modern democratic government improves , it becomes increasingly apparent that majority rule , while an essential ingredient of the system , can operate in ways which are as undemocratic as the rule of the minority – that democracy has to do not only with who exercises the power of the state , by and for the people , but also with the manner in which the state treats those who seek its assistance , or are obliged to submit to its authority , and with what the state allows people to decide and do of , by and for themselves .
" Majority rule " must be subject to limits , as an elected government may still pass or be tempted to pass unconstitutional and undemocratic laws , such as laws affecting fundamental liberties guaranteed by constitutions .
The Singapore Constitution provides safeguards against such behaviour by the majority , and prescribes limits to their powers in the form of , among other things , the fundamental liberties in Part IV of the document . The courts have asserted that the judiciary thus has the power and duty to ensure the observance of constitutional provisions , and is also responsible for declaring invalid any exercise of legislative power exceeding the limits conferred by the Constitution , or contravening any prohibition that the Constitution provides . Supreme Court judges take an oath to defend and protect the Constitution before assuming office . This is done through judicial review , where the judiciary prevents the Parliament from enforcing unconstitutional laws by striking down such laws . Thus , the judiciary essentially upholds the idea of representative democracy that the Constitution embodies when playing its counter @-@ majoritarian role of serving as a check on Parliament and a " Protector of the Individual " .
= = = Purposive interpretation of statutes = = =
A key idea of democracy is that " people may consent to be governed by laws made by ... democratically elected representatives " . Judges are required to interpret statutes in a manner that gives " effect to the intent and will of Parliament " . By interpreting statutes according to Parliament 's intention , the judiciary upholds the notion of representative democracy as it makes sure that the people are ruled accurately by the laws made by their elected leaders . Thus , the role of judges in interpretation is essential to democracy .
Judges are required to interpret laws in the light of section 9A ( 1 ) of the Interpretation Act , which requires an interpretation that would " promote the purpose or object " underlying written law is to be " preferred " over an interpretation that would not , thus mandating a purposive interpretation . The Interpretation Act provides for the types of extrinsic materials and the circumstances under which such extrinsic materials can be referred to , to aid judges in determining the purpose of the statute . Thus , when determining the purpose of a statutory provision , a judge can refer to relevant extrinsic materials such as the explanatory statement relating to the bill in which the provision appears and the speech made in Parliament by a minister moving a motion for the second reading of the bill , when circumstances call for it .
The view has been taken that judges may assign meaning to vague constitutional provisions or statutes on the basis of their own ideological preferences , hence disregarding Parliament 's intention . This criticism arguably does not suggest the need to abandon interpretation by reference to the legislature 's intention , but serves to highlight the importance of the need to use the power of interpretation in an appropriate manner .
= = Freedom of speech and expression = =
Democracy essentially means rule of the people . To build a democratic society and rule , there must be citizen participation by an informed electorate . The freedom to speak and express is thus crucial for the formation of public opinion on political questions , and is indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth . In Singapore , the right to freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed to citizens by Article 14 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Constitution , though it is subject to many qualifications . Parliament may by law impose restrictions on the right as it considers necessary or expedient in the interest of the security of Singapore , friendly relations with other countries , public order or morality , and restrictions designed to protect the privileges of Parliament or to provide against contempt of court , defamation or incitement to any offence .
= = = Role in a representative democracy = = =
Upholding the concept of representative democracy requires the protection of freedom of expression . This paves the way for discussion of the state of affairs in the country , as expressed by representatives of the people , which include members of the ruling party elected into government as well as opposition politicians . Free discourse about political ideas and government plans can facilitate the acknowledgement of current weaknesses or limitations . This is justified in the name of public interest as the legislature , administration and governmental institutions will then strive to make improvements .
Restricting speech inevitably prevents ascertainment and publication of true facts and accurate judgments – it entails an unwarranted " assumption of infallibility " on the part of the government . As argued by John Stuart Mill and analysed by Eric Barendt , allowing freedom of speech ensures that the government 's policies are right and appropriate to legislate ; even the possibility of false speech should not prevent genuine expression of true beliefs . Nevertheless , since inflammatory speech that may provoke disorder must be prevented , a government should be entitled to prioritize public order considerations over permitting individuals to express their personal opinions . Balancing the risk of damage and disorder against long @-@ term benefits of uninhibited debate is imperative .
= = = Government 's position = = =
As society matures , the Singapore Government has taken greater cognizance of educated and informed Singaporeans who place greater value on their rights of expression and call for a less restrictive culture . In 2004 , Lee Hsien Loong , then Deputy Prime Minister , expressed how the Government would be " increasingly guided by the consensus of views in the community with regards to morality and decency issues " in a bid to " pull back from being all things to all citizens " . However , he emphasized the caveat of " opening up more choices for citizens , without imposing on the whole of society " . Civic participation may be engaged through debates on policies and national issues , but criticism which " scores political points and undermines the government 's standing , whether or not this is intended " will not be treated lightly . When the opposition criticizes an action or policy , the Government " necessarily has to rebut or even demolish them , so not to lose its moral authority " .
In a parliamentary speech on 28 February 2008 , Deputy Prime Minister Wong Kan Seng said that the Government had adjusted its policies in relation to various types of expression . For instance , in 2000 it had created Speakers ' Corner as an outdoor venue for political speeches . Use of this venue was liberalized in 2004 to include performances and exhibitions . All public talks held indoors involving organizers and speakers who are Singapore citizens are also exempted from the licensing requirements of the Public Entertainments and Meetings Act . However , freedom of speech and expression , though characteristic and imperative in a self @-@ professed democracy , is not unfettered . The Government thus continues to require licences for events where the speeches relate to race or religion , and does not permit outdoor demonstrations to be held .
= = = Mechanisms for the exercise of free speech = = =
= = = = Freedom of speech and debate in Parliament = = = =
The most direct way of upholding representative democracy is for elected MPs to highlight and address the concerns of the electorate during Parliament sessions . Opposition MPs , NCMPs and NMPs fulfil the important role of representing diverse views and enunciating various needs to the Parliament . At the general election in May 2011 , six opposition MPs from the Workers ' Party of Singapore were elected to Parliament . In section 5 of the Parliament ( Privileges , Immunities and Powers ) Act , enacted pursuant to Article 63 of the Constitution , the freedom of MPs to speak and express themselves in Parliament is provided for in the following terms :
There shall be freedom of speech and debate and proceedings in Parliament , and such freedom of speech and debate and proceedings shall not be liable to be impeached or questioned in any court , commission of inquiry , committee of inquiry , tribunal or any other place whatsoever out of Parliament .
Parliamentary privilege protects contentious views expressed by MPs in the course of parliamentary proceedings in the interest of their constituents or the general public , and thus effectively buoys the right of free speech and expression . Members can speak freely and express themselves frankly in Parliament without fearing legal consequences because they are immune from any civil or criminal proceedings , arrest , imprisonment or damages for what they have said .
= = = = Speakers ' Corner = = = =
Speakers ' Corner at Hong Lim Park , which was introduced on 1 September 2000 , is a platform for the expression of views in an open @-@ air venue , and was intended to " liberalise our society , to widen the space for expression and participation " , as Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong stated in his National Day Rally speech in 2008 . Most assemblies , demonstrations , exhibitions and speeches organized by Singapore citizens and participated in by only citizens and permanent residents may be held at Speakers ' Corner without the need for any permit under either the Public Entertainments and Meetings Act or the Public Order Act . All that is required is prior registration with the Commissioner of Parks and Recreation before engaging in an event at the venue . However , permits are required if the event concerns matters directly or indirectly relating to any religious belief or religion generally , or which may " cause feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different racial or religious groups in Singapore " ; or involves the display of any banner , film , photograph , placard or poster containing violent , lewd or obscene material .
The creation of Speakers ' Corner has been criticized as a governmental concession to free speech which remains fairly restrictive . The number of events staged at the venue has gone down over the years ; this has been attributed to the prevalence of more widespread , effective and convenient communication channels such as television programmes , and the Internet and its online fora . In the words of Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong , Speakers ' Corner has been " playing the same role as envisaged – mostly dormant but good to have " .
= = = = New media = = = =
According to Tan Tarn How , a senior research fellow at the Institute of Policy Studies and former journalist , Singapore newspapers " have a long record of publicly endorsing the PAP @-@ led government 's position " . Thus , passing through the mainstream media 's filters , news about opposition political parties can end up marginalized or unreported , as compared to updates from the ruling party . Should the media avoid reporting opposition @-@ related events , voters are effectively deprived of making an informed choice . In Castells v. Spain ( 1992 ) , the European Court of Human Rights said :
Freedom of the press affords the public one of the best means of discovering and forming an opinion of the ideas and attitudes of their political leaders . In particular , it gives politicians the opportunity to reflect and comment on the preoccupations of public opinion ; it thus enables everyone to participate in the free political debate which is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society .
With the advent of new media , pro @-@ PAP views in mainstream media are countered by websites expressing the views of Internet users which have been omitted from newspapers and television , thus providing additional platforms for expression which are vital in inculcating a more open and democratic society .
Moves by politicians to embrace public opinion on unofficial and informal new media platforms also illustrate how freedom of speech and expression is upheld , and , in fact , increasingly encouraged and taken into account in Singapore 's system of representative democracy . More politicians have been engaging citizens through the Internet through social networking websites and online fora . Former Foreign Minister George Yeo has been actively communicating with netizens on the ubiquitous social networking website Facebook , and has amassed many " friends " who are interested in local political affairs . His willing and frank engagement was evident in the run @-@ up to Singapore 's 2011 presidential election , as he had initially contemplated contesting for the Elected Presidency after losing his parliamentary seat in the 2011 general elections , though he subsequently decided not to . Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong engaged in a web chat with netizens on the People 's Action Party 's Facebook page in May 2011 to answer questions and assuage their concerns .
= = = Restrictions on free speech = = =
Article 14 ( 2 ) ( a ) of the Constitution recognizes that certain restrictions on speech and expression are necessary in the public interest . It states that Parliament may by law impose restrictions on the right to freedom of speech and expression " as it considers necessary or expedient in the interest of the security of Singapore or any part thereof , friendly relations with other countries , public order or morality and restrictions designed to protect the privileges of Parliament or to provide against contempt of court , defamation or incitement to any offence " .
However , potentially severe restrictions on free speech , some of which are elaborated upon below , may act as a disincentive to people expressing political views . These restrictions inevitably have a bearing on how representative democracy is upheld , and have also been said to impact the content of free speech as opposition parties are tempered by the fear of defamation suits .
= = = = Defamation law = = = =
The frequency of defamation suits brought by Government ministers and PAP MPs against critics , in particular political opponents , has been a cause for concern for organizations such as the International Bar Association and the United States Department of State . Amnesty International has referred to the use of civil defamation suits as a strategy by the government to inhibit the public activities of opposition politicians . This is due to how high awards of damages often cripple opposition politicians financially , causing them to become bankrupt and thus lose their parliamentary seats or become ineligible to run for elections . The resulting perception is that Singapore 's leadership has a long @-@ standing reputation for using defamation actions as a mechanism for removing opposition members from the Singapore Parliament or for inhibiting opposing political views .
The Government has denied these claims , citing the lack of substantiating evidence . Noting that many opposition politicians routinely criticize government leaders but are not sued because they have not uttered slanderous falsehoods , it insists that free speech and the right to disagree are upheld , the effects of which are characteristic of a representative democracy . The Government has also pointed out that Singapore 's legal system has won excellent ratings in international surveys . Lee Kuan Yew has also defended the system , asserting that doing things the Government 's way has allowed Singapore to be prosperous , orderly and corruption @-@ free whilst gaining international respect ; and that the " threat of defamation proceedings may make opposition politicians weigh their words more carefully than they do elsewhere " .
= = = = Public Entertainments and Meetings Act and Public Order Act = = = =
Since free speech may be exercised during assemblies and gatherings , Article 14 ( 1 ) ( b ) of the Constitution , which guarantees freedom of assembly , is relevant . Prior to October 2009 , the Public Entertainments and Meetings Act ( " PEMA " ) required a licence to be obtained from the Public Entertainments Licensing Unit ( PELU ) of the Singapore Police Force before talks , discussions or similar events open to the public were held . Holding an event without a licence would result in a fine or imprisonment . Members of opposition parties claimed that PELU acted inconsistently in issuing licences , and that they had been denied licences without reason . The Workers ' Party was fined $ 800 after a dinner event in 1986 , at which the Party 's Secretary @-@ General J.B. Jeyaretnam had given a speech . PELU decreed that since the publicly delivered speech had been unrelated to the festivities , a separate licence from the dinner itself was needed . In addition , the Act exempted public entertainments provided by or under the auspices of the Government , thus allowing MPs from the ruling PAP to speak without a licence in their capacity as grassroots advisors .
With effect from 9 October 2009 , PEMA was amended to exclude " any lecture , talk , address , debate or discussion in any place to which the public or any class of the public has access whether gratuitously or otherwise " from the definition of public entertainment , with the consequence that a licence is no longer required under this Act for such events . Under the Public Order Act , which introduced this change , a permit must generally be obtained from the Commissioner of Police before any public assembly is held . However , no permit is required for public assemblies held inside buildings or other enclosed premises where the organizers and speakers are all Singapore citizens ; the event does not deal with any matter " which relates ( directly or indirectly ) to any religious belief or religion , or any matter which may cause feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different racial or religious groups in Singapore " ; and the organizer or an authorized agent of the organizer is present at all times .
= = = = Media regulation = = = =
Both media ownership and content are carefully regulated by the Government . Given how government @-@ linked companies appear to exercise a near monopoly over the mainstream media in Singapore , the view has been taken that the mainstream media take a predominantly pro @-@ PAP stance in their reporting and suppress or disregard the viewpoints of opposition parties . The Government has justified this approach by stressing that the media should play a constructive role in nation @-@ building by adopting and presenting a national perspective on issues . In other words , the media should support the goals of the elected leadership and extol consensus instead of contention to enhance national strength and competitiveness , and thus " assiduously eschew advancing its own political agenda " at the expense of straightforward truth .
= = = = = Broadcasting and films = = = = =
Under the Broadcasting ( Class Licence ) Notification , issued under section 9 of the Broadcasting Act , all Internet content providers such as bloggers are automatically considered to be licensed and must comply with the conditions of the class licence and the Internet Code of Practice issued by the Media Development Authority ( MDA ) . In particular , it is mandatory for an Internet content provider to register with the MDA if it is , or if the Authority thinks that it is , an individual providing any programme about or a body of persons engaged in the " propagation , promotion or discussion of political or religious issues relating to Singapore , on the World Wide Web through the Internet " . The MDA can fine a licensee , or suspend or cancel its licence , if it has breached the terms of its licence , any relevant code of practice issued by the Authority , any provisions of the Broadcasting Act , or any direction issued by the Authority or the Minister for Communications and Information . In addition , it is an offence to provide a broadcasting service without a licence , and a convicted person is liable to a fine of up to $ 200 @,@ 000 , jail of up to three years , or both . If the offence continues after conviction , a further fine of up to $ 10 @,@ 000 per day may be imposed .
The Minister may declare that any foreign broadcasting service which is rebroadcast in Singapore has been " engaging in the domestic politics of Singapore " . Rebroadcasting such a " declared foreign broadcasting service " is prohibited without the Minister 's approval , which can be refused , revoked without reasons , or granted on conditions , which may include restrictions on the number of people permitted to receive the service and suspensions of the service for certain periods . Failing to comply with the above rules is a crime punishable by a fine of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 .
It is an offence under section 33 of the Films Act to distribute , import , make , reproduce , or exhibit or possess for exhibition any " party political film " . A party political film is one that is " an advertisement made by or on behalf of any political party in Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in Singapore , or any branch of such party or body " , or a film that is " directed towards any political end in Singapore " . The latter phrase is defined in the Act as follows :
... [ A ] film is directed towards a political end in Singapore if the film –
( a ) contains wholly or partly any matter which , in the opinion of the Board [ of Film Censors ] , is intended or likely to affect voting in any election or national referendum in Singapore ; or
( b ) contains wholly or partly references to or comments on any political matter which , in the opinion of the Board , are either partisan or biased ; and “ political matter ” includes but is not limited to any of the following :
( i ) an election or a national referendum in Singapore ;
( ii ) a candidate or group of candidates in an election ;
( iii ) an issue submitted or otherwise before electors in an election or a national referendum in Singapore ;
( iv ) the Government or a previous Government or the opposition to the Government or previous Government ;
( v ) a Member of Parliament ;
( vi ) a current policy of the Government or an issue of public controversy in Singapore ; or
( vii ) a political party in Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in Singapore , or any branch of such party or body .
However , the following types of films are not considered to be party political films :
( a ) a film which is made solely for the purpose of reporting of news by a broadcasting service licensed under any written law ;
( b ) a film which is made solely for the purpose of informing or educating persons on the procedures and polling times for any election or national referendum in Singapore ;
( c ) a film which records live the whole or a material proportion of any performance , assembly of persons or procession that is held in accordance with the law and that does not depict any event , person or situation in a dramatic way ;
( d ) a film designed to provide a record of an event or occasion that is held in accordance with the law for those who took part in the event or occasion or are connected with those who did so ;
( e ) a documentary film without any animation and composed wholly of an accurate account depicting actual events , persons ( deceased or otherwise ) or situations , but not a film –
( i ) wholly or substantially based on unscripted or “ reality ” type programmes ; or
( ii ) that depicts those events , persons or situations in a dramatic way ;
( f ) a film without animation and dramatic elements –
( i ) composed wholly of a political party ’ s manifesto or declaration of policies or ideology on the basis of which candidates authorised by the political party to stand will seek to be elected at a parliamentary election ; and
( ii ) made by or on behalf of that political party ; and
( g ) a film without animation and dramatic elements –
( i ) composed wholly of a candidate ’ s declaration of policies or ideology on the basis of which the candidate will seek to be elected at a parliamentary or presidential election ; and
( ii ) made by or on behalf of that candidate .
= = = = = Newspapers = = = = =
The Newspaper and Printing Presses Act ( " NPPA " ) generally imposes curbs on the foreign ownership of newspaper companies , and requires a permit to be obtained for the publication , sale and distribution of newspapers . It also enables the Minister for Communications and Information to restrict the circulation of any foreign newspaper that has been declared to be " engaging in the domestic politics of Singapore " . In February 1987 , such a declaration was made against The Asian Wall Street Journal and its circulation was limited to 400 copies . The newspaper 's publisher , Dow Jones Publishing Co . ( Asia ) Inc . , unsuccessfully challenged the decision before the High Court and the Court of Appeal . The Court of Appeal interpreted the term domestic politics broadly , holding that in Singapore 's context it included :
... the political system of Singapore and the political ideology underpinning it , the public institutions that are a manifestation of the system and the policies of the government of the day that give life to the political system . In other words , the domestic politics of Singapore relate to the multitude of issues concerning how Singapore should be governed in the interest and for the welfare of its people .
In a September 2011 statement , the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts justified the NPPA 's existence , stating : " The various safeguards provided for in the NPPA help to ensure that the media operating in Singapore play a responsible role and that publishers are accountable for the content they publish . The safeguards also prevent local newspapers from being manipulated by foreign interests which can have a divisive effect on social cohesion . These considerations are still valid today . Journalistic freedom to report responsibly has not been compromised . "
= = = = = Publications = = = = =
Under the Internal Security Act , the Minister for Communications and Information is empowered to prohibit the printing , publication , sale , issue , circulation or possession of any document or publication on the ground , among others , that it is prejudicial to the national interest , public order or security of Singapore . Doing any of the above acts in relation to a banned publication is a criminal offence . Among the publications that have been interdicted under this Act are works by Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong , and the Russian political newspaper Pravda . A similar power to prohibit the importation , sale or circulation of publications that are considered to be contrary to the public interest exists under the Undesirable Publications Act .
= = = = = Election advertising = = = = =
Advertising on the Internet was liberalized by the Government in time for the 2011 general elections . Two forms of political advertising on the Internet are permitted during parliamentary elections . First , during the election period – that is , the period between the day the writ of election is issued and the start of polling day – political parties , candidates or election agents may use the Internet to further candidates ' campaigns , including using websites , chat rooms or discussion forums , video and photograph sharing or hosting websites , e @-@ mail , micro @-@ blog posts ( such as Twitter ) , SMS and MMS messages , digital audio and video files , electronic media applications , and blogs and social networking services ( such as Facebook ) . Election advertising sent by e @-@ mail , micro @-@ blog post , SMS or MMS must contain a functioning e @-@ mail address or mobile phone number to enable recipients to indicate that they do not wish to receive further messages from the sender .
However , the Internet may not be used to publish the following :
Election surveys , defined as opinion surveys of how electors will vote at an election , or of the preferences of electors concerning any candidate or group of candidates or any political party or issue with which an identifiable candidate or group of candidates is associated at an election .
Appeals for money or other property in association with a representation that it will be applied for the objects or activities of any political party or for the promotion of any candidate or group of candidates .
Any facility enabling members of the public to search for unlawful election advertising .
Party political films not permitted by the Films Act .
Secondly , when candidates wish to publish election advertising on the Internet during the campaign period – that is , the period from the closure of the place of nomination on nomination day after the election is adjourned to enable a poll to be taken , to the start of the eve of polling day – they must provide to the returning officer , within 12 hours after the start of the period , declarations containing information on all the online platforms the advertising has appeared on in that time . Subsequently , a similar declaration must be provided before election advertising is published on such platforms .
Individuals who are Singapore citizens may publish on the Internet material that amounts to election advertising without having to comply with the above regulations so long as they do so personally and not at the direction of another person or on that person 's behalf , and do not receive any benefit for doing so .
During presidential elections , candidates may advertise on the Internet except on the eve of polling day and polling day itself . However , on those days , it remains legal for people to convey their own political views on a non @-@ commercial basis to others by telephonic or electronic transmission , and election advertising may remain unaltered on the Internet if it was lawfully published before the eve of polling day .
= = Other controversies relating to representative democracy = =
Over the years , the Government has been accused of slowing down the progress of democracy by using the Internal Security Act to detain political opponents and suppress political criticism and dissent by organizations such as the Asian Legal Resource Centre and Human Rights Watch . A similar allegation was made by presidential election candidate Tan Jee Say in 2011 . Conversely , the Government has repeatedly asserted that " [ n ] o person has ever been detained only for their political beliefs " .
= = = Legislation = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1985 Rev. Ed . , 1999 Reprint ) .
Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) ( " ISA " ) .
Parliamentary Elections Act ( Cap . 218 , 2011 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEA " ) .
Parliamentary Elections ( Election Advertising ) Regulations ( Cap . 218 , Rg . 3 , 2011 Rev. Ed . ) , archived from the original on 10 May 2011 ( " Election Advertising Regulations " ) .
Presidential Elections Act ( Cap . 240A , 2011 Rev. Ed . ) .
Public Entertainments and Meetings Act ( Cap . 257 , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEMA " ) .
Public Order Act ( Cap . 257A , 2012 Rev. Ed . ) ( " POA " ) .
= = = Parliamentary debates = = =
Lee Hsien Loong ( Prime Minister ) , " Parliamentary Elections ( Motion ) " , Singapore Parliamentary Debates , Official Report ( 27 August 2008 ) , vol . 84 , cols . 3328 – 3409 .
Thio Li @-@ ann ( NMP ) , " Parliamentary Elections ( Motion ) " , Singapore Parliamentary Debates , Official Report ( 27 August 2008 ) , vol . 84 , cols . 3328 – 3409 .
K. Shanmugam ( Minister for Law ) , " Head R – Ministry of Law " , Singapore Parliamentary Debates , Official Report ( 13 February 2009 ) , vol . 85 , col . 3146ff .
= = = Other works = = =
Gomez , James ( December 2005 ) , Freedom of Expression and the Media in Singapore : Part of a Series of Baseline Studies on Seven Southeast Asian Countries , London : ARTICLE 19 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902598 @-@ 82 @-@ 6 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 November 2012 .
Gomez , James ( 2006 ) , " Restricting Free Speech : The Impact on Opposition Parties in Singapore " , The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 23 ( 1 ) : 105 – 131 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 22 November 2012 .
Lua , Ee Laine ; Sim , Jek Sok Disa ; Koh , Theng Jer Christopher ( 1996 ) , " Principles and Practices of Voting : The Singapore Electoral System " , Singapore Law Review 17 : 244 – 321 .
McLachlin , Beverly ( 2000 ) , " Judicial Power and Democracy " , Singapore Academy of Law Journal 12 : 311 – 330 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 November 2012 .
Tey , Tsun Hang ( December 2008 ) , " Singapore 's Electoral System : Government by the People ? " , Legal Studies 28 ( 4 ) : 610 – 628 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1748 @-@ 121X.2008.00106.x .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2007 ) , " ( S ) electing the President – Diluting Democracy ? " , International Journal of Constitutional Law 5 ( 3 ) : 526 – 543 , doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / icon / mom017 .
Turnbull , C [ onstance ] M [ ary ] ( 1977 ) , A History of Singapore , 1819 – 1975 , Kuala Lumpur ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 580354 @-@ 9 .
Weiler , Paul C. ( 1984 ) , " Rights and Judges in a Democracy " , University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 18 ( 1 ) : 51 – 92 .
Yeo , Kim Wah ( 1973 ) , Political Development in Singapore , 1945 – 55 , Singapore : Singapore University Press , OCLC 902704 .
= = = Articles = = =
Chan , Cassandra ( 2003 – 2004 ) , " Breaking Singapore 's Regrettable Tradition of Chilling Free Speech with Defamation Laws " , Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 26 : 315 – 339 , archived from the original on 5 October 2012 .
Gomez , James ( October 2005 ) , " International NGOs : Filling the Civil Society ' Gap ' in Singapore " , Sojourn : Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 20 ( 2 ) : 177 – 207 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 November 2012 .
Kuttan , Sharaad ; Lee , Weng Choy , eds . ( 1993 ) , " Democracy " , Commentary 11 ( 2 ) , OCLC 32801295 .
Sim , Cameron ( 2011 ) , " The Singapore Chill : Political Defamation and the Normalization of a Statist Rule of Law " , Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal 20 ( 2 ) : 319 – 353 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 16 November 2011 .
Tey , Tsun Hang ( November 2008 ) , " Confining the Freedom of the Press in Singapore – A ' Pragmatic ' Press for ' Nation Building ' ? " , Human Rights Quarterly 30 ( 4 ) : 876 – 905 , doi : 10 @.@ 1353 / hrq.0.0034 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2003 ) , " Singapore : Regulating Political Speech and the Commitment ' to Build a Democratic Society ' " , International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 ( 3 ) : 516 – 524 , doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / icon / 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 516 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2008 ) , " The Virtual and the Real : Article 14 , Political Speech and the Calibrated Management of Deliberative Democracy in Singapore " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 25 – 57 , SSRN 1265329 .
= = = Books = = =
Bell , Daniel ( 2000 ) , East Meets West : Human Rights and Democracy in East Asia , Princeton , N.J. : Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 00507 @-@ 2 .
Chee , Soon Juan ( 2012 ) , Democratically Speaking , Singapore : Chee Soon Juan , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 2896 @-@ 0 .
Chua , Beng Huat ( 1995 ) , Communitarian Ideology and Democracy in Singapore , London ; New York , N.Y. : Routledge , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 12054 @-@ 8 .
Paul , E [ ric ] C [ harles ] ( 1992 ) , Obstacles to Democratization in Singapore [ Centre of Southeast Asian Studies , Monash University , working papers ; 78 ] , Clayton , Vic . : Centre of Southeast Asian Studies , Monash University , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7326 @-@ 0433 @-@ 2 .
Rodan , Garry ( 2004 ) , " Bedding Down Media and Information Control in Singapore and Malaysia " , Transparency and Authoritarian Rule in South East Asia : Singapore and Malaysia , London ; New York , N.Y. : RoutledgeCurzon , pp. 18 – 47 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 37416 @-@ 3 .
R.K. Vasil ( 2000 ) , Governing Singapore : Democracy and National Development , St. Leonards , NSW : Allen & Unwin , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 211 @-@ 0 .
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= Lage Raho Munna Bhai =
Lage Raho Munna Bhai ( pronounced [ ləˈɡeː rəˈɦoː mʊnnaːˈbʱaːi ] meaning " Carry On , Munna Bhai " ) is a 2006 Indian comedy @-@ drama film directed by Rajkumar Hirani and produced by Vidhu Vinod Chopra . It is the follow @-@ up to the 2003 film Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. with Sanjay Dutt reprising his role as Munna Bhai , a Mumbai ( Bombay ) underworld don . In Lage Raho Munna Bhai , the eponymous lead character starts to see the spirit of Mahatma Gandhi . Through his interactions with Gandhi , he begins to practice what he refers to as Gandhigiri ( a neologism for Gandhism ) to help ordinary people solve their problems .
The film won widespread critical acclaim from critics and had a number of prominent screenings . It was a box office success and received a " blockbuster " rating by the website Box Office India after grossing over ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) worldwide , the equivalent to ₹ 2 @.@ 73 billion ( US $ 41 million ) when adjusted for inflation , 2016 . It was the recipient of a number of awards , including four National Film Awards . Lage Raho Munna Bhai was the first Hindi film to be shown at the United Nations , and was screened at the Tous Les Cinema du Monde section of the 2007 Cannes Film Festival . The film popularised the term Gandhigiri . Vidhu Vinod Chopra submitted the film as an independent entry for the 2007 Academy Award for Best Foreign Film .
= = Plot = =
Murli Prasad Sharma alias Munna Bhai ( Sanjay Dutt ) , a gangster who is in love with the voice of Janhavi ( Vidya Balan ) , a radio jockey , devises a plan to meet her when she announces a quiz contest featuring the life and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi , to be aired on 2 October , the birthday of Gandhi . To prepare for the contest , Munna 's sidekick Circuit ( Arshad Warsi ) kidnaps and bribes a group of professors to provide the answers for Munna . After winning the contest , Munna is granted an interview with Janhavi wherein he presents himself as a professor of history and a Gandhi specialist . Janhavi subsequently asks Munna to present a lecture on Gandhi to a community of senior citizens who live in her home , called the ' Second Innings House . ' To prepare for this event , Munna engages in intense study at a Gandhi institute . For three days and nights ( and without food or sleep ) , Munna reads about the life and ideologies of Gandhi .
It is during this period that the image of Gandhi ( Dilip Prabhavalkar ) , addressed by his nickname " Bapu " ( " father " ) , appears and offers help and advice to Munna . Gandhi encourages Munna to tell the truth about himself to Janhavi , but Munna resists this advice . With Gandhi 's help , Munna succeeds in impressing Jahnavi and cultivates a new lifestyle based upon Gandhism . Munna starts to co @-@ host a radio @-@ show with Janhavi and Gandhi 's image , guiding his audience to use Gandhigiri to solve everyday problems .
The film has several subplots . One of the most prominent of these details the story of Lucky Singh ( Boman Irani ) and his daughter Simran ( Dia Mirza ) . Lucky is an unscrupulous businessman who employs Circuit and Munna Bhai to conduct underworld activities for him . His daughter , Simran , is engaged to marry Sunny ( Abhishek Bachchan ) , the son of the powerful businessman Kkhurana ( Kulbhushan Kharbanda ) . Kkhurana is superstitious and his activities are controlled by his astrologer , Batuk Maharaj ( Saurabh Shukla ) , whose particular use of numerology led Kkhurana to add an extra " K " to his real name ( Khurana ) as well as to the conclusion that the ' Second Innings House ' would be the most auspicious place for Sunny and Simran to live . Maharaj also convinces Kkhurana to reject the marriage between Simran and Sunny when it is revealed that Simran is considered to be a manglik ( an individual whose Vedic astrological makeup is believed by some to be devastating for marriage , mostly leading to the death of the spouse after a certain calculated period of marriage ) . Lucky appropriates the ' Second Innings House ' by sending Munna to Goa ( keeping him out of the way ) and then blackmailing him to let the matter pass or risk losing his love Janvi . In response , Munna launches a " non @-@ violent " protest to reclaim the house . He calls this protest " Get Well Soon , Lucky " and asks his radio show 's audience to send Lucky flowers ( red roses especially ) to help him recover from the " disease of dishonesty " .
During this time Munna tells Janhavi the truth ( via a letter he gives to her ) . Heartbroken , Janhavi leaves Munna . Munna receives another setback when he is tricked by Lucky into revealing his conversations with Gandhi before a public audience . At this conference , Munna finds that only after he has learned something about " Bapu " ' s life can the Gandhi image talk about it , which serves as proof for a psychiatrist in the audience that Munna is delusional . Gandhi 's monologue at the end of the film , however , questions this conclusion . Munna , despite these defeats , continues to use Gandhigiri , a decision that transforms Lucky , revives Janhavi 's affection , and resolves Simran 's marriage . Lucky Singh eventually becomes a student of Gandhigiri and is greeted by Gandhi 's image not long after he has begun to study " Bapu " ' s life . Immediately he calls for a photograph to be taken of them together ; this perplexes the photographer , who cannot see the Gandhi image .
= = Cast = =
Sanjay Dutt as Murli Prasad Sharma or " Munna Bhai "
Arshad Warsi as Circuit , Munna 's sidekick
Vidya Balan as Jhanvi , radio @-@ jockey and Munna 's love @-@ interest
Boman Irani as Lucky Singh
Dilip Prabhavalkar as the image of Mahatma Gandhi
Dia Mirza as Simran , Lucky 's daughter , engaged to Sunny
Jimmy Shergill as Victor D 'Souza , who having lost his father 's money , needs Munna 's advice
Kulbhushan Kharbanda as Kkhurana , a wealthy but superstitious businessman
Saurabh Shukla as Batuk Maharaj , Kkhurana 's astrologer
Abhishek Bachchan as Sunny , Kkhurana 's son , engaged to Simran ( cameo )
Rohitash Gaud as Cuckoo ( Lucky 's Sidekick )
Parikshat Sahni as Victor 's father
Ashwin Mushran as Hari Desai
Hemu Adhikari as the Retired teacher
Priya Bapat as the girl who calls Murli
Ninad Kamat as the Lawyer
Kurush Deboo as Dhansukh Bhai Patel , Gujarati Lawyer
Arun Bali as a Second Innings Resident
Achyut Potdar as a Second Innings Resident
Atmaram Bhende as a Second Innings Resident
= = Production = =
The Munna Bhai series began after Vidhu Vinod Chopra agreed to produce Rajkumar Hirani 's 2003 film Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. when no one else would ( Hirani had worked as an editor on Chopra 's 2000 film Mission Kashmir ) . They also collaborated on the script . Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. was a runaway success that prompted the duo to contemplate a sequel . The sequel was initially known as Munnabhai Meets Mahatma Gandhi and was later titled Munnabhai 2nd Innings before being given its current name .
Hirani admitted in an interview that he felt the burden of expectation while writing the screenplay for Lage Raho Munna Bhai , as he had to create " something to match " the first film . Initially there was some effort to incorporate scenes or characteristics of the first film into the sequel ( such as the idiosyncratic laugh of Dr. Asthana , portrayed by Boman Irani in the first installment ) , but the risks of repetition were consciously averted .
One of Hirani 's goals in making the film was to revive an interest in Mahatma Gandhi , a figure whom he felt had been forgotten in contemporary India . To highlight this fact , Hirani recounted ( during an interview ) an incident with a chai @-@ wallah boy ( who brings tea to the crew ) during production :
The boy was curious , he was a big Munnabhai fan and kept asking the name of the film . The first working title was ' Munnabhai Meets Mahatma Gandhi , ' and Shantanu ( Moitra , the music director ) told him . So he said , ' Munnabhai to theek hai , yeh Mahatma Gandhi kaun hai ? ' ( ' Munnabhai is fine , but who is this Mahatma Gandhi ? ' ) So this is the sad state of affairs today . I was shocked . And it 's not just the chai @-@ wallah . A few days ago on TV a lot of politicians were asked India @-@ related questions on the news channels , and I can 't believe a lot of them don 't know 2 October is Gandhiji 's birthday ! Many didn 't know his first name . They kept saying , ' what 's in a name , we respect his ideals , ' but come on ! How can you not know his name ?
The other screenwriter , Abhijat Joshi ( who teaches in the department of English at Otterbein College in Westerville , Ohio ) , stated that he had been conducting extensive research on Gandhi , which inspired producer Chopra to involve Joshi in the creation of the second Munna Bhai screenplay .
While writing the screenplay , Hirani and Joshi stayed together for more than four months . They developed scenes by going out for a walk and discussing the scene . They would not return home until they had created a scene that would make them laugh , or cry , or had some provocative thought . While there was a shortage of resources during the shooting of Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. , the crew did not encounter a financial crisis during the filming of Lage Raho Munna Bhai , as the team managed to receive whatever was deemed necessary ( including a Jimmy Jib , a specific kind of camera crane , just for a single crane shot ) . The film was shot on location in and around Mumbai , with Goa as a backdrop for the " Aane Charaane " song .
Only two characters — those of Munna Bhai ( portrayed by Sanjay Dutt ) and Circuit ( portrayed by Arshad Warsi ) — were retained from Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. Several actors from Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. , appeared in Lage Raho Munna Bhai as different characters . Vidya Balan was chosen to play the leading lady as her voice was thought to be appropriate for that of a radio jockey .
The actors used several techniques to develop their characters . Arshad Warsi ( " Circuit " ) encountered some initial problems reviving his character from the first film . On the first day of the shoot when Arshad , " said his first line , he didn 't sound like Circuit at all . He sounded like Arshad Warsi speaking with an accent . " Warsi admits that he had " forgotten " the character of Circuit and had to watch the DVD of Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. three times before being able to film the scene correctly . Sanjay Dutt ( " Munna Bhai " ) also confessed that he had to watch the first film eight to nine times to recapture the " persona " of Munna Bhai . In addition , Dutt stated in an interview that he did not read Gandhi 's autobiography My Experiments with Truth as a preparation for Lage Raho Munna Bhai . Rather , he comments , his father , Sunil Dutt ( who portrays Munna Bhai 's father in the first film , Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. ) and his mother ( the late actress Nargis ) were his role models as they " were basically Gandhians . We were brought up with those values . "
Dilip Prabhavalkar , who portrays Gandhi , read Gandhi 's works " once again " to prepare for his role . Boman Irani prepared for the role of Lucky Singh by spending time with Sardarjis ( male Sikhs ) in auto spare parts shops to research his role . Vidya Balan ( " Jahnavi " ) met with a couple of radio jockeys and watched them at work .
= = Themes and impact = =
= = = Influences and allusions = = =
Each film in the Munna Bhai series features Munna and Circuit in a story that is comprehensive unto itself and is not continued or referred to in another in the series . Director Hirani has compared this format to the films of Charlie Chaplin and Laurel and Hardy , as well as to the James Bond series . Others have also likened the series to the work of Laurel and Hardy . Some , however , have negated this comparison , stating that the series is more akin to the Road to ... " buddy films " of Bob Hope and Bing Crosby . Hirani stated that his work was deeply inspired by the films of Hrishikesh Mukherjee .
= = = Social influence = = =
The interaction between the central characters of Mahatma Gandhi and Munna Bhai highlights concepts and ideas that draw upon the period of Colonial India and the Indian independence movement . Gandhi was a leader in this movement , challenging the British Empire 's presence in India through the use of Satyagraha ( non @-@ violence ) . In the film , Jahnavi and Munna Bhai 's non @-@ violent protest against Lucky Singh serves as a metaphor for the Indian independence movement and the battle against the British Raj .
The thematic attention to Gandhi 's theories in Lage Raho Munna Bhai revived an interest in Gandhism in India under the new term Gandhigiri and " made Gandhi suddenly hip " with Indians " staging nonviolent protests , starting Web sites , handing out roses to enemies and putting on peaked white caps from the Gandhi era . " Arunabha Ghosh , in December 2006 , noted in The Economic and Political Weekly that , " Gandhi , the man , was once the message . In the India of the post @-@ liberalisation brand , gandhigiri is the message . " Amelia Gentleman of The International Herald Tribune / New York Times stated in September 2006 that :
" The real excitement was a Bollywood film [ ... ] which [ became ] the unexpected box @-@ office hit of the year [ ... ] With its big Bollywood soundtrack and dance routines , the movie brings Gandhi firmly into the mainstream and theaters have been packed for the past three weeks . The Congress Party recommended that all party members see the film . The Delhi authorities declared that tickets to the film would be sold tax free because of its assiduous promotion of Gandhian values . "
Mark Sappenfield of The Christian Science Monitor argued in 2006 that the film was appealing because , " Gandhi gets his hands dirty . He appears as an apparition only visible to the wayward gangster , counselling him on how to help others deal with everyday problems . " Swati Gauri Sharma suggested in The Boston Globe that what the United States " needs is a film that encourages people to take up Gandhigiri , Kinggiri , or Kennedygiri . If it worked for Bollywood , it could work for Hollywood . "
= = = Gandhigiri @-@ style protests = = =
After the release of the film , Gandhigiri @-@ style protests began to take place in India . In 2006 , farmers staged a protest with flowers in the Vidarbha region , and people who organised a protest in Lucknow claimed to have been inspired by Lage Raho Munna Bhai to use roses to convey their message . In Lucknow , students claimed to have been inspired by Lage Raho Munna Bhai to do volunteer work , planting trees " to conserve nature which is bound to benefit public health . " Mafia don Babloo Srivastava claimed to have been inspired by Lago Raho Munna Bhai to distribute roses as a " message of love and peace " . In 2008 , Indian Greenpeace activists delivered thousands of roses to Ratan Tata , chairman of Tata Motors , to reconsider his plans of building a port at the nesting grounds of Olive Ridley sea turtles . The " Send Pramod Muthalik a Valentine ’ s Day card " campaign in 2009 was inspired by the film .
In the United States during July 2007 , Aman Kapoor , founder of the Immigration Voice forum , initiated a Gandhigiri protest inspired by Lage Raho Munna Bhai . Over a three @-@ day period , hundreds of flower bouquets were sent to the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services ( USCIS ) office by Indians who were legally in the U.S. but caught in a green card backlog . On 17 July , the USCIS reversed the decision that led to the protest .
= = = Impact = = =
Lage Raho Munna Bhai revived an interest in books about Gandhi . In particular , demand for Gandhi 's autobiography My Experiments with Truth increased after the film debuted , including requests from prison inmates . In addition , due to its influence , the film was made tax @-@ free in Mumbai .
= = Release = =
= = = Screenings = = =
Screened on 10 November 2006 in the United Nations auditorium , Lage Raho Munna Bhai was the first Hindi film to be shown at the UN . The film was introduced by Shashi Tharoor , UN Under @-@ Secretary General for Communications and Public Information . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama observed that , " there was thunderous clapping at the high points of the film , like the pensioner shedding his clothes . The applause at the end of the screening was unending . A vibrant question and answer session followed with director Rajkumar Hirani , writer Abhijat Joshi and actor Boman Irani , who flew to the U.S. for the screening . " The Indo @-@ Asian News Service ( IANS ) noted that , " an evening that had started with massive security arrangements in the sombre UN setting , concluded in a festive atmosphere in the lounge of the UN with diplomats from other tables joining in raising a toast for the film . " The United Nations General Assembly announced on 15 June 2007 that 2 October , the day of Gandhi 's birth ( Gandhi Jayanti ) , was to be " the International Day of Non @-@ Violence . "
The Prime Minister of India , Manmohan Singh , was given a private screening of Lage Raho Munna Bhai . After viewing the film , he stated that it " captures Bapu 's message about the power of truth and humanism . " In a speech during his visit to South Africa , Singh said , " I was heartened to see recently that back home in India the most popular movie this festival season is a film about a young man 's discovery of the universal and timeless relevance of the Mahatma 's message . " Singh announced the creation of a new Public Services Bill to combat corruption in a press release dated 17 November 2006 , and cited Lage Raho Munna Bhai as one of its influences .
Lage Raho Munna Bhai was further screened at a global judiciary summit in Lucknow in December 2006 . After viewing the film , Justice Kenneth Mithyane from South Africa commented , " The movie has re @-@ enlivened the non @-@ violence philosophy practiced by Mahatma Gandhi who continues to remain close to the hearts of the South Africans . " Fatima Chouhan , a young member of the South African parliament , noted that , " ' Munnabhai ' will be widely appreciated in South Africa . I 'm carrying a couple of video discs for my family and friends . "
It was part of the Tous Les Cinema du Monde section of the 2007 Cannes Film Festival . TLage Raho Munna Bhai was well received as the audience had lined " up in long queues to catch the film that had been strongly recommended in festival reviews [ ... ] not one person who entered the screening left before the end of the two @-@ hours @-@ thirty @-@ minutes film . " In addition , " the screening of the movie at the festival saw people sitting on the aisles as the theatre was completely packed [ ... ] there was also a big group of French students that clapped till the credits were finished . "
Several universities held screenings . It was shown on 27 October 2006 at the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts . The screening was followed by a question and answer session with Vidhu Vinod Chopra , Rajkumar Hirani , and Abhijat Joshi . Filmmaker Gurinder Chadha attended and spoke at the conclusion of the question @-@ and @-@ answer session . The film was screened at Old Dominion University on 20 March 2007 ( as a part of Old Dominion University and City of Norfolk ONFilm Festival ) , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lecture Series Committee on 23 March & 24 March 2007 , and Harvard Law School on 3 April 2007 ( as part of a series on nonviolence ) .
= = = Home media and screenplay = = =
The British DVD of Lage Raho Munna Bhai contains a bonus DVD which has a 98 @-@ minute five @-@ part documentary on the making of the film , interviews with members of the cast and crew , and information on the creation of the song and dance numbers . It also has a special feature called " Munna meets Bapu . "
Lage Raho Munnabhai — The Original Screenplay was released in December 2009 . Published by Om Books International in association with Vinod Chopra Films , it was launched at an event with the original cast and crew . The text includes an introductory note by Abhijat Joshi which details the drafting of the screenplay . It also includes a number of stills from the film as well as character profiles .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Lage Raho Munna Bhai was an acclaimed film . Subhash K. Jha said that " Munna and Circuit , arguably cinema 's most adorable and roguish reformists since Laurel and Hardy go about the business of generating humour out of the pathos of the human condition . The sequences , all fiercely and famously path @-@ breaking have us in splits [ ... ] Watch the love @-@ lorn Munnabhai answer a Gandhian quiz on a phone @-@ in radio quiz with the help of kidnapped professors ' it 's one of the most comically animated sequences seen in the movies of the new millennium . " Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film four out five stars , calling it " a sparkling example of qualitative cinema " arguing that it " not only entertains , it also enlightens . " Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India observes that " Vidhu Vinod Chopra gives the great Indian family one more let 's @-@ go @-@ goodwill @-@ hunting entertainer , even as director Raju Hirani proves that sequels needn 't have the been there @-@ done that feel ... " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave it four out of five stars and states : " Like those good old @-@ fashioned Hrishikesh Mukherjee films , it also reinforces the importance of human goodness and basic niceties . Even if you might argue that some of Gandhi 's principles seem outdated today , you cannot help but cheer for Munna and his gang as they achieve the impossible with love and kindness . And that is where this film transcends conventional boundaries . It entertains you , yes , but it also makes you yearn for a perfect world . Judge it by any yardstick that you may , Lage Raho Munnabhai emerges a clear winner . Much of that credit must go to its actors who pull out all stops to make it an enjoyable ride . " Poonam Joshi of the BBC gave four out of five stars stating that , " everything about this film works [ ... ] It 's rare to see a film that bounces between humour and sentiment so seamlessly . And it is rarer still to see characters become etched in the memory so enduringly that audiences become almost protective of them . It 's testimony both to the quality of the writing and the performances , that Munna and Circuit have taken on a life of their own . " Vinayak Chakravorty of The Hindustan Times gave four out of four stars stating that it " cleverly works its way around the obvious hurdle that almost all sequels face : The film recreates an original milieu without a hint of the déjà vu downer . And that precisely ranks Munna Bhai 2 as one of the best entertainers this year . " He commended the it for showing " the heights Hindi cinema can scale despite staying within its masala parameters . Lage raho , guys . " Phelim O 'Neill of The Guardian gave the film four out of five stars noting that , " as western romantic comedies become more vapid and even stalkerish , this delivers a credible message of peace , while never forgetting to be magnificent entertainment . " Shastri Ramachandaran of The Tribune wrote , " True , there have been memorable films on Mahatma Gandhi by distinguished directors , namely Richard Attenborough and Shyam Benegal ; one offering a respectful cinematic acquaintance and the other being didactic but inspiring . For all their earnestness , neither film stirred the popular imagination like LRM has done now . " Vaidyanathan from BBC declared that , " Lage Raho is not only as good as MBBS , but much better " calling it " a brilliant emotional roller coaster ride . " Jeremy Page of The Times discussed its enormous popularity upon release and noted the " serious point [ the film made ] about the need for tolerance , restraint and self @-@ sacrifice . "
Finally , filmmaker Kabir Khan cited Lage Raho Munna Bhai as a model film for him as it " had an issue , but it was never once in your face . Rajkumar Hirani kept it all so subtle and yet conveyed the message so well . It was as commercial as it gets and audiences too were thoroughly entertained . That 's the way to make movies because it not just made all parties happy but also had a satisfied director at the end of it all . "
According to Tushar Gandhi , Gandhi 's great @-@ grandson , it introduced the philosophies of Gandhi to a new generation , adding that " Bapu would 've spoken the language of Gandhigiri if he were alive today . I really feel this film says something that needs to be told . "
Other critics offered more negative reviews . Ajit Duara argues in The Hindu that " the accomplished cultural sophistication and political genius of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi has to be dumbed down to the astoundingly moronic levels of Lage Raho Munnabhai . " Filmmaker Jahnu Barua was also critical , stating that " Gandhian philosophy is serious business and Lage Raho Munna Bhai is not the right way to show it . " Jug Suraiya of The Times of India wrote that " thanks to Munnabhai , at best what exists of Gandhism is Gandhigiri , a watered down , Dale Carnegie 's How to Win Friends and Influence People version of the original . "
= = = Box office = = =
Lage Raho Munna Bhai was the third highest grossing Bollywood film of 2006 , earning ₹ 1 @,@ 250 million ( US $ 19 million ) gross in India alone and was rated a " Blockbuster " . The film collected a further ₹ 498 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 4 million ) during 2007 as the film enjoyed a tremendous golden jubilee run playing at a selected 210 cinemas until October of that year , being the only film to achieve this feat since the 1995 release Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . It was also financially successful overseas , earning ₹ 70 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 0 million ) gross in the United Kingdom , ₹ 112 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) gross in North America , and ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) gross for the rest of the overseas proceeds , for a total of ₹ 222 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) . Its total worldwide lifetime gross is ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) the equivalent to just over $ 40m when adjusted for inflation 2016 .
= = = Accolades = = =
Lage Raho Munna Bhai is the recipient of four National Film Awards in addition to other awards . Some speculated that it would represent India as an entry for the 2007 Academy Award for Best Foreign Film . Although ultimately losing to Rang De Basanti as India 's official submission , the producers submitted it as an independent entry . However , neither film received an Oscar nomination .
= = Soundtrack = =
Swanand Kirkire won the National Film Award for Best Lyrics in 2007 for the song " Bande Mein tha Dum . "
= = Proposed sequel = =
A third installment to the Munna Bhai series with a different storyline is being developed by Raj Kumar Hirani .
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= Dragonlance =
Dragonlance is a shared universe created by Laura and Tracy Hickman , and expanded by Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis under the direction of TSR , Inc. into a series of popular fantasy novels . The Hickmans conceived Dragonlance while driving in their car on the way to TSR for a job interview . At TSR Tracy met Margaret Weis , his future writing partner , and they gathered a group of associates to play the Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing game . The adventures during that game inspired a series of gaming modules , a series of novels , licensed products such as board games , and lead miniature figures .
In 1984 , TSR published the first Dragonlance novel , Dragons of Autumn Twilight . It began the Chronicles trilogy , a core element of the Dragonlance world . While the authoring team of Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis wrote the setting 's central books , numerous other authors contributed novels and short stories to the setting . Over 190 novels have used the Dragonlance setting , and have been accompanied by supplemental Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting material for over a decade . In 1997 , Wizards of the Coast LLC purchased TSR , and licensed Dragonlance to Sovereign Press , Inc in 2001 to produce game materials ; this licensing agreement expired in 2007 .
The fictional Dragonlance world of Krynn contains numerous characters , an extensive timeline , and a detailed geography . The history of Krynn consists of five ages . The novels and related game products are primarily set in the fourth age , The Age of Despair . Since February 2009 , the fifth age , the Age of Mortals , has been used . The Heroes of the Lance , created by Weis and Hickman , are the popular protagonists of the Chronicles trilogy . Along with D & D 's world of the Forgotten Realms , Dragonlance is one of the most popular shared worlds in fiction .
= = World = =
The Dragonlance world is described in dozens of books and novels . The setting contains numerous characters , an extensive timeline , and a detailed geography .
= = = Krynn = = =
Dragonlance is set on the world of Krynn . The majority of the novels take place in the various regions of Ansalon , a small continent , though some have taken place on the continent of Taladas , located northeast of Ansalon . The world 's major gods are the High God and his children : good Paladine , neutral Gilean , and evil Takhisis . The gods are opposed by Chaos , who seeks to destroy Krynn . Depending on the time period , the evil chromatic and the good metallic dragons are rare or plentiful . Humans are Krynn 's most common humanoid race , but elves , dwarves , kender , gnomes , and minotaurs occupy the world as well . Clerics derive magical powers from their gods , and wizards derive their power from the three moon gods , Solinari , Lunitari , and Nuitari . Hickman had previously served as a Mormon missionary in Java for two years , and uses Indonesian in Dragonlance spells . During Krynn 's various wars , armies of draconians are used as troops . Draconians are created by corrupting a dragon egg , thereby creating a reptilian humanoid . The eggs of good dragons create evil draconians , and vice versa .
= = = Fictional history = = =
The history of the world of Krynn , and thus the settings for both the novels and gaming supplements , is roughly split into five separate ages . The first age is the time of creation , when the gods are born and Krynn is formed . The Age of Dreams , the second age , is marked by the rapid growth of the world 's first great civilizations and the appearance of myriad new races . This era is also marked by three great wars between dragons and their minions . Following the Third Dragon War , in the Age of Might , the Cataclysm obliterates the great empire of Istar and changes almost the entire surface of Krynn . A three @-@ hundred year depression follows this event , in what is called the Age of Despair . This period also marks the War of the Lance . When Dragonlance was first introduced to Dungeons & Dragons , events such as the Lost Wars happened during The Age of Despair .
= = = Dragonlances = = =
Dragonlances are weapons first created in the Third Dragon War , designed with the purpose of killing evil dragons , and are the only weapons with which mortals can kill dragons . Dragonlances have this power because of the way in which they are created , which requires the use of " two god @-@ blessed artifacts " . The weapons clearly draw upon Christian iconography , as the two mythical figures shown defeating dragons , Archangel Michael and Saint George , are often portrayed wielding lances to do so .
Dragonlances are rare and not commonly traded . There are lesser dragonlances , which are made when only one of the artifacts is used to create them , and greater dragonlances , which are made when both artifacts are used to make them . Greater dragonlances are blessed with the power of Good , unlike lesser dragonlances .
= = = Characters = = =
The Heroes of the Lance are the protagonists of the Chronicles trilogy , the first series of Dragonlance books . They were created by Weis and Hickman , then fleshed out as player characters in gaming sessions of Dungeons & Dragons at Hickman 's apartment . One player at this initial gaming session was game designer Terry Phillips , who was playing as Raistlin . According to Hickman in the foreword to The Soulforge , " [ we ] were just settling in to the game when I turned to my good friend Terry Phillips and asked what his character was doing . Terry spoke ... and the world of Krynn was forever changed . His rasping voice , his sarcasm and bitterness all masking an arrogance and power that never needed to be stated suddenly were real . Everyone in the room was both transfixed and terrified . To this day Margaret [ Weis ] swears that Terry wore the black robes to the party that night . "
Several other Heroes of the Lance were played by various people . Authors Gary and Janet Pack played the half @-@ elf Tanis Half @-@ Elven and the kender Tasslehoff Burrfoot , respectively . Author Douglas Niles played the dwarf Flint Fireforge . TSR employee Harold Johnson played the Solamnic knight Sturm Brightblade . The rest of the Heroes are the barbarians Goldmoon and Riverwind , elf Laurana Kanan , and humans Caramon Majere ( Raistlin 's brother ) and Tika Waylan . Weis played Fizban the Fabulous .
In the beginning , Margaret Weis had problems depicting Tanis Half @-@ Elven in the novels . Tracy Hickman finally told her " He 's James T. Kirk of the Starship Enterprise . " After that explanation , Margaret had no more difficulty writing about Tanis . Other noteworthy antagonists , and sometimes protagonists , are the Death Knight Lord Soth and Kitiara Uth Matar , the half @-@ sister of Raistlin and Caramon , and leader of one of the Dragonarmies of Ansalon . According to Hickman , Lord Soth is the most unpredictable character to write about , saying " Every time that character made an appearance in one of our books he would try to run off with the story . "
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation = = =
Hickman developed his world creation technique by writing and self @-@ publishing with his wife Laura the adventure modules Rahasia ( 1979 ) and Pharaoh ( 1980 ) , and writing TSR 's Ravenloft module ( 1983 ) . He was unemployed in 1982 , and TSR offered him a job based on his submission of several modules . That year , while driving from Utah to Wisconsin to start a job with TSR , Hickman and his wife created the Dragonlance universe concept . During the trip , Hickman and his wife discussed two ideas they had had for several years : an entire world used to support a storyline , and a world dominated by dragons .
Their ideas were well received by TSR , whose marketing department felt they had enough dungeons , but not enough dragons . Hickman suggested a series of twelve modules , each featuring a different dragon . TSR employee Harold Johnson suggested that Hickman should try to get additional support from other TSR staff members and , after a period of months , Hickman had the support of Jeff Grubb , Larry Elmore , Roger Moore , Doug Niles , Michael Williams , and others with whom they discussed ideas for the project . Meanwhile , Weis was editing and writing various Endless Quest books for TSR . The Dragonlance group decided that novels should accompany the game modules ; TSR reluctantly agreed and hired a writer . Hickman became the design coordinator for Project Overlord , the cover name for what would later be known as the Dragonlance saga .
TSR decided to create a franchise , including modules , board games , lead figures , and — for the first time — novels . Weis had been hired as an editor ; with Hickman , she began working with the author hired to write the novels . They weren 't satisfied with the author , and decided they should be the ones to write the books . They collaborated over a weekend , writing the prologue for the first five chapters of the first novel , Dragons of Autumn Twilight , based on the module Dragons of Despair . TSR liked their treatment and gave them the assignment , firing the author . After two years of development , TSR released Dragons of Autumn Twilight as a supplement to the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game . TSR had doubts about the finished novel 's sales potential , and attempted to order thirty thousand copies , ultimately ordering the minimum print run of fifty thousand . The success of the novel prompted TSR to publish more copies to meet demand . Dragonlance eventually received ancillary products such as novels , calendars , computer games , and books of artwork .
= = = Further development = = =
In the mid to late 1980s , a rift developed between Weis and Hickman , and TSR . The pair were feeling under @-@ appreciated by the company , and when TSR turned down their Darksword series of novels , they went to Bantam Books . Bantam made them an offer , which they accepted , and they stopped writing Dragonlance novels for TSR . They returned to write Dragons of Summer Flame for TSR in 1995 , thinking it would be their final Dragonlance novel . At the time , Dragonlance gaming had been converted to the SAGA System , with limited success , and that , combined with TSR 's general financial troubles , put the setting 's future in doubt . Wizards of the Coast bought the troubled TSR in 1997 , and Weis and Hickman then proposed the War of Souls trilogy , which was published in 2000 – 2002 . All three novels made the New York Times bestseller list , and the setting was commercially revitalized . By 1998 , the original Dragonlance trilogy had sold well over three million copies worldwide and spawned dozens of sequels . The central books of the Dragonlance series were written by the authoring team of Weis and Hickman ; however , many other writers have made contributions , including Richard A. Knaak , Douglas Niles , Roger E. Moore , Don Perrin , Jean Rabe , Paul B. Thompson , Tonya C. Cook , Michael Williams , Nancy Varian Berberick , and Chris Pierson .
In 2001 , Wizards of the Coast licensed Sovereign Press to publish further Dragonlance game materials . This began with the newly revised Dragonlance Campaign Setting in 2003 , which used the new Dungeons & Dragons 3rd Edition rules . On April 23 , 2007 , Weis announced Wizards of the Coast had not renewed Sovereign 's license , and that Dragonlance RPG game supplements and accessories would only be released through the end of the year .
= = Reception = =
Dragonlance is one of the most popular shared worlds , worlds in which writers other than those that created them place adventures . The first Dragonlance trilogy , Chronicles , launched the Dungeons & Dragons line of novels , with many of its characters spun off into other novels . Along with Forgotten Realms , Dragonlance is TSR 's most popular series of novels . According to The 1990s by Marc Oxoby , what is most notable about the series is that " what may at one time been considered disposable , escapist literature " found " unprecedented popularity " in the 1990s . All of the Dragonlance novels remained in print during the decade , turning Weis and Hickman into literary stars and boosting sales of their non @-@ Dragonlance novels . Although the series was initially published in paperback , its success led to hardcover printings . The hardcover version of Dragons of Summer Flame had an " impressive " first printing of 200 @,@ 000 books . Every Dragonlance novel by Weis and Hickman since 1995 has been released in hardcover , and some previous novels have been re @-@ released in hardcover collector 's editions . Dragonlance made TSR one of the most successful publishers of science fiction and fantasy in the 1990s .
By 2008 , there were more than 190 novels in the Dragonlance franchise . Weis and Hickman 's Dragonlance novels have made over twenty bestseller lists , with sales in excess of 22 million . The pair 's novels have been translated into German , Japanese , Danish , Finnish , Spanish , French , Italian , Hebrew , and Portuguese , and have sold well in the United States , Britain , and Australia .
Not all critics have praised Dragonlance and its creators . According to author Stephen Hunt , Wendy Bradley of Interzone magazine does not think highly of their work . Hunt feels that it is unusual for authors to receive such loathing among " fantasy 's literary mafia " , saying , " Behind every critic 's scorn laden insult , there lays [ sic ] that unsaid thought at the end : ' But I could have written that ! ' " Visions of Wonder , edited by David G. Hartwell and Milton T. Wolf , and published by the Science Fiction Research Association , argues that Dragonlance is published under the " omnivore theory " of publishing . In this theory , the readership is made up of teenagers , and completely replaces itself every three to five years . This allows publishers to release subpar novels and still reach a small yet profitable audience .
= = Novels = =
The main storyline of the original Dragonlance series has been written by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , with multiple books written by other authors , covering years between and sometimes during the main events .
The Chronicles trilogy relates the events since the meeting of the Companions until the end of the War of the Lance and the defeat of the Dragon armies of Ansalon .
The Legends trilogy covers the Blue Lady 's War , as well as the past adventures of Raistlin and Caramon Majere , culminating in Raistlin 's attempt to achieve godhood . The books feature time travel , and focus on events in Istar before the Cataclysm , as well as the ensuing Dwarfgate Wars .
The Second Generation is a single compilation book which picks the most important tales from the Tales series and details the children of the Companions , all of whom become players in the later story . This book is considered to be part of the main storyline , as it must be read to understand the events that happened between the War of the Lance and the Chaos War . This novel develops characters that would later be seen in the War of Souls trilogy .
Dragons of Summer Flame covers the Chaos War , also known as the Second Cataclysm . The gods and mortals join forces to defeat Chaos in his attempt to destroy Krynn . The war ends with the withdrawal of Chaos and the gods of Krynn in a divine agreement to keep the world safe .
Dragons of a New Age describes the rise of the Dragon Overlords and introduces the Fifth Age of Dragonlance . It leads into the War of Souls trilogy .
The War of Souls trilogy begins as a strange storm courses through Krynn , heralding the War of Souls . The end of the war brings the return of the gods , Takhisis 's death , and the departure of Paladine as head of the good gods in order to maintain the balance between Good and Evil .
The Dark Disciple trilogy follows the death of Takhisis and the departure of Paladine , when the lesser gods strive to maintain dominance .
The Lost Chronicles trilogy is a companion to the original Chronicles . Each book of the trilogy fills in sections of the story previously left untold . It tells the story surrounding the recovery of the Hammer of Kharas , how the Companions retrieve the dragon orb from Ice Wall , how Kitiara Uth Matar and Lord Soth became allies , and how Raistlin Majere took the Black Robes in Neraka .
= = Campaign setting = =
TSR created Dragonlance as a campaign setting for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) roleplaying game in 1982 , publishing the first of a series of modules , Dragons of Despair , in March 1984 . They published the first world @-@ spanning sourcebook , Dragonlance Adventures , in 1987 . When AD & D was updated to the 2nd edition in 1989 , the Dragonlance campaign setting was updated as well . However , in 1996 , Dragonlance was converted to use the new SAGA System , which uses cards to determine the effects of actions , with the publication of the Dragonlance : Fifth Age roleplaying game . When the 3rd edition of Dungeons & Dragons was released , Dragonlance was again updated with a new sourcebook ( Dragonlance Campaign Setting ) , although no new adventures were published by Wizards of the Coast . Wizards of the Coast also turned over all responsibility for maintaining the Dragonlance setting in the 3rd edition to Margaret Weis 's home company , Sovereign Press .
= = Media = =
In 2008 , Dragonlance : Dragons of Autumn Twilight , an animated movie based on the first Dragonlance book of the same name , was released direct @-@ to @-@ video . The animation was produced by Toonz Animation , and featured the voices of Lucy Lawless , Kiefer Sutherland , Michael Rosenbaum , and Michelle Trachtenberg . A number of video games are also set in the Dragonlance world : including Heroes of the Lance ( 1988 ) , Dragons of Flame ( 1989 ) , War of the Lance ( 1989 ) , Dragonstrike ( 1990 ) , Shadow Sorcerer ( 1991 ) , Champions of Krynn ( 1990 ) , Death Knights of Krynn ( 1991 ) , and The Dark Queen of Krynn ( 1992 ) .
The MUSH game DragonLance is based on Krynn during the final stage of the War of the Lance .
The series has inspired mention in music as well , including " Wishmaster " , a song by Nightwish based partially on the master and apprentice relationship between Raistlin Majere and Dalamar . The Swedish metal band Lake of Tears also recorded a song called " Raistlin and the Rose " on their 1997 album Crimson Cosmos , while the German group Blind Guardian wrote " The Soulforged " , another song inspired by Raistlin 's story , which appeared on the band 's 2002 album A Night at the Opera . Also Danish / American band Pyramaze recorded in their 2008 album Immortal song " Caramon 's Poem " . Another German metal band , Evertale , released The Chronicles Chapter I EP in 2008 and the full album Of Dragons And Elves in 2013 - both releases were composed entirely of songs inspired by and relating to Dragonlance .
In late 2011 , Holysoft Studios Ltd. released the first part of a German audio adaption of the Chronicles Trilogy , with subsequent releases of the later trilogies being announced .
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= McLaughlin Planetarium =
The McLaughlin Planetarium is a former working planetarium whose building occupies a space immediately to the south of the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto , at 100 Queen 's Park . Founded by a grant from philanthropist Colonel R. Samuel McLaughlin , the facility was opened to the public on October 26 , 1968 . It had , for its time , a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art electro @-@ mechanical Zeiss planetarium projector that was used to project regular themed shows about the stars , planets , and cosmology for visitors . By the 1980s the planetarium 's sound @-@ system and domed ceiling were used to display dazzling music @-@ themed laser @-@ light shows . The lower levels of the planetarium contained a gallery called the " Astrocentre " that featured space @-@ related exhibits , related artifacts on the history of astronomy and was also home of the world 's first commercial Stellarium
Starting in 1978 , there was a decline in attendance that lasted for four years while major construction was being undertaken at its sibling institution , the adjacent Royal Ontario Museum . This work also entailed the demolition of part of the planetarium 's facilities . Though attendance picked up when the museum reopened in 1984 , the planetarium was forced to close on November 5 , 1995 , due to provincial budget cuts to the museum . The planetarium 's exhibits , artifacts and theatre facilities were subsequently dismantled and dispersed . For a brief period it housed the Children 's Own Museum . It is now used solely for offices and as a storage facility for the museum .
Early in 2009 , the R.O.M. announced that it had sold the building and site to the University of Toronto , which plans to demolish the existing building to make way for additional facilities . In September , 2014 , the university announced preliminary plans for new facilities to be built on the site .
= = Beginnings = =
Proposals for building a planetarium in Toronto date back to 1944 , but serious planning only started in 1962 , thanks to a bequest made by a former member of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada ( RASC ) . In May 1964 the Chairman and the President of the University of Toronto gave their support for the idea to the RASC , and suggested a site near the existing Royal Ontario Museum , adding that significant financial support would have to come from outside the University to make it possible .
In November 1964 Canadian businessman Colonel R. Samuel McLaughlin announced plans for donating money directly towards establishing a planetarium in Toronto . He was inspired by the recent construction of the Hayden Planetarium in New York , named after Charles Hayden , who had been a friend and associate on the board of International Nickel . McLaughlin donated $ 2 million for the building 's construction , and gave an additional $ 1 @.@ 15 million as an ongoing endowment . The University of Toronto , which owned and operated the Royal Ontario Museum prior to becoming a separate , provincially funded body , donated land adjacent to the museum . The building was constructed in an area that had formerly been a park belonging to the museum , and also required the demolition of a mansion at 86 Queens Park that had been the residence for the President of the University of Toronto .
The building was designed by architects Allward and Gouinlock and by the engineering firm Stone and Webster Canada , Ltd. in 1965 . Colonel McLaughlin unveiled a model of the building at his 94th birthday celebration , which was held in his honour at the museum in September of that year . It was hoped that the building would be open by Canada 's centennial in 1967 , but construction delays forced the opening to October 26 , 1968 .
In addition to what was built , the original plans also called for a multi @-@ story parking garage , a 550 @-@ seat conventional movie theatre , and a direct underground link to the Museum subway stop . These features were deemed too costly and were never built .
The building contained four floors :
a basement containing a lecture hall that hosted meetings of the Toronto branch of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada , as well as some general storage rooms ;
a ground floor that featured a small store selling space @-@ themed merchandise , a small library , coat @-@ check room , a prominent bronze bust of Colonel McLaughlin , and the box office and staff lounge ( not accessible to the public ) ;
a second floor , called the " Astrocentre " , which featured various astronomical exhibits and a line to the adjacent R.O.M ; and
a third floor , called " The Theatre of the Stars " , was devoted wholly to astronomical shows , and featured a Zeiss planetarium projector along with 85 slide and video projectors used to recreate starry skies , along with two back rooms that housed computers , cooling systems , and audio / visual controllers . The public theatre could seat 340 people at a time , and contained a sound system of approximately 25 @,@ 000 watts .
= = The Building = =
The dominant feature of the building is the dome , which rises 25 @.@ 3 meters ( 83 ft ) from the ground , and has an outer diameter of 27 @.@ 7 meters ( 91 ft ) . The dome structure is layered , with an outer waterproofed casing of reinforced concrete 4 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 inches ) thick , and an inner concrete dome that is insulated by a layer of urethane foam .
The projection dome was separate from the outer dome , and was 23 meters ( 75 @.@ 4 ft ) in diameter . Made of curved aluminum sheets , it was lap jointed to create a continuous spherical surface . The sheets were painted white and perforated with 2 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 1 inch ) holes , which were designed to let sound through and reduced echoes in the cavernous space .
The building had two main entrances : a main entrance at ground level that faced east onto Queen 's Park Drive , and a connecting passageway from the Royal Ontario Museum from what used to be the Mineralogy Gallery . Admission to either facility allowed visitors to see exhibits in both buildings , though a planetarium show cost extra .
= = Zeiss @-@ Jena planetarium projector = =
The planetarium projector was the focal piece of equipment at the planetarium . It was a Universal Projection Planetarium type 23 / 6 , made by Kombinat VEB Carl Zeiss in Jena , in what was then East Germany .
The planetarium projector was a 13 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) -long dumbbell @-@ shaped object , with 29 @-@ inch ( 740 mm ) -diameter spheres attached at each end representing the night sky for the northern and southern hemispheres . Connecting the two spheres was a framework that held nearly 150 individual projectors , including those dedicated to the planets , the Sun , and specific stars .
Improvements were made to the original planetarium projector over the years , allowing for special effects that could show close @-@ up displays of specific planets , and the Sun and Moon projectors could replicate the experience of a solar or lunar eclipse .
The projector could be controlled by a console where an individual presenter would provide specific talks or lectures . By the mid @-@ 1970s , automation features were added , which led to the creation of prerecorded shows . Most visitors to the facility would have seen an automated 40- to 45 @-@ minute audio / visual show on a particular space @-@ related topic . Two types of shows were typically alternated on a daily basis : one aimed at families with young children and another aimed at older children and adults . Typical shows aimed at both audience types were built around themes such as space travel , the mythical stories behind the constellations , and around Christmas @-@ time , a show that investigated theories on stellar explanations for the Star of Bethlehem . A listing from 1970 includes shows titled The Story of Eclipses , which looked at how solar eclipses occur and their scientific importance , Man and the Zodiac which explored the history of mythology and astrology with regard to the night sky , and The Planet Venus which surveyed the history of the planet in mythology , the planet 's motion across the sky and featured imagined views from its surface .
= = Renovations in the late 1970s and early 1980s = =
When plans were drawn up for a major expansion of the adjacent Royal Ontario Museum in the mid @-@ 1970s , it was initially assumed that the planetarium , then still a comparatively new facility , would be left untouched . As the scope of the expansion increased , it was realized that its north annex would need to be demolished in order to make way for the museum 's need for a wing devoted to curatorial facilities . As a result , a theatre entrance , sound studio , workshop , passenger elevator and a third of the existing gallery area of the planetarium had to go . The remaining gallery area was removed in March 1978 to make space for temporary space to replace the workshop and studio .
Significant changes to the planetarium were made during this time , including the addition of a new spiral staircase that led straight to the Theatre of the Stars , an adjacent elevator for the elderly and disabled , and a larger gallery space on the second floor .
The planetarium remained at normal levels of service during this renovation period , but attendance dropped significantly , particularly when the adjacent museum was closed for a period of two years during the most intensive phase of its second major expansion . In all , the construction phase lasted for four years , from 1978 to 1982 . In particular , some school groups that could justify the expense of seeing the museum and a planetarium show in a single day 's outing had difficulty justifying a visit solely to the planetarium .
= = The 1980s and early 1990s = =
Some of the automated " star shows " that appeared in this time interval include : " Planets , Stars , and Galaxies " , a general show about our knowledge of astronomy at the time ; " Mars , the Journey Begins " , the story of the exploration of Mars ( from prehistory to the then @-@ present ) , and possible future plans for terraforming Mars ; " Beyond the 4th Dimension " , which explored , in layman 's terms , the 4 dimensions of General Relativity , the Big Bang and inflation , and the new ( at the time ) theories of physics that postulated that space has up to 11 dimensions ; some of these shows featured creative and novel sound tracks composed by composer @-@ in @-@ residence Mychael Danna .
While the main attraction continued to be the astronomical shows put on during the day , in the early 1980s , regular laser light shows became a staple evening 's entertainment in the city . Typical shows included " Laser Floyd : Dark Side of the Moon " , " Laser Zeppelin " , " Sgt. Peppers Laser Light Show " and later , such shows of more contemporary musical artists such as " Laser Depeche Mode " , " Laser NIN " and " Laser Nirvana " . These shows were held under the name " Laserarium " rather than that of the planetarium , though the laser @-@ light and star shows were held in the same building . The laser shows were created by the Florida @-@ based firm Audio Visual Imagineering , whose shows are also seen at other planetaria .
Corporate events were promoted through The Planetcorp and included such events as a CTV Fall season launch as well as corporate AGMs of Sun Microsystems and product launches from NEC and other companies .
Other exhibits in the revamped Astrocentre included a new 50 @-@ seat mini @-@ theatre , wall murals illustrating the phases of the moon , plus an increasing number of hands @-@ on exhibits and interactive computer @-@ driven displays . There were also displays of astronomical globes , an orrery and pictures of the planets , many taken by contemporary space probes . The Astrocentre also featured the world 's first commercial Stellarium , a slowly rotating display containing a 3D representation of almost a thousand stars in our immediate stellar neighbourhood .
= = Closure = =
The McLaughlin Planetarium was closed on November 5 , 1995 . The president of the ROM stated that the closure of the planetarium was due to a combination of falling attendance and a declining interest in space , and that the closure was necessitated by provincial budget cuts . The decision came as a surprise to many , as attendance had rebounded in recent years , and the planetarium was one of few in North America at the time that was turning a profit . The closure meant that 40 people lost their jobs .
Despite the ROM citing lowered attendance figures , proponents of the planetarium have alleged that the Conservative Ontario provincial government of the time , led by Mike Harris , was looking for an instant and visible $ 600 @,@ 000 cut to the ROM 's operating budget . No succeeding provincial government has shown an interest in reversing this decision .
Shortly after the announcement , the exhibits , seating and wiring were dismantled or removed . Some of the signs and paintings were recovered by the RASC , which had a permanent workspace located within the facility , and are now on display at the E.C. Carr Astronomical Observatory and at David Dunlap Observatory . The original Zeiss @-@ Jena projector was bought as a museum piece by York University for the sum of $ 1 , subsequently dismantled , and placed into storage . More recently , the University has offered the mothballed projector to other planetaria seeking parts to repair their existing electro @-@ mechanical planetarium projectors .
= = After the closure = =
The planetarium has been reopened for other purposes since it closed its doors as a planetarium in 1995 . On March 5 , 1998 , an initial three @-@ year agreement was signed that brought the Children 's Own Museum to the second floor of the planetarium , where the Astrocentre used to be . Due to impending construction at the adjacent Royal Ontario Museum , the contract was not renewed in late 2002 , and the Children 's Own Museum has been looking for a new location ever since . During its three @-@ year tenure in that building , it hosted nearly a half @-@ million visitors . The institution still exists , though it currently ( as of 2009 ) has no physical home . It is currently seeking suitable space to use in future endeavours . In the meantime the organization has participated in various children 's events around the city .
Later in 2002 , a traveling exhibit of costumes , props and models used in the making of Peter Jackson 's Lord of the Rings trilogy ran for four weeks at the planetarium . This was the last public exhibition housed in the building . Up until 2007 , the building has primarily served as office space and storage for exhibits that have been moved out of the R.O.M. while the Lee @-@ Chin Crystal wing was under construction .
Ever since the planetarium 's closing , there have been groups that have lobbied for its reopening . At first , efforts concentrated on reopening the existing facility , but in more recent years , the focus has shifted to establishing a wholly new permanent planetarium facility elsewhere in downtown Toronto . Smaller educational planetaria still exist in the Toronto region . At some time after 1995 , Seneca College closed their Roberta Bondar Earth and Space Centre planetarium . The Ontario Science Centre on Don Mills Road operates a high @-@ resolution digital planetarium with funding from CA , Inc . , and the Royal Ontario Museum also offers a small , portable , inflatable planetarium for school groups .
Since the closing , the Ontario Science Centre has taken over the McLaughlin Planetarium 's role as Toronto 's public planetarium , though using a much smaller facility .
= = = Planned redevelopment = = =
On April 14 , 2004 , the directors put out a call " for expressions of interest " to redevelop the space occupied by the planetarium . Seeking additional funding to cover the costs of the second phase of the expansion and redevelopment of the museum , the directors of the museum had planned on erecting luxury condominiums on the space currently occupied by the planetarium . This proposal was dropped on November 7 , 2005 , due to extensive public opposition to the construction of a tall residential building in a district of low @-@ rise public buildings . , though it was reported that R.O.M. director William Thorsell was planning to revive the scheme to place a residential tower on the site .
On January 26 , 2009 the R.O.M. announced that it had sold the building and the site for $ 22 million to the University of Toronto , who originally planned to demolish the existing building and build additional facilities for its law and business faculties .
On September 9 , 2014 the University of Toronto announced a new museum and academic complex . It was to include the Jewish Museum of Canada , a Faculty of Music performance hall , research centres and History department academic space . In its early stages of planning and approvals the project lacked complete funding at the time of the announcement . In January 2016 , the university announced it would proceed with construction of what is now to be called the Centre for Civilizations and Cultures , without the participation of the Jewish Museum of Canada because the UJA " needed to focus on more pressing funding priorities . " The project is to be designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro of New York in collaboration with architectsAlliance of Toronto . The centre is to house the university 's Department of History , its Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , the Institute of Islamic Studies and the research arm for the Tanenbaum Centre for Jewish Studies , and a new 250 @-@ seat performance hall for the university 's Faculty of Music .
= = Curators = =
Henry C. King ( 1968 – 1976 )
Dr. Thomas R. Clarke ( 1976 – 1995 )
= = Literary references = =
In the eponymous short story in the collection The Moons of Jupiter by Alice Munro , the protagonist visits the planetarium and takes in a show , and then goes on to visit the Royal Ontario Museum . She reports to her father , who is on his deathbed in a Toronto hospital , that she enjoyed the show but found the planetarium to be " a slightly phony temple " to the stars .
In the opening chapter of Robert J. Sawyer 's science fiction novel Calculating God , an alien spaceship lands directly in front of the McLaughlin Planetarium , prior to going on a tour of the exhibits in the Royal Ontario Museum .
= = Affiliations = =
The museum is affiliated with : CMA , CHIN , and Virtual Museum of Canada .
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= Take Back =
" Take Back " ( stylized in Japan as TAKE BACK ) is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Kumi Koda for her debut studio album , Affection ( 2002 ) . It was written by Kumi herself , while production was handled by Max Matsuura . The track was released following Koda 's participation in an open audition where she placed second , whereby she signed to Matsuura 's label to release this song . " Take Back " premiered on December 6 , 2000 as her debut recording . Musically , the track has been described as a pop and R & B song .
Upon its release , " Take Back " garnered positive reviews from music critics and was praised for its composition and commercial appeal . It also achieved limited success in her native Japan , with it peaking at number 59 on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and number 63 on the TBS Count Down TV chart ; this marks her lowest entry to date and her only single to miss the top fifteen on that chart . Remixed by American producer and DJ Jonathan Peters for its North American release , " Take Back " reached number 18 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , number 10 on the US Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales and number 20 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart , making her the first Japanese act to chart on any US Billboard chart since the 1980s .
An accompanying music video for " Take Back " was shot in both Tokyo and New York City by Toku ; it features Kumi singing while sitting on a white chair and her lying down nude clutching a microphone in her hand . For promotion , the song was included on the track list of several concert tours , including Best : First Things Live Tour , Black Cherry Tour and her 10th Anniversary Tour . " Take Back " has only appeared once on any of Kumi 's compilation albums , Best : First Things ( 2005 ) .
= = Background = =
In 2000 , Kumi auditioned for the Avex Trax open " Dream Audition " and came second out of a total of 120 @,@ 000 participants . Following this , Avex employed Japanese producer Max Matsuura , known for his collaborations with fellow female Japanese artists Ayumi Hamasaki and Namie Amuro , to start the Avex Trax @-@ sub label , Rhythm Zone , in 1999 and eventually signed her to the label later that year . Her label had hired composer and arranger Kazuhito Kikuchi to compose " Take Back " , but Avex instructed Kumi to take singing lessons every weekend in Tokyo before recording it . At that time , she stated that she didn 't feel " anxious " about the situation , having already spent 500 @,@ 000 yen ( approximately $ 4056 USD ) she won from the open audition towards food .
In mid 2000 , Kumi was asked by Avex to make her promotional debut through a photo shoot with photographer Toku , which led to the shooting of the cover sleeve for " Take Back " . The artwork features her sporting a red and gold outfit , standing outside of a lit @-@ up tunnel . Particularly , Kumi said that " during the shooting of the cover for [ her ] single , ' Take Back ' , no one had told [ her ] what the shoot was for , so [ she ] just stood in front of the camera clueless " .
= = Composition = =
" Take Back " was written by Kumi and produced by Max Matsuura . It was released as Koda 's debut recording and the first single from her debut studio album , Affection ( 2002 ) , on 6 December 2000 . " Take Back " has been described as a soft pop and R & B song . During an interview , it was revealed that " Take Back " and her earlier works were strictly oriented to R & B music , as " Koda didn 't get into R & B until Avex signed her to its Rhythm Zone label [ ... ] " . At the earlier stages of creating " Take Back " and Affection , she only listened to Japanese music and stated that " [ she 's ] the sort who likes reading the lyrics , and Western music is in English , which [ she ] wasn 't very good at . If [ she ] wouldn 't understand it , [ she ] couldn 't sing it , even at karaoke , so [ she ] didn 't listen to it much . " After discovering fellow label mate , m @-@ flo , Kumi was inspired by his R & B work and wanted to emulate his style into her work , whereby Rhythm Zone asked her to listen to Western music to widen her musical influences . For the North American release , American DJ and producer Jonathan Peters remixed the single ; it was chosen by Rhythm Zone as the final remix for that country . According to Kumi , " [ they ] hadn 't really intended to release [ the remix ] , but remixes were all the rage then " . Particularly , Avex 's New York office confessed that they thought the remix would do well thought the club scene .
= = Critical reception = =
" Take Back " received favorable reviews from music critics . Krzysztof Figlerowicz from Jame World was positive towards the track in his review , labelling it as " a very pleasant soft pop and R & B song " . Furthermore , he noted that the composition was more suitable with the American audience than the Japanese scene hence the lack of success and " commercial appeal " in the latter region . A writer for CD Journal praised " Take Back " , commending its R & B composition as " impressive " and praised the songs longevity . A reviewer from Yahoo ! Music Japan overviewed Koda 's biography profile and commented that the mixture of R & B and pop music was a " perfect balance of contemporary charm and vocals " . Despite not commenting over the original or Jonathan Peter 's remix , Adam Greenberg from Allmusic reviewed the Sunset in Ibiza remix from her compilation album , Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's ( 2006 ) , and stated : " When the DJs complement her voice just right , Koda can sound like any number of other singers . [ ... ] " Real Emotion " and " Take Back " come out as something very similar to Ayumi Hamasaki 's works , "
= = Commercial reception = =
Upon its release , Kumi felt that she " feared the success of the single in Japan " . She also stated that she " was insecure " of the singles ' first week and debut sales . " Take Back " debuted at number 62 on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart with over 4 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week ; it later reached number 59 in its third week on the top 100 . It remains Koda 's lowest charting singles on the Oricon Singles Chart and her only single to miss the top fifty . The track opened the Japanese Count Down TV Chart at number 66 , with it reaching number 63 in its third week on that chart ; it spent six weeks in the top 100 until re @-@ entering for a final week at number 97 . In total , " Take Back " has sold over 22 @,@ 680 units in Japan . As of December 2015 , Oricon 's database has ranked " Take Back " as Kumi 's 51 best @-@ selling single overall .
In the United States , Koda Kumi debuted as " Koda " and the Jonathan Peter 's remix entered at number 33 on the US Dance Club Songs chart , making her the first Japanese act to chart on any US Billboard chart since the 1980s . The remix peaked at number 18 and was recognized by Billboard as the " greatest gainer " on the weekend issue of 5 May 2011 . It spent 13 weeks in the top fifty . " Take Back " reached number 10 on the US Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart , making her the first Japanese artist to achieve a top ten rank on that chart . " Take Back " spent a sole week at number 20 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Take Back " was directed by Toku . It took one day to shoot and two days to edit . According to Figlerowicz in his extended review of her DVD release , 7 Spirits , the video opens with a " young Koda Kumi that has long and black hair . She presents herself in this video in two different ways . In the first one , though wearing a leather dress , she looks natural , gentle and pretty . In the latter one , she is presented with disheveled hair and strange things plaited in it , but despite that , she still attracts the viewer 's attention with her enthusiasm flowing out from the screen . " In the video , Kumi is accompanied by her three fellow background dancers ; they 're dancing in a white photo shoot room , while she is sitting in a white chair . Figlerowicz stated that the dancers complimented the early 2000s music video era : " there are only three dancers near the singer , so it probably wouldn 't distinguish from other PVs of the same era . " Scenes interspersed through the main video show Koda lying nude on a crimson red Ferrari and clutching a microphone in her hand . Figlerowicz commented that the video , in conjuction with her other videos on 7 Spirits , " didn 't appeal to the Japanese audience 's tastes [ ... ] . With some time , people 's opinions of them might change , but they are worth taking a look at .
= = Live performances and other appearances = =
" Take Back " has been included on numerous track lists of tours conducted by Koda Kumi . She included the single on her Secret First Class Limited Live tour , Koda Kumi Live Tour 2005 : First Things tour , Live Tour 2007 : Black Cherry , 10th Anniversary tour , her 2009 Taiwan concert tour , and the Premium Show : Love and Songs tour . The track was featured on Koda 's 2005 greatest hits album , Best : First Things . " Take Back " was featured in the televised advertisement for Kracie 's Hada @-@ bisei facials .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Affection .
Kumi Koda – vocals , background vocals , songwriting
Max Matsuura – producer
Kazuhito Kikuchi – producer , composer
H @-@ Wonder – arranger , composer
Rhythm Zone – management , label
Avex Trax – parent label , management
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Alternate Versions = =
Outside of the original song and the remixes included on the singles , there are three renditions of Take Back on various singles and albums :
Take Back [ Blackwatch Remix ] : Found on single So Into You ( 2002 )
Take Back [ Sunset In Ibiza Remix ] : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's ( 2008 )
Take Back [ E @-@ Man " 106 " Remix ］ : Found on Koda Kumi Driving Hit 's 5 ( 2013 )
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= Tropical Storm Cindy ( 1993 ) =
Tropical Storm Cindy was a weak but unusually wet Atlantic tropical cyclone that caused disastrous floods and mudslides across Martinique in August 1993 . Forming east of the island , Cindy became the annual hurricane season 's third named storm on August 14 . Due to unfavorable atmospheric conditions , the storm remained disorganized throughout its journey across the northeastern Caribbean Sea . After attaining maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , Cindy began to weaken from interaction with the high terrain of Hispaniola . It made landfall in the Dominican Republic as a tropical depression on August 16 , and dissipated over the territory the following day .
Despite its poor cloud and wind structure , Cindy dropped torrential rain over portions of the northeastern Caribbean . The island of Martinique received a record 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of rain over a 24 @-@ hour period , affecting many northern villages and communes . Le Prêcheur in particular was devastated by an extensive debris flow , which washed away entire structures . The disaster left two people dead and hundreds homeless on the island , and wrought $ 19 million ( 1993 USD ) in damage . En route to Hispaniola , Cindy affected the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico with rough surf and moderate rain . Heavy downpours and flooding killed two people in the Dominican Republic , though the exact extent of the damage there is unknown .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Cindy can be traced to a tropical wave that departed the western coast of Africa on August 8 , 1993 . Over the following days , the wave tracked steadily west @-@ northwestward across the tropical Atlantic while retaining a distinct cloud pattern on satellite images . Although initial data from a reconnaissance aircraft mission on August 13 indicated that the system lacked a defined wind circulation , a second mission at 1200 UTC the next day revealed an improvement in its structure at the lower levels of the atmosphere . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) thus classified the system as a tropical depression — a tropical cyclone with sustained winds of less than 39 mph ( 62 km / h ) — and initiated public advisories on it soon thereafter .
Steered by a mid- to low @-@ level wind flow , the depression decreased in forward speed and continued west @-@ northwest toward Martinique . Satellite images showed the development of a central dense overcast , and reconnaissance soon revealed that wind speeds near the center had increased to gale force . Based on this , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Cindy at 1800 UTC on August 14 , at which time the cyclone was located over Martinique with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km ) . Although Cindy briefly developed a favorable outflow , its upper @-@ level structure debilitated after it moved away from the Lesser Antilles , preventing further development . Over the course of August 15 , Cindy 's cloud pattern remained disorganized due to unfavorable wind shear ; the center of circulation became ill defined , with the strongest thunderstorms confined to the eastern portion of the cyclone . Despite the unfavorable conditions , the storm managed to strengthen marginally on August 16 , attaining its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1007 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) , roughly 85 mi ( 140 km ) southeast of Santo Domingo .
Shortly after peaking in strength , Cindy began to interact with the mountains of nearby Hispaniola . The high terrain disrupted its circulation , causing it to weaken to a tropical depression around 2100 UTC on August 16 . The depression made landfall near Barahona , Dominican Republic , with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . It became increasingly disorganized over land , prompting the NHC to declassify it as a tropical cyclone on August 17 . The remnants proceeded inland near the border with Haiti and emerged into the Atlantic , where they spread across the Bahamas before eventually dissipating the next day .
= = Preparations = =
When Cindy became a tropical cyclone on August 14 , tropical storm warnings were issued for the Lesser Antilles from Martinique northward to the Virgin Islands . A tropical storm watch was posted for Puerto Rico at the time . The warnings , excluding those for the Virgin Islands , were discontinued on August 15 . As Cindy drifted further north later that day , the watch for Puerto Rico was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . Officials issued flash flood warnings for parts of the island , and about 600 people living in flood @-@ prone areas sought shelter ahead of the storm . Ferry service between Fajardo and the offshore islands of Culebra and Vieques was suspended , leaving about 400 passengers stranded for a day . A price freeze was placed on emergency supplies such as wood , nails , batteries , kerosene , and lanterns .
Also on August 15 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the Dominican Republic , from Samaná to Cabo Engaño along the northern coast and westward to Isla Beata off the southwestern coast . Thousands of residents stocked up on bottled water , canned goods , and gas , though stores in and around the capital remained closed for the day . The Santo Domingo International Airport suspended all flight operations on the morning of August 16 . The tropical storm warning for the island was discontinued when Cindy made landfall as no more than a weak tropical depression . In Cuba , a storm alert was issued for eastern provinces as forecasters warned of possible heavy rainfall .
= = Impact = =
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
On August 14 , Cindy passed over Martinique with rough winds and particularly violent rain . The greatest quantities fell to the northeast of a line between Sainte @-@ Marie and Fort @-@ de @-@ France , with day totals of more than 4 in ( 100 mm ) recorded at every weather station in that region . The highest 1- and 24 @-@ hour rainfall rates were observed in Le Prêcheur , totaling 5 @.@ 79 in ( 147 mm ) and 12 @.@ 0 in ( 305 mm ) , respectively . These amounts were well above the September average of 9 @.@ 29 in ( 236 mm ) , making Cindy one of the most extreme rain events in the island 's history . A maximum gust of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) was recorded during the storm , though sustained winds onshore did not reach tropical storm force .
Initially , Cindy 's brisk winds downed banana trees and power lines across northern Martinique . After hours of continued rain , several rivers — such as the Rivière des Pères , Rivière Claire and Rivière Sèche — quickly swelled and overflowed . Heavy flooding and mudslides swept through northern villages , submerging homes and destroying roads and bridges . News footage on national television showed " cars [ being ] swept away to sea and buried in mud " . The Prêcheur River , which normally flows at 18 ft3 / s ( 0 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) , burst its banks upon attaining an exceptional discharge rate of nearly 25 @,@ 000 ft3 / s ( 700 m3 / s ) . Large amounts of volcanic matter from the riverbed congealed into a massive debris flow that struck the small commune of Le Prêcheur . Reaching heights of up to 10 ft ( 3 m ) , the debris completely covered houses and roads and wreaked an estimated ₣ 15 million ( 1993 value ; $ 2 @.@ 7 million in 1993 USD ) in structural damage . Flash floods following the overflow of the Grande Rivière surged through the adjacent village of the same name , devastating property and drowning one person . Despite recent improvements to its flood defenses , the Rivière Roxelane rapidly topped its banks and inundated much of Saint @-@ Pierre . Farther south , a combination of torrential rainfall and poor storm drains resulted in widespread flood damage to private property and an aquafarm in Le Morne @-@ Vert .
In all , Cindy killed 2 people , injured 11 , and destroyed more than 150 homes across Martinique . Monetary losses reached ₣ 107 million ( $ 19 million ) , with road damage pinned at ₣ 68 million ( $ 12 million ) . After the storm 's passage , thousands of people on the island sought refuge in emergency shelters , and about 3 @,@ 000 residents became homeless . La Capricieuse , a French Navy ship stationed in French Guiana , delivered disaster relief supplies to Fort @-@ de @-@ France ; the goods included 250 packages with clothing items , distributed by the Lions Club Association of Saint Barthélemy . Unseasonable sea conditions in Cindy 's wake temporarily hindered local fishers from selling their catch to trading vessels in Petite Martinique . Due to the severity of the flooding in Martinique , waterways and harbors were dredged and river banks and dykes were reinforced to prevent recurrence .
Minimal effects were felt elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles . In Guadeloupe , the storm dropped rain across southern Basse @-@ Terre Island through August 14 – 15 ; a peak total of 9 @.@ 02 in ( 229 mm ) was recorded at the summit of La Grande Soufrière . Wind gusts at Raizet Airport reached 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) , just below tropical storm force . Moderate breeze embedded with gusts to 28 mph ( 44 km / h ) brushed Dominica , and 1 @.@ 25 in ( 32 mm ) of rain fell at Canefield Airport within 24 hours of Cindy 's passage . Further south , a weather station in Saint Lucia recorded 1 @.@ 88 in ( 48 mm ) of precipitation , as well as light winds . As Cindy passed south of the Virgin Islands , unsettled seas and minor beach erosion affected the islands ' southern shores , with swells of 4 to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) reported at Saint Croix . Onshore , the island experienced wind gusts to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and 1 @.@ 48 in ( 38 mm ) of rainfall .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
On August 16 , Cindy made its closest point of approach to Puerto Rico , although its center remained well south of the island . Impact from the storm was thus limited to intermittent downpours and 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) waves along the southern coast . The rough seas caused some minor erosion to beach facilities . According to a report from the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , a maximum of 5 @.@ 54 in ( 141 mm ) of rain fell near Río Cerrillos in Ponce , though the highest measurement from the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) was 4 @.@ 60 in ( 117 mm ) at Puerto Real in Cabo Rojo . Many other locations received rainfall amounts of 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 in ( 50 – 115 mm ) , which flooded some roads and low @-@ lying areas .
Cindy brought considerable rainfall to southern and eastern parts of the Dominican Republic , with totals of 4 – 10 in ( 100 – 255 mm ) . Upon the storm 's landfall in the country , winds reached 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) in Barahona . The rain filled rivers and caused scattered street flooding , affecting hundreds of houses . In Villa Altagracia , one fatality occurred when a child drowned in flood waters ; the final death toll for the country stood at two . There were no reports of damage elsewhere after Cindy 's rapid demise over Hispaniola , though it is likely that the remnants produced localized showers in Haiti .
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= Asia League Ice Hockey =
Asia League Ice Hockey ( ALIH ) is an association which operates a professional ice hockey league based in Far East ( East Asia and Russian Far East ) , with nine teams from Japan , China , Russia and South Korea . The league is headquartered in Japan . At the end of the playoffs every year the winner is awarded the Championship Trophy .
The league was formed in 2003 due to declining popularity in the Japan Ice Hockey League and the folding of the Korea Ice Hockey League . It was formed with the goal of promoting hockey and developing players ' skills . The league initially comprised five teams in two countries . It expanded to highs of four countries ( 2004 – 05 season ) and nine teams ( 2005 – 06 season ) and it comprised eight teams from three countries in the 2013 – 14 season . Prior to the 2014 – 15 season a team from Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk , HC Sakhalin , was affiliated to the league .
The league draws most of its players from the home countries of its teams . However , to help build skill and raise the level of competitiveness the league allows each team a certain number of foreign imports on their roster .
= = History = =
= = = 2003 – 2008 = = =
The league was formed after the collapse of the Korean ice hockey league and dissolution of the Japanese league . It was started with the goal of promoting hockey in Asia as well as helping the various participating countries develop their hockey programs and increase their showing in the Olympics . The first season was a shortened season of only five teams , and played as a tournament rather than a regular season . Four Japanese teams and a Korean team participated . The tournament lasted just two months and each team played four games , two at home and two away , against each other . Due to the shortened tournament format , there were no playoffs and the winner was declared from the point tally . The Nippon Paper Cranes won the tournament with 39 points. and Joel Prpic from Kokudo was the assist and points leader with 25 assists and 33 points . Ryan Haruo Kuwabara , of the Cranes , was the scoring leader with 15 goals .
The 2004 – 05 season was the first full season for the league , and was seen by some to be the inaugural season . Before the season began , there was already interest by the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in China 's hockey program . In addition to the five teams which took part in the tournament the year before , the league added Golden Amur from Russia as well as Harbin and Qiqihar from China . The first season had a schedule of 42 games . Teams played each other six times during the season . In December 2004 there was speculation by the South Korean media that North Korea could potentially field a team in the league , but that never materialized . The league also had an all @-@ star game which took place on 22 and 23 January 2005 in Kushiro . The league was broken up into two teams , the Blue Orion and Red Antares . Fans voted on their favorite players and coaches . The most popular vote was for the forward position on the Blue Orion which received over 45 @,@ 000 votes . Masatoshi Ito received the most votes with 9741 . The skill competition and game were both won by the Blue Orion . The regular season finished with the Nippon Paper Cranes and Kokudo both having 98 points . After applying the league 's tie @-@ breaking procedure , the Nippon Paper Cranes were ranked first . The Nippon Paper Cranes also won the points race holding the top three spots in goals scored with Masatoshi Ito taking top honours at 33 goals . Darcy Mitani , also from the Cranes , took top spot in assists with 44 and points with 69 . The playoffs saw the top four teams advance . The Golden Amur were swept in three games by Kokudo and the Cranes beat the Oji Paper in a close series , three games to one . The final was between the Cranes and Kokudo . While the Cranes won the first game , Kokudo won three games straight and won the playoffs . Chris Yule of Kokudo acquired ten points in the playoffs to lead the league while Chris Lindberg of the Cranes led the league in goals scored with six . Several players from Kokudo and the Cranes all had five assists . The 2005 ALH Awards were held in Tokyo and announced in April . Among the awards Kikuchi Naoya a goaltender for Kokudo was voted Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and Matsuda Keisuke of the Nikkō Ice Bucks was voted Young Guy of the Year .
The 2005 – 06 season saw a number of changes to the make @-@ up of Asia League . In the off @-@ season , the Golden Amur withdrew from the league due to financial trouble . At the same time it was announced that Kangwon Land was showing interest in entering a team in the league . However , only a few weeks later , they withdrew their application because it was felt their team wasn 't strong enough to enter the league . The league also revised the limits on the number of imports some teams were allowed to have . Halla and the Ice Bucks were both allowed to carry an additional import player while the two Chinese teams were permitted two more import players . It was announced in July 2005 that Anyang Halla Winia would change their name to Anyang Halla . In late July , the league announced that Kangwon Land had acquired some imports and strengthened the team . They had applied again and were expected to enter the league that season . As well another new team , the Nordic Vikings , was expected to join the league . The Nordic Vikings were a Swedish @-@ Chinese joint venture that saw the team based in Beijing . As part of the venture , Swedish players were also sent to the two existing Chinese teams . This brought the league to its high point of nine teams . Even though there were more teams than in the previous season the league reduced the number of games from 42 to 38 , which resulted in an uneven schedule . For example , the Korean teams played nine games against each other , while playing four games against the teams from Japan and China except the Nordic Vikings , whom they played five times . At the end of the regular season , the Nippon Paper Cranes had captured first place for a second year in a row with 95 points . While the Cranes had a very strong showing in the point rankings , the top goal scorer was Song Dong @-@ hwan from Anyang Halla with 31 . Derek Plante led in assists with 47 and overall points with 75 . The top six teams advanced to the playoffs with the top two teams , the Cranes and Halla , receiving a bye to the semi @-@ finals . In the first round , Kokudo swept the Ice Bucks while Oji Paper defeated the Vikings three games to one . In the second round Kokudo faced Halla , who were making their playoff debut . Kokudo won that series three games to one . On the other side , the Cranes faced off against Oji Paper and swept them in three games . The final was again the Cranes vs Kokudo and once again Kokudo emerged victorious , claiming the title for the second year in a row . Kokudo had three players claiming the three top points spots for the playoffs . Joel Prpic was the top goal scorer with nine , Kiyoshi Fujita had the most assists with 12 and Takahito Suzuki had the most points with 18 . Kikuchi Naoya won MVP of the year for the second time and Young Guy of the Year went to Masahito Nishiwaki of the Cranes .
Further changes were seen in the league in the 2006 – 07 season . After the last season The Nordic Vikings were looking for sponsors for the team . However , they failed to find sufficient sponsorship and left the league due to financial trouble . Harbin moved their home rink to Beijing and changed their name to Hosa to reflect this . Qiqihar acquired a new sponsor and changed their name to Changchun Fuao . Kokudo also changed their name to the Seibu Prince Rabbits . With eight teams , the league further reduced the number of games played to 34 , which again resulted in an uneven play schedule . The Chinese @-@ based teams , for example , played each other and the Korean teams each six times but only played the Japanese teams four times . The Paper Cranes easily won the regular season again finishing first with 86 points . With the previous year 's goal leader not participating the scoring race went to Tim Smith of Kangwon Land . He led the league with 30 goals . Patrik Martinec of Halla led the league with 53 assists and 71 points . The playoffs followed the same format as the year before and six teams advanced . Kangwon Land swept Halla in three games and Oji Paper beat the Ice Bucks three games to one . While it was inevitable with two Korean teams facing each other , it marks the first time a non @-@ Japanese team won a playoff series in Asia League . The second round was over quickly as the Cranes and Rabbits who both had byes swept their opponents in three games each . For the third year in a row the final was between the Paper Cranes and the Rabbits . The Cranes took the series in four games . Joel Prpic won himself another scoring title as he led the playoffs in goals , 8 , and points , 17 . Kengo Itoh for the Cranes had the most assists with 13 . At the awards ceremony Itoh also took the award for MVP of the Year while Jun Tonosaki received the award for Young Guy of the Year .
The 2007 – 08 season started with a further reduction in teams . Harbin and Qiqihar combined into a single team and became owned and operated by the San Jose Sharks . They took the name of their new owner and became the China Sharks . Kangwon Land renamed to High1 . With only seven teams , the league reduced the number of games played to its lowest at just 30 games . The league continued with an unbalanced schedule and the Korean and Chinese teams played each other more than the Japanese teams did . After three years of dominance , the Nippon Paper Cranes slipped to fourth place and the regular season was won by the Prince Rabbits . Alex Kim , playing for High1 , recorded the most goals with 23 and most points with 51 . Joel Prpic continued to find himself on top of the pack with 30 assists . With six of seven teams going to the playoffs , the Sharks were the only team that didn 't find themselves in a playoff spot . The first round was over quickly as the Cranes swept Halla in three games and Oji did the same to the Ice Bucks . Nippon faced their rivals , the Rabbits , in the second round and defeated them three to one . High1 couldn 't repeat their success from the previous year by winning a series and were swept by Oji in three games . For the first time , the final series was not between the Cranes and Rabbits . Oji continued to roll over their opponents and swept the Cranes , marking the only time a team in Asia League had swept its way through three rounds . Due to their dominance on the ice , the point race was also swept by Oji . Takeshi Saito led the playoffs with nine assists and 15 points , while Shane Endicott had the most goals with 6 . Kunihiko Sakurai , also from Oji , won the MVP of the Year and Eum Hyun @-@ seung , from High1 , won the Young Guy of the Year award .
= = = 2008 – present = = =
After several years of many changes to the teams , the 2008 – 09 season came with only one change . Oji Paper renamed themselves to Oji Eagles in July 2008 . The league increased China 's allowance to seven import players to help their competitiveness . Prior to the start of the regular season a series of exhibition games , dubbed " Anyang Cup 2008 " was held in Anyang . Five of the seven teams in the league participated with the Ice Bucks and Rabbits sitting out . Oji won the exhibition tournament without losing a game . The league increased the amount of games played to 36 and balanced the schedule by having all teams play each other an equal amount . Early in the season the Halla coach , Shim Eui @-@ sik was suspended for refusal to play after a disputed goal against High1 . Halla was forced to forfeit the game , but at the end of the regular season they had finished in first place with 76 points , becoming the first non @-@ Japanese team to do so . Brock Radunske of Halla finished first in goals and points with 29 and 57 respectively . Kunihiko Sakurai , a previous MVP , finished on top with 40 assists in the regular season . The league reduced the number of teams making the playoffs and only five teams advanced . The first round saw a short three games series between the Cranes and High1 . The Cranes swept High1 in two games . The second round found the regular season winners , Halla , facing the Cranes and Oji facing the Rabbits . Halla and the Cranes took it to seven games , but Halla lost on home ice . After the previous year 's record setting playoff run , Oji found themselves swept by the Rabbits in four games . For the fourth time in five years the final was between the Rabbits and Cranes . The Cranes won for the second time . The Cranes swept the playoffs point race with Kengo Itoh taking the lead with 16 assists and 21 points . Masahito Nishiwaki led with 12 goals . Brock Radunske took the award for MVP of the Year marking the first time the award has gone to an import player . Young Guy of the Year went to Kim Ki @-@ sung , also from Halla .
After a season with little change to the make @-@ up of the league , the 2009 – 10 saw further change . The San Jose Sharks ended their association with the Chinese team . They pulled out all coaches and players they had sent . The Chinese Ice Hockey Association took over the team and brought in new import players and coaches to replace those lost . The team also changed its name from China Sharks to China Dragon . Mid @-@ way through the previous season the Seibu Prince Rabbits announced that due to financial difficulties they would withdraw from the league at the end of the 2008 – 09 season . They were unable to find a buyer and the team folded . However , another team from Japan joined the league in the off @-@ season . The Tohoku Free Blades were able to hire enough players and imports to join the league in time for the beginning of the season . This again left the league with seven teams . The league left the amount of games played at 36 , marking the first time that the league didn 't adjust the schedule from the previous year . The league also introduced a couple of rules changes . All face @-@ offs will take place on one of the nine face @-@ off dots as well teams will no longer be allowed to change after an icing . Anyang Halla repeated as the regular season champions finishing with 79 points and 23 wins . The team also set the record for the most goals by a team in a 36 @-@ game season with 180 . Alex Kim and Tim Smith lead the points race . Both finished with 75 points on the season , with Kim taking the goal scoring race with 29 and Smith taking the assists race with 48 . The League further reduced the amount of teams making the playoffs to only four . As well they brought in referees from outside the league to assist in officiating . The two Korean teams faced each other in one semi @-@ final guaranteeing for the first time that a Korean team would appear in the final . Halla defeated High1 in four games after a loss on home ice . The Cranes similarly defeated the Eagles in four games . The final was a close series , needing all five games and with four of the five games only being decided by a single goal . In the final game , Halla tied the game with 17 seconds remaining and in over @-@ time the team captain , Kim Woo @-@ jae scored to give Halla a victory and mark the first time a non @-@ Japanese team had won the cup . In the play @-@ offs Brock Radunske led with six goals and 13 points overall while Darcy Takeshi Mitani led with 8 assists . Patrik Martinec took regular season MVP honors , and Cho Min @-@ ho , also from Halla , was named Young Guy of the Year .
The 2010 – 11 season saw virtually no change to the structure of the season or league . All teams from the previous season remained in the league , and the amount of games remained at 36 . The regular season ran from 18 September 2010 to 20 February 2011 . After two years of leading the league , Halla slipped to fourth place and Oji Eagles took the regular season honors with 76 points . Shunhei Kuji of Oji lead the league with 24 goals , while his teammate Yosuke Kon led with 45 assists . However , with a couple of second @-@ place finishes , Go Tanaka of the Free Blades led the overall points race with 59 . The League also maintained the number of play @-@ off teams at four . Anyang faced Oji while Nippon faced Tohoku . Halla managed to take two of three in Japan and defeat Oji on home ice to advance . The Free Blades needed all five games to defeat the Cranes but the team came back with two straight wins to advance to the final for the first time in their short time in the league . However , a 9 @.@ 0 magnitude earthquake near the Free Blades hometown forced the League to cancel the finals . Halla had already in Japan just an hour before the disaster struck the area . Fortunately , both teams survived , but the League felt the final could not go on . On 22 March 2011 the League declared that both Halla and the Free Blades would be declared co @-@ champions . Though shortened , Masato Domeki of Oji led the playoffs with four goals , Bruce Mulherin led with six assists and fellow Free Blade Brad Farynuk had eights points overall .
In 2013 – 14 , a new Seoul @-@ based team , Daemyung Sangmu , joined the league , and prior to the 2014 – 15 season a team from Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk , HC Sakhalin , was affiliated to the league .
= = = All @-@ time records = = =
Since its foundation in 2004 , 14 different clubs have played in the ALIH , and 11 of them have at least once qualified for the playoffs . Of the current 9 teams , only one has not yet played in the playoffs . The table below gives the final regular @-@ season ranks for all teams , with the playoff performance encoded in colors . The teams are ordered by their best championship results .
[ a ] The franchise Seibu Prince Rabbits played under the name Kokudo Ice Hockey Club during the years 2003 – 2005 .
[ b ] High1 played under the name Kangwon Land during the years 2005 – 2007 .
[ c ] Harbin played under the name Hosa , and Qiqihar played under the name Changchun Fuao , during the season 2006 – 07 . These both teams merged into China Sharks in 2007 , that finally took the name China Dragon in 2009 .
[ d ] The finals were canceled the 2010 – 11 season due to the earthquake in Tohoku. instead , Tohoku Free Blades and Anyang Halla shared the championship title .
[ e ] Two first round matches were played between teams 3 – 6 in 2006 – 2008 and 2016 , where teams 1 – 2 were directly qualified to the semifinals . In 2009 and 2015 , only one first round match was played between the teams 4 – 5 .
= = Game = =
Each Asia League Ice Hockey regulation game is an ice hockey game played between two teams and is 60 minutes long . The game comprises three 20 @-@ minute periods separated by two 15 minute intermissions . While some teams have television broadcast contracts , they do not take television time @-@ outs like the NHL . At the end of the 60 minute game , the team with the most goals wins . If the game is tied at the end of 60 minutes , the teams play an overtime period . Overtime is five minutes , with four skaters on each team . If the game remains tied after five minutes , then the teams partake in a three player shoot @-@ out , until one team comes out ahead . Prior to the 2008 – 09 season these games ended in a tie with no shoot @-@ out . In a playoff game the league doesn 't use the shoot @-@ out and instead the teams play continual overtime periods of 20 minutes until one team scores .
= = Imports = =
Asia League was created primarily for the development of hockey in Asia . The league allows teams to hire a small number of imports to play on the team in order to even out strength as well as increase the level of competitiveness in the league . Playing against more skilled foreign players will allow players from the participating countries to increase their skills and benefit from having some more experienced players on their teams . China is allowed the most imports while the experienced Japanese teams are allowed the fewest . As part of some sponsorship deals China was provided western players from the San Jose Sharks , and the two Chinese teams were provided Swedish players when the Nordic Vikings were active in the league .
Several former National Hockey League players have played in the league , including Chris Allen , Greg Parks , Esa Tikkanen , Chris Lindberg , Tavis Hansen , Shjon Podein , Jason Podollan , Derek Plante , Steve McKenna , Jarrod Skalde , Joel Prpic , Tyson Nash , Jamie McLennan , Shane Endicott , Wade Flaherty , Kelly Fairchild , Brad Tiley , Ricard Persson , Bryan Young , Claude Lemieux , Brad Fast , Ric Jackman and Cole Jarrett .
= = Teams = =
Early in its existence the league hoped to quickly expand to 12 teams but due to some teams having financial difficulties they didn 't attain it . In its 2014 – 15 season , the Asia League Ice Hockey has 9 teams , comprising 4 teams from Japan ; 3 teams from South Korea ; 1 from Russia ; and 1 from China .
= = Season structure = =
The Asia League Ice Hockey season is divided into three parts . The late summer and early autumn parts consist of training camps and exhibition play . After that , the regular season takes place , which lasts for several months depending on the schedule . Finally several teams advance to a post @-@ season playoff . This is an elimination tournament where teams play a " best @-@ of " format to advance through the rounds . The final remaining team is crowned the champion for the year .
The regular season has been changed in almost every season that Asia League has been in operation . The first full season mirrors the two most recent seasons in which all teams play all other teams six times . With the amount of teams changing from season to season in the first few years the league adjusted the schedule each year which often included an unbalanced schedule . Under the current schedule all teams make an away visit to each other team 's home rink for a three @-@ game series and also play a three @-@ game series against that team at their own home rink . In order to minimize travel , teams traveling to other countries will stay there for two weeks and play two teams , except in the case of China who only has one team . Teams going to Japan will play against the Cranes and Eagles on the same trip as they are geographically close together , then in another trip play against the Free Blades and Ice Bucks .
The league ranks the teams by points . A regulation time win is worth three points . If the teams are tied at the end of regulation , both teams receive one point . The team which is victorious either in the overtime period or overtime shoot @-@ out receives an additional point . A regulation time loss is worth zero points .
At the end of the regular season , the team which has the most points is awarded the title of regular season champion . The league in the past generally takes a several week break between the regular season and postseason . As with the regular season , the format of the playoffs has varied from year to year . In the 2009 – 10 season the top four teams advanced to the playoffs and play two best @-@ of @-@ five rounds . The league scheduled the end of the regular season and postseason around the Olympic break . In each round the higher ranked team from the regular season will receive a home @-@ ice advantage and the series will begin play and have the majority of games play in their rink .
= = Awards = =
Asia League awards several awards each season in addition to The Championship Trophy . Prior to the 2008 – 09 season the awards were issued after the postseason but in that season they were issued during the break between the regular season and postseason . The league presents awards for :
Most Valuable Player
Young Guy of the Year
Best Goaltender
Best Offensive Defenceman
Best Defensive Defenceman
Best Offensive Forward
Best Defensive Forward
Best Playmaking Forward
Best Hockey Town
For most goals
Most assists
Most points
Best save percentage for goaltenders
All of the awards , except for Best Hockey Town , are sponsored by an organization or individual .
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= Sonic Lost World =
Sonic Lost World is an action @-@ adventure / platform video game developed by Sonic Team for the Wii U , Nintendo 3DS and PC platforms . It was published by Nintendo in Europe and Australia and Sega in North America and Japan in October 2013 , and later worldwide for Microsoft Windows via Steam in November 2015 . It is part of the Sonic the Hedgehog series and was the first title in the series on an eighth @-@ generation home console .
Lost World focuses on the efforts of Sonic the Hedgehog to stop the Deadly Six , an alien tribe that serves as the game 's main antagonists , as they seek to siphon energy from the Lost Hex , the game 's setting . Sonic and his long @-@ time sidekick Tails must team up with Doctor Eggman , normally their enemy , to stop the Deadly Six , leading to conflicts among the three parties . While the gameplay is typical of the Sonic series in some ways , it adds parkour mechanics and features largely cylindrical level design with an emphasis on alternate pathways . The game also features the Wisp creatures from Sonic Colors and Sonic Generations as power @-@ ups .
The game began development shortly after the 2010 release of Sonic Colors . It was designed to be streamlined , simple , and fluid in movement and design , using a novel tube @-@ like level design style and a simple , bright color scheme . The game received mixed reviews upon release ; its controls and the Deadly Six were frequently criticized , but its visuals and audio were seen positively . Downloadable content was released both alongside and after the game 's release , adding features such as additional levels and a new type of Wisp power .
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic Lost World is a platform game with action @-@ adventure elements , in which the player controls Sonic the Hedgehog as he travels across the Lost Hex in order to rescue captured animals and stop the Deadly Six . Levels range from side @-@ scrolling 2D levels to fast @-@ moving 3D linear levels to levels taking place on spherical worlds similar to the cancelled Sonic X @-@ treme and the Super Mario Galaxy series . This also translates to the 3DS version , as it was the first handheld game in the series presented entirely in 3D .
The game uses a new control system which allows players to control Sonic 's speed . Simply moving the directional controls will move Sonic at a moderate pace , allowing for more precision . Holding down a trigger button will put Sonic into a run , allowing him to move faster and perform new parkour moves , such as running up and along walls and hopping over smalls ledges . In the air , Sonic can perform a double jump , which returns from Sonic Colors , a homing attack , which can now target multiple enemies in quick succession , and a new kick attack , which can be used to defeat stronger enemies , or knock them into others .
Also returning from Colors are the Wisp creatures , which provide short @-@ lived power @-@ ups to Sonic . The Wisps ' powers are now controlled using the Wii U GamePad 's touchscreen and gyroscopic features . Alongside returning powers such as Drill , Laser and Rocket , new powers include Eagle , which lets Sonic fly through the air , Asteroid , which atomizes objects in his path , and Rhythm , which lets him bounce along a path of notes . There are also some Wisps exclusive to each version of the game . During the game , players can rescue animals by destroying enemies or opening containers , allowing players to progress , or find Red Star Rings that open up circus @-@ themed bonus stages where players can earn more animals . Collecting all the Red Star Rings in the game unlocks the ability to transform into Super Sonic .
The Wii U version supports both co @-@ operative multiplayer , in which a second player can control a remote controlled vehicle to assist Sonic , and competitive multiplayer , in which a second player can use the Wii U Gamepad screen to race against the other player . The game also supports Miiverse and Off @-@ TV Play functionality . Using Miiverse , players can exchange items such as Wisps or shields , which grow more effective if they are used by other players . The 3DS version supports both local and online multiplayer for up to four players . Players may also customise RC vehicles in the 3DS version , which can then be used in the Wii U version .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Seven returning characters from previous Sonic titles star in Sonic Lost World . The protagonist , Sonic the Hedgehog who must defeat the main antagonist Doctor Eggman and stop the Deadly Six . Aiding him in his quest is Tails , Sonic 's fox friend who has the ability to fly . Knuckles the Echidna , Sonic 's strong friend , and Amy Rose , his self @-@ proclaimed girlfriend , also make relatively minor appearances .
The main antagonist of the series , Doctor Eggman , is a mad scientist who seemingly turns over a new leaf to help Sonic stop the Deadly Six . Orbot and Cubot make a return appearance as Eggman 's henchmen . Also serving as the main antagonists and boss characters are the Deadly Six , a group of the world 's indigenous Zeti race consisting of Zazz , a hyperactive Zeti ; Zomom , an obese and dim @-@ witted Zeti ; Master Zik , the elderly founder of the tribe and Zavok 's teacher ; Zeena , a flirtatious and self @-@ absorbed Zeti ; Zor , a diminutive and pessimistic Zeti ; and Zavok , the tribe 's leader . The tribe plans to steal the energy from Sonic 's world .
= = = Story = = =
Sonic the Hedgehog and his friend Tails pursue Doctor Eggman , who has captured several of their animal friends with the intention of using them to power his robot army . While the two attempt to retrieve a falling capsule filled with animals , Eggman shoots down Tails ' plane . However , they end up discovering a world in the sky known as the Lost Hex , and crash land there . Entering the Windy Hill Zone , Sonic and Tails make their way through clouds and the grassy fields . The duo then discover that Eggman has enlisted the aid of a group of the world 's indigenous Zeti race , collectively known as the Deadly Six , using a magical conch to keep them under his command . However , when Sonic rushes in and kicks the conch away , the Deadly Six betray Eggman and take control of his Badnik army . They then start to use one of Eggman 's machines to siphon energy from Sonic 's world below , planning to drain all of its life force until there is nothing left and use it to power themselves up . Reluctantly , Sonic agrees to work with Eggman , believing that he needs his help to stop the machine , though this seems to cause some distrust between him and Tails .
As Sonic battles his way throughout the Lost Hex , the Deadly Six concoct a plan to capture Sonic and turn him into a robot under their control , but they end up accidentally capturing Tails instead . After Eggman is seemingly killed , Sonic comes across the Deadly Six as they prepare to use the roboticized Tails against him . However , prior to the conversion , Tails managed to reprogram the process to retain his free will and instead helps Sonic to defeat them . Upon reaching the machine and finding it already switched off , Eggman reappears , having faked his death and used the energy harvested to power his latest giant mech . After sending Eggman falling out of the sky , Sonic and Tails return the stolen energy to the world below and return home . The game ends with Orbot and Cubot finding Eggman , who has survived his fall , and digging him out of a soft spot of dirt where he landed on .
= = Development = =
Development for Lost World started shortly after Sonic Colors was finished and took place over two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years . Sonic Team sought to streamline the controls , increase the length , and add more diverse levels compared to previous entries in the series . After reviewing the history of the franchise with Sonic Generations , game producer Takashi Iizuka hoped to " deliver a new experience " with Lost World . Development started on PC , with early experiments involving " twisted tube @-@ type level [ s ] " inspired by Jack and the Beanstalk . As the concept " was totally new " , early levels had to be remade " over and over . " Players were given greater ability to control Sonic 's speed in an effort to create a more traditional platforming experience . The parkour mechanic was introduced to maintain a more fluid sense of movement , in contrast to previous Sonic games where running into a wall would force the player to a complete stop . Iizuka stated that " This game is like going into the rabbit hole in Alice in Wonderland , an action game where you can experience many strange and fun experiences . "
Development ultimately focused on the Wii U and 3DS because of the success of previous Sonic titles on Nintendo platforms . Because Wii U " has two monitors to use " , Sonic Team decided to include both cooperative and competitive multiplayer modes . The Wii U GamePad 's touch screen and gyroscope were employed to activate the returning Color Powers . The 3DS version , co @-@ developed with Dimps , was designed to " fully utilize " the 3DS hardware with 3D gameplay and motion controls . Development was harder on 3DS due to its more limited processing power . Iizuka stated that the Color Powers are " essential " to the level design of the 3DS version , while they work as an " additional tool " in the Wii U version . A simple art style was used to make objects stand out more against the backgrounds , and to keep the game running at a consistent 60 frames per second . The design of the new " Deadly Six " villains was based on that of an ogre , and each one 's appearance was intended to reflect a certain key characteristic of their personality , which the developers hoped players could see " just by looking at them . " The Wii U version of the game was directed by Morio Kishimoto , the director of Sonic Colors and the lead designer of Sonic and the Black Knight , while the 3DS version was directed by Takao Hirabayashi , the director of Sonic Colors DS .
A trademark for the title Sonic Lost World was filed by Sega in May 2013 . The game was first revealed on May 17 , 2013 in a Nintendo Direct announcement , as part of an exclusive partnership between Sega and Nintendo for the Sonic the Hedgehog series . It is one of three games in this partnership , the other ones being the fourth entry to the Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games series , and Sonic Boom , a game based on the animated series of the same name . Sega reported that more on the game would be revealed before the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 convention , and that the game will contain both returning and new original characters , both in enemies and friends of Sonic . On May 23 , 2013 , Sega posted a teaser , showing silhouette images of the Deadly Six , and stating that more would be revealed on May 29 . The first trailer for the game was released on May 28 , a day earlier than previously announced .
A downloadable demo of the " Windy Hill Zone 1 " stage was made available for both consoles on October 9 in Japan and in mid @-@ November in North America and Europe . The game 's official soundtrack , titled Without Boundaries , was released via physical media in Japan on November 27 , 2013 and digitally in the United States and Europe on December 2 , 2013 . To promote the release of Sonic Lost World , Hardlight Studios released an update for Sonic Dash that includes a boss battle against Zazz , one of the Deadly Six . Super Smash Bros. for Wii U also includes a stage based on Windy Hill Zone from the game as well .
= = = Downloadable content and patches = = =
A special , limited stock " Deadly Six " edition of the Wii U version of the game was available for pre @-@ order , which included special " Nightmare " downloadable content , featuring a new stage and boss battles based on one of Sonic Team 's previous games , Nights into Dreams .... Clearing the DLC unlocks a special Color Power , the Black Bomb , normally only obtainable via Miiverse . Pre @-@ ordering the game from Amazon.com allowed the player to start off with twenty @-@ five extra lives .
A patch for the Wii U version was released on December 10 , 2013 , adding additional features such as button controls for some Wisps and the traditional extra life reward for collecting 100 rings . On December 18 , 2013 , Nintendo announced two exclusive pieces of free DLC for the Wii U version based on other Nintendo games . The first DLC stage , " Yoshi 's Island Zone " , was released on the day of the announcement , with a second installment , " The Legend of Zelda Zone " , released on March 27 , 2014 .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's music was composed and directed by Tomoya Ohtani , with Takahito Eguchi handling the cut @-@ scene music and orchestration . Naofumi Hataya also contributed a single piece , the theme for " Desert Ruins Zone - Act 3 " . The three @-@ disc official soundtrack , titled Sonic Lost World Original Soundtrack Without Boundaries , was released physically in Japan and digitally worldwide via iTunes and Amazon Music on November 27 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Sonic Lost World received mixed reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . During its opening week in the UK , Sonic Lost World charted at # 11 on the All @-@ formats chart for sales , but achieved the top spot on the Wii U chart and # 4 on the Nintendo 3DS chart . As of the end of 2013 , Sega had shipped 640 @,@ 000 copies of the game . As of March 31 , 2014 , the game had sold 710 @,@ 000 copies .
The game 's presentation was well received . Chris Plante of Polygon praised the Wii U version 's visuals and music as " arguably the best " in the series . Game Informer 's Tim Turi wrote that " The orchestrated tracks evoke Mario Galaxy in the best ways . " GameSpot 's Mark Walton and Computer and Videogames 's Chris Scullion singled out the candy @-@ themed " Dessert Ruins " level as a visual highlight . However , Turi made note of " ultra @-@ compressed " cutscenes in the 3DS version . IGN 's Vince Ingenito was favorable to the " pleasant " art direction and stable framerate , but criticized the " subdued " color palette . Roger Hargreaves of Metro stated that the " imaginative " designs and " spectacular set piece [ s ] " kept him " interested to know what comes next . " Chris Schilling of Eurogamer was even more effusive : " Blue skies forever ! "
Strong criticism was directed at the game 's control scheme , especially the new parkour mechanic . Turi " never got a good feel for the rhythm of wall running and jumping , and felt lucky to pass sections where it was forced . " Hargreaves , Walton , and Official Nintendo Magazine 's Matthew Castle agreed . Ingenito found it problematic that Sonic tends to wall @-@ run on every nearby vertical surface . Schilling singled out the multi @-@ lock homing attack , writing that while " most of the time it works perfectly well " , it appeared to " inexplicably fail " on occasion . Ingenito , Turi , and Hargreaves agreed . Matthew Castle of Official Nintendo Magazine struggled with the homing attack " locking on too late or attacking enemies in awkward sequence . " However , GamesRadar 's Justin Towell defended the control scheme , explaining that while it had a learning curve , it also " modernize [ s ] environmental traversal " and " provide [ s ] a distinct safety net " . Towell argued that Sonic was mainly hard to control in the " more complex 2D sections " because there are " so many rules for how Sonic reacts contextually to his environment " . Reona Ebihara of Famitsu stated that the ability to slow down made the game easier to play for beginners . However , Turi criticized Sonic 's " odd sense of momentum " and imprecise jumps , stating that switching between two speeds is " jarring " and produces " touchy platforming " . Schilling excoriated the " profoundly frustrating " controls as the worst in the series , explaining that " Sonic 's too sluggish while walking , and too skittish to cope with the trickier platforming bits when running " . Ingenito agreed : " I 've played a lot of Sonic over the years , and the controls have never felt as alien and inconsistent as they do here . "
Several critics felt that Sonic controlled better on the 3DS . IGN 's Jose Otero said the parkour " felt great " and " turned most obstructions into minor hurdles " in this version . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Joe Skrebels felt that Sonic " controls far better at top speed on 3DS " . Kotaku 's Stephen Totilo stated that the 3DS version does a better job of teaching the controls , although Turi derided its " constant , lengthy tutorial text " . However , Schilling called the homing attack " even more capricious " on 3DS .
Reaction to the game 's level design was mixed . Turi made note of oddly placed invisible springs in the Wii U version 's " confusing " and " aggravating " levels , and expressed frustration with the 3DS version 's " head @-@ scratching " puzzles . Walton preferred the " inoffensive " 2D sections to the " frustrating mishmash of speed and exploration " found in 3D . Plante praised the Wii U version 's 3D stages as " wildly creative exercises in platforming experimentation " while decrying its 2D stages as " so clunky and tiresome that it 's hard to imagine a time when a side @-@ scrolling Sonic was actually good . " Fellow Polygon writer Philip Kollar was harsher on the 3DS version due to its " confusing and labyrinthine " level design and " awkward puzzles " . Ingenito stated that the Wii U version 's levels were stuck in " design gridlock " and " lack [ ed ] rhythm and cohesion " . Otero praised the 3DS version 's " better levels " as " competently made race tracks full of alternate pathways " , but called the " trial and error " required to complete the " slower @-@ paced 3D stages " " incredibly frustrating " . Castle stated that the Wii U version 's " best stages play to the strengths of Sonic 's tiered speed " , while Skrebels felt the 3DS version featured levels well @-@ suited for handheld play . Totilo praised " the intuitive , flowing , player @-@ friendly levels of the 3DS version " but panned " the badly @-@ explained , choppy , punitive levels of the Wii U version " . Schilling wrote that " I came perilously close to biting my GamePad at one particularly sharp difficulty spike . " Edge noted that " Sonic games , and platformers in general , have always been about memorizing the lay of the land , but rarely have mistakes been so costly or heavily punished . "
The alternate gameplay styles polarized many critics . Daniel Cairns of VideoGamer.com and Castle highlighted the level where Sonic becomes a giant snowball as " genuinely excellent " and " a cool riff on Monkey Ball " , whereas Turi and Ingenito described it as " atrocious " , " uncontrollabl [ e ] " and " the exact opposite of fun " . Turi " received multiple game overs during a mundane mandatory pinball sequence . " Walton felt that some of the Wisps were an " amusing aside , " while others suffered from " frustrating motion controls " . GameTrailers ' Justin Speer stated that the Wisps " don 't really feel like they belong " in the Wii U version . Totilo preferred how the Wisps were used in the 3DS version , but Towell stated that while they were " more integral " to the design , they tended to interrupt " the free @-@ form gameplay " with " clumsy mechanic [ s ] " . Towell described the 3DS version 's motion @-@ controlled Special Stages as " borderline unplayable " . Totilo and Castle criticized the Wii U version 's Jetpack Joyride @-@ style flying levels as " regrettable " and " horribly imprecise " . Turi and Totilo criticized the Wii U version 's balloon @-@ popping minigame as " mind @-@ numbing " and " awkward " . Turi called the Wii U version 's co @-@ op mode " useless " . Castle wrote that " Two @-@ player races would be a cool addition were it not for the horrible framerate issues . "
The Deadly Six were negatively received . Although Towell enjoyed their " fun , stereotypical personalities " , he was disappointed by their " awful " dialogue . Speer called the boss battles " weirdly anticlimactic " , and Ingenito stated they were " some of the most boring in the series ' history " . Turi referred to the Deadly Six as " generic " , " forgettable " , and " some of the most aggressively annoying villains ever . "
Critics disagreed over what to make of the game as a whole . In 2015 , the staff of USgamer referred to Lost World as " perhaps Sonic 's best outing in years . " Destructoid 's Jim Sterling said it " can wildly swing from brilliant to horrific at the drop of a hat , but when one steps back and takes a look at the whole production , one sees far more to love than hate . " Plante noted that " the early stages display a degree of design ingenuity and polish which gradually degrades " . Empire 's David McComb called it " A cheap , cruel , crushing disappointment in the wake of Sonic Colors and Generations . " Walton concluded that " in overtly coveting the great Italian plumber , it smothers the talents of its blazing blue hedgehog . "
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= Wade Mainer =
Wade Echard Mainer ( April 21 , 1907 – September 12 , 2011 ) was an American country singer and banjoist . With his band , the Sons of the Mountaineers , he is credited with bridging the gap between old @-@ time mountain music and Bluegrass and is sometimes called the " Grandfather of Bluegrass . " In addition , he innovated a two @-@ finger banjo fingerpicking style , which was a precursor to modern three @-@ finger bluegrass styles .
Originally from North Carolina , Mainer 's main influences came from the mountain music of his family . In a career that began in 1934 and spanned almost six decades , Mainer transitioned from being a member of his brother 's band into the founder of his own ensemble , the Sons of the Mountaineers , with whom he performed until 1953 , when he became more deeply involved with his Christianity and left the music industry . After working at a General Motors factory and attending gospel revivals , Mainer was convinced that he should restart his career as a Christian gospel musician and began to tour with his wife in this capacity . He continued to release albums until 1993 .
= = Personal life = =
Mainer was born near Weaverville , North Carolina , on a mountain farm in Buncombe County on April 21 , 1907 . His family was poor during his childhood and they lived in a log cabin in the Blue Ridge Mountains . Mainer credited his father who was , in Mainer 's words , " a good singer – real stout voice " , as of one of his influences . During his career as a musical artist , Mainer would perform many of the old songs that he had heard from his father .
Mainer grew up listening to traditional mountain music and was largely influenced by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Roscoe Banks . He first learned to play the banjo at square dances , where he would pick up instruments left by performers and practice on them . After moving to Concord , North Carolina and working in a series of jobs at cotton mills , he became a part of his brother J.E. ' s band , known as J. E. Mainer 's Mountaineers . His entry into the band in 1934 marked the beginning of a nearly six @-@ decade career in music . J.E. played the fiddle while Wade performed on the banjo for the string band , and they played at fiddlers ' conventions and other gatherings .
Mainer married Julia Mae Brown at the end of 1937 , shortly after forming his own band . Brown was a singer and guitarist popularly know at the time as Hillbilly Lilly . She had performed from 1935 until 1937 at WSJS Radio in Winston @-@ Salem . Brown is considered to be a pioneering female musical artist and later joined Mainer during his performances .
= = Musical career = =
Mainer 's first recordings came in 1934 and are compiled on Ragged But Right : 30 's Country Bands . Mainer performed with The Mountaineers on tracks such as Maple on the Hill , Seven and a Half and Johnson 's Old Grey Mule . Also included on the compilation are Mainer 's later collaboration Short Life and It 's Trouble with Zeke Morris , his solo effort Riding on That Train 45 and a sample song Mitchell Blues from his band the Sons of the Mountaineers . Throughout his career , he was noted for his unique and innovative two @-@ finger banjo fingerpicking style , which some view as a precursor to three finger bluegrass banjo styles . Mainer took jobs at local radio stations to increase the visibility of his relative 's ensemble , recording classics such as Take Me in the Lifeboat . During this time , he appeared on many regional stations including WBT in Charlotte , WPTF in Raleigh , WNOX in Knoxville and WPAQ in Mount Airy .
Mainer performed in a series of live radio shows with The Mountaineers , sponsored by Crazy Water Crystals laxatives . In 1934 , J.W. Fincher , the head of the company , observed their popularity at the first gig , the Crazy Water Crystal Barn Dance , a radio program out of Charlotte . Under the name J. E. Mainer 's Crazy Mountaineers , they toured the American South on live radio shows and recorded fourteen songs for Bluebird Records . Maple on the Hill , which according to the National Endowment for the Arts was their biggest hit , had originally been composed in the 1890s by Gussie L. Davis .
Mainer was in his brother J.E. ' s band for two years , until he left for more traditional work , which at the time was far more profitable than his musical career . Making only five dollars a week under sponsorship , Mainer found that he could earn up to three times as much working at a yarn mill , which he described as being " gold " for the era . After leaving his brother 's group in 1936 , he began to perform duet work with Zeke Morris , who was a band mate from The Mountaineers . After a time working on this project , Mainer left to form the short @-@ lived " Smilin ' Rangers " which later became " Sons of the Pioneers " . Zeke Morris then got together with his brother Wiley to form The Morris Brothers .
= = = Sons of the Mountaineers = = =
Mainer named this new band Sons of the Mountaineers . Its initial lineup included Jay Hugh Hall and Clyde Moody as guitarists with Steve Ledford as a fiddler . Among the musicians who would join the group later were Jack and Curly Shelton , Tiny Dodson , Red Rector and Fred Smith . The band got its start performing on the radio and recording songs for Bluebird Records and their first hit , entitled " Sparkling Blue Eyes " was recorded in 1939 . From 1935 through 1941 , Mainer recorded over 165 songs for the record label RCA Victor in various lineups , ranking him among one of the most prolifically recorded country music artists of that period .
The Sons of the Mountaineers briefly stopped playing during World War II because Mainer could not afford to squander the valuable gasoline required for the journey to the radio stations . One notable exception , however , came in 1942 , when they were invited to the White House by Eleanor Roosevelt . There in Washington D.C. , they played several tunes , including " Down in the Willow Garden " , a song personally requested by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . During this time , they also appeared in a version of The Chisholm Trail in New York . At wars ' end , the band was reorganized and once again began to play at stations across North Carolina . Recordings at this time were sporadic , due to the declining popularity of the genre . In 1953 , after having renewed his commitment to Christianity , Mainer left the group and exited the industry for a time .
= = Later life = =
In 1953 , Mainer and his wife settled in Flint , Michigan , where he found work at a General Motors factory . Although renouncing both the music industry and his trademark instrument , the banjo , he and Julia did continue to sing at gospel revival meetings . In the early 1960s , Molly O 'Day convinced him that he could use the banjo in gospel recordings , which spurred a series of religiously themed banjo albums beginning in 1961 . He also began to record and tour with his wife .
Mainer retired from General Motors in 1973 . Mainer has been credited with bridging the gap between old @-@ time mountain music and Bluegrass and musicians such as Bill Monroe , Ralph Stanley and Doc Watson have all cited Mainer as a source of influence . He has also been called the " Grandfather of Bluegrass . " His influence was not limited to the United States . Pete Smith , of the British newspaper The Advertiser , in a report for Mainer 's 100th birthday , cited Mainer as " one of the most influential figures in the development of modern bluegrass , " noting his picking style and his efforts in bringing bluegrass closer to the mainstream . In addition , Smith also credits him for making the banjo , an instrument previously described as " satanic , " acceptable for spiritually @-@ themed music . Mainer continued to live with his wife in Flint , where he celebrated his centenary in 2007 and performed at a concert for his 101st birthday in 2008 . Mainer died of congestive heart failure on September 12 , 2011 . He was 104 .
= = = Awards and honours = = =
In 1987 , president Ronald Reagan bestowed upon him a National Heritage Fellowship for his contributions to American music . In 1996 he received the Michigan Heritage Award and the Michigan Country Music Association and Services ' Lifetime Achievement Award . In 1998 both he and his wife were inducted into the Michigan Country Music Hall of Fame , while Mainer received North Carolina ’ s Surry Arts Council Lifetime Achievement .
= = Original discography = =
= = = Wade Mainer / Zeke Morris = = =
= = = Wade Mainer 's Smilin ' Rangers = = =
= = = Wade Mainer and his Sons of the Mountaineers = = =
= = Other discography = =
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= Trinny Woodall =
Trinny ( Sarah @-@ Jane ) Woodall ( born 8 February 1964 , in London ) is a British fashion and make @-@ over advisor , designer , television presenter and author . She was privately educated . After ten years working in marketing – Woodall met Susannah Constantine in 1994 , whom she joined to write a weekly fashion column for The Daily Telegraph . This led to the launch of their own internet fashion @-@ advice business and the release of their first fashion @-@ advice book .
They were commissioned by the BBC to host What Not to Wear in 2001 . The following year Woodall and Constantine released their second book , What Not to Wear , which gained them a British Book Award and sold over 670 @,@ 000 copies . The pair co @-@ wrote 11 fashion advice books , several of which became best @-@ sellers in the United Kingdom and the United States , and have now sold over 3 million copies worldwide . In 2003 they launched their shapewear range Trinny & Susannah 's Original Magic Knickers , which are sold in 30 countries around the world .
After co @-@ hosting What Not to Wear for five series and appearing on The Oprah Winfrey Show as style and make @-@ over advisors , Woodall and Constantine moved to ITV to host Trinny & Susannah Undress ... in 2006 , and Undress the Nation . After becoming the faces of Littlewoods Direct , they released their own Littlewoods clothing range along with their 5th fashion advice book , The Body Shape Bible , in 2007 . In 2009 , they launched their International Makeover Mission series . They have filmed over 20 series in 9 countries including Norway , Sweden , Israel , Denmark , Australia , India , Netherlands , Poland and the USA . They have been viewed by over 30 million women in over 31 countries .
In 2016 , Trinny began regular appearances on ITV This Morning Show as their fashion style expert .
= = Background = =
Woodall is the youngest of six children , including three half @-@ siblings from her father 's first marriage . Her father was a banker , while her maternal grandfather was Sir John Duncanson , controller of the British steel industry in the last two years of the war , who went on to become managing director of the British Iron and Steel Federation ( BISF ) in August 1945 and then managing director of Lithgows in 1949 .
= = Mainstream career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Woodall and Susannah Constantine first collaborated in 1996 on Ready to Wear , a weekly style guide for The Daily Telegraph which ran for seven years . The style guide highlighted affordable high @-@ street fashion , with the pair using themselves to demonstrate clothing that suited different figures . Woodall assumed the role of stylist and made the duo 's business decisions . She and Constantine later became co @-@ founders of Ready2shop.com , a dot @-@ com fashion advice business . The business dissolved in July 2001 .
Woodall 's first chance to work on television came about when Granada Sky Broadcasting signed her and Constantine to host a daytime shopping show , also called Ready to Wear . Soon after their television debut , they were given a recurring makeover slot on Richard & Judy . This gained them crucial exposure and attention from Jane Root , controller of BBC Two , who signed them to the channel encouraged by their tenacity and their book and internet business .
= = = Television = = =
Woodall came to prominence as co @-@ host and fashion advisor for five series of the BBC television series What Not to Wear . She and Constantine worked on the show from 2001 to 2005 , combining their knowledge of fashion to improve the dress sense of the candidates selected for the show . What Not to Wear made Woodall a household name , and she and Constantine became jointly known as Trinny and Susannah . They became infamous for their straight @-@ talking advice . The New York Times wrote " Trinny Woodall , one of the upper @-@ crusty and scathingly blunt hosts of What Not to Wear , a hugely popular fashion makeover show on the BBC , does not mince words . " Woodall has been spoofed on many comedy @-@ themed television shows , including Big Impression , on which impressionist Alistair McGowan took to spoofing her presenting techniques on What Not to Wear .
In 2002 , Woodall and Constantine won a Royal Television Society Award for their work on What Not to Wear , in the category of best factual presenter . The show itself was nominated for the Features Award at the BAFTAS in both 2002 and 2003 . The pair have given makeovers to various celebrities in What Not to Wear specials , including Jeremy Clarkson in 2002 , who later commented " I 'd rather eat my own hair than shop with these two again " . After success with viewing figures on BBC Two , the show was promoted to the more mainstream BBC One in 2004 . The show has also been broadcast internationally in over 20 countries .
With What Not to Wear proving popular on BBC America , Woodall worked frequently as a makeover and fashion expert on The Oprah Winfrey Show with Constantine , where they gave fashion advice and tips on how to improve overall appearance , often using themselves to illustrate the guidelines . They appeared on NBC 's The Today Show in 2006 , and returned to America in late 2007 appearing on Good Morning America to perform makeovers on different shaped women . They also reported for Good Morning America on the fashion at the 80th Academy Awards ' red carpet event in February 2008 . In 2009 they went on to make a series in the US for TLC called " Making over America " .
After What Not to Wear , Woodall and Constantine transferred from the BBC to ITV for a deal worth £ 1 @.@ 2 million . Woodall and Constantine began their new television show , Trinny & Susannah Undress ... , in 2006 . The first two series saw them helping couples who were experiencing difficulties in their marriages , by giving advice and a fashion makeover to increase confidence . In 2007 , the third series on ITV took a different format , tackling the main fashion issues present in Britain , under the new name of Trinny & Susannah Undress The Nation .
Woodall and Constantine have revealed that they have dressed in excess of 5 @,@ 000 women over the course of their career . They have adopted the attitude that dressing to compliment body shape is important , on which subject Woodall has commented " If you want to make the best of yourself you don 't necessarily need to diet – you need to wear the right stuff . "
= = = = Guest appearances = = = =
During the BBC 's 2002 Children in Need appeal , Woodall and Constantine sang their own version of Madonna 's " Vogue " in front of celebrity backing singers . Children in Need 2004 saw them giving EastEnders characters Little Mo and Mo Harris a makeover à la What Not to Wear . Also in 2005 , Woodall voiced a robot version of herself in the well @-@ known science fiction series Doctor Who , in episode " Bad Wolf " .
In 2007 , Woodall appeared on Comic Relief Does The Apprentice in order to raise money for Comic Relief . The show required celebrities to sell tickets to a fun fair they had organised , with Woodall selling a ticket to a friend for £ 150 @,@ 000 . The Times wrote " Trinny Woodall is a prime @-@ time star , but is proper posh with mighty connections , as demonstrated by the six @-@ figure sums she blagged from richer friends on Comic Relief does the Apprentice . "
Woodall and Constantine have appeared on Parkinson three times together . Their first appearance in 2003 coincided with the host 's now infamous interview with Meg Ryan . Parkinson said that he felt Ryan 's behaviour towards his fellow guests , Woodall and Constantine – whom Ryan turned her back on – was " unforgivable " . Woodall has made appearances on numerous other chat shows and on Star in a Reasonably @-@ Priced Car , a recurring segment on the BBC Two motoring programme Top Gear .
= = = Advertising campaigns = = =
Woodall and Constantine became the faces of Nescafé in 2003 , featuring in advertisements promoting the brand of coffee .
The duo also became the faces of the home shopping company , Littlewoods Direct , when orders rose thirty percent during its sponsorship of their ITV programme Trinny & Susannah Undress in 2006 . The £ 12m television and print advertising campaign featuring Woodall and Constantine is one of largest ever seen for a home shopping and internet @-@ based company . Since the advertisements were launched , Littlewoods ' brand awareness , sales and website traffic have increased significantly .
Woodall and Constantine embarked upon a tour to New Zealand and Australia , between 2006 and 2008 , where they made a series of public appearances at shopping centres and adverts for the Westfield Group . They performed popular live styling sessions for customers .
= = = Books and merchandise = = =
Woodall and Constantine have co @-@ written numerous fashion advice books , which have sold over 3 million copies worldwide . Their style advice books have proceeded to become number one bestsellers in Britain and the United States , have been translated throughout the world , and have placed them number one on both The Sunday Times best @-@ seller list and The New York Times best @-@ seller list .
Their first major book , What Not to Wear , was published in 2002 . It gained them a British Book Award in 2003 for The TV & Film Book of the Year . The book outsold popular television chefs Jamie Oliver and Nigella Lawson when sale figures reached a total of 670 @,@ 000 copies , selling 300 @,@ 000 copies in just fifteen weeks . It was also selling 45 @,@ 000 copies a week at one point , and had sold 250 @,@ 000 copies before the peak book selling season had even begun . What Not to Wear made sales worth £ 8 @.@ 7 million which led to a £ 2 million book deal to produce more of their fashion books .
In 2006 , Woodall and Constantine launched their own underwear range " Trinny and Susannah Magic Pants " which are made from nylon to flatten the tummy , buttocks and thighs , in order to make the areas appear slimmer . The fashion duo launched their own clothing range exclusively for Littlewoods Direct on 20 September 2007 .
Their ninth book , The Body Shape Bible , was published in 2007 . Prior to writing The Body Shape Bible , Woodall and Constantine conducted a survey on women that helped them to identify the twelve most common body shapes , which they have featured in the book and given names such as ' apple ' . The book is aimed to help women decipher what particular shape they are , proceeding to give fashion guidelines according to each individual shape .
In 2012 Woodall and Constantine launched a range of Bodyshape Clothing for QVC UK
= = Personal life = =
Woodall has one daughter , Lyla ( born 28 October 2003 ) , and is stepmother to her ex @-@ husband 's son , Zak .
She married musician turned company director Johnny Elichaoff in 1999 , at her family church , St Columba 's , situated in Pont Street , Knightsbridge . The church was the venue for her parents ' wedding , Woodall 's christening , and her Scottish grandfather is buried there . The couple announced their separation and intention to divorce in 2008 . Jonny Elichaoff died in November 2014 .
Woodall formerly suffered severely from acne , which began in her early teens and stayed with her until she was twenty @-@ nine . Her condition caused her to feel , in her own words , " unbelievably ugly for years " .
Woodall has also had many problems with conceiving in the past . She underwent IVF treatment nine times and had two miscarriages before she became pregnant with Lyla . She is an avid supporter of charities , and stood as a trustee of a British charity helping those with alcohol and substance abuse issues ( at the time called The Chemical Dependency Centre and later renamed Action on Addiction in 2007 ) . She also supported the Lavender Trust at Breast Cancer Care and The Elton John AIDS Foundation . She currently resides in Notting Hill Woodall has been criticised by The Daily Mail for looking too thin , but responded by declaring : " I 've been nine stone for 20 years , I always eat what I want , it 's not an issue for me " .
Woodall has been linked to Charles Saatchi since 2013 .
= = Television credits = =
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= Call My Name ( Third Day song ) =
" Call My Name " is a song recorded by the Christian rock band Third Day . Written by Mac Powell and produced by Third Day , it was released as the lead single from the band 's 2008 album Revelation through Essential Records . " Call My Name " has been considered a pop rock and " AC @-@ friendly " song with a basic drum track and a " solid " melody . Lyrically , it has been alternately described as being set from the perspective of God or being a cry out to God .
" Call My Name " received positive reception from critics , some of whom praised the arrangement of the song . Third Day has performed the song live and it has been covered by Australian country singer Keith Urban . The song was a hit on Christian radio , peaking atop the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and the Radio & Records Christian AC Monitored , Christian AC Indicator and Christian CHR charts . Billboard magazine ranked it second on the 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and third on the 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart and at twenty @-@ seventh on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and at thirty @-@ sixth on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .
= = Background = =
" Call My Name " was one of the first songs that Third Day worked on in their writing session for Revelation in Charlottesville , Virginia . The lyrics to the song were written by Mac Powell , while the music was composed by Third Day . It was produced and programmed by Howard Benson and recorded by Mike Plontikoff at Bay 7 Studios in Valley Village , Los Angeles and at Sparky Dark Studio in Calabasas , California . Pre @-@ production was handled at Haunted Hollow Studio in Charlottesville , Virginia by Rob Evans and Steve Miller , at Tree Sound Studios in Norcross , Georgia by Don McCollister , and at Sonica Recording in Atlanta , Georgia by Jon Briglevich . The song was mixed by Chris Lord @-@ Alge at Resonate Music in Burbank , California and mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering in Portland , Maine . Digital editing was conducted by Paul DeCarli , while audio engineering was handled by Ashburn Miller and Hatsukazu Inagaki .
= = Composition = =
" Call My Name " is a Christian rock song that lasts for four minutes and two seconds . It was composed using common time in the key of E major , with " driving rock " tempo of 78 beats per minute . Mac Powell 's vocal range spans from the low note of B3 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . The lyrics to the song have been described as being from the perspective of God , although the members of Third Day have described them differently ; David Carr , the drummer for Third Day , described the lyrics as " crying out to God and calling out his name " , while Mac Powell described them as " kind of a prayer . It 's about when people are going through hard times and going through struggles that we 've gotta call out to someone , and for us as people of faith it 's calling out to God and hearing his voice ... and for someone else it could be a friend or a family member that you 've gotta reach out to kind of help share those burdens you go through " . Carr also described the drum part on " Call My Name " as " basic " , and the song itself has been described as " pop rock " , " AC @-@ friendly " , and " pop " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Critical reception to " Call My Name " was positive , with some critics praising the arrangement and vocals . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard magazine called the single a " well @-@ crafted number " , while Matt Conner of CCM Magazine praised the song as " brilliantly crafted " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today regarded the song as a " big AC @-@ friendly single " and praised it as having " smart hooks , a strong melody , and some of Powell 's most impressive vocal work to date during the closing vamp , belting out notes I didn 't know he was capable of " . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout called the song " an unashamedly catchy pop rock anthem that surprisingly has a similar lyrical message to [ ' Cry Out to Jesus ' ] , just presented from Christ 's own perspective this time around " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart , " Call My Name " debuted at No. 15 for the chart week of 26 April 2008 . It advanced to No. 8 in its fourth charting week and to No. 3 in its sixth charting week . In its eighth chart week , " Call My Name " advanced to the top spot , holding the No. 1 spot for a total of thirteen consecutive weeks . The song dropped to No. 3 in its twenty @-@ first chart week , supplanted from the top spot by Brandon Heath 's " Give Me Your Eyes " . After spending twenty @-@ nine weeks on the chart , " Call My Name " dropped out .
On the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart , " Call My Name " spent eleven weeks at No. 1 . It also topped the Radio & Records Christian AC Monitored and Christian AC Indicator charts for eleven weeks each , and the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart for six weeks .
Billboard magazine ranked " Call My Name " second on their 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and third on their 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart . Radio & Records ranked it third on their 2008 year @-@ end Christian AC Songs chart and fifth on their 2008 year @-@ end Christian CHR songs chart . Billboard magazine also ranked " Call My Name " twenty @-@ seventh on their decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and thirty @-@ sixth on their decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .
= = Other uses = =
" Call My Name " has been featured on the compilation albums WOW Hits 2009 and Now That 's What I Call Faith , as well as on Third Day 's live CD / DVD Live Revelations . Australian country singer Keith Urban covered the song , including it as a bonus track on his 2009 album Defying Gravity .
= = Live performances = =
Prior to the release of Revelation , Third Day performed " Call My Name " at several of their concerts on the Third Day LIVE Tour ; in particular , the band performed the song on 3 April 2008 at the Mid @-@ Hudson Civic Center in Poughkeepsie , New York , where they were joined on stage by Scotty Wilbanks . At the benefit concert Nashville4Africa , held on 4 April 2009 at the Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville , Tennessee , the band performed the song with fellow Christian rock artists Jars of Clay . On the 2010 Winter Jam tour , Third Day performed " Call My Name " as part of their set list on 28 and 30 January .
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts = =
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= IG Farben Building =
The IG Farben Building , officially known as the Poelzig Building , is a building complex in Frankfurt , Germany , which currently serves as the main campus of the University of Frankfurt . It was built from 1928 to 1930 as the corporate headquarters of the IG Farben conglomerate , then the world 's largest chemical company and the world 's fourth largest company overall .
The building 's original design in the modernist New Objectivity style was the subject of a competition which was eventually won by the architect Hans Poelzig . On its completion , the complex was the largest office building in Europe and remained so until the 1950s . The IG Farben Building 's six square wings retain a modern , spare elegance , despite its mammoth size . It is also notable for its paternoster elevators .
The building was the headquarters for production administration of dyes , pharmaceutical drugs , magnesium , lubricating oil , explosives , and methanol , and for research projects relating to the development of synthetic oil and rubber during World War II . After World War II , the IG Farben Building served as the headquarters for the Supreme Allied Command and from 1949 to 1952 the High Commissioner for Germany ( HICOG ) . It became the principal location for implementing the Marshall Plan , which supported the post @-@ war reconstruction of Europe . The IG Farben Building served as the headquarters for the US Army 's V Corps and the Northern Area Command ( NACOM ) until 1995 . The US Army renamed the building the General Creighton W. Abrams Building in 1975 .
In 1995 , the US Army transferred the IG Farben Building to the German government , and it was purchased by the state of Hesse on behalf of the University of Frankfurt . Renamed the Poelzig Building in honour of its architect , the building underwent a restoration and was opened as part of the university in 2001 .
= = History = =
= = = The site = = =
The IG Farben Building was developed on land known as the Grüneburggelände in Frankfurt 's Westend District . In 1837 , the property belonged to the Rothschild family . In 1864 , the city 's psychiatric hospital known as " Affenfelsen " or " Affenstein " ' , was erected on the site . The name Affenstein derives from an ancient Christian memorial that once stood here on the road outside Frankfurt . It was known as the " Avestein " as in Ave Maria but in the local Frankfurt dialect it was called the " Affe Stein " . Here , Dr Heinrich Hoffman hired Alois Alzheimer to work in the hospital , where they both explored progressive methods of treating the mentally ill . The Grüneburgpark was established in 1880 on the larger western part of the site .
= = = Early history = = =
IG Farben acquired the property in 1927 to establish its headquarters there . In the 1920s , IG Farben ( full German name Interessen Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie Aktiengesellschaft ) was the world 's largest drug , chemical and dye conglomerate . Frankfurt was chosen because of its centrality and its accessibility by air and land .
In August 1928 , Professor Hans Poelzig won a limited competition to design the building , among five selected architects , notably beating Ernst May , the then Head of Urban Design for Frankfurt .
Work on the foundations began in late 1928 , and in mid @-@ 1929 construction started on the steel frame . The building was completed in 1930 after only 24 months , by employing rapid @-@ setting concrete , new construction materials and a round @-@ the @-@ clock workforce . Later in 1930 , the Frankfurt director of horticulture Max Bromme and the artists ' group Bornimer Kreis developed designs for the 14 hectares of parkland that surrounded the building . The grounds , and the complex as a whole , were completed in 1931 at a total cost of 24 million Reichsmark ( 150 million DEM , 76 @.@ 8 million EUR in 2016 ) .
= = = Second World War = = =
IG Farben subsequently became an indispensable part of the Nazi industrial base . The building was the headquarters for research projects for the development of wartime synthetic oil and rubber , as well as the production administration of magnesium , lubricating oil , explosives , and methanol . The building was used by IG Farben for 15 years .
During World War II , the surrounding neighbourhood was devastated , but the building itself was left largely intact ( and inhabited by the homeless citizens of a bomb @-@ ravaged Frankfurt ) . In March 1945 , Allied troops occupied the area and the IG Farben Building became the American headquarters of General Dwight D. Eisenhower . Eisenhower 's office was where he received many important guests ; including General de Gaulle , Field Marshal Montgomery and Marshal Zhukov . It was there that he signed the " Proclamation No. 2 " , which determined which parts of the country would be within the American zone . Eisenhower vacated the building in December 1945 but his office was still used for special occasions : the constitution of the state of Hesse was signed there , the West German Ministerpräsident received his commission to compile the Grundgesetz ( German constitution ) and the administration of the Wirtschaftsrat der Bizone ( Economic Council of the Bizone ) was also located there .
= = = Cold War = = =
From 1945 to 1947 , the IG Farben Building was the location of the Supreme Headquarters , Allied European Forces , and was the headquarters for the US occupation forces and Military Governor . On May 10 , 1947 , permanent orders to military personnel prohibited further reference to the building as the " IG Farben Building " , and instead called for it to be referred to as " The Headquarters Building , European Command " . The United States High Commissioner for Germany ( HICOG ) and his staff occupied the building from 1949 to 1952 .
After 1952 , the building served as the European centre of the American armed forces and the headquarters of the U.S. V Corps . It later became the headquarters for the Northern Area Command until 1994 . The IG Farben Building was also the headquarters of the CIA in Germany , which led to its sobriquet ' the Pentagon of Europe ' . On April 16 , 1975 , the US Army renamed the building the General Creighton W. Abrams Building . The renaming did not have full authority in law , because the US was technically leasing the building from the German government and thus was not the rightful owner .
On May 11 , 1972 , three bombs were set off by the West German terrorist group Rote Armee Fraktion ( Red Army Faction , i.e. , the Baader @-@ Meinhof Group ) . Two bombs went off in a rotunda in the rear entrance of the IG Farben building , and a third exploded in a smaller building behind the IG Farben building that was serving as the US Military 's officer 's club . Lt. Col. Paul Bloomquist was killed by the last bomb , and dozens of Americans and Germans were injured . The IG Farben building was attacked again by the same group in 1976 and 1982 . Consequently , the publicly accessible adjoining park became part of a restricted military zone which also included the military living quarters and work areas at the rear of the building .
= = = Recent years = = =
Following German reunification , the US government announced plans to fully withdraw its troops from Frankfurt , Germany by 1995 , at which time control of the entire site would be restored to the German Federal Government . It was suggested that the building could become the location for the European Central Bank . In 1996 , the state of Hesse bought the building and associated land for the University of Frankfurt . The buildings were refurbished at a cost of 50 Million German Mark ( about US $ 26M or 25M € ) , by the Copenhagen @-@ based architecture practice Dissing + Weitling and were handed over to the university . The complex now houses the Westend Campus of the university , which includes the departments of Philosophy , History , Theology , Classical Philology , Art and Music , Modern Languages and Linguistics , Cultural and Civilization Studies , the Center for North American Studies and the Fritz @-@ Bauer @-@ Institute .
= = = Renaming controversy = = =
The university 's tenancy of the building sparked a debate regarding the name of the building . Former University President Werner Meissner had started the controversy by renaming it the " Poelzig @-@ Ensemble " ( Poelzig @-@ Complex ) ; to him , renaming the building would free it from associations with Nazism . Students and , in increasing numbers , members of the faculty insisted on confronting the building 's history by retaining its original name , the " IG Farben Building " . Meissner 's successor , Rudolf Steinberg , upheld the university 's decision to retain the name , but he did not enforce a uniform nomenclature within the university 's administration . After the grand opening of the building in 2001 , AStA chairman Wulfila Wido Walter objected to the " misuse of Hans Poelzig " [ sic ] and proposed leaving the name of the main building unchanged , and calling the smaller casino building the " Poelzig Casino " ; this proposal won little support . By 2004 , the " Poelzig @-@ Ensemble " proposal had become a moot point — the debate was overtaken by strong political lobbying for an appropriate commemoration and memorial of remembrance : Vice President Brita Rank set up a permanent exhibition inside the building , and a memorial plaque — for the slave labourers of IG Farben and those who had perished by Zyklon B gas — was installed on the front of the building . The Senate of the University agreed on a joint initiative by the student senator of the Green University group , David Profit , and Angelika Marx the senator of the United Services Union , to name a place on the new campus 's western end after the former slave labourer Norbert Wollheim .
Despite the renamings by the University and the American military administration , the building is still usually called the IG Farben Building by the general public . The association of the building with Nazism has been hard to shake off , partly because of the close involvement of IG Farben with the Nazi regime and partly because of the building 's imposing and monumental appearance . Der Spiegel wrote of its " Smell of Guilt " . Only with the departure of the Americans , the subsequent renovations , and the use of the building by the university has the building 's association with the Third Reich in the popular consciousness receded . As of 2010 , the building is referred to as IG Farben Hochhaus on the campus map .
= = = Future = = =
Behind the IG Farben Building , the state of Hesse intends to build " Europe 's most modern campus " to accommodate the remaining departments of the University 's old Bockenheim campus , law , business , social sciences , child development , and the arts .
= = Building = =
In 1928 , IG Farben was the world 's fourth largest company and its largest chemical company . Consequently , the space requirements for the building were for one of the largest office buildings ever constructed . It was designed in the New Objectivity style .
IG Farben did not want a specifically ' Bauhaus ' styled building — it wanted :
A symbol , in iron and stone , of German commercial and scientific manpower . Baron von Schnitzler , IG Farben Director , 1930 .
The 250 @-@ metre long and 35 @-@ metre tall building has nine floors , but the height of the ground floor varies ( 4 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 2 m ) . This variation is reflected in the roof line which looks taller at the wings than the spine . The volume of the building is 280 @,@ 000 m ³ , constructed from 4 @,@ 600 tonnes of steel frame with brick infill and floors constructed of hollow blocks to provide over 55740 m ² of usable office space " . The façade is clad with 33 @,@ 000 m ² Stuttgart @-@ Bad Cannstatt Travertine marble , punctuated in bands of windows decreasing in height with each storey . Only at the corners are the glazed strips interrupted for emphasis . The top storey is lit from skylights rather than banded glazing and has a very low ceiling height . It forms a clear building conclusion . Until the 1950s , the building was the largest and most modern office building in Europe .
The IG Farben Building consists of six wings , connected by a gently curved , central corridor . This arrangement provides all of the offices with sufficient natural light and ventilation . This design approach for large complexes offers an alternative to the " hollow rectangle " schemes of the time , with their typical inner courtyards . The prototype of this form is the General Motors Building in Detroit ( 1917 – 21 ) by Albert Kahn . The building presents a very large and weighty façade to the front , but this effect is reduced by the concave form .
The main entrance is at the axial centre of the building , comprising a temple @-@ like portico standing in front of the doors — a relatively common motif of administration buildings of the time . The entrance arrangement is regarded by some people as slightly pompous : the entrance and lift doors are of bronze , and the ceiling and walls of the porch are clad in bronze plate and copper friezes . The inner lobby has two curved staircases with a sheet aluminum treatment , and marble walls with a zigzag pattern . The axial centre at the rear of the building has a round glazed façade ; here , the view of the buildings at the rear of the site ( the " casino " ) is maximised by the curved walls that afford vistas to the subsidiary buildings 100 m distant , separated from the main building by parkland and a pool . During the American occupation of the building , this rotunda housed a small kiosk ; later , it was used as a conference room . Nowadays , it is called the Dwight D. Eisenhower room and accommodates a café .
The paternoster lifts that serve the nine floors are famous , and are popular with the university students . After the recent restoration , the university has pledged to preserve them in perpetuity .
Behind the rotunda is an oblong pool with a Nymphenskulptur ( German : Nymph sculpture ) at the water 's edge created by Fritz Klimsch entitled " Am Wasser " . Behind it stands a flat building on a hill with a terrace — the casino of IG Farben and the Officers Club of the US Army ( " The Terrace Club " ) , which now houses a refectory and lecture @-@ rooms .
= = Rumours = =
A number of unconfirmed rumours concern the complex :
Hans Poelzig was not favoured by the Nazi regime and was banned by IG Farben from entering the building after its completion .
General Eisenhower issued orders to preserve the building during the bombardment of Frankfurt , because he intended to use it after the war as his headquarters . It may also have been that the building was saved by its proximity to Grüneburgpark with its prisoner of war camp holding captured American airmen .
Two or three basements are under the Poelzig building , which are sealed and flooded .
A tunnel connects the building with Frankfurt 's main railway station ; some sources contend that only the main building and the casino are linked , and that there is no tunnel to the station .
At the reflecting pool behind the building , the " Am Wasser " sculpture of a naked water nymph was moved during the American occupation . The nymph was moved to the Hoechst Chemical concern in Frankfurt / Hoechst at the request of Mamie Eisenhower ( the general 's wife ) , who deemed it inappropriate for a military installation . The statue has since been returned to its original location .
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= Casino Royale ( novel ) =
Casino Royale is the first novel by the British author Ian Fleming . Published in 1953 , it is the first James Bond book , and it paved the way for a further eleven novels and two short story collections by Fleming , followed by numerous continuation Bond novels by other authors .
The story concerns the British secret agent James Bond , gambling at the casino in Royale @-@ les @-@ Eaux to bankrupt Le Chiffre , the treasurer of a French union and a member of the Russian secret service . Bond is supported in his endeavours by Vesper Lynd , a member of his own service , as well as Felix Leiter of the CIA and René Mathis of the French Deuxième Bureau . Fleming used his wartime experiences as a member of the Naval Intelligence Division , and the people he met during his work , to provide plot elements ; the character of Bond also reflected many of Fleming 's personal tastes . Fleming wrote the draft in early 1952 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica while awaiting his marriage . He was initially unsure whether the work was suitable for publication , but was assured by his friend , the novelist William Plomer , that the novel had promise .
Within the spy storyline , Casino Royale deals with themes of Britain 's position in the world , particularly the relationship with the US in light of the defections to the Soviet Union of the British traitors Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean . The book was given broadly positive reviews by critics at the time and sold out in less than a month after its UK release on 13 April 1953 , although US sales upon release a year later were much slower .
Since publication Casino Royale has appeared as a comic strip in a British national newspaper , The Daily Express . It has been also adapted for the screen three times : a 1954 episode of the CBS television series Climax ! with Barry Nelson as an American Bond , a 1967 film version with David Niven playing " Sir James Bond " , and a 2006 film in the Eon Productions film series starring Daniel Craig as James Bond .
= = Plot = =
M , the Head of the British Secret Service , assigns James Bond , 007 , to play against and bankrupt Le Chiffre , the paymaster for a SMERSH @-@ controlled trade union , in a high @-@ stakes baccarat game at the Royale @-@ les @-@ Eaux casino in northern France . As part of Bond 's cover as a rich Jamaican playboy , M also assigns as his companion Vesper Lynd , personal assistant to the Head of Section S ( Soviet Union ) . The CIA and the French Deuxième Bureau also send agents as observers . The game soon turns into an intense confrontation between Le Chiffre and Bond ; Le Chiffre wins the first round , cleaning Bond out of his funds . As Bond contemplates the prospect of reporting his failure to M , the CIA agent , Felix Leiter , gives him an envelope of money and a note : " Marshall Aid . Thirty @-@ two million francs . With the compliments of the USA . " The game continues , despite the attempts of one of Le Chiffre 's minders to kill Bond . Bond eventually wins , taking from Le Chiffre eighty million francs belonging to SMERSH .
Desperate to recover the money , Le Chiffre kidnaps Lynd and subjects Bond to brutal torture , threatening to kill them both if he does not get the money back . During the torture session , a SMERSH assassin enters and kills Le Chiffre as punishment for losing the money . The agent does not kill Bond , saying that he has no orders to do so , but cuts a Cyrillic ' Ш ' ( sh ) to signify the SHpion ( Russian for spy ) into Bond 's hand so that future SMERSH agents will be able to identify him as such .
Lynd visits Bond every day as he recuperates in hospital , and he gradually realises that he loves her ; he even contemplates leaving the Secret Service to settle down with her . When he is released from hospital they spend time together at a quiet guest house and eventually become lovers . One day they see a mysterious man named Gettler tracking their movements , which greatly distresses Lynd . The following morning , Bond finds that she has committed suicide . She leaves behind a note explaining that she had been working as an unwilling double agent for the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs . SMERSH had kidnapped her lover , a Polish Royal Air Force pilot , who had revealed information about her under torture ; SMERSH then used that information to blackmail her into helping them undermine Bond 's mission , including her own faked kidnapping . She had tried to start a new life with Bond , but upon seeing Gettler — a SMERSH agent — she realised that she would never be free of her tormentors , and that staying with Bond would only put him in danger . Bond informs his service of Lynd 's duplicity , coldly telling his contact , " The bitch is dead now . "
= = Background = =
Ian Fleming , born in 1908 , was a son of Valentine Fleming , a wealthy banker and MP who died in action on the Western Front in May 1917 . Educated at Eton , Sandhurst and , briefly , the universities of Munich and Geneva , Fleming moved through several jobs before he was recruited by Rear Admiral John Godfrey , the Director of Naval Intelligence , to become his personal assistant . Fleming joined the organisation full @-@ time in August 1939 , with the codename " 17F " , and worked for them throughout the war . Early in 1939 he began an affair with Ann O 'Neill ( née Charteris ) , who was married to the 3rd Baron O 'Neill .
In 1942 Fleming attended an Anglo @-@ American intelligence summit in Jamaica and , despite the constant heavy rain during his visit , he decided to live on the island once the war was over . His friend Ivar Bryce helped find a plot of land in Saint Mary Parish where , in 1945 , Fleming had a house built , which he named Goldeneye . The name of the house and estate has many possible sources . Fleming mentioned both his wartime Operation Goldeneye and Carson McCullers ' 1941 novel Reflections in a Golden Eye , which described the use of British naval bases in the Caribbean by the US Navy .
Upon Fleming 's demobilisation in May 1945 , he became the Foreign Manager in the Kemsley newspaper group , which at the time owned The Sunday Times . In this role he oversaw the paper 's worldwide network of correspondents . His contract allowed him to take two months holiday every winter in Jamaica . In 1948 Charteris gave birth to Fleming 's daughter , Mary , who was stillborn ; Charteris and Fleming became engaged shortly in 1951 .
Fleming had previously mentioned to friends that he wanted to write a spy novel , but it was not until early 1952 , to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials , that he began to write Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica on 17 February ; he typed out 2 @,@ 000 words in the morning , directly from his own experiences and imagination , and finished work on the manuscript in March 1952 . It was a pattern he retained for future Bond books . In May 1963 he wrote a piece for Books and Bookmen magazine in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . "
Back in London , Fleming had his manuscript — which he described as his " dreadful oafish opus " — retyped by Joan Howe , his red @-@ haired secretary at The Times on whom the character Miss Moneypenny was partly based . Clare Blanchard , a former girlfriend , advised him not to publish the book , or at least to do so under a pseudonym . During the book 's final draft stages , Fleming allowed his friend , and later editor , William Plomer to see a copy , and remarked " I really am thoroughly ashamed of it ... after rifling through this muck you will probably never speak to me again , but I have got to take that chance . " Despite this , Plomer thought the book had sufficient promise and sent a copy to the publishing house Jonathan Cape . At first they were unenthusiastic , but were persuaded to publish on the recommendation of Fleming 's older brother , Peter , an established travel writer whose books they managed .
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Casino Royale in 1951 ; Griswold allows a possible second timeframe and considers the story could have taken place in either May to July 1951 , or May to July 1952 .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
Casino Royale was inspired by certain incidents that took place during Fleming 's wartime career at the Naval Intelligence Division ( NID ) , or by events of which he was aware . On a trip to Portugal , en route to the United States , Fleming and the NID Director , Admiral Godfrey , went to the Estoril Casino . Because of Portugal 's neutral status , Estoril 's population had been swelled by spies and agents from the warring regimes . Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a " chief German agent " at a table playing chemin de fer . Admiral Godfrey told a different story : that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen , and afterwards fantasised about playing against German agents .
The failed attempt to kill Bond while at Royale @-@ Les @-@ Eaux was inspired by Fleming 's knowledge of the attempted assassination of Franz von Papen , Vice @-@ Chancellor of Germany and an ambassador under Hitler . Both Papen and Bond survived their assassination attempts , carried out by Bulgarians , because trees protected them from the blasts . The torture scene in which Bond 's genitals are thrashed while he is strapped to a bottomless chair was a version of a French @-@ Moroccan torture technique , passer à la mandolin , in which the steel string of a mandolin was used to slice in half the testicles of British wartime agents .
Fleming also included four references in the novel to " Red Indians " , including twice on last page , which came from a unit of commandos , known as No. 30 Commando or 30 Assault Unit ( 30AU ) , composed of specialist intelligence troops . The unit was Fleming 's idea , and he nicknamed the troops his " Red Indians " , although they disliked the name .
= = = Characters = = =
The lead character of Casino Royale is James Bond , an agent of the Secret Service . Fleming initially named the character James Secretan before he appropriated the name of James Bond , author of the ornithology guide , Birds of the West Indies . Fleming explained to the ornithologist 's wife " that this brief , unromantic , Anglo @-@ Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born " . He further explained that " When I wrote the first one in 1953 , I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull , uninteresting man to whom things happened ; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ... when I was casting around for a name for my protagonist I thought by God , [ James Bond ] is the dullest name I ever heard . "
Fleming decided that Bond should resemble both the American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself , and in the novel Lynd remarks that " Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael , but there is something cold and ruthless . " According to Andrew Lycett , Fleming 's biographer , " within the first few pages ... [ Fleming ] had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks " , which included his looks , his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits . The full details of Bond 's martini were kept until chapter seven of the book and Bond eventually named it " The Vesper " , after Lynd . Bond 's order , to be served in a deep champagne goblet , was for " three measures of Gordon 's , one of vodka , half a measure of Kina Lillet . Shake it very well until it 's ice @-@ cold , then add a large thin slice of lemon peel . "
Speaking of Bond 's origins , Fleming said that " he was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war " , although the author gave many of his own traits to the character . Bond 's tastes are often taken from Fleming 's own , as is some of his behaviour : Fleming used the casino to introduce Bond in his first novel because " skill at gambling and knowledge of how to behave in a casino were seen ... as attributes of a gentleman " . Lycett sees much of Bond 's character as being " wish fulfilment " by Fleming .
Bond 's superior , M , was largely based on Godfrey , Fleming 's NID superior officer ; Godfrey was known for his bellicose and irascible temperament . One of the likely models for Le Chiffre was the influential English occultist , astrologer , mystic and ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley , on whose physical features Fleming based Le Chiffre 's . Crowley 's tastes , especially in sado @-@ masochism , were also ascribed to Le Chiffre ; as Fleming 's biographer Henry Chancellor notes , " when Le Chiffre goes to work on Bond 's testicles with a carpet @-@ beater and a carving knife , the sinister figure of Aleister Crowley is there lurking in the background . "
= = Style = =
Fleming later said of his work , " while thrillers may not be Literature with a capital L , it is possible to write what I can best describe as ' thrillers designed to be read as literature ' " . He used well @-@ known brand names and everyday details to produce a sense of realism , which the author Kingsley Amis called " the Fleming effect " . Amis describes it as " the imaginative use of information , whereby the pervading fantastic nature of Bond 's world ... [ is ] bolted down to some sort of reality , or at least counter @-@ balanced . " Within the text the novelist Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — identifies what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " , the use of " hooks " at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next . The hooks combine with what the novelist Anthony Burgess calls " a heightened journalistic style " to produce " a speed of narrative , which hustles the reader past each danger point of mockery " .
The semiotician and essayist , Umberto Eco , in his 1979 examination of the Bond books , " The Narrative Structure of Ian Fleming " , considered that Fleming " has a rhythm , a polish , a certain sensuous feeling for words . That is not to say that Fleming is an artist ; yet he writes with art . " When examining the passage relating to the death of Le Chiffre , Eco wrote that " there is a ... baroque feeling for the image , a total adaptation off the image without emotional comment , and a use of words that designate things with accuracy " , and he went on to conclude that " Fleming is more literate than he gives one to understand . "
= = Themes = =
Casino Royale was written after , and was heavily influenced by , the Second World War ; Britain was still an imperial power , and the Western and Eastern blocs were engaged in the Cold War . The journalist William Cook observes that with the decline in power of the British Empire , " Bond pandered to Britain 's inflated and increasingly insecure self @-@ image , flattering us with the fantasy that Britannia could still punch above her weight . " The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett agree , and consider that " Bond embodied the imaginary possibility that England might once again be placed at the centre of world affairs during a period when its world power status was visibly and rapidly declining . "
In 1953 parts of central London , including Oxford Street and High Holborn still had uncleared bomb sites and , while sweets had ceased being rationed , coal and other food items were still regulated . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , Bond was " the ideal antidote to Britain 's postwar austerity , rationing and the looming premonition of lost power " .
Casino Royale deals with the question of Anglo @-@ American relations , reflecting the real @-@ world central role of the US in the defence of the West . The academic Jeremy Black points to the 1951 defections of two members of MI6 — Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean — to the Soviet Union as having a major impact on how Britain was poorly viewed in US intelligence circles ; Fleming was aware of this tension between the two countries , but he did not focus on it too strongly , and Bond and Leiter 's warm relationship did not reflect the reality of the US @-@ UK relationship .
Amis , in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier , pointed out that Leiter is " such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he , the American , takes orders from Bond , the Britisher , and that Bond is constantly doing better than he " . The journalist and author Christopher Hitchens observed that " the central paradox of the classic Bond stories is that , although superficially devoted to the Anglo @-@ American war against communism , they are full of contempt and resentment for America and Americans " . David Seed , in his examination of spy fiction , disagrees , and writes that while Bond beats Le Chiffre , his " activities are constantly supported by American agencies , financing and know @-@ how " .
The treachery of Le Chiffre , with the overtones of a fifth column , struck a chord with the largely British readership as Communist influence in the trade unions had been an issue in the press and parliament at the time . Britain had also suffered from defections to the Soviet Union from two MI5 operatives who were part of the Cambridge Five spy ring that betrayed Western secrets to the Soviets . Thus Lycett observes that Casino Royale can be seen as Fleming 's " attempt to reflect the disturbing moral ambiguity of a post @-@ war world that could produce traitors like Burgess and Maclean " . The journalist and writer Matthew Parker observes that with the defections of the two spies so recent to the publication , it was " perhaps the closest Fleming came to a [ John ] le Carré @-@ style spy story " . Chancellor sees the moral ambiguity of the Cold War reflected in the novel .
Benson considers the most obvious theme of the novel to be good versus evil . Parker agrees , and highlights a conversation between Bond and Matthis in the chapter titled " The Nature of Evil " , in which Bond says : " By ... [ Le Chiffre 's ] evil existence ... he was creating a norm of badness by which , and by which alone , an opposite norm of goodness could exist . " The subject was also dealt with by the academic Beth Butterfield , in an examination of Bond from an existentialist viewpoint . In light of Bond 's conversation , Butterfield identifies a crisis of confidence in Bond 's character , where he has " moved beyond good and evil " to the point where he does his job not because of principles , but to pursue personal battles . Eco comes to the same conclusion , stating that Bond " abandon [ s ] the treacherous life of moral mediation and of psychological anger , with all the dangers they entail . "
Black also identifies a mechanism Fleming uses in Casino Royale — and in subsequent Bond novels — which is to use the evil of his opponents both as a justification of his actions , and as a device to foil their own plans . Black refers to the episode of the attempted assassination of Bond by Bulgarian assassins which results in their own deaths .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Casino Royale was first released on 13 April 1953 in the UK as a hardback edition by publishers Jonathan Cape , with a cover devised by Fleming . Cape printed 4 @,@ 728 copies of Casino Royale , which sold out in less than a month ; a second print run the same month also sold out , as did a third run of more than 8 @,@ 000 books published in May 1954 . The sales figures were strong enough for Cape to offer Fleming a three @-@ book deal . In April 1955 Pan Books issued a paperback version and sold 41 @,@ 000 copies in the first year .
In the US three publishers turned the book down before Macmillan Publishing Co offered Fleming a deal . Casino Royale was published on 23 March 1954 in the US , but sales were poor , totalling only 4 @,@ 000 copies across the entire US during the course of the year . When the novel was released as a US paperback in 1955 , it was re @-@ titled by publisher American Popular Library ; Fleming 's suggestions for a new title , The Double @-@ O Agent and The Deadly Gamble , were disregarded in favour of You Asked for It , but this marketing ploy failed to raise the interest . The Popular Library version also changed Bond 's name , calling him " Jimmy Bond " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hugh I 'Anson Fausset , writing in The Manchester Guardian , thought that Casino Royale was " a first @-@ rate thriller ... with a breathtaking plot " . Although he considered the book to be " schoolboy stuff " , he felt the novel was " galvanised into life by the hard brilliance of the telling " . Alan Ross , writing in The Times Literary Supplement wrote that Casino Royale was " an extremely engaging affair " , and that " the especial charm ... is the high poetry with which he invests the green baize lagoons of the casino tables " . He concluded that the book was " both exciting and extremely civilized " . Reviewing for The Listener , Simon Raven believed that Fleming was a " kind of supersonic John Buchan " , but he was somewhat dismissive of the plot , observing that it is " a brilliant but improbable notion " that includes " a deal of champagne @-@ drinking , bomb @-@ throwing , relentless pitting of wits etc ... with a cretinous love @-@ affair " . Raven also dismissed Bond as an " infantile " creation , but did allow that " Fleming tells a good story with strength and distinction ... his creation of a scene , both visually and emotionally , is of a very high order indeed . "
John Betjeman , writing in The Daily Telegraph , considered that " Ian Fleming has discovered the secret of the narrative art ... which is to work up to a climax unrevealed at the end of each chapter . Thus the reader has to go on reading " . Publishers Jonathan Cape included many of the reviews on their advertisements for the book , which appeared in a number of national newspapers ; the reviews included those from The Sunday Times , which concluded that Fleming was " the best new English thriller @-@ writer since [ Eric ] Ambler " and The Observer , which advised their readers : " don 't miss this " .
The critic for Time magazine examined Raymond Chandler 's The Long Goodbye alongside Casino Royale ; he praised Casino Royale , saying that " Fleming keeps his incidents and characters spinning through their paces like juggling balls . " The Time reviewer went on to say that " As for Bond , he might be [ Philip ] Marlowe 's younger brother except that he never takes coffee for a bracer , just one large Martini laced with vodka . "
Writing for The New York Times , Anthony Boucher wrote that the book belongs " pretty much to the private @-@ eye school " of fiction . He praised the first part , saying that Fleming " manages to make baccarat clear even to one who 's never played it and produced as exciting a gambling sequence as I 've ever read . But then he decides to pad out the book to novel length and leads the weary reader through a set of tough clichés to an ending which surprises nobody save Operative 007 . You should certainly begin this book ; but you might as well stop when the baccarat game is over . "
= = Adaptations = =
In 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $ 1 @,@ 000 to adapt Casino Royale into a one @-@ hour television adventure as part of its Climax ! series . The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as secret agent " Card Sense " James ' Jimmy ' Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre . A brief tutorial on baccarat is given at the beginning of the show by the presenter of the programme , William Lundigan , to enable viewers to understand a game which was not popular in America at the time . For this Americanised version of the story , Bond is an American agent , described as working for " Combined Intelligence " , while the character Leiter from the original novel is British , renamed " Clarence Leiter " . The agent for Station S. , Mathis , does not appear as such ; his surname is given to the leading lady , named Valérie Mathis instead of Vesper Lynd .
In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of Casino Royale to the producer Gregory Ratoff for $ 6 @,@ 000 . After Ratoff 's death , producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff 's widow and obtained the rights to make a film version . Feldman decided the best way to profit from the film rights was to make a satirical version , which was produced and released in 1967 by Columbia Pictures . The film , which cast David Niven as Bond , was made with five credited directors ( plus one uncredited ) and a cast that included Peter Sellers , Ursula Andress , Orson Welles and Woody Allen . The 1967 version is described by the British Film Institute as " an incoherent all @-@ star comedy " .
Casino Royale was the first James Bond novel to be adapted as a daily comic strip ; it was published in The Daily Express and syndicated worldwide . The strip ran from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 , and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky . To aid The Daily Express in illustrating Bond , Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of what he believed James Bond to look like . McLusky felt that Fleming 's 007 looked too " outdated " and " pre @-@ war " and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look .
Following the 1967 adaptation , the rights to the film remained with Columbia Films until 1989 when the studio , and the rights to their intellectual property portfolio was acquired by the Japanese company Sony . In 1999 , following legal action between Sony Pictures Entertainment and MGM / UA , Sony traded the rights to Casino Royale for MGM 's partial @-@ rights to Spider @-@ Man . This led to Eon Productions making the 2006 film Casino Royale . The film stars Daniel Craig as Bond , supported by Eva Green as Vesper Lynd and Mads Mikkelsen as Le Chiffre ; Judi Dench returned for her fifth Bond film as Bond 's superior , M. Casino Royale is a reboot , showing Bond at the beginning of his career as a 00 @-@ agent and overall stays true to the original novel .
A direct graphic novel adaptation of Casino Royale is planned for hardcover release on 22 November 2016 , to be published by Dynamite Entertainment as a standalone installment ( separate from their ongoing James Bond series ) , adapted by Van Jensen and illustrated by Matthew Southworth .
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= Acors Barns House =
The Acors Barns House is located in New London , Connecticut . Built in 1837 , the Acors Barns House is a two @-@ and @-@ one half story Greek Revival house with a gable roof and clapboarded exterior . The front facade of the house is five bays wide with a Greek Revival portico leading to the main entrance . Additions to the house include a projecting center dormer , and second @-@ story projection over a partially enclosed veranda . The plain exterior is contrasted by interior 's elaborate hall ceilings , detailed woodwork and arched marble fireplaces .
In 1862 , Barns died and the house was passed to his sons before being transferred to Harriet Barns Vincent . The house was sold to Julia O 'Sullivan in 1919 before being sold to Francis McGuire in 1956 . The McGuire 's operated the house as a law firm and passed the title to James McGuire . In 2013 , James McGuire sold the house to the Community Foundation of Eastern Connecticut . Dave Collins wrote that the Acors Barns house is a " fine and rare example " of architecture that is especially important to New London , Connecticut . The Acors Barns House was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 22 , 1976 .
= = Acors Barns = =
Born in 1794 , Acors Barns was the son a mariner and lived in Westerly , Rhode Island before moving to Stonington , Connecticut . Barns moved to New London , Connecticut and formed a whaling company with William Williams Jr. in 1827 . The company prospered and became one of the largest firms in the city , but Barns avoided the 1849 decline of the whaling industry by investing elsewhere . Barns invested in the Willimantic and Palmer Railroad before establishing the Bank of Commerce in 1852 . Barns died in 1862 , but his sons would continue the successful Bank of Commerce .
= = Design = =
Built in 1837 , the Acors Barns House is a two @-@ and @-@ one half story Greek Revival house with a gable roof and clapboarded exterior . The front facade of the house is five bays wide with 6 @-@ over @-@ 6 sash and the main entrance has a Greek Revival portico supported by fluted Doric columns from top step . The simple single @-@ panel door is surrounded by sidelights . The corners of the building have simple pilasters and four chimneys rising from the top . The rear of the house has a one @-@ story veranda with a shallow hipped roof that is supported by square columns with a simple balustrade . The veranda has large 6 @-@ over @-@ 9 sash windows that extend almost a full story . In 1975 , the area surrounding the property has undergone significant change , but the house is surrounded by trees and shrubs and a wrought iron fence that helps set it apart from the neighborhood .
Modifications to the house include the addition of a large pediment @-@ shaped dormer that projects from the center of the main roof and is lighted by a rectangular double window . Part of the veranda was enclosed and the stairs that lead to a formal garden were removed . Above the center of the veranda is a second @-@ story projection that was described as visually compromising the elegance of the rear facade .
The plain exterior is contrasted by the elegance of the interior of the house . The house has elaborate hall ceilings , detailed woodwork and arched marble fireplaces . The floor plan is built around the central hall with an offset stairway . The parlor rooms to the right are separated by a wide archway . The two rooms to the left are a dining room and a pantry that has a dumbwaiter to the kitchen in the cellar . The National Historic Register of Places nomination noted that the cellar contained the " remains of the kitchen , washroom and wine cellar " . The second floor is made of four chambers and the attic consists of five small rooms . The attic 's rooms served as the servants ' cubicles .
= = Owners = =
The Acors Barns House has gone through several owners over its lifetime . In 1862 , the house passed from Acors Barns to his son William H. Barns . In 1893 , the second son , Charles Barns acquired the title to the house and transferred it upon his death to Harriet Barns Vincent , the daughter of his sister . Harriet Barns Vincent sold the house to Julia O 'Sullivan in 1919 . Francis McGuire purchased the house in 1956 and it would later pass to James McGuire . In 2013 , James McGuire sold the house to the Community Foundation of Eastern Connecticut for $ 325 @,@ 000 . The foundation stated it would continue to preserve the house 's historical integrity .
= = Importance = =
Clouette writes , " The Barns house physically documents the symbiosis by which the wealthy and the propertyless shared a home . Its value as an artifact is enhanced by the successful reuse which has retained the character of the building . " Dave Collins of the The Day wrote , " The Barns house is also especially important to New London because it is such a fine and rare example of the architectural fabric of the big swath of the downtown that was demolished in urban renewal in the 1960s . "
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= New Jersey Route 181 =
Route 181 is a 7 @.@ 47 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 02 km ) state highway in Jefferson Township and Sparta Township in New Jersey . The highway begins in Jefferson Township at a cloverleaf interchange with Route 15 and Espanong Road . Route 181 serves as the local route through Woodport , serving the eastern shores of Lake Hopatcong as well as the main road through the center of Sparta . The route terminates at a jughandle with Route 15 in Sparta .
Route 181 originates as an alignment of State Highway Route 6 @-@ A through Woodport and Sparta , which became Route 15 in the 1953 state highway renumbering . In 1974 , Route 181 was designated as Route 15 was moved onto a freeway bypass of Sparta .
= = Route description = =
Route 181 begins at a cloverleaf interchange with Route 15 in Jefferson Township . Also present at the southern terminus and interchange is Espanong Road , which heads westward towards Lake Hopatcong . Route 181 runs north past several ramps of the interchange , paralleling Route 15 through Jefferson Township . The route winds northwest and reaches the eastern shores of Lake Hopatcong , where it reaches the community of Woodport .
At Woodport , Lake Hopatcong ends as Route 181 crosses the line from Morris County to Sussex County . Now in the town of Sparta , Route 181 becomes Woodport Road , winding northward back toward Route 15 . The two routes parallel northwestward and intersect with Blue Heron Drive , which connects the two roads . Once again , Route 181 turns northwest and away from Route 15 , reaching downtown Sparta . The two @-@ lane road winds northwest through the center of Sparta , reaching a junction with County Route 517 ( CR 517 ; Sparta Avenue ) , which connects to Route 15 once again .
After CR 517 , Route 181 runs northward out of downtown Sparta , passing the Skyview Golf Club as it approaches Route 15 once again . Becoming a two @-@ lane residential road , the highway heads into an intersection with Route 15 with a jughandle , marking the northern terminus of Route 181 .
= = History = =
Route 181 originated as an alignment of State Highway Route 6 @-@ A , a spur of State Highway Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) from Dover to Ross Corner . The designation was assigned in 1938 , eleven years after the then @-@ current highway system in New Jersey was started . The state highway route designation remained intact for fifteen years , until January 1 , 1953 , when the routes in state of New Jersey underwent a large renumbering . Route 6 @-@ A became Route 15 , running along NJ 181 's alignment from Jefferson to Sparta . The Sparta Bypass was constructed in 1974 , and upon completion , Route 15 was taken off of the Jefferson – Sparta alignment , which was re @-@ designated Route 181 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Suillus americanus =
Suillus americanus is a species of fungus in the Suillaceae family of mushrooms . Commonly known as the chicken fat mushroom , the American slippery Jack ( or slipperycap ) , or the American suillus , it grows in a mycorrhizal association with eastern white pine and can be found where this tree occurs in eastern North America and China . The mushroom can be recognized by the bright yellow cap with red to reddish @-@ brown scales embedded in slime , the large yellow angular pores on the underside of the cap , and the narrow yellow stem marked with dark reddish dots . Molecular phylogenetics analysis suggests that S. americanus may be the same species as S. sibiricus , found in western North America and western and central Asia . Suillus americanus is edible , although opinions vary as to its palatability ; some susceptible individuals may suffer a contact dermatitis after touching the fruit bodies . The fruit bodies contain a beta glucan carbohydrate shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory properties .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Suillus americanus was first described scientifically by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1888 , based on specimens he had originally collected as far back as 1869 , in New York state , near Sand Lake , Albany , and Port Jefferson . In his 1888 publication he indicated that he had originally listed these collections as Boletus flavidus ( now known as Suillus flavidus ) in his 1869 Report of the State Botanist ( published in 1872 ) . However , as was pointed out nearly a century later in 1986 , the 1869 report does not actually mention the species ; rather , Peck 's field notes that year ( which served as the basis for the report ) reference a collection at Sand Lake upon which the original ( 1888 ) description was most likely based . Because Peck failed to designate a type specimen , one of the Sand Lake specimens was lectotypified in 1986 .
In 1931 , French mycologist Édouard @-@ Jean Gilbert transferred the species to the genus Ixocomus , a now @-@ defunct taxon that has since been subsumed into Suillus . In 1959 , Walter H. Snell , collaborating with Rolf Singer and Esther A. Dick , transferred the species to Suillus . In his 1986 version of the authoritative monograph The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , Singer included the species in the subsection Latiporini of genus Suillus , an infrageneric grouping ( below the taxonomic level of genus ) characterized by a cinnamon @-@ colored spore print without an olive tinge , and wide pores , typically greater than 1 mm when mature .
Common names for the species include the American slipperycap , the American suillus , or the chicken @-@ fat mushroom . The latter name is a reference to its yellow color . The specific epithet americanus means " of America " .
= = Description = =
The cap is typically between 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , broadly convex with a small umbo ( a central elevation ) to flat with age . The cap margin is curved inwards in young specimens , and may have remnants of a yellowish , cottony veil hanging from it . The cap surface is colored bright yellow with red or brownish streaks and hairy patches . When the fruit body is young and moist , the surface is slimy ; as the cap matures and dries out , it becomes sticky or tacky .
The tubes which comprise the pore layer on the underside of the cap are 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) deep , and have an adnate ( attached broadly to the stem ) to decurrent ( running down the length of the stem ) attachment to the stem . They are yellow , and stain reddish @-@ brown when bruised . The yellow pores are large ( 1 – 2 mm diameter ) and angular , and tend to become darker as they age . The pores are slightly wider than long , so that there are about 9 – 10 pores per centimeter measured radially , but 12 to 13 per centimeter when measured tangentially , about halfway to the edge . As is the case with all boletes , spores form on the inner surfaces of the tubes and sift through their openings to be borne away on the air currents outside .
The stem is 3 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) by 0 @.@ 4 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) , roughly equal in width throughout , often crooked , and becomes hollow with age . The color of the stem surface is lemon yellow , and it is covered with glandular dots that bruise if handled . The partial veil is not attached to the stem , and usually does not leave an ring on the stem . A whitish mycelium present at the base of the stem helps anchor the fruit body in the substrate . The flesh is mustard yellow , and stains pinkish @-@ brown when cut or bruised .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In deposit , the spores are cinnamon @-@ colored . Viewed with a microscope , they are pale yellow , smooth , and roughly elliptical in shape , and measure 8 – 9 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells , are club @-@ shaped and 4 @-@ spored , with dimensions of 21 – 25 by 5 @.@ 5 to 6 µm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the sides of a gill ) range in shape from cylindrical to club @-@ shaped and are arranged in bundles . Both the bases of the bundles and the surface of the cystidia may be covered with brown pigment particles . Cheilocystidia are cystidia located in the gill faces . In S. americanus , they are mostly club @-@ shaped , often with an expanded apex , and like the pleurocystidia , are arranged in bundles , with brown pigment particles at the base of the bundles . Bundles of cystidia near the tube openings may sometimes be visible with a hand lens . Like all Suillus species , the cystidia of S. americanus will turn orange @-@ brown in the presence of a solution of 3 % potassium hydroxide . The slimy layer on the cap surface results from an interwoven layer of gelatinous hyphae that are typically 3 – 5 µm thick .
= = = Edibility = = =
This species is edible , but opinions about its palatibility are mixed : one author says the fruit bodies are " coarse and do not taste good " ; another mentions the " thin flesh hardly make this species worthwhile ; " yet another says " The yellow cap may remind you of chicken fat ; it has a wonderfully savory mushroom flavor . " The slimy texture of the mushroom has been compared to okra . One cookbook author suggests that the mushroom is ideal for spreads , for use on bread or as a dip ; baking the fruit bodies in an oven will dry them for future use , and concentrate the flavor . The odor and taste are mild ; one field guide suggests it has a " distinctive lemony tang " . The slimy caps and the pore layer are typically removed before consumption .
= = = Similar species = = =
Suillus americanus is very similar in appearance to Suillus sibiricus ( distributed in western North America and western and central Asia ) but the latter species associates with Pinus monticola and Pinus flexilis rather than Pinus strobus . One field guide suggests that Suillus sibiricus has a thicker stem than S. americanus , brown spots on the cap , and is a darker , more dingy yellow . Molecular phylogenetics analysis has shown , however , that specimens of S. sibricus collected from China and western North America , as well as S. americanus from eastern North America , are most likely " a single circumboreal taxon " .
Another lookalike species is Suillus subaureus , which can be distinguished microscopically by slightly smaller , hyaline ( translucent ) spores ( typically 7 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 by 3 µm ) , and an association with Quaking Aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Suillus americanus is a common species , and is found growing solitarily or in clusters on the ground throughout northeastern North America , north to Canada , where it typically fruits in the late summer and autumn . It is also found in Guangdong , China , an example of a disjunct distribution . Fruit bodies can often be found in drier weather when other species are not abundant .
Suillus americanus is a mycorrhizal species , a mutualistic relationship where the fungus forms a sheath on the surface of the root from which hyphae extend outward into the soil , and inwards between the cortical cells with which they interface to form a Hartig net . The main benefit for the fungus is constant access to a supply of carbohydrates produced by the plant 's photosynthesis , while the plant benefits from an enhanced supply of mineral nutrients from the soil , taken up by the hyphae of the fungus . It grows in association with pines , particularly eastern white pine ( Pinus strobus ) .
= = Allergenicity = =
Some susceptible individuals have experienced an allergic reaction after touching Suillus americanus . The symptoms of allergic contact dermatitis generally develop one to two days after initial contact , persist for roughly a week , then disappear without treatment . Cooking the fruit bodies inactivates the responsible allergens .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Suillus americanus contains a polysaccharide known as a beta glucan that laboratory tests suggest may have anti @-@ inflammatory activity . Known specifically as a ( 1 → 3 ) - , ( 1 → 4 ) -β @-@ D @-@ glucan , its natural function is as a component of the fungal cell wall , where it forms microcrystalline fibrils in the wall that give it rigidity and strength . The anti @-@ inflammatory activity results from the polysaccharide 's ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide in activated macrophages , a cell of the immune system .
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= Tropical Storm Dean ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Storm Dean was a strong tropical storm that affected at least twelve islands along its path from the tropical Atlantic Ocean to east of Atlantic Canada in August 2001 . Dean developed from a tropical wave on August 22 over the Lesser Antilles , and was initially predicted to intensify further to reach hurricane status . However , strong wind shear quickly weakened Dean to cause it to dissipate on August 23 . The remnants turned northward , and redeveloped on August 26 to the north of Bermuda . Located over warm waters and in an area of favorable conditions , Dean steadily strengthened while moving to the northeast , and peaked just below hurricane status on August 27 about 465 miles ( 750 km ) southwest of Newfoundland . The storm subsequently weakened over cooler waters , and became extratropical on August 28 .
The precursor tropical wave dropped heavy rainfall and produced moderate winds throughout the Lesser Antilles , though no serious damage was reported . In Puerto Rico , rainfall of up to 12 @.@ 7 inches ( 322 mm ) produced widespread flooding across the island . Thousands were left without power or water , and two houses lost their roofs from the storm . The passage of Dean resulted in $ 7 @.@ 7 million ( 2001 USD , $ 9 @.@ 4 million 2008 USD ) in damage in Puerto Rico . The storm produced light to moderate rainfall in Bermuda and later in Newfoundland , though no damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave with minimal convection moved off the coast of Africa near Dakar between August 14 and August 15 . It moved westward , and gradually developed thunderstorms across the wave axis . On August 21 , while located about 450 miles ( 725 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles , convection increased further within the system , though unfavorable upper @-@ level wind shear prevented rapid development . It continued to become better organized , and though a Reconnaissance flight into the system reported strong winds , it lacked a surface circulation . Late on August 21 the wave passed through the northern Lesser Antilles , and subsequent to a decrease in wind shear the system became much better organized on August 22 . A surface circulation formed , and the system developed into Tropical Storm Dean on August 22 near Saint Croix . Dean was upgraded directly to a tropical storm due to the presence of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) winds in the storm .
Reconnaissance Aircraft and surface reports confirmed the existence of a circulation . Dean moved northwestward at 22 mph ( 35 km / h ) , under the influence of the Bermuda High to its northeast . The storm strengthened slightly to reach winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) later on August 22 , though the circulation was exposed on the western edge of the convection due to the storm 's quick forward motion and persistent wind shear . Initial forecasts predicted the shear to decrease , allowing Dean to attain hurricane status with winds of over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . However , an upper @-@ level trough produced an increase of shear over the storm , and by August 23 Dean weakened to a tropical depression . Hours later , the circulation dissipated , and Dean degenerated into a tropical wave to the east of the Bahamas . Regeneration was considered unlikely at the time .
The remnants of Dean turned to the north , and became embedded within a large mid @-@ level trough off the East Coast of the United States . Convection increased around the system early on August 24 . The system became better organized , with indications of a broad surface circulation forming about 400 miles ( 645 km ) west @-@ southwest of Bermuda . However , a reconnaissance flight into the remnants of Dean reported a broad low pressure area with the strongest winds and convection located far from the area of minimum pressure , indicating it had some non @-@ tropical characteristics . The weak disturbance passed to the west of Bermuda early on August 25 , and subsequently began to drift to the northeast . The remnants of Dean produced convection near its developing circulation , and on August 26 , while located 220 miles ( 350 km ) north of Bermuda the system organized sufficiently enough to be re @-@ classified a tropical depression . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center did not re @-@ initiate advisories until fifteen hours later .
The depression continued to the northeast , and re @-@ strengthened into Tropical Storm Dean early on August 27 while located 580 miles ( 930 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . The convection became better organized , and Dean steadily strengthened as it tracked northeastward . A ship near the center of Dean confirmed the storm re @-@ developed . The convection near the center greatly organized , and an eye feature began to develop . Remaining over warm waters , Dean continued to strengthen and reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) late on August 27 while located about 465 miles ( 750 km ) southwest of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The eye feature failed to develop further , and after maintaining its peak intensity for 12 hours Dean weakened over progressively cooler waters . The convection quickly diminished , and on August 28 Dean became extratropical while located 145 miles ( 235 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical storm continued northeastward until being absorbed by a frontal low on August 29 .
= = Impact and preparations = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
About a day before Dean developed , the National Hurricane Center advised interests in the northern and central Lesser Antilles to monitor the progress of the storm . Routine statements issued by the National Hurricane Center warned for the possibility of strong winds and heavy rains . However , because Dean formed after it passed the islands , no tropical cyclone warnings or watches were issued . The precursor disturbance dropped heavy rainfall on Saint Martin of around 5 inches ( 129 mm ) .
The precursor disturbance to Tropical Storm Dean produced 1 @.@ 07 inches ( 27 mm ) of rain in Saint Thomas , where winds reached 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) with gusts to 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) . On Saint Croix , the system produced 0 @.@ 49 inches ( 12 mm ) of rain and peak wind gusts of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) . There , minor flooding was reported . Moderate wind gusts downed small trees and branches in Saint Croix and Saint John , and some roads were damaged in Saint John , as well . Heavy rains and gusty winds caused power outages throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands . The passage of Tropical Storm Dean resulted in minor damage totaling to $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 2001 USD , $ 24 @,@ 400 2008 USD ) .
Tropical Storm Dean dropped heavy rainfall across Puerto Rico , peaking at 12 @.@ 7 inches ( 322 mm ) in Salinas . Winds were generally light across the island . The passage of Dean resulted in widespread flooding in eastern and southern Puerto Rico , collapsing two bridges and one road . Several highways were under water , and one car was swept away by the floodwaters . The four inside the vehicle were later rescued and unharmed . Throughout the island , about 1 @,@ 320 houses were flooded , and two houses experienced collapsed roofs . The rains left various towns without power or water . By the night after the storm passed the island , more than 16 @,@ 000 were without power , while almost 70 @,@ 000 lacked potable water . Over 130 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas to hurricane shelters . Two people were injured in Peñuelas , and three were injured in Nagüabo when the ceiling of a day care center collapsed , though no deaths occurred on the island . One airline canceled seventeen flights in and out of the island , and one cruise line was required to alter its path to both Dean and earlier due to Tropical Storm Chantal . Damage in Puerto Rico totaled to $ 7 @.@ 7 million ( 2001 USD , $ 9 @.@ 4 million 2008 USD ) , of which $ 2 @.@ 1 million ( 2001 USD , $ 2 @.@ 6 million 2008 USD ) was from agricultural damage .
= = = Bahamas , Bermuda , and Canada = = =
Shortly after Dean formed , the government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the southeastern Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . When the storm weakened and ultimately dissipated , the warnings were canceled . The remnants of Dean produced unsettled conditions across Bermuda , including a wind gust of 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) and light rainfall of 0 @.@ 31 inches ( 8 mm ) . The passage of Dean resulted in the coldest day of August 2001 on the island . Dean produced wind gusts peaking at 63 mph ( 103 km / h ) in Newfoundland , along with rainfall up to 4 @.@ 2 inches ( 107 mm ) in eastern Newfoundland . On land , wave heights reached 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , while a buoy offshore reported a peak wave height of 47 feet ( 14 @.@ 4 m ) .
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= John Wilkes Booth =
John Wilkes Booth ( May 10 , 1838 – April 26 , 1865 ) was an American stage actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford 's Theatre , in Washington , D.C. , on April 14 , 1865 . Booth was a member of the prominent 19th @-@ century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and , by the 1860s , was a well @-@ known actor . He was also a Confederate sympathizer , vehement in his denunciation of Lincoln , and was strongly opposed to the abolition of slavery in the United States .
Booth and a group of co @-@ conspirators originally plotted to kidnap Lincoln but later planned to kill him , Vice President Andrew Johnson , and Secretary of State William H. Seward in a bid to help the Confederacy 's cause . Although Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia had surrendered four days earlier , Booth believed the American Civil War was not yet over because Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston 's army was still fighting the Union Army .
Of the conspirators , only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his part of the plot : Booth shot Lincoln once in the back of the head , and the President died the next morning . Seward was severely wounded but recovered . Vice @-@ President Johnson was never attacked at all .
Following the assassination , Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland , eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later , where he was tracked down . Booth 's companion gave himself up , but Booth refused and was shot by Boston Corbett , a Union soldier , after the barn in which he was hiding was set ablaze . Eight other conspirators or suspects were tried and convicted , and four were hanged shortly thereafter .
= = Background and early life = =
Booth 's parents , the noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress Mary Ann Holmes , moved to the United States from England in June 1821 . They purchased a 150 @-@ acre ( 61 ha ) farm near Bel Air in Harford County , Maryland , where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four @-@ room log house on May 10 , 1838 , the ninth of ten children . He was named after the English radical politician John Wilkes , a distant relative . Junius ' wife , Adelaide Delannoy Booth , was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery , and Holmes legally wed Julius on May 10 , 1851 , the youth 's 13th birthday .
Nora Titone , in her book My Thoughts Be Bloody ( 2010 ) , recounts how the shame and ambition of Junius Brutus Booth 's two illegitimate actor sons , Edwin and John Wilkes , would eventually spur them to strive , as rivals , for achievement and acclaim — Edwin , a Unionist , and John Wilkes , the assassin of Abraham Lincoln .
The same year Booth 's father married Holmes ( 1851 ) , he built Tudor Hall on the Harford County property as the family 's summer home , while also maintaining a winter residence on Exeter Street in Baltimore , in the 1840s – 1850s .
As a boy , Booth was athletic and popular , and he became skilled at horsemanship and fencing . A sometimes indifferent student , he attended the Bel Air Academy ( now Bel Air High School ) , where the headmaster described him as " [ n ] ot deficient in intelligence , but disinclined to take advantage of the educational opportunities offered him . Each day he rode back and forth from farm to school , taking more interest in what happened along the way than in reaching his classes on time " . In 1850 – 1851 , he attended the Quaker @-@ run Milton Boarding School for Boys located in Sparks , Maryland and later St. Timothy 's Hall , an Episcopal military academy in Catonsville , Maryland , beginning when he was 13 years old . At the Milton school , students recited classical works by such authors as Cicero , Herodotus , and Tacitus . Students at St. Timothy 's wore military uniforms , and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills and strict discipline . Booth left school at 14 , after his father 's death .
While attending the Milton Boarding School , Booth met a Gypsy fortune @-@ teller who read his palm and pronounced a grim destiny , telling Booth he would have a grand but short life , doomed to die young and " meeting a bad end " . His sister recalled that Booth wrote down the palm @-@ reader 's prediction , showed it to his family and others , and often discussed its portents in moments of melancholy , in later years .
As recounted in the editor 's introduction of the 1874 memoir of Booth 's sister 's , Asia Booth Clarke , no one church was preeminent in the Booth household during her childhood . Booth 's mother was Episcopalian , and his father was described as a free spirit , who was open to the great teachings of all religions . On January 23 , 1853 , the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Booth was baptized at St. Timothy 's Protestant Episcopal Church . The Booth family had traditionally been Episcopalian . Clergyman Charles Chiniquy , however , stated that Booth was really a Roman Catholic convert , later in life . An historian , Constance Head , also declared that Booth was of this religion . Head , who wrote the paper " Insights on John Wilkes Booth from His Sister Asia 's Correspondence " ( 1982 ) , published in the Lincoln Herald , quoted from a letter of Booth 's sister , Asia Booth Clarke , in which she wrote that her brother was a Roman Catholic . Booth Clarke 's memoir was published after her death . Terry Alford , a college history professor and a leading authority on Booth 's life , has stated , " Asia Booth Clarke 's memoir of her brother John Wilkes Booth has been recognized as the single most important document available for understanding the personality of the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln " , and " no outsider could give such insights into the turbulent Booth 's childhood or share such unique personal knowledge of the gifted actor " . Testimony given at the trial of John Surratt showed that at his death , Booth had a Catholic medal on his person . Court evidence showed his attending a Roman Catholic church service on at least two occasions . Like his sister Asia , he received education at a school established by an official of the Catholic Church . As to Lincoln 's assassin 's being seen an Episcopalian during his life and in death , while really being a Roman Catholic , Constance Head stated : " In any case , it seems certain that Booth did not publicize his conversion during his lifetime . And while there is no reasonable cause to connect Booth 's religious preference and his ' mad act ' , the few who knew of his conversion must have decided after the assassination that for the good of the church , it was best never to mention it . Thus the secret remained so well guarded that even the most rabidly anti @-@ Catholic writers who tried to depict the assassination of Lincoln as a Jesuit or Papist plot were puzzled by the seemingly accurate information that John Wilkes Booth was an Episcopalian . "
By the age of 16 , Booth was interested in the theatre and in politics , and he became a delegate from Bel Air to a rally by the Know Nothing Party for Henry Winter Davis , the anti @-@ immigrant party 's candidate for Congress in the 1854 elections . Aspiring to follow in the footsteps of his father and his actor brothers , Edwin and Junius Brutus , Jr . , Booth began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall and studying Shakespeare .
= = Theatrical career = =
= = = 1850s = = =
At age 17 , Booth made his stage debut on August 14 , 1855 , in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in Richard III at Baltimore 's Charles Street Theatre . The audience hissed at the inexperienced actor when he missed some of his lines . He also began acting at Baltimore 's Holliday Street Theater , owned by John T. Ford , where the Booths had performed frequently . In 1857 , Booth joined the stock company of the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where he played for a full season . At his request he was billed as " J.B. Wilkes " , a pseudonym meant to avoid comparison with other members of his famous thespian family . Author Jim Bishop wrote that Booth " developed into an outrageous scene stealer , but he played his parts with such heightened enthusiasm that the audiences idolized him . " In February 1858 , he played in Lucrezia Borgia at the Arch Street Theatre . On opening night , he experienced stage fright and stumbled over his line . Instead of introducing himself by saying , " Madame , I am Petruchio Pandolfo " , he stammered , " Madame , I am Pondolfio Pet — Pedolfio Pat — Pantuchio Ped — dammit ! Who am I ? " , causing the audience to roar with laughter .
Later that year , Booth played the part of an American Indian , Uncas , in a play staged in Petersburg , Virginia , and then became a stock company actor at the Richmond Theatre in Virginia , where he became increasingly popular with audiences for his energetic performances . On October 5 , 1858 , Booth played the part of Horatio in Hamlet , alongside his older brother Edwin in the title role . Afterward , Edwin led the younger Booth to the theatre 's footlights and said to the audience , " I think he 's done well , don 't you ? " In response , the audience applauded loudly and cried , " Yes ! Yes ! " In all , Booth performed in 83 plays in 1858 . Among them were William Wallace and Brutus , having as their theme the killing or overthrow of an unjust ruler . Booth said that of all Shakespearean characters , his favorite role was Brutus – the slayer of a tyrant .
Some critics called Booth " the handsomest man in America " and a " natural genius " , and noted his having an " astonishing memory " ; others were mixed in their estimation of his acting . He stood 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) tall , had jet @-@ black hair , and was lean and athletic . Noted Civil War reporter George Alfred Townsend described him as a " muscular , perfect man " , with " curling hair , like a Corinthian capital " .
Booth 's stage performances were often characterized by his contemporaries as acrobatic and intensely physical , with him leaping upon the stage and gesturing with passion . He was an excellent swordsman , although a fellow actor once recalled that Booth occasionally cut himself with his own sword .
Historian Benjamin Platt Thomas wrote that Booth " won celebrity with theater @-@ goers by his romantic personal attraction " , but that he was " too impatient for hard study " , and his " brilliant talents had failed of full development . Author Gene Smith wrote that Booth 's acting may not have been as precise as his brother Edwin 's , but his strikingly handsome appearance enthralled women . As the 1850s drew to a close , Booth was becoming wealthy as an actor , earning $ 20 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to about $ 527 @,@ 000 today ) .
= = = 1860s = = =
After finishing the 1859 – 1860 theatre season in Richmond , Virginia , Booth embarked on his first national tour as a leading actor . He engaged a Philadelphia attorney , Matthew Canning , to serve as his agent . By mid @-@ 1860 , he was playing in such cities as New York ; Boston ; Chicago ; Cleveland ; St. Louis ; Columbus , Georgia ; Montgomery , Alabama ; and New Orleans . Poet and journalist Walt Whitman said of Booth 's acting , " He would have flashes , passages , I thought of real genius . " The Philadelphia Press drama critic said , " Without having [ his brother ] Edwin 's culture and grace , Mr. Booth has far more action , more life , and , we are inclined to think , more natural genius . "
When the Civil War began on April 12 , 1861 , Booth was starring in Albany , New York . His outspoken admiration for the South 's secession , publicly calling it " heroic " , so enraged local citizens that they demanded his banning from the stage for making " treasonable statements " . Albany 's drama critics were kinder , however , giving him rave reviews . One called him a genius , praising his acting for " never fail [ ing ] to delight with his masterly impressions . " As the Civil War raged across the divided land in 1862 , Booth appeared mostly in Union and border states . In January , he played the title role in Richard III in St. Louis and then made his Chicago debut . In March , he made his first acting appearance in New York City . In May 1862 , he made his Boston debut , playing nightly at the Boston Museum in Richard III ( May 12 , 15 , and 23 ) , Romeo and Juliet ( May 13 ) , The Robbers ( May 14 and 21 ) , Hamlet ( May 16 ) , The Apostate ( May 19 ) , The Stranger ( May 20 ) , and The Lady of Lyons ( May 22 ) . Following his performance of Richard III on May 12 , the Boston Transcript 's review the next day called Booth " the most promising young actor on the American stage " .
Starting in January 1863 , he returned to the Boston Museum for a series of plays , including the role of the villain Duke Pescara in The Apostate that won acclaim from audiences and critics . Back in Washington in April , he played the title roles in Hamlet and Richard III , one of his favorites . He was billed as " The Pride of the American People , A Star of the First Magnitude , " and the critics were equally enthusiastic . The National Republican drama critic said Booth " took the hearts of the audience by storm " and termed his performance " a complete triumph " . At the beginning of July 1863 , Booth finished the acting season at Cleveland 's Academy of Music , as the Battle of Gettysburg raged in Pennsylvania . Between September – November 1863 , Booth played a hectic schedule in the northeast , appearing in Boston , Providence , Rhode Island , and Hartford , Connecticut . Each day he received fan mail from infatuated women .
When family friend John T. Ford opened 1 @,@ 500 @-@ seat Ford 's Theatre on November 9 in Washington , D.C. , Booth was one of the first leading men to appear there , playing in Charles Selby 's The Marble Heart . In this play , Booth portrayed a Greek sculptor in costume , making marble statues come to life . Lincoln watched the play from his box . At one point during the performance , Booth was said to have shaken his finger in Lincoln 's direction as he delivered a line of dialogue . Lincoln 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , sitting with him in the same presidential box where he would later be slain , turned to him and said , " Mr. Lincoln , he looks as if he meant that for you . " The President replied , " He does look pretty sharp at me , doesn 't he ? " On another occasion when Lincoln 's son Tad saw Booth perform , he said the actor thrilled him , prompting Booth to give the President 's youngest son a rose . Booth ignored an invitation to visit Lincoln between acts , however .
On November 25 , 1864 , Booth performed for the only time with his two brothers , Edwin and Junius , in a single engagement production of Julius Caesar at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York . He played Mark Antony and his brother Edwin had the larger role of Brutus in a performance acclaimed as " the greatest theatrical event in New York history . " The proceeds went towards a statue of William Shakespeare for Central Park , which still stands today . In January 1865 , he acted in Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet in Washington , again garnering rave reviews . The National Intelligencer enthused of Booth 's Romeo , " the most satisfactory of all renderings of that fine character , " especially praising the death scene . Booth made the final appearance of his acting career at Ford 's on March 18 , 1865 , when he again played Duke Pescara in The Apostate .
= = Business ventures = =
Booth invested some of his growing wealth in various enterprises during the early 1860s , including land speculation in Boston 's Back Bay section . He also started a business partnership with John A. Ellsler , manager of the Cleveland Academy of Music , and another friend , Thomas Mears , to develop oil wells in northwestern Pennsylvania , where an oil boom had started in August 1859 , following Edwin Drake 's discovery of oil there . Initially calling their venture Dramatic Oil ( later renaming it Fuller Farm Oil ) , the partners invested in a 31 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 12 @.@ 7 ha ) site along the Allegheny River at Franklin , Pennsylvania , in late 1863 for drilling . By early 1864 , they had a producing 1 @,@ 900 @-@ foot ( 579 m ) deep oil well , named Wilhelmina for Mears ' wife , yielding 25 barrels ( 4 kL ) of crude oil daily , then considered a good yield . The Fuller Farm Oil company was selling shares with a prospectus featuring the well @-@ known actor 's celebrity status as " Mr. J. Wilkes Booth , a successful and intelligent operator in oil lands " , it said . The partners , impatient to increase the well 's output , attempted the use of explosives , which wrecked the well and ended production . Booth , already growing more obsessed with the South 's worsening situation in the Civil War and angered at Lincoln 's re @-@ election , withdrew from the oil business on November 27 , 1864 , with a substantial loss of his $ 6 @,@ 000 ( $ 81 @,@ 400 in 2010 dollars ) investment .
= = Civil War years = =
Strongly opposed to the abolitionists who sought to end slavery in the U.S. , Booth attended the hanging on December 2 , 1859 , of abolitionist leader John Brown , who was executed for leading a raid on the Federal armory at Harpers Ferry ( in present @-@ day West Virginia ) . Booth had been rehearsing at the Richmond Theatre when he abruptly decided to join the Richmond Grays , a volunteer militia of 1 @,@ 500 men travelling to Charles Town for Brown 's hanging , to guard against an attempt by abolitionists to rescue Brown from the gallows by force . When Brown was hanged without incident , Booth stood in uniform near the scaffold and afterwards expressed great satisfaction with Brown 's fate , although he admired the condemned man 's bravery in facing death stoically .
Lincoln was elected president on November 6 , 1860 , and the following month Booth drafted a long speech , apparently undelivered , that decried Northern abolitionism and made clear his strong support of the South and the institution of slavery . On April 12 , 1861 , the Civil War began , and eventually 11 Southern states seceded from the Union . In Booth 's native Maryland , the slaveholding portion of the population favored joining the Confederate States of America . Because the threatened secession of Maryland would leave the Federal capital of Washington , D.C. , an indefensible enclave within the Confederacy , Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus and imposed martial law in Baltimore and portions of the state , ordering the imprisonment of pro @-@ secession Maryland political leaders at Ft . McHenry and the stationing of Federal troops in Baltimore . Although Maryland remained in the Union , newspaper editorials and many Marylanders , including Booth , agreed with Judge Roger B. Taney 's decision in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln 's actions were unconstitutional .
As a popular actor in the 1860s , he continued to travel extensively to perform in the North and South , and as far west as New Orleans , Louisiana . According to his sister Asia , Booth confided to her that he also used his position to smuggle quinine to the South during his travels there , helping the Confederacy obtain the needed drug despite the Northern blockade .
Although Booth was pro @-@ Confederate , his family , like many Marylanders , was divided . He was outspoken in his love of the South , and equally outspoken in his hatred of Lincoln . As the Civil War went on , Booth increasingly quarreled with his brother Edwin , who declined to make stage appearances in the South and refused to listen to John Wilkes ' fiercely partisan denunciations of the North and Lincoln . In early 1863 , Booth was arrested in St. Louis while on a theatre tour , when he was heard saying he " wished the President and the whole damned government would go to hell . " Charged with making " treasonous " remarks against the government , he was released when he took an oath of allegiance to the Union and paid a substantial fine .
In February 1865 , Booth became infatuated with Lucy Lambert Hale , the daughter of U.S. Senator John P. Hale of New Hampshire , and they became secretly engaged when Booth received his mother 's blessing for their marriage plans . " You have so often been dead in love , " his mother counseled Booth in a letter , " be well assured she is really and truly devoted to you . " Booth composed a handwritten Valentine card for his fiancée on February 13 , expressing his " adoration " . She was unaware of Booth 's deep antipathy towards President Lincoln .
= = = Plot to kidnap Lincoln = = =
As the 1864 Presidential election drew near , the Confederacy 's prospects for victory were ebbing , and the tide of war increasingly favored the North . The likelihood of Lincoln 's re @-@ election filled Booth with rage towards the President , whom Booth blamed for the war and all of the South 's troubles . Booth , who had promised his mother at the outbreak of war that he would not enlist as a soldier , increasingly chafed at not fighting for the South , writing in a letter to her , " I have begun to deem myself a coward and to despise my own existence . " He began to formulate plans to kidnap Lincoln from his summer residence at the Old Soldiers Home , three miles ( 5 km ) from the White House , and to smuggle him across the Potomac River into Richmond . Once in Confederate hands , Lincoln would be exchanged for the release of Confederate Army prisoners of war held captive in Northern prisons and , Booth reasoned , bring the war to an end by emboldening opposition to the war in the North or forcing Union recognition of the Confederate government .
Throughout the Civil War , the Confederacy maintained a network of underground operators in southern Maryland , particularly Charles and St. Mary 's counties , smuggling recruits across the Potomac River into Virginia and relaying messages for Confederate agents as far north as Canada . Booth recruited his friends Samuel Arnold and Michael O 'Laughlen as accomplices . They met often at the house of Maggie Branson , a known Confederate sympathizer , at 16 North Eutaw Street in Baltimore . He also met with several well @-@ known Confederate sympathizers at The Parker House in Boston .
In October , Booth made an unexplained trip to Montreal , which was then a well @-@ known center of clandestine Confederate activity . He spent ten days in the city , staying for a time at St. Lawrence Hall , a rendezvous for the Confederate Secret Service , and meeting several Confederate agents there . No conclusive proof has linked Booth 's kidnapping or assassination plots to a conspiracy involving the leadership of the Confederate government , although historians such as David Herbert Donald have said , " It is clear that , at least at the lower levels of the Southern secret service , the abduction of the Union President was under consideration . " Historian Thomas Goodrich concluded that Booth entered the Confederate Secret Service as a spy and courier . Other writers exploring possible connections between Booth 's planning and Confederate agents include Nathan Miller 's Spying For America and William Tidwell 's Come Retribution : the Confederate Secret Service and the Assassination of Lincoln .
After Lincoln 's landslide re @-@ election in early November 1864 on a platform advocating passage of the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to abolish slavery altogether , Booth devoted increasing energy and money to his kidnap plot . He assembled a loose @-@ knit band of Southern sympathizers , including David Herold , George Atzerodt , Lewis Powell ( also known as Lewis Payne or Paine ) , and John Surratt , a rebel agent . They began to meet routinely at the boarding house of Surratt 's mother , Mrs. Mary Surratt .
By this time , Booth was arguing so vehemently with his older , pro @-@ Union brother Edwin about Lincoln and the war that Edwin finally told him he was no longer welcome at his New York home . Booth also railed against Lincoln in conversations with his sister Asia , saying , " That man 's appearance , his pedigree , his coarse low jokes and anecdotes , his vulgar similes , and his policy are a disgrace to the seat he holds . He is made the tool of the North , to crush out slavery . " As the Confederacy 's defeat became more certain in 1865 , Booth decried the end of slavery and Lincoln 's election to a second term , " making himself a king " , the actor fumed , in " wild tirades " , his sister recalled .
Booth attended Lincoln 's second inauguration on March 4 as the invited guest of his secret fiancée , Lucy Hale . In the crowd below were Powell , Atzerodt , and Herold . There was no attempt to assassinate Lincoln during the inauguration . Later , however , Booth remarked about his " excellent chance ... to kill the President , if I had wished . "
On March 17 , Booth learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance of the play Still Waters Run Deep at a hospital near the Soldier 's Home . Booth assembled his team on a stretch of road near the Soldier 's Home in the attempt to kidnap Lincoln en route to the hospital , but the president did not appear . Booth later learned that Lincoln had changed his plans at the last moment to attend a reception at the National Hotel in Washington where , coincidentally , Booth was then staying .
= = Assassination of Lincoln = =
On April 12 , 1865 , after hearing the news that Robert E. Lee had surrendered at Appomattox Court House , Booth told Louis J. Weichmann , a friend of John Surratt , and a boarder at Mary Surratt 's house , that he was done with the stage and that the only play he wanted to present henceforth was Venice Preserv 'd . Weichmann did not understand the reference : Venice Preserv 'd is about an assassination plot . With the Union Army 's capture of Richmond and Lee 's surrender , Booth 's scheme to kidnap Lincoln was no longer feasible , and he changed his goal to assassination .
The previous day , Booth was in the crowd outside the White House when Lincoln gave an impromptu speech from his window . When Lincoln stated that he was in favor of granting suffrage to the former slaves , Booth declared that it would be the last speech Lincoln would ever make .
On the morning of Good Friday , April 14 , 1865 , Booth went to Ford 's Theatre to get his mail ; while there he was told by John Ford 's brother that President and Mrs. Lincoln accompanied by Gen. and Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant would be attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford 's Theatre that evening . He immediately set about making plans for the assassination , which included making arrangements with livery stable owner James W. Pumphrey for a getaway horse , and an escape route . Booth informed Powell , Herold , and Atzerodt of his intention to kill Lincoln . He assigned Powell to assassinate Secretary of State William H. Seward and Atzerodt to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson . Herold would assist in their escape into Virginia .
By targeting Lincoln and his two immediate successors to the presidency , Booth seems to have intended to decapitate the Union government and throw it into a state of panic and confusion . The possibility of assassinating the Union Army 's commanding general as well was foiled when Grant declined the theatre invitation at his wife 's insistence . Instead , the Grants departed Washington by train that evening for a visit to relatives in New Jersey . Booth had hoped that the assassinations would create sufficient chaos within the Union that the Confederate government could reorganize and continue the war if one Confederate army remained in the field or , that failing , to avenge the South 's defeat . In his 2005 analysis of Lincoln 's assassination , Thomas Goodrich wrote , " All the elements in Booth 's nature came together at once – his hatred of tyranny , his love of liberty , his passion for the stage , his sense of drama , and his lifelong quest to become immortal . "
As a famous and popular actor who had frequently performed at Ford 's Theatre , and who was well known to its owner , John T. Ford , Booth had free access to all parts of the theater , even having his mail sent there . By boring a spyhole into the door of the presidential box earlier that day , the assassin could check that his intended victim had made it to the play and observe the box 's occupants . That evening , at around 10 p.m. , as the play progressed , John Wilkes Booth slipped into Lincoln 's box and shot him in the back of the head with a .41 caliber Deringer . Booth 's escape was almost thwarted by Major Henry Rathbone , who was present in the Presidential box with Mrs. Mary Todd Lincoln . Booth stabbed Rathbone when the startled officer lunged at him . Rathbone 's fiancée , Clara Harris , who was also present in the box , was unhurt .
Booth then jumped from the President 's box to the stage , where he raised his knife and shouted " Sic semper tyrannis " ( Latin for " Thus always to tyrants , " attributed to Brutus at Caesar 's assassination and the Virginia state motto ) , while others said he added , " I have done it , the South is avenged ! " Various accounts state that Booth injured his leg when his spur snagged a decorative U.S. Treasury Guard flag while leaping to the stage . Historian Michael W. Kauffman questioned this legend in his book , American Brutus : John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies , writing in 2004 that eyewitness accounts of Booth 's hurried stage exit made it unlikely that his leg was broken then . Kauffman contends that Booth was injured later that night during his flight to escape when his horse tripped and fell on him , calling Booth 's claim to the contrary an exaggeration to portray his own actions as heroic .
Booth was the only one of the assassins to succeed . Powell was able to stab Seward , who was bedridden as a result of an earlier carriage accident ; although badly wounded , Seward survived . Atzerodt lost his nerve and spent the evening drinking alcohol ; he never made an attempt to kill Johnson .
= = Reaction and pursuit = =
In the ensuing pandemonium inside Ford 's Theatre , Booth fled by a stage door to the alley , where his getaway horse was held for him by Joseph " Peanuts " Burroughs . The owner of the horse had warned Booth that the horse was high spirited and would break halter if left unattended . Booth left the horse with Edmund Spangler and Spangler arranged for Burroughs to hold the horse .
The fleeing assassin galloped into southern Maryland , accompanied by David Herold , having planned his escape route to take advantage of the sparsely settled area 's lack of telegraphs and railroads , along with its predominantly Confederate sympathies . He thought that the area 's dense forests and swampy terrain of Zekiah Swamp made it ideal for an escape route into rural Virginia . At midnight , Booth and Herold arrived at Surratt 's Tavern on the Brandywine Pike , 9 miles ( 14 km ) from Washington , where they had stored guns and equipment earlier in the year as part of the kidnap plot .
The fugitives then continued southward , stopping before dawn on April 15 at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd , St. Catharine , 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Washington , for treatment of Booth 's injured leg . Mudd later said that Booth told him the injury occurred when his horse fell . The next day , Booth and Herold arrived at the home of Samuel Cox around 4 a.m. As the two fugitives hid in the woods nearby , Cox contacted Thomas A. Jones , his foster brother and a Confederate agent in charge of spy operations in the southern Maryland area since 1862 . By order of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , the War Department advertised a $ 100 @,@ 000 reward ( $ 1 @.@ 55 million in 2016 USD ) for information leading to the arrest of Booth and his accomplices , and Federal troops were dispatched to search southern Maryland extensively , following tips reported by Federal intelligence agents to Col. Lafayette Baker .
While Federal troops combed the rural area 's woods and swamps for Booth in the days following the assassination , the nation experienced an outpouring of grief . On April 18 , mourners waited seven abreast in a mile @-@ long line outside the White House for the public viewing of the slain president , reposing in his open walnut casket in the black @-@ draped East Room . A cross of lilies was at the head and roses covered the coffin 's lower half . Thousands of mourners arriving on special trains jammed Washington for the next day 's funeral , sleeping on hotel floors and even resorting to blankets spread outdoors on the Capitol 's lawn . Prominent abolitionist leader and orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an " unspeakable calamity " for African Americans . Great indignation was directed towards Booth as the assassin 's identity was telegraphed across the nation . Newspapers called him an " accursed devil , " " monster , " " madman , " and a " wretched fiend . " Historian Dorothy Kunhardt wrote : " Almost every family who kept a photograph album on the parlor table owned a likeness of John Wilkes Booth of the famous Booth family of actors . After the assassination Northerners slid the Booth card out of their albums : some threw it away , some burned it , some crumpled it angrily . " Even in the South , sorrow was expressed in some quarters . In Savannah , Georgia , where the mayor and city council addressed a vast throng at an outdoor gathering to express their indignation , many in the crowd wept . Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston called Booth 's act " a disgrace to the age " . Robert E. Lee also expressed regret at Lincoln 's death by Booth 's hand .
Not all were grief @-@ stricken , however . In New York City , a man was attacked by an enraged crowd when he shouted , " It served Old Abe right ! " after hearing the news of Lincoln 's death . Elsewhere in the South , Lincoln was hated in death as in life , and Booth was viewed as a hero as many rejoiced at news of his deed . Other Southerners feared that a vengeful North would exact a terrible retribution upon the defeated former Confederate states . " Instead of being a great Southern hero , his deed was considered the worst possible tragedy that could have befallen the South as well as the North , " wrote Kunhardt .
While hiding in the Maryland woods as he waited for an opportunity to cross the Potomac River into Virginia , Booth read the accounts of national mourning reported in the newspapers brought to him by Jones each day . By April 20 , he was aware that some of his co @-@ conspirators were already arrested : Mary Surratt , Powell ( or Paine ) , Arnold , and O 'Laughlen . Booth was surprised to find little public sympathy for his action , especially from those anti @-@ Lincoln newspapers that had previously excoriated the President in life . As news of the assassination reached the far corners of the nation , indignation was aroused against Lincoln 's critics , whom many blamed for encouraging Booth to act . The San Francisco Chronicle editorialized : " Booth has simply carried out what ... secession politicians and journalists have been for years expressing in words ... who have denounced the President as a ' tyrant , ' a ' despot , ' a ' usurper , ' hinted at , and virtually recommended . " Booth wrote of his dismay in a journal entry on April 21 , as he awaited nightfall before crossing the Potomac River into Virginia ( see map ) :
" For six months we had worked to capture . But our cause being almost lost , something decisive and great must be done . I struck boldly , and not as the papers say . I can never repent it , though we hated to kill . "
That same day , the nine @-@ car funeral train bearing Lincoln 's body departed Washington on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , arriving at Baltimore 's Camden Station at 10 a.m. , the first stop on a 13 @-@ day journey to Springfield , Illinois , its final destination . As the funeral train slowly made its way westward through seven states , stopping en route at Harrisburg ; Philadelphia ; Trenton ; New York ; Albany ; Buffalo ; Cleveland ; Columbus , Ohio ; Cincinnati ; and Indianapolis during the following days , about 7 million people lined the railroad tracks along the 1 @,@ 662 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 675 km ) route , holding aloft signs with legends such as " We mourn our loss , " " He lives in the hearts of his people , " and " The darkest hour in history . "
In the cities where the train stopped , 1 @.@ 5 million people viewed Lincoln in his coffin . Aboard the train was Clarence Depew , president of the New York Central Railroad , who said , " As we sped over the rails at night , the scene was the most pathetic ever witnessed . At every crossroads the glare of innumerable torches illuminated the whole population , kneeling on the ground . " Dorothy Kunhardt called the funeral train 's journey " the mightiest outpouring of national grief the world had yet seen . "
Meanwhile , as mourners were viewing Lincoln 's remains when the funeral train steamed into Harrisburg at 8 : 20 p.m. , Booth and Herold were provided with a boat and compass by Jones , to cross the Potomac at night on April 21 . Instead of reaching Virginia , however , they mistakenly navigated upriver to a bend in the broad Potomac River , coming ashore again in Maryland on April 22 . The 23 @-@ year @-@ old Herold knew the area well , having frequently hunted there , and recognized a nearby farm as belonging to a Confederate sympathizer . The farmer led them to his son @-@ in @-@ law , Col. John J. Hughes , who provided the fugitives with food and a hideout until nightfall , for a second attempt to row across the river to Virginia . Booth wrote in his diary , " With every man 's hand against me , I am here in despair . And why ; For doing what Brutus was honored for ... And yet I for striking down a greater tyrant than they ever knew am looked upon as a common cutthroat . " The pair finally reached the Virginia shore near Machodoc Creek before dawn on April 23 . There , they made contact with Thomas Harbin , whom Booth had previously brought into his erstwhile kidnapping plot . Harbin took Booth and Herold to another Confederate agent in the area , William Bryant , who supplied them with horses .
While Lincoln 's funeral train was in New York City on April 24 , Lieutenant Edward P. Doherty was dispatched from Washington at 2 p.m. with a detachment of 26 Union soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry Regiment to capture Booth in Virginia . Accompanied by Lieutenant Colonel Everton Conger , an intelligence officer assigned by Lafayette Baker , the detachment steamed 70 miles ( 113 km ) down the Potomac River on a boat , the John S. Ide , landing at Belle Plain , Virginia , at 10 p.m. The pursuers crossed the Rappahannock River and tracked Booth and Herold to Richard H. Garrett 's farm , just south of Port Royal , Caroline County , Virginia . Booth and Herold had been led to the farm on April 24 by William S. Jett , a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry whom they had met before crossing the Rappahannock . The Garretts were unaware of Lincoln 's assassination ; Booth was introduced to them as " James W. Boyd " , a Confederate soldier who , they were told , had been wounded in the battle of Petersburg and was returning home .
Garrett 's 11 @-@ year @-@ old son , Richard , was an eyewitness . In later years , he became a Baptist minister and widely lectured on the events of Booth 's demise at his family 's farm . In 1921 , Garrett 's lecture was published in the Confederate Veteran as the " True Story of the Capture of John Wilkes Booth . " According to his account , Booth and Herold arrived at the Garretts ' farm , located on the road to Bowling Green , around 3 p.m. on Monday afternoon . Because Confederate mail delivery had ceased with the collapse of the Confederate government , he explained , the Garretts were unaware of Lincoln 's assassination . After having dinner with the Garretts that evening , Booth learned of the surrender of Johnston 's army . The last Confederate armed force of any size , its capitulation meant that the Civil War was unquestionably over and Booth 's attempt to save the Confederacy by Lincoln 's assassination had failed . The Garretts also finally learned of Lincoln 's death and the substantial reward for Booth 's capture . Booth , said Garrett , displayed no reaction , other than to ask if the family would turn in the fugitive should they have the opportunity . Still not aware of their guest 's true identity , one of the older Garrett sons averred that they might , if only because they needed the money . The next day , Booth told the Garretts he intended to reach Mexico , drawing a route on a map of theirs . However , biographer Theodore Roscoe said of Garrett 's account , " Almost nothing written or testified in respect to the doings of the fugitives at Garrett 's farm can be taken at face value . Nobody knows exactly what Booth said to the Garretts , or they to him . "
= = Death = =
Conger tracked down Jett and interrogated him , learning of Booth 's location at the Garrett farm . Before dawn on April 26 , the soldiers caught up with the fugitives , who were hiding in Garrett 's tobacco barn . David Herold surrendered , but Booth refused Conger 's demand to surrender , saying " I prefer to come out and fight " ; the soldiers then set the barn on fire . As Booth moved about inside the blazing barn , Sergeant Boston Corbett shot him . According to Corbett 's later account , he fired at Booth because the fugitive " raised his pistol to shoot " at them . Conger 's report to Stanton , however , stated that Corbett shot Booth " without order , pretext or excuse , " and recommended that Corbett be punished for disobeying orders to take Booth alive . Booth , fatally wounded in the neck , was dragged from the barn to the porch of Garrett 's farmhouse , where he died three hours later , aged 26 . The bullet had pierced three vertebrae and partially severed his spinal cord , paralyzing him . In his dying moments , he reportedly whispered , " Tell my mother I died for my country . " Asking that his hands be raised to his face so he could see them , Booth uttered his last words , " Useless , useless , " and died as dawn was breaking . In Booth 's pockets were found a compass , a candle , pictures of five women ( actresses Alice Grey , Helen Western , Effie Germon , Fannie Brown , and Booth 's fiancée Lucy Hale ) , and his diary , where he had written of Lincoln 's death , " Our country owed all her troubles to him , and God simply made me the instrument of his punishment . "
Shortly after Booth 's death , his brother Edwin wrote to his sister Asia , " Think no more of him as your brother ; he is dead to us now , as he soon must be to all the world , but imagine the boy you loved to be in that better part of his spirit , in another world . " Asia also had in her possession a sealed letter Booth had given her in January 1865 for safekeeping , only to be opened upon his death . In the letter , Booth had written :
" I know how foolish I shall be deemed for undertaking such a step as this , where , on one side , I have many friends and everything to make me happy ... to give up all ... seems insane ; but God is my judge . I love justice more than I do a country that disowns it , more than fame or wealth . "
Booth 's letter , seized along with other family papers at Asia 's house by Federal troops and published by The New York Times while the manhunt was underway , explained his reasons for plotting against Lincoln . In it he said , " I have ever held the South was right . The very nomination of Abraham Lincoln , four years ago , spoke plainly war upon Southern rights and institutions . " The institution of " African slavery , " he had written , " is one of the greatest blessings that God has ever bestowed upon a favored nation " and Lincoln 's policy was one of " total annihilation . "
= = Aftermath = =
Booth 's body was shrouded in a blanket and tied to the side of an old farm wagon for the trip back to Belle Plain . There , his corpse was taken aboard the ironclad USS Montauk and brought to the Washington Navy Yard for identification and an autopsy . The body was identified there as Booth 's by more than ten people who knew him . Among the identifying features used to make sure that the man that was killed was Booth was a tattoo on his left hand with his initials J.W.B. , and a distinct scar on the back of his neck . The third , fourth , and fifth vertebrae were removed during the autopsy to allow access to the bullet . These bones are still on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington , D.C. The body was then buried in a storage room at the Old Penitentiary , later moved to a warehouse at the Washington Arsenal on October 1 , 1867 . In 1869 , the remains were once again identified before being released to the Booth family , where they were buried in the family plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore , after a burial ceremony conducted by Fleming James , minister of Christ Episcopal Church , in the presence of more than 40 people . By then , wrote scholar Russell Conwell after visiting homes in the vanquished former Confederate states , hatred of Lincoln still smoldered and " Photographs of Wilkes Booth , with the last words of great martyrs printed upon its borders ... adorn their drawing rooms " .
Eight others implicated in Lincoln 's assassination were tried by a military tribunal in Washington , D.C. , and found guilty on June 30 , 1865 . Mary Surratt , Lewis Powell , David Herold , and George Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7 , 1865 . Samuel Mudd , Samuel Arnold , and Michael O 'Laughlen were sentenced to life imprisonment at Fort Jefferson in Florida 's Dry Tortugas ; Edmund Spangler was given a six @-@ year term in prison . O ' Laughlen died in a yellow fever epidemic there in 1867 . The others were eventually pardoned in February 1869 by President Andrew Johnson .
Forty years later , when the centenary of Lincoln 's birth was celebrated in 1909 , a border state official reflected on Booth 's assassination of Lincoln , " Confederate veterans held public services and gave public expression to the sentiment , that ' had Lincoln lived ' the days of reconstruction might have been softened and the era of good feeling ushered in earlier " . The majority of Northerners viewed Booth as a madman or monster who murdered the savior of the Union , while in the South , many cursed Booth for bringing upon them the harsh revenge of an incensed North instead of the reconciliation promised by Lincoln . A century later , Goodrich concluded in 2005 , " For millions of people , particularly in the South , it would be decades before the impact of the Lincoln assassination began to release its terrible hold on their lives " .
= = = Theories of Booth 's motivation = = =
Author Francis Wilson , 11 years old at the time of Lincoln 's assassination , wrote an epitaph of Booth in his 1929 book John Wilkes Booth : " In the terrible deed he committed , he was actuated by no thought of monetary gain , but by a self @-@ sacrificing , albeit wholly fanatical devotion to a cause he thought supreme . " Others have seen less unselfish motives such as shame , ambition , and sibling rivalry for achievement and fame .
= = = Theories of Booth 's escape = = =
In 1907 , Finis L. Bates wrote Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth , contending that a Booth look @-@ alike was mistakenly killed at the Garrett farm while Booth eluded his pursuers . Booth , said Bates , assumed the pseudonym " John St. Helen " and settled on the Paluxy River near Glen Rose , Texas , and later moved to Granbury , Texas . After falling gravely ill and making a deathbed confession that he was the fugitive assassin , he recovered and fled , eventually committing suicide in 1903 in Enid , Oklahoma , under the alias " David E. George " . By 1913 , more than 70 @,@ 000 copies of the book had been sold , and Bates exhibited St. Helen 's mummified body in carnival sideshows .
In response , the Maryland Historical Society published an account in 1913 by then @-@ Baltimore mayor William M. Pegram , who had viewed Booth 's remains upon the casket 's arrival at the Weaver funeral home in Baltimore on February 18 , 1869 , for burial at Green Mount Cemetery . Pegram , who had known Booth well as a young man , submitted a sworn statement that the body he had seen in 1869 was Booth 's . Others positively identifying this body as Booth at the funeral home included Booth 's mother , brother , and sister , along with his dentist and other Baltimore acquaintances . Earlier , The New York Times had published an account by their reporter in 1911 detailing the burial of Booth 's body at the cemetery and those who were witnesses . The rumor periodically revived , as in the 1920s , when a corpse advertised as the " Man Who Shot Lincoln " was exhibited on a national tour by a carnival promoter . According to a 1938 article in the Saturday Evening Post , the exhibitor said he obtained St. Helen 's corpse from Bates ' widow .
The Lincoln Conspiracy , a book published in 1977 , contended there was a government plot to conceal Booth 's escape , reviving interest in the story and prompting the display of St. Helen 's mummified body in Chicago that year . The book sold more than one million copies and was made into a feature film called The Lincoln Conspiracy , which was theatrically released in 1977 . A 1998 book , The Curse of Cain : The Untold Story of John Wilkes Booth , contended that Booth had escaped , sought refuge in Japan and eventually returned to the United States . In 1994 two historians , together with several descendants , sought a court order for the exhumation of Booth 's body at Green Mount Cemetery , which was , according to their lawyer , " intended to prove or disprove longstanding theories on Booth 's escape " by conducting a photo @-@ superimposition analysis . The application was blocked , however , by Baltimore Circuit Court Judge Joseph H. H. Kaplan , who cited , among other things , " the unreliability of petitioners ' less @-@ than @-@ convincing escape / cover @-@ up theory " as a major factor in his decision . The Maryland Court of Special Appeals upheld the ruling . No gravestone marks the precise location where Booth is buried in the family 's gravesite .
In December 2010 , descendants of Edwin Booth reported that they obtained permission to exhume the Shakespearean actor 's body to obtain DNA samples . However , Bree Harvey , a spokesperson from the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge , Massachusetts , where Edwin Booth is buried , refuted reports that the family had contacted them and requested to exhume Edwin 's body . The family hopes to obtain DNA samples from artifacts belonging to John Wilkes , or from remains such as vertebrae stored at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland . On March 30 , 2013 , museum spokesperson Carol Johnson announced the family 's request to extract DNA from the vertebrae had been rejected .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Film = = =
In the film Prince of Players ( 1955 ) , a biography of Edwin Booth ( played by Richard Burton ) , John Wilkes Booth is played by John Derek .
In the Wagon Train episode " The John Wilbot Story " ( 1958 ) , based on the premise Booth survived and moved west , character John Wilbot is played by Dane Clark .
In the The Twilight Zone episode " Back There " ( 1961 ) , Booth was portrayed by John Lasell .
Booth is portrayed by Toby Kebbell in the Robert Redford film The Conspirator ( 2010 ) .
Jesse Johnson plays Booth in the telefim Killing Lincoln ( 2013 ) , where he is the main character .
James Marsden plays Booth in a flashback cameo in the comedy Zoolander ( 2001 ) .
Christian Camargo plays Booth in the opening scenes of the adventure sequel National Treasure : Book of Secrets ( 2007 ) .
In the film In The Line Of Fire ( 1993 ) , a would @-@ be presidential assassin played by John Malkovich asks to be called " Booth " in his phone calls to a Secret Service agent played by Clint Eastwood .
= = = Literature = = =
In David O. Stewart 's novel , The LINCOLN Deception , two people in 1900 try to discover the true motive behind Booth 's plot .
= = = Stage productions = = =
Booth is featured as a central character of Stephen Sondheim 's musical Assassins , in which his assassination of Lincoln is depicted in a musical number called " The Ballad of Booth " .
= = = Television = = =
In the Wagon Train episode " The John Wilbot Story " ( 1958 ) , based on the premise Booth survived and moved west , character John Wilbot is played by Dane Clark .
In the The Twilight Zone episode " Back There " ( 1961 ) , Booth was portrayed by John Lasell .
In beginning in episode 9 of season 1 " ( A Day to Give Thanks " ) , of the BBC America series Copper , all three Booth brothers interact with the Morehouses and with Elizabeth in New York City . John Wilkes is particularly taken with Elizabeth , who is helping them raise funds for the brothers ' 1864 benefit performance of Julius Caesar , at the Winter Garden Theatre .
In Bones , Seeley Booth — a main protagonist — is a direct descendant of John Wilkes Booth .
= = = For younger readers = = =
Giblin , James Cross ( 2005 ) . Good Brother , Bad Brother . New York : Clarion . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 09642 @-@ 6 .
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= Production of Watchmen =
Watchmen is a 2009 film based on the twelve @-@ issue graphic novel series of the same name created by writer Alan Moore , artist Dave Gibbons , and colorist John Higgins , published by DC Comics between 1986 and 1987 . The graphic novel 's film rights were acquired by producer Lawrence Gordon in 1986 . Many problems halted the adaptation 's development , with four different studios and various directors and screenwriters being attached to the project through twenty years . In 2006 , Zack Snyder , who at the time was filming ' another comic book adaptation ' , was hired by Warner Bros. to helm Watchmen . Filming started in 2007 , and following deals with two of the previous companies involved in the development — Paramount Pictures was responsible for international distribution rights after budgetary issues in 2004 , resulting in a lawsuit by 20th Century Fox . Fox , which was already contacted by Gordon in 1987 , received $ 1 million of the gross — the Watchmen adaptation was finally released in March 2009 .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Failed projects = = =
In August 1986 , producer Lawrence Gordon acquired the film rights to Watchmen for 20th Century Fox , with producer Joel Silver working on the film . Fox asked author Alan Moore to write a screenplay based on his story , but when Moore declined the studio enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm . On September 9 , 1988 , Hamm turned in his first draft , but said that condensing a 338 @-@ page , nine @-@ panel @-@ a @-@ page comic book into a 128 @-@ page script was arduous . He took the liberty of re @-@ writing Watchmen 's complicated ending into a " more manageable " conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox . Fox put the film into turnaround in 1991 , and Gordon set up the project at a new company , Largo International , with Fox distributing the film . Although Largo closed three years later , Fox was promised that they would be involved if the project was revived .
Gordon and Silver moved the project to Warner Bros. , where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct . Unsatisfied with how Hamm 's script fleshed out the characters , Gilliam brought in Charles McKeown to rewrite it . The second draft , which was credited to Gilliam , Warren Skaaren , and Hamm rather than McKeown , used the character Rorschach 's journal as a voice @-@ over , and restored scenes from the comic book that Hamm had removed . According to Watchmen artist Dave Gibbons , filming was to take place at Pinewood Studios . Silver wanted to cast Arnold Schwarzenegger as Dr. Manhattan . Because both Gilliam and Silver 's previous films , The Adventures of Baron Munchausen and Die Hard 2 respectively , went over budget , they were only able to raise $ 25 million for the film — a quarter of the necessary budget . As a result , Gilliam abandoned the project , and ultimately decided that Watchmen was unfilmable . Gilliam explained , " Reducing [ the story ] to a two or two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film [ ... ] seemed to me to take away the essence of what Watchmen is about . " When Warner Bros. dropped the project , Gordon invited Gilliam back to helm the film independently . The director again declined , believing that the comic book would be better directed as a five @-@ hour miniseries .
In October 2001 , Gordon and Universal Studios signed screenwriter David Hayter to write and direct Watchmen in a " seven @-@ figure deal " . Hayter hoped to begin filming in early 2002 , but did not turn in his first draft until July 2002 . In May 2003 , Hayter said he had Alan Moore 's blessing on the film , despite Moore 's disagreement with the project since its first incarnation . In July 2003 , Watchmen producer Lloyd Levin announced the completion of Hayter 's script , which he called " a great adaptation [ ... ] that absolutely celebrates the book " . Ultimately , Hayter and the producers left Universal over creative differences , and in October 2003 , Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios . The pair intended to shoot the film in Prague , but the project fell apart at Revolution Studios .
In July 2004 , it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen , and they hired Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter 's script . Gordon and Levin remained attached , collaborating with Aronofsky 's producing partner , Eric Watson . Eventually , Aronofsky left to focus on The Fountain , and Paramount replaced him with Paul Greengrass , with a target release date of summer 2006 . At this time , Paddy Considine , was involved in negotiations for Rorschach . Jude Law ( a fan of the comic ) and Tom Cruise both lobbied for Ozymandias . Greengrass wanted Joaquin Phoenix for Dan Dreiberg and Hilary Swank as Laurie . To publicize the film , Paramount launched a now @-@ defunct Watchmen teaser website that had a message board as well as computer wallpaper available to download . Graphic artist Tristan Schane drew designs of Dr. Manhattan for the film , which depicted him with visible intestines . Gilliam read Greengrass 's revision of Hayter 's script and liked it , but told the director he did not think the studio would greenlight such a dark film . In March 2005 , with rumors that high @-@ profile projects , including Watchmen , were in danger of being cut , Paramount 's CEO Donald De Line began urging a reduction in Watchmen 's budget so the film could get the greenlight . When Brad Grey took over as Paramount ’ s CEO , Levin feared potential budget cuts , so he made plans to move the project outside the UK in an effort to save money . Before he could , Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround , again .
In October 2005 , Gordon and Levin began talks with Warner Bros. , originally the second studio to be attached to Watchmen , and confirmed in December 2005 that Warner Bros. had picked up the film , but that Greengrass was no longer attached to direct . In addition , the film was marked as an " open writing assignment " , which meant David Hayter 's script would be put aside . Despite this change , Hayter expressed his hope that his script would be used by Warner Bros. and that he would be attached to direct his " dream project " .
= = = Successful development = = =
After Warner Bros. officially became involved , the studio claimed that because Paramount had not fully reimbursed Universal for its development costs , Paramount had no legal claim over the film rights . Therefore , it would not be entitled to co @-@ finance the film with Warner Bros. After negotiations between the studios , they agreed that Paramount would own 25 % of the film and would distribute it outside North America . Impressed with Zack Snyder 's work on the film 300 , an adaptation of Frank Miller 's comic book of the same name , Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen . After spending a couple of weeks deciding whether he wanted to direct the film or not , Warner Bros. officially announced Snyder ’ s hiring on June 23 , 2006 , with Alex Tse attached to write the script . Drawing from " the best elements " from two of Hayter ’ s drafts , Tse ’ s script returned to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic . Warner Bros. was open to keeping the 1980s setting , although less so to the R @-@ rating that Snyder wanted ; Snyder also decided to add a title montage sequence to introduce the audience to the alternate history of the United States that the film presented . Snyder kept the ending from one of Hayter 's drafts , which simplified details of the conspiracy within the story , because he felt it would allow more screen time to explore characters ' backstories .
Snyder said that he wanted the film to hold the same level of detail that was contained within the comic , with all of the easter eggs that were hidden within each frame of the comic ’ s panels . As such , Snyder used the comic book as his storyboard , travelling with a copy and making notes on its pages . Next to the novel , Snyder cited Taxi Driver and Seven as visual influences . To make the film more topical , Snyder emphasized the existing subplot concerning energy resources . Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman met with Snyder twice during the later stages of pre @-@ production to further revise the script , although Snyder explained the script was merely a document for the studio , and it was his storyboards that were his true guide while making the movie . James Kakalios , author of The Physics of Superheroes , was also hired as a scientific consultant .
= = Production = =
Snyder hoped to have principal photography take place from June – September 2007 , but filming was delayed until September 17 , 2007 . Snyder wanted a $ 150 million budget , but Warner Bros. preferred the budget remain under $ 100 million ; the film ultimately finished with a budget of approximately $ 120 million . The production took place in Vancouver , where a New York City back lot was built . Sound stages were used for apartments and offices , while sequences on Mars and Antarctica were shot against green screens . Ten visual effects companies , Sony Pictures Imageworks and Intelligent Creatures among them , came on board to work on the film , which ended up having 1 @,@ 100 shots featuring effects , a quarter of them being computer @-@ generated imagery .
Comic book artists Adam Hughes and John Cassaday were hired to work on character and costume designs for the film . Costume tests were being done by March 2007 . 300 associate producer Wesley Coller portrayed Rorschach in a costume test , which Snyder inserted into a trailer that accompanied the release of 300 . Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic , Snyder wanted Nite Owl to look scarier and Ozymandias to possess authentic Egyptian attire and artifacts . Ultimately , Oyzmandias , Nite Owl and Silk Spectre changed most from the comic , as Snyder felt " audiences might not appreciate the naiveté of the original costumes . So , there has been some effort to give them a [ ... ] modern look — and not modern in the sense of 2007 , but modern in terms of the superhero aesthetic " . Costume designer Michael Wilkinson added that the costumes had to look realistic and protective , and that the Nite Owl costume should reflect Dan 's interest in aerodynamics . The chain mail in his costume resemble a bird 's feathers . Snyder also wanted the costumes to " comment directly on many of today ’ s modern masked vigilantes " : The Ozymandias costume , with its molded muscles and nipples , parodies the costumes in Batman Forever and Batman & Robin . Throughout filming , Snyder also kept adding in dialogue to mention more of the characters ' backstories so the film would be as faithful as possible .
Production designer Alex McDowell intended Nixon 's war room to pay tribute to the war room in the film Dr. Strangelove . He also wanted Dr. Manhattan 's apartment , which is inside his laboratory , to look like the work of Maison Jansen , explaining that " the powers that be , who know nothing about design , but needed [ Manhattan ] to feel like he was the most important guy in America " . The apartment also echoes the film The Man Who Fell to Earth , with a book prop named Masterpieces in Paint and Poetry and a tennis courtroom with similar wallpaper . Set designers selected four Kansas City sculptors ' works for use on the set of Dr. Manhattan 's apartment , after discovering their works on the Internet . Filming ended on February 19 , 2008 .
= = Post @-@ production = =
= = = Music = = =
Composer Tyler Bates began scoring Watchmen in November 2007 . He planned to visit the shoot for a week during each month , and view assembly cuts of scenes to begin rough composing . Snyder and Bates listened to the soundtracks of 1980s films such as Manhunter , Blade Runner , and To Live and Die in L.A. for inspiration . Bates switched between a Yamaha CS @-@ 80 or an MOTM for moments that he felt should have more ambience or synthesizers . Snyder wanted a scene where Nite Owl and Silk Spectre rescue people from a burning building to have a more traditional superhero feel , so Bates implemented a four to the floor guitar rhythm . A 64 @-@ strong choir and the 87 @-@ piece ensemble from the Hollywood Studio Symphony were hired for the more orchestral themes .
The film uses some of the songs mentioned in the comic . Bates said the challenge was composing music that would transition effectively into these famous songs . One of the songs is " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " by Bob Dylan from whom Snyder and Bates received permission to use the stems so the three @-@ minute song could play over the six @-@ minute opening montage . My Chemical Romance , whose members are fans of the comic , covered Dylan 's " Desolation Row " for the first half of the closing credits . The film also features two pieces from Philip Glass ' score to 1982 film Koyaanisqatsi accompanying the birth of Dr. Manhattan .
Two albums , Watchmen : Music from the Motion Picture and Watchmen : Original Motion Picture Score were released on February 24 , 2009 by Warner Sunset and Reprise Records . Additionally , a 12 " vinyl picture disc was released on January 27 , 2009 . The A @-@ side features My Chemical Romance 's cover version of " Desolation Row " , and the B @-@ side features " Prison Fight " composed by Tyler Bates for the film 's score . Both songs will also be featured on the Music From the Motion Picture and Original Motion Picture Soundtrack albums , respectively . A box set consisting of seven 7 " picture disks was released on March 24 , 2009 . This set will also include My Chemical Romance performing " Desolation Row " , as well as thirteen tracks from the Tyler Bates score .
= = = Editing = = =
Snyder 's first cut of the film was three hours long . In keeping the film tight , Snyder dubbed himself " the gatekeeper " of the comic 's easter eggs , " while [ the studio ] conspire to say , ' No . Length , length , length . Playability . ' [ ... ] I 've lost perspective on that now , because to me , the honest truth is I geek out on little stuff now as much as anybody . Like , people will go , ' We 've got to cut . You don 't need that shot of Hollis Mason 's garage sign . ' And I 'm like , ' What are you talking about ? Of course you do . Are you crazy ? How will people enjoy the movie without shit like that in it ? ' So it 's hard for me . " Snyder cut the film down to 162 minutes when he realized there was a way to further trim the film : removing the murder of Hollis Mason , the first Nite Owl , which " was easy without destroying the movie " .
= = = Moore and Gibbons ' involvement = = =
When 20th Century Fox acquired the film rights to Watchmen , the comic 's writer Alan Moore was initially excited about the film adaptation . In a 1987 edition of Comics Interview , he revealed Sam Hamm , who was attached to write , visited him in Northampton for lunch and that he felt Hamm would provide an adaptation faithful to the comic 's spirit . Ultimately , Hamm 's script altered the ending , having Adrian Veidt die and Dr. Manhattan alter time so that Jon Osterman is not affected by the radiation . As a result , the remaining characters are teleported to the real world created as a result of time travel . In an interview with Variety 's Danny Graydon , during Warner Bros. ' s first possession of feature film rights for Watchmen , Moore changed his mind , adamantly opposing a film adaptation of his comic book . Moore felt that , contrary to others ’ opinion , the comic book was not cinematic . When he was approached by Terry Gilliam on how to film the comic book , Moore stated that he " didn 't think it was filmable " . Moore clarified for Graydon , " I didn 't design it to show off the similarities between cinema and comics , which are there , but in my opinion are fairly unremarkable . It was designed to show off the things that comics could do that cinema and literature couldn 't . "
In December 2001 , Moore further explained his opposition , citing how a reader can take the time to absorb the character backgrounds , by having the option of turning back the pages so that they can connect elements they had just read to past elements , but that film forces you to watch the story at 24 frames per second . Moore 's opposition to the film adaptation crystallized after the 2003 film version of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen was released , and he intends to give any resulting royalties from Watchmen to the comic 's artist , Dave Gibbons . In Moore ’ s opinion , Hayter ’ s script was the closest anyone could get to the original comic , but added that he would not be going to see the film when completed . Moore said , " My book is a comic book . Not a movie , not a novel . A comic book . It 's been made in a certain way , and designed to be read a certain way : in an armchair , nice and cozy next to a fire , with a steaming cup of coffee . "
In November 2006 , Zack Snyder said that he hoped to speak to Moore before filming , though the writer had sworn off involvement with film or television productions after his disagreement over the V for Vendetta film adaptation . Moore signed a deal to go uncredited on the film , and for his share of the income be given to Gibbons , as he had done on V for Vendetta . Before filming began , Snyder said , " [ I ] totally respect his wishes to not be involved in the movie . " Moore expressed discontent over the choice of the director , saying that he " had a lot of problems " with the comic book 300 and that , while he had not seen it , he had heard that Snyder 's film adaptation was racist , homophobic , and " sublimely stupid " .
In an early interview with Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker , Watchmen artist Dave Gibbons said that he thought the time had passed to make a Watchmen movie . Gibbons felt that the window to make a Watchmen movie was during the success of the 1989 Batman film . When that time passed , Gibbons also told Neon magazine that he was " [ … ] glad because it wouldn 't have been up to the book " . Gibbons felt it would probably be better adapted as a television series like The Prisoner . When given the opportunity , Gibbons enjoyed the script by Alex Tse . Gibbons gave Snyder some script advice , which the director accepted . He drew licensing art for the film , consulted on merchandise and the webcomics , publicized the film with Snyder , and wrote a tie @-@ in book about the creation of the comic , entitled Watching the Watchmen . Moore did not mind Gibbons ' involvement and felt it did not have any impact on their friendship . Snyder asked Gibbons to draw up a storyboard for the film 's altered ending , which the comics ' colorist John Higgins also returned to work on . Gibbons believed watching the film on DVD would emulate flipping through the book , with viewers pausing or rewinding the film to catch details .
= = = Litigation = = =
On February 14 , 2008 , 20th Century Fox brought a lawsuit against Warner Bros. that alleged copyright infringement on the Watchmen film property . The studio believed it held the rights to produce the film , or at least distribute it , no matter how many studios Watchmen passed through , and sought to block its release . Warner Bros. said that Fox repeatedly failed to exercise its rights over various incarnations of the production . Through producer Lawrence Gordon , Fox had bought the rights to the comic book in 1986 . Fox alleges that when it put the project into turnaround in 1994 , a separate 1991 deal that transferred some of the rights to Gordon still gave them the option of distribution , sequel rights , and a share of the profits should it be made by any other studio . Fox 's interpretation of the 1994 turnaround deal also meant that Gordon would not fully control the rights until the studio 's development costs — estimated by Fox at $ 1 million — had been reimbursed . Despite originally passing on the project , Fox also alleged that its agreement with Gordon contained a " changed elements " clause , meaning that if Gordon changed any of the key creative personnel on the film , Fox would have first option on participation , claiming that Gordon did not inform them of Snyder 's joining the production in 2005 .
Fox alleged that it contacted Warner Bros. before production began in 2005 , and told the studio that it had violated Fox 's 1991 and 1994 deals with Gordon . Warner Bros. claimed that it was originally unaware of either deal , and that in 2005 Fox had declined to produce the Hayter screenplay that formed the basis of the production . Warner Bros. also claimed that the 1994 deal did not cover distribution rights and had conferred upon Gordon all the rights he needed to take the film to Warner Bros. The studio 's motion to dismiss the case in August 2008 was rejected by the judge .
On December 24 , 2008 , Judge Gary A. Feess granted 20th Century Fox 's claim to a copyright interest in the film . An attorney for 20th Century Fox said that the studio would seek an order to delay the release of Watchmen . Producer Lloyd Levin revealed in an open letter that in 2005 both Fox and Warner Bros. were offered the chance to make Watchmen . Fox passed on the project while Warner Bros. made a deal to acquire the movie rights and move forward with development . An internal Fox email documented that executives at Fox felt the script was " one of the most unintelligible pieces of shit they had read in years " . On January 15 , 2009 , the trade press reported that Fox and Warner Bros. had reached a settlement . Fox would receive a share of the box office , but no future ownership of the film . The settlement awarded Fox up to $ 10 million in development costs and legal fees , plus worldwide gross participation scaling from 5 to 8 @.@ 5 percent .
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= Kawan Bergeloet =
Kawan Bergeloet ( Perfected Spelling : Kawan Bergelut ; Indonesian for " Playmate " ) is a collection of short stories written by Soeman Hs and first published by Balai Pustaka in 1941 . It contains twelve stories , seven of which were previously published in the magazine Pandji Poestaka , as well as an introduction by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana . These stories are generally humorous in nature , and presented with a diction that shows strong east Sumatran influences .
Released in response to the commercial success of Mohammad Kasim 's collection Teman Doedoek , Kawan Bergeloet has been reprinted several times and received positive critical appraisal . Soeman , together with Kasim , has since been considered a pioneer of the Indonesian short story . The Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw writes that the collection is Soeman 's most interesting contribution to Indonesian literature .
= = Background = =
Short stories and sketches in Malay have been recorded in Indonesia since the 1870s , and a short story collection — H. Kommer 's Warna Sari — was published in 1912 . These early stories used vernacular Malay and were often humourous or derived from fairy tales or detective fiction . Short story @-@ writing developed further in the 1920s and 1930s , when short stories and sketches in a more formal register of Malay were widely published in such magazines as Pandji Poestaka and Poedjangga Baroe . The first collection of short stories in the Indonesian literary canon , Mohammad Kasim 's Teman Doedoek , was published by Balai Pustaka in 1937 . This collection was a commercial success , selling 4 @,@ 000 copies by 1941 .
Teman Doedoek was read by Soeman Hs , a Bengkalis @-@ born teacher who had already gained popularity as a writer of detective fiction . Soeman , once a student of Kasim 's , had also experimented with more humorous story @-@ telling approaches , including in his novel Pertjobaan Setia as well as in the numerous short stories he had published through Pandji Pustaka . After the commercial success of Teman Doedoek , Balai Pustaka sought to release a new short story collection ; thus , Soeman was contacted .
= = Contents = =
Kawan Bergeloet contains twelve short stories or sketches written by Soeman , seven of which had initially been written for and published in Pandji Poestaka . The remaining stories were written especially for the new collection . The first edition included an article on Soeman , written by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , which had previously been published in the January 1936 issue of Pedoman Pembatja . This has been excluded from some later reissues .
= = = " Tjik Mat " = = =
" Tjik Mat " ( Perfected Spelling : " Cik Mat " ) follows a young man named Mat who goes fishing by the riverside . After three casts he is unable to catch any fish . On the fourth cast , he hooks a fish , but it falls into the waters . The story was first published in 1933 , in issue 13 , volume 11 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Piloe " = = =
" Piloe " ( Perfected Spelling : " Pilu " , meaning " Melancholia " ) , follows a mother who goes to the port with her child , Mak Jam , to meet her husband Hajji Saleh . Upon arriving , Jam is unable to find him . A crewman later tells the mother that Saleh died three days before reaching Sabang . The story was first published in 1933 , in issue 40 , volume 11 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Salah Paham " = = =
" Salah Paham " ( meaning " Misunderstanding " ) follows Kari Boengsoe , a gambir merchant , who travels to Singapore after turning a tidy profit . When his escort leaves , Kari goes to a nearby restaurant for dinner . The waiter asks him , " Kari apa ? " , to which Kari replies that he wants to eat . This exchange is repeated several times until the waiter asks " Kari ajam ? Kari kambing ? " Kari and the waiter begin fighting , and the police are called . When they arrive , they realize the source of the confusion , explain it , and leave . Shortly afterwards , the incident is repeated when Kari and the waiter have a misunderstanding over an ice cube . According to Balai Pustaka , " Salah Paham " was previously published . However , Ernst Kratz , in his bibliography of literature published in Indonesian magazines , does not note any publication .
= = = " Salah Sangka " = = =
" Salah Sangka " ( meaning " Mistaken Expectations " ) follows Malim Boengsoe , a respected man from a small village , who — having had four daughters — desperately wants a son . He prays continuously , and his wife becomes pregnant . Nine months later , when she begins labour , Malim is busy praying for a son . An escaped criminal sneaks into the room of Malim 's wife , and she and the other women there scream out " Laki @-@ laki ! Laki @-@ laki ! " Malim praises God and goes to the room as the criminal escapes . When Malim arrives and asks for his son , he is confused , as there is no @-@ one else there . The story was first published in 1933 , in issue 59 , volume 11 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Pandai Djatoeh " = = =
" Pandai Djatoeh " ( Perfected Spelling : " Pandai Jatuh " , meaning " The Clever Falls " ) describes an incident involving three old men at a wedding . When the hosts pass out betel to be chewed , the first man takes out a golden mortar to crush the betel . He boasts that the only shortcoming of such a mortar was that the betel tasted somewhat sour . The second man then takes out his silver mortar and says that , with silver , the betel would only taste sour if left for too long . The third man , the poorest of them all , takes out his wooden mortar and says that , having tried golden and silver mortars , he has concluded that betel crushed under wood tastes the best of all . The story was first published in 1933 , in issue 60 , volume 11 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Karena Hati " = = =
" Karena Hati " ( meaning " Because of the Heart " ) follows a man who becomes an official in a small village . There , he marries Sitti Aminah , a young woman who , though only 20 years of age , has been married and divorced three times . Their marriage does not last long , and the man leaves Aminah three days before the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday . However , his expensive set of black clothing , which he must wear during the Eid ceremonies , is accidentally left at Aminah 's home . Pretending to be sick , the man goes to Aminah and asks her to cover him with clothing and light a fire to keep him warm . When she starts a fire in the kitchen , the man escapes with his black clothes . The story was first published in 1936 , in issues 100 and 101 , volume 14 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Fatwa Membawa Ketjewa " = = =
" Fatwa Membawa Ketjewa " ( Perfected Spelling : " Fatwa Membawa Kecewa " , meaning " Preaching Brings Disappointment " ) follows a Lebai Saleh , a labourer and student of Islam who is known for being greedy and miserly and was once driven out of a village for offering an insultingly low bride price . When arriving in a new village , he is taken on as an Islamic teacher . In his sermons Saleh , hoping that his students will give him some goods , preaches the importance of charity . He is soon receiving chickens and fish , and has married a local woman . During a meal , Saleh again gives a sermon on charity , but he and his wife fight soon afterwards after she gives some bowls and plates to other women . Saleh 's nature is revealed , and he is again forced to flee . The story was first published in 1938 , in issues 93 and 94 , volume 16 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Itoelah Asalkoe Tobat " = = =
" Itoelah Asalkoe Tobat " ( Perfected Spelling : " Itulah Asalku Tobat " , meaning " Thus Did I Repent " ) tells of Hajji Malik , a former criminal who became devoted to his prayers in his old age . A fellow villager goes to see Malik and asks why he abandoned his criminal ways and embraced Islam . Malik tells his visitor that , fifteen years previously , he and a friend were travelling through the forests when they saw some people burying a box . That night they dug up the box and tried to take it away , hoping it would be treasure . However , upon opening the box , they found it contained the body of a young child . They returned the box and Malik abandoned the life of a criminal . This story was written for Kawan Bergeloet .
= = = " Selimoet Bertoeah " = = =
" Selimoet Bertoeah " ( Perfected Spelling : " Selimut Bertuah " , meaning " The Magical Blanket " ) follows Tji ' Dang , a man who is terrified of his wife . During Ramadhan , he is sent to buy a blanket but , on the way home , a wayward cigar burns a hole in the blanket . Afraid of what his wife will say , Dang buys another blanket . The first blanket is given to Dang 's stepson , Boejoeng . Later that week , Dang tries to break the fast early by stealing some biscuits . Rather than be found out by his stepson , Dang convinces Boejoeng to cover his head with his blanket . That evening Boejoeng , having seen Dang take the biscuits through the hole in the blanket , demands that his stepfather double his allowance or else he will reveal Dang 's secret . This story was written for Kawan Bergeloet .
= = = " Salah Mengerti " = = =
" Salah Mengerti " ( meaning " Misunderstanding " ) follows two young boys : an Indian boy from Madras and a Malay boy nicknamed Pengkar . While out selling their wares , Tambi and Pengkar begin fighting owing to their inability to understand each other . This begins with fighting over their sales cry . This is followed by an argument regarding holy basil and poison ivy which ends with the Indian boy rubbing the poison ivy against his buttocks out of contempt . According to Balai Pustaka , this story was written for Kawan Bergeloet . However , Kratz records it as first being published in 1933 , in issue 51 , volume 11 , of Pandji Poestaka .
= = = " Papan Reklame " = = =
" Papan Reklame " ( meaning " Billboards " ) follows two shopkeeper , a man and a woman , who compete to offer the lowest prices . Both open their shops within days of each other , and they continually undercut each other 's prices to attract customers . This conflict reaches the point that one shopkeeper , Wan Saleh , decides to buy out his competitor at cost . She agrees , and Saleh sells these wares , advertising a 5 % markup . When he hears that his competitor will go to Singapore to buy new wares , Saleh follows her . When they are on the ship , it is revealed that the shopkeepers are actually husband and wife , and that he had actually bought her stock out with a 10 % markup ; as such , the customers paid a total markup of 15 % . This story was written for Kawan Bergeloet .
= = = " Kelakar Si Bogor " = = =
" Kelakar Si Bogor " ( meaning " The Antics of Bogor " ) follows the betting of a dockworker named Bogor . To introduce himself to some Arab sailors , he convinces them to bet on splitting purple mangosteens . After winning $ 4 @.@ 50 , Bogor reveals his secret : he has been reusing mangosteen skins to add to his count . Bogor returns the money , and the sailors leave . On another occasion , Bogor bets a young sailor that all of the thirty eggs his chicken has laid will hatch . When the sailor returns and finds thirty chicks , he is shocked , and gives Bogor $ 10 . Bogor later reveals to his friend , the narrator , that only twenty eggs had hatched , and that he had purchased the other ten . This story was written for Kawan Bergeloet .
= = Style = =
The Indonesian literary scholar Ajip Rosidi writes that the vast majority of the stories in Kawan Bergeloet are meant as comedy . He considers only one story — " Piloe " — to have been intended as more serious or sad . Several of the stories use tropes previously seen in Kasim 's Teman Doedoek , such as conflict arising from a misunderstanding , and the contents of some other stories are similar .
For Kawan Bergeloet , Soeman wrote in Indonesian , a language based on formal Malay . His diction and phrasing was strongly influenced by his east Sumatran background , with little influence from the language as spoken in Java . Rosidi considers his language to flow more easily than Kasim 's . John Wolff , the author of Indonesian Readings , sees Soeman as using " flourishes which echo folk @-@ tale stories " .
= = Publication and reception = =
Kawan Bergeloet was published by Balai Pustaka in 1941 , with the series number 1426 . The collection 's title , Kawan Bergeloet , has variously been translated as Playmates , Comrades Wrestling , and Argumentative Companions ; the word bergeloet , in Indonesian , can mean either " to wrestle " or " to laugh " . Rosidi , identifying bergeloet as meaning " to laugh " , writes that the title was meant to indicate that the book was intended for entertainment purposes , to be read in one 's spare time .
Soeman gained recognition as a pioneer of the Indonesian short story for Kawan Bergeloet , and over subsequent decades was commonly mentioned with Kasim in histories of the literary form . The collection has been reissued several times . The third printing , in 1950 , introduced an updated spelling as well as nine illustrations by " Nasjah " . The most recent edition was published in 1997 . The story " Papan Reklame " was reprinted in Indonesian Readings , a student reader for Indonesian as a foreign language , in 1978 .
Rosidi writes that Soeman 's greatest strength in Kawan Bergeloet is in his description . He considers the writer to have avoided clichéd descriptions , instead using " new and original " descriptions , metaphors , and turns of phrase . Rosidi considers some of the stories ' comic incidents to be overly complicated , but attributes this to Soeman 's previous activity in the detective genre . The Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw finds the sketches in Kawan Bergeloet to be " well @-@ observed and realistically described " and Soeman 's most interesting contribution to Indonesian literature .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Flerovium =
Flerovium is a superheavy artificial chemical element with symbol Fl and atomic number 114 . It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element . The element is named after the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna , Russia , where the element was discovered in 1998 . The name of the laboratory , in turn , honours the Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov ( Флёров in Cyrillic , hence the transliteration of " yo " to " e " ) . The name was adopted by IUPAC on 30 May 2012 .
In the periodic table of the elements , it is a transactinide element in the p @-@ block . It is a member of the 7th period and is the heaviest known member of the carbon group . Initial chemical studies performed in 2007 – 2008 indicated that flerovium was unexpectedly volatile for a group 14 element ; in preliminary results it even seemed to exhibit properties similar to those of the noble gases . More recent results show that flerovium 's reaction with gold is similar to that of copernicium , showing that it is a very volatile element that may even be gaseous at standard temperature and pressure , that it would show metallic properties , consistent with it being the heavier homologue of lead , and that it would be the least reactive metal in group 14 .
About 90 atoms of flerovium have been observed : 58 were synthesized directly , and the rest were made from the radioactive decay of heavier elements . All of these flerovium atoms have been shown to have mass numbers from 284 to 289 . The most stable known flerovium isotope , flerovium @-@ 289 , has a half @-@ life of around 2 @.@ 6 seconds , but it is possible that this isotope may have a nuclear isomer with a longer half @-@ life of 66 seconds ; this would be one of the longest half @-@ lives of any isotope of a superheavy element . Flerovium is predicted to be near the centre of the theorized island of stability , and it is expected that heavier flerovium isotopes , especially the possibly doubly magic flerovium @-@ 298 , may have even longer half @-@ lives .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ discovery = = =
From the late 1940s to the early 1960s , the early days of the synthesis of heavier and heavier transuranium elements , it was predicted that since such heavy elements did not occur naturally , they would have shorter and shorter half @-@ lives to spontaneous fission , until they stopped existing altogether at around element 108 ( now known as hassium ) . Initial work in the synthesis of the actinides appeared to confirm this . The nuclear shell model , introduced in the late 1960s , stated that the protons and neutrons formed shells within a nucleus , somewhat analogous to electrons forming electron shells within an atom . The noble gases are unreactive due to their having full electron shells ; thus it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – having so @-@ called " magic " numbers of protons or neutrons – would be stabilized against radioactive decay . A doubly magic isotope , having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons , would be especially stabilized , and it was calculated that the next doubly magic isotope after lead @-@ 208 would be flerovium @-@ 298 with 114 protons and 184 neutrons , which would form the centre of a so @-@ called " island of stability " . This island of stability , supposedly ranging from copernicium ( element 112 ) to ununoctium ( 118 ) , would come after a long " sea of instability " from elements 101 ( mendelevium ) to 111 ( roentgenium ) , and the flerovium isotopes in it were speculated in 1966 to have half @-@ lives in excess of a hundred million years . It took thirty years for the first isotopes of flerovium to be synthesized . More recent work suggests that the local islands of stability around hassium and flerovium are due to these nuclei being respectively deformed and oblate , which make them resistant to spontaneous fission , and that the true island of stability for spherical nuclei occurs at around unbibium @-@ 306 ( with 122 protons and 184 neutrons ) .
= = = Discovery = = =
Flerovium was first synthesized in December 1998 by a team of scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia , led by Yuri Oganessian , who bombarded a target of plutonium @-@ 244 with accelerated nuclei of calcium @-@ 48 :
244
94Pu + 48
20Ca → 292
114Fl * → 289
114Fl + 3 1
0n
A single atom of flerovium , decaying by alpha emission with a lifetime of 30 @.@ 4 seconds , was detected . The decay energy measured was 9 @.@ 71 MeV , giving an expected half @-@ life of 2 – 23 s . This observation was assigned to the isotope flerovium @-@ 289 and was published in January 1999 . The experiment was later repeated , but an isotope with these decay properties was never found again and hence the exact identity of this activity is unknown . It is possible that it was due to the metastable isomer 289mFl .
Glenn T. Seaborg , a scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory who had been involved in work to synthesize such superheavy elements , had said in December 1997 that " one of his longest @-@ lasting and most cherished dreams was to see one of these magic elements " ; he was told of the synthesis of flerovium by his colleague Albert Ghiorso soon after its publication in 1999 . Ghiorso later recalled :
I wanted Glenn to know , so I went to his bedside and told him . I thought I saw a gleam in his eye , but the next day when I went to visit him he didn 't remember seeing me . As a scientist , he had died when he had that stroke .
Seaborg died a month later , on 25 February 1999 .
= = = Road to confirmation = = =
In March 1999 , the same team replaced the 244Pu target with a 242Pu one in order to produce other flerovium isotopes . This time two atoms of flerovium were produced , decaying via alpha emission with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 5 s . They were assigned as 287Fl . This activity has not been seen again either , and it is unclear what nucleus was produced . It is possible that it was the meta @-@ stable isomer 287mFl .
The now @-@ confirmed discovery of flerovium was made in June 1999 when the Dubna team repeated the first reaction from 1998 . This time , two atoms of element 114 were produced ; they alpha decayed with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 6 s , different from the 1998 result . This activity was initially assigned to 288Fl in error , due to the confusion regarding the previous observations that were assumed to come from 289Fl . Further work in December 2002 finally allowed a positive reassignment of the June 1999 atoms to 289Fl .
In May 2009 , the Joint Working Party ( JWP ) of IUPAC published a report on the discovery of copernicium in which they acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283Cn . This implied the discovery of flerovium , from the acknowledgement of the data for the synthesis of 287Fl and 291Lv , which decay to 283Cn . The discovery of the isotopes flerovium @-@ 286 and -287 was confirmed in January 2009 at Berkeley . This was followed by confirmation of flerovium @-@ 288 and -289 in July 2009 at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Germany . In 2011 , IUPAC evaluated the Dubna team experiments of 1999 – 2007 . They found the early data inconclusive , but accepted the results of 2004 – 2007 as flerovium , and the element was officially recognized as having been discovered .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , flerovium is sometimes called eka @-@ lead . In 1979 , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununquadium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uuq ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the discovery of the element is confirmed and a permanent name is decided on . Some scientists in the field called it " element 114 " , with the symbol of ( 114 ) or 114 .
According to IUPAC recommendations , the discoverer ( s ) of a new element has the right to suggest a name . After the discovery of flerovium and livermorium was recognized by IUPAC on 1 June 2011 , IUPAC asked the discovery team at the JINR to suggest permanent names for those two elements . The Dubna team chose to name element 114 flerovium ( symbol Fl ) , after the Russian Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions ( FLNR ) , named after the Soviet physicist Georgy Flyorov ( also spelled Flerov ) ; earlier reports claim the element name was directly proposed to honour Flerov . In accordance with the proposal received from the discoverers IUPAC officially named flerovium after the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions ( an older name for the JINR ) , not after Flyorov himself . Flyorov is known for writing to Stalin in April 1942 and pointing out the silence in scientific journals in the field of nuclear fission in the United States , Great Britain , and Germany . Flyorov deduced that this research must have become classified information in those countries . Flyorov 's work and urgings led to the development of the USSR 's own atomic bomb project .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = =
The physical basis of the chemical periodicity governing the periodic table is the electron shell closures at each noble gas ( atomic numbers 2 , 10 , 18 , 36 , 54 , 86 , and 118 ) : as any further electrons must enter a new shell with higher energy , closed @-@ shell electron configurations are markedly more stable , leading to the relative inertness of the noble gases . Since protons and neutrons are also known to arrange themselves in closed nuclear shells , the same effect happens at nucleon shell closures , which happen at specific nucleon numbers often dubbed " magic numbers " . The known magic numbers are 2 , 8 , 20 , 28 , 50 , and 82 for protons and neutrons , and also 126 for neutrons . Nucleons with magic proton and neutron numbers , such as helium @-@ 4 , oxygen @-@ 16 , calcium @-@ 48 , and lead @-@ 208 , are termed " doubly magic " and are very stable against decay . This property of increased nuclear stability is very important for superheavy elements : without any stabilization , their half @-@ lives would be expected by exponential extrapolation to be in the range of nanoseconds ( 10 − 9 s ) when element 110 ( darmstadtium ) is reached , because of the ever @-@ increasing repulsive electromagnetic forces between the positively charged protons that overcome the limited @-@ range strong nuclear force that holds the nucleus together . The next closed nucleon shells and hence magic numbers are thought to be at the centre of the long @-@ sought island of stability , where the half @-@ lives to alpha decay and spontaneous fission lengthen again .
Initially , by analogy with the neutron magic number 126 , the next proton shell was also expected to occur at element 126 , too far away from the synthesis capabilities of the mid @-@ 20th century to achieve much theoretical attention . In 1966 , new values for the potential and spin @-@ orbit interaction in this region of the periodic table contradicted this and predicted that the next proton shell would occur instead at element 114 , and that nuclides in this region would be as stable against spontaneous fission as many heavy nuclei such as lead @-@ 208 . The expected closed neutron shells in this region were at neutron number 184 or 196 , thus making 298Fl and 310Fl candidates for being doubly magic . 1972 estimates predicted a half @-@ life of about a year for 298Fl , which was expected to be near a large island of stability with the longest half @-@ life at darmstadtium @-@ 294 ( 1010 years , comparable to that of 232Th ) . After the synthesis of the first isotopes of elements 112 through 118 at the turn of the 21st century , it was found that the synthesized neutron @-@ deficient isotopes were stabilized against fission . In 2008 it was thus hypothesized that the stabilization against fission of these nuclides was due to their being oblate nuclei , and that a region of oblate nuclei was centred on 288Fl . Additionally , new theoretical models showed that the expected gap in energy between the proton orbitals 2f7 / 2 ( filled at element 114 ) and 2f5 / 2 ( filled at element 120 ) was smaller than expected , so that element 114 no longer appeared to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell . The next doubly magic nucleus is now expected to be around 306Ubb , but the expected low half @-@ life and low production cross section of this nuclide makes its synthesis challenging . Nevertheless , the island of stability is still expected to exist in this region of the periodic table , and nearer its centre ( which has not been approached closely enough yet ) some nuclides , such as 291Uup and its alpha- and beta @-@ decay daughters , may be found to decay by positron emission or electron capture and thus move into the centre of the island . Due to the expected high fission barriers , any nucleus within this island of stability decays exclusively by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and beta decay , both of which would bring the nuclei closer to the beta stability line where the island is expected to be . Electron capture is needed to reach the island , which is problematic because it is not certain that electron capture becomes a major decay mode in this region of the chart of nuclides .
Several experiments have been performed between 2000 and 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 292Fl by bombarding a plutonium @-@ 244 target with accelerated calcium @-@ 48 ions . A compound nucleus is a loose combination of nucleons that have not yet arranged themselves into nuclear shells . It has no internal structure and is held together only by the collision forces between the target and projectile nuclei . The results revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling doubly magic or nearly doubly magic fragments such as calcium @-@ 40 , tin @-@ 132 , lead @-@ 208 , or bismuth @-@ 209 . It was also found that the yield for the fusion @-@ fission pathway was similar between calcium @-@ 48 and iron @-@ 58 projectiles , indicating a possible future use of iron @-@ 58 projectiles in superheavy element formation . It has also been suggested that a neutron @-@ rich flerovium isotope can be formed by the quasifission ( partial fusion followed by fission ) of a massive nucleus . Recently it has been shown that the multi @-@ nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei ( such as uranium and curium ) might be used to synthesize the neutron @-@ rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability , although production of neutron @-@ rich nobelium or seaborgium nuclei is more likely .
Theoretical estimation of the alpha decay half @-@ lives of the isotopes of the flerovium supports the experimental data . The fission @-@ survived isotope 298Fl , long expected to be doubly magic , is predicted to have alpha decay half @-@ life around 17 days . The direct synthesis of the nucleus 298Fl by a fusion – evaporation pathway is currently impossible since no known combination of target and stable projectile can provide 184 neutrons in the compound nucleus , and radioactive projectiles such as calcium @-@ 50 ( half @-@ life fourteen seconds ) cannot yet be used in the needed quantity and intensity . Currently , one possibility for the synthesis of the expected long @-@ lived nuclei of copernicium ( 291Cn and 293Cn ) and flerovium near the middle of the island include using even heavier targets such as curium @-@ 250 , berkelium @-@ 249 , californium @-@ 251 , and einsteinium @-@ 254 , that when fused with calcium @-@ 48 would produce nuclei such as 291Uup and 291Fl ( as decay products of 299Uue , 295Uus , and 295Lv ) , with just enough neutrons to alpha decay to nuclides close enough to the centre of the island to possibly undergo electron capture and move inwards to the centre , though the cross sections would be small and little is yet known about the decay properties of superheavy nuclides near the beta stability line . This may be the best hope currently to synthesize nuclei on the island of stability , but it is speculative and may or may not work in practice . Another possibility is to use controlled nuclear explosions to achieve the high neutron flux necessary to create macroscopic amounts of such isotopes . This would mimic the r @-@ process in which the actinides were first produced in nature and the gap of instability after polonium bypassed , as it would bypass the gaps of instability at 258 – 260Fm and at mass number 275 ( atomic numbers 104 to 108 ) . Some such isotopes ( especially 291Cn and 293Cn ) may even have been synthesized in nature , but would have decayed away far too quickly ( with half @-@ lives of only thousands of years ) and be produced in far too small quantities ( about 10 − 12 the abundance of lead ) to be detectable as primordial nuclides today outside cosmic rays .
= = = Atomic and physical = = =
Flerovium is a member of group 14 in the periodic table , below carbon , silicon , germanium , tin , and lead . Every previous group 14 element has four electrons in its valence shell , forming a valence electron configuration of ns2np2 . In flerovium 's case , the trend will be continued and the valence electron configuration is predicted to be 7s27p2 ; flerovium will behave similarly to its lighter congeners in many respects . Differences are likely to arise ; a largely contributing effect is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction — the mutual interaction between the electrons ' motion and spin . It is especially strong for the superheavy elements , because their electrons move faster than in lighter atoms , at velocities comparable to the speed of light . In relation to flerovium atoms , it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels ( stabilizing the corresponding electrons ) , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect , and the effect " tearing " the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting . Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 ⁄ 2 and 3 ⁄ 2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p2
1 / 2 . These effects cause flerovium 's chemistry to be somewhat different from that of its lighter neighbours .
Due to the spin @-@ orbit splitting of the 7p subshell being very large in flerovium , and the fact that both flerovium 's filled orbitals in the seventh shell are stabilized relativistically , the valence electron configuration of flerovium may be considered to have a completely filled shell , making flerovium a very noble metal . Its first ionization energy of 8 @.@ 539 eV ( 823 @.@ 9 kJ / mol ) should be the highest in group 14 . The 6d electron levels are also destabilized , and may still be able to participate in chemical reactions in flerovium ( but not the later 7p elements ) , which might allow it to behave in some ways like transition metals and allow higher oxidation states such as + 4 and + 6 . They should be less stable than the + 2 state , following periodic trends , and may only be stable in flerovium fluorides .
The closed @-@ shell electron configuration of flerovium results in the metallic bonding in metallic flerovium being weaker than in the preceding and following elements ; thus , flerovium is expected to have a low boiling point , and has recently been suggested to be possibly a gaseous metal . The melting and boiling points of flerovium are predicted to be around 70 ° C and 150 ° C , significantly lower than the values for the lighter group 14 elements ( those of lead are 327 ° C and 1749 ° C respectively ) , and continuing the trend of decreasing boiling points down the group . Although earlier studies predicted a boiling point of ~ 1000 ° C or 2840 ° C , this is now considered unlikely because of the expected weak metallic bonding in flerovium and that group trends would expect flerovium to have a low sublimation enthalpy . In the solid state , flerovium is expected to be a dense metal due to its high atomic weight , with a density variously predicted to be either 22 g · cm − 3 or 14 g · cm − 3 . The electron of the hydrogen @-@ like flerovium ion ( oxidized so that it only has one electron , Fl113 + ) is expected to move so fast that it has a mass 1 @.@ 79 times that of a stationary electron , due to relativistic effects . For comparison , the figures for hydrogen @-@ like lead and tin are expected to be 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 073 respectively . Flerovium would form weaker metal – metal bonds than lead and would be adsorbed less on surfaces .
= = = Chemical = = =
Flerovium is the heaviest known member of group 14 in the periodic table , below lead , and is projected to be the second member of the 7p series of chemical elements . The first five members of this group show the group oxidation state of + 4 and the latter members have an increasingly prominent + 2 chemistry due to the onset of the inert pair effect . Tin represents the point at which the stability of the + 2 and + 4 states are similar , and lead ( II ) is the most stable of all the chemically well @-@ understood group 14 elements in the + 2 oxidation state . The 7s orbitals are very highly stabilized in flerovium and thus a very large sp3 orbital hybridization is required to achieve the + 4 oxidation state , so flerovium is expected to be even more stable than lead in its strongly predominant + 2 oxidation state and its + 4 oxidation state should be highly unstable . For example , flerovium dioxide ( FlO2 ) is expected to be highly unstable to decomposition into its constituent elements ( and would not be formed from the direct reaction of flerovium with oxygen ) , and flerovane ( FlH4 ) , which should have Fl – H bond lengths of 1 @.@ 787 Å , is predicted to be more thermodynamically unstable than plumbane , spontaneously decomposing into flerovium ( II ) hydride ( FlH2 ) and hydrogen gas . The only stable flerovium ( IV ) compound is expected to be the tetrafluoride , FlF4 : even this may be due to sd hybridizations rather than sp3 hybridization , and its decomposition to the difluoride and fluorine gas would be exothermic . The gross destabilization of all the tetrahalides ( for example , FlCl4 is destabilized by about 400 kJ / mol ) is unfortunate because otherwise these compounds would be very useful in gas @-@ phase chemical studies of flerovium . The corresponding polyfluoride anion FlF2 −
6 should be unstable to hydrolysis in aqueous solution , and flerovium ( II ) polyhalide anions such as FlBr −
3 and FlI −
3 are predicted to form preferentially in flerovium @-@ containing solutions . The sd hybridizations would be possible as the 7s and 6d electrons in flerovium share approximately the same energy , perhaps making even higher oxidation states like + 6 possible with extremely electronegative elements , such as in flerovium ( VI ) fluoride ( FlF6 ) . In general , the spin @-@ orbit contraction of the 7p1 / 2 orbital should lead to smaller bond lengths and larger bond angles : this has been theoretically confirmed in FlH2 .
Due to the relativistic stabilization of flerovium 's 7s27p2
1 / 2 valence electron configuration , the 0 oxidation state should also be more stable for flerovium than for lead , as the 7p1 / 2 electrons begin to also exhibit a mild inert pair effect : this stabilization of the neutral state may bring about some similarities between the behaviour of flerovium and the noble gas radon . Due to the expected relative inertness of flerovium , its diatomic compounds FlH and FlF should have lower energies of dissociation than the corresponding lead compounds PbH and PbF . Flerovium ( IV ) should be even more electronegative than lead ( IV ) ; lead ( IV ) has electronegativity 2 @.@ 33 on the Pauling scale ; the lead ( II ) value is only 1 @.@ 87 .
Flerovium ( II ) should be more stable than lead ( II ) , and polyhalide ions and compounds of types FlX + , FlX2 , FlX −
3 , and FlX2 −
4 ( X = Cl , Br , I ) are expected to form readily . Fluorine would be able to also form the unstable flerovium ( IV ) analogues . All the flerovium dihalides are expected to be stable ; with the difluoride being water @-@ soluble , spin @-@ orbit effects would destabilize flerovium dihydride ( FlH2 ) by almost 2 @.@ 6 eV ( 250 kJ / mol ) . In solution , flerovium would also form the oxoanion flerovite ( FlO2 −
2 ) in aqueous solution , analogous to plumbite . Flerovium ( II ) sulfate ( FlSO4 ) and sulfide ( FlS ) should be very insoluble in water , and flerovium ( II ) acetate ( FlC2H3O2 ) and nitrate ( Fl ( NO3 ) 2 ) should be quite water @-@ soluble . The standard electrode potential for the reduction of Fl2 + ions to metallic flerovium is estimated to be around + 0 @.@ 9 V , confirming the increased stability of flerovium in the neutral state . In general , due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7p1 / 2 spinor , Fl2 + is expected to have properties intermediate between those of Hg2 + or Cd2 + and its lighter congener Pb2 + .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Flerovium is currently the heaviest element to have had its chemistry experimentally investigated . Two experiments were performed in April – May 2007 in a joint FLNR @-@ PSI collaboration aiming to study the chemistry of copernicium . The first experiment involved the reaction 242Pu ( 48Ca , 3n ) 287Fl and the second the reaction 244Pu ( 48Ca , 4n ) 288Fl : these reactions produce short @-@ lived flerovium isotopes whose copernicium daughters would then be studied . The adsorption properties of the resultant atoms on a gold surface were compared with those of radon , as it was then expected that copernicium 's full @-@ shell electron configuration would lead to noble @-@ gas like behaviour . Noble gases interact with metal surfaces very weakly , which is uncharacteristic of metals .
The first experiment allowed detection of three atoms of 283Cn but also seemingly detected 1 atom of 287Fl . This result was a surprise given the transport time of the product atoms is ~ 2 s , so the flerovium atoms produced should have decayed to copernicium before adsorption . In the second reaction , 2 atoms of 288Fl and possibly 1 atom of 289Fl were detected . Two of the three atoms displayed adsorption characteristics associated with a volatile , noble @-@ gas @-@ like element , which has been suggested but is not predicted by more recent calculations . These experiments provided independent confirmation for the discovery of copernicium , flerovium , and livermorium via comparison with published decay data . Further experiments in 2008 to confirm this important result detected a single atom of 289Fl , and supported previous data showing flerovium having a noble @-@ gas @-@ like interaction with gold .
The experimental support for a noble @-@ gas @-@ like flerovium was soon to weaken abruptly . In 2009 and 2010 , the FLNR @-@ PSI collaboration synthesized further atoms of flerovium to follow up their 2007 and 2008 studies . In particular , the first three flerovium atoms synthesized in the 2010 study suggested again a noble @-@ gas @-@ like character , but the complete set taken together resulted in a more ambiguous interpretation , unusual for a metal in the carbon group but not fully like a noble gas in character . In their paper , the scientists refrained from calling flerovium 's chemical properties " close to those of noble gases " , as had previously been done in the 2008 study . Flerovium 's volatility was again measured through interactions with a gold surface , and provided indications that the volatility of flerovium was comparable to that of mercury , astatine , and the simultaneously investigated copernicium , which had been shown in the study to be a very volatile noble metal , conforming to its being the heaviest group 12 element known . Nevertheless , it was pointed out that this volatile behaviour was not expected for a usual group 14 metal .
In even later experiments from 2012 at the GSI , the chemical properties of flerovium were revealed to be more metallic than noble @-@ gas @-@ like . Jens Volker Kratz and Christoph Düllmann specifically named copernicium and flerovium as belonging to a new category of " volatile metals " ; Kratz even speculated that they might be gaseous at standard temperature and pressure . These " volatile metals " , as a category , were expected to fall between normal metals and noble gases in terms of adsorption properties . Contrary to the 2009 and 2010 results , it was shown in the 2012 experiments that the interactions of flerovium and copernicium respectively with gold were about equal . Further studies showed that flerovium was more reactive than copernicium , in contradiction to previous experiments and predictions .
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= Alex Raymond =
Alexander Gillespie " Alex " Raymond ( October 2 , 1909 – September 6 , 1956 ) was an American cartoonist , best known for creating Flash Gordon for King Features in 1934 . The strip was subsequently adapted into many other media , from a series of movie serials ( 1936 – 1940 ) to a 1970s television series and a 1980 film .
Raymond 's father encouraged his love of drawing from an early age , leading him to become an assistant illustrator in the early 1930s on strips such as Tillie the Toiler and Tim Tyler 's Luck . Towards the end of 1933 , Raymond created the epic Flash Gordon science @-@ fiction comic strip to compete with the popular Buck Rogers comic strip and , before long , Flash was the more popular strip of the two . Raymond also worked on the jungle adventure saga Jungle Jim and spy adventure Secret Agent X @-@ 9 concurrently with Flash , though his increasing workload caused him to leave Secret Agent X @-@ 9 to another artist by 1935 . He left the strips in 1944 to join the Marines , saw combat in the Pacific Ocean theater in 1945 and was demobilized in 1946 . Upon his return from serving during World War II , Raymond created and illustrated the much @-@ heralded Rip Kirby , a private detective comic strip . In 1956 , Raymond was killed in a car crash at the age of 46 ; he was survived by his wife and five children .
He became known as " the artist 's artist " and his much @-@ imitated style can be seen on the many strips he illustrated . Raymond worked from live models furnished by Manhattan 's Walter Thornton Agency , as indicated in " Modern Jules Verne , " a profile of Raymond published in the Dell Four @-@ Color Flash Gordon # 10 ( 1942 ) , showing how Thornton model Patricia Quinn posed as a character in the strip .
Numerous artists have cited Raymond as an inspiration for their work , including comic artists Jack Kirby , Bob Kane , Russ Manning , and Al Williamson . George Lucas cited Raymond as a major influence for Star Wars . He was inducted into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996 . Maurice Horn stated that Raymond unquestionably possessed " the most versatile talent " of all the comic strip creators . He has also described his style as " precise , clear , and incisive . " Carl Barks described Raymond as a man " who could combine craftsmanship with emotions and all the gimmicks that went into a good adventure strip . " Raymond 's influence on other cartoonists was considerable during his lifetime and did not diminish after his death .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Raymond was born in New Rochelle , New York , the son of Beatrice Wallazz ( née Crossley ) and Alexander Gillespie Raymond . Alex was Roman Catholic . His father was a civil engineer and road builder who encouraged his son 's love of drawing from an early age , even " covering one wall of his office in the Woolworth Building " with his young son 's work . After the death of his father when he was 12 , he felt that perhaps there was not as viable a future in art as he had hoped and attended Iona Prep on an athletic scholarship .
Raymond 's first job was as " an order clerk in Wall Street " . In the wake of the 1929 economic crisis , he " enrolled in the Grand Central School of Art in New York City " and began working as a solicitor for a mortgage broker . Approaching former neighbor Russ Westover , Raymond soon quit his job and by 1930 was assisting on Westover 's Tillie the Toiler , through which Raymond was " introduced to [ the ] King Features Syndicate " , where he became a staff artist and for which he would produce his greatest work .
Raymond was influenced by a variety of strip cartoonists and magazine illustrators , including Matt Clark , Franklin Booth and John La Gatta . From late 1931 to 1933 , Raymond assisted Lyman Young on Tim Tyler 's Luck , eventually becoming the ghost artist in " 1932 and 1933 ... [ on ] both the daily strip and the Sunday page " , turning it " into one of the most eye @-@ catching strips of the time " . Concurrently , Raymond assisted Chic Young on Blondie .
In 1933 , King Features assigned him to do the art for an espionage action @-@ adventure strip , Secret Agent X @-@ 9 , scripted by novelist Dashiell Hammett , and Raymond 's illustrative approach to that strip made him King Features ' leading talent .
= = = Flash Gordon , Jungle Jim and Secret Agent X @-@ 9 = = =
Towards the end of 1933 , King Features asked him to create a Sunday page that could compete with Buck Rogers in the 25th Century , a popular science @-@ fiction adventure strip that had debuted in 1929 and already spawned the rival Brick Bradford in 1933 . According to King Features , syndicate president Joe Connolly " gave Raymond an idea ... based on fantastic adventures similar to those of Jules Verne " .
Alongside ghostwriter Don Moore , a pulp @-@ fiction veteran , Raymond created the visually sumptuous science @-@ fiction epic comic strip Flash Gordon . The duo also created the " complementary strip , Jungle Jim , an adventurous saga set in South @-@ East Asia " , a topper which ran above Flash in some papers Raymond was concurrently illustrating Secret Agent X @-@ 9 , which premiered January 22 , 1934 , two weeks after the two other strips . It was Flash Gordon that would outlast the others , quickly " develop [ ing ] an audience far surpassing " that of Buck Rogers . Flash Gordon , wrote Stephen Becker , " was wittier and moved faster , " so " Buck 's position as America 's favorite sci @-@ fi hero " , wrote historian Bill Crouch , Jr . , " went down in flames to the artistic lash and spectacle of Alex Raymond 's virtuoso artwork . " Alex Raymond has stated , " I decided honestly that comic art is an art form in itself . It reflects the life and times more accurately and actually is more artistic than magazine illustration — since it is entirely creative . An illustrator works with camera and models ; a comic artist begins with a white sheet of paper and dreams up his own business — he is playwright , director , editor and artist at once . " A. E. Mendez has also stated that " Raymond ’ s achievements are chopped into bite @-@ sized pieces by the comic art cognoscenti . Lost in the worthwhile effort to distinguish comics as an art form , the romance , sweep and beauty of Raymond 's draftsmanship , his incomparable line work , is dismissed . To many , it 's just pretty pictures . Somehow or another , it 's OK for people like Caniff and Eisner to borrow from film . That ’ s real storytelling . But for Raymond to study illustrators , well , that 's just not comics . "
Debuting on January 7 , 1934 , Raymond 's first Flash strip introduced the " world @-@ famous polo player " , improbably roped into a space adventure alongside love @-@ interest Dale Arden and scientist Dr. Hans Zarkov . Transported by rocket to the planet Mongo , " which was about to collide with Earth " , the trio " immediately became embroiled in the affairs of Mongo 's inhabitants — particularly those of its insidious warlord , Ming " , who would become Flash Gordon 's nemesis throughout the franchise 's many incarnations .
Early in 1935 , Hammett decided to depart as writer of Secret Agent X @-@ 9 in order to pursue a career in Hollywood . While it has been presumed that Raymond took on the writing duties of the strip until a replacement could be found , biographer Tom Roberts instead believes that the strip was written by committee during editorial conference , a view R. C. Harvey believes is supported by the strips themselves . Saint author Leslie Charteris was hired to take over the writing of the strip in September 1935 , but the pair would only collaborate on one storyline . By the end of 1935 , " the [ work ] load was too much for Raymond , " who left Secret Agent X @-@ 9 to artist Charles Flanders , in order to devote more time to his meticulous Sunday pages .
Raymond 's work on X @-@ 9 is said to particularly reach for " the feel of the best pulp interior art of the time , " a style that would evolve with his own so @-@ called " great flourishes " and " later blossom to full effect in Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim " . " Under his pen , " writes Maurice Horn , his Sunday pages " became world famous ( especially Flash Gordon ) . " However , historian and critic R.C. Harvey argues that " despite Raymond 's great talent as an illustrator , his deployment of the comic @-@ strip medium ( on X @-@ 9 ) was not very impressive . " Harvey feels that Raymond 's work suffers in comparison to Milton Caniff 's contemporaneous work , with Raymond 's failings as a visual storyteller less noticeable on a weekly Sunday strip , where the space afforded played to his skills as an illustrator .
Raymond 's sensual artwork — for which the artist particularly " studied popular illustrators , " including pulp artist Matt Clark , whose work Raymond 's male figures particularly evoke — outshone its borders and " attracted far more loyal readers than ... [ the ] rather contrived and unconvincing adventure stories " his work depicted . Raymond swiftly became " among the most highly @-@ regarded — and most imitated — in all of comics " for his work on the weekly strip , with Harvey declaring his work on the strip " a technical virtuosity matched on the comics pages only by Harold Foster in Prince Valiant . " Raymond evolved the layout of the strip from a four @-@ tier strip in 1934 to a two @-@ tier strip in 1936 , reducing the number of panels but doubling their size . Combining this with a removal of dialogue from speech balloons to captions at the bottom of the panel afforded Raymond the space to create detailed and atmospheric backgrounds . Against these spacious backgrounds , the placement of characters in heroic pose " lent the entire enterprise a mythic air . "
Flash Gordon gained a daily strip in 1940 , illustrated by Austin Briggs . Raymond left the Sunday strip in 1944 to join the Marines , whereupon the daily strip was cancelled and Briggs assumed Sunday duties , continuing until 1948 . Briggs was succeeded on the Sundays by Emanuel " Mac " Raboy , while the daily strip was revised in 1951 by Dan Barry . Barry also took over Sunday duties after Raboy 's death in 1967 .
Run above Flash Gordon , Raymond 's Jungle Jim is described by Armando Mendez as " a thing of beauty ... always more than just a topper or a shallow response to Hal Foster 's exquisite Tarzan " . The companion strip evolved over time , morphing from an initial " two tiers and up to six panels [ layout ] , with speech balloons " into " a single row , of four very tall panels with declamatory text and static , vertical composition " . Raymond 's skill and artistic dexterity , however , kept the storytelling constant and the artwork vibrant . Jungle Jim was " set in contemporary times and the exotic Malay peninsula of islands , [ but ] was intended to hark back to the original tales of Kipling , Haggard and Burroughs " .
= = = Military career = = =
Raymond took the war in Europe seriously enough to incorporate it into his strips , with Flash returning to Earth in the Spring of 1941 . Jungle Jim found himself involved in the conflict too , fighting in the U.S. Army . Raymond was becoming " restive about doing his duty " , a restlessness increased by the knowledge that four of his five brothers were already enlisted . In February 1944 , Raymond left King Features and his work on the Sunday Flash Gordon / Jungle Jim pages to join the US Marines , commissioned as a captain and serving in the public @-@ relations arm . Raymond is quoted as stating " I just had to get into this fight ... I 've always been the kind of guy who gets a lump in his throat when a band plays the ' Star Spangled Banner ' " .
Shortly thereafter , he " was sent to Quantico for training in the curriculum of the Aviation Ground Officer 's School , " and was soon producing " posters and patriotic images from a government office in Philadelphia . " His most famous image from this time is " Marines at Prayer , " which " was destined to become a well @-@ known and well @-@ circulated image of Marines on a battlefield pausing for worship . " Raymond also " designed the official 1944 Marine Corps Christmas card . " Desiring " to get closer to the action , " he then trained at the Marine Corps Air Station in Santa Barbara before serving in the Pacific Ocean theater " on the 1945 cruise of the escort carrier USS Gilbert Islands . " Treated by his fellow marines ( who had been raised on Flash Gordon ) as a celebrity , he was nonetheless seen as " a down @-@ to @-@ earth fellow , " and well liked . He saw " a period of intense combat in June 1945 , " and was " made an honorary member of VMTB @-@ 143 in August 1945 . " Raymond had , in May 1945 , designed a squadron patch for the men of VMTB @-@ 143 , after which the " squadron adopted the new name ' The Rocket Raiders ' . "
He was demobilized as a Major in 1946 . Upon his return , Raymond was unable to return to Flash Gordon . King Features were not prepared to usurp Austin Briggs from the Sunday strip and pointed out that Raymond had left voluntarily to enlist . Relatives of Raymond recall the artist as resenting this decision , which left him feeling " cast off with so little regard . " However , King Features offered Raymond the opportunity to create a new strip .
= = = Rip Kirby = = =
Raymond 's " police daily strip , " named after its central character - J. Remington " Rip " Kirby - debuted on March 4 , 1946 , conceived ( and initially scripted ) by King Features editor Ward Greene . The plotting of the strips is harder to attribute , the scant evidence available supporting the notion that Raymond was more than simply an illustrator . However , as was relatively commonplace on such strips , published credit went to Raymond , whose name was the major selling feature ; the artist even managed to gain a part @-@ ownership deal with King and a better split of the profits than was usual . Rip Kirby was Raymond 's reintroduction to newspaper strips after the war , and he was quick to forge a new " up @-@ to @-@ date " style for the strip , while keeping ties to the audience he had built up with Flash Gordon , Jungle Jim , and Secret Agent X @-@ 9 .
Running alongside the post @-@ World War II reintegration of America 's military into civilian life , Rip ( like Raymond ) was " an ex @-@ Marine , " who " set himself up as a private detective " a vocation tailor @-@ made to provide daily thrills .
Described by Stephen Becker as " modern and almost too intellectual " , the strip eschewed many of the pulp fictional detective tropes ( e.g. alcoholism , two @-@ fisted assistants , and an assortment of interchangeable femmes fatale ) . Instead , " [ Rip ] did more cogitating than fisticuffing , and smoked a leisurely pipe while he did it ; " " had a frail , balding assistant ... instead of a two @-@ fisted sidekick ; " " had a steady girlfriend ... [ and ] [ i ] f that wasn 't enough , he even wore glasses ! Rip " lived and worked in a recognizable , glamorous , modern New York City on cases involving very human frailties and vice " , and " grew older as the strip progressed " , a continuity advancement little seen in the strips of the time ( although pioneered in " Gasoline Alley " and Mary Worth ) . Raymond noted the change in subject matter , commenting that " I wanted to do something different and more down to earth . "
Stylistically , " Raymond turned to the Cooper Studio @-@ Al Parker advertising style for inspiration , spurring a new generation of comic artists to follow a fresh direction " , that of " glorify [ ing ] contemporary post @-@ War American life " . Although the strip was published entirely in black and white , Raymond worked hard to add tone through artistic technique . " Raymond nevertheless [ colored ] through his use of varying linework ... [ creating ] color through contrast " . His new style was much imitated throughout the industry and became known as ' the Raymond style ' .
Circulation of the strip rose steadily , and it was the artist who was apportioned most of the praise - including being awarded the fourth Reuben Award in 1949 . He also served as the National Cartoonists Society 's president from 1950 until 1952 , putting into place the committee structure responsible for overseeing the organization , and threw himself into championing the medium as an art form . Raymond profited in recognizability as well as financially , and continued on the strip until his untimely death in September 1956 . His collaborator from 1952 was writer Fred Dickenson ( who wrote the strip for a further 34 years ) , and he was succeeded artistically by magazine and Prize Publications ' Young Romance illustrator John Prentice . Commentators have said that Prentice echoed the Rip Kirby artistic style , but lacked " Raymond 's excellent design sense , " although he continued to draw the strip until his retirement in 1999 , the strip itself concluding shortly after .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1967 , Woody Gelman , under his Nostalgia Press imprint revived some of his earlier work . Regarded by Time magazine in 1974 — alongside Prince Valiant author @-@ illustrator Hal Foster — as " some sort of genius " , and described in Jerry Bails and Hames Ware 's Who 's Who in American Comic Books as " [ p ] ossibly the most influential artist on early comic books " , Raymond 's legacy as an artistic inspiration is immense . Harvey argues that it is because of Raymond and Foster that the illustrative style became the dominant one used for adventure strips . " His work and Foster 's created the visual standard by which all such comic strips would henceforth be measured . " Biographer Tom Roberts also believes Raymond 's work on Rip Kirby " inspired all the soap opera style strips of the fifties and sixties " . Roberts argues that strips such as Apartment 3 @-@ G " can trace their origins to the success of Raymond 's strip " . Although his work was rarely seen outside of the newspaper " funny pages " , as Raymond preferred to focus his energies on strip work , he also produced a number of " illustrations for Blue Book , Look , Collier 's and Cosmopolitan " . as well as Esquire .
The " heightened realism " of Raymond 's photorealistic style has been " chastised for making his pictures too realistic , too gorgeous for its own sake " , although many commentators believe that this very method " plunges the reader into the story " . Raymond 's work has a " timeless appeal , " many aspects of which — including the use of feathering ( a shading technique in which a soft series of parallel lines helps to suggest the contour of an object ) — have inspired generations of cartoonists , his work becoming " the raw material for the swipe files of future generations " . His work on Rip Kirby is especially noted for its use of " sophisticated black spotting " , a technique Raymond used from c.1949 " for pacing " reasons . Fellow @-@ cartoonist Stan Drake recalled that Raymond called his black areas " pools of quiet " , serving as they did " as a pause for the viewer , something to slow the eye across the strip 's panels " .
= = = Specific influences = = =
Alex Raymond 's " influence on other cartoonists was considerable during his lifetime and did not diminish after his death " . George Lucas has cited Raymond 's Flash Gordon as a major influence on his Star Wars films ( which , cyclically , inspired the 1980 Flash Gordon film ) , while Raymond 's long shadow has fallen across the comics industry ever since his work saw print . Comics artists who have cited Raymond as a particularly significant influence on their work include Murphy Anderson , Jim Aparo , Frank Brunner , John Buscema , Gene Colan , Dick Dillin , José Luis García @-@ López , Frank Giacoia , Bob Haney , Jack Katz , Everett Raymond Kinstler , Joe Kubert , Russ Manning , Mort Meskin , Sheldon Moldoff , Luis Garcia Mozos , Joe Orlando , Mac Raboy , John Romita Jr . , Kurt Schaffenberger , Joe Sinnott , Dick Sprang and Alex Toth , among many others .
In particular , Raymond has been named as a key influence by many of the most influential and important comic book artists of all time . EC Comics @-@ staple Al Williamson cites Raymond as a major influence , and is quoted as saying that Raymond was " the reason I became an artist " . Indeed , Williamson ultimately assisted on the Flash Gordon strips in the mid @-@ 1950s , and Rip Kirby in the mid @-@ 1960s ( all post @-@ Raymond ) . Key Golden Age artists credit Raymond with influencing their work . The artistic creators of Batman ( Bob Kane ) and Superman ( Joe Shuster ) credit him ( alongside Milton Caniff , Billy DeBeck and Roy Crane ) as having had a strong influence on their artistic development . Decades later , the herald of the Silver Age ( and co @-@ creator of most of Marvel Comics 's pantheon of heroes ) , Jack " King " Kirby also credits Raymond , alongside fellow strip artist Hal Foster , as a particular influence and inspiration .
Cerebus creator Dave Sim has published a comic book since 2008 called glamourpuss which is an examination of Alex Raymond 's career ( and the techniques of other photorealists like Stan Drake and Al Williamson ) structured around a hypothetical storyline set during the last day of Raymond 's life .
= = = Death = = =
On September 6 , 1956 , Raymond was killed in an automobile accident in Westport , Connecticut . Driving fellow cartoonist Stan Drake 's 1956 Corvette at twice the 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) speed limit , he hit a tree and was killed . Roberts describes in his biography the circumstances as a result of the weather . Driving in the convertible with its top down , Raymond decided to reach his destination quicker rather than stop to put the top back up when rain started to fall . Drake was thrown clear of the crash , but Raymond , with his seat belt buckled , died instantly . Speculation surrounds the nature of his death , with some , Drake included , believing Raymond was suicidal . Raymond had been involved in four automobile accidents in the month prior to his death , which led Drake to say Raymond " had been trying to kill himself " . Author Arlen Schumer ascribes the motive for suicide as being related to Raymond 's personal life . Schumer alleges that Raymond had been having affairs , and that his wife was refusing to grant him a divorce . R. C. Harvey is dismissive of this motivation : " Committing suicide strikes me as an odd way for a man of Raymond 's sophistication to react to his disappointment in romance " . Harvey also notes that no mention of any alleged affairs is made in Tom Robert 's biography , " probably out of consideration to Raymond 's surviving family " . Drake has also been quoted as speculating that Raymond " hit the accelerator by mistake " instead of the brake . Raymond is buried in St. John 's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Darien , Connecticut .
= = = Personal life = = =
Raymond married Helen Frances Williams on December 31 , 1930 , with whom he had five children . The names of his three daughters — Judith , Lynne and Helen — were immortalized in that of Rip Kirby 's girlfriend , Judith Lynne " Honey " Dorian . The Raymonds also had two sons : Alan W. and Duncan . He was the great @-@ uncle of actors Matt Dillon and Kevin Dillon . His younger brother , Jim Raymond , was also a cartoonist , and also an assistant to Chic Young on Blondie .
= = = Collected editions = = =
Raymond 's work has been collected a number of times . Most recently :
Flash Gordon ( hardcover , Checker Book Publishing Group ) :
Volume 1 ( collects Raymond 's earliest Sunday Strips starting from the first , printed on January 7 , 1934 ; 98 pages , October 2003 , ISBN 0 @-@ 9741664 @-@ 3 @-@ X )
Volume 2 ( collects strips from 1935 and 1936 ; 100 pages , December 2004 , ISBN 0 @-@ 9741664 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 )
Volume 3 ( collects the pages printed between October 25 , 1936 and August 1 , 1937 ; 96 pages , May 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 933160 @-@ 25 @-@ X )
Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1938 and 1940 ; November 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 933160 @-@ 26 @-@ 8 )
Volume 5 ( collects " The Ice Kingdom of Mongo " , " Power Men of Mongo " , and " The Fall of Ming " ; 1940 to 1941 ; 80 pages , November 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 933160 @-@ 27 @-@ 6 )
Volume 6 ( collects the pages printed from August 1941 to May 1943 ; 100 pages , April 2007 , ISBN 1 @-@ 933160 @-@ 28 @-@ 4 )
Volume 7 ( collects the final strips from mid @-@ 1943 , until the final Raymond issue from February 1945 ; 100 pages , December 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 933160 @-@ 20 @-@ 9 )
Rip Kirby ( hardcover , IDW ) :
Volume 1 ( collects strips printed between 1946 and 1948 ; 2009 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60010 @-@ 484 @-@ 8 )
Volume 2 ( collects strips printed between 1948 and 1951 ; March 2010 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60010 @-@ 582 @-@ 1 )
Volume 3 ( collects strips printed between 1951 and 1954 ; November 2010 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60010 @-@ 785 @-@ 6 )
Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1954 and 1956 ; August 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1600109898 )
Flash Gordon & Jungle Jim ( hardcover , IDW ) :
Volume 1 ( collects strips printed between 1934 and 1936 ; December 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61377 @-@ 015 @-@ 3 )
Volume 2 ( collects strips printed between 1936 and 1939 ; August 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61377 @-@ 220 @-@ 1 )
Volume 3 ( collects strips printed between 1939 and 1941 ; April 2013 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1613775806 )
Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1941 and 1944 ; NYP )
= = Awards = =
Alex Raymond received a Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1949 for his work on Rip Kirby , and he later served as President of the Society in 1950 and 1951 . He was inducted into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996 . He was inducted into the Society of Illustrators Hall of Fame in 2014 .
Maurice Horn calls Raymond " one of the most celebrated comic artists of all time as the creator of four outstanding comic features ( a feat unequaled to this day ) , " noting that he " received many distinctions and awards during his lifetime for his work , both as a cartoonist and as a magazine illustrator . "
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= Hurricane Kyle ( 2008 ) =
Hurricane Kyle was the eleventh tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed from a strong tropical disturbance that tracked across the northeastern Caribbean Sea in the third week of September . As a low pressure area , it moved slowly across Puerto Rico and Hispaniola , dumping torrential rains across those islands .
By September 24 , it began to track northward away from the islands , and developed enough strong thunderstorm activity near its center and a well @-@ defined enough circulation to be deemed a tropical storm on September 25 . It strengthened to a hurricane on September 27 west of Bermuda . It made landfall in Nova Scotia as a Category 1 hurricane late on September 28 , then became extratropical shortly afterward .
The precursor to Kyle produced torrential rainfall over Puerto Rico , resulting in six fatalities and $ 48 million in damages . Little impact was recorded in Hispanola and Bermuda as the system tracked northward . Along the eastern United States , rough seas resulted in two fatalities and as the storm made landfall in Canada , heavy rains fell in eastern Maine . In Canada , Kyle had relatively little impact , leaving $ 9 million in damages and no fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Kyle began as a weak area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 12 . The system tracked in a general westward direction with little convective development and tracked over the Leeward Islands on September 18 . An upper @-@ level trough situated over the eastern Caribbean Sea interacted with the wave , resulting in an increase in shower and thunderstorm activity . The following day , a larger surface circulation developed as the low moved towards the northwest . The wave later became separated from the low , with the wave continuing towards the west and the low tracking to the northwest . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , at this time , were not anticipating significant development of the low as strong wind shear inhibited deep convection from forming . Around 1400 UTC on September 21 , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued for the system as convection developed around the center of circulation .
Around 0000 UTC on September 25 , the disturbance was sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression . Shortly after , the NHC issued their first advisory on the system as it intensified into a tropical storm , assigning it the name Kyle . The center of the storm was slightly elongated but moderate wind shear continued to impact the circulation . Kyle track northward in response to an area of high pressure east of Bermuda and an area of low pressure along the eastern United States . The sheared structure of the storm led to problems with recording the intensity of the storm throughout the day . Hurricane Hunters continuously flew into the storm to record information ; however , their estimates were considered too high as the storm was disorganized .
Late on September 26 , shear began to relax and deep convection redeveloped around the center of circulation and the forward motion of the storm began to increase . Several hours later , the storm made a sudden northwest jump due to a passing shortwave trough . By this time , Kyle was just below hurricane @-@ status , with sustained winds up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Continued organization led to the storm attaining hurricane intensity at 1200 UTC on September 27 while located about 345 mi ( 555 km ) west of Bermuda . Upon attaining this intensity , the storm became embedded within an area strong , divergent , upper @-@ level winds . Increasing in forward motion , the center of Kyle was located along the southwestern edge of the deep convection .
By September 28 , the storm began to struggle maintaining its intensity due to increasing shear and cooling sea surface temperatures ; around 1200 UTC that day , the NHC assessed Kyle to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 mph ) . Several hours later , the barometric pressure of the storm decreased to 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) , the lowest during its existence . Around this time , the hurricane began to undergo an extratropical transition as it approached Nova Scotia . By the end of September 28 , little deep convection remained around the center of Kyle . Buoys nearby the storm recorded seas in excess of 36 ft ( 11 m ) and hurricane @-@ force winds as it neared landfall . It was estimated that Kyle made landfall near Yarmouth , Nova Scotia around 0000 UTC on September 29 with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . This marked the first time since Hurricane Juan in 2003 that a hurricane made landfall in Canada , exactly five years , to the day , prior . Shortly after landfall , the storm weakened below hurricane @-@ status and completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone . Throughout September 29 , the remnants slowed and the system attained frontal features . The following day the system moved over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence before being absorbed by another large extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Puerto Rico and Haiti = = =
On September 22 , about 3 days before the system had formed into a tropical storm , its significant rainfall in the eastern Caribbean prompted flash flood warnings in Puerto Rico and the British Virgin Islands . In the Dominican Republic a green alert was issued for provinces in the eastern part of the nation . The next day yellow alerts were issued for eight provinces and red alerts in eight more . Evacuations began in vulnerable San Pedro de Macoris , La Romana , and Barahona and San Jose de Ocoa . The system moved westward on September 23 , threatening Haiti with its rains which prompted the issuance of heavy rain warnings and a red alert warning by the nation 's government .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Early on September 26 , Tropical Storm Kyle was deemed to be a threat to Bermuda and a tropical storm watch was issued for the islands . Later that day the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning as the storm neared the island . The following day , the warning was discontinued as Hurricane Kyle bypassed the island .
= = = New England and Atlantic Canada = = =
On September 27 , the state of Maine issued its first hurricane watch in seventeen years with the predicted path to approach the eastern part of the state . The last hurricane watch issued for Maine was associated with Hurricane Bob in 1991 . Eastern Maine 's power company , Bangor Hydro @-@ Electric , prepared for potential outages and planned to have additional crews on duty . The system turned and missed the state , though .
The Canadian Hurricane Centre issued watches and warnings for parts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick on September 27 , concurrent with the Maine warnings . New Brunswick Power indicated that repair crews were on standby and neighbouring utilities have been called to assist if needed . The Red Cross in New Brunswick also were checking equipment and supplies to meet any need that might arise . Hours before landfall , a hurricane warning was issued for portions of Nova Scotia . This was the first hurricane warning ever in Canada ( tropical storm and hurricane advisories were not issued in Canada prior to 2004 , a policy changed due to Hurricane Juan in 2003 ) .
= = Impact = =
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
The precursor to Kyle produced record breaking rains over Puerto Rico from September 21 to 23 . With isolated maxima in excess of 30 inches ( 760 mm ) , rivers breached their flood walls and flooded low @-@ lying areas . In Patillas , a 500 @-@ year 24 ‑ hour rainfall event took place , with 22 @.@ 03 in ( 559 @.@ 5 mm ) falling from 8 a.m. on September 21 to 8 a.m. on September 22 . Some rivers rose more than 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in 12 hours , leading to severe flooding . Three deaths were directly blamed on the system as a result of the floods and mudslides . Another three deaths were indirectly related due to stress induced heart attacks . Mudslides , triggered by the torrential rain , closed highways and schools . Damage to agriculture on the island was estimated to be $ 23 million and structural damage was estimated at $ 25 million , for a total of $ 48 million . In addition to the system 's rainfall , its winds whipped up 10 ft ( 3 m ) waves along the island 's southern coast .
= = = Hispanola = = =
Heavy rains on September 23 , produced by the tropical wave which would eventually become Kyle , caused renewed flooding in the already flood @-@ stricken areas of the Dominican Republic and Haiti . The Orangers River overflowed its banks , flooding parts of Jacmel , severely damaging homes . By September 26 , flash flooding impacted areas recovering from previous floods in the Dominican Republic . Rainfall totals in eastern parts of the Dominican Republic exceeded 16 in ( 410 mm ) .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Between September 25 and 26 , the outer bands of Kyle brought sustained winds up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and heavy rains that amounted to 1 @.@ 53 in ( 39 mm ) during the two @-@ day span in Bermuda . The heaviest rainfall fell mostly on the western coast of the island as a narrow band of moderate rainfall tracked through . No structural damage or injuries resulted from the passage of Kyle in Bermuda .
= = = Northeast United States = = =
Kyle produced high waves along the coast of Rhode Island as it moved northward . A newly married couple were killed when high waves knocked the wife into the rocky shores . Her husband jumped in to save her but was overcome by the waves himself . The bodies of the couple were found days later . Large swells produced by Kyle , enhanced by a strong onshore flow , caused significant beach erosion along the New Jersey coastline . Cuts up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in beach dunes were recorded . Heavy rains from Kyle caused flash flooding in Hartford County , Connecticut , flooding six cars and numerous basements . Total damages in Hartford were estimated at $ 40 @,@ 000 .
Rainfall up to 5 in ( 127 mm ) in Massachusetts caused a river in Somerset to overflow its banks , flooding nearby areas with 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of water . A large sinkhole formed on County Street and several cars were stranded in the floodwaters . Two people had to be rescued by boat when their car was overcome by the floodwaters . In addition , numerous basements were flooded . Damages in Bristol County were estimated at $ 25 @,@ 000 . A mobile home park in Plymouth County was inundated with 2 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 7 m ) of water , causing one home to shift off its foundation . Damages to the homes were estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 .
As the storm made landfall in Nova Scotia , the outer bands produced heavy rains and strong winds over eastern Maine . Wind gusts were recorded up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in coastal Hancock County . The strong winds toppled trees , leaving 500 customers without power . Rainfall generally amounted from 3 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 76 @.@ 2 to 114 @.@ 3 mm ) , with a maximum of 7 @.@ 15 in ( 181 @.@ 61 mm ) in Sedgwick Ridge . The heavy rains flooded several roads , causing traffic delays and road closures throughout southeastern Maine . Throughout the Northeast United States , two people were killed and damages were estimated at $ 115 @,@ 000 .
= = = Canada = = =
Upon making landfall , Kyle produced a 2 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) storm surge in combination with high tide and a new moon . In southwestern Nova Scotia , high winds downed numerous trees and power lines . A ship reported a wind gust of 96 mph ( 154 km / h ) near Shelburne and a boat was reported to have been swamped nearby . The highest rainfall was recorded in Bon Accord , New Brunswick at 2 @.@ 8 in ( 72 mm ) . Light rainfall , up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) fell over Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia . A buoy in Georges Bank recorded a wind gust of 79 mph ( 128 km / h ) . According to Nova Scotia Power Corporation at the height of the storm , winds knocked out power to more than 40 @,@ 000 customers . While in New Brunswick , strong winds and heavy rainfall were strong enough to knock power out for approximately 2 @,@ 300 customers across the province . Gusting winds resulted in the Confederation Bridge , linking New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island , being closed to high @-@ sided vehicles for 7 ½ hours . No fatalities were reported in Canada , and damages were minor , totaling to $ 9 million .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 1 , President George W. Bush declared Puerto Rico major disaster area . The declaration allowed federal assistance to reach affected communities in the United States Commonwealth . Residents who met the requirements to receive federal aid were eligible for funding for temporary housing . People who lost their jobs due to the flooding were eligible for unemployment grants for 26 weeks starting the day of the disaster declaration . Residents were able to receive up to $ 200 @,@ 000 for home damages ; up to $ 40 @,@ 000 in personal possession losses ; and up to $ 2 million for business losses . By October 17 , more than $ 5 @.@ 6 million in disaster aid was approved for 20 @,@ 284 residences . Community Relations teams visited about 7 @,@ 000 people . Out of the 4 @,@ 140 small @-@ business loans applications , only 288 were submitted by this time . By October 25 , the amount of funds nearly doubled , reaching $ 11 million . At this time , more than , 24 @,@ 500 residents applied for disaster loans . Survey teams checked over 18 @,@ 000 homes for flood @-@ related damages at this time also . Funding reached $ 16 @.@ 5 million by November 7 , with 29 @,@ 000 people requesting federal assistance . By December 5 , funding for 37 @,@ 000 residents reached $ 23 @.@ 1 million . At this time , the deadline for federal assistance requests was set for January 15 , 2009 . On January 2 , 2009 , funding for small businesses was being provided , with $ 6 million being contributed . Grants for residents also reached $ 25 million . After the flooded rivers crested and receded , bulldozers began clearing mud covered streets .
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= Bivalvia =
Bivalvia , in previous centuries referred to as the Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda , is a class of marine and freshwater molluscs that have laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell consisting of two hinged parts . Bivalves have no head , and they also lack a radula . They include clams , oysters , cockles , mussels , scallops , and numerous other families that live in saltwater , as well as a number of families that live in freshwater . The majority are filter feeders . The gills have evolved into ctenidia , specialised organs for feeding and breathing . Most bivalves bury themselves in sediment , where they are relatively safe from predation . Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces . A few bore into wood , clay , or stone and live inside these substances . Some bivalves , such as the scallops , can swim .
The shell of a bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate , and consists of two , usually similar , parts called valves . These are joined together along one edge ( the hinge line ) by a flexible ligament that , usually in conjunction with interlocking " teeth " on each of the valves , forms the hinge . This arrangement allows the shell to be opened and closed without the two halves detaching . The shell is typically bilaterally symmetrical , with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane . Adult shell sizes of bivalves vary from fractions of a millimetre to over a metre in length , but the majority of species do not exceed 10 cm ( 4 in ) .
Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal human populations . Oysters were cultured in ponds by the Romans , and mariculture has more recently become an important source of bivalves for food . Modern knowledge of molluscan reproductive cycles has led to the development of hatcheries and new culture techniques . A better understanding of the potential hazards of eating raw or undercooked shellfish has led to improved storage and processing . Pearl oysters ( the common name of two very different families in salt water and fresh water ) are the most common source of natural pearls . The shells of bivalves are used in craftwork , and the manufacture of jewellery and buttons . Bivalves have also been used in the biocontrol of pollution .
Bivalves appear in the fossil record first in the early Cambrian more than 500 million years ago . The total number of living species is about 9 @,@ 200 . These species are placed within 1 @,@ 260 genera and 106 families . Marine bivalves ( including brackish water and estuarine species ) represent about 8 @,@ 000 species , combined in four subclasses and 99 families with 1 @,@ 100 genera . The largest recent marine families are the Veneridae , with more than 680 species and the Tellinidae and Lucinidae , each with over 500 species . The freshwater bivalves include seven families , the largest of which are the Unionidae , with about 700 species .
= = Etymology = =
The taxonomic term Bivalvia was first used by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 to refer to animals having shells composed of two valves . More recently , the class was known as Pelecypoda , meaning " axe @-@ foot " ( based on the shape of the foot of the animal when extended ) .
The name " bivalve " is derived from the Latin bis , meaning " two " , and valvae , meaning " leaves of a door " . Not all animals with shells with two hinged parts are classified under Bivalvia ; other animals with paired valves include certain gastropods ( small sea snails in the family Juliidae ) , members of the phylum Brachiopoda and the minute crustaceans known as ostracods and conchostrachans .
= = Anatomy = =
Bivalves vary greatly in overall shape . Some , such as the cockles , have shells that are nearly globular ; cockles can jump by bending and straightening their foot . Others , such as the razor clams , are burrowing specialists with elongated shells and a powerful foot adapted for rapid digging . The shipworms , in the family Teredinidae have greatly elongated bodies , but their shell valves are much reduced and restricted to the anterior end of the body , where they function as scraping organs that permit the animal to dig tunnels through wood .
= = = Mantle and shell = = =
Near the hinge of the shell is the umbo , often a rounded , knob @-@ like protuberance usually surrounding the beak . The umbo generally and the beak specifically represent the oldest portion of the shell , with extra material gradually being laid down along the margins on the opposite sides . The hinge point or line is the dorsal region of the shell , and the lower , curved margin is the ventral region . The anterior or front of the shell is where the byssus ( when present ) and foot are located , and the posterior of the shell is where the siphons are located . With the umbones / hinge uppermost and with the anterior edge of the animal towards the viewer 's left , the valve facing the viewer is the left valve and the opposing valve the right .
In all molluscs , the mantle forms a thin membrane that covers the animal 's body and extends out from it in flaps or lobes . In bivalves , the mantle lobes secrete the valves , and the mantle crest secretes the whole hinge mechanism consisting of ligament , byssus threads ( where present ) , and teeth .
Visible on the inside of most empty bivalve valves is a shiny curved line that runs more or less parallel to the outer margin of the shell and often connects the two adductor muscle scars ( if the animal had two adductor muscles ) . This line ( known as the pallial line ) exists because , parallel to the opening edge of the bivalve 's shell , the mantle is attached to the shell by a continuous narrow row of minute mantle retractor muscles . The function of these small muscles is to pull the loose edge of the mantle up out of harm 's way when this is necessary because of minor predation attempts . In many bivalves , the mantle edges fuse at the posterior end of the shell to form two siphons , through one of which water is inhaled , and the other expelled , for respiration and suspension feeding . Often , a pocket @-@ like space occurs into which the siphons fit when they are retracted . This is visible on the inside of the valve as an indentation on the pallial line which is known as the pallial sinus .
The shell is composed of two calcareous valves held together by a ligament . The valves are made of either calcite , as is the case in oysters , or both calcite and aragonite . Sometimes , the aragonite forms an inner , nacreous layer , as is the case in the order Pterioida . In other taxa , alternate layers of calcite and aragonite are laid down . The ligament and byssus , if calcified , are composed of aragonite . The outermost layer of the shell is the periostracum , a skin @-@ like layer which is composed of a horny organic substance . The periostracum is secreted in the groove between the outer and middle layers of the mantle , and is usually olive or brown in colour and easily abraded . The outer surface of the valves is often sculpted , with clams often having concentric striations , scallops having radial ribs and oysters a latticework of irregular markings .
The shell is added to in two ways ; the valves grow larger when more material is secreted by the mantle at the margin of the shell , and the valves themselves thicken gradually throughout the animal 's life as more calcareous matter is secreted by the mantle lobes . Although the ( sometimes faint ) concentric rings on the exterior of a valve are commonly described as " growth rings " or " growth lines " , a more accurate method for determining the age of a shell is by cutting a cross section through it and examining the incremental growth bands . Use of this technique has changed views on the longevity of many bivalves . For example , the soft @-@ shell clam ( Mya arenaria ) was thought to be short @-@ lived , but has now been shown to have a lifespan of at least 28 years .
The two valves of the bivalve shell are held together at the hinge by a ligament composed of two keratinised proteins , tensilium and resilium . In different groups of bivalves , the ligament may be internal or external in position . The main function of the ligament ( as well as joining the valves together ) is to passively cause the shell to open . The shell is actively closed using the adductor muscle or muscles which are attached to the inner surface of both valves . The position of the muscles is often clearly visible on the inside of empty valves as circular or oval muscle scars . Along the hinge line of the shell are , in most cases , a number of hinge teeth which prevent the valves from moving laterally relative to one another . The arrangement of these teeth is often important in identifying bivalves .
= = = Nervous system = = =
The sedentary habits of the bivalves have meant that in general the nervous system is less complex than in most other molluscs . The animals have no brain ; the nervous system consists of a nerve network and a series of paired ganglia . In all but the most primitive bivalves , two cerebropleural ganglia are on either side of the oesophagus . The cerebral ganglia control the sensory organs , while the pleural ganglia supply nerves to the mantle cavity . The pedal ganglia , which control the foot , are at its base , and the visceral ganglia , which can be quite large in swimming bivalves , are under the posterior adductor muscle . These ganglia are both connected to the cerebropleural ganglia by nerve fibres . Bivalves with long siphons may also have siphonal ganglia to control them .
= = = = Senses = = = =
The sensory organs of bivalves are not well developed and are largely located on the posterior mantle margins . The organs are usually mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors , in some cases located on short tentacles . The chemoreceptor cells taste the water and are sensitive to touch . They are typically found near the siphons , but in some species , they fringe the entire mantle cavity . The osphradium is a patch of sensory cells located below the posterior adductor muscle that may serve to taste the water or measure its turbidity , but is probably not homologous with the structure of the same name found in snails and slugs . Statocysts within the organism help the bivalve to sense and correct its orientation . Each statocyst consists of a small sac lined with sensory cilia that detect the movement of a mineral mass , a statolith , under gravity . In the order Anomalodesmata , the inhalant siphon is surrounded by vibration @-@ sensitive tentacles for detecting prey .
Many bivalves have no eyes , but a few members of the Arcoidea , Limopsoidea , Mytiloidea , Anomioidea , Ostreoidea , and Limoidea have simple eyes on the margin of the mantle . These consist of a pit of photosensory cells and a lens . Scallops have more complex eyes with a lens , a two @-@ layered retina , and a concave mirror . All bivalves have light @-@ sensitive cells that can detect a shadow falling over the animal .
= = = Muscles = = =
The main muscular system in bivalves is the posterior and anterior adductor muscles , although the anterior muscles may be reduced or even lost in some species . These strong muscles connect the two valves and contract to close the shell . They work in opposition to the ligament which tends to pull the valves apart . In sedentary or recumbent bivalves that lie on one valve , such as the oysters and scallops , the anterior adductor muscle has been lost and the posterior muscle is positioned centrally . In file shells that can swim by flapping their valves , a single , central adductor muscle occurs . These muscles are composed of two types of muscle fibres , striated muscle bundles for fast actions and smooth muscle bundles for maintaining a steady pull .
The mantle suspender muscles attach the mantle to the shell and leave an arc @-@ shaped scar on the inside of the valve , the pallial line . The paired pedal protractor and retractor muscles operate the animal 's foot . Some bivalves , such as oysters and most scallops , are unable to extend their foot and in them , these muscles are absent . Other paired muscles control the siphons and the byssus .
= = = Circulation and respiration = = =
Bivalves have an open circulatory system that bathes the organs in hemolymph . The heart has three chambers : two auricles receiving blood from the gills , and a single ventricle . The ventricle is muscular and pumps hemolymph into the aorta , and then to the rest of the body . Some bivalves have a single aorta , but most also have a second , usually smaller , aorta serving the hind parts of the animal .
Oxygen is absorbed into the hemolymph in the gills which provide the primary respiratory surface . The gills hang down into the mantle cavity , the wall of which provides a secondary respiratory surface being well supplied with capillaries . In species with no gills , such as the subclass Anomalodesmata , the wall of the mantle cavity is the only organ involved in respiration . Bivalves adapted to tidal environments can survive for several hours out of water by closing their shells tightly . Some freshwater species , when exposed to the air , can gape the shell slightly and gas exchange can take place .
The hemolymph usually lacks any respiratory pigment , although members of the families Arcidae and Limidae are known to possess haemoglobin dissolved directly into the serum . In the carnivorous genus Poromya , the hemolymph has red amoebocytes containing a haemoglobin pigment .
= = = Digestive system = = =
= = = = Modes of feeding = = = =
Most bivalves are filter feeders , using their gills to capture particulate food such as phytoplankton from the water . The protobranchs feed in a different way , scraping detritus from the seabed , and this may be the original mode of feeding used by all bivalves before the gills became adapted for filter feeding . These primitive bivalves hold on to the substratum with a pair of tentacles at the edge of the mouth , each of which has a single palp , or flap . The tentacles are covered in mucus , which traps the food , and cilia , which transport the particles back to the palps . These then sort the particles , rejecting those that are unsuitable or too large to digest , and conveying others to the mouth .
In the Filibranchia and Eulamellibranchia , water is drawn into the shell from the posterior ventral surface of the animal , passes upwards through the gills , and doubles back to be expelled just above the intake . In burrowing species , there may be two elongated , retractable siphons reaching up to the seabed , one each for the inhalant and exhalant streams of water . The gills of filter @-@ feeding bivalves are known as ctenidia and have become highly modified to increase their ability to capture food . For example , the cilia on the gills , which originally served to remove unwanted sediment , have become adapted to capture food particles , and transport them in a steady stream of mucus to the mouth . The filaments of the gills are also much longer than those in more primitive bivalves , and are folded over to create a groove through which food can be transported . The structure of the gills varies considerably , and can serve as a useful means for classifying bivalves into groups .
A few bivalves , such as the granular poromya ( Poromya granulata ) , are carnivorous , eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae consumed by other bivalves . In these animals , the gills are relatively small , and form a perforated barrier separating the main mantle cavity from a smaller chamber through which the water is exhaled . Muscles draw water in through the inhalant siphon which is modified into a cowl @-@ shaped organ , sucking in small crustaceans and worms at the same time . The siphon can be retracted quickly and inverted , bringing the prey within reach of the mouth . The gut is modified so that large food particles can be digested .
The unusual genus , Entovalva , is endosymbiotic , being found only in the oesophagus of sea cucumbers . It has mantle folds that completely surround its small valves . When the sea cucumber sucks in sediment , the bivalve allows the water to pass over its gills and extracts fine organic particles . To prevent itself from being swept away , it attaches itself with byssal threads to the host 's throat . The sea cucumber is unharmed .
= = = = Digestive tract = = = =
The digestive tract of typical bivalves consists of an oesophagus , stomach , and intestine . A number of digestive glands open into the stomach , often via a pair of diverticula ; these secrete enzymes to digest food in the stomach , but also include cells that phagocytose food particles , and digest them intracellularly . In filter @-@ feeding bivalves , an elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as the " crystalline style " projects into the stomach from an associated sac . Cilia in the sac cause the style to rotate , winding in a stream of food @-@ containing mucus from the mouth , and churning the stomach contents . This constant motion propels food particles into a sorting region at the rear of the stomach , which distributes smaller particles into the digestive glands , and heavier particles into the intestine . Waste material is consolidated in the rectum and voided as pellets into the exhalent water stream through an anal pore . Feeding and digestion are synchronized with diurnal and tidal cycles .
Carnivorous bivalves have a greatly reduced style , and a chitinous gizzard that helps grind up the food before digestion . In other ways , their gut is similar to that of filter @-@ feeding bivalves .
= = = Excretory system = = =
Like most other molluscs , the excretory organs of bivalves are a pair of nephridia . Each of these consists of a long , looped , glandular tube , which opens into the body cavity just beneath the heart , and a bladder to store urine . The pericardial glands either line the auricles of the heart or attach to the pericardium , and serve as extra filtration organs . Metabolic waste is voided from the bladders through a pair of openings near the front of the upper part of the mantle cavity , from where it joins the stream of exhalant water .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The sexes are usually separate in bivalves but some hermaphroditism is known . The gonads are located close to the intestines , and either open into the nephridia , or through a separate pore into the mantle cavity . The ripe gonads of male and females release sperm and eggs into the water column . Spawning may take place continually or be triggered by environmental factors such as day length , water temperature , or the presence of sperm in the water . Some species are " dribble spawners " , but others release their gametes in batches or all at once . Mass spawning events sometimes take place when all the bivalves in an area synchronise their release of spawn .
Fertilization is usually external . Typically , a short stage lasts a few hours or days before the eggs hatch into trochophore larvae . These later develop into veliger larvae which settle on the seabed and undergo metamorphosis into juveniles that are sometimes ( for example in the case of oysters ) known as " spat " . In some species , such as those in the genus Lasaea , females draw water containing sperm in through their inhalant siphons and fertilization takes place inside the female . These species then brood the young inside their mantle cavity , eventually releasing them into the water column as veliger larvae or as crawl @-@ away juveniles .
Most of the bivalve larvae that hatch from eggs in the water column feed on diatoms or other phytoplankton . In temperate regions , about 25 % of species are lecithotrophic , depending on nutrients stored in the yolk of the egg where the main energy source is lipids . The longer the period is before the larva first feeds , the larger the egg and yolk need to be . The reproductive cost of producing these energy @-@ rich eggs is high and they are usually smaller in number . For example , the Baltic tellin ( Macoma balthica ) produces few , high @-@ energy eggs . The larvae hatching out of these rely on the energy reserves and do not feed . After about four days , they become D @-@ stage larvae , when they first develop hinged , D @-@ shaped valves . These larvae have a relatively small dispersal potential before settling out . The common mussel ( Mytilus edulis ) produces 10 times as many eggs that hatch into larvae and soon need to feed to survive and grow . They can disperse more widely as they remain planktonic for a much longer time .
Freshwater bivalves in the order Unionoida have a different lifecycle . Sperm is drawn into a female 's gills with the inhalant water and internal fertilization takes place . The eggs hatch into glochidia larvae that develop within the female 's shell . Later they are released and attach themselves parasitically to the gills or fins of a fish host . After several weeks they drop off their host , undergo metamorphosis and develop into juveniles on the substrate . An advantage of this to the molluscs is that they can disperse upstream along with their temporary hosts , rather than being constantly swept downstream by the water flow .
Some of the species in the freshwater mussel family , Unionidae , commonly known as pocketbook mussels , have evolved an unusual reproductive strategy . The female 's mantle protrudes from the shell and develops into an imitation small fish , complete with fish @-@ like markings and false eyes . This decoy moves in the current and attracts the attention of real fish . Some fish see the decoy as prey , while others see a conspecific . They approach for a closer look and the mussel releases huge numbers of larvae from its gills , dousing the inquisitive fish with its tiny , parasitic young . These glochidia larvae are drawn into the fish 's gills , where they attach and trigger a tissue response that forms a small cyst around each larva . The larvae then feed by breaking down and digesting the tissue of the fish within the cysts . After a few weeks they release themselves from the cysts and fall to the stream bed as juvenile molluscs . The fish are relatively unharmed .
= = Comparison with brachiopods = =
Brachiopods are shelled marine organisms that superficially resembled bivalves in that they are of similar size and have a hinged shell in two parts . However , brachiopods evolved from a very different ancestral line , and the resemblance to bivalves only arose because of a similar lifestyle . The differences between the two groups are due to their separate ancestral origins . Different initial structures have been adapted to solve the same problems , a case of convergent evolution . In modern times , brachiopods are not as common as bivalves .
Both groups have a shell consisting of two valves , but the organization of the shell is quite different in the two groups . In brachiopods , the two valves are positioned on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body , while in bivalves , the valves are on the left and right sides of the body , and are , in most cases , mirror images of one other . Brachiopods have a lophophore , a coiled , rigid cartilaginous internal apparatus adapted for filter feeding , a feature shared with two other major groups of marine invertebrates , the bryozoans and the phoronids . Brachiopod shells are often made of calcium phosphate as well as calcium carbonate , whereas bivalve shells are composed entirely of calcium carbonate .
= = Evolutionary history = =
The Cambrian explosion took place around 540 to 520 million years ago ( Mya ) . In this geologically brief period , all the major animal phyla diverged and these included the first creatures with mineralized skeletons . Brachiopods and bivalves made their appearance at this time , and left their fossilized remains behind in the rocks .
Possible early bivalves include Pojetaia and Fordilla ; these probably lie in the stem rather than crown group . Only five genera of supposed Cambrian " bivalves " exist , the others being Tuarangia , Camya and Arhouriella and potentially Buluniella . Bivalves have also been proposed to have evolved from the rostroconchs .
Bivalve fossils are formed when the sediment in which the shells are buried hardens into rock . Often , the impression made by the valves remains as the fossil rather than the valves . During the Early Ordovician , a great increase in the diversity of bivalve species occurred , and the dysodont , heterodont , and taxodont dentitions evolved . By the early Silurian , the gills were becoming adapted for filter feeding , and during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods , siphons first appeared , which , with the newly developed muscular foot , allowed the animals to bury themselves deep in the sediment .
By the middle of the Paleozoic , around 400 Mya , the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter feeders in the ocean , and over 12 @,@ 000 fossil species are recognized . By the Permian – Triassic extinction event 250 Mya , bivalves were undergoing a huge radiation of diversity . The bivalves were hard hit by this event , but re @-@ established themselves and thrived during the Triassic period that followed . In contrast , the brachiopods lost 95 % of their species diversity . The ability of some bivalves to burrow and thus avoid predators may have been a major factor in their success . Other new adaptations within various families allowed species to occupy previously unused evolutionary niches . These included increasing relative buoyancy in soft sediments by developing spines on the shell , gaining the ability to swim , and in a few cases , adopting predatory habits .
For a long time , bivalves were thought to be better adapted to aquatic life than brachiopods were , outcompeting and relegating them to minor niches in later ages . These two taxa appeared in textbooks as an example of replacement by competition . Evidence given for this included the fact that bivalves needed less food to subsist because of their energetically efficient ligament @-@ muscle system for opening and closing valves . All this has been broadly disproven , though ; rather , the prominence of modern bivalves over brachiopods seems due to chance disparities in their response to extinction events .
= = Diversity of extant bivalves = =
The adult maximum size of living species of bivalve ranges from 0 @.@ 52 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) in Condylonucula maya , a nut clam , to a length of 1 @,@ 532 millimetres ( 60 @.@ 3 in ) in Kuphus polythalamia , an elongated , burrowing shipworm . However , the species generally regarded as the largest living bivalve is the giant clam Tridacna gigas , which can grow to a length of 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) and a weight of more than 200 kg ( 441 lb ) . The largest known extinct bivalve is a species of Platyceramus whose fossils measure up to 3 @,@ 000 mm ( 118 in ) in length .
In his 2010 treatise , Compendium of Bivalves , Markus Huber gives the total number of living bivalve species as about 9 @,@ 200 combined in 106 families . Huber states that the number of 20 @,@ 000 living species , often encountered in literature , could not be verified and presents the following table to illustrate the known diversity :
= = Distribution = =
The bivalves are a highly successful class of invertebrates found in aquatic habitats throughout the world . Most are infaunal and live buried in sediment on the seabed , or in the sediment in freshwater habitats . A large number of bivalve species are found in the intertidal and sublittoral zones of the oceans . A sandy sea beach may superficially appear to be devoid of life , but often a very large number of bivalves and other invertebrates are living beneath the surface of the sand . On a large beach in South Wales , careful sampling produced an estimate of 1 @.@ 44 million cockles ( Cerastoderma edule ) per acre of beach .
Bivalves inhabit the tropics , as well as temperate and boreal waters . A number of species can survive and even flourish in extreme conditions . They are abundant in the Arctic , about 140 species being known from that zone . The Antarctic scallop , Adamussium colbecki , lives under the sea ice at the other end of the globe , where the subzero temperatures mean that growth rates are very slow . The giant mussel , Bathymodiolus thermophilus , and the giant white clam , Calyptogena magnifica , both live clustered around hydrothermal vents at abyssal depths in the Pacific Ocean . They have chemosymbiotic bacteria in their gills that oxidise hydrogen sulphide , and the molluscs absorb nutrients synthesized by these bacteria . The saddle oyster , Enigmonia aenigmatica , is a marine species that could be considered amphibious . It lives above the high tide mark in the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific on the underside of mangrove leaves , on mangrove branches , and on sea walls in the splash zone .
Some freshwater bivalves have very restricted ranges . For example , the Ouachita creekshell mussel , Villosa arkansasensis , is known only from the streams of the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma , and like several other freshwater mussel species from the southeastern US , it is in danger of extinction . In contrast , a few species of freshwater bivalves , including the golden mussel ( Limnoperna fortunei ) , are dramatically increasing their ranges . The golden mussel has spread from Southeast Asia to Argentina , where it has become an invasive species . Another well @-@ travelled freshwater bivalve , the zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ) originated in southeastern Russia , and has been accidentally introduced to inland waterways in North America and Europe , where the species damages water installations and disrupts local ecosystems .
= = Behaviour = =
Most bivalves adopt a sedentary or even sessile lifestyle , often spending their whole lives in the area in which they first settled as juveniles . The majority of bivalves are infaunal , living under the seabed , buried in soft substrates such as sand , silt , mud , gravel , or coral fragments . Many of these live in the intertidal zone where the sediment remains damp even when the tide is out . When buried in the sediment , burrowing bivalves are protected from the pounding of waves , desiccation , and overheating during low tide , and variations in salinity caused by rainwater . They are also out of the reach of many predators . Their general strategy is to extend their siphons to the surface for feeding and respiration during high tide , but to descend to greater depths or keep their shell tightly shut when the tide goes out . They use their muscular foot to dig into the substrate . To do this , the animal relaxes its adductor muscles and opens its shell wide to anchor itself in position while it extends its foot downwards into the substrate . Then it dilates the tip of its foot , retracts the adductor muscles to close the shell , shortens its foot and draws itself downwards . This series of actions is repeated to dig deeper .
Other bivalves , such as mussels , attach themselves to hard surfaces using tough byssus threads made of keratin and proteins . They are more exposed to attack by predators than the burrowing bivalves . Certain carnivorous gastropod snails such as whelks ( Buccinidae ) and murex snails ( Muricidae ) feed on bivalves by boring into their shells , although many Busyconine whelks ( e.g. , Busycon sinistrum , Busycon carica ) are " chipping @-@ style " predators . The dog whelk ( Nucella lamellosa ) drills a hole with its radula assisted by a shell @-@ dissolving secretion . The dog whelk then inserts its extendible proboscis and sucks out the body contents of the victim , which is typically a blue mussel . The whelk needs a few hours to penetrate the shell and thus living in the littoral zone is an advantage to the bivalve because the gastropod can attempt to bore through the shell only when the tide is in .
Some bivalves , including the true oysters , the jewel boxes , the jingle shells , the thorny oysters and the kitten 's paws , cement themselves to stones , rock or larger dead shells . In oysters the lower valve may be almost flat while the upper valve develops layer upon layer of thin horny material reinforced with calcium carbonate . Oysters sometimes occur in dense beds in the neritic zone and , like most bivalves , are filter feeders .
Bivalves filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe but they are not permanently open . They regularly shut their valves to enter a resting state , even when they are permanently submerged . In oysters , for example , their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative positions of the moon and sun . During neap tides , they exhibit much longer closing periods than during spring tides .
Although many non @-@ sessile bivalves use their muscular foot to move around , or to dig , members of the freshwater family Sphaeriidae are exceptional in that these small clams climb about quite nimbly on weeds using their long and flexible foot . The European fingernail clam ( Sphaerium corneum ) , for example , climbs around on water weeds at the edges of lakes and ponds ; this enables the clam to find the best position for filter feeding .
= = = Predators and defence = = =
The thick shell and rounded shape of bivalves make them awkward for potential predators to tackle . Nevertheless , a number of different creatures include them in their diet . Many species of demersal fish feed on them including the common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) , which is being used in the upper Mississippi River to try to control the invasive zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ) . Birds such as the Eurasian oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus ) have specially adapted beaks which can pry open their shells . The herring gull ( Larus argentatus ) sometimes drops heavy shells onto rocks in order to crack them open . Sea otters feed on a variety of bivalve species and have been observed to use stones balanced on their chests as anvils on which to crack open the shells . The Pacific walrus ( Odobenus rosmarus divergens ) is one of the main predators feeding on bivalves in Arctic waters . Shellfish have formed part of the human diet since prehistoric times , a fact evidenced by the remains of mollusc shells found in ancient middens . Examinations of these deposits in Peru has provided a means of dating long past El Niño events because of the disruption these caused to bivalve shell growth .
Invertebrate predators include crabs , starfish and octopuses . Crabs crack the shells with their pincers and starfish use their water vascular system to force the valves apart and then insert part of their stomach between the valves to digest the bivalve 's body . It has been found experimentally that both crabs and starfish preferred molluscs that are attached by byssus threads to ones that are cemented to the substrate . This was probably because they could manipulate the shells and open them more easily when they could tackle them from different angles . Octopuses either pull bivalves apart by force , or they bore a hole into the shell and insert a digestive fluid before sucking out the liquified contents .
Razor shells can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape predation . When a Pacific razor clam ( Siliqua patula ) is laid on the surface of the beach it can bury itself completely in seven seconds and the Atlantic jackknife clam , Ensis directus , can do the same within fifteen seconds . Scallops and file clams can swim by opening and closing their valves rapidly ; water is ejected on either side of the hinge area and they move with the flapping valves in front . Scallops have simple eyes around the margin of the mantle and can clap their valves shut to move sharply , hinge first , to escape from danger . Cockles can use their foot to move across the seabed or leap away from threats . The foot is first extended before being contracted suddenly when it acts like a spring , projecting the animal forwards .
In many bivalves that have siphons , they can be retracted back into the safety of the shell . If the siphons inadvertently get attacked by a predator , they snap off . The animal can regenerate them later , a process that starts when the cells close to the damaged site become activated and remodel the tissue back to its pre @-@ existing form and size .
File shells such as Limaria fragilis can produce a noxious secretion when stressed . It has numerous tentacles which fringe its mantle and protrude some distance from the shell when it is feeding . If attacked , it sheds tentacles in a process known as autotomy . The toxin released by this is distasteful and the detached tentacles continue to writhe which may also serve to distract potential predators .
= = Mariculture = =
Oysters , mussels , clams , scallops and other bivalve species are grown with food materials that occur naturally in their culture environment in the sea and lagoons . One @-@ third of the world ’ s farmed food fish harvested in 2010 was achieved without the use of feed , through the production of bivalves and filter @-@ feeding carps . European flat oysters ( Ostrea edulis ) were first farmed by the Romans in shallow ponds and similar techniques are still in use . Seed oysters are either raised in a hatchery or harvested from the wild . Hatchery production provides some control of the broodstock but remains problematic because disease @-@ resistant strains of this oyster have not yet been developed . Wild spats are harvested either by broadcasting empty mussel shells on the seabed or by the use of long , small @-@ mesh nets filled with mussel shells supported on steel frames . The oyster larvae preferentially settle out on the mussel shells . Juvenile oysters are then grown on in nursery trays and are transferred to open waters when they reach 5 to 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) in length .
Many juveniles are further reared off the seabed in suspended rafts , on floating trays or cemented to ropes . Here they are largely free from bottom @-@ dwelling predators such as starfish and crabs but more labour is required to tend them . They can be harvested by hand when they reach a suitable size . Other juveniles are laid directly on the seabed at the rate of 50 to 100 kilograms ( 110 to 220 lb ) per hectare . They grow on for about two years before being harvested by dredging . Survival rates are low at about 5 % .
The Pacific oyster ( Crassostrea gigas ) is cultivated by similar methods but in larger volumes and in many more regions of the world . This oyster originated in Japan where it has been cultivated for many centuries . It is an estuarine species and prefers salinities of 20 to 25 parts per thousand . Breeding programmes have produced improved stock that is available from hatcheries . A single female oyster can produce 50 – 80 million eggs in a batch so the selection of broodstock is of great importance . The larvae are grown on in tanks of static or moving water . They are fed high quality microalgae and diatoms and grow fast . At metamorphosis the juveniles may be allowed to settle on PVC sheets or pipes , or crushed shell . In some cases , they continue their development in " upwelling culture " in large tanks of moving water rather than being allowed to settle on the bottom . They then may be transferred to transitional , nursery beds before being moved to their final rearing quarters . Culture there takes place on the bottom , in plastic trays , in mesh bags , on rafts or on long lines , either in shallow water or in the intertidal zone . The oysters are ready for harvesting in 18 to 30 months depending on the size required .
Similar techniques are used in different parts of the world to cultivate other species including the Sydney rock oyster ( Saccostrea commercialis ) , the northern quahog ( Mercenaria mercenaria ) , the blue mussel ( Mytilus edulis ) , the Mediterranean mussel ( Mytilus galloprovincialis ) , the New Zealand green @-@ lipped mussel ( Perna canaliculus ) , the grooved carpet shell ( Ruditapes decussatus ) , the Japanese carpet shell ( Venerupis philippinarum ) , the pullet carpet shell ( Venerupis pullastra ) and the Yesso scallop ( Patinopecten yessoensis ) .
Production of bivalve molluscs by mariculture in 2010 was 12 @,@ 913 @,@ 199 tons , up from 8 @,@ 320 @,@ 724 tons in 2000 . Culture of clams , cockles and ark shells more than doubled over this time period from 2 @,@ 354 @,@ 730 to 4 @,@ 885 @,@ 179 tons . Culture of mussels over the same period grew from 1 @,@ 307 @,@ 243 to 1 @,@ 812 @,@ 371 tons , of oysters from 3 @,@ 610 @,@ 867 to 4 @,@ 488 @,@ 544 tons and of scallops from 1 @,@ 047 @,@ 884 to 1 @,@ 727 @,@ 105 tons .
= = Use as food = =
Bivalves have been an important source of food for humans at least since Roman times and empty shells found in middens at archaeological sites are evidence of earlier consumption . Oysters , scallops , clams , ark clams , mussels and cockles are the most commonly consumed kinds of bivalve , and are eaten cooked or raw . In 1950 , the year in which the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) started making such information available , world trade in bivalve molluscs was 1 @,@ 007 @,@ 419 tons . By 2010 , world trade in bivalves had risen to 14 @,@ 616 @,@ 172 tons , up from 10 @,@ 293 @,@ 607 tons a decade earlier . The figures included 5 @,@ 554 @,@ 348 ( 3 @,@ 152 @,@ 826 ) tons of clams , cockles and ark shells , 1 @,@ 901 @,@ 314 ( 1 @,@ 568 @,@ 417 ) tons of mussels , 4 @,@ 592 @,@ 529 ( 3 @,@ 858 @,@ 911 ) tons of oysters and 2 @,@ 567 @,@ 981 ( 1 @,@ 713 @,@ 453 ) tons of scallops . China increased its consumption 400 @-@ fold during the period 1970 to 1997 .
It has been known for more than a century that consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked shellfish can be associated with infectious diseases . These are caused either by bacteria naturally present in the sea such as Vibrio spp. or by viruses and bacteria from sewage effluent that sometimes contaminates coastal waters . As filter feeders , bivalves pass large quantities of water through their gills , filtering out the organic particles , including the microbial pathogens . These are retained in the animals ' tissues and become concentrated in their liver @-@ like digestive glands . Another possible source of contamination occurs when bivalves contain marine biotoxins as a result of ingesting numerous dinoflagellates . These microalgae are not associated with sewage but occur unpredictably as algal blooms . Large areas of a sea or lake may change colour as a result of the proliferation of millions of single @-@ cell algae , and this condition is known as a red tide .
= = = Viral and bacterial infections = = =
In 1816 in France , a physician , J. P. A. Pasquier , described an outbreak of typhoid linked to the consumption of raw oysters . The first report of this kind in the United States was in Connecticut in 1894 . As sewage treatment programmes became more prevalent in the late 19th century , more outbreaks took place . This may have been because sewage was released through outlets into the sea providing more food for bivalves in estuaries and coastal habitats . A causal link between the bivalves and the illness was not easy to demonstrate because the illness might come on days or even weeks after the ingestion of the contaminated shellfish . One viral pathogen is the Norwalk virus . This is resistant to treatment with chlorine @-@ containing chemicals and may be present in the marine environment even when coliform bacteria have been killed by the treatment of sewage .
In 1975 in the United States , a serious outbreak of oyster @-@ vectored disease was caused by Vibrio vulnificus . Although the number of victims was low , the mortality rate was high at 50 % . About 10 cases have occurred annually since then and further research needs to be done to establish the epidemiology of the infections . The cases peak in mid @-@ summer and autumn with no cases being reported in mid winter so there may be a link between the temperature at which the oysters are held between harvesting and consumption . In 1978 , an oyster @-@ associated gastrointestinal infection affecting more than 2 @,@ 000 people occurred in Australia . The causative agent was found to be the Norwalk virus and the epidemic caused major economic difficulties to the oyster farming industry in the country . In 1988 , an outbreak of hepatitis A associated with the consumption of inadequately cooked clams ( Anadara subcrenata ) took place in the Shanghai area of China . An estimated 290 @,@ 000 people were infected and there were 47 deaths .
In the United States and the European Union , since the early 1990s regulations have been in place that are designed to prevent shellfish from contaminated waters entering the food chain . This has meant that there is sometimes a shortage of regulated shellfish , with consequent higher prices . This has led to illegal harvesting and sale of shellfish on the black market , which can be a health hazard .
= = = Paralytic shellfish poisoning = = =
Paralytic shellfish poisoning ( PSP ) is primarily caused by the consumption of bivalves that have accumulated toxins by feeding on toxic dinoflagellates , single @-@ celled protists found naturally in the sea and inland waters . Saxitoxin is the most virulent of these . In mild cases , PSP causes tingling , numbness , sickness and diarrhoea . In more severe cases , the muscles of the chest wall may be affected leading to paralysis and even death . In 1937 , researchers in California established the connection between blooms of these phytoplankton and PSP . The biotoxin remains potent even when the shellfish are well @-@ cooked . In the United States , there is a regulatory limit of 80 µg / g of saxitoxin equivalent in shellfish meat .
= = = Amnesic shellfish poisoning = = =
Amnesic shellfish poisoning ( ASP ) was first reported in eastern Canada in 1987 . It is caused by the substance domoic acid found in certain diatoms of the genus Pseudo @-@ nitzschia . Bivalves can become toxic when they filter these microalgae out of the water . Domoic acid is a low @-@ molecular weight amino acid that is able to destroy brain cells causing memory loss , gastroenteritis , long @-@ term neurological problems or death . In an outbreak in the western United States in 1993 , finfish were also implicated as vectors , and seabirds and mammals suffered neurological symptoms . In the United States and Canada , a regulatory limit of 20 µg / g of domoic acid in shellfish meat is set .
= = Use in controlling pollution = =
When they live in polluted waters , bivalve molluscs have a tendency to accumulate substances such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants in their tissues . This is because they ingest the chemicals as they feed but their enzyme systems are not capable of metabolising them and as a result , the levels build up . This may be a health hazard for the molluscs themselves , and is one for humans who eat them . It also has certain advantages in that bivalves can be used in monitoring the presence and quantity of pollutants in their environment .
There are limitations to the use of bivalves as bioindicators . The level of pollutants found in the tissues varies with species , age , size , time of year and other factors . The quantities of pollutants in the water may vary and the molluscs may reflect past rather than present values . In a study of several bivalve species present in lagoons in Ghana it was found that the findings could be anomalous . Levels of zinc and iron tended to rise in the wet season due to run @-@ off from the galvanized roofing sheets used in many of the houses . Cadmium levels were lower in young animals than in older ones because they were growing so fast that , despite the fact that their bodies were accumulating the metal , the concentration in their tissues reduced . In a study near Vladivostok it was found that the level of pollutants in the bivalve tissues did not always reflect the high levels in the surrounding sediment in such places as harbours . The reason for this was thought to be that the bivalves in these locations did not need to filter so much water as elsewhere because of the water 's high nutritional content .
A study of nine different bivalves with widespread distributions in tropical marine waters concluded that the mussel , Trichomya hirsuta , most nearly reflected in its tissues the level of heavy metals ( Pb , Cd , Cu , Zn , Co , Ni , and Ag ) in its environment . In this species there was a linear relationship between the sedimentary levels and the tissue concentration of all the metals except zinc . In the Persian Gulf , the Atlantic pearl @-@ oyster ( Pinctada radiata ) is considered to be a useful bioindicator of heavy metals .
Crushed shells , available as a by @-@ product of the seafood canning industry , can be used to remove pollutants from water . It has been found that , as long as the water is maintained at an alkaline pH , crushed shells will remove cadmium , lead and other heavy metals from contaminated waters by swapping the calcium in their constituent aragonite for the heavy metal , and retaining these pollutants in a solid form . The rock oyster ( Saccostrea cucullata ) has been shown to reduce the levels of copper and cadmium in contaminated waters in the Persian Gulf . The live animals acted as biofilters , selectively removing these metals , and the dead shells also had the ability to reduce their concentration .
= = Other uses = =
Conchology is the scientific study of mollusc shells , but the term conchologist is also sometimes used to describe a collector of shells . Many people pick up shells on the beach or purchase them and display them in their homes . There are many private and public collections of mollusc shells , but the largest one in the world is at the Smithsonian Institution , which houses in excess of 20 million specimens .
Shells are used decoratively in many ways . They can be pressed into concrete or plaster to make decorative paths , steps or walls and can be used to embellish picture frames , mirrors or other craft items . They can be stacked up and glued together to make ornaments . They can be pierced and threaded onto necklaces or made into other forms of jewellery . Shells have had various uses in the past as body decorations , utensils , scrapers and cutting implements . Carefully cut and shaped shell tools dating back 32 @,@ 000 years have been found in a cave in Indonesia . In this region , shell technology may have been developed in preference to the use of stone or bone implements , perhaps because of the scarcity of suitable rock materials .
The indigenous peoples of the Americas living near the east coast used pieces of shell as wampum . The channeled whelk ( Busycotypus canaliculatus ) and the quahog ( Mercenaria mercenaria ) were used to make white and purple traditional patterns . The shells were cut , rolled , polished and drilled before being strung together and woven into belts . These were used for personal , social and ceremonial purposes and also , at a later date , for currency . The Winnebago Tribe from Wisconsin had numerous uses for freshwater mussels including using them as spoons , cups , ladles and utensils . They notched them to provide knives , graters and saws . They carved them into fish hooks and lures . They incorporated powdered shell into clay to temper their pottery vessels . They used them as scrapers for removing flesh from hides and for separating the scalps of their victims . They used shells as scoops for gouging out fired logs when building canoes and they drilled holes in them and fitted wooden handles for tilling the ground .
Buttons have traditionally been made from a variety of freshwater and marine shells . At first they were used decoratively rather than as fasteners and the earliest known example dates back five thousand years and was found at Mohenjo @-@ daro in the Indus Valley .
Sea silk is a fine fabric woven from the byssus threads of bivalves , particularly the pen shell ( Pinna nobilis ) . It used to be produced in the Mediterranean region where these shells are endemic . It was an expensive fabric and overfishing has much reduced populations of the pen shell . There is mention in the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone ( 196 BCE ) of this cloth being used to pay taxes .
Crushed shells are added as a calcareous supplement to the diet of laying poultry . Oyster shell and cockle shell are often used for this purpose and are obtained as a by @-@ product from other industries .
= = = Pearls and mother @-@ of @-@ pearl = = =
Mother @-@ of @-@ pearl or nacre is the naturally occurring lustrous layer that lines some mollusc shells . It is used to make pearl buttons and in artisan craftwork to make organic jewellery . It has traditionally been inlaid into furniture and boxes , particularly in China . It has been used to decorate musical instruments , watches , pistols , fans and other products . The import and export of goods made with nacre are controlled in many countries under the International Convention of Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora .
A pearl is created in the mantle of a mollusc when an irritant particle is surrounded by layers of nacre . Although most bivalves can create pearls , oysters in the family Pteriidae and freshwater mussels in the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae are the main source of commercially available pearls because the calcareous concretions produced by most other species have no lustre . Finding pearls inside oysters is a very chancy business as hundreds of shells may need to be prised open before a single pearl can be found . Most pearls are now obtained from cultured shells where an irritant substance has been purposefully introduced to induce the formation of a pearl . A " mabe " ( irregular ) pearl can be grown by the insertion of an implant , usually made of plastic , under a flap of the mantle and next to the mother @-@ of @-@ pearl interior of the shell . A more difficult procedure is the grafting of a piece of oyster mantle into the gonad of an adult specimen together with the insertion of a shell bead nucleus . This produces a superior , spherical pearl . The animal can be opened to extract the pearl after about two years and reseeded so that it produces another pearl . Pearl oyster farming and pearl culture is an important industry in Japan and many other countries bordering the Indian and Pacific Oceans .
= = = Symbolism = = =
The scallop is the symbol of St James and is called Coquille Saint @-@ Jacques in French . It is an emblem carried by pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia . The shell became associated with the pilgrimage and came to be used as a symbol showing hostelries along the route and later as a sign of hospitality , food and lodging elsewhere .
Roman myth has it that Venus , the goddess of love , was born in the sea and emerged accompanied by fish and dolphins , with Botticelli depicting her as arriving in a scallop shell . The Romans revered her and erected shrines in her honour in their gardens , praying to her to provide water and verdant growth . From this , the scallop and other bivalve shells came to be used as a symbol for fertility . Its depiction is used in architecture , furniture and fabric design and it is the logo of Royal Dutch Shell , the global oil and gas company .
= = Bivalvian taxonomies = =
For the past two centuries no consensus has existed on bivalve phylogeny from the many classifications developed . In earlier taxonomic systems , experts used a single characteristic feature for their classifications , choosing among shell morphology , hinge type or gill type . Conflicting naming schemes proliferated due to these taxonomies based on single organ systems . One of the most widely accepted systems was that put forward by Norman D. Newell in Part N of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology , which employed a classification system based on general shell shape , microstructures and hinge configuration . Because features such as hinge morphology , dentition , mineralogy , shell morphology and shell composition change slowly over time , these characteristics can be used to define major taxonomic groups .
Since the year 2000 , taxonomic studies using cladistical analyses of multiple organ systems , shell morphology ( including fossil species ) and modern molecular phylogenetics have resulted in the drawing up of what experts believe is a more accurate phylogeny of the Bivalvia . Based upon these studies , a new proposed classification system for the Bivalvia was published in 2010 by Bieler , Carter & Coan . In 2012 , this new system was adopted by the World Register of Marine Species ( WoRMS ) for the classification of the Bivalvia . Some experts still maintain that Anomalodesmacea should be considered a separate subclass , whereas the new system treats it as the order Anomalodesmata , within the subclass Heterodonta . Molecular phylogenetic work continues , further clarifying which Bivalvia are most closely related and thus refining the classification .
= = = Practical taxonomy of R.C. Moore = = =
R.C. Moore , in Moore , Lalicker , and Fischer , 1952 , Invertebrate Fossils , gives a practical and useful classification of pelecypods ( Bivalvia ) even if somewhat antiquated , based on shell structure , gill type , and hinge teeth configuration . Subclasses and orders given are :
Subclass : Prionodesmacea
Order
Paleoconcha
Taxodonta : Many teeth ( e.g. order Nuculida )
Schizodonta : Big bifurcating teeth ( e.g. Trigonia spp . )
Isodonta : Equal teeth ( e.g. Spondylus spp . )
Dysodonta : Absent teeth and ligaments joins the valves .
Subclass : Teleodesmacea
Order
Heterodonta : Different teeth ( e.g. family Cardiidae ) . [ Lower Ordovician – Recent ]
Pachydonta : Large , different , deformed teeth ( e.g. rudist spp . ) . [ Late Jurassic – Upper Cretaceous ]
Desmodonta : Hinge @-@ teeth absent or irregular with ligaments ( e.g. family Anatinidae ) .
Prionodesmacea have a prismatic and nacreous shell structure , separated mantle lobes , poorly developed siphons , and hinge teeth that are lacking or unspecialized . Gills range from protobranch to eulamellibranch . Teleodesmacea on the other hand have a porcelanous and partly nacreous shell structure ; Mantle lobes that are generally connected , well developed siphons , and specialized hinge teeth . In most , gills are eulamellibranch .
= = = 1935 taxonomy = = =
In his 1935 work Handbuch der systematischen Weichtierkunde ( Handbook of Systematic Malacology ) , Johannes Thiele introduced a mollusc taxonomy based upon the 1909 work by Cossmann and Peyrot . Thiele 's system divided the bivalves into three orders . Taxodonta consisted of forms that had taxodont dentition , with a series of small parallel teeth perpendicular to the hinge line . Anisomyaria consisted of forms that had either a single adductor muscle or one adductor muscle much smaller than the other . Eulamellibranchiata consisted of forms with ctenidial gills . The Eulamellibranchiata was further divided into four suborders : Schizodonta , Heterodonta , Adapedonta and Anomalodesmata .
= = = Taxonomy based upon hinge tooth morphology = = =
The systematic layout presented here follows Newell 's 1965 classification based on hinge tooth morphology ( all taxa marked † are extinct ) :
The monophyly of the subclass Anomalodesmata is disputed . The standard view now is that it resides within the subclass Heterodonta .
= = = Taxonomy based upon gill morphology = = =
An alternative systematic scheme exists using gill morphology . This distinguishes between Protobranchia , Filibranchia and Eulamellibranchia . The first corresponds to Newell 's Palaeotaxodonta and Cryptodonta , the second to his Pteriomorphia , with the last corresponding to all other groups . In addition , Franc separated the Septibranchia from his eulamellibranchs because of the morphological differences between them . The septibranchs belong to the superfamily Poromyoidea and are carnivorous , having a muscular septum instead of filamentous gills .
= = = 2010 taxonomy = = =
In May 2010 , a new taxonomy of the Bivalvia was published in the journal Malacologia . In compiling this , the authors used a variety of phylogenetic information including molecular analysis , anatomical analysis , shell morphology and shell microstructure as well as bio @-@ geographic , paleobiogeographic and stratigraphic information . In this classification 324 families are recognized as valid , 214 of which are known exclusively from fossils and 110 of which occur in the recent past , with or without a fossil record . This classification has since been adopted by WoRMS .
Proposed classification of Class Bivalvia ( under the redaction of Rüdiger Bieler , Joseph G. Carter and Eugene V. Coan ) ( all taxa marked † are extinct ) :
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= Samarium =
Samarium is a chemical element with symbol Sm and atomic number 62 . It is a moderately hard silvery metal that readily oxidizes in air . Being a typical member of the lanthanide series , samarium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 . Compounds of samarium ( II ) are also known , most notably the monoxide SmO , monochalcogenides SmS , SmSe and SmTe , as well as samarium ( II ) iodide . The last compound is a common reducing agent in chemical synthesis . Samarium has no significant biological role and is only slightly toxic .
Samarium was discovered in 1879 by the French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran and named after the mineral samarskite from which it was isolated . The mineral itself was earlier named after a Russian mine official , Colonel Vasili Samarsky @-@ Bykhovets , who thereby became the first person to have a chemical element named after him , albeit indirectly . Although classified as a rare earth element , samarium is the 40th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust and is more common than such metals as tin . Samarium occurs with concentration up to 2 @.@ 8 % in several minerals including cerite , gadolinite , samarskite , monazite and bastnäsite , the last two being the most common commercial sources of the element . These minerals are mostly found in China , the United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia ; China is by far the world leader in samarium mining and production .
The major commercial application of samarium is in samarium @-@ cobalt magnets , which have permanent magnetization second only to neodymium magnets ; however , samarium compounds can withstand significantly higher temperatures , above 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) , without losing their magnetic properties , due to the alloy 's higher Curie point . The radioactive isotope samarium @-@ 153 is the major component of the drug samarium ( 153Sm ) lexidronam ( Quadramet ) , which kills cancer cells in the treatment of lung cancer , prostate cancer , breast cancer and osteosarcoma . Another isotope , samarium @-@ 149 , is a strong neutron absorber and is therefore added to the control rods of nuclear reactors . It is also formed as a decay product during the reactor operation and is one of the important factors considered in the reactor design and operation . Other applications of samarium include catalysis of chemical reactions , radioactive dating and an X @-@ ray laser .
= = Physical properties = =
Samarium is a rare earth metal having the hardness and density similar to those of zinc . With the boiling point of 1794 ° C , samarium is the third most volatile lanthanide after ytterbium and europium ; this property facilitates separation of samarium from the mineral ore . At ambient conditions , samarium normally assumes a rhombohedral structure ( α form ) . Upon heating to 731 ° C , its crystal symmetry changes into hexagonally close @-@ packed ( hcp ) , however the transition temperature depends on the metal purity . Further heating to 922 ° C transforms the metal into a body @-@ centered cubic ( bcc ) phase . Heating to 300 ° C combined with compression to 40 kbar results in a double @-@ hexagonally close @-@ packed structure ( dhcp ) . Applying higher pressure of the order of hundreds or thousands of kilobars induces a series of phase transformations , in particular with a tetragonal phase appearing at about 900 kbar . In one study , the dhcp phase could be produced without compression , using a nonequilibrium annealing regime with a rapid temperature change between about 400 and 700 ° C , confirming the transient character of this samarium phase . Also , thin films of samarium obtained by vapor deposition may contain the hcp or dhcp phases at ambient conditions .
Samarium ( and its sesquioxide ) are paramagnetic at room temperature . Their corresponding effective magnetic moments , below 2µB , are the 3rd lowest among the lanthanides ( and their oxides ) after lanthanum and lutetium . The metal transforms to an antiferromagnetic state upon cooling to 14 @.@ 8 K. Individual samarium atoms can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules . They can also be doped between the C60 molecules in the fullerene solid , rendering it superconductive at temperatures below 8 K. Samarium doping of iron @-@ based superconductors – the most recent class of high @-@ temperature superconductors – allows to enhance their transition temperature to 56 K , which is the highest value achieved so far in this series .
= = Chemical properties = =
Freshly prepared samarium has a silvery luster . In air , it slowly oxidizes at room temperature and spontaneously ignites at 150 ° C. Even when stored under mineral oil , samarium gradually oxidizes and develops a grayish @-@ yellow powder of the oxide @-@ hydroxide mixture at the surface . The metallic appearance of a sample can be preserved by sealing it under an inert gas such as argon .
Samarium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form samarium hydroxide :
2 Sm ( s ) + 6 H2O ( l ) → 2 Sm ( OH ) 3 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g )
Samarium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow to pale green Sm ( III ) ions , which exist as [ Sm ( OH2 ) 9 ] 3 + complexes :
2 Sm ( s ) + 3 H2SO4 ( aq ) → 2 Sm3 + ( aq ) + 3 SO2 −
4 ( aq ) + 3 H2 ( g )
Samarium is one of the few lanthanides that exhibit the oxidation state + 2 . The Sm2 + ions are blood @-@ red in aqueous solution .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Oxides = = =
The most stable oxide of samarium is the sesquioxide Sm2O3 . As many other samarium compounds , it exists in several crystalline phases . The trigonal form is obtained by slow cooling from the melt . The melting point of Sm2O3 is rather high ( 2345 ° C ) and therefore melting is usually achieved not by direct heating , but with induction heating , through a radio @-@ frequency coil . The Sm2O3 crystals of monoclinic symmetry can be grown by the flame fusion method ( Verneuil process ) from the Sm2O3 powder , that yields cylindrical boules up to several centimeters long and about one centimeter in diameter . The boules are transparent when pure and defect @-@ free and are orange otherwise . Heating the metastable trigonal Sm2O3 to 1900 ° C converts it to the more stable monoclinic phase . Cubic Sm2O3 has also been described .
Samarium is one of the few lanthanides that form a monoxide , SmO . This lustrous golden @-@ yellow compound was obtained by reducing Sm2O3 with samarium metal at elevated temperature ( 1000 ° C ) and pressure above 50 kbar ; lowering the pressure resulted in an incomplete reaction . SmO has the cubic rock @-@ salt lattice structure .
= = = Chalcogenides = = =
Samarium forms trivalent sulfide , selenide and telluride . Divalent chalcogenides SmS , SmSe and SmTe with cubic rock @-@ salt crystal structure are also known . They are remarkable by converting from semiconducting to metallic state at room temperature upon application of pressure . Whereas the transition is continuous and occurs at about 20 – 30 kbar in SmSe and SmTe , it is abrupt in SmS and requires only 6 @.@ 5 kbar . This effect results in spectacular color change in SmS from black to golden yellow when its crystals of films are scratched or polished . The transition does not change lattice symmetry , but there is a sharp decrease ( ~ 15 % ) in the crystal volume . It shows hysteresis , that is when the pressure is released , SmS returns to the semiconducting state at much lower pressure of about 0 @.@ 4 kbar .
= = = Halides = = =
Samarium metal reacts with all the halogens , forming trihalides :
2 Sm ( s ) + 3 X2 ( g ) → 2 SmX3 ( s ) ( X = F , Cl , Br or I )
Their further reduction with samarium , lithium or sodium metals at elevated temperatures ( about 700 – 900 ° C ) yields dihalides . The diiodide can also be prepared by heating SmI3 , or by reacting the metal with 1 @,@ 2 @-@ diiodoethane in anhydrous tetrahydrofuran at room temperature :
Sm ( s ) + ICH2 @-@ CH2I → SmI2 + CH2 = CH2 .
In addition to dihalides , the reduction also produces numerous non @-@ stoichiometric samarium halides with a well @-@ defined crystal structure , such as Sm3F7 , Sm14F33 , Sm27F64 , Sm11Br24 , Sm5Br11 and Sm6Br13 .
As reflected in the table above , samarium halides change their crystal structures when one type of halide atoms is substituted for another , which is an uncommon behavior for most elements ( e.g. actinides ) . Many halides have two major crystal phases for one composition , one being significantly more stable and another being metastable . The latter is formed upon compression or heating , followed by quenching to ambient conditions . For example , compressing the usual monoclinic samarium diiodide and releasing the pressure results in a PbCl2 @-@ type orthorhombic structure ( density 5 @.@ 90 g / cm3 ) , and similar treatment results in a new phase of samarium triiodide ( density 5 @.@ 97 g / cm3 ) .
= = = Borides = = =
Sintering powders of samarium oxide and boron , in vacuum , yields a powder containing several samarium boride phases , and their volume ratio can be controlled through the mixing proportion . The powder can be converted into larger crystals of a certain samarium boride using arc melting or zone melting techniques , relying on the different melting / crystallization temperature of SmB6 ( 2580 ° C ) , SmB4 ( about 2300 ° C ) and SmB66 ( 2150 ° C ) . All these materials are hard , brittle , dark @-@ gray solids with the hardness increasing with the boron content . Samarium diboride is too volatile to be produced with these methods and requires high pressure ( about 65 kbar ) and low temperatures between 1140 and 1240 ° C to stabilize its growth . Increasing the temperature results in the preferential formations of SmB6 .
= = = = Samarium hexaboride = = = =
Samarium hexaboride is a typical intermediate @-@ valence compound where samarium is present both as Sm2 + and Sm3 + ions at the ratio 3 : 7 . It belongs to a class of Kondo insulators , that is at high temperatures ( above 50 K ) , its properties are typical of a Kondo metal , with metallic electrical conductivity characterized by strong electron scattering , whereas at low temperatures , it behaves as a non @-@ magnetic insulator with a narrow band gap of about 4 – 14 meV . The cooling @-@ induced metal @-@ insulator transition in SmB6 is accompanied by a sharp increase in the thermal conductivity , peaking at about 15 K. The reason for this increase is that electrons themselves do not contribute to the thermal conductivity at low temperatures , which is dominated by phonons , but the decrease in electron concentration reduced the rate of electron @-@ phonon scattering .
New research seems to show that it may be a topological insulator .
= = = Other inorganic compounds = = =
Samarium carbides are prepared by melting a graphite @-@ metal mixture in an inert atmosphere . After the synthesis , they are unstable in air and are studied also under inert atmosphere . Samarium monophosphide SmP is a semiconductor with the bandgap of 1 @.@ 10 eV , the same as in silicon , and high electrical conductivity of n @-@ type . It can be prepared by annealing at 1100 ° C an evacuated quartz ampoule containing mixed powders of phosphorus and samarium . Phosphorus is highly volatile at high temperatures and may explode , thus the heating rate has to be kept well below 1 ° C / min . Similar procedure is adopted for the monarsenide SmAs , but the synthesis temperature is higher at 1800 ° C.
Numerous crystalline binary compounds are known for samarium and one of the group @-@ 4 , 5 or 6 element X , where X is Si , Ge , Sn , Pb , Sb or Te , and metallic alloys of samarium form another large group . They are all prepared by annealing mixed powders of the corresponding elements . Many of the resulting compounds are non @-@ stoichiometric and have nominal compositions SmaXb , where the b / a ratio varies between 0 @.@ 5 and 3 .
= = = Organometallic compounds = = =
Samarium forms a cyclopentadienide Sm ( C5H5 ) 3 and its chloroderivatives Sm ( C5H5 ) 2Cl and Sm ( C5H5 ) Cl2 . They are prepared by reacting samarium trichloride with NaC5H5 in tetrahydrofuran . Contrary to cyclopentadienides of most other lanthanides , in Sm ( C5H5 ) 3 some C5H5 rings bridge each other by forming ring vertexes η1 or edges η2 toward another neighboring samarium atom , thereby creating polymeric chains . The chloroderivative Sm ( C5H5 ) 2Cl has a dimer structure , which is more accurately expressed as ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2Sm ( µ @-@ Cl ) 2 ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2 . There , the chlorine bridges can be replaced , for instance , by iodine , hydrogen or nitrogen atoms or by CN groups .
The ( C5H5 ) − ion in samarium cyclopentadienides can be replaced by the indenide ( C9H7 ) − or cyclooctatetraenide ( C8H8 ) 2 − ring , resulting in Sm ( C9H7 ) 3 or KSm ( η8 @-@ C8H8 ) 2 . The latter compound has a similar structure to that of uranocene . There is also a cyclopentadienide of divalent samarium , Sm ( C5H5 ) 2 – a solid that sublimates at about 85 ° C. Contrary to ferrocene , the C5H5 rings in Sm ( C5H5 ) 2 are not parallel but are tilted by 40 ° .
Alkyls and aryls of samarium are obtained through a metathesis reaction in tetrahydrofuran or ether :
SmCl3 + 3 LiR → SmR3 + 3 LiCl
Sm ( OR ) 3 + 3 LiCH ( SiMe3 ) 2 → Sm { CH ( SiMe3 ) 2 } 3 + 3 LiOR
Here R is a hydrocarbon group and Me stands for methyl .
= = Isotopes = =
Naturally occurring samarium has a radioactivity of 128 Bq / g . It is composed of four stable isotopes : 144Sm , 150Sm , 152Sm and 154Sm , and three extremely long @-@ lived radioisotopes , 147Sm ( half @-@ life t1 / 2
= 1 @.@ 06 × 1011 years ) , 148Sm ( 7 × 1015 years ) and 149Sm ( > 2 × 1015 years ) , with 152Sm being the most abundant ( natural abundance 26 @.@ 75 % ) . 149Sm is listed by various sources either as stable or radioactive isotope .
The long @-@ lived isotopes , 146Sm , 147Sm , and 148Sm , primarily decay by emission of alpha particles to isotopes of neodymium . Lighter unstable isotopes of samarium primarily decay by electron capture to isotopes of promethium , while heavier ones convert through beta decay to isotopes of europium .
The alpha @-@ decay of 147Sm to 143Nd with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 06 × 1011 years serve for samarium @-@ neodymium dating .
The half @-@ lives of 151Sm and 145Sm are 90 years and 340 days , respectively . All the remaining radioisotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 2 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 48 seconds . Samarium also has five nuclear isomers with the most stable being 141mSm ( half @-@ life 22 @.@ 6 minutes ) , 143m1Sm ( t1 / 2 =
66 seconds ) and 139mSm ( t1 / 2 = 10 @.@ 7 seconds ) .
= = History = =
Detection of samarium and related elements was announced by several scientists in the second half of the 19th century ; however , most sources give the priority to the French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran . Boisbaudran isolated samarium oxide and / or hydroxide in Paris in 1879 from the mineral samarskite ( ( Y , Ce , U , Fe ) 3 ( Nb , Ta , Ti ) 5O16 ) and identified a new element in it via sharp optical absorption lines . The Swiss chemist Marc Delafontaine announced a new element decipium ( from Latin : decipiens meaning " deceptive , misleading " ) in 1878 , but later in 1880 – 1881 demonstrated that it was a mixture of several elements , one being identical to the Boisbaudran 's samarium . Although samarskite was first found in the remote Russian region of Urals , by the late 1870s its deposits had been located in other places making the mineral available to many researchers . In particular , it was found that the samarium isolated by Boisbaudran was also impure and contained comparable amount of europium . The pure element was produced only in 1901 by Eugène @-@ Anatole Demarçay .
Boisbaudran named his element samaria after the mineral samarskite , which in turn honored Vasili Samarsky @-@ Bykhovets ( 1803 – 1870 ) . Samarsky @-@ Bykhovets , as the Chief of Staff of the Russian Corps of Mining Engineers , had granted access for two German mineralogists , the brothers Gustav Rose and Heinrich Rose , to study the mineral samples from the Urals . In this sense samarium was the first chemical element to be named after a person . Later the name samaria used by Boisbaudran was transformed into samarium , to conform with other element names , and samaria nowadays is sometimes used to refer to samarium oxide , by analogy with yttria , zirconia , alumina , ceria , holmia , etc . The symbol Sm was suggested for samarium ; however an alternative Sa was frequently used instead until the 1920s .
Prior to the advent of ion @-@ exchange separation technology in the 1950s , samarium had no commercial uses in pure form . However , a by @-@ product of the fractional crystallization purification of neodymium was a mixture of samarium and gadolinium that acquired the name of " Lindsay Mix " after the company that made it . This material is thought to have been used for nuclear control rods in some early nuclear reactors . Nowadays , a similar commodity product has the name " samarium @-@ europium @-@ gadolinium " ( SEG ) concentrate . It is prepared by solvent extraction from the mixed lanthanides isolated from bastnäsite ( or monazite ) . Since the heavier lanthanides have the greater affinity for the solvent used , they are easily extracted from the bulk using relatively small proportions of solvent . Not all rare @-@ earth producers who process bastnäsite do so on a large enough scale to continue onward with the separation of the components of SEG , which typically makes up only one or two percent of the original ore . Such producers will therefore be making SEG with a view to marketing it to the specialized processors . In this manner , the valuable europium content of the ore is rescued for use in phosphor manufacture . Samarium purification follows the removal of the europium . As of 2012 , being in oversupply , samarium oxide is less expensive on a commercial scale than its relative abundance in the ore might suggest .
= = Occurrence and production = =
With the average concentration of about 8 parts per million ( ppm ) , samarium is the 40th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust . It is the fifth most abundant lanthanide and is more common than elements such as tin . Samarium concentration in soils varies between 2 and 23 ppm , and oceans contain about 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 8 parts per trillion . Distribution of samarium in soils strongly depends on its chemical state and is very inhomogeneous : in sandy soils , samarium concentration is about 200 times higher at the surface of soil particles than in the water trapped between them , and this ratio can exceed 1 @,@ 000 in clays .
Samarium is not found free in nature , but , like other rare earth elements , is contained in many minerals , including monazite , bastnäsite , cerite , gadolinite and samarskite ; monazite ( in which samarium occurs at concentrations of up to 2 @.@ 8 % ) and bastnäsite are mostly used as commercial sources . World resources of samarium are estimated at two million tonnes ; they are mostly located in China , US , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia , and the annual production is about 700 tonnes . Country production reports are usually given for all rare @-@ earth metals combined . By far , China has the largest production with 120 @,@ 000 tonnes mined per year ; it is followed by the US ( about 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ) and India ( 2 @,@ 700 tonnes ) . Samarium is usually sold as oxide , which at the price of about 30 USD / kg is one of the cheapest lanthanide oxides . Whereas mischmetal – a mixture of rare earth metals containing about 1 % of samarium – has long been used , relatively pure samarium has been isolated only recently , through ion exchange processes , solvent extraction techniques , and electrochemical deposition . The metal is often prepared by electrolysis of a molten mixture of samarium ( III ) chloride with sodium chloride or calcium chloride . Samarium can also be obtained by reducing its oxide with lanthanum . The product is then distilled to separate samarium ( boiling point 1794 ° C ) and lanthanum ( b.p. 3464 ° C ) .
Domination of samarium in minerals is unique . Minerals with essential ( dominant ) samarium include monazite- ( Sm ) and florencite- ( Sm ) . They are very rare .
Samarium @-@ 151 is produced in nuclear fission of uranium with the yield of about 0 @.@ 4 % of the total number of fission events . It is also synthesized upon neutron capture by samarium @-@ 149 , which is added to the control rods of nuclear reactors . Consequently , samarium @-@ 151 is present in spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste .
= = Applications = =
One of the most important applications of samarium is in samarium – cobalt magnets , which have a nominal composition of SmCo5 or Sm2Co17 . They have high permanent magnetization , which is about 10 @,@ 000 times that of iron and is second only to that of neodymium magnets . However , samarium @-@ based magnets have higher resistance to demagnetization , as they are stable to temperatures above 700 ° C ( cf . 300 – 400 ° C for neodymium magnets ) . These magnets are found in small motors , headphones , and high @-@ end magnetic pickups for guitars and related musical instruments . For example , they are used in the motors of a solar @-@ powered electric aircraft , the Solar Challenger , and in the Samarium Cobalt Noiseless electric guitar and bass pickups .
Another important application of samarium and its compounds is as catalyst and chemical reagent . Samarium catalysts assist decomposition of plastics , dechlorination of pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) , as well as the dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethanol . Samarium ( III ) triflate ( Sm ( OTf ) 3 , that is Sm ( CF3SO3 ) 3 ) , is one of the most efficient Lewis acid catalysts for a halogen @-@ promoted Friedel – Crafts reaction with alkenes . Samarium ( II ) iodide is a very common reducing and coupling agent in organic synthesis , for example in the desulfonylation reactions ; annulation ; Danishefsky , Kuwajima , Mukaiyama and Holton Taxol total syntheses ; strychnine total synthesis ; Barbier reaction and other reductions with samarium ( II ) iodide .
In its usual oxidized form , samarium is added to ceramics and glasses where it increases absorption of infrared light . As a ( minor ) part of mischmetal , samarium is found in " flint " ignition device of many lighters and torches .
Radioactive samarium @-@ 153 is a beta emitter with a half @-@ life of 46 @.@ 3 hours . It is used to kill cancer cells in the treatment of lung cancer , prostate cancer , breast cancer , and osteosarcoma . For this purpose , samarium @-@ 153 is chelated with ethylene diamine tetramethylene phosphonate ( EDTMP ) and injected intravenously . The chelation prevents accumulation of radioactive samarium in the body that would result in excessive irradiation and generation of new cancer cells . The corresponding drug has several names including samarium ( 153Sm ) lexidronam ; its trade name is Quadramet .
Samarium @-@ 149 has high cross @-@ section for neutron capture ( 41 @,@ 000 barns ) and is therefore used in the control rods of nuclear reactors . Its advantage compared to competing materials , such as boron and cadmium , is stability of absorption – most of the fusion and decay products of samarium @-@ 149 are other isotopes of samarium that are also good neutron absorbers . For example , the cross section of samarium @-@ 151 is 15 @,@ 000 barns , it is on the order of hundreds of barns for 150Sm , 152Sm , and 153Sm , and is 6 @,@ 800 barns for natural ( mixed @-@ isotope ) samarium . Among the decay products in a nuclear reactor , samarium @-@ 149 is regarded as the second most important for the reactor design and operation after xenon @-@ 135 .
Samarium hexaboride , abbreviated SmB6 , has recently been shown to be a topological insulator with potential applications to quantum computing .
= = = Non @-@ commercial and potential applications = = =
Samarium @-@ doped calcium fluoride crystals were used as an active medium in one of the first solid @-@ state lasers designed and constructed by Peter Sorokin ( co @-@ inventor of the dye laser ) and Mirek Stevenson at IBM research labs in early 1961 . This samarium laser emitted pulses of red light at 708 @.@ 5 nm . It had to be cooled by liquid helium and thus did not find practical applications .
Another samarium @-@ based laser became the first saturated X @-@ ray laser operating at wavelengths shorter than 10 nanometers . It provided 50 @-@ picosecond pulses at 7 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 8 nm suitable for applications in holography , high @-@ resolution microscopy of biological specimens , deflectometry , interferometry , and radiography of dense plasmas related to confinement fusion and astrophysics . Saturated operation meant that the maximum possible power was extracted from the lasing medium , resulting in the high peak energy of 0 @.@ 3 mJ . The active medium was samarium plasma produced by irradiating samarium @-@ coated glass with a pulsed infrared Nd @-@ glass laser ( wavelength ~ 1 @.@ 05 µm ) .
The change in electrical resistivity in samarium monochalcogenides can be used in a pressure sensor or in a memory device triggered between a low @-@ resistance and high @-@ resistance state by external pressure , and such devices are being developed commercially . Samarium monosulfide also generates electric voltage upon moderate heating to about 150 ° C that can be applied in thermoelectric power converters .
The analysis of relative concentrations of samarium and neodymium isotopes 147Sm , 144Nd , and 143Nd allows the determination of the age and origin of rocks and meteorites in samarium @-@ neodymium dating . Both elements are lanthanides and have very similar physical and chemical properties . Therefore , Sm @-@ Nd dating is either insensitive to partitioning of the marker elements during various geological processes , or such partitioning can well be understood and modeled from the ionic radii of the involved elements .
The Sm3 + ion is a potential activator for use in warm @-@ white light emitting diodes . It offers high luminous efficacy due to the narrow emission bands , however , the generally low quantum efficiency and insufficient absorption in the UV @-@ A to blue spectral region hinders commercial application .
In recent years it has been demonstrated that nanocrystalline BaFCl : Sm3 + as prepared by a co @-@ precipitation can serve as a very efficient x @-@ ray storage phosphor . The co @-@ precipitation leads to nanocrystallites of the order of 100 @-@ 200 nm in size and their sensitivity as x @-@ ray storage phosphors is increased an astounding ∼ 500 @,@ 000 times because of the specific arrangements and density of defect centres in comparison with microcrystalline samples prepared by sintering at high temperature . The mechanism is based on the reduction of Sm3 + to Sm2 + by trapping electrons that are created upon exposure to ionizing radiation in the BaFCl host . The 5 DJ @-@ 7 FJ f @-@ f luminescence lines can be very efficiently excited via the parity allowed 4f6 → 4f5 5d transition at around 417 nm . The latter wavelength is ideal for efficient excitation by blue @-@ violet laser diodes as the transition is electric dipole allowed and thus relatively intense ( 400 l / ( mol ⋅ cm ) ) . The phosphor has potential applications in personal dosimetry , dosimetry and imaging in radiotherapy , and medical imaging .
= = Biological role = =
Samarium salts stimulate metabolism , but it is unclear whether this is the effect of samarium or other lanthanides present with it . The total amount of samarium in adults is about 50 µg , mostly in liver and kidneys and with about 8 µg / L being dissolved in the blood . Samarium is not absorbed by plants to a measurable concentration and therefore is normally not a part of human diet . However , a few plants and vegetables may contain up to 1 part per million of samarium . Insoluble salts of samarium are non @-@ toxic and the soluble ones are only slightly toxic .
When ingested , only about 0 @.@ 05 % of samarium salts is absorbed into the bloodstream and the remainder is excreted . From the blood , about 45 % goes to the liver and 45 % is deposited on the surface of the bones where it remains for about 10 years ; the balance 10 % is excreted .
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= Phantasmagoria ( video game ) =
Phantasmagoria is an interactive movie point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game released by Sierra On @-@ Line and designed by Roberta Williams for MS @-@ DOS and Microsoft Windows . Released on August 24 , 1995 , it tells the story of Adrienne ( Victoria Morsell ) , a writer who moves into a remote mansion and finds herself terrorized by supernatural forces . Made at the peak of popularity for interactive movie games , it featured live @-@ action actors and footage , both during cinematic scenes and within the three @-@ dimensional rendered environments of the game itself . Phantasmagoria was noted at the time of its release for its graphic gore , violence , and sexual content .
Williams had long planned to design a horror game , but waited eight years for software technology to improve before doing so . Based on Williams ' 550 @-@ page script , about four times the length of an average Hollywood screenplay , more than 200 people were involved in the making of Phantasmagoria , which took more than two years to develop and four months to film . Though originally budgeted for US $ 800 @,@ 000 , the game ultimately cost $ 4 @.@ 5 million to develop , and it was filmed in a $ 1 @.@ 5 million studio Sierra built specifically for the game .
Directed by Peter Maris , the game featured a cast of 25 actors , with all filming taking place in front of a blue screen . While most games at the time featured 80 to 100 backgrounds , Phantasmagoria included more than 1 @,@ 000 . A professional Hollywood special effects house worked on the game , and the musical score included a neo @-@ Gregorian chant performed by a 135 @-@ voice choir . Sierra strongly promoted the game , but stressed it was intended for adult audiences . The company willingly submitted it to a ratings system , and included a password @-@ protected censoring option within the game to tone down the graphic content .
Released on seven discs after multiple delays , Phantasmagoria was a financial success , grossing $ 12 million in its opening weekend and becoming one of the best @-@ selling games of 1995 . It received positive to mixed reviews , earning praise for its graphics and suspenseful tone , but received criticism for its slow pacing and easy puzzles . The game drew controversy , particularly due to a rape scene . CompUSA and other retailers declined to carry it , religious organizations and politicians condemned it , and it was banned altogether in Australia . A sequel , Phantasmagoria : A Puzzle of Flesh , was released in 1996 , although Williams was not involved and it has no storyline connection to the original game .
= = Gameplay = =
Phantasmagoria is an interactive movie point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game which features live @-@ action actors and footage , both during cinematic scenes between the gameplay and within the three @-@ dimensional rendered environments of the game itself . The game was made when interactive movie games were at the peak of their popularity , with the release of such popular computer games as Wing Commander III and Under a Killing Moon . A single @-@ player game , the player controls protagonist Adrienne Delaney , who is always on the screen . The player can click certain areas of the screen to control her movements or make her explore specific places and objects . The camera angles or rooms change depending on where the player moves Adrienne . The game includes only four mouse commands : look ( which changes to " talk to " when selecting a person ) , pick up item , use item , and walk . The mouse cursor is always an arrow , which is different from most earlier Sierra On @-@ Line games in which the cursor could be changed into different functions ( like walk , hand , and eye ) by clicking the right mouse button . The cursor turns red when it passes over an action where the user can click to perform an action . Once the action has been completed , the cursor will not turn red again . Objects in the game can be picked up by clicking on them or interacting with them in a film sequence , after which the item automatically goes into the inventory . If an object is small enough that it can be easily missed , a pulsing glow occasionally surrounds it to draw attention to it .
The user interface features on a screen surrounded by a stone border , with buttons and eight inventory slots along the bottom . Adrienne can only hold eight items at once , and each black slot contains an image of the item , which the user can click on to retrieve or use within the game . In the middle of the inventory slots is a " P " button that brings up an options screen , allowing the player to save or restore games , change the game screen to full- or half @-@ size , control the volume , or switch between a censored and uncensored version of the game , which determines how much graphic content is shown . A chapter gauge on this screen conveys how much progress remains in a given chapter . A fast @-@ forward button , located above the options button , allows the user to skip past cinematic scenes . On the left side of the interface is a red skull button , which the user can click to receive hints . On the right side is a red button with a pictured of a closed eye , which the user can click @-@ and @-@ drag an inventory item onto to open the eye and look at an item . This leads to a close @-@ up photo of the item , which can be turned in multiple directions .
Game designer Roberta Williams , co @-@ founder of Sierra On @-@ Line , deliberately made the Phantasmagoria gameplay and interface simple , unobtrusive , and intuitive so it would be more accessible and less frustrating for casual gamers . The game is focused more around the story and the frightening atmosphere , rather than on a difficult gaming experience , and therefore the puzzles are relatively easy , logical , and straightforward .
= = Plot = =
Successful mystery novelist Adrienne Delaney ( Victoria Morsell ) and her photographer husband Don Gordon ( David Homb ) have just purchased a remote mansion off the coast of a small New England island previously owned by a famous 19th @-@ century magician , Zoltan " Carno " Carnovasch ( Robert Miano ) , who had five wives who all died mysteriously . Hoping to find an inspiration for her next novel , Adrienne begins having nightmares immediately upon moving into her new home , but is comforted by the loving and supportive Don . Adrienne explores the estate , making mysterious discoveries like strange music , warnings written on her computer , and ominous messages from a fortune @-@ teller automaton . Unbeknownst to the happy couple , Carno had practiced black magic when he previously lived in the mansion and summoned an evil demon , which possessed him and caused him to murder his wives .
During her exploration of the grounds , Adrienne finds a secret chapel hidden behind a bricked off fireplace . After opening a locked box atop an altar , Adrienne unknowingly releases Carno 's demon , which promptly possesses Don . Don starts acting menacing and aggressively toward Adrienne , becoming progressively worse as time passes , culminating in a controversial scene in which he rapes Adrienne . Eventually , Adrienne meets Harriet Hockaday ( V. Joy Lee ) , a superstitious vagrant , and her strong but dim @-@ witted son , Cyrus ( Steven W. Bailey ) , who are secretly living in a barn on the estate . After Adrienne agrees to let them stay , they volunteer to them to help around the mansion . When a technician named Mike ( Carl Neimic ) visits the mansion to install the phone , Don screams at him in a jealous rage , warning him to stay away from his wife , much to Adrienne 's horror . Later , unbeknownst to Adrienne , Don bludgeons Mike to death .
While the local townspeople believe all Carno 's wives died of natural causes or accidentally , Adrienne learns through a series of visions that he murdered them in grotesque distortions of their personalities . Hortencia ( Christine Armond ) , who avoided Zoltan 's abuse by secluding herself in her greenhouse , is stabbed with gardening tools and suffocated with mulch . Victoria ( Holley Chant ) , an alcoholic , is killed when Zoltan impales her eye with a wine bottle during an argument . An overly talkative third wife , Leonora ( Dana Moody ) , has her mouth gagged and her neck contorted in a torture device . Finally , the food @-@ loving Regina ( Wanda Smith ) is force @-@ fed animal entrails through a funnel until she chokes to death . Harriet performs a séance for Adrienne , revealing in the form of a green ectoplasm the spirit of Carno before he had been possessed . He reveals that the previously contained evil spirit has been released , and urges Adrienne to trap it once again .
Adrienne visits the nearly 110 @-@ year @-@ old Malcolm Wyrmshadow ( Douglas Seale ) , who had been Carno 's apprentice as a young boy . Malcolm reveals that Carno met his demise after his last wife , Marie ( Traci Clauson ) discovered he was a murderer . Marie conspired with her lover , Gaston ( Jeff Rector ) , to kill Carno by sabotaging the equipment for his most infamous and dangerous escapology trick , in which Carno dons a burning hood and escapes from bonds on a throne equipped with an overhead pendulous axe . The sabotage leaves Carno horribly burned and disfigured , but he survives and viciously attacks Marie and Gaston . After killing Marie by beheading her with the same pendulous throne , Carno is killed by Gaston just before he succumbs to his own wounds . Malcolm tells Adrienne about a ritual that can eradicate the demon .
Meanwhile , Harriet , fearing for her safety , decides to leave with Cyrus as Don becomes more abusive and erratic . The next day , Adrienne is attacked by Don , who is now completely insane and dressed like Carno . Adrienne scars Don 's face with acid from his darkroom and then flees , discovering the corpses of Mike , Harriet and Cyrus hidden throughout the mansion . Don captures Adrienne and straps her into the pendulous throne , but she distracts him long enough to free herself from the throne and trigger the pendulum , which impales and kills Don . His death unleashes the demon , a giant and murderous monster that pursues Adrienne through the mansion . She escapes long enough to perform a ritual that traps the demon once again . The game ends with Adrienne walking out of the mansion in a state of near @-@ catatonia with a seemingly thousand yard stare .
= = Development = =
= = = Writing = = =
Phantasmagoria was a radically different game for Williams , who was best known for designing the family @-@ friendly King 's Quest fantasy adventure game series . Williams said she did not want to get " typecast " to a particular genre and wanted to " stretch my creative muscle , " adding : " I felt I had more to offer than fairy stories . I wanted to explore games with a lot of substance and deep emotions . " Although Phantasmagoria was her first horror game , Williams had previously created suspenseful murder and crimes stories in her earlier mystery games , Mystery House and the Laura Bow series . Williams was a fan of the horror genre , although she did not watch many horror films as a child due to a traumatic experience watching Horrors of the Black Museum ( 1959 ) at age four . She began watching them again as a teen , and particularly enjoyed such films as Halloween ( 1978 ) , and movies based on Stephen King novels , like Carrie and The Shining ( 1980 ) . Williams cited the works of King and Edgar Allan Poe as inspirations behind Phantasmagoria . She felt the horror genre had not yet been properly explored in computer games yet , and that most attempts were just " a lot of hack and slash ( where ) the whole point seems to be to kill everyone and blow them away " .
Williams had wanted to do a make a horror game for eight years prior to Phantasmagoria , and had started to design a few , but none came to fruition . She felt the computer game industry and software technology had not yet reached the point where an effective and frightening computer game could be made . As a result , she decided to wait until CD @-@ ROMs were faster and could handle real actors , which she believed was crucial for a horror game because she felt the player had to be able to empathize with the character to fear for them . Williams had been considering several horror story ideas for years before making the game . In one , the heroine answers a magician 's advertisement for an assistant and gets the job , but the magician turns out to be insane . Another was set in the past , with the female protagonist getting involved in the supernatural life of a magician character . That idea evolved into a woman being married to a man who is drawn to a bizarre house that previously belonged to illusionists and is haunted by ghosts . The final story as it appears in the game is in a contemporary setting , but combines elements common in modern fiction with those of 19th century literature and classic horror films of the 1950s .
Phantasmagoria was the first Sierra On @-@ Line game script to be written like a film screenplay . Williams was working on King 's Quest VII simultaneously as she was writing the Phantasmagoria script . Williams found it stressful working on two major games at once and said she had " some difficulty keeping both games in my head " , but felt each received her undivided attention during the most crucial times in their respective developments . Even during the writing stage , Williams was under pressure to ensure Phantasmagoria was a commercial success for Sierra . She also faced concerns from her husband Ken Williams , the company president and co @-@ founder of Sierra , who wanted the company to focus more on lower @-@ cost , combat @-@ oriented animated games , and was also concerned about the level of violence in the Phantasmagoria . Williams said she knew the rape scene in particular would be controversial , but she felt it was essential to the plot because it was a turning point that made Adrienne realize something was deeply wrong with Don . She felt the rest of the story " would make no sense " without the scene , but also knew there was a chance it would be cut from the game before production ended .
The script about 550 pages long when completed , about four times the size of an average Hollywood screenplay . The script included another 100 pages of storyboards , representing a total of 800 scenes . In preparation for writing it , Williams spent six months watching horror films and reading horror novels , as well as books about how to write horror novels and screenplays . She also asked people she knew socially to tell her scary stories so she could identify the elements of fear . Williams immersed herself so deeply into the genre that she began having nightmares and had to scale back her reading . Williams also spent about six months researching historical aspects of the story before the writing process . Williams had a history of using female protagonists in her games , like the Laura Bow series and some of the King 's Quest games . She said having a female lead in Phantasmagoria was not a ploy to attract female gamers , but rather felt like the correct choice for the game . Williams said her own personality was a partial inspiration for the protagonist Adrienne , although it was not purposeful : " I think it just kind of naturally worked out that way . "
Andy Hoyos , the game 's art director and a horror aficionado , participated in brainstorming sessions and discussions with Williams during the writing stage . He conceived the ideas for most of the death scenes , and tried to make each one different and original with what he called " fresh approaches to murder " . Williams wanted to include more scenes with Adrienne and Don as a happy , normal couple , so that Don 's transformation to evil would be more impactful . However , she was unable to do so to maintain the correct pacing for the gameplay . Williams wrote Phantasmagoria with the mass market in mind , targeting casual gamers as well as die @-@ hard computer game fans . To that end , she wrote the game in short chapters to break the game into smaller , easier @-@ to @-@ play sections . Her targeted demographic for the game was ages 16 and older . Williams chose the title " Phantasmagoria " after reading the word in a reference book about the history of magic and magicians . The term refers to a 17th @-@ century theatrical horror show in which " spirits of the dead " were revealed in a darkened theater by use of a modified magic lantern .
= = = Design = = =
Andy Hoyos was the art director for Phantasmagoria , and Kim White , Brandee Prugh and Brian Judy were among the computer artists . It was the first computer game Prugh worked on . Mark Hood , a veteran Sierra programmer , and Mark Seibert served as Phantasmagoria project managers . Seibert called managing the project " much more of a technical and managerial problem @-@ solving job than I ever envisioned " . Unlike previous Sierra games , it also involved managing a great deal of outside resources , such as keeping the studio and outside art contractors on schedule . The game 's three @-@ dimensional graphics were among the first rendered on Silicon Graphics software . In creating the look of the game , Hoyos drew particular inspiration from the films of Tim Burton , and he particularly tried to emulate the lighting , sets and " imaginative edge " of Batman ( 1989 ) . The films Alien ( 1979 ) and Hellraiser ( 1987 ) were additional influences . Phantasmagoria was designed using the 3 @-@ D software package Alias . Hoyos started by designing the rooms , then created the furniture , and added textures and lighting . Once complete , the computer rendered a final image of each room , which became the backgrounds for the game . While most computer games at the time had between 80 and 100 background pictures , Phantasmagoria had more than 1 @,@ 000 .
The game developers realized early during development that the game could not be completed entirely in @-@ house due to the large scope of the project , and required working with Hollywood agencies , actors and special effects houses , among others . This added further complexity to the game 's development and design . Gerald B. Wolfe , the game 's director of photography , spoke to the artists about how to set up the camera angles during filming to best accommodate the design of the rooms . Mannequins created in the computer substituted as stand @-@ ins for the actors to help Wolfe position the shots . Most of the artists had never created computer @-@ generated backgrounds for video @-@ captured characters , and found it to be a challenging process . Seibert said bridging the gap between Hollywood and the software world was difficult at first , but after about four weeks of shooting , the two sides had " come to a common language and had a greater understanding of the process " . Hoyos said the biggest difficulty in designing the look of the game was creating a definitive scale for the environment , and ensuring the objects and environment would eventually be compatible with human characters and maintain realism .
Once the filming was completed , more than 20 two @-@ hour Beta SP video tapes of footage that had to be edited down to fit the actions of the game . The programming included editing the original video footage , and mixing the rendered images of doors , drawers , chairs and other objects into the footage frame @-@ by @-@ frame , which was necessary for more than 100 scenes . The game required more polishing and fine @-@ tuning than most games of its time due to the large number of video components , and the programmers had to determine the desired frame rate , data transfer rate and desired resolution of the video elements . Another challenge for the game was CD resource management . Since many of the scenes in the game could be repeated in multiple chapters , some pieces of the code were written onto several different CDs to reduce the number of times the player had to swap discs , an unusual practice for computer games at the time . The programmers attempted to minimize the number of times a disc had to be swapped in the middle of a chapter . The final game was on seven discs , a large amount for a computer game , and more than the four or five discs originally expected during one point in the development .
= = = Casting = = =
Twenty @-@ five professional actors were cast in Phantasmagoria . Roberta Williams watched the audition tapes of all the roles , and was involved with Mark Seibert in picking the actors . The only actor that Siebert chose without Williams ' input was Victoria Morsell as the protagonist , Adrienne Delaney . Williams had watched other audition tapes for the part and did not find the right choice . While she was on vacation , Seibert watched Morsell 's audition and immediately selected her for the part . Williams was initially concerned that she was not involved in the decision , but later came to agree that Morsell was the correct choice . Morsell mostly had television experience , but had also previously worked in film and theater roles . She had to work 10 to 12 hours a day , six days a week , for three months to capture all her character 's actions and movements . Morsell said appreciated that her character was intelligent and not a typical horror film heroine , saying : " She doesn 't do incredibly stupid things . You don 't see her screaming in her underwear . The character isn 't about decoration . She 's a very real person . " David Homb portrayed Adrienne 's husband , Don Gordon . He had previously worked in television , theater , and had leading roles in 17 films , but this marked his first time playing an antagonist . Homb compared acting in Phantasmagoria to working in an entirely new medium , and called it " one of the best experiences I 've ever had in the entire entertainment business " . Morsell and Homb , who were an onscreen couple , started dating in real life after filming . Robert Miano was cast as the villain Zoltan " Carno " Carnovasch . He had previously appeared in several films , including Serpico ( 1973 ) and Death Wish ( 1974 ) , as well as films by Phantasmagoria director Peter Maris . Unlike Homb , Miano primarily played antagonists throughout his career ; he estimated " 90 percent of the time , I play the bad guy . "
The comic relief roles of Harriet and Cyrus were played by V. Joy Lee and Steven W. Bailey , respectively . Lee had mostly done theater work the in Atlanta and Seattle areas , along with appearing in some industrial films and an episode of Northern Exposure . Bailey had been an actor in Seattle for about three years , doing mostly stage work , as well as some commercials , television episodes , independent films , and industrial films for the United States Navy . Bailey 's character had to taunt the cat with a stick several times in the game . An animal lover , Bailey objected to doing so at first , and only agreed after the animal handlers assure him it would not bother the cats . Malcolm was portrayed by veteran actor Douglas Seale , who had previously appeared in Amadeus ( 1984 ) and performed voice work , including the role of the Sultan in the animated film Aladdin ( 1992 ) . Stella Stevens , a stage actress who also appeared in such films as The Nutty Professor ( 1963 ) with Jerry Lewis , played the antiques store owner Lou Ann , while Geoff Pryser played Bob the realtor , and Carl Neimic played phone technician Mike . Traci Clauson portrayed Marie , Carno 's fifth and final wife . She had previously worked mostly in television , including shows like Baywatch , Evening Shade and Married ... with Children . Harv the storekeeper was played by Hoke Howell , a film , television and theater actor who trained at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City , having appeared in films like Another 48 Hours ( 1990 ) and Far and Away ( 1992 ) , as well as shows like The Wonder Years and Remington Steele .
= = = Filming = = =
Phantasmagoria was Sierra 's first game to use live actors integrated with computer @-@ generated backgrounds . About 600 scenes were filmed for the game , with the average scene taking about an hour to shoot , while others were significantly longer or shorter . The total filming took about four months , 12 hours a day , shooting six days a week . More than 200 people were ultimately involved in the making of the game . A total of $ 800 @,@ 000 was originally budgeted for Phantasmagoria , but it ended up costing $ 4 @.@ 5 million . The budget issues caused some friction between Roberta and Ken Williams . It was the first game made in a new filming studio built by Sierra in Oakhurst , California , the same location as Sierra 's headquarters . It cost $ 1 @.@ 5 million to build , and was overseen by studio manager Bill Crow , who said , " Phantasmagoria essentially started with the design and creation of the studio " . Sierra also developed computerized tools specifically to manage the shooting process , including software to digitize the video into the computer . Some of the software was built as the game was being made and needs for new tools were being identified .
Sierra wanted the game to have Hollywood @-@ quality film sequences , so they sought a director with experience in the film industry . They hired Peter Maris , whose previous experience consisted mainly of action and drama films , although some of his earlier films were graphic horror movies . Maris and Roberta Williams collaborated a great deal from the beginning of the process , with Maris explaining what he wanted in each scene from a filmmaker 's perspective , and Williams explaining her desires from a game designer 's perspective . Maris set up the camera angles and worked with the actors , using three motion @-@ controlled cameras during the shooting . All filming was done entirely in front of a blue screen , and the digitized information was later loaded into the Silicon Graphics computers , which synchronize the relative motion of computer @-@ generated , three @-@ dimensional background art . Next , the live action and the backgrounds were composited using advanced techniques controlled by an UltiMatte system . The computer imaging components made Phantasmagoria a very different experience for Maris than his usual film industry work . Crow served as a production coordinator during filming , helping facilitate what happened on stage . He also directed the scenes that involved stunts or other special effects that required the coordination of animated sequences with live action . Cindy Jordan worked as the makeup artist .
The average filming day began at 6 a.m. with setting up the studio , with actors coming in at 7 a.m. or 7 : 30 a.m. for make @-@ up calls . An hour @-@ long pre @-@ production meeting would detail what would be shot that day to ensure all necessary backgrounds and props were ready . Shooting would begin around 8 a.m. and conclude at 6 p.m. or 7 p.m. Williams had no experience working with actors and feared it would be difficult due to " huge Hollywood egos " , but she instead found the actors to be professional and hardworking . Due to the nature of filming for a computer game , certain short performances had to be filmed over and over separately , like Adrienne simply crossing a room . The blue screen meant actors had to watch their positions very closely , as they had no actual sets or props to interact with . Many of the actors , including Morsell , Lee and Bailey , had never done any blue screen acting before , and Miano had only done it once . Morsell in particular said she found it challenging because it was so physically constrictive . Such items as tables , chairs , doors or stairs that the actors appear to interact with are in fact constructed objects painted blue to match the blue screen , and were occasionally challenging for the actors to work with . During one scene , David Homb accidentally stood in such a way that his arm appeared to be going through the living room wall .
Morsell found it challenging to film a scene near the end of the game , in which Adrienne is pleading with Don while getting strapped into the chair with a guillotine overhead . Several different versions of the scene had to be filmed , and Morsell said it was difficult for her to work up the genuine emotion she needed take after take . The torture devices featured in the game were scale models made by local craftsmen . During one scene , the mansion roof starts to collapse , causing beams and chunks of debris to fall around the actors . To achieve this , the crew built lightweight beams out of hollow cardboard , which had to fall in the correct sequence . They normally had two grips on set , but needed six for this scene , and Wolfe used friends who were visiting from out of town to help throw the props from ladders , boxes and scaffolding . In another scene , Adrienne crawls along a water pipe that breaks . To film the scene without damaging equipment , the crew built a giant plastic box with a plastic tray underneath for the shoot . Three hoses ran through the pipe so water would spray in multiple directions . At one point in the film , Carno lies in the hospital bed after having just survived a fire , his face wrapped in bandages with blood leaking through . During filming , Miano spontaneously sat up and started singing Al Jolson songs , making the crew laugh hysterically .
The chase scene at the end of the game , in which Don pursues Adrienne throughout the entire mansion , took a full week to film . Homb wore a prosthesis on his face to simulate wounds from Adrienne pouring acid on him . Only one prosthesis was available , and it was in such bad shape by the end of filming that Williams said " we were essentially holding it in place with the proverbial wire and bailing wax " . Several scenes in Phantasmagoria involved animals , including a Doberman Pinscher , two cats , a beagle and several rats . Sierra commissioned Dave Macmillian and other Hollywood animal handlers from the company Worldwide Movie Animals to handle the animals . Two cats were required to portray Adrienne 's pet Spaz because the cats were temperamental and each would have moments when they would not perform . The Doberman Pinscher simply barked behind a fence during his scene , and was trained to bark on command using different hand signals . The scene with the rats simply involved them running along a wall in a basement , which they were trained with to do using food . Some objects were borrowed by a museum operated by the Fresno Flats Historical Society and used as props in the game . The society was thanked in the credits as a result . Ultimately , all of the scenes filmed for Phantasmagoria were used in the final game . While some were edited for length and pacing , none were cut altogether .
Despite a storyline running over a course of seven days , Adrienne wears the same wardrobe throughout the entire game : an orange shirt and black pants . Williams said this is because many of Adrienne 's actions throughout the game can be repeated by the player over and over , making it difficult to change her wardrobe without it becoming " a nightmare of shooting " . The only solutions she saw were to allow less decision @-@ making by the player , or to keep the flexibility intact but not allow any costume changes . Williams said she decided the latter option was ultimately better for the game . An orange shirt was chosen for the character because it was the best color to shoot against the blue screen . None of the characters wear blue , purple , gray or any shade of green similar to the blue screen for that same reason .
= = = Effects = = =
For Phantasmagoria 's special effects , Sierra sought the professional effects house The Character Shop , headed by senior creature maker Rick Lazzarini . He said the game reminded him of working on one of his earliest movies , the slasher film The Slumber Party Massacre ( 1982 ) . The core special effects team for the game consisted of Lazzarini , Michael Esbin and Bill Zahn . Lazzarini said making Phantasmagoria was much more cooperative and faster process than in the film industry . Due to the tight filming schedule , most effects had to be done in one shot with no cuts , so there was less margin for error . They created the effects for all the death scenes in the game , which included creating assorted body prosthesis , burn makeup and what Lazzarini called " gallons of fake blood " , which was made of sugar , water and dye .
Adrienne 's head is split open by a swinging pendulum blade in one death scene , an effect that took several hours to set up . A fake head was created from a model cast of actress Victoria Morsell 's head , with pumps installed to pump fake blood into it , and strings attached to either side so it could be pulled apart . The crew only had one head model , so they had to keep putting it back together and reuse it over and over for each take . After filming was completed , the crew put the head back together and took a picture of Morsell with it . Morsell had to have her face covered in plaster when the model of her head was created , and she experienced some anxieties during the process , saying it felt " like being buried alive " . Robert Miano had similar feelings of anxiety when a model of his body was created , which was used in the game for a scene when Carno is set on fire . Miano had to sit on a chair for hours as the crew put plaster all of his body and face , during which he had to breathe through straws in his nostrils .
One scene involved a burning head , which was created by taking a cast of the actor 's face , head and body with a plaster , then placing soft rubber over the cast to simulate human flesh . It was also treated so it did not release black smoke like a rubber tire when it burned . For burn effects placed on the body after the fire , the crew made a sculpture of the wounds , then mounted them onto rubber appliances , which were glued to the actor . For Harriet 's death scene , in which she is scalped and her brain is visible , makeup artist Cindy Jordan put a cap over actress V. Joy Lee 's head and covered it with mortician 's wax to make it look bumpy . Another special effect involved a spirit that appears in the form of ectoplasm during a séance . It was created from cellulose , water and green food coloring . It proved difficult to make , and several attempts were made before the right consistency was achieved . To create the appearance of it coming out of actress V. Joy Lee 's mouth , an eight @-@ foot long hose was attached to the side of her face . Project manager Mark Seibert had to suck the fake ectoplasm through the hose to get it in , then during filming he spit it out . It took several shots before the take was successful , and it looked so funny during filming that the crew kept laughing during takes .
= = = Music = = =
Sierra composers Mark Seibert and Jay User created the musical score for Phantasmagoria , with Neal Grandstaf providing additional music . Most of the music is a mixture of real instruments with synthesized and sampled sounds , and unlike previous Sierra games , the score was recorded live , rather than created in the computer . Themes for the music ranged from rock and roll to opera . The composers observed the game and various scenes to prepare their score , trying to create an ambiance and identify spots to build the tension with music , creating stingers as needed . For cinematic scenes , they watched tape of them after the scenes were shot and composed the music afterward . This was a new process for Sierra and the computer game industry in general , but the same concept regularly followed in the film industry .
The opening theme of the game features a neo @-@ Gregorian chant , which was performed in studio by a 135 @-@ voice choir . Much of the underscore music that plays when the player is exploring the game , rather than during cinematic scenes , is based upon that opening scene . The composers made use of silence in many scenes , to build up tension for moments of a " pounce " effect , creating the effect with music that something is catching the listener . They deliberately saved the most intense music for the final chapter of Phantasmagoria , when the game becomes the most intense . During some chase scenes , drums and low strings are used in the score to simulate a heartbeat , which grows louder and louder during more dangerous moments .
= = Release = =
Phantasmagoria took more than two years develop . Sierra officials said it took so long because it was so different than anything that had been done before , in both the Hollywood or computer game industries , and the new challenges led to complexities . Roberta Williams said : " It took a full year just to get people to understand what I wanted to do . " The game experienced multiple delays before it was ultimately released . It was originally announced the game would be in stores by late 1993 or early 1994 , with Sierra announcing it would be released no later than the fall of 1994 . The game was previewed at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago in June 1994 , where it was announced the release date has been pushed back to October 1994 and that the game would be made available on two discs , rather than the seven discs it eventually became . The shipping date was later changed again to Christmas 1994 , and then February 1995 , before Sierra announced it would be delayed yet again as the company continued to refine the technology of live @-@ action video . It was announced the game would be ready in June 1995 , but when Sierra organized road shows that month to market 18 of its new games , Phantasmagoria was not among them because it was not ready yet .
The release date was changed once more to August 3 , before it was finally released in stores on August 24 , 1995 , the same day that Microsoft 's operating system Windows 95 was released . Phantasmagoria was released first for Windows 95 , Windows 3 @.@ 1 and MS @-@ DOS , then for Macintosh computers in November 1995 . Sierra released a hint book at the same time as the game . Phantasmagoria was also ported to Sega Saturn and released on eight discs exclusively in Japan , where it was fully translated and dubbed into Japanese , and released in August 1997 by the Outrigger Corporation under the name Phantasm . In response to all the delays , Vince Broady , executive editor of the monthly publication Multimedia World , said Sierra may have been attempting to avoid mistakes from its release the previous year of Outpost , for which the company release a large amount of advertisements and reviews , but then over @-@ promoted and released before it was finished . Sierra spokeswoman Kathy Gillmore admitted that mistakes were made in marketing Outpost and Sierra had tried to fix them . The minimum system requirements were an IBM compatible 486 @-@ 25 , 8 megabytes of RAM , 5 megabytes hard disk space , SVGA ( 256 colors ) and a 2x CD @-@ ROM . It supported Sound Blaster @-@ compatible sound cards , and for MS @-@ DOS the game worked with a megahertz chip . It sold for as much as $ 80 in some stores , but typically sold for $ 69 @.@ 95 upon its first release .
Phantasmagoria was heavily advertised by Sierra in advance of its release , and the company touted it as its biggest game to date . It was Sierra 's first computer game targeted to an adult audience , and one of the first horror games from any company written specifically for adults . There was no legislated rating system for computer games in the United States in place , although one was being debated before the U.S. Senate at the time . But Sierra was among several major software companies who voluntarily supported the ratings system designed by the Entertainment Software Rating Board , which rated games so adults could make decisions about software purchases . Phantasmagoria was the first game to get an " M " rating for " mature " audiences , meaning intended for audiences 17 or older , and as a result it carried a content warning on the box that said " contains adult subject matter " . The game box prominently displayed this rating , as well as a warning on the back panel that the game contains adult subject matter inappropriate for children . It also encouraged parents to review the material before providing it to children and asked retailers not to sell it to minors . Phantasmagoria also received mature ratings in Germany and the United Kingdom .
The game itself includes a filter that players can activate with a password so that violent or sexually explicit content is censored . When the filter is in place , the screen blurs during the most violent sections , so the player can hear the action but cannot see it . Sierra officials believed it was the first CD @-@ ROM adventure game that self @-@ censored itself upon command . Sierra producer Mark Seibert said : " There are some pretty gruesome things , and we 're concerned about how that is going to impact parents who want to buy a good game with a good story line . " But Gene Emery of The Providence Journal said the censoring option was " unlikely to stop any computer @-@ literate 10 @-@ year @-@ old " and by scrambling portions of the videos that might be considered offensive , " the censorship option actually makes the explicit scenes seem even worse than they really are " .
In October 1997 , the first chapter of Phantasmagoria was included in the Roberta Williams Anthology , a limited @-@ edition collection of 15 games created by Williams over 18 years . Phantasmagoria was made available for digital download on the website GOG.com starting in February 2010 for $ 9 @.@ 99 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Phantasmagoria quickly became the best @-@ selling game in the United States , and was Sierra 's best @-@ selling computer game to date . It grossed $ 12 million and sold 300 @,@ 000 units during its first weekend of release , and debuted at fourth in PC Data 's August 1995 list of top @-@ selling computer games for MS @-@ DOS and Windows , based on a survey of 21 national retail chains . It followed MechWarrior 2 , Microsoft Flight Simulator and Myst . By September it had reached number one on the list among computer games , and was ranked third in best @-@ selling overall computer software , following Windows 95 and Microsoft Plus ! InterAction , a magazine published by Sierra On @-@ Line , wrote : " Never before has a new product jumped to number one on the charts so quickly . " By the end of December It remained at number three among overall software , and number one among computer games , and by January it was estimated as many as 500 @,@ 000 copies had been sold .
Despite coming out in August , Phantasmagoria finished 1995 as the ninth best @-@ selling game of the year , according to an analysis by PC Data of sales by 42 retail chains . In January 1996 , Phantasmagoria was the fourth @-@ best seller among MS @-@ DOS and Windows games , behind Microsoft Flight Simulator , Myst and Command & Conquer , and it was number six among all computer software . By February 10 it was number five among MS @-@ DOS and Windows games , and by February 24 it was number 10 . It received a boost in June 1996 , possibly due to the pending release of its sequel Phantasmagoria : A Puzzle of Flesh , and jumped back up to seventh among best @-@ selling computer software programs , according to Computer Life magazine . One year after Phantasmagoria was released , it still remained in the best @-@ seller charts , and more than 1 million copies were sold , a high number for the time . It was Sierra 's first game to sell 1 million copies .
= = = Reviews = = =
Phantasmagoria received generally positive to mixed reviews . The violent content drew a great deal of attention , with Lee S. Isgur of Jefferies & Co . , a global investment bank that followed the computer game industry , wrote , " It 's probably one of the bloodiest games ever . " Vince Broady , executive editor of Multimedia World , said Sierra was smart to try to capture the adult market , which was looking for sophisticated games especially after the popularity of games such as The 7th Guest . Dwight Silverman of the Houston Chronicle declared it the best game of the year , calling it a " masterwork " and " as close as it gets to a film you control " , although he said not everyone would appreciate it due to its violent content . Entertainment Weekly gave it a B + and called it " one of the surest signs yet of computer games approaching the quality level of the movies " . The review said it had some suspenseful and novel twists , but also some " horrific touches ( that ) seem a bit derivative , such as a Freddy Krueger @-@ like nightmare in which hands pull you through a bed " . Kim McDaniel of The Salt Lake Tribune called it " the most sophisticated computer game to date " and " a weird , wild , horrific ride that will make you jump at every turn , even if you aren 't normally faint @-@ of @-@ heart " . Although McDaniel said it might be easy for experienced gamers , she appreciated that it was more accessible for casual gamers than difficult games like The 7th Guest .
A Billboard magazine review said Phantasmagoria " lives up to the advanced billing " and " aims to unnerve and succeeds gruesomely with bloody special effects interspliced in trusty scare @-@ flick fashion with daubs of flesh and hints of sex " . USA Today writer Joe Wilson gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars and called it well @-@ produced , visually appealing , frighteningly realistic and " a much @-@ needed change from normal fare " , although he said the plot did not start to become interesting until halfway through . Gene Emery of The Providence Journal said the game was " an impressive work , a sophisticated mix of live action and a rich computer @-@ generated environment , coupled with a musical score that 's spooky without being overwhelming " . He also called the gameplay " elegant in its simplicity " . San Francisco Chronicle writer Laura Evenson called it unpredictable and addictive , comparing it to a good mystery novel . Ric Manning of the Gannett News Service wrote , " The graphics are terrific , but don 't play on a full stomach . " Steve La Rue of U @-@ T San Diego found the game " visually opulent and interesting " and " has dialogue a lot better than I expected , given the trite gothic novel plot " , but also said he had to adjust to the " gradual , contemplative pace " . Jack Warner of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution wrote : " It 's hackneyed , but the art is so good , the acting sufficiently convincing and the atmosphere brooding enough to keep you going " , although he said " precious little happens " in the first few discs .
Computer Gaming World writer Arinn Dembo called the storyline of a couple buying a haunted mansion " a cliché so familiar that it needs no explanation " , but said it still worked in a computer game because the player could directly experience it in that medium , rather than simply watching it in a film . Dembo also praised the game for featuring a female protagonist , though she said Adrienne was too much of an exaggeratedly feminine " girlie @-@ type girl " . Overall , Dembo said the game " achieved a new height of realism and beauty in a computer game " and was " an important technological leap , and represents a step forward for the whole industry " . Another Computer Gaming World review said Phantasamagoria " appears to deliver on its ambitious promises " and that although the puzzles are too simple for experienced gamers , the appeal of the game is exploring a setting that " would have had even the folks in Amityville making tracks " . Harley Jebens of the Austin American @-@ Statesman said some of the acting was " hilariously bad " and the storyline was predictable , but that the game keeps you engaged , the story draws you in and the controls were well executed . Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram writer Andy Greiser said the game was a beautiful combination of live actors and computer @-@ built backgrounds , but said the action doesn 't start to pick up until the halfway point . In a mixed review , Phil LaRose of The Advocate praised the game for having a female protagonist and excellent special effects , and said it had gone further toward merging the realms of film and game than any other computer game . However , he said the game was too linear , with overly simple puzzles and a plotline with " so many recycled concepts in this game , players will feel like they 've seen it all before " .
Other reviews were more negative . GameSpot writer Jeff Sengstack said the expensive budget and long production history " do not necessarily translate into high quality gaming " . He complimented the graphics and music , but called the game " generally unchallenging , the characters weak , the violence over @-@ the @-@ top , and the script just lame " . Mike Hall of the Albuquerque Journal compared Phantasmagoria to big @-@ budget films with multimillion @-@ dollar budgets and multiple production delays that ultimately failed , like Cleopatra and Waterworld . He said the graphics were beautiful , but the game ended too quickly , the plot was thin and the puzzles were too easy to solve . The Escapist writer Brendan Main said the game fell short of its ambition to change how gamers experienced horror media , and the juxtaposition of real @-@ life actors on settings that were " ordinary , pixilated fare " was " odd and unflattering " . A one @-@ star review in The Video Games Guide , published in 2013 , " now seems little more than a flawed , though ambitious , white elephant " . In a 2014 review , IGN writer Kosta Andreadis said the game 's special effects were still effective , and that Phantasmagoria wisely builds suspense and saves the violent content for the end of the game . But he said it was ultimate " less a bad game than a bad horror film " and said the execution , " although technically interesting , is extremely goofy , full of ludicrous situations , weird plot turns , bizarre dialogue , and dated costume choices " .
= = = Awards = = =
Phantasmagoria the Golden Triad Award from Computer Game Review , and an Editor 's Choice Award from PC Gamer . It was nominated for Best Adventure / Role @-@ Playing Software in the annual Excellence in Software Awards competition , known in the gaming industry as " The Codies " , which are among the most prestigious honors in software development . Additionally , it was named Best Adventure Game of the Year by Games Magazine , Game of the Month by Windows Magazine , and was one of three nominees for PC / Computing 's Game of the Year .
= = = Controversy = = =
Before Phantasmagoria was released , CompUSA , the nation 's largest discount computer retailer , notified Sierra it would not stock the game . The company did not comment on specific reasons for their decision except for a written statement from chief operating officer Hal Compton : " Software comes out all the time . Some we buy , some we don 't . This one we chose not to . " Analysts believed CompUSA objected to the realistic violence in the game . Lee S. Isgur of Jefferies & Co. said CompUSA 's decision probably would not harm overall sales of the game , and that it could in fact help it generate publicity . Likewise , Vincent Turzo of Jefferies & Co. said , " When you say you 're not going to carry something , of course the consumers rush to the stores to see what it 's all about . " Roberta Williams said of CompUSA 's announcement : " I 'm disappointed that they decided to make a stand with my product . " Some smaller retailers also decided not to stock Phantasmagoria , but others like Walmart continued to carry it .
In addition to the graphic gore and violence , the rape scene in Phantasmagoria drew particular attention and objections from the game 's critics . One major newspaper claimed Phantasmagoria " makes a game of sexual violence " . Multiple parents ' groups , religious organizations community action committees and special interest groups called for a boycott , and sent letters to the Sierra offices in droves voicing objections to the game . Phantasmagoria was banned from most retailers in Australia by decree of the government 's Office of Film and Literature Classification . The Roberta Williams Anthology collection was also banned in Australia because it featured a one @-@ chapter preview of the game . The governments of two other countries also banned Phantasmagoria . The game was spotlighted in U.S. Senate hearings debating regulation of content in the computer software industry. and there was talk that it could re @-@ ignite the debate in Congress over whether to impose federally mandated ratings on computer software that stores would be required to enforce .
Sierra found that Williams tended to garner extremely favorable press , even as Phantasmagoria got negative press , so the company began having her direct the game in person . In response to the backlash , Williams said she believed computer games were subject to harsher standards than films and television , which she said often have more violent content than Phantasmagoria , in part because computer games are often regarded as children 's entertainment rather than for adults . Williams said Phantasmagoria was less excessively violent than games like Doom and Mortal Kombat , and that unlike those games , the Phantasmagoria is " the good guy ... not going around shooting up people " . Sierra spokeswoman Rebecca Buxton and Dennis Cloutier , the company 's vice president of sales , both expressed surprised at the reaction to the game because Sierra made strong efforts to warn viewers about the adult content in its marketing , box warnings and censoring options . Cloutier said the company was essentially " censoring ourselves " . Steven L. Kent of The Seattle Times said there were more violent games than Phantasmagoria , but that most video game violence appears in computer animations , and thus can be more easily overlooked than in a live @-@ action game , which elicits a stronger emotional response .
In April 1998 , three years after the game was released , the Kentucky Teachers Retirement System came under criticism for owning 435 @,@ 000 shares worth $ 9 million in Cendant , which by this point had purchased Sierra On @-@ Line , due to the violence in the Phantasmagoria and other Sierra games . Kentucky Sen. Mitch McConnell ; Arkansas Gov. Mike Huckabee ; Iowa Gov. Terry Branstad ; and Lamar Alexander , former governor of Tennessee ; all asked the system to sell its stock . McConnell was particularly critical of the rape scene . They suggested a link existed between recent student slayings in West Paducah , Kentucky , and Jonesboro , Arkansas , and the " increasingly violent world many American children enter when they sit down in front of a computer screen " . Pat Miller , executive secretary of the Kentucky Teachers Retirement System , said the system wasn 't aware of Phantasmagoria or Sierra 's products , and that it invested in Cendant because it 's part of an index fund of the 500 best stocks in the country . Miller added that , if the retirement system finds a problem with Sierra On @-@ Line , it would ask Cendant to cease ownership in the company , and that the system would divest its stock if it refused . Miller said : " We 're not going to continue to invest in some company that does something that will be detrimental to our children . We know that our membership would not want us to do that . " The same letter was also sent to heads of teachers ' retirement systems in California , Ohio and Texas .
= = Legacy = =
The commercial success of Phantasmagoria had an immediate positive financial impact on Sierra On @-@ Line . Even before its release , the company 's stock rose in July 1995 , up $ 3 @.@ 875 to $ 30 @.@ 875 , which Vince Turzo of Jeffries & Co attributed in part due to anticipation of Phantasmagoria . Sierra 's stock continued to rise after it was released . The company closed on the NASDAQ stock market at $ 43 @.@ 25 on September 8 , 1995 , translating to a 73 percent gain in less than three months , which Turzo again attributed partially to Phantasmagoria 's success . For the quarter ending September 30 , 1995 , Sierra posted a profit of $ 3 @.@ 26 million , compared to a loss of $ 850 @,@ 000 in 1994 . This improvement exceeded expectations in analysts ' forecasts , and was thanks largely to Phantasmagoria sales .
Williams returned to work on the King 's Quest series after Phantasmagoria was completed . While happy with the game , she said she did not expect to make another horror game again , saying , " It 's not really my area " . Sierra used the same technology and Hollywood techniques from Phantasmagoria to make The Beast Within : A Gabriel Knight Mystery ( 1995 ) , another interactive movie adventure game . Williams later described Phantasmagoria as the game that best represented her career as a game designer . Due to its development delays , Phantasmagoria was released after other interactive movie games like Wing Commander III and Under a Killing Moon , so it did not receive as much credit for heralding that gaming subgenre as the other titles . Harley Jebens of the Austin American @-@ Statesman said by the time it was finally released , " computer games that incorporate video ( were ) becoming a common sight on the software store racks " . Sean Clark , a project leader at LucasArts , feared the success of Phantasmagoria would set a bad precedent that software companies would think they need huge budgets and lots of discs to have a successful game , rather than focusing on quality .
= = Sequel = =
A Phantasmagoria sequel , Phantasmagoria : A Puzzle of Flesh ( 1996 ) , was released by Sierra a year after the original . It was written and designed by Lorelei Shannon , Roberta Williams ' design partner on King 's Quest VII . Williams was not involved with it , and the game featured a very different tone and completely different characters , with no direct connection to the storyline of the first game . Shannon said the original game was a haunted house story in the style of a " late night creature feature " , while her game has more science @-@ fiction and fantasy horror elements , in the style of the works of Clive Barker and Tanith Lee . Roberta Williams said both she and her husband Ken enjoyed the sequel . A preview for A Puzzle of Flesh was included in the first CD of the original Phantasmagoria game .
Ken Williams had wanted Roberta to work on a Phantasmagoria sequel immediately after the success of the first game , but she could not do so due to her obligations to King 's Quest VIII . Ken Williams felt the sequel was less successful because gamers could sense the absence of Roberta 's style . " It 's as if a bestselling author had a book ghostwritten . Within a few pages , the fans would know they had been duped and feel disappointed , regardless of the quality of the work . " Ken Williams said a third game was not produced after A Puzzle of Flesh because of issues after Sierra was acquired by CUC International in 1996 . Distribution was handled by Davidson & Associates , another CUC company , which primarily sold educational software . Williams said the company was uncomfortable with the violent content in Phantasmagoria and did not attempt sell the sequel aggressively as Sierra would have . He also claimed Jan Davidson , the wife of Chairman and CEO Bob Davidson , personally did not like the game and " wanted it shut down " . Due to these sales challenges , Williams said " there was no reason to make a third Phantasamagoria .
Roberta Williams , however , said she was asked by Sierra to make a third Phantasmagoria game , and that she said she would consider it , but it was not ultimately made . Williams said :
Before I would even consider tackling a major project like that , though – and devoting a couple of years of my life to it – I would need a huge outpouring from all of those gamers out there that they would truly love to have another Phantas to play . If there is a big enough groundswell of support for another Phantasmagoria , and if Sierra hears it and begs me enough , I might consider it .
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= Jack the Ripper =
Jack the Ripper is the best known name given to an unidentified serial killer generally believed to have been active in the largely impoverished areas in and around the Whitechapel district of London in 1888 . The name " Jack the Ripper " originated in a letter written by someone claiming to be the murderer that was disseminated in the media . The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax , and may have been written by journalists in an attempt to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers ' circulation . The killer was called " the Whitechapel Murderer " as well as " Leather Apron " within the crime case files , as well as in contemporary journalistic accounts .
Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved female prostitutes who lived and worked in the slums of the East End of London whose throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations . The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to proposals that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge . Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888 , and letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from a writer or writers purporting to be the murderer . The " From Hell " letter received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee included half of a preserved human kidney , purportedly taken from one of the victims . The public came increasingly to believe in a single serial killer known as " Jack the Ripper " , mainly because of the extraordinarily brutal character of the murders , and because of media treatment of the events .
Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper , and his legend solidified . A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal killings in Whitechapel up to 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888 . Five victims — Mary Ann Nichols , Annie Chapman , Elizabeth Stride , Catherine Eddowes , and Mary Jane Kelly — are known as the " canonical five " and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked . The murders were never solved , and the legends surrounding them became a combination of genuine historical research , folklore , and pseudohistory . The term " ripperology " was coined to describe the study and analysis of the Ripper cases . There are now over one hundred theories about the Ripper 's identity , and the murders have inspired many works of fiction .
= = Background = =
In the mid @-@ 19th century , Britain experienced an influx of Irish immigrants who swelled the populations of the major cities , including the East End of London . From 1882 , Jewish refugees from pogroms in Tsarist Russia and other areas of Eastern Europe emigrated into the same area . The parish of Whitechapel in London 's East End became increasingly overcrowded . Work and housing conditions worsened , and a significant economic underclass developed . Robbery , violence , and alcohol dependency were commonplace , and the endemic poverty drove many women to prostitution . In October 1888 , London 's Metropolitan Police Service estimated that there were 62 brothels and 1 @,@ 200 women working as prostitutes in Whitechapel . The economic problems were accompanied by a steady rise in social tensions . Between 1886 and 1889 , frequent demonstrations led to police intervention and public unrest , such as that of 13 November 1887 . Anti @-@ semitism , crime , nativism , racism , social disturbance , and severe deprivation fed public perceptions that Whitechapel was a notorious den of immorality . In 1888 , such perceptions were strengthened when a series of vicious and grotesque murders attributed to " Jack the Ripper " received unprecedented coverage in the media .
= = Murders = =
The large number of attacks against women in the East End during this time adds uncertainty to how many victims were killed by the same person . Eleven separate murders , stretching from 3 April 1888 to 13 February 1891 , were included in a London Metropolitan Police Service investigation and were known collectively in the police docket as the " Whitechapel murders " . Opinions vary as to whether these murders should be linked to the same culprit , but five of the eleven Whitechapel murders , known as the " canonical five " , are widely believed to be the work of Jack the Ripper . Most experts point to deep throat slashes , abdominal and genital @-@ area mutilation , removal of internal organs , and progressive facial mutilations as the distinctive features of the Ripper 's modus operandi . The first two cases in the Whitechapel murders file , those of Emma Elizabeth Smith and Martha Tabram , are not included in the canonical five .
Smith was robbed and sexually assaulted in Osborn Street , Whitechapel , on 3 April 1888 . A blunt object was inserted into her vagina , rupturing her peritoneum . She developed peritonitis and died the following day at London Hospital . She said that she had been attacked by two or three men , one of whom was a teenager . The attack was linked to the later murders by the press , but most authors attribute it to gang violence unrelated to the Ripper case .
Tabram was killed on 7 August 1888 ; she had suffered 39 stab wounds . The savagery of the murder , the lack of obvious motive , and the closeness of the location ( George Yard , Whitechapel ) and date to those of the later Ripper murders led police to link them . The attack differs from the canonical murders in that Tabram was stabbed rather than slashed at the throat and abdomen , and many experts today do not connect it with the later murders because of the difference in the wound pattern .
= = = Canonical five = = =
The canonical five Ripper victims are Mary Ann Nichols , Annie Chapman , Elizabeth Stride , Catherine Eddowes , and Mary Jane Kelly .
Nichols ' body was discovered at about 3 : 40 a.m. on Friday 31 August 1888 in Buck 's Row ( now Durward Street ) , Whitechapel . The throat was severed by two cuts , and the lower part of the abdomen was partly ripped open by a deep , jagged wound . Several other incisions on the abdomen were caused by the same knife .
Chapman 's body was discovered at about 6 a.m. on Saturday 8 September 1888 near a doorway in the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street , Spitalfields . As in the case of Mary Ann Nichols , the throat was severed by two cuts . The abdomen was slashed entirely open , and it was later discovered that the uterus had been removed . At the inquest , one witness described seeing Chapman at about 5 : 30 a.m. with a dark @-@ haired man of " shabby @-@ genteel " appearance .
Stride and Eddowes were killed in the early morning of Sunday 30 September 1888 . Stride 's body was discovered at about 1 a.m. in Dutfield 's Yard , off Berner Street ( now Henriques Street ) in Whitechapel . The cause of death was one clear @-@ cut incision which severed the main artery on the left side of the neck . The absence of mutilations to the abdomen has led to uncertainty about whether Stride 's murder should be attributed to the Ripper or whether he was interrupted during the attack . Witnesses thought that they saw Stride with a man earlier that night but gave differing descriptions : some said that her companion was fair , others dark ; some said that he was shabbily dressed , others well @-@ dressed .
Eddowes ' body was found in Mitre Square in the City of London , three @-@ quarters of an hour after Stride 's . The throat was severed and the abdomen was ripped open by a long , deep , jagged wound . The left kidney and the major part of the uterus had been removed . A local man named Joseph Lawende had passed through the square with two friends shortly before the murder , and he described seeing a fair @-@ haired man of shabby appearance with a woman who may have been Eddowes . His companions were unable to confirm his description . Eddowes ' and Stride 's murders were later called the " double event " . Part of Eddowes ' bloodied apron was found at the entrance to a tenement in Goulston Street , Whitechapel . Some writing on the wall above the apron piece became known as the Goulston Street graffito and seemed to implicate a Jew or Jews , but it was unclear whether the graffito was written by the murderer as he dropped the apron piece , or was merely incidental . Such graffiti were commonplace in Whitechapel . Police Commissioner Charles Warren feared that the graffito might spark anti @-@ semitic riots and ordered it washed away before dawn .
Kelly 's mutilated and disemboweled body was discovered lying on the bed in the single room where she lived at 13 Miller 's Court , off Dorset Street , Spitalfields , at 10 : 45 a.m. on Friday 9 November 1888 . The throat had been severed down to the spine , and the abdomen almost emptied of its organs . The heart was missing .
The canonical five murders were perpetrated at night , on or close to a weekend , either at the end of a month or a week ( or so ) after . The mutilations became increasingly severe as the series of murders proceeded , except for that of Stride , whose attacker may have been interrupted . Nichols was not missing any organs ; Chapman 's uterus was taken ; Eddowes had her uterus and a kidney removed and her face mutilated ; and Kelly 's body was eviscerated and her face hacked away , though only her heart was missing from the crime scene .
Historically , the belief that these five crimes were committed by the same man is derived from contemporary documents that link them together to the exclusion of others . In 1894 , Sir Melville Macnaghten , Assistant Chief Constable of the Metropolitan Police Service and Head of the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) , wrote a report that stated : " the Whitechapel murderer had 5 victims — & 5 victims only " . Similarly , the canonical five victims were linked together in a letter written by police surgeon Thomas Bond to Robert Anderson , head of the London CID , on 10 November 1888 . Some researchers have posited that some of the murders were undoubtedly the work of a single killer but an unknown larger number of killers acting independently were responsible for the others . Authors Stewart P. Evans and Donald Rumbelow argue that the canonical five is a " Ripper myth " and that three cases ( Nichols , Chapman , and Eddowes ) can be definitely linked but there is less certainty over Stride and Kelly . Conversely , others suppose that the six murders between Tabram and Kelly were the work of a single killer . Dr Percy Clark , assistant to the examining pathologist George Bagster Phillips , linked only three of the murders and thought that the others were perpetrated by " weak @-@ minded individual [ s ] ... induced to emulate the crime " . Macnaghten did not join the police force until the year after the murders , and his memorandum contains serious factual errors about possible suspects .
= = = Later Whitechapel murders = = =
Kelly is generally considered to be the Ripper 's final victim , and it is assumed that the crimes ended because of the culprit 's death , imprisonment , institutionalisation , or emigration . The Whitechapel murders file does , however , detail another four murders that happened after the canonical five : those of Rose Mylett , Alice McKenzie , the Pinchin Street torso , and Frances Coles .
Mylett was found strangled in Clarke 's Yard , High Street , Poplar on 20 December 1888 . There was no sign of a struggle , and the police believed that she had accidentally hanged herself on her collar while in a drunken stupor or committed suicide . Nevertheless , the inquest jury returned a verdict of murder .
McKenzie was killed on 17 July 1889 by severance of the left carotid artery . Several minor bruises and cuts were found on the body , discovered in Castle Alley , Whitechapel . One of the examining pathologists , Thomas Bond , believed this to be a Ripper murder , though his colleague George Bagster Phillips , who had examined the bodies of three previous victims , disagreed . Later writers are also divided between those who think that her murderer copied the Ripper 's modus operandi to deflect suspicion from himself , and those who ascribe it to the Ripper .
" The Pinchin Street torso " was a headless and legless torso of an unidentified woman found under a railway arch in Pinchin Street , Whitechapel , on 10 September 1889 . It seems probable that the murder was committed elsewhere and that parts of the dismembered body were dispersed for disposal .
Coles was killed on 13 February 1891 under a railway arch at Swallow Gardens , Whitechapel . Her throat was cut but the body was not mutilated . James Thomas Sadler was seen earlier with her and was arrested by the police , charged with her murder , and briefly thought to be the Ripper . He was , however , discharged from court for lack of evidence on 3 March 1891 .
= = = Other alleged victims = = =
In addition to the eleven Whitechapel murders , commentators have linked other attacks to the Ripper . In the case of " Fairy Fay " , it is unclear whether the attack was real or fabricated as a part of Ripper lore . " Fairy Fay " was a nickname given to a victim allegedly found on 26 December 1887 " after a stake had been thrust through her abdomen " , but there were no recorded murders in Whitechapel at or around Christmas 1887 . " Fairy Fay " seems to have been created through a confused press report of the murder of Emma Elizabeth Smith , who had a stick or other blunt object shoved into her abdomen . Most authors agree that the victim " Fairy Fay " never existed .
Annie Millwood was admitted to Whitechapel workhouse infirmary with stab wounds in the legs and lower torso on 25 February 1888 . She was discharged but died from apparently natural causes aged 38 on 31 March 1888 . She was later postulated as the Ripper 's first victim , but the attack cannot be linked definitely . Another supposed early victim was Ada Wilson , who reportedly survived being stabbed twice in the neck on 28 March 1888 . Annie Farmer resided at the same lodging house as Martha Tabram and reported an attack on 21 November 1888 . She had a superficial cut on her throat , but it was possibly self @-@ inflicted .
" The Whitehall Mystery " was a term coined for the discovery of a headless torso of a woman on 2 October 1888 in the basement of the new Metropolitan Police headquarters being built in Whitehall . An arm belonging to the body was previously discovered floating in the river Thames near Pimlico , and one of the legs was subsequently discovered buried near where the torso was found . The other limbs and head were never recovered and the body was never identified . The mutilations were similar to those in the Pinchin Street case , where the legs and head were severed but not the arms . The Whitehall Mystery and the Pinchin Street case may have been part of a series of murders called the " Thames Mysteries " , committed by a single serial killer dubbed the " Torso killer " . It is debatable whether Jack the Ripper and the " Torso killer " were the same person or separate serial killers active in the same area . The modus operandi of the Torso killer differed from that of the Ripper , and police at the time discounted any connection between the two . Elizabeth Jackson was a prostitute whose various body parts were collected from the river Thames over a three @-@ week period in June 1889 . She may have been another victim of the " Torso killer " .
John Gill , a seven @-@ year @-@ old boy , was found murdered in Manningham , Bradford , on 29 December 1888 . His legs had been severed , his abdomen opened , his intestines drawn out , and his heart and one ear removed . The similarities with the murder of Mary Kelly led to press speculation that the Ripper had killed the boy . The boy 's employer , milkman William Barrett , was twice arrested for the murder on circumstantial evidence but was released . No @-@ one else was ever prosecuted .
Carrie Brown ( nicknamed " Shakespeare " , reportedly for quoting Shakespeare 's sonnets ) was strangled with clothing and then mutilated with a knife on 24 April 1891 in New York City . Her body was found with a large tear through her groin area and superficial cuts on her legs and back . No organs were removed from the scene , though an ovary was found upon the bed , either purposely removed or unintentionally dislodged . At the time , the murder was compared to those in Whitechapel , though the Metropolitan Police eventually ruled out any connection .
= = Investigation = =
The surviving police files on the Whitechapel murders allow a detailed view of investigative procedure in the Victorian era . A large team of policemen conducted house @-@ to @-@ house inquiries throughout Whitechapel . Forensic material was collected and examined . Suspects were identified , traced , and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry . Police work follows the same pattern today . More than 2 @,@ 000 people were interviewed , " upwards of 300 " people were investigated , and 80 people were detained .
The investigation was initially conducted by the Metropolitan Police Whitechapel ( H ) Division Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid . After the murder of Nichols , Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline , Henry Moore , and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist . The City of London Police were involved under Detective Inspector James McWilliam after the Eddowes murder , which occurred within the City of London . However , overall direction of the murder enquiries was hampered by the fact that the newly appointed head of the CID Robert Anderson was on leave in Switzerland between 7 September and 6 October , during the time when Chapman , Stride , and Eddowes were killed . This prompted Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Charles Warren to appoint Chief Inspector Donald Swanson to coordinate the enquiry from Scotland Yard .
A group of volunteer citizens in London 's East End called the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee patrolled the streets looking for suspicious characters , partly because of dissatisfaction with the police effort . They petitioned the government to raise a reward for information about the killer , and hired private detectives to question witnesses independently .
Butchers , slaughterers , surgeons , and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations . A surviving note from Major Henry Smith , Acting Commissioner of the City Police , indicates that the alibis were investigated of local butchers and slaughterers , with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry . A report from Inspector Swanson to the Home Office confirms that 76 butchers and slaughterers were visited , and that the inquiry encompassed all their employees for the previous six months . Some contemporary figures , including Queen Victoria , thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe . Whitechapel was close to the London Docks , and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday . The cattle boats were examined but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat 's movements and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out .
= = = Criminal profiling = = =
At the end of October , Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer 's surgical skill and knowledge . The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the " Whitechapel murderer " is the earliest surviving offender profile . Bond 's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders . He wrote :
All five murders no doubt were committed by the same hand . In the first four the throats appear to have been cut from left to right , in the last case owing to the extensive mutilation it is impossible to say in what direction the fatal cut was made , but arterial blood was found on the wall in splashes close to where the woman 's head must have been lying .
All the circumstances surrounding the murders lead me to form the opinion that the women must have been lying down when murdered and in every case the throat was first cut .
Bond was strongly opposed to the idea that the murderer possessed any kind of scientific or anatomical knowledge , or even " the technical knowledge of a butcher or horse slaughterer " . In his opinion , the killer must have been a man of solitary habits , subject to " periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania " , with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating " satyriasis " . Bond also stated that " the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind , or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely " .
There is no evidence of any sexual activity with any of the victims , yet psychologists suppose that the penetration of the victims with a knife and " leaving them on display in sexually degrading positions with the wounds exposed " indicates that the perpetrator derived sexual pleasure from the attacks . This view is challenged by others who dismiss such hypotheses as insupportable supposition .
= = Suspects = =
The concentration of the killings around weekends and public holidays and within a few streets of each other has indicated to many that the Ripper was in regular employment and lived locally . Others have thought that the killer was an educated upper @-@ class man , possibly a doctor or an aristocrat who ventured into Whitechapel from a more well @-@ to @-@ do area . Such theories draw on cultural perceptions such as fear of the medical profession , mistrust of modern science , or the exploitation of the poor by the rich . Suspects proposed years after the murders include virtually anyone remotely connected to the case by contemporary documents , as well as many famous names who were never considered in the police investigation . Everyone alive at the time is now dead , and modern authors are free to accuse anyone " without any need for any supporting historical evidence " . Suspects named in contemporary police documents include three in Sir Melville Macnaghten 's 1894 memorandum , but the evidence against them is circumstantial at best .
There are many and varied theories about the identity and profession of Jack the Ripper , but authorities are not agreed upon any of them , and the number of named suspects reaches over one hundred .
= = Letters = =
Over the course of the Ripper murders , the police , newspapers , and others received hundreds of letters regarding the case . Some were well @-@ intentioned offers of advice for catching the killer , but the vast majority were useless .
Hundreds of letters claimed to have been written by the killer himself , and three of these in particular are prominent : the " Dear Boss " letter , the " Saucy Jacky " postcard and the " From Hell " letter .
The " Dear Boss " letter , dated 25 September , was postmarked 27 September 1888 . It was received that day by the Central News Agency , and was forwarded to Scotland Yard on 29 September . Initially it was considered a hoax , but when Eddowes was found three days after the letter 's postmark with one ear partially cut off , the letter 's promise to " clip the ladys ( sic ) ears off " gained attention . However , Eddowes ' ear appears to have been nicked by the killer incidentally during his attack , and the letter writer 's threat to send the ears to the police was never carried out . The name " Jack the Ripper " was first used in this letter by the signatory and gained worldwide notoriety after its publication . Most of the letters that followed copied this letter 's tone . Some sources claim that another letter dated 17 September 1888 was the first to use the name " Jack the Ripper " , but most experts believe that this was a fake inserted into police records in the 20th century .
The " Saucy Jacky " postcard was postmarked 1 October 1888 and was received the same day by the Central News Agency . The handwriting was similar to the " Dear Boss " letter . It mentions that two victims were killed very close to one another : " double event this time " , which was thought to refer to the murders of Stride and Eddowes . It has been argued that the letter was mailed before the murders were publicised , making it unlikely that a crank would have such knowledge of the crime , but it was postmarked more than 24 hours after the killings took place , long after details were known and being published by journalists and talked about by residents of the area .
The " From Hell " letter was received by George Lusk , leader of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee , on 16 October 1888 . The handwriting and style is unlike that of the " Dear Boss " letter and " Saucy Jacky " postcard . The letter came with a small box in which Lusk discovered half of a kidney , preserved in " spirits of wine " ( ethanol ) . Eddowes ' left kidney had been removed by the killer . The writer claimed that he " fried and ate " the missing kidney half . There is disagreement over the kidney ; some contend that it belonged to Eddowes , while others argue that it was nothing more than a macabre practical joke . The kidney was examined by Dr Thomas Openshaw of the London Hospital , who determined that it was human and from the left side , but ( contrary to false newspaper reports ) he could not determine any other biological characteristics . Openshaw subsequently also received a letter signed " Jack the Ripper " .
Scotland Yard published facsimiles of the " Dear Boss " letter and the postcard on 3 October , in the ultimately vain hope that someone would recognise the handwriting . Charles Warren explained in a letter to Godfrey Lushington , Permanent Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Home Department : " I think the whole thing a hoax but of course we are bound to try & ascertain the writer in any case . " On 7 October 1888 , George R. Sims in the Sunday newspaper Referee implied scathingly that the letter was written by a journalist " to hurl the circulation of a newspaper sky high " . Police officials later claimed to have identified a specific journalist as the author of both the " Dear Boss " letter and the postcard . The journalist was identified as Tom Bullen in a letter from Chief Inspector John Littlechild to George R. Sims dated 23 September 1913 . A journalist called Fred Best reportedly confessed in 1931 that he and a colleague at The Star had written the letters signed " Jack the Ripper " to heighten interest in the murders and " keep the business alive " .
= = Media = =
The Ripper murders mark an important watershed in the treatment of crime by journalists . Jack the Ripper was not the first serial killer , but his case was the first to create a worldwide media frenzy . Tax reforms in the 1850s had enabled the publication of inexpensive newspapers with wider circulation . These mushroomed later in the Victorian era to include mass @-@ circulation newspapers as cheap as a halfpenny , along with popular magazines such as The Illustrated Police News which made the Ripper the beneficiary of previously unparalleled publicity .
After the murder of Nichols in early September , the Manchester Guardian reported that : " Whatever information may be in the possession of the police they deem it necessary to keep secret ... It is believed their attention is particularly directed to ... a notorious character known as ' Leather Apron ' . " Journalists were frustrated by the unwillingness of the CID to reveal details of their investigation to the public , and so resorted to writing reports of questionable veracity . Imaginative descriptions of " Leather Apron " appeared in the press , but rival journalists dismissed these as " a mythical outgrowth of the reporter 's fancy " . John Pizer , a local Jew who made footwear from leather , was known by the name " Leather Apron " and was arrested , even though the investigating inspector reported that " at present there is no evidence whatsoever against him " . He was soon released after the confirmation of his alibis .
After the publication of the " Dear Boss " letter , " Jack the Ripper " supplanted " Leather Apron " as the name adopted by the press and public to describe the killer . The name " Jack " was already used to describe another fabled London attacker : " Spring @-@ heeled Jack " , who supposedly leapt over walls to strike at his victims and escape as quickly as he came . The invention and adoption of a nickname for a particular killer became standard media practice with examples such as the Axeman of New Orleans , the Boston Strangler , and the Beltway Sniper . Examples derived from Jack the Ripper include the French Ripper , the Düsseldorf Ripper , the Camden Ripper , the Blackout Ripper , Jack the Stripper , the Yorkshire Ripper , and the Rostov Ripper . Sensational press reports combined with the fact that no one was ever convicted of the murders have confused scholarly analysis and created a legend that casts a shadow over later serial killers .
= = Legacy = =
The nature of the murders and of the victims drew attention to the poor living conditions in the East End and galvanised public opinion against the overcrowded , unsanitary slums . In the two decades after the murders , the worst of the slums were cleared and demolished , but the streets and some buildings survive and the legend of the Ripper is still promoted by guided tours of the murder sites . The Ten Bells public house in Commercial Street was frequented by at least one of the victims and was the focus of such tours for many years . In 2015 , the Jack the Ripper Museum opened in east London .
In the immediate aftermath of the murders and later , " Jack the Ripper became the children 's bogey man . " Depictions were often phantasmic or monstrous . In the 1920s and 1930s , he was depicted in film dressed in everyday clothes as a man with a hidden secret , preying on his unsuspecting victims ; atmosphere and evil were suggested through lighting effects and shadowplay . By the 1960s , the Ripper had become " the symbol of a predatory aristocracy " , and was more often portrayed in a top hat dressed as a gentleman . The Establishment as a whole became the villain , with the Ripper acting as a manifestation of upper @-@ class exploitation . The image of the Ripper merged with or borrowed symbols from horror stories , such as Dracula 's cloak or Victor Frankenstein 's organ harvest . The fictional world of the Ripper can fuse with multiple genres , ranging from Sherlock Holmes to Japanese erotic horror .
In addition to the contradictions and unreliability of contemporary accounts , attempts to identify the real killer are hampered by the lack of surviving forensic evidence . DNA analysis on extant letters is inconclusive ; the available material has been handled many times and is too contaminated to provide meaningful results . There have been mutually incompatible claims that DNA evidence points conclusively to two different suspects , and the methodology of both has also been criticised .
Jack the Ripper features in hundreds of works of fiction and works which straddle the boundaries between fact and fiction , including the Ripper letters and a hoax Diary of Jack the Ripper . The Ripper appears in novels , short stories , poems , comic books , games , songs , plays , operas , television programmes , and films . More than 100 non @-@ fiction works deal exclusively with the Jack the Ripper murders , making it one of the most written @-@ about true @-@ crime subjects . The term " ripperology " was coined by Colin Wilson in the 1970s to describe the study of the case by professionals and amateurs . The periodicals Ripperana , Ripperologist , and Ripper Notes publish their research .
There is no waxwork figure of Jack the Ripper at Madame Tussauds ' Chamber of Horrors , unlike murderers of lesser fame , in accordance with their policy of not modelling persons whose likeness is unknown . He is instead depicted as a shadow . In 2006 , BBC History magazine and its readers selected Jack the Ripper as the worst Briton in history .
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= La Mordidita =
" La Mordidita " ( English : " The Nibble " ) is a song recorded by American singer Ricky Martin featuring Yotuel Romero , from his tenth studio album , A Quien Quiera Escuchar ( 2015 ) . It was released on April 21 , 2015 through Sony Music Latin as the third single from the album . The song was written by Martin and Yotuel alongside Pedro Capó , Don Omar , José Gómez and Beatriz Luengo while the production was handled by Rayito and Yotuel . It is an uptempo song with prominent elements of Latin pop and lyrics detailing feelings of lust for a desired person . The song received positive reviews from music critics who praised its blend of many music elements such as salsa , cumbia , and reggaeton . It further received numerous nominations at several Latin award ceremonies . " La Mordidita " was commercially successful across Spain and other countries of Latin America . It reached number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs and number three in Spain where it was certified double platinum .
The music video for " La Mordidita " , filmed in Cartagena , Colombia and directed by Simón Brand , premiered on June 12 , 2015 . It features Martin dancing on the streets accompanied by dancers , models and ballerinas all infected with a " dancing virus " transmitted through a bite . It received positive response from the public , winning the Video of the Year award at the Premio Lo Nuestro 2016 and becoming the singer 's most @-@ viewed video on Vevo . As part of the promotion of " La Mordidita " , Martin made several appearances on televised shows and award ceremonies where he performed the song live . It was also performed live during his One World Tour ( 2015 @-@ 16 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" La Mordidita " was written by Ricky Martin , Pedro Capó , José Gómez , Yotuel Romero and Beatriz Luengo for Martin 's tenth studio album A Quien Quiera Escuchar . Its production was completed by Antonio Rayo along with Romero . Talking about his collaboration with Yotuel , Ricky Martin said in an interview , " It was a very big collaboration being able to work with Yotuel ; a Cuban brother , big producer , composer , someone who I admire and respect a lot " . During the same interview , he talked about the song , saying " It is a coquettish song , it presents a party , union of cultures , it is energetic " . Two remixes of the song were availbale for digital download ; a Brian Cross remix on June 2 , 2015 and an " Urban Remix " by Zion & Lennox on July 17 , 2015 .
The uptempo song contains musical elements of salsa , cumbia , and reggaeton . Allan Raible from Yahoo ! further found " flamenco @-@ esque propulsion and modern electro and EDM touches " . Marcus Floyd of the website Renowned For Sound felt that the song was reminiscent of the " Latino party vibe " characteristic of Martin 's other songs . Other critics further found influences of African and Latin music in its instrumentation and rhythms . " La Mordidita " contains a soccer chant during its bridge . Rapper Yotuel has a short rap contribution in the song . Lyrically , " La Mordidita " which translates to " The Nibble " in English , talks about the lust felt for a desired person .
= = Reception and accolades = =
Upon its release , " La Mordidita " received favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . Jessica Lucia Roiz of Latin Times praised the track for being " sexy " , " fun " , and " addicting " . Marcus Floyd of the website Renowned for Sound described it as " intense " and felt that musically , it exemplified the " Latino party vibe we love Ricky Martin for " . AllMusic 's writer Thom Jurek picked the song as one of the best on A Quien Quiera Escuchar . Clint Rhode of The Herald @-@ Standard opined that " La Mordidita " is one of the songs on the album on which the singer is " delivering intoxicating rhythms " . Yahoo ! ' s Allan Raible praised the " interesting mix " of musical elements on " La Mordidita " . El Nuevo Día journalist Eliezer Ríos Camacho called the song " pure craftmanship " and wrote that it was created for dancing with a blend of merengue and La Quebrada @-@ style techno . A writer of Televisa dubbed the track a dance number in which all of Martin 's Latin style is present . He further described it as a fusion of merengue and bachata and added that " it is going to be present on all of the dance floors " . Carolina Cabrera from Starmedia praised the song for being " full with energy , sensuality and temptation " .
" La Mordidita " received nominations on several Latin @-@ based award ceremonies . At the first Latin American Music Awards held in 2015 , the song received an award in the category for favorite pop / rock song . At the 2016 Latin Billboard Music Awards , " La Mordidita " was nominated in the category Latin Pop Song of the Year , but lost to " Mi Verdad " by Maná and Shakira . It also received a nomination in the Best Latin Dance Track category at the 31st Annual International Dance Music Awards . " La Mordidita " was acknowledged as an award @-@ winning song in the pop category at the 2016 ASCAP Latin Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
Following the release of A Quien Quiera Escuchar in February 2015 , " La Mordidita " debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 's US Latin Digital Songs chart , with 2 @,@ 000 digital downloads sold . In May 2015 , Martin extended his record for the most top twenty singles on Latin Pop Airplay , when " La Mordidita " jumped 40 @-@ 20 on this chart . In mid @-@ August 2015 , " La Mordidita " earned Martin his twenty @-@ sixth top ten hit on Hot Latin Songs . He became the fourth artist with the most top tens in the 29 @-@ year history of the chart . In late August 2015 , Martin earned with " La Mordidita " his fifteenth number @-@ one on the Latin Airplay chart ( up 58 percent , to 11 @.@ 8 million audience impressions ) . Eventually , " La Mordidita " peaked at number six on the US Hot Latin Songs chart , number one on Latin Airplay and number seven on Latin Digital Songs . It also reached number one on Latin Pop Airplay , number two on Latin Pop Digital Songs , and number twenty @-@ six on Tropical Songs . On the 2015 Billboard Year @-@ End charts , " La Mordidita " was ranked on the twentieth position on the Latin Airplay , twenty third on Hot Latin Songs , and thirty second on Latin Digital Songs .
" La Mordidita " peaked at number thirteen on the Mexican Espanol Airplay chart and number forty @-@ eight on Mexico Airplay . It was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies in that country . In Spain , the song debuted at number forty @-@ three on the country 's singles chart for the week of April 26 , 2015 . On the chart issue dated August 9 , 2015 , it reached a peak position of number three , and was later certified double @-@ platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipment of 80 @,@ 000 copies . It later emerged as the 25th most successful single in Spain in 2015 . " La Mordidita " also topped the charts in the Dominican Republic and Venezuela .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " La Mordidita " was filmed in Cartagena , Colombia in mid @-@ March 2015 with Simón Brand serving as its director . The first scenes of the clip were filmed at the Casa Museo Rafael Núñez , where Martin was accompanied by Colombian actress and ballet dancer María Cecilia Sánchez . Other scenes were filmed on various local streets in the city . Speaking about the concept behind the video , Brand elaborated that it revolved around Martin spreading a " virus " through a bite , converting the people around him into " sensual and amusing " dancing zombies . He concluded that " basically , we will be spreading the nibble across the city " .
A short teaser for the clip was shown through the YouTube channel of Mexican magazine Quién on June 9 , 2015 . The music video later premiered on the Spanish @-@ language television program Primer Impacto broadcast by Univision on June 12 , 2015 and was released on Martin 's Vevo account shortly afterwards . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video was also released on Vevo on June 15 , 2015 . The music video opens with Martin biting the hand of a girl who continues to dance afterwards . She dances inside a house and then goes in the garden , where she bites a gardener 's neck . She continues dancing on the streets and bites a street vendor . The " infected " people go on biting people around them and they all gather behind Martin where the perform dance routines on the streets . During the end they all gather to continue their dance at a party . Yotuel also appears in the video towards the end .
Jessica Lucia Roiz of Latin Times praised the video 's " wonderful " scenery . A writer of Televisa 's website described Martin as " more sensual than ever " . Mandy Fridmann of The Huffington Post wrote that the singer " gives us all of his sensuality in looks , movements and gestures " . La Nación journalist Jessica Rojas found " fun and colorful image sequence of images " . Marie Palma F. of Starmedia felt that the video showed " the taste of Latinos " . The clip for " La Mordidita " became Martin 's most @-@ watched music video on Vevo as of 2015 . At the seventh Premios Quiero in 2015 , the music video for the song was nominated in three categories - Best Video by a Male Artist , Video of the Year and Best Choreography . It won the Video of the Year award at the Premio Lo Nuestro 2016 making Martin the most awarded artist in the history of the award show .
= = Live performances = =
On June 30 , 2015 , Ricky Martin appeared on the Argentinian TV program Showmatch where he performed the song along with " Disparo al Corazón " and " Adiós " . He also performed " La Mordidita " with Yotuel at the 2015 Premios Juventud on July 16 , 2015 as the opening number of the awards ceremony . Yakary Prado of Miami Diario described Martin 's choreography as " shocking " . He also performed it as a medley with " Disparo al Corazón " during the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 on November 19 . On May 12 , 2016 , the song was performed by Yotuel along with Pedro Capó and Beatriz Luengo at the ASCAP Latin Music Awards . " La Mordidita " was part of Martin 's set list during his One World Tour ( 2015 @-@ 16 ) . It was sang as a medley along with Martin 's older songs " Pégate " ( 2006 ) , " María " ( 1995 ) and " La Bomba " ( 1998 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Siege of Malakand =
The Siege of Malakand was the 26 July – 2 August 1897 siege of the British garrison in the Malakand region of colonial British India 's North West Frontier Province . The British faced a force of Pashtun tribesmen whose tribal lands had been bisected by the Durand Line , the 1 @,@ 519 mile ( 2 @,@ 445 km ) border between Afghanistan and British India drawn up at the end of the Anglo @-@ Afghan wars to help hold the Russian Empire 's spread of influence towards the Indian subcontinent .
The unrest caused by this division of the Pashtun lands led to the rise of Saidullah , a Pashtun fakir who led an army of at least 10 @,@ 000 against the British garrison in Malakand . Although the British forces were divided among a number of poorly defended positions , the small garrison at the camp of Malakand South and the small fort at Chakdara were both able to hold out for six days against the much larger Pashtun army .
The siege was lifted when a relief column dispatched from British positions to the south was sent to assist General William Hope Meiklejohn , commander of the British forces at Malakand South . Accompanying this relief force was second lieutenant Winston Churchill , who later published his account as The Story of the Malakand Field Force : An Episode of Frontier War .
= = Background = =
The rivalry between the British and the Russian Empires , named " The Great Game " by Arthur Conolly , centred on Afghanistan during the late 19th century . From the British perspective , Russian expansion threatened to destroy the so @-@ called " jewel in the crown " of the British Empire , India . As the Tsar 's troops in Central Asia began to subdue one Khanate after another , the British feared that Afghanistan would become a staging post for a Russian invasion . Against this background the British launched the First Anglo @-@ Afghan War in 1838 , and attempted to impose a puppet regime under Shuja Shah . The regime was short @-@ lived , however , and unsustainable without British military support . After the Russians sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul in 1878 , tensions were renewed and Britain demanded that the ruler of Afghanistan ( Sher Ali Khan ) accept a British diplomatic mission . The mission was turned back and , in retaliation , a force of 40 @,@ 000 men was sent across the border by the British , launching the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War .
After reaching a virtual stalemate with these two wars against the Afghans , the British imposed the Durand Line in 1893 , which divided Afghanistan and British India ( now the North @-@ West Frontier Province , Federally Administered Tribal Areas ( F.A.T.A. ) and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan ) . Named after Sir Mortimer Durand , the foreign secretary of the British Indian government , it was agreed upon by the Emir of Afghanistan ( Abdur Rahman Khan ) and the representatives of the British Empire but deeply resented by the Afghans . Its intended purpose was to serve as a buffer zone to inhibit the spread of Russian influence down into British India .
= = = Malakand Field Force = = =
The British Malakand Field Force used the town of Nowshera as a base of operations . Nowshera was located south of the Kabul River " six hours by rail from Rawal Pindi " . Commanded by Colonel Schalch , the base served as a hospital while the normal garrison was serving 47 miles ( 76 km ) away at Malakand Pass in what was known as the Malakand South Camp . This force consisted of one British cavalry regiment , one Indian cavalry regiment and one Indian infantry battalion . Winston Churchill , who would accompany the relief force as a second lieutenant and war correspondent , described the camp as " ... a great cup , of which the rim is broken into numerous clefts and jagged points . At the bottom of this cup is the ' crater ' camp . " Churchill goes on to state that the camp was viewed as purely temporary and was indefensible , as a result of its cramped conditions and the fact that it was dominated by the surrounding heights . A nearby camp , North Malakand , was also established on the plains of Khar , intended to hold the large number of troops that were unable to fit into the main camp . Both of these positions were garrisoned for two years with little fear of attack by a 1 @,@ 000 strong force . Officers brought their families , and the camp held regular polo matches and shooting competitions .
= = Outbreak of the battle = =
Towards 1897 , news of unrest in the nearby Pashtun villages had reached the British garrisons in Malakand . Major Deane , the British political agent , noted the growing unrest within the Pashtun sepoys stationed with the British . His warnings were officially distributed to senior officers on 23 July 1897 ; however , nothing more than a minor skirmish was expected . Rumours of a new religious leader , Saidullah the Sartor Fakir ( also known as Mullah of Mastun ) , arriving to " sweep away " the British and inspire a jihad , were reportedly circulating the bazaars of Malakand during July . Saidullah became known to the British as " The Great Fakir " , " Mad Fakir " or the " Mad Mullah " , and by the Pashtuns as lewanai faqir , or simply , lewanai , meaning " god @-@ intoxicated " .
On July 26 , while British officers were playing polo near camp Malakand North , indigenous spectators who were watching the match learned of an approaching Pashtun force and fled . Brigadier @-@ General Meiklejohn , commander of the Malakand forces , was informed by Deane that " matters had assumed a very grave aspect " and that there were armed Pashtuns gathering nearby . Reinforcements from Mardan ( 32 miles ( 51 km ) away ) were requested , and Lieutenant P. Eliott @-@ Lockhart departed at 1.30am. At 9.45pm , a final telegram was received informing the garrison that the Fakir had passed Khar and was advancing on Malakand . The telegram also stated that neither the levies nor the people would act against him , and that the hills to the east of the camp were covered with Pathans . Shortly after , the communication wire was cut .
= = = Night of July 26 / 27 = = =
= = = = South camp = = = =
During the night of 26 July , sometime after 10 : 00 pm , a messenger arrived with word that the enemy had reached the village of Khar , three miles from Malakand . A bugle call was immediately sounded within the camp . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel McRae , commanding the 45th Sikhs , two units from the 31st Punjab Infantry , two Guns from No. 8 Mountain Battery and one Squadron from the 11th Bengal Lancers , was to have been sent to Amandara Pass – a distance of four miles – with orders to hold the position ; however , the Pashtun column had already arrived at the South Malakand camp , surprising the British defenders , and began to open fire on the garrison with muskets . McRae immediately sent a small number of men under Major Taylor down a road from the " right flank " of the camp to ascertain the enemy 's strength and location ; McRae himself later followed with his own small group . Both parties aimed for a sharp turn in the oncoming road where , flanked by gorges , they hoped to hold the attacking force . McRae , with about 20 men , opened fire on the Pashtun tribesmen and began a fighting withdrawal 50 paces down the road before halting in an attempt to stop the attack . Taylor was mortally wounded in the incident and quickly died ; McRae suffered a neck wound . Nevertheless , by 2 : 00 am reinforcements under the command of Lieutenant Barff had enabled the British to repel the Pashtun attack . The official dispatches of General Meiklejohn noted that :
" There is no doubt that the gallant resistance made by this small body in the gorge , against vastly superior numbers , till the arrival of the rest of the regiment , saved the camp from being rushed on that side , and I cannot speak too highly of the behaviour of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel McRae and Major Taylor on this occasion . "
Meanwhile , Pashtun forces had successfully assaulted the camp in three other locations , and the 24th Punjab Infantry 's picket lines were quickly overrun . Pashtun sharpshooters occupying the nearby heights inflicted casualties throughout the night , and the bazaar and surrounding buildings were occupied . Other units of the 24th , under Lieutenant Climo , retook the area and held it until 10 : 45 pm , but under fire from sharpshooters they were driven back . The Pashtun forces broke through in a number of other locations . Lieutenant Watling commanding a group of British troops guarding the ammunitions stores at the Quarter Guard was wounded , losing the stores in the process . Meiklejohn led a small group of sappers , members of the 24th and Captain Holland , Climo from the earlier charge , and Lieutenant Manley to recapture the ammunition dump ; Holland and the General were wounded , and the group severely depleted as it twice failed to retake the dump , but a third attempt proved successful . However , continuing crossfire from the enveloping Pashtun troops wounded a number of British officers , placing the command of the 24th with Climo . Towards 1 : 00 am on the morning of July 27 , Lieutenant Edmund William Costello rescued a wounded havildar while under fire and was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions .
As the night wore on , reinforcements arrived from a nearby British hill fort which had as yet been ignored by the Pashtun forces . At 4 : 15 pm , the attacking forces withdrew with their dead and wounded . The British had lost a large number of officers wounded , and recorded 21 deaths amongst the sepoys .
= = = = North camp = = = =
During the first night of the battle , the garrison at Malakand North had not seen much action despite being in the more exposed position , and had spent much of the night firing flares and manoeuvring artillery units . In response Meiklejohn ordered a reconnaissance of the vicinity , whereupon Major Gibbs , the commander of the force , encountered large groups of tribesmen in the valley . Subsequently , he was eventually ordered to collect his forces and stores from Malakand North , and transfer them into the southern camp .
= = = July 27 = = =
The last remaining forces from the now evacuated northern camp arrived in Malakand South at 8 : 30 am on the 27th , coinciding with the arrival of more Pashtun reinforcements . In Nowshera , the 11th Bengal Lancers awoke to news describing the situation , and , together with the 38th Dogras , the 35th Sikhs , No.1 and No.7 British Mountain Batteries , they set off to relieve the besieged garrison . Meanwhile , at Malakand South , fresh Pashtun attacks were repulsed by elements of the 24th led by Climo , whose unit captured a Pashtun standard .
At 7 : 30 pm the first of the British reinforcements arrived in the form of infantry from the Corps of Guides under Lieutenant Lockhart . The 45th Sikhs , supported by 100 men from the Guides and two guns , remained astride the main road into the camp , while the 31st Punjab Infantry held the centre ; the 24th , under Climo , held the north edge of Malakand South . Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah of the 31st held the area around the bazaar , though the market place itself was left unoccupied . Around 8 : 00 pm the Pashtuns simultaneously attacked all the British positions where , " Many thousands of rounds were discharged " and a number of assaults repulsed . Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah and his forces defended their position for several hours , however the Pashtuns were eventually successful in undermining the walls and killing the defenders . The surviving sepoys and their leader were awarded the Order of Merit . The 24th also repelled a number of charges , with VC recipient Costello receiving a wound in the arm . Despite the constant harassment by musket fire , rifle fire and a barrage of rocks , Climo successfully led a counter @-@ attack with two companies , pushing the attacking forces back two miles . The British records for the night of July 27 record 12 killed among the sepoy ranks , as well as the wounding of Costello .
= = = July 28 = = =
The daylight hours of 28 July saw continuous fire from the Pashtun sharpshooters established in the hills surrounding Malakand South . The garrison surgeon , Lieutenant J.H. Hugo , treated a number of British casualties including an officer from the Guides . Despite further attacks during the night of July 28 / 29 , the British recorded only two killed from the sepoy ranks , and the severe wounding of a Lieutenant Ford . Churchill records that Ford 's bleeding artery was clamped shut by Hugo despite being under fire .
= = = July 29 – July 31 = = =
Having re @-@ established communication on the morning of 29 July , the British garrison signalled the approaching relief forces via heliograph at 8 : 00 am – " Heavy fighting all night . Expect more tonight . What ammunition are you bringing ? When may we expect you ? " During the day , the Pashtuns prepared for another night attack while the British destroyed the bazaar and the regions previously defended , and lost , by Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah and the men of the 31st . Trees were also cut down to improve fields of fire , attracting further attention from the Pashtun sharpshooters . Major Stuart Beatsen arrived at 4 : 00 pm on the 29th with the 11th Bengal Lancers who had been summoned from Nowshera two days previous . The 35th Sikhs and 38th Dogras arrived at the mouth of the pass leading to Malakand South , but after losing between 19 and 21 of their ranks through heat exhaustion , they were forced to halt .
At 2 : 00 a.m. on 30 July , the Pashtuns launched another attack , during which Costello , and the Pashtun Mullah , were both wounded ; the British also recorded one fatality among the sepoy contingent . That evening a further attack was repulsed by a bayonet charge of the 45th Sikhs . The following morning , on 31 July , the remainder of the 38th Dogras and 35th Sikhs entered Malakand South under the command of Colonel Reid , bringing with them 243 mules carrying 291 @,@ 600 rounds of ammunition . But with their attention now drawn towards the nearby British outpost of Chakdara , attacks by the Pashtuns on Malakand South began to reduce until they ceased altogether . Churchill records a total of three British officers killed in action and 10 wounded , seven sepoy officers wounded , and 153 non @-@ commissioned officers killed and wounded during the siege of Malakand South .
= = Relieving Chakdara = =
On 28 July , when word of the attacks were received , a division of " 6800 bayonets , 700 lances or sabres , with 24 guns " was given to Major @-@ General Sir Bindon Blood with orders to hold " the Malakand , and the adjacent posts , and of operating against the neighbouring tribes as may be required . " Blood arrived at Nowshera on 31 July 1897 to take command , and on 1 August he was informed that the Pashtun forces had turned their attention to the nearby British fort of Chakdara . This was a small , under @-@ garrisoned fort with few supplies that had itself been holding out with 200 men since the first attacks in Malakand began , and had recently sent the signal " Help us " to the British forces . Blood reached Malakand at noon on the same day . While Blood and his relief force marched for Chakdara from the main camp at Nowshera , Meiklejohn set out from Malakand South with the 45th , 24th and guns from No. 8 Battery . An advance force of Guides cavalry under Captain Baldwin met with an enemy force along the road and were forced to retreat with two British officers and one sepoy officer wounded and 16 other ranks killed or wounded .
Following this failed attempt , Blood arrived and appointed Reid commander of the forces at Malakand South , giving command of the rescue force to Meiklejohn . The rescue column of 1 @,@ 000 infantry , two squadrons from the 11th Bengal Lancers , two of the Guides cavalry , 50 sappers , two cannons and a hospital detail , rested on the night of August 1 , despite a night attack by Pashtun forces . On the following day , the relief force advanced along the road to the abandoned Malakand North in order to avoid fire from the Pashtun sharpshooters who still occupied the heights around the Malakand South " cup " . With low morale , the relief force assembled at 4 : 30 am on 2 August ; however , with the use of diversionary attacks , they were successful in breaking out of the Pashtun encirclement without loss . This led to confusion amongst the Pashtun forces , " like ants in a disturbed ant – hill " as observed Blood . The 11th Bengal Lancers and the Guides cavalry went on to relieve the threatened fort at Chakdara , while the 45th Sikhs stormed nearby Pashtun positions . The British recorded 33 casualties from the action on August 2 .
= = Aftermath = =
The campaigns of the Malakand Field Force continued beyond the siege of Malakand South , North , and of the Chakdara fort . Immediately after the siege , two brigades of the British garrison were relocated to a new camp a few miles away to relieve the pressure in the overcrowded Malakand South . These received only light fire during 5 August 1897 ; however , on 8 August , Saidullah rallied his surviving Pashtun forces and attacked the British garrison at Shabkadr fort near Peshawar . These attacks put the continued loyalty of friendly Pashtun levies guarding the British supply lines to Chitral at risk , thus endangering the supply convoys and their small escorts . In response , on 14 August , the British advanced farther into Pashtun territory and engaged a force of " several thousand " Pashtun tribesmen , with General Meiklejohn leading a flanking manoeuvre which split the Pashtun army in two , forcing it to pull back to Landakai . The British continued to engage Pashtun tribesmen throughout the day , suffering two officers and 11 other ranks killed .
The siege of Malakand was Winston Churchill 's first experience of actual combat , which he later described in several columns for The Daily Telegraph , receiving £ 5 per column ; these articles were eventually compiled into his first published book , The Story of the Malakand Field Force , beginning his career as a writer and politician . Of the book 's publication he remarked , " [ it ] will certainly be the most noteworthy act of my life . Up to date ( of course ) . By its reception I shall measure the chances of my possible success in the world . " Of the siege of Malakand , and of the entire campaign against the Pashtun tribes in northern India , Churchill remarked that they were a period of significant " transition " .
The War Office authorized the award of the clasp Malakand 1897 to the India Medal for those of the British and Indian armies who participated in this action . The battleground remained closed to visitors and under military control since the publication of Churchill 's memoirs , and is the location of a Pakistani military base . However , in 2006 the Pakistani government began opening the area to foreign visitors .
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= El Salvador national football team =
El Salvador 's National Football Team ( Selección de fútbol de El Salvador in Spanish ) represents El Salvador in international football and is controlled by the Salvadoran Football Federation ( FESFUT ) . In 1899 , two teams from Santa Ana and San Salvador met for the first known football game in El Salvador . The national team 's first match was played in September 1921 , when they were invited to participate in a tournament to celebrate 100 years of Central American Independence .
El Salvador has made two FIFA World Cup appearances : first in 1970 and again in 1982 , but have never progressed beyond the first stage of a finals tournament . They were the 1943 CCCF champions , and finished in second @-@ place in the 1941 and 1961 championships . They have competed in the CONCACAF regional tournaments fourteen times , finishing as runners @-@ up in 1963 and 1981 . La Selecta also competes in the biennial UNCAF Nations Cup , the Pan American Games , the Olympics , and have achieved two gold medals in the Central American and Caribbean Games .
The Estadio Cuscatlán , also known as " El Coloso de Montserrat " and " La Catedral del Espectáculo " , is the official home stadium of the El Salvador national football team . Since 2008 , the national team has had a kit sponsorship contract with England @-@ based supplier Mitre . Raúl Díaz Arce is the all @-@ time top @-@ scorer for the national team , with 39 goals , while Alfredo Pacheco has the most caps with 85 appearances .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings of the national team = = =
Salvadoran football had its origins in the city of Santa Ana , on a field called " Campo Marte " . This was the first time a football game was hosted in El Salvador . That first game took place on July 26 , 1899 among players from Santa Ana and San Salvador . Both teams had several foreign players from England who are credited with introducing football to El Salvador . The home team won the game 2 – 0 .
Although El Salvador played a few games in the early part of the 20th century , they did not form an official national team until 1921 when players such as José Pablo Huezo , Carlos Escobar Leiva or Santiago Barrachina revolutionized football in the country . In September 1921 , El Salvador were invited to Guatemala to take part in the Independence Centenary Games , to celebrate 100 years of Central American Independence . The tournament was between Guatemala , Honduras , Costa Rica , and El Salvador . The Guatemalans and Costa Ricans had more experience with football than the Salvadorans and Hondurans . It was a single @-@ elimination tournament with Guatemala playing Honduras and El Salvador playing Costa Rica . El Salvador , which were dressed with white shorts and black shirt , utilized the classic 2 – 3 – 5 scheme with Carlos Escobar Leyva ; Spanish resident Santiago Barrachina , José Pablo Huezo ; Benjamín Sandoval , Emilio Dawson , and Frenchman Emilio Detruit ; Víctor Recinos , brothers Guillermo and José E. Alcaine , Guillermo Sandoval and Enrique Lindo . By halftime Costa Rica was up 3 – 0 , and at the final whistle after 80 minutes ( 40 minutes for each half ) won 7 – 0 . Despite the loss , this tournament was the starting point of the official El Salvador national team .
Other than the tournament , El Salvador only played international friendlies ( all against Costa Rica and Honduras ) for the rest of the 1920s . El Salvador lost their first friendly 3 – 0 against Costa Rica , while the second and third ended in a 1 – 0 loss and 0 – 0 draw against Honduras . On 7 December 1928 , El Salvador recorded its first ever win : a 5 – 0 victory over Honduras , the team that would become their traditional rivals . The game was played at Campo Marte , San Salvador , and was not only El Salvador 's first ever recorded win , but also the first time the team had scored in an international match . Gustavo " Taviche " Marroquín scored every goal , becoming the first ever Salvadoran player to score five goals in a single game for the El Salvador national football team ( a feat later equaled by Miguel Cruz and Rudis Corrales . )
= = = 1930s = = =
In the early 1930s , El Salvador appointed its first official national coach , American Mark Scott Thompson , in preparation for the 1930 Central American and Caribbean Games in Havana , Cuba . El Salvador finished in fourth place at the games . The Federación Salvadoreña de Fútbol , the official governing football organization in El Salvador , was founded in 1935 . By this time , El Salvador were coached by Spaniard Pablo Ferre Elías . The El Salvador @-@ hosted 1935 Central American and Caribbean Games took place in the new government funded Estadio Flor Blanca , at that time the biggest stadium in the country . The Salvadoran squad consisted of Edmundo Majano as goalkeeper ; Tobias Rivera and Raúl Castro in defense ; Américo Gonzalez and Napoleon Cañas as midfielders ; and Álex Morales , Rogelio Aviles , Fidel Quintanilla , Miguel " Americano " Cruz , and Andrés Hernández as strikers . Previously the national team had worn black and white striped jerseys and this was the first time they turned out in a blue strip . The team improved their performance over the previous competition to finish in third place as bronze medal winners .
In 1938 , the Federación Salvadoreña de Fútbol became affiliates of FIFA . Once again the El Salvador national football team participated in the 1938 Central American and Caribbean Games , hosted in Panama , which were won by Mexico with Costa Rica in second place . El Salvador won two games and lost three out of the five played . A match for third place between Colombia and El Salvador was scheduled but was cancelled due to the bad physical state of the players . El Salvador finished in fourth place by goal difference .
= = = 1940s = = =
On April 26 , 1940 , the first national football federation was approved , with Dr. Luis Rivas Palacios as president . In 1941 , the first international competition in CONCACAF , the international governing body for football in North America , Central America and the Caribbean , the Central American and Caribbean Championship ( CCCF ) took place in Costa Rica . El Salvador took part for the first time alongside Costa Rica , Curaçao , Nicaragua , and Panama . El Salvador were runners @-@ up , recording two wins , one tie , and one loss .
The 1943 CCCF Championship took place in San Salvador with the participation of Costa Rica , Guatemala , and Nicaragua . El Salvador was coached by former national player Américo González . At the end of the tournament , El Salvador and Guatemala ended up with the same number of points and so had to play a tiebreaker . On December 21 , Guatemala failed to show up for the match resulting in El Salvador declaring themselves 1943 CCCF Championship winners by goal difference . This was the country 's first international title . El Salvador 's 10 ‒ 1 set the team 's record for the most goals scored in a single game yet . It was also the second time a Salvadoran player ( Miguel " Americano " Cruz ) had scored five goals in a single match . El Salvador defended their title in the 1946 CCCF Championship , hosted in Costa Rica , alongside six other participants . La Selecta finished in third place , winning three matches and losing two . In the 1948 CCCF Championship , hosted in Guatemala , Costa Rica won the championship for the third time , with El Salvador finishing in fifth place .
= = = 1950s = = =
El Salvador not participate in qualification for the subsequent World Cups in 1954 , 1958 , 1962 , and 1966 . Reasons for these refusals are unknown but might be do to the cost of travel , since at that time the team had never played so far from home . During these years El Salvador had a good squad , with players like goalkeeper Manuel " Tamalón " Garay , Rafael " Chapuda " Reyes , Conrado Miranda , Miguel " Americano " Cruz , Rafael Corado and Mando Rivas .
In the group stage of the 1950 Central American and Caribbean Games in Mexico , El Salvador recorded two wins , one tie , and one loss . They began the final round by beating Curaçao 3 – 1 , but lost their other two matches leaving them in fifth place . In 1953 , the El Salvador national football team took part in its fifth CCCF Championship , the 1953 CCCF Championship , hosted in Costa Rica , together with seven other national teams . Costa Rica became champions for the fourth time , and El Salvador finished in fifth place again .
At the 1954 Central American and Caribbean Games El Salvador won their second international title under the direction of coach Carbilio Tomasino , with a team consisting of Yohalmo Aurora , Manuel " Tamalón " Garay , Hugo Moreno , Armando Larín , Luis Regalado , Conrado Miranda , Fernando Barrios , Ramón " Pezote " Chávez , José Hernández , Mario Montoya , Juan Francisco " Cariota " Barraza , Ricardo " Chilenito " Valencia , Alfredo " Baiza " Ruano , and Obdulio Hernández . They debuted against Colombia in a 2 – 2 tie , beat Cuba 3 – 1 , beat Mexico 3 – 2 and finally beat Panama 1 – 0 with a goal by " Cariota " Barraza . The 3 – 2 victory against Mexico , with two goals from Mario Montoya ( 16 ' , 36 ' ) and one from Ricardo Valencia ( 37 ' ) , was the first victory by a Central American team against Mexico .
In the 1955 CCCF Championship , hosted in Honduras , Costa Rica crowned themselves champions for the fifth time with El Salvador finishing in 4th place . This marked the sixth time El Salvador participated in the CCCF Championship . For unknown reasons they didn 't participate in the 1957 and 1960 CCCF Championships .
= = = 1960s = = =
El Salvador returned to participate in the 1961 CCCF Championship , hosted in Costa Rica , alongside nine other national teams . Due to the larger number of teams the CCCF Championship shifted to a two round format with two round @-@ robin group stages . In the first round , there were two groups , one with five teams and one with four . The top two teams from both groups advanced to the second stage . El Salvador was placed in the four team group Honduras , the Netherlands Antilles , and Nicaragua , which they topped with two wins and one draw . In the decisive round they finished in second place behind Costa Rica , who won their seventh CCCF Championship . Afterward the tournament was dissolved and replaced with the CONCACAF Championship .
The first CONCACAF Championship was hosted in 1963 and El Salvador hosted both the qualification round and final tournament . There were nine other participants , with the format the same as the final CCCF Championship . Costa Rica became the first CONCACAF champions , and El Salvador finished as runners @-@ up . In 1964 Chilean Hernán Carrasco Vivanco , who would later revolutionize Salvadoran football , became coach of the national team . He led the national team for the first time at the 1965 CONCACAF Championship , hosted in Guatemala , where they won 2 games , tied 1 game , and lost two , finishing in fourth place . In 1966 the El Salvador football team took part in the Central American and Caribbean Games for the sixth time in a competition that took place in Puerto Rico . The national team participated alongside seven other teams , finishing in fourth place . In 1968 El Salvador qualified for the Olympic Games for the first time . They lost 4 – 0 to Hungary , 3 – 1 to Israel , and tied 1 – 1 with Ghana . The coach by this time was Rigoberto Guzmán .
Gregorio Bundio and his assistant José Santacolomba coached the team in the qualifying stages for the 1970 FIFA World Cup . This was the first time El Salvador participated in World Cup qualifying . As host , Mexico automatically qualified so there was just one qualification spot up for grabs . El Salvador won group 3 , playing four games , winning three and losing one . Their record was 10 goals for and 5 goals against with 6 points . As a result , they qualified for a 3 @-@ game playoff against group 2 winner and traditional rival , Honduras . The first game , hosted on 8 June 1969 in the Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa , was won 1 – 0 by the home team and was followed by crowd violence . The second game , hosted on 15 June 1969 in the Salvadoran capital of San Salvador , was won 3 – 0 by El Salvador , and was followed by even greater violence . A play @-@ off match took place in Mexico City on 26 June 1969 . El Salvador won 3 – 2 after extra time . As a result of existing tensions being exacerbated by these matches , on 14 July 1969 the two countries began the a 100 @-@ hour @-@ long war known as the Football War . As a result of the conflict , El Salvador and Honduras were both disqualified from entering the 1969 CONCACAF Championship qualification .
The final set of qualifying games for the 1970 World Cup took place against Haiti . The first leg was won by El Salvador in Haiti , 2 – 1 , with goals from Elver Acevedo ( 43 ' ) and Mauricio ' Pipo ' Rodríguez ( 62 ' ) . The second leg was lost 3 – 0 . The playoff game on 8 October 1969 was won by El Salvador with a goal by Juan Ramón " Mon " Martínez ( 14 ' a.e.t. ) . Thus the El Salvador national football team qualified for their first World Cup , even though it was their first time attempting qualification .
" El Pajaro Picón Picón " was a Colombian song written by Eliseo Herrera which was very popular in El Salvador during the qualifying stages of the 1970 World Cup . During a radio show , Mauricio Bohorquez parodied the song , which he named " Arriba con la Selección " . That parody became so famous that it became the " official anthem " of the El Salvador national football team .
= = = 1970s = = =
In the World Cup finals El Salvador was drawn into a group with Belgium , Mexico , and the Soviet Union . El Salvador lost their first game 3 – 0 to Belgium in Mexico City on June 3 . The second match was played against the host nation , Mexico , on 7 June . The game was decided by a controversial call near the end of the first half , with the score still at 0 – 0 . Egyptian referee Hussain Kandil awarded a free kick to El Salvador in their own half . However , a Mexican player took the free @-@ kick , passing to another Mexican player who scored . The Salvadoran players protested vigorously , to the extent of physically jostling Bermudan linesman Keith Dunstan , but the goal was allowed to stand . El Salvador restarted the game by kicking the ball into the crowd in protest . They eventually lost the game 4 – 0 . The team 's third and final game occurred on June 10 with El Salvador losing 2 – 0 to the Soviet Union in Mexico City , to finish at the bottom of Group A with 0 points .
El Salvador advanced from the first round of 1971 CONCACAF Championship qualification with an aggregate score of 4 – 2 against Nicaragua after home and away legs . In the second round , El Salvador withdrew from the playoff when they had to play against Honduras , meaning Honduras qualified by default . The national team also took part in the 1973 CONCACAF Championship qualification , which doubled as qualification for the 1974 FIFA World Cup , but they did not advance to the final stage after they were eliminated by Guatemala with an aggregate score of 0 – 2 ( 0 – 1 , 0 – 1 . ) The team was managed by Hector D 'Angelo .
El Salvador participated at the Pan American Games for the first time in 1975 at the VII ( 7 ) Pan American Games , hosted in Mexico . The national team participated in a group that included Brazil , Costa Rica , and Nicaragua . They debuted with a 4 – 1 win against Nicaragua on October 14 with 3 goals from " Pajarito " Huezo and the debut of Francisco " Paco " Jovel . Then they played against Brazil on the 15th and lost 0 – 2 . They ended the tournament by playing against Costa Rica , where they tied 0 – 0 , and wherein " Pelé " Zapata missed a penalty . They finished at third place in Group D , failing to advance to the next round .
In 1977 CONCACAF Championship qualification La Selecta played against three other teams ( Costa Rica , Guatemala , and Panama ) in a home @-@ and @-@ away round @-@ robin group . The top two finishers advanced final tournament . Guatemala won the group and El Salvador was runner – up . In the finals , hosted in Mexico , El Salvador played five games ; they won two , drew one , and lost two . They finished in third place , below Haiti and Mexico ( with the hosts winning the tournament . El Salvador participated in the 1978 Central American and Caribbean Games , hosted in Colombia , marking the seventh time El Salvador participated in this competition . For the fourth time , Cuba was crowned champions . El Salvador finished in ninth place .
= = = 1980s = = =
El Salvador played four other teams ( Costa Rica , Guatemala , Honduras , and Panama ) in 1981 CONCACAF Championship qualification , once again in a home @-@ and @-@ away round @-@ robin group with the top two teams advancing to the final tournament . El Salvador and Honduras finished top of the group with equal point . Honduras was acclaimed group winner by goal difference . Once again the finals would be doubling as World Cup qualification , this time for the 1982 FIFA World Cup . The format was one six – team group stage , with the first place team winning the tournament , and qualifying for the World Cup alongside the runner – up . Going into the final matches , with every team having played 4 matches out of five , El Salvador had 4 points and was in third place by goal difference , with Mexico ( second place ) and Canada ( fourth place ) both also having 4 points . Honduras led with 7 points , Cuba was in fifth with 3 points , and Haiti was last with 2 points . On 19 November 1981 , in their final match El Salvador beat Haiti 1 – 0 , their goal being a penalty kick taken by Norberto Huezo , bringing them to 6 points . On 21 November Canada tied with Cuba 2 – 2 , eliminating both teams . In the decisive match on 22 November , Honduras tied with Mexico 0 – 0 , meaning Honduras won the tournament and Honduras and El Salvador qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup , the second ( and last ) time El Salvador qualified for the World Cup . The national team was under the direction of Mauricio " Pipo " Rodríguez .
In 1982 El Salvador took a 20 – man squad ( two players short of the normal 22 , as a controversial cost – saving measure ) , coached by the aforementioned Mauricio " Pipo " Rodríguez , to Spain . The team 's experience was an unhappy one . In their first match on June 15 in Elche , they were defeated 10 – 1 by Hungary , a scoreline that stands as a World Cup record to this day . A silver lining was that Luis Baltazar Ramírez Zapata scored the country 's first World Cup goal during the game , albeit at a point when the Salvadorans were already down 5 – 0 . It was cold comfort however . When Zapata scored against Hungary , some Salvadorans cried out to Zapata not to celebrate the goal effusively because it might make the Hungarians mad and encourage them to score more . El Salvador managed to regain some pride in their subsequent games . Displaying much @-@ improved levels of organisation and commitment , they lost 1 – 0 to Belgium on June 19 in Elche and 2 – 0 to the then @-@ reigning world champions , Argentina , in Alicante on June 23 .
There were several reasons the tournament went so badly for El Salvador . First of all , El Salvador took 20 players to the World Cup , leaving behind Gilberto Quinteros and Miguel González . According to Luis Guevara Mora , goalkeeper of the team by that time , the Salvadoran Football Federation decided to take members of the Federation , as well as the friends and family of many members of the Federation , and spent so much money they couldn 't afford to bring a full 22 – man squad . Some fellow players tried to gather money to pay to bring their teammates but couldn 't get enough . Further heightening controversy , the team took many detours and stops throughout Europe under the direction of the Federation , taking 3 days to arrive in Spain and were the last team to do so . Once arrived , there was more trouble . Adidas sent four white and three blue uniforms for each player , but mysteriously only three white and one blue arrived . The remaining uniforms were said to have been taken away by the association . They decided to play with the white uniform and keep the blue as a keepsake . Next , someone stole the balls that the team would train with . The day prior to the match against Hungary , the Hungarians had the 25 balls the organization had given them and trained with them while El Salvador had none and was unable to train . To make things even worse , El Salvador had never seen Hungary play . The only knowledge that they had about the team was a lone outdated video that they had bought . On the field there were more problems . Hungary 's fourth goal was caused by Francisco Jovel 's sudden deafness . Jovel had received a heavy blow on the cheek and almost could not hear . So when Guevara Mora cried off to stop a ball , the defender did not hear him . Mora attempted to pass to Jovel , but Jovel wasn 't looking and the ball went past him and went straight in front of the net . The Hungarian player only had to tap it in . After the match , the Salvadoran squad had a tense meeting with the coaching staff and Federation . The coach was dismissed immediately and the following matches against Belgium and Argentina were managed by players Jovel , Huezo and Fagoaga . Although the tournament overall was a big disappointment , there were also several bright spots . Jorge " Mágico " González was considered by the national and international press as the best player . " Mágico " González stayed in Spain after the tournament and played for Cádiz CF and Real Valladolid . Ricardo Guevara Mora , the goalkeeper , was the youngest player to play at the 1982 FIFA World Cup at 20 years old .
In 1985 CONCACAF Championship qualification , El Salvador and 15 other teams were paired up to play two @-@ leg home @-@ and @-@ away knockout matches . La Selecta was drawn against Puerto Rico , won 8 – 0 on aggregate ( 5 – 0 , 3 – 0 ) to qualify for the final tournament . They were placed in a three – person group with Honduras and Suriname with the top team advancing They finished second in the group with 5 points ( 2 won , 1 tied , 1 lost . ) Honduras won the group with 6 points ( 2 won , 2 tied . ) In 1989 CONCACAF Championship qualification they eliminated the Netherlands Antilles 6 – 0 on aggregate ( 1 – 0 , 5 – 0 ) . The final tournament was held in a different format than before , now functioning as one large five – team round – robin group . El Salvador finished last , with just 2 points .
= = = 1990s = = =
At a CONCACAF congress , held in Guatemala on 26 January 1991 , a new tournament , called the UNCAF Nations Cup , was conceived for Central America teams . The inaugural tournament was hosted in 1991 , hosted by Costa Rica . The tournament also doubled as qualification for the CONCACAF Gold Cup , a new tournament which replaced the CONCACAF Championship . In qualification , La Selecta defeated Nicaragua with an aggregate score of 5 – 2 ( 3 – 2 , 2 – 0 ) and advanced to the final tournament . In the finals , they played three games , drawing one and losing two , finishing in last place and failing to advance to the 1991 CONCACAF Gold Cup . The 1993 UNCAF Nations Cup once again served as qualification to the Gold Cup , this time for the 1993 CONCACAF Gold Cup . For this tournament , La Selecta advanced to the final tournament automatically . There they played three games , once again drawing one and losing two and once again finished last and failed to advance to the 1993 CONCACAF Gold Cup . They were coached by Jorge Vieira .
In 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification El Salvador eliminated Nicaragua 10 – 1 on aggregate ( 5 – 0 , 5 – 1 ) in the first round , then finished first in a group composed of Bermuda ( 0 – 1 and 4 – 1 ) , Canada ( 1 – 1 and 3 – 2 ) , and Jamaica ( 2 – 0 , 2 – 1 ) in the second round . In the decisive third round just four team were left ( Canada , El Salvador , Honduras , and Mexico . ) They were placed in a round – robin group with home – and – away legs . The top team advanced directly to the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the second placed team advanced to a playoff vs. a team from OFC . El Salvador began with a historic and vital win against Mexico at home , but went on to lost their next four games , including losing twice to Canada . They managed to win their final game , 2 – 1 against rivals Honduras at home , but it was too late . Qualification was impossible . They finished third in the group .
El Salvador hosted the 1995 UNCAF Nations Cup . The tournament switched formats to a two round system , with two three – team groups in the first round , with two teams advancing from each group , and a knockout style competition for the remaining four teams . El Salvador was placed in a group with Costa Rica and Belize . They topped the group with 2 wins and faced Guatemala in the knockout round , where they lost 0 – 1 . They won the third place match against Costa Rica 2 – 1 and thus advanced to the 1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup along with Guatemala and tournament winners Honduras . This was their first appearance at the Gold Cup . At the finals of the 1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup , El Salvador was placed in a group with Trinidad and Tobago and the United States . They defeated Trinidad and Tobago 3 – 2 , with goals from Raúl Díaz Arce ( 34 ' , 72 ' ( pen . ) ) and Ronald Cerritos ( 50 ' ) in their first game but lost 2 – 0 to the United States , and thus did not advance from the first round .
At the 1997 UNCAF Nations Cup , hosted in Guatemala using a two – round two – group – stage system , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Honduras and Panama . La Selecta lost 3 – 0 to Honduras in their first match but defeated Panama 2 – 0 in their second . In the second group stage they finished in third place , losing to Guatemala 0 – 1 , Costa Rica 0 – 1 , and drawing Honduras 0 – 0 . They finished in third , with 1 point . They advanced to the 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup , hosted in the United States . El Salvador were coached by Kiril Dojcinovski . At the Gold Cup , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Brazil , Guatemala , and Jamaica . They tied Guatemala 0 – 0 and lost to Brazil 0 – 4 and Jamaica 0 – 2 .
In 1988 FIFA World Cup qualification El Salvador received a by to the third round , where they were drawn into a group with Canada , Cuba , and Panama . They finished second behind Canada and advanced to the final round . The final round , commonly referred to as " The Hexagonal " , was a six – team group stage with the top 3 teams advancing to the 1998 FIFA World Cup . El Salvador finished in fifth place with 2 wins , 4 draws , and 4 losses . This was the closest to qualifying for a World Cup the team got since the 1982 FIFA World Cup , which created great excitement among the fans in El Salvador . At the 1999 UNCAF Nations Cup , hosted in Costa Rica with the same format as the previous tournament , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Guatemala and Nicaragua . El Salvador tied Guatemala 1 – 1 and defeated Nicaragua 1 – 0 , with goals from Magdonio Corrales . In the second group stage , they lost to Honduras 1 – 3 , Guatemala 0 – 1 , and Costa Rica 0 – 4 to finish in fourth place with 0 points , and failed to advance to the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup . They were coached by Mario Peres Ulibarri . Costa Rica won the tournament .
= = = 2000s = = =
2002 FIFA World Cup qualification began on March 5 , 2000 for El Salvador . For the first round El Salvador was drawn into a home – and – away round – robin group with Belize and Guatemala . The top team advanced to the next round and the second placed team advanced to a play – off . They kicked off their campaign with a 5 – 0 home win against Belize and eventually topped the group with 3 wins and 1 draw . In the second round they were drawn into a group with Honduras , Jamaica , and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The top two teams advanced to the final round ( The Hexagonal ) . El Salvador finished third and crashed out . This is identified as the start of a decline in Salvadoran football .
The same format as the 1997 and 1999 editions was used at the 2001 UNCAF Nations Cup , hosted in Honduras . In the first round , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Honduras , Nicaragua , and Panama . El Salvador topped the group , defeating Nicaragua 3 – 0 , Panama 2 – 1 , and tying Honduras 1 – 1 . In the second and final round they drew all their games to finish in third and advance to the 2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup . They were coached by Carlos Recinos . Guatemala won the tournament for the first time . El Salvador was still coached by Recinos for the 2002 Gold Cup . They were drawn into Group A alongside Guatemala and Mexico . El Salvador lost to Mexico 0 – 1 , but defeated Guatemala 1 – 0 , with a goal from Santos Cabrera ( 58 ' . ) For the first time they advanced to the quarter @-@ finals of a Gold Cup . On January 27 , they lost to eventual champions United States by a score of 0 – 4 .
At the 2003 UNCAF Nations Cup , hosted in Panama , El Salvador managed to get third place again , with Juan Ramón Paredes as head coach . In the tournament El Salvador won against Panama 2 – 1 , lost against Costa Rica 0 – 1 , defeated Nicaragua 3 – 0 , defeated Honduras 1 – 0 , and lost against Guatemala 0 – 2 . They qualified for the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup alongside Guatemala and Costa Rica ( Honduras went to the playoffs ) . Costa Rica won the tournament ( the fourth time they 'd done so . ) At the 2003 Gold Cup El Salvador was drawn into Group C with Martinique and the United States . El Salvador lost to the United States 0 – 2 in their first match on July 11 . However , in their second , played on July 16 , they defeated Martinique 1 – 0 with a goal from defender Marvin González ( 76 ' . ) For the second time , they had advanced to the quarter @-@ finals of a Gold Cup , this time to face Costa Rica . On July 19 , they lost the match 2 – 5 . Three of the seven goals were penalty kicks . Thus , El Salvador went out in the quarter @-@ finals again .
The 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification process and 2005 UNCAF Nations Cup ( hosted in Guatemala ) were both huge disasters for El Salvador . In the former they received a by to the second round where they inched past Bermuda 4 – 3 on aggregate ( 2 – 1 , 2 – 2 . ) In the third round they were drawn into a home – and – away round – robin group with Jamaica , Panama , and the United States . El Salvador finished last in the group with just 4 points from 6 games . In the 2005 UNCAF Nations Cup they failed to advance past the first round after losing against Panama 0 – 1 and Costa Rica 1 – 2 . This mean they also failed to qualify for the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup . They were coached by Carlos Cavagnaro .
El Salvador hosted the 2007 UNCAF Nations Cup . The tournament changed formats , now to a two – round system with a group stage followed by a knockout – style competition for the remaining four teams . There were still two groups and the top two teams still advanced from each group for the first round . El Salvador topped their group wins wins over Belize ( 2 – 1 ) , Nicaragua ( 2 – 1 ) , and a draw with Guatemala ( 0 – 0 . ) In the semifinals El Salvador lost to the eventual champions Costa Rica 0 – 1 . In the third place playoff they lost 0 – 1 to Guatemala but nonetheless qualified for the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup ( as now 5 Central American teams qualified for the Gold Cup . ) The team was coached by Carlos de los Cobos . At the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup they were drawn into four – team Group B with Guatemala , Trinidad and Tobago , and the United States . They defeated Trinidad and Tobago 2 – 1 in their opening match with goals from Ramón Sánchez ( 38 ' ) and Dennis Alas ( 81 ' ) , but this was their only win of the tournament . They lost the following two matches against Guatemala 0 – 1 and United States 0 – 4 and exited the tournament .
On June 16 , 2007 , a rematch was scheduled between El Salvador and Hungary , the latter of which had delivered the biggest defeat to El Salvador in the national team 's history . Many of the same players that had played the match between El Salvador and Hungary in the 1982 FIFA World Cup played again at the Estadio Cuscatlán . The stadium that filled 22 @,@ 000 spectators saw a match tied at 2 – 2 with goals from Lázár Szentes and Ferenc Csongrádi for Hungary and two goals from Luis Ramírez Zapata for El Salvador .
In the 2009 UNCAF Nations Cup , hosted in Honduras , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Belize , Honduras , and Nicaragua . They defeated Belize 4 – 1 , tied against Nicaragua 1 – 1 with an own @-@ goal , and lost to Honduras 0 – 2 . This gave them second place in the group and qualified them for the semifinals . There , the team faced Costa Rica . However , the games was called off after 60 minutes of play ( with Costa Rica leading 1 – 0 ) when El Salvador was reduced to six players . Two El Salvador players , Alexander Escobar and Eliseo Quintanilla , were awarded red cards in the first half , while Deris Umanzor , Rodolfo Zelaya , and goalkeeper Juan José Gómez were injured and had to leave the game after El Salvador had already exhausted their three substitutions . The game was awarded 3 – 0 to Costa Rica . In the third place playoff , Honduras earned a win over La Selecta with the only goal scored by Roger Espinoza ( 30 ' ) . At the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup , El Salvador were in Group A alongside Canada , Costa Rica , and Jamaica . They debuted against Costa Rica , winning 2 – 1 with El Salvador 's goals scored by Osael Romero in the 19th and 85th minute . However , they lost their games against Canada and Jamaica , both matches 1 – 0 . The team was still coached by Carlos de los Cobos .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification El Salvador was drawn against Anguilla in a two – leg home – and – away knockout format , winning 12 – 0 and 0 – 4 to easily advance . In the next round , La Selecta was drawn against Panama . Despite being considered underdogs , the team prevailed , reversing a 0 – 1 away loss with a 3 – 1 home win . In the third round , the format changed to a home – and – away round – robin group stage . They were drawn against Costa Rica , Haiti , and Suriname . They finished second in the group and advanced alongside Costa Rica to the final round , " The Hexagonal " . Despite some promising initial results , such as drawing the United States and winning against Mexico , El Salvador eventually finished in fifth place and was eliminated . Rudis Corrales was the team 's top goalscorer in qualification with 8 goals .
On 11 May 2010 the FIFA Emergency Committee suspended the Salvadoran Football Federation ( FESFUT ) on account of government interference . This decision by FIFA was based on the fact that the statutes ratified by the FESFUT general assembly in August 2009 had not been formally entered in the country 's official register , and that the government had failed to acknowledge the authority of the Normalisation Committee set up to represent FESFUT . Consequently , FIFA considered that it was not possible for FESFUT to organise the general assembly in line with the action plan that had been drawn up , and suspended FESFUT . For the suspension to be lifted , Salvadoran authorities needed to recognize the legitimacy of the Normalisation Committee of the Salvadoran Football Association . The suspension was lifted by May 28 . By FIFA lifting the suspension , La Selecta was once again allowed to participate in international tournaments at both club and national levels . El Salvador 's under @-@ 21 team qualified for the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games ( CAC ) tournament in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico . However , CONCACAF decided to suspend football at the 2010 CAC shortly thereafter . El Salvador was also able to participate in the qualifying tournament for the 2012 Summer Olympics .
The 2011 Copa Centroamericana , the new name of the reorganized UNCAF Nations Cup , used the same two – round system as the previous tournament , with a round – robin group stage in the first round , followed by a knockout style competition for the remaining four teams . El Salvador was drawn into a group with Belize , Nicaragua , and Panama . La Selecta defeated Nicaragua 2 – 0 , Belize 5 – 2 , and lost 2 – 0 against Panama , which was enough to let them advance from the group in second place . In the semifinals they lost to Honduras , again by a 2 – 0 score . In the third place match , they faced Panama again , losing in a penalty shootout 4 – 5 after a 0 – 0 draw . This performance was enough to qualify El Salvador for the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup . The team was coached by José Luis Rugamas . Forward Rafael Burgos jointly received the Golden Boot with Costa Rica 's Marco Ureña three goals .
In April 2011 , two months before the start of the Gold Cup , José Luis Rugamas was replaced as coach by Rubén Israel , who introduced a new system and spirit into the team . At the 2011 Gold Cup , El Salvador was drawn into a group with Costa Rica , Cuba , and powerhouses Mexico . Despite losing 5 – 0 to Mexico , a dramatic 1 – 1 draw with Costa Rica ( where Rodolfo Zelaya scored a 25 @-@ yard free kick opener at 45 ' and Costa Rica equalized at 90 + 5 ) and a 6 – 1 win over Cuba were enough to send El Salvador to the knockout stage . This was the first time El Salvador had reached the knockout stage of a Gold Cup since the 2003 edition . In the quarter finals they faced Panama . The game ended in a 1 – 1 draw , with Panama controversially equalizing at 89 ' when striker Luis Tejada weaved between several defenders and drove a ball that was caught by goalkeeper Miguel Montes . This was controversial for two reasons . One , there was confusion as to whether the shot from Tejada was with his head or his hand . Two , it was unclear whether the ball had crossed the line . Eventually , referee Wálter Quesada ruled that Montes caught the ball behind the goal line thus tying the game at 1 – 1 in the last minute of regular time . Coach Rubén Israel called the decision an " error of haste . " Panama won the ensuing penalty shootout 5 – 3 .
In 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification , El Salvador received a bye to the second round . There , they were drawn into a home @-@ and @-@ away round @-@ robin group with the Cayman Islands , the Dominican Republic , and Suriname . La Selecta won their first match , against the Dominican Republic , 3 – 2 with goals scored by Rodolfo Zelaya ( 54 ' , 77 ' ) and Christian Javier Bautista ( 63 ' ) , but left many doubts about their performance . El Salvador , however , convincingly won their next match , against the Cayman Islands , 1 – 4 with goals from Christian Bautista ( 50 ' ) and defenders Luis Anaya ( 63 ' , 80 ' ) and Xavier García ( 90 + 3 ' ) before winning the return leg against the Dominican Republic 1 – 2 . Although El Salvador received the necessary 3 points , the performance of the team was not as expected . La Selecta demonstrated more skill in their 4 – 0 in their home match against the Cayman Islands . The goals were scored by Víctor Turcios ( 5 ' ) , Steve Purdy ( 12 ' ) , Jaime Alas ( 44 ' ) and Herbert Sosa ( pen . 88 ' ) . The last was the 1000th goal scored in the history of the El Salvador national football team . After that , they easily won their remaining games to complete the second round with a perfect record of six wins in six matches .
With six wins in six matches , the Uruguayan coach Rubén Israel qualified the football team of El Salvador for the third round for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification ( CONCACAF ) . Fallen into the same group as Mexico , Costa Rica and Guyana , El Salvador heroic snatched a draw in San José ( Costa Rica ) ( after being 2 – 0 down to score ) on 8 Jun 2012 . Four days later , a home defeat against Mexico ( 1 – 2 ) precipitated the departure of Rubén Israel whose poor relations with Jaime Rodríguez , president of the National Institute of Sport Salvador ( INDES ) were known all . Salvadoran Football Association ( FESFUT ) under pressure following the surprise resignation of Rubén Israel , named the Mexican Juan de Dios Castillo at the head of the selection July 14 , 2012 . Despite a good start ( 1 – 0 in a friendly match against Guatemala after 10 years of failure against this opponent ) , a draw conceded at Estadio Cuscatlán in 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification ( CONCACAF ) , facing a modest Guyana national football team ( 2 – 2 ) earned him the wrath of the public . A victory in extremis ( 2 – 3 ) at Georgetown , Guyana ( with a penalty stopped by goalkeeper Dagoberto Portillo in additional time ) allowed El Salvador to stay in the race for qualification to the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil . Unfortunately the home defeat ( 0 – 1 ) against Costa Rica buried the hopes of qualifying for the national team . Juan de Dios Castillo was removed from office in November 2012 and replaced on December 17 by the Peruvian Agustín Castillo , five national champion with C.D. FAS . Against all odds , El Salvador finished 3rd in the 2013 Copa Centroamericana mean qualification for the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup in the USA in July when El Salvador shares the same group as Honduras , Trinidad and Tobago and Haiti .
= = = Match fixing = = =
The national team had accusations of several players purposely losing matches on purpose in exchange for monetary rewards . Some of these allegations involved games against Venezuela , Mexico , USA , and Costa Rica . After an investigation , 14 players were handed immediate lifetime bans from football on September 20 , 2013 . Those players were Luis Anaya , Osael Romero , Ramón Sánchez , Christian Castillo , Miguel Granadino , Miguel Montes , Dagoberto Portillo , Dennis Alas , Darwin Bonilla , Ramón Flores , Alfredo Pacheco , José Mardoqueo Henríquez , Marvin González , and Reynaldo Hernández . Carlos Monteagudo received a ban of 18 months . Eliseo Quintanilla and Víctor Turcios received 6 month bans . Alexander Escobar , Christian Sánchez , and U @-@ 20 goalkeeper Yimmy Cuellar received a ban of 30 days . Other players were forced to go through the investigation for 20 more days . After the 20 day investigation , Rodrigo Martínez was sentenced to a ban of 5 years , Rodolfo Zelaya to a ban of one year , and Benji Villalobos to a ban of 6 months .
= = FIFA World Cup record = =
El Salvador has never advanced beyond the first round of the finals competition . El Salvador declined to participate at the 1950 FIFA World Cup .
Source :
= = CONCACAF Championships record = =
In 1963 El Salvador participated in the first CONCACAF Championship which included all countries of the region , North America , Central America and the Caribbean . During 1963 to 1971 only 5 championships were played . El Salvador achieving only a runner @-@ up in 1963 . From 1973 to 1989 no championship was played . The CONCACAF proclaimed champion of the region for the country that achieved the first place in qualifying to the FIFA World Cup . In 1990 , CONCACAF again created a tournament as its showpiece event to crown the regional champion of the CONCACAF . The event was named the CONCACAF Gold Cup , with the USA hosting the first competition in 1991 . In the 2002 , 2003 , and 2011 events El Salvador reached the Quarter @-@ finals .
* Denotes draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks .
* * Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil .
Sources :
= = Other tournament records = =
= = Stadium = =
El Salvador 's current national stadium is the Estadio Cuscatlán which saw its first game in 1976 . Before the opening of the Estadio Cuscatlán the national stadium was the Estadio Nacional de la Flor Blanca ( now known as Estadio Jorge " Mágico " González ) .
During El Salvador 's early run of existence , the team 's national stadium was the Campo Marte , a 16 acre of land that housed a ministadium , ( now known as Parque Infantil ) between 1928 and 1934 . Succeeding , El Salvador played at the Estadio Nacional de la Flor Blanca ( now known as Estadio Jorge " Mágico " González ) in San Salvador , El Salvador . It was first built on 19 April 1932 during the presidency of Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in preparation for the 1935 Central American and Caribbean Games . On 24 March 1935 El Salvador played its first game at the Flor Blanca against Cuba and won 4 – 1 . El Salvador played at this stadium for the 1970 FIFA World Cup qualification , and accomplished to qualify for the 1970 FIFA World Cup . A one @-@ off hame was played at the stadium to commemorate a major refurbishment , it was the last time El Salvador played a game in the stadium , on 15 November 2000 , against Jamaica in the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification process .
In 1969 , EDESSA ( Estadios Deportivos de El Salvador Sociedad Anonima ) first proposed the idea of a new national stadium . This came to fruition when the construction of the new national stadium , the Estadio Cuscatlán , began on March 24 , 1971 , with then @-@ president of El Salvador , General Fidel Sánchez Hernández , breaking ground . There were options for the name such of that of San Salvador , Fraternidad , and Cuscatlán but , of course , was named Cuscatlán . After 5 years of construction , the stadium was opened and held its very first game on July 24 , 1976 , in a friendly match . The game saw German Bundesliga champions Borussia Mönchengladbach play the El Salvador national football team , with the match ending in a 2 – 0 victory to the German side . The German squad featured 1974 FIFA World Cup champions , such as Berti Vogts , Rainer Bonhof , Wolfgang Kleff and Jupp Heynckes . Also Allan Simonsen , who eventually won the 1977 Ballon d 'Or and later form part of FC Barcelona . El Salvador aligned itself with Tomás Pineda ( Mauricio " Tarzán " Alvarenga ) , Guillermo " Billy " Rodríguez Bou , Ramón Fagoaga , Humberto " Imacasa " Recinos , Eduardo " Conejo " Valdés , Víctor " Pato " Valencia , Warner Solís , Félix " Garrobita " Pineda ( César " Piscucha " Acevedo ) , Luis " Pelé " Ramírez Zapata ( Abraham Coreas ) & Ismael " Cisco " Díaz ( David Cabrera ) . While Borussia played with Wolfgang Kneib , Hans @-@ Jürgen Wittkamp , Berti Vogts , Horst Wohlers , Dietmar Danner , Hans Klinkhammer , Carsten Nielsen , Uli Stielike , Jupp Heynckes and Allan Simonsen . Since that match , El Salvador has used the stadium for almost every major home game , and it is the official home stadium of the El Salvador national football team and the Salvadoran club Alianza FC . On May 25 , 1978 , EDESSA agreed to sign a 99 @-@ year lease of the stadium to CLIMA ( Asociación de Clubes de Liga Mayor A ) to operate and control which events are held there .
The Estadio Cuscatlán also features the following specifications :
A 45 @,@ 925 capacity .
15 entrances to the stadium .
10 ticket offices available for ticket sales .
A irrigation system and French drain .
4 fully equipped dressing rooms and a gymnasium .
A large 50 m2 LCD screen of high definition .
6 robotic cameras strategically placed at the stadium for the transmission on the large screen .
Internal sound system with Dolby Digital Surround .
16 booths for radio and television transmission .
3 electronic lighting towers , which have their north and south towers with 22 beacons and in the center with 24 beacons and 10 halogen lamps each .
Parking for 8 @,@ 500 cars .
= = Schedule and results = =
The following is El Salvador 's schedule and results for the 2016 season .
Key
Win Draw Loss
= = = 2016 = = =
= = Kit = =
El Salvador 's traditional first kit colour is blue with white trim , their second kit being white with blue trim . The current home and away kit features the traditional colours with the exception of bold curved trims that run from the center of the neck and open to the sides , forming two panels on the chest that contain the Mitre logo and emblem of the Salvadoran Football Federation . At the center of the kit the Salvadoran national emblem , once again , is shown . The right sleeve shows the national flag .
El Salvador and Mitre announced a new partnership in 2008 that saw them supply the Central American national football team with home and away kits , training , and bench wear until August 2010 . Mitre , and their Panamanian partner , The Harari Group , designed the kit that El Salvador used . The kit was showcased by the team on February 11 , 2009 as they started their FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign against Trinidad & Tobago in the CONCACAF ( Central @-@ American Football Union ) Hexagonal Cup . On October 22 , 2010 , the FESFUT extended the contract with Mitre by four years . The first home and away kit made by Mitre feature a watermark of the country 's national shield on the center of the shirt and some horizontal stripes along the kit . The current kit featured white remains along the neck , at the bottom of the kit , and over the shoulders . When this kit was introduced in 2009 it also introduced a new logo that replaced the typical logo of an " E " and an " S " surrounded by a circle .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
The following 18 players were called up for the friendly matches against Peru and Armenia on May 28 and June 1 , 2016 . Caps and goals as of June 1 , 2016 after the game against Armenia .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have been called up to the El Salvador squad in the last 12 months .
= = Coaching staff = =
= = = Coaches = = =
Since the creation of the national team in 1921 , several coaches have been in charge of managing El Salvador . From 1930 to 1935 , Mark Scott Thompson was appointed as El Salvador 's first ever manager . As of January 2012 , the El Salvador national football team has presented itself with 60 managers in the national team . It is reported that all 3 titles ( 1943 , 1954 and 2002 ) have been won by Salvadoran born managers . Conrado Miranda has managed in 4 different occasions and Armando Contreras Palma in 3 . Chilean Hernán Vivanco was manager when El Salvador competed at their first World Cup . Mauricio Rodríguez managed to qualify El Salvador to another World Cup . Rodiguez participated at the 1970 FIFA World Cup .
Source :
= = Records and honors = =
El Salvador were the first Central American team to qualify for a FIFA World Cup , in 1970 , and the first Central American team to qualify twice which they achieved with entry into the 1982 World Cup . They were the first Central American team to ever score a goal in a FIFA World Cup on June 15 , 1982 . They were the first Central American country to qualify their football team to the Olympic Games ( Mexico 1968 ) . They were the first Central American team to sign up for a World Cup qualifier ( France 1938 ) . They were the first Central American team to be champions of the Central American and Caribbean Games ( Mexico 1954 ) . They were also the first Central American team to organize the Central American and Caribbean Games ( 1935 ) and the first ever CONCACAF Championship ( 1963 ) . El Salvador were also the first Central American team to beat Mexico in Mexico City ; by a score of 3 – 2 at the 1954 Central American and Caribbean Games . Scorers of that game are as follows : Mario Montoya 16 ' ( 0 – 1 ) , Antonio Jasso 27 ' ( 1 – 1 ) , Mario Montoya 36 ' ( 1 – 2 ) , Ricardo Valencia 37 ' ( 1 – 3 ) , Rafael Gutierrez 64 ' ( 2 – 3 ) . The 1st goal in a World Cup qualifier was scored by Joel Estada on 12 December 1968 against Dutch Guiana . The 50th goal in a World Cup qualifier was scored by Ever Hernández in a 1 – 0 victory — on 2 December 1981 — against Mexico . The 100th goal in a World Cup qualifier was scored by Jorge " Mágico " González on 2 May 1993 against Canada . The 150th goal in a World Cup qualifier was scored by Víctor Velásquez in a 2 – 1 victory — on 13 June 2004 — against Bermuda . The 200th goal in a World Cup qualifier was scored by defender Xavier García in a 4 – 1 victory — on 6 September 2011 — against the Cayman Islands .
Honours
CONCACAF Championship / CONCACAF Gold Cup
Runner @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1963 , 1981
Third place ( 1 ) : 1977
UNCAF Nations Cup
Third place ( 5 ) : 1995 , 1997 , 2001 , 2003 2013
Central American and Caribbean Games
Gold Medal ( 2 ) : 1954 , 2002
Third place ( 1 ) : 1935
CCCF Championship
Winner ( 1 ) : 1943
Runner @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1941 , 1961
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= Olaf the Black =
Óláfr Guðrøðarson ( IPA : [ ˈoːlaːvr ˈɡuðruðarsson ] ) , commonly known in English as Olaf the Black , was a mid 13th century sea @-@ king who ruled the Isle of Man ( Mann ) and parts of the Hebrides . Óláfr was the son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles , King of Dublin , and his wife Finnguala , granddaughter of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , High King of Ireland , King of Cenél nEógain . Óláfr was a younger son of his father ; his elder brother Rögnvaldr more than likely had a different mother . According to the Chronicle of Mann , Guðrøðr appointed Óláfr as heir since he had been born " in lawful wedlock " . Whether or not this is the case , on Guðrøðr 's death in 1187 the Manxmen instead appointed Rögnvaldr as king , as he was a capable adult and Óláfr was a mere child . Rögnvaldr ruled the Crovan dynasty 's island @-@ kingdom for almost 40 years , during which time the half @-@ brothers vied for the kingship .
At one point Óláfr , who had been given possession of Lewis , complained to Rögnvaldr that his lands were not enough . Rögnvaldr 's response was seize Óláfr and send him to the King of Scots , where he was imprisoned for almost seven years . Upon his release , Óláfr undertook a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela , after which the half @-@ brothers were reconciled and Rögnvaldr had Óláfr married to Lauon , the sister of his own wife . Sometime after 1217 this marriage was nullified by Reginald , Bishop of the Isles , who may have been an ally of Óláfr against Rögnvaldr . Óláfr then married Christina , a daughter of the King of Scots ' protégé Ferchar , Earl of Ross . The chronicle claims that Rögnvaldr 's bitter wife tricked their own son , Guðrøðr , into attempting to kill Óláfr ; however , Óláfr narrowly escaped with his life and fled to the protection of his father @-@ in @-@ law on the mainland . Together with a loyal follower , one Páll Bálkason , Óláfr later defeated Guðrøðr on Skye .
In the 1220s Rögnvaldr formed an alliance with Alan , Lord of Galloway , in an attempt to fend off Óláfr . Rögnvaldr married his daughter to one of Alan 's sons , and it has been theorised that this son was intended to inherit the island @-@ kingdom . Rögnvaldr 's actions enraged the Manxmen and in 1226 they deposed him in favour of Óláfr . Rögnvaldr was later killed battling Óláfr in 1229 .
In 1230 Óláfr fled to Norway to seek military assistance against Alan and members of Clann Somairle . The Norwegian king 's response was to send a fleet into the Isles under the command of Óspakr Ögmundsson , a member of Clann Somairle . Óspakr was slain early in the campaign , after which Óláfr took control of the fleet and secured himself on Mann . The island @-@ kingdom was divided between him and his mutilated nephew Guðrøðr , with the latter ruling the Hebridean portion and Óláfr ruling Mann itself . Guðrøðr was soon after killed on Lewis , and Óláfr ruled the whole Kingdom of Mann and the Isles peacefully , until his death in 1237 . Óláfr 's restoration on Mann was seen as a success by the Norwegians , and likely favourably viewed by the Scots as well ; since the internal struggle between him and his rivals had been brought to an end . Óláfr was succeeded by his son , Haraldr . In all , three of Óláfr 's sons ruled the Crovan dynasty 's island @-@ kingdom — the last of which , Magnus Olafsson , was also the last of the dynasty to rule .
= = Background = =
Óláfr was a member of the Crovan dynasty of sea @-@ kings , a younger son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles , King of Dublin ( d . 1187 ) , and grandson of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles ( d . 1153 ) . Guðrøðr inherited a vast island @-@ kingdom from his father , which encompassed the Hebrides — situated on the western seaboard of Scotland — and the Isle of Man ( Mann ) , located in the middle of the northern Irish Sea , a strategically important point approximately equidistant from the islands of Great Britain and Ireland . In the mid 12th century Guðrøðr lost control of much of the Inner Hebrides to Somairle , Lord of Argyll , and was unable to regain these islands on Somairle 's death in 1164 . Like his predecessors , Guðrøðr is sometimes anachronistically styled " King of Mann " in secondary sources . This is because Guðrøðr , his sons Rögnvaldr and Óláfr , and his father Óláfr styled themselves Rex Insularum ( " King of the Isles " ) ; it was not until the reigns of Guðrøðr 's grandsons ( Óláfr 's sons ) that the leading members of the dynasty adopted the Latin title Rex Mannie et Insularum ( " King of Mann and the Isles " ) .
Óláfr 's epithet " the black " , considered to refer to his hair colour , is recorded in the Orkneyinga saga and within a 13th @-@ century English document , the Close Roll .
= = Ascension of Rögnvaldr Guðrøðarson = =
According to the Chronicle of Mann Guðrøðr , in 1187 , instructed that his younger son Óláfr should succeed to the kingdom , since Óláfr had been born " in lawful wedlock " . Other contemporary sources record that two decades prior to this the papal legate , Vivian Cardinal priest of St Stephen in Celio Monte , visited Mann for a fortnight in late December 1176 , as he sailed from Scotland to Ireland . The chronicle records that during his visit the cardinal formally married Guðrøðr to Finnguala , daughter of an unnamed son of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , High King of Ireland ( d . 1166 ) . Finnguala 's father was more than likely Niall Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1176 ) . Since the chronicle contradicts itself in detailing Óláfr 's age , it is uncertain whether he was born during the year of his father 's marriage , or a few years before — what is certain , however , is that Rögnvaldr was older than Óláfr .
Although the chronicle indirectly implies that Rögnvaldr was also a son of Finnguala , there is evidence that strongly suggests that he had a different mother . Within a letter from Óláfr to Henry II , King of England , Óláfr describes Rögnvaldr as a bastard . Further evidence is found within a Gaelic praise @-@ poem of Rögnvaldr , which states that he was a son of Sadb , an otherwise unknown Irishwoman who may have been an unrecorded wife or concubine of Guðrøðr . The chronicle records that because Óláfr was only a child at the time of his father 's death , the Manxmen chose Rögnvaldr to rule instead , describing him as a vigorous and hardier man . The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr began his reign the following year , in 1188 .
= = In the Outer Isles , and imprisonment = =
The Chronicle of Mann states that Rögnvaldr gave Óláfr possession of Lewis , which is described as an island ; Lewis is in fact the northern part of the island of Lewis and Harris , which is by far the largest island in Scotland . The northern part of the island is rather flat and boggy , while the southern part , Harris , is more mountainous . The chronicle seems , however , to have conflated the northern and southern parts as it describes Óláfr 's island as being mountainous and rocky , completely unsuitable for cultivation , and declares that the island 's small population lived mostly by hunting and fishing . The chronicle relates that Óláfr was unable to support himself and his followers , because of his poor land , and states that he led " a sorry life " .
Óláfr 's time in the Isles is confirmed by several Icelandic sources which recount how , in 1202 , Guðmundr Arason attempted to sail from Iceland to Norway to become consecrated as the Bishop of Hólar . These saga accounts relate how the Icelanders encountered a severe storm and were blown far off course before being forced to make landfall in the Hebrides . The island they landed upon was almost certainly Sanday , a tiny tidal island linked to its larger neighbour Canna , the westernmost of the Small Isles . According to the saga the Icelanders were pressured numerous times to pay a landing @-@ tax to a king named Óláfr . The king encountered by the Icelanders is considered to have been Óláfr , although at this point in history the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles is not known to have encompassed the Small Isles . One possibility is that Óláfr , like the Icelanders , may have been temporarily stranded on the tidal island , and that he may have taken advantage of the storm @-@ stricken churchmen to offset the poverty that is assigned to him by the chronicle .
The chronicle also relates that Óláfr went to Rögnvaldr , who was also living in the Hebrides , and asked him for more land . Rögnvaldr 's response was , according to the chronicle , to have Óláfr seized and sent to William I , King of Scots , who kept him imprisoned for almost seven years . The chronicle states that , on the seventh year , William died and that just before his death ordered the release of all his political prisoners . William is known to have died on 4 December 1214 . The chronicle relates that upon gaining his freedom , Óláfr met with Rögnvaldr on Mann , and then set out on a pilgrimage with a significant number of noblemen . Óláfr 's intended destination is considered to have been the shrine of St James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain .
= = Marriages , and nephew Guðrøðr Rögnvaldsson = =
Upon Óláfr 's return the chronicle says that Rögnvaldr welcomed him back and had him marry Lauon , the daughter of a certain nobleman from Kintyre , who was also the sister of his own wife . The precise identification of the father @-@ in @-@ law of Óláfr and Rögnvaldr is uncertain , but he may have been a member of Clann Somairle ; possibly Ragnall mac Somairle , or his son Ruaidrí , who are both styled Lord of Kintyre in documents contemporaneous to their reigns . The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr then gave Lewis back to Óláfr , where the newly @-@ weds proceeded to live until the arrival of Reginald , Bishop of the Isles ( d. c . 1226 ) , sometime later . According to the chronicle the bishop disapproved of Óláfr 's marriage , as Óláfr had formerly had a concubine who was a cousin of Lauon . A synod was then assembled and the chronicle records that the marriage was nullified . Although at first glance the marriage appears to have been doomed , as it was deemed " as being within prohibited degree of kinship " , it may be that this was merely a convenient excuse , and that the contention between the half @-@ brothers may have played a part in its demise . It is also possible that Bishop Reginald may have released Óláfr from an arranged marriage which had been forced upon him ; the bishop and Óláfr appear to have been close , as the chronicle describes Bishop Reginald as a son of Óláfr 's sister , and notes that Óláfr was glad at his coming to Lewis . Furthermore , it was Bishop Reginald who annulled the marriage which Rögnvaldr had arranged for Óláfr . In fact , when the previous Bishop of the Isles died in 1217 , Bishop Reginald had vied with a rival candidate for the position — a certain Nicholas — and there is evidence to suggest that Reginald was supported by Óláfr , while Óláfr 's half @-@ brother Rögnvaldr supported the bid of Nicholas .
The chronicle states that Óláfr then married Christina , daughter of Ferchar mac an t @-@ sagairt ( d. c . 1251 ) . Óláfr 's father @-@ in @-@ law emerges from historical obscurity in 1215 and , by the mid 1220s ( about the time of , or not long after , the marriage ) , Ferchar had obtained the Earldom of Ross from Alexander II , King of Scots ( d . 1249 ) for his part in defeating the Meic Uilleim northern rebellion in 1215 . The chronicle declares that Óláfr 's separation from Lauon had enraged her sister , and Rögnvaldr 's bitter queen sought to sow discord between the half @-@ brothers . If the chronicle is to be believed , the queen secretly wrote under her husband 's name to their son Guðrøðr , ordering him to seize and kill Óláfr . The chronicle states that Guðrøðr dutifully gathered a force on Skye and proceeded to Lewis , where he laid waste to most of the island before returning to Skye — Óláfr had narrowly escaped with a few men and fled to the protection of his father @-@ in @-@ law , on the mainland in Ross .
One of the more powerful men in the Isles at this time , according to the chronicle , was a sheriff on Skye named Páll Bálkason . Páll refused to take up arms against Óláfr and he left Skye to live in Ross with Óláfr . After several days Páll and Óláfr secretly returned to Skye , according to the chronicle , and learned that Guðrøðr was stationed on the " island of St Columba " . The location and identity of the island are unknown for certain , although Iona and various places and islands on Skye are possible . The chronicle tells how Óláfr and Páll rounded up their forces and dragged five ships from the seashore , which is described as being about two furlongs from the island , and subsequently surrounded Guðrøðr 's island . The chronicle states that Óláfr and Páll assaulted the island at about 2 – 3 pm , and that everyone one of Guðrøðr 's followers who was captured outside of the enclosure of the church was slain . Guðrøðr was seized , blinded and castrated . The chronicle claims that Óláfr did not consent to Guðrøðr 's brutal mutilation , but was unable to prevent it due to Páll .
= = Rise of Óláfr , and fall of Rögnvaldr = =
Óláfr 's marriage to the daughter of one of Alexander the King of Scots ' most trusted northern lords , and the lord 's assistance rendered to Óláfr and Páll , may suggest that Óláfr had gained Alexander 's approval against Rögnvaldr . In the summer following the defeat of Guðrøðr on Skye , the chronicle states that Óláfr took hostages from the Hebridean portion of the kingdom and , with a fleet of 32 ships , landed on Mann and confronted Rögnvaldr directly . It was then agreed that the kingdom would be split between the two — with Rögnvaldr keeping Mann itself along with the title of king , and Óláfr retaining the Hebridean portions . In the 1220s Alexander began to extend Scottish royal authority into what is today the western coast Scotland , making several expeditions into Argyll . A this time Ruaidrí may have been forced from his lands in Kintyre and replaced by Alexander , installing Domnall mac Ragnaill , a more palatable member of Clann Somairle , in his place . Óláfr 's control of Lewis and Skye , bordering the domains of Clann Somairle , may have made him appear as a potentially valuable ally to Alexander 's eyes , who wished to rein in the more dangerous members of Clann Somairle .
Alexander played both sides in the struggle between Óláfr and Rögnvaldr however , and encouraged one of his most powerful lords Alan , Lord of Galloway ( d . 1234 ) , to enter into the fray as an ally of Rögnvaldr . In 1225 , according to the chronicle , Rögnvaldr and Alan attempted to take possession of Óláfr 's Hebridean portion of the kingdom ; however , the Manxmen were unwilling to wholeheartedly aid the cause and nothing came of the expedition . A short time later the chronicle records that Rögnvaldr 's daughter was married to Alan 's son . Such a marriage , between Rögnvaldr 's daughter and Alan 's illegitimate son Thomas , gave Alan a stake in the kingship since Thomas was likely to succeed . The possibility of control over a future ruler on Mann led Alexander to lend his consent to the union . The marriage was beneficial to Rögnvaldr as well , since he could rely on Alan 's military might to fend off his troublesome half @-@ brother . Unfortunately for Rögnvaldr , the chronicle records that the Manxmen were angered by the marriage and they consequently appointed Óláfr as their king . At this point Rögnvaldr seems to have gone into exile in Galloway , at the court of his ally , Alan . The chronicle dates Óláfr 's kingship to have begun in 1226 , and that he ruled the kingdom peacefully for the next two years .
The chronicle records that in 1228 , while Óláfr and his chiefs were away from Mann , the island was attacked and devastated by Alan , his brother Thomas , Earl of Atholl ( d . 1231 ) , and Rögnvaldr . It was only when Alan left with most of his force that Óláfr was able to regain control of the island . Rögnvaldr sailed from Galloway in the winter of the same year , landed on Mann , and burnt all the ships of Óláfr and his chiefs . The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr stayed at Ronaldsway for forty days ; and that he won over the hearts of the southern inhabitants of the island . Óláfr and his forces arrived at Tynwald on 14 February 1229 , where they attacked Rögnvaldr and his men . The chronicle claims that Rögnvaldr was treacherously killed by his own men , without the prior knowledge of Óláfr , and also notes that Óláfr never avenged his half @-@ brother 's death .
= = Norwegian intervention into the Isles = =
The Chronicle of Lanercost states that a Norwegian fleet sailed down the west coast of Scotland in 1230 with a certain Óspakr Ögmundsson ( d . 1230 ) , who had been appointed King of the Isles by the King of Norway ; also amongst the fleet were Óláfr and Guðrøðr . The Eirspennill version of Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar , the most authoritative version of the saga , gives a much more illustrative account ; although it does not specifically state that Guðrøðr travelled with the fleet from Norway . The saga states that in the summer before the fleet left Norway , news of warring in the Isles reached the Norwegian king , Hákon Hákonarson ( d . 1263 ) . Óláfr is described as a faithful vassal of the Norwegian king , while two Hebridean noblemen , Donnchad and Dubgall — both sons of Dubgall mac Somairle ( fl . 1175 ) — are described as unfaithful . The saga relates how the Norwegian king summoned an assembly that winter , appointed Óspakr King of the Isles , and decided upon a plan to give Óspakr a military force to command in the Isles .
It is suspected that members of Clann Somairle may have been attacking parts of the Crovan dynasty 's island @-@ kingdom , possibly taking advantage of the warring between Rögnvaldr and Óláfr . It may have been that they were also lending support to Alan 's destabilising incursions into the Isles . Whatever the case , it is clear that the state of affairs in the Isles was chaotic and , because of Óláfr 's inability to control of the situation , the formidable Hákon decided to pacify the region using Óspakr . In fact , the saga notes that Óspakr was also a son of Dubgall , and it is likely that his family connections would have made him a palatable over @-@ king of the unruly Clann Somairle . Óspakr 's kingdom was likely meant to encompass the territories of Clann Somairle , and control of the Crovan dynasty 's domain may have been retained by the dynasty .
The saga states that , with the coming of spring , Hákon ordered the preparation of Óspakr 's fleet . While preparations were under way Óláfr came to the king at Bergen , and reported the unrest in the Isles , noting that Alan had assembled a powerful army and was causing unrest in the region . When the fleet left Norway for Orkney , Óláfr accompanied it on @-@ board Páll Bálkason 's ship . When the fleet reached Orkney , several ship @-@ commanders sailed to Skye , where they defeated a certain Þórkell Þórmóðsson in a sea @-@ battle . The fleet then united at Islay , and was strengthened by Óspakr 's brothers and their followers , and swelled in size to 80 ships . The fleet then sailed south and around the Mull of Kintyre to Bute , where the force invaded the island and took the castle whilst suffering heavy casualties . The fleet then sailed to Kintyre , and Óspakr fell ill and died . The Chronicle of Mann , however , specifically states that Óspakr was struck by a stone and killed , and later buried on Iona .
The chronicle continues by stating that Óláfr then took control of the fleet whereupon he led it to Mann , where he and Guðrøðr divided the kingdom between themselves — with Óláfr retaining Mann , and Guðrøðr controlling the Hebridean portions ; in fact , it is possible that Hákon may have originally intended for Óláfr and Guðrøðr to split the kingdom of Mann and the Isles between themselves . According to the saga the Norwegians left in the spring , sailing north to Kintyre where they encountered and battled a strong force of Scots with both sides losing many men during the ensuing battle . The saga then recounts how the fleet sailed north to Lewis and displaced a certain Þórmóðr Þórkelson , before travelling to Orkney , from where most of the fleet sailed back to Norway . Páll , however , is stated to have remained behind , and to have been slain by Guðrøðr several weeks later . The saga notes that Guðrøðr was also slain in the Isles a short time after this . The Chronicle of Mann specifically places Guðrøðr 's death on Lewis , although it does not cast any light upon the circumstances . Even so , what is certain is that it was only after Guðrøðr 's death that Óláfr 's kingship was safe from any rival claim .
The campaign is regarded to have been the gravest threat to the Scottish kingdom since John , King of England 's ( d . 1216 ) northern campaigning and invasion in 1216 . Although Óláfr 's restoration on Mann was claimed as a success by the Norwegians , it was probably accepted gladly by the Scots as well ; considering Óláfr 's familial relationship with Alexander 's protégé Ferchar and the consolidation of the Crovan dynasty after years of chaos . Óláfr consequently ruled the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles peacefully until his death , seven years later . The chronicle states that he died on St Patrick 's Isle on 21 May 1237 and was buried at St Mary 's Abbey , Rushen . There is a possibility that a coffin @-@ lid or grave @-@ slab found at Rushen may be associated with Óláfr , or of two of his sons who are known to have been buried there ( Rögnvaldr and Magnús ) .
= = Family = =
Óláfr is known to have been survived by three children ; Haraldr ( d . 1248 ) , Rögnvaldr ( d . 1249 ) , and Magnús ( d . 1265 ) — all of whom ruled as kings in their own right . Although the mother of Óláfr 's children is not known for certain , she is thought to have been Christina . The Chronicle of Mann states that Óláfr 's immediate successor , Haraldr , was only fourteen years old at the time of his father 's death , which dates his birth to about the time of the marriage of Óláfr and Christina .
There is evidence to suggest that Óláfr might have had a fourth son named Guðrøðr . For example , the chronicle relates how the governor of Mann , described as a kinsman of Haraldr , fled from the king in 1238 and set sail for Wales , taking with him his foster @-@ son Guðrøðr Óláfsson . When the fleeing ship reached the Welsh coast it was wrecked and , according to the chronicle , Guðrøðr perished on board . Furthermore , amongst the names of witnesses within a quitclaim between Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ( d . 1282 ) and Ralph de Mortimer ( d . 1246 ) , thought to date to about 1241 , there is a certain Guðrøðr who appears in Latin as Godredo filio regis Mannie ( " Guðrøðr , son of the King of Mann " ) . Although the possibility has been raised that the two sources may refer to the same man , there is no further evidence to confirm it .
= = Legacy = =
The Manx Sword of State , a ceremonial sword used at the annual Tynwald Day sittings at St John 's , Isle of Man , and whenever the Tynwald sits at the Legislative Chambers in Douglas , Isle of Man , is popularly said to have belonged to Óláfr . The sword , which has a 29 in ( 74 cm ) steel blade and 9 in ( 23 cm ) inch hardwood hilt , is sometimes said to have been brought back from Spain when Óláfr returned from his pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela ; however , recent analysis of the sword has determined that it dates no earlier than the 15th century , and that the blade dates only to the 17th century . The current understanding is that the sword itself was made for the Tynwald meetings of 1417 or 1422 .
Several Scottish clans that were historically seated on Lewis have traditionally been ascribed a descent from Óláfr . The MacLeods claim a descent from Leod ( Old Norse Ljótr ) , who is popularly said to have been a son of Óláfr . Clan traditions dating to the late 18th century link Leod with Óláfr , and heraldic evidence dating to the late 17th century may be the earliest indication of such a claim ; however , recent research into the MacLeods ' traditional ancestry has determined such claims of descent from Óláfr are unsupportable . Other Lewis clans have been linked with Óláfr in various traditions , such as the Morrisons of Ness and their adversaries the Macaulays of Uig , although there is no supporting evidence that Óláfr left any descendants on the island .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Battle of Greece =
The Battle of Greece ( also known as Operation Marita , German : Unternehmen Marita ) is the common name for the invasion of Allied Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941 during World War II . Concomitant to the stalled Greco @-@ Italian War , it is usually distinguished from the Battle of Crete , which came after mainland Greece had been subdued . These Axis operations were part of the greater Balkan Campaign of Germany .
At the time of the German invasion , Greece was at war with Fascist Italy , following the Italian invasion on 28 October 1940 . The Greeks joined the Allies and defeated the initial Italian attack and the counter @-@ attack of March 1941 . When Operation Marita began on 6 April , the bulk of the Greek Army was on the Greek border with Albania , then a protectorate of Italy , from which the Italian troops had attacked . German troops invaded from Bulgaria , creating a second front . Greece had already received a small , inadequate reinforcement from British Empire forces in anticipation of the German attack , but no more help was sent afterward . The Greek army found itself outnumbered in its effort to defend against both Italian and German troops . As a result , the Bulgarian defensive line did not receive adequate troop reinforcements and was quickly overrun by the Germans , who then outflanked the Greek forces at the Albanian border , forcing their surrender . The British Empire forces were overwhelmed and forced to retreat , with the ultimate goal of evacuation . For several days , Allied troops played an important part in containing the German advance on the Thermopylae position , allowing ships to be prepared to evacuate the units defending Greece . The German Army reached the capital , Athens , on 27 April and Greece 's southern shore on 30 April , capturing 7 @,@ 000 British Empire forces and ending the battle with a decisive victory . The conquest of Greece was completed with the capture of Crete a month later . Following its fall , Greece was occupied by the military forces of Germany , Italy and Bulgaria .
Hitler later blamed the failure of his invasion of the Soviet Union , which had to be delayed , on Mussolini 's failed conquest of Greece . This explanation for Germany 's calamitous defeat by the Soviet Union has been refuted by the majority of historians , who have accused Hitler of trying to deflect blame for his country 's defeat from himself to his ally , Italy . It nevertheless had serious consequences for the Axis war effort in the North African theatre . Enno von Rintelen , who was the military attaché in Rome , emphasizes from the German point of view , the strategic mistake of not taking Malta .
= = Background = =
= = = Greco @-@ Italian War = = =
At the outbreak of World War II , Ioannis Metaxas — the fascist @-@ style dictator of Greece and former general — sought to maintain a position of neutrality . Greece was subject to increasing pressure from Italy , culminating in the Italian submarine Delfino sinking the cruiser Elli on 15 August 1940 . Italian leader Benito Mussolini was irritated that Nazi leader Adolf Hitler had not consulted him on his war policy and wished to establish his independence . He hoped to match German military success by taking Greece , which he regarded as an easy opponent . On 15 October 1940 , Mussolini and his closest advisers finalised their decision . In the early hours of 28 October , Italian Ambassador Emanuele Grazzi presented Metaxas with a three @-@ hour ultimatum , demanding free passage for troops to occupy unspecified " strategic sites " within Greek territory . Metaxas rejected the ultimatum ( the refusal is commemorated as Greek national holiday Ohi Day ) but even before it expired , Italian troops had invaded Greece through Albania . The principal Italian thrust was directed toward Epirus . Hostilities with the Greek army began at the Battle of Elaia – Kalamas , where they failed to break the defensive line and were forced to halt . Within three weeks , the Greek army launched a counter @-@ offensive , during which it marched into Albanian territory , capturing significant cities such as Korça and Sarandë . Neither a change in Italian command nor the arrival of substantial reinforcements improved the position of the Italian army . On 13 February , General Papagos , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Greek army , opened a new offensive , aiming to take Tepelenë and the port of Vlorë with British air support but the Greek divisions encountered stiff resistance , stalling the offensive that practically destroyed the Cretan 5th Division .
After weeks of inconclusive winter warfare , the Italians launched a counter @-@ offensive on the centre of the front on 9 March 1941 , which failed , despite the Italians ' superior forces . After one week and 12 @,@ 000 casualties , Mussolini called off the counter @-@ offensive and left Albania twelve days later .
Modern analysts believe that the Italian campaign failed because Mussolini and his generals initially allocated insufficient resources to the campaign ( an expeditionary force of 55 @,@ 000 men ) , failed to reckon with the autumn weather , attacked without the advantage of surprise and without Bulgarian support . Elementary precautions such as issuing winter clothing had not been taken . Mussolini had not considered the warnings of the Italian Commission of War Production , that Italy would not be able to sustain a full year of continuous warfare until 1949 .
During the six @-@ month fight against Italy , the Hellenic army made territorial gains by eliminating Italian salients . Greece did not have a substantial armaments industry and its equipment and ammunition supplies increasingly relied on stocks captured by British forces from defeated Italian armies in North Africa . To man the Albanian battlefront , the Greek command was forced to withdraw forces from Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace , because Greek forces could not protect Greece 's entire border . The Greek command decided to support its success in Albania , regardless of the risk of a German attack from the Bulgarian border .
= = = Hitler 's decision to attack and British aid to Greece = = =
Hitler intervened on 4 November 1940 , four days after British troops arrived at Crete and Lemnos . Although Greece was neutral until the Italian invasion , the British troops that were sent as defensive aid created the possibility of a frontier to the German southern flank . He ordered his Army General Staff to attack Northern Greece from bases in Romania and Bulgaria in support of his master plan to deprive the British of Mediterranean bases . On 12 November , the German Armed Forces High Command issued Directive No. 18 , in which they scheduled simultaneous operations against Gibraltar and Greece for the following January . However , in December 1940 , German ambition in the Mediterranean underwent considerable revision when Spain 's General Francisco Franco rejected the Gibraltar attack . Consequently , Germany 's offensive in southern Europe was restricted to the Greek campaign . The Armed Forces High Command issued Directive No. 20 on 13 December 1940 , outlining the Greek campaign under the code designation Operation Marita . The plan was to occupy the northern coast of the Aegean Sea by March 1941 and to seize the entire Greek mainland , if necessary . During a hasty meeting of Hitler 's staff after the unexpected 27 March Yugoslav coup d 'état against the Yugoslav government , orders for the campaign in Kingdom of Yugoslavia were drafted , as well as changes to the plans for Greece . On 6 April , both Greece and Yugoslavia were to be attacked .
Britain was obliged to assist Greece by the Declaration of 1939 , which stated that in the event of a threat to Greek or Romanian independence , " His Majesty 's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Greek or Romanian Government ... all the support in their power . " The first British effort was the deployment of Royal Air Force ( RAF ) squadrons commanded by Air Commodore John D 'Albiac that arrived in November 1940 . With Greek government consent , British forces were dispatched to Crete on 31 October to guard Souda Bay , enabling the Greek government to redeploy the 5th Cretan Division to the mainland .
On 17 November 1940 , Metaxas proposed a joint offensive in the Balkans to the British government , with Greek strongholds in southern Albania as the operational base . The British were reluctant to discuss Metaxas ' proposal , because the troops necessary for implementing the Greek plan would seriously endanger operations in North Africa . During a meeting of British and Greek military and political leaders in Athens on 13 January 1941 , General Alexandros Papagos — Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Hellenic Army — asked Britain for nine fully equipped divisions and corresponding air support . The British responded that all they could offer was the immediate dispatch of a token force of less than divisional strength . This offer was rejected by the Greeks , who feared that the arrival of such a contingent would precipitate a German attack without giving them meaningful assistance . British help would be requested if and when German troops crossed the Danube from Romania into Bulgaria .
= = = British Expeditionary Force = = =
Little more than a month later , the British reconsidered . Winston Churchill aspired to recreate a Balkan Front comprising Yugoslavia , Greece and Turkey , and instructed Anthony Eden and Sir John Dill to resume negotiations with the Greek government . A meeting attended by Eden and the Greek leadership , including King George II , Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis — the successor of Metaxas , who had died on 29 January 1941 — and Papagos took place in Athens on 22 February , where they decided to send a British Empire expeditionary force . German troops had been massing in Romania and on 1 March , Wehrmacht forces began to move into Bulgaria . At the same time , the Bulgarian Army mobilised and took up positions along the Greek frontier .
On 2 March , Operation Lustre — the transportation of troops and equipment to Greece — began and 26 troopships arrived at the port of Piraeus . On 3 April , during a meeting of British , Yugoslav and Greek military representatives , the Yugoslavs promised to block the Struma valley in case of a German attack across their territory . During this meeting , Papagos stressed the importance of a joint Greco @-@ Yugoslavian offensive against the Italians , as soon as the Germans launched their offensive . By 24 April more than 62 @,@ 000 Empire troops ( British , Australians , New Zealanders , Palestine Pioneer Corps and Cypriots ) , had arrived in Greece , comprising the 6th Australian Division , the New Zealand 2nd Division and the British 1st Armoured Brigade . The three formations later became known as ' W ' Force , after their commander , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson . Air Commodore Sir John D 'Albiac commanded British air forces in Greece .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Topography = = =
To enter Northern Greece , the German army had to cross the Rhodope Mountains , which offered few river valleys or mountain passes capable of accommodating the movement of large military units . Two invasion courses were located west of Kyustendil ; another was along the Yugoslav @-@ Bulgarian border , via the Struma river valley to the south . Greek border fortifications had been adapted for the terrain and a formidable defence system covered the few available roads . The Struma and Nestos rivers cut across the mountain range along the Greek @-@ Bulgarian frontier and both of their valleys were protected by strong fortifications , as part of the larger Metaxas Line . This system of concrete pillboxes and field fortifications , constructed along the Bulgarian border in the late 1930s , was built on principles similar to those of the Maginot Line . Its strength resided mainly in the inaccessibility of the intermediate terrain leading up to the defence positions .
= = = Strategy = = =
Greece 's mountainous terrain favored a defensive strategy and the high ranges of the Rhodope , Epirus , Pindus and Olympus mountains offered many defensive opportunities . However , air power was required to protect defending ground forces from entrapment in the many defiles . Although an invading force from Albania could be stopped by a relatively small number of troops positioned in the high Pindus mountains , the northeastern part of the country was difficult to defend against an attack from the north .
Following a March conference in Athens , the British believed that they would combine with Greek forces to occupy the Haliacmon Line — a short front facing north @-@ eastwards along the Vermio Mountains and the lower Haliacmon river . Papagos awaited clarification from the Yugoslav government and later proposed to hold the Metaxas Line — by then a symbol of national security to the Greek populace — and not withdraw divisions from Albania . He argued that to do so would be seen as a concession to the Italians . The strategically important port of Thessaloniki lay practically undefended and transportation of British troops to the city remained dangerous . Papagos proposed to take advantage of the area 's terrain and prepare fortifications , while also protecting Thessaloniki .
General Dill described Papagos ' attitude as " unaccommodating and defeatist " and argued that his plan ignored the fact that Greek troops and artillery were capable of only token resistance . The British believed that the Greek rivalry with Bulgaria — the Metaxas Line was designed specifically for war with Bulgaria — as well as their traditionally good terms with the Yugoslavs — left their north @-@ western border largely undefended . Despite their awareness that the line was likely to collapse in the event of a German thrust from the Struma and Axios rivers , the British eventually acceded to the Greek command . On 4 March , Dill accepted the plans for the Metaxas line and on 7 March agreement was ratified by the British Cabinet . The overall command was to be retained by Papagos and the Greek and British commands agreed to fight a delaying action in the north @-@ east . The British did not move their troops , because General Wilson regarded them as too weak to protect such a broad front . Instead , he took a position some 40 miles ( 64 kilometres ) west of the Axios , across the Haliacmon Line . The two main objectives in establishing this position were to maintain contact with the Hellenic army in Albania and to deny German access to Central Greece . This had the advantage of requiring a smaller force than other options , while allowing more preparation time . However , it meant abandoning nearly the whole of Northern Greece , which was unacceptable to the Greeks for political and psychological reasons . Moreover , the line 's left flank was susceptible to flanking from Germans operating through the Monastir Gap in Yugoslavia . However , the rapid disintegration of the Yugoslav Army and a German thrust into the rear of the Vermion position was not expected .
The German strategy was based on using so @-@ called " blitzkrieg " methods that had proved successful during the invasions of Western Europe . Their effectiveness was confirmed during the invasion of Yugoslavia . The German command again coupled ground troops and armour with air support and rapidly drove into the territory . Once Thessaloniki was captured , Athens and the port of Piraeus became principal targets . Piraeus , was virtually destroyed by bombing on the night of the 6 / 7 April . The loss of Piraeus and the Isthmus of Corinth would fatally compromise withdrawal and evacuation of British and Greek forces .
= = = Defence and attack forces = = =
The Fifth Yugoslav Army took responsibility for the south @-@ eastern border between Kriva Palanka and the Greek border . However , the Yugoslav troops were not fully mobilised and lacked adequate equipment and weapons . Following the entry of German forces into Bulgaria , the majority of Greek troops were evacuated from Western Thrace . By this time , Greek forces defending the Bulgarian border totaled roughly 70 @,@ 000 men ( sometimes labeled the " Greek Second Army " in English and German sources , although no such formation existed ) . The remainder of the Greek forces — 14 divisions ( often erroneously referred to as the " Greek First Army " by foreign sources ) — was committed in Albania .
On 28 March , the Greek Central Macedonia Army Section — comprising the 12th and 20th Infantry Divisions — were put under the command of General Wilson , who established his headquarters to the north @-@ west of Larissa . The New Zealand division took position north of Mount Olympus , while the Australian division blocked the Haliacmon valley up to the Vermion range . The RAF continued to operate from airfields in Central and Southern Greece ; however , few planes could be diverted to the theater . The British forces were near to fully motorised , but their equipment was more suited to desert warfare than to Greece 's steep mountain roads . They were short of tanks and anti @-@ aircraft guns and the lines of communication across the Mediterranean were vulnerable , because each convoy had to pass close to Axis @-@ held islands in the Aegean ; despite the British Royal Navy 's domination of the Aegean Sea . These logistical problems were aggravated by the limited availability of shipping and Greek port capacity .
The German Twelfth Army — under the command of Field Marshal Wilhelm List — was charged with the execution of Operation Marita . His army was composed of six units :
First Panzer Group , under the command of General Ewald von Kleist .
XL Panzer Corps , under Lieutenant General Georg Stumme .
XVIII Mountain Corps , under Lieutenant General Franz Böhme .
XXX Infantry Corps , under Lieutenant General Otto Hartmann .
L Infantry Corps , under Lieutenant General Georg Lindemann .
16th Panzer Division , deployed behind the Turkish @-@ Bulgarian border to support the Bulgarian forces in case of a Turkish attack .
= = = German plan of attack and assembly = = =
The German plan of attack was influenced by their army 's experiences during the Battle of France . Their strategy was to create a diversion through the campaign in Albania , thus stripping the Hellenic Army of manpower for the defence of their Yugoslavian and Bulgarian borders . By driving armoured wedges through the weakest links of the defence chain , penetrating Allied territory would not require substantial armour behind an infantry advance . Once Southern Yugoslavia was overrun by German armour , the Metaxas Line could be outflanked by highly mobile forces thrusting southward from Yugoslavia . Thus , possession of Monastir and the Axios valley leading to Thessaloniki became essential for such an outflanking maneuver .
The Yugoslav coup d 'état led to a sudden change in the plan of attack and confronted the Twelfth Army with a number of difficult problems . According to the 28 March Directive No. 25 , the Twelfth Army was to create a mobile task force to attack via Niš toward Belgrade . With only nine days left before their final deployment , every hour became valuable and each fresh assembly of troops took time to mobilise . By the evening of 5 April , the forces intended to enter southern Yugoslavia and Greece had been assembled .
= = German invasion = =
= = = Thrust across southern Yugoslavia and the drive to Thessaloniki = = =
At dawn on 6 April , the German armies invaded Greece , while the Luftwaffe began an intensive bombardment of Belgrade . The XL Panzer Corps — planned to attack across southern Yugoslavia — began their assault at 05 : 30 . They pushed across the Bulgarian frontier at two separate points . By the evening of 8 April , the 73rd Infantry Division captured Prilep , severing an important rail line between Belgrade and Thessaloniki and isolating Yugoslavia from its allies . On the evening of 9 April , Stumme deployed his forces north of Monastir , in preparation for attack toward Florina . This position threatened to encircle the Greeks in Albania and W Force in the area of Florina , Edessa and Katerini . While weak security detachments covered his rear against a surprise attack from central Yugoslavia , elements of the 9th Panzer Division drove westward to link up with the Italians at the Albanian border .
The 2nd Panzer Division ( XVIII Mountain Corps ) entered Yugoslavia from the east on the morning of 6 April and advanced westward through the Struma Valley . It encountered little resistance , but was delayed by road clearance demolitions , mines and mud . Nevertheless , the division was able to reach the day 's objective , the town of Strumica . On 7 April , a Yugoslav counter @-@ attack against the division 's northern flank was repelled , and the following day , the division forced its way across the mountains and overran the thinly manned defensive line of the Greek 19th Mechanized Division south of Doiran Lake . Despite many delays along the mountain roads , an armoured advance guard dispatched toward Thessaloniki succeeded in entering the city by the morning of 9 April . Thessaloniki was taken after a long battle with three Greek divisions under the command of General Bakopoulos , and was followed by the surrender of the Greek Eastern Macedonia Army Section , taking effect at 13 : 00 on 10 April . In the three days it took the Germans to reach Thessaloniki and breach the Metaxas Line , some 60 @,@ 000 Greek soldiers were taken prisoner . The British and Commonwealth forces then took over the defence of Greece , with the bulk of the Greek Army fighting to maintain their old positions in Albania .
= = = Greek @-@ Yugoslav counteroffensive = = =
In early April 1941 , Greek , Yugoslav and British commanders met to set in motion a counteroffensive , that planned to completely destroy the Italian army in Albania in time to counter the German invasion and allow the bulk of the Greek army to take up new positions and protect the border with Yugoslavia and Bulgaria . On 7 April , the Yugoslav 3rd Army in the form of five infantry divisions ( 13th " Hercegovacka " , 15th " Zetska " , 25th " Vardarska " , 31st " Kosovska " and 12th " Jadranska " Divisions , with the " Jadranska " acting as the reserve ) , after a false start due to the planting of a bogus order , launched a counteroffensive in northern Albania , advancing from Debar , Prisren and Podgorica towards Elbasan . On 8 April , the Yugoslav vanguard , the " Komski " Cavalry Regiment crossed the treacherous Prokletije Mountains and captured the village of Koljegcava in the Valjbone River Valley , and the 31st " Kosovska " Division , supported by Savoia @-@ Marchetti S.79K bombers from the 7th Bomber Regiment of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force ( VVKJ ) , broke through the Italian positions in the Drin River Valley . The " Vardarska " Division , due to the fall of Skopje was forced to halt its operations in Albania . In the meantime , the Western Macedonia Army Section under General Tsolakoglou , comprising the 9th and 13th Greek Divisions , advanced in support of the Royal Yugoslav Army , capturing some 250 Italians on 8 April . The Greeks were tasked with advancing towards Durrës . On 9 April , the Zetska Division advanced towards Shkodër and the Yugoslav cavalry regiment reached the Drin River , but the Kosovska Division had to halt its advance due to the appearance of German units near Prizren . The Yugoslav @-@ Greek offensive was supported by S.79K bombers from the 66th and 81st Bomber Groups of the VVKJ , that attacked airfields and camps around Shkodër , as well as the port of Durrës , and Italian troop concentrations and bridges on the Drin and Buene rivers and Durrës , Tirana and Zara .
Between 11 – 13 April 1941 , with German and Italian troops advancing on its rear areas , the Zetska Division was forced to retreat back to the Pronisat River by the Italian 131st Armoured Division Centauro , where it remained until the end of the campaign on 16 April . The Italian armoured division along with the 18th Infantry Division Messina then advanced upon the Yugoslav fleet base of Kotor in Montenegro , also occupying Cettinje and Podgorica . The Yugoslavs lost 30 @,@ 000 men captured in the Italian counterattacks .
= = = Metaxas Line = = =
The Metaxas Line was defended by the Eastern Macedonia Army Section ( Lieutenant General Konstantinos Bakopoulos ) , comprising the 7th , 14th and 18th Infantry divisions . The line ran for about 170 km ( 110 mi ) along the river Nestos to the east and then further east , following the Bulgarian border as far as Mount Beles near the Yugoslav border . The fortifications were designed to garrison over 200 @,@ 000 troops but there were only about 70 @,@ 000 and the infantry garrison was thinly spread . Some 950 men under the command of Major George Douratsos of the14th Division ( Major @-@ General Konstantinos Papakonstantinou ) defended Fort Rupel .
The Germans had to break the line to capture Thessaloniki , Greece 's second @-@ largest city , with a strategically @-@ important port . The attack started on 6 April with one infantry unit and two divisions of the XVIII Mountain Corps . Due to strong resistance , the first day of the attack yielded little progress in breaking the line . A German report at the end of the first day described how the German 5th Mountain Division " was repulsed in the Rupel Pass despite strongest air support and sustained considerable casualties " . Two German battalions managed to get within 600 ft ( 180 m ) of Fort Rupel on 6 April , but were practically destroyed . Of the 24 forts that made up the Metaxas Line , only two had fallen and then only after they had been destroyed . In the following days , the Germans pummelled the forts with artillery and dive bombers and reinforced the 125th Infantry Regiment . A 7 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) high snow @-@ covered mountainous passage considered inaccessible by the Greeks was crossed by the 6th Mountain Division , which reached the rail line to Thessaloniki on the evening of 7 April .
The 5th Mountain Division , together with the reinforced 125th Infantry Regiment , crossed the Struma river under great hardship , attacking along both banks and clearing bunkers until they reached their objective on 7 April . Heavy casualties caused them to temporarily withdraw . The 72nd Infantry Division advanced from Nevrokop across the mountains . Its advance was delayed by a shortage of pack animals , medium artillery and mountain equipment . Only on the evening of 9 April did it reach the area north @-@ east of Serres . Most fortresses — like Fort Roupel , Echinos , Arpalouki , Paliouriones , Perithori , Karadag , Lisse and Istibey — held until the Germans occupied Thessaloniki on 9 April , at which point they surrendered under General Bakopoulos ' orders . Nevertheless , minor isolated fortresses continued to fight for a few days more and were not taken until heavy artillery was used against them . This gave time for some retreating troops to evacuate by sea . Although eventually broken , the defenders of the Metaxas Line succeeded in delaying the German advance.The Metaxas Line , requiring 150 @,@ 000 men , could have held out longer , but the bulk of the Greek army was facing the Italians in Albania .
= = = Capitulation of the Hellenic army in Macedonia = = =
The XXX Infantry Corps on the left wing reached its designated objective on the evening of 8 April , when the 164th Infantry Division captured Xanthi . The 50th Infantry Division advanced far beyond Komotini towards the Nestos river . Both divisions arrived the next day . On 9 April , the Greek forces defending the Metaxas Line capitulated unconditionally following the collapse of Greek resistance east of the Axios river . In a 9 April estimate of the situation , Field Marshal List commented that as a result of the swift advance of the mobile units , his 12th Army was now in a favorable position to access central Greece by breaking the Greek build @-@ up behind the Axios river . On the basis of this estimate , List requested the transfer of the 5th Panzer Division from First Panzer Group to the XL Panzer Corps . He reasoned that its presence would give additional punch to the German thrust through the Monastir Gap . For the continuation of the campaign , he formed an eastern group under the command of XVIII Mountain Corps and a western group led by XL Panzer Corps .
= = = Breakthrough to Kozani = = =
By the morning of 10 April , the XL Panzer Corps had finished its preparations for the continuation of the offensive and advanced in the direction of Kozani . The 5th Panzer Division , advancing from Skopje encountered a Greek division tasked with defending Monastir Gap , rapidly defeating the defenders . First contact with Allied troops was made north of Vevi at 11 : 00 on 10 April . German SS troops seized Vevi on 11 April , but were stopped at the Klidi Pass just south of town , where a mixed Empire @-@ Greek formation — known as Mackay Force — was assembled to , as Wilson put it , " ... stop a blitzkrieg down the Florina valley . " During the next day , the SS regiment reconnoitered the Allied positions and at dusk launched a frontal attack against the pass . Following heavy fighting , the Germans broke through the defence . On 13 April , 70 supporting German bombers attacked Volos , the port almost being completely destroyed . By the morning of 14 April , the spearheads of the 9th Panzer Division reached Kozani .
= = = Olympus and Servia passes = = =
Wilson faced the prospect of being pinned by Germans operating from Thessaloniki , while being flanked by the German XL Panzer Corps descending through the Monastir Gap . On 13 April , he withdrew all British forces to the Haliacmon river and then to the narrow pass at Thermopylae . On 14 April , the 9th Panzer Division established a bridgehead across the Haliacmon river , but an attempt to advance beyond this point was stopped by intense Allied fire . This defence had three main components : the Platamon tunnel area between Olympus and the sea , the Olympus pass itself and the Servia pass to the south @-@ east . By channeling the attack through these three defiles , the new line offered far greater defensive strength . The defences of the Olympus and Servia passes consisted of the 4th New Zealand Brigade , 5th New Zealand Brigade and the 16th Australian Brigade . For the next three days , the advance of the 9th Panzer Division was stalled in front of these resolutely held positions .
A ruined castle dominated the ridge across which the coastal pass led to Platamon . During the night of April 15 , a German motorcycle battalion supported by a tank battalion attacked the ridge , but the Germans were repulsed by the New Zealand 21st Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Neil Macky , which suffered heavy losses in the process . Later that day , a German armoured regiment arrived and struck the coastal and inland flanks of the battalion , but the New Zealanders held . After being reinforced during the night of the 15th – 16th , the Germans assembled a tank battalion , an infantry battalion and a motorcycle battalion . The infantry attacked the New Zealanders ' left company at dawn , while the tanks attacked along the coast several hours later.The New Zealanders soon found themselves enveloped on both sides , after the failure of the Western Macedonia Army to defend the Albanian town of Koritsa that fell unopposed to the Italian 9th Army on 15 April , forcing the British to abandon the Mount Olympus position and resulting in the capture of 20 @,@ 000 Greek troops .
The New Zealand battalion withdrew , crossing the Pineios river ; by dusk , they had reached the western exit of the Pineios Gorge , suffering only light casualties . Macky was informed that it was " essential to deny the gorge to the enemy until 19 April even if it meant extinction " . He sank a crossing barge at the western end of the gorge once all his men were across and set up defences . The 21st Battalion was reinforced by the Australian 2 / 2nd Battalion and later by the 2 / 3rd . This force became known as " Allen force " after Brigadier " Tubby " Allen . The 2 / 5th and 2 / 11th battalions moved to the Elatia area south @-@ west of the gorge and were ordered to hold the western exit possibly for three or four days .
On 16 April , Wilson met Papagos at Lamia and informed him of his decision to withdraw to Thermopylae . Lieutenant @-@ General Thomas Blamey divided responsibility between generals Mackay and Freyberg during the leapfrogging move to Thermopylae . Mackay 's force was assigned the flanks of the New Zealand Division as far south as an east @-@ west line through Larissa and to oversee the withdrawal through Domokos to Thermopylae of the Savige and Zarkos Forces and finally of Lee Force ; Brigadier Harold Charrington 's 1st Armoured Brigade was to cover the withdrawal of Savige Force to Larissa and thereafter the withdrawal of the 6th Division under whose command it would come ; overseeing the withdrawal of Allen Force which was to move along the same route as the New Zealand Division . The British Empire forces remained under attack throughout the withdrawal .
On the morning of 18 April , the Battle of Tempe Gorge , the struggle for the Pineios Gorge , was over when German armoured infantry crossed the river on floats and 6th Mountain Division troops worked their way around the New Zealand battalion , which was subsequently dispersed . On 19 April , the first XVIII Mountain Corps troops entered Larissa and took possession of the airfield , where the British had left their supply dump intact . The seizure of ten truckloads of rations and fuel enabled the spearhead units to continue without ceasing . The port of Volos , at which the British had re @-@ embarked numerous units during the prior few days , fell on 21 April ; there , the Germans captured large quantities of valuable diesel and crude oil .
= = = Withdrawal and surrender of the Greek Epirus Army = = =
As the invading Germans advanced deep into Greek territory , the Epirus Army Section of the Greek army operating in Albania was reluctant to retreat . However , by the middle of March , especially after the Tepelene offensive , the Greek army had suffered , according to British estimates , 5 @,@ 000 casualties . The Italian offensive revealed a " chronic shortage of arms and equipment . " The Greeks were fast approaching the end of their logistical tether .
General Wilson described this unwillingness to retreat as " the fetishistic doctrine that not a yard of ground should be yielded to the Italians . " Churchill also criticized the Greek Army commanders for ignoring British advice to abandon Albania and avoid encirclement . Lieutenant @-@ General George Stumme 's Fortieth Corps captured the Florina @-@ Vevi Pass on 11 April , but unseasonal snowy weather then halted his advance . On 12 April , he resumed the advance , but spent the whole day fighting Brigadier Charrington 's 1st Armoured Brigade at Proastion . It was not until 13 April that the first Greek elements began to withdraw toward the Pindus mountains . The Allies ' retreat to Thermopylae uncovered a route across the Pindus mountains by which the Germans might flank the Hellenic army in a rearguard action . An elite SS formation — the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler brigade — was assigned the mission of cutting off the Greek Epirus Army 's line of retreat from Albania by driving westward to the Metsovon pass and from there to Ioannina . On 13 April , attack aircraft from 21 , 23 and 33 Squadrons from the Hellenic Air Force ( RHAF ) , attacked Italian positions in Albania . That same day , heavy fighting took place at Kleisoura pass , where the Greek 20th Division covering the Greek withdrawal , fought in a determined manner , delaying Stumme 's advance practically a whole day . The withdrawal extended across the entire Albanian front , with the Italians in hesitant pursuit . On 15 April , Regia Aeronautica fighters attacked the ( RHAF ) base at Paramythia , 30 miles south of Greece 's border with Albania , destroying or putting out of action 17 VVKJ aircraft that had recently arrived from Yugoslavia .
General Papagos rushed Greek units to the Metsovon pass where the Germans were expected to attack . On 14 April a pitched battle between several Greek units and the LSSAH brigade — which had by then reached Grevena — erupted . The Greek 13th and Cavalry Divisions lacked the equipment necessary to fight against an armoured unit but nevertheless fought on till the next day , when the defenders were finally encircled and overwhelmed . On 18 April , General Wilson in a meeting with Papagos , informed him that the British and Commonwealth forces at Thermopylai would carry on fighting till the first week of May , providing that Greek forces from Albania could redeploy and cover the left flank . On 21 April , the Germans advanced further and captured Ioannina , the final supply route of the Greek Epirus Army . Allied newspapers dubbed the Hellenic army 's fate a modern @-@ day Greek tragedy . Historian and former war @-@ correspondent Christopher Buckley — when describing the fate of the Hellenic army — stated that " one experience [ d ] a genuine Aristotelian catharsis , an awe @-@ inspiring sense of the futility of all human effort and all human courage . "
On 20 April , the commander of Greek forces in Albania — General Georgios Tsolakoglou — accepted the hopelessness of the situation and offered to surrender his army , which then consisted of fourteen divisions . Generals Ioannis Pitsikas and Georgios Bakos had already warned General Papagos on 14 April that morale in the Epirus Army was wearing thin , and regrettably combat stress and exhaustion had resulted in officers taking the decision to put deserters before firing squads . Nevertheless , Papagos condemned Tsolakoglou for his decision to not continue fighting . General Blamey also criticized at the time , Tsolakoglou 's decision to surrender without permission from General Papagos . Historian John Keegan writes that Tsolakoglou " was so determined ... to deny the Italians the satisfaction of a victory they had not earned that ... he opened [ a ] quite unauthorised parley with the commander of the German SS division opposite him , Sepp Dietrich , to arrange a surrender to the Germans alone . " On strict orders from Hitler , negotiations were kept secret from the Italians and the surrender was accepted . Outraged by this decision , Mussolini ordered counter @-@ attacks against the Greek forces , which were repulsed , but at some cost to the defenders . The Germans Air Force intervened in the renewed fighting , and Ioannina was practically destroyed by Stukas . It took a personal representation from Mussolini to Hitler to organize Italian participation in the armistice that was concluded on 23 April . Greek soldiers were not rounded up as prisoners of war and were allowed instead to go home after the demobilisation of their units , while their officers were permitted to retain their side arms .
= = = Thermopylae position = = =
As early as 16 April , the German command realised that the British were evacuating troops on ships at Volos and Piraeus . The campaign then took on the character of a pursuit . For the Germans , it was now primarily a question of maintaining contact with the retreating British forces and foiling their evacuation plans . German infantry divisions were withdrawn due to its limited mobility . The 2nd and 5th Panzer Divisions , the 1st SS Motorised Infantry Regiment and both mountain divisions launched a pursuit of the Allied forces .
To allow an evacuation of the main body of British forces , Wilson ordered the rearguard to make a last stand at the historic Thermopylae pass , the gateway to Athens . General Freyberg 's 2nd New Zealand Division was given the task of defending the coastal pass , while Mackay 's 6th Australian Division was to hold the village of Brallos . After the battle Mackay was quoted as saying " I did not dream of evacuation ; I thought that we 'd hang on for about a fortnight and be beaten by weight of numbers . " When the order to retreat was received on the morning of 23 April , it was decided that the two positions were to be held by one brigade each . These brigades , the 19th Australian and 6th New Zealand were to hold the passes as long as possible , allowing the other units to withdraw . The Germans attacked at 11 : 30 on 24 April , met fierce resistance , lost 15 tanks and sustained considerable casualties . The Allies held out the entire day ; with the delaying action accomplished , they retreated in the direction of the evacuation beaches and set up another rearguard at Thebes . The Panzer units launching a pursuit along the road leading across the pass made slow progress because of the steep gradient and difficult hairpin bends .
= = = German drive on Athens = = =
After abandoning the Thermopylae area , the British rearguard withdrew to an improvised switch position south of Thebes , where they erected a last obstacle in front of Athens . The motorcycle battalion of the 2nd Panzer Division , which had crossed to the island of Euboea to seize the port of Chalcis and had subsequently returned to the mainland , was given the mission of outflanking the British rearguard . The motorcycle troops encountered only slight resistance and on the morning of 27 April 1941 , the first Germans entered Athens , followed by armoured cars , tanks and infantry . They captured intact large quantities of petroleum , oil and lubricants ( " POL " ) , several thousand tons of ammunition , ten trucks loaded with sugar and ten truckloads of other rations in addition to various other equipment , weapons and medical supplies . The people of Athens had been expecting the Germans for several days and confined themselves to their homes with their windows shut . The previous night , Athens Radio had made the following announcement :
You are listening to the voice of Greece . Greeks , stand firm , proud and dignified . You must prove yourselves worthy of your history . The valor and victory of our army has already been recognised . The righteousness of our cause will also be recognised . We did our duty honestly . Friends ! Have Greece in your hearts , live inspired with the fire of her latest triumph and the glory of our army . Greece will live again and will be great , because she fought honestly for a just cause and for freedom . Brothers ! Have courage and patience . Be stout hearted . We will overcome these hardships . Greeks ! With Greece in your minds you must be proud and dignified . We have been an honest nation and brave soldiers .
The Germans drove straight to the Acropolis and raised the Nazi flag . According to the most popular account of the events , the Evzone soldier on guard duty , Konstantinos Koukidis , took down the Greek flag , refusing to hand it to the invaders , wrapped himself in it , and jumped off the Acropolis . Whether the story was true or not , many Greeks believed it and viewed the soldier as a martyr .
= = = Evacuation of Empire forces = = =
General Archibald Wavell , the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East , when in Greece from 11 – 13 April had warned Wilson that he must expect no reinforcements and had authorised Major General Freddie de Guingand to discuss evacuation plans with certain responsible officers . Nevertheless , the British could not at this stage adopt or even mention this course of action ; the suggestion had to come from the Greek Government . The following day , Papagos made the first move when he suggested to Wilson that W Force be withdrawn . Wilson informed Middle East Headquarters and on 17 April , Rear admiral H. T. Baillie @-@ Grohman was sent to Greece to prepare for the evacuation . That day Wilson hastened to Athens where he attended a conference with the King , Papagos , d 'Albiac and Rear admiral Turle . In the evening , after telling the King that he felt he had failed him in the task entrusted to him , Prime Minister Koryzis committed suicide . On 21 April , the final decision to evacuate Empire forces to Crete and Egypt was taken and Wavell — in confirmation of verbal instructions — sent his written orders to Wilson .
5 200 men , mostly from the 5th New Zealand Brigade , were evacuated on the night of 24 April , from Porto Rafti of East Attica , while the 4th New Zealand Brigade remained to block the narrow road to Athens , dubbed the 24 Hour Pass by the New Zealanders . On 25 April ( Anzac Day ) , the few RAF squadrons left Greece ( D 'Albiac established his headquarters in Heraklion , Crete ) and some 10 @,@ 200 Australian troops evacuated from Nafplio and Megara . 2 @,@ 000 more men had to wait until 27 April , because Ulster Prince ran aground in shallow waters close to Nafplio . Because of this event , the Germans realised that the evacuation was also taking place from the ports of the eastern Peloponnese .
The Greek Navy and Merchant Marine played an important part in the evacuation of the Allied forces to Crete and suffered heavy losses as a result .
On 25 April the Germans staged an airborne operation to seize the bridges over the Corinth canal , with the double aim of cutting off the British line of retreat and securing their own way across the isthmus . The attack met with initial success , until a stray British shell destroyed the bridge . The 1st SS Motorised Infantry Regiment ( " LSSAH " ) , assembled at Ioannina , thrust along the western foothills of the Pindus Mountains via Arta to Missolonghi and crossed over to the Peloponnese at Patras in an effort to gain access to the isthmus from the west . Upon their arrival at 17 : 30 on 27 April , the SS forces learned that the paratroops had already been relieved by Army units advancing from Athens .
The Dutch troop ship Slamat was part of a convoy evacuating about 3 @,@ 000 British , Australian and New Zealand troops from Nafplio in the Peloponnese . As the convoy headed south in the Argolic Gulf on the morning of 27 April , it was attacked by a Staffel of nine Junkers Ju 87s of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 , damaging Slamat and setting her on fire . The destroyer HMS Diamond rescued about 600 survivors and HMS Wryneck came to her aid , but as the two destroyers headed for Souda Bay in Crete another Ju 87 attack sank them both . The total number of deaths from the three sinkings was almost 1 @,@ 000 . Only 27 crew from Wryneck , 20 crew from Diamond , 11 crew and eight evacuated soldiers from Slamat survived .
The erection of a temporary bridge across the Corinth canal permitted 5th Panzer Division units to pursue the Allied forces across the Peloponnese . Driving via Argos to Kalamata , from where most Allied units had already begun to evacuate , they reached the south coast on 29 April , where they were joined by SS troops arriving from Pyrgos . The fighting on the Peloponnese consisted of small @-@ scale engagements with isolated groups of British troops who had been unable to reach the evacuation point . The attack came days too late to cut off the bulk of the British troops in Central Greece , but isolated the Australian 16th and 17th Brigades . By 30 April the evacuation of about 50 @,@ 000 soldiers was completed , but was heavily contested by the German Luftwaffe , which sank at least 26 troop @-@ laden ships . The Germans captured around 8 @,@ 000 Empire ( including 2 @,@ 000 Cypriot and Palestinian ) and Yugoslav troops in Kalamata who had not been evacuated , while liberating many Italian prisoners from POW camps .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Triple occupation = = =
On 13 April 1941 , Hitler issued Directive No. 27 , including his occupation policy for Greece . He finalized jurisdiction in the Balkans with Directive No. 31 issued on 9 June . Mainland Greece was divided between Germany , Italy and Bulgaria , with Italy occupying the bulk of the country ( see map opposite ) . German forces occupied the strategically more important areas of Athens , Thessaloniki , Central Macedonia and several Aegean islands , including most of Crete . They also occupied Florina , which was claimed by both Italy and Bulgaria . Bulgaria , which had not participated in the invasion of Greece , occupied most of Thrace on the same day that Tsolakoglou offered his surrender . The goal was to gain an Aegean Sea outlet in Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia . The Bulgarians occupied territory between the Struma river and a line of demarcation running through Alexandroupoli and Svilengrad west of the Evros River . Italian troops started occupying the Ionian and Aegean islands on 28 April . On 2 June , they occupied the Peloponnese ; on 8 June , Thessaly ; and on 12 June , most of Attica . The occupation of Greece — during which civilians suffered terrible hardships , many dying from privation and hunger — proved to be a difficult and costly task . Several resistance groups launched guerrilla attacks against the occupying forces and set up espionage networks .
= = = Battle of Crete = = =
On 25 April 1941 , King George II and his government left the Greek mainland for Crete , which was attacked by Nazi forces on 20 May 1941 . The Germans employed parachute forces in a massive airborne invasion and attacked the three main airfields of the island in Maleme , Rethymno and Heraklion . After seven days of fighting and tough resistance , Allied commanders decided that the cause was hopeless and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia . By 1 June 1941 , the evacuation was complete and the island was under German occupation . In light of the heavy casualties suffered by the elite 7th Fliegerdivision , Hitler forbade further airborne operations . General Kurt Student would dub Crete " the graveyard of the German paratroopers " and a " disastrous victory . " During the night of 24 May , George II and his government were evacuated from Crete to Egypt .
= = Assessments = =
The Greek campaign ended with a complete German and Italian victory . The British did not have the military resources to carry out big simultaneous operations in North Africa and the Balkans . Moreover , even had they been able to block the Axis advance , they would have been unable to exploit the situation by a counter @-@ thrust across the Balkans . The British came very near to holding Crete and perhaps other islands that would have provided air support for naval operations throughout the eastern Mediterranean .
In enumerating the reasons for the complete Axis victory in Greece , the following factors were of greatest significance :
Germany superiority in ground forces and equipment ;
The bulk of the Greek army was occupied fighting the Italians on the Albanian front .
German air supremacy combined with the inability of the Greeks to provide the RAF with adequate airfields ;
Inadequacy of British expeditionary forces , since the Imperial force available was small ;
Poor condition of the Hellenic Army and its shortages of modern equipment ;
Inadequate port , road and railway facilities ;
Absence of a unified command and lack of cooperation between the British , Greek and Yugoslav forces ;
Turkey 's strict neutrality ; and
The early collapse of Yugoslav resistance .
= = = Criticism of British actions = = =
After the Allies ' defeat , the decision to send British forces into Greece faced fierce criticism in Britain . Field Marshal Alan Brooke , Chief of the Imperial General Staff during World War II , considered intervention in Greece to be " a definite strategic blunder " , as it denied Wavell the necessary reserves to complete the conquest of Italian Libya , or to withstand Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps March offensive . It prolonged the North African Campaign , which might have been concluded during 1941 .
In 1947 , de Guingand asked the British government to recognise its mistaken strategy in Greece . Buckley countered that if Britain had not honored its 1939 commitment to Greece , it would have severely damaged the ethical basis of its struggle against Nazi Germany . According to Heinz Richter , Churchill tried through the campaign in Greece , to influence the political atmosphere in the United States and insisted on this strategy even after the defeat . According to Keegan , " the Greek campaign had been an old @-@ fashioned gentlemen 's war , with honor given and accepted by brave adversaries on each side " and the vastly outnumbered Greek and Allied forces , " had , rightly , the sensation of having fought the good fight " . It has also been suggested the British strategy was to create a barrier in Greece , to protect Turkey , the only ( neutral ) country standing between an Axis block in the Balkans and the oil @-@ rich Middle East but the British intervention in Greece was considered a fiasco . Martin van Creveld believes that the British did everything in their power to scuttle all attempts at a separate peace between the Greeks and the Italians , to keep the Greeks fighting so as to draw Italian divisions away from North Africa .
Freyberg and Blamey also had serious doubts about the feasibility of the operation but failed to express their reservations and apprehensions . The campaign caused a furore in Australia , when it became known that when General Blamey received his first warning of the move to Greece on 18 February 1941 , he was worried but had not informed the Australian Government . He had been told by Wavell that Prime Minister Menzies had approved the plan . The proposal had been accepted by a meeting of the War Cabinet in London at which Menzies was present but the Australian Prime Minister had been told by Churchill that both Freyberg and Blamey approved of the expedition . On 5 March , in a letter to Menzies , Blamey said that " the plan is , of course , what I feared : piecemeal dispatch to Europe " and the next day he called the operation " most hazardous " . Thinking that he was agreeable , the Australian Government had already committed the Australian Imperial Force to the Greek Campaign .
= = = Impact on Operation Barbarossa = = =
In 1942 , members of the British Parliament characterised the campaign in Greece as a " political and sentimental decision " . Eden rejected the criticism and argued that the UK 's decision was unanimous and asserted that the Battle of Greece delayed Operation Barbarossa , the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union . This is an argument that historians such as Keegan used to assert that Greek resistance was a turning point in World War II . According to film @-@ maker and friend of Adolf Hitler Leni Riefenstahl , Hitler said that " if the Italians hadn 't attacked Greece and needed our help , the war would have taken a different course . We could have anticipated the Russian cold by weeks and conquered Leningrad and Moscow . There would have been no Stalingrad " . Despite his reservations , Brooke seems also to have conceded that the Balkan Campaign delayed the offensive against the Soviet Union .
Bradley and Buell conclude that " although no single segment of the Balkan campaign forced the Germans to delay Barbarossa , obviously the entire campaign did prompt them to wait . " On the other hand , Richter calls Eden 's arguments a " falsification of history " . Basil Liddell Hart and de Guingand point out that the delay of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union was not among Britain 's strategic goals and as a result the possibility of such a delay could not have affected its decisions about Operation Marita . In 1952 , the Historical Branch of the UK Cabinet Office concluded that the Balkan Campaign had no influence on the launching of Operation Barbarossa . According to Robert Kirchubel , " the main causes for deferring Barbarossa 's start from 15 May to 22 June were incomplete logistical arrangements and an unusually wet winter that kept rivers at full flood until late spring . " This however does not answer whether in the absence of these problems the campaign could have begun according to the original plan . Keegan writes :
In the aftermath , historians would measure its significance in terms of the delay Marita had or had not imposed on the unleashing of Barbarossa , an exercise ultimately to be judged profitless , since it was the Russian weather , not the contingencies of subsidiary campaigns , which determined Barbarossa 's launch date .
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= Eragon =
Eragon is the first novel in the Inheritance Cycle by Christopher Paolini . After writing the first draft for a year , Paolini spent a second year rewriting and fleshing out the story and characters . Paolini 's parents saw the final manuscript and decided to self @-@ publish Eragon . Paolini spent a year traveling around the United States promoting the novel . By chance , the book was discovered by Carl Hiaasen , who got it re @-@ published by Alfred A. Knopf . The re @-@ published version was released on August 26 , 2003 .
The book tells the story of a farm boy named Eragon , who finds a mysterious stone in the mountains . A dragon he later names Saphira hatches from the stone , which was really an egg . When the evil King Galbatorix finds out about Eragon and his dragon , he sends his servants , the Ra 'zac , after them in an effort to capture them . Eragon and Saphira are forced to flee from their hometown , with a storyteller called Brom , and decide to search for the Varden , a group of rebels who want the downfall of Galbatorix .
Critiques of Eragon often pointed out the similarities to other works such as Earthsea , Dragonlance , and Star Wars . Reviews also called the book a notable achievement for such a young author as Paolini . Eragon was the third @-@ best @-@ selling children 's hardback book of 2003 , and the second @-@ best @-@ selling paperback of 2005 . It placed on the New York Times Children 's Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks . Eragon was adapted into a feature film of the same name that was released on December 15 , 2006 .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins and publication = = =
Christopher Paolini started reading fantasy books when he was ten years old . At the age of fourteen , as a hobby , Paolini started writing the first novel in a series of four books , but he could not get beyond a few pages because he had " no idea " where he was going . He began reading everything he could about the " art of writing " , and then plotted the whole Inheritance Cycle book series . After a month of planning out the series , he started writing the draft of Eragon by hand . It was finished a year later , and Paolini began writing the " real " version of the book . After another year of editing , Paolini 's parents saw the final manuscript . They immediately saw its potential and decided to publish the book through their small , home @-@ based publishing company , Paolini International . Paolini created the cover art for this edition of Eragon , which featured Saphira 's eye on the cover . He also drew the maps inside the book .
Paolini and his family toured across the United States to promote the book . Over 135 talks were given at bookshops , libraries , and schools , many with Paolini dressed up in a medieval costume ; but the book did not receive much attention . Paolini said he " would stand behind a table in my costume talking all day without a break – and would sell maybe forty books in eight hours if I did really well . [ ... ] It was a very stressful experience . I couldn 't have gone on for very much longer . " In the summer of 2002 , American novelist Carl Hiaasen was on vacation in one of the cities that Paolini gave a talk in . While there , his stepson bought a copy of Eragon that he " immediately loved " . He showed it to his stepfather , who brought the book to the attention of the publishing house Alfred A. Knopf . Michelle Frey , executive editor at Knopf , contacted Paolini and his family to ask if they were interested in having Knopf publish Eragon . The answer was yes , and after another round of editing , Knopf published Eragon in August 2003 . It also led to a new cover , drawn by John Jude Palencar .
= = = Inspiration and influences = = =
Paolini cites old myths , folk tales , medieval stories , the epic poem Beowulf , and authors J. R. R. Tolkien and Eric Rücker Eddison as his biggest influences in writing . Other literary influences include David Eddings , Andre Norton , Brian Jacques , Anne McCaffrey , Raymond E. Feist , Mervyn Peake , Ursula K. Le Guin , and Frank Herbert . Paolini has also received inspiration from the two authors Philip Pullman and Garth Nix . In Eragon , Paolini " deliberately " included the " archetypal ingredients " of a fantasy book – a quest , a journey of experience , revenge , romance , betrayal , and a " special " sword .
The ancient language used by the elves in Eragon is based " almost entirely " on Old Norse , German , Old English , and Russian myth . Paolini commented that " [ I ] did a god @-@ awful amount of research into the subject when I was composing it . I found that it gave the world a much richer feel , a much older feel , using these words that had been around for centuries and centuries . I had a lot of fun with that . " Picking the right name for the characters and places was a process that could take " days , weeks , or even years " . Paolini said that " if I have difficulty choosing the correct moniker , I use a placeholder name until a replacement suggests itself . " He added that he was " really lucky " with the name Eragon , " because it 's just dragon with one letter changed . " Also , Paolini commented that he thought of the name " Eragon " as the two parts of it : " era " and " gone " , as if the name itself changes the era in which the character lives . He thought the name fit the book perfectly , but some of the other names caused him " real headaches " .
The landscape in Eragon is based on the " wild territory " of Paolini 's home state , Montana . He said in an interview that " I go hiking a lot , and oftentimes when I 'm in the forest or in the mountains , sitting down and seeing some of those little details makes the difference between having an okay description and having a unique description . " Paolini also said that Paradise Valley , Montana is " one of the main sources " of his inspiration for the landscape in the book . Eragon takes place in the fictional continent Alagaësia . Paolini " roughed out " the main history of the land before he wrote the book , but he did not draw a map of it until it became important to see where Eragon was traveling . He then started to get history and plot ideas from seeing the landscape depicted .
Paolini chose to have Eragon mature throughout the book because " for one thing , it 's one of the archetypal fantasy elements " . He thought Eragon 's growth and maturation throughout the book " sort of mirrored my own growing abilities as a writer and as a person , too . So it was a very personal choice for that book . " Eragon 's dragon , Saphira , was imagined as " the perfect friend " by Paolini . He decided to go in a more " human direction " with her because she is raised away from her own species , in " close mental contact " with a human . " I considered making the dragon more dragon @-@ like , if you will , in its own society , but I haven 't had a chance to explore that . I went with a more human element with Saphira while still trying to get a bit of the magic , the alien , of her race . " Paolini made Saphira the " best friend anyone could have : loyal , funny , brave , intelligent , and noble . She transcended that , however , and became her own person , fiercely independent and proud . " Saphira 's blue tinted vision was in turn inspired by Paolini 's own color @-@ blindness .
Paolini added in archetypal elements of a fantasy novel like a quest , a journey of experience , revenge , romance , betrayal , and a ' special ' sword . The book is described as a fantasy with Booklist writing " Paolini knows the genre well — his lush tale is full of recognizable fantasy elements and conventions " . The book has been compared to other books of the fantasy genre such as Star Wars and Lord of the Rings . Reviews have also felt that the plot genre is too similar to those other fantasy novels . The book was called a " high fantasy " by Kirkus Review .
= = Plot summary = =
A shade named Durza , along with a group of urgals , ambushes a party of three elves . After he and the urgals kill the other elves , Durza attempts to steal an egg , that one of the female elves carries , but is foiled when she causes it to vanish . However , he renders her unconscious with a ball of fire and has her at his mercy .
Eragon is a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old boy who has lived with his uncle Garrow and cousin Roran on a farm near the village of Carvahall , ever since his mother , Garrow 's sister , left him there right after his birth . While hunting in the Spine , Eragon is surprised to see the blue dragon egg , which he believes to be a stone , appear in front of him . A few months later , Eragon witnesses a baby dragon hatch from the egg . Eragon names the dragon Saphira . He raises the dragon in secret until two of King Galbatorix 's servants , the Ra 'zac , come to Carvahall ; though it is later revealed that they weren 't looking for the egg at first . Eragon and Saphira manage to escape by hiding in the Spine , but Garrow is fatally wounded and the house and farm are burned down by the Ra 'zac . Once Garrow dies , Eragon is left with no reason to stay in Carvahall , so he goes after the Ra 'zac with his newly hatched dragon , seeking vengeance for the destruction of his home and his uncle 's death . He is accompanied by Brom , an elderly storyteller , who provides Eragon with the sword Zar 'roc and insists on helping him and Saphira .
Eragon becomes a Dragon Rider through his bond with Saphira . Eragon is the only known Rider in Alagaësia other than King Galbatorix , who , with the help of the now @-@ dead Forsworn , a group of thirteen dragon riders loyal to Galbatorix , killed every other Rider a hundred years ago . On the journey , Brom teaches Eragon sword fighting , magic , the ancient elvish language , and the ways of the Dragon Riders . Their travels bring them to the city of Teirm , where they meet with Brom 's friend Jeod . Eragon 's fortune is told by the witch Angela , and her companion , the werecat Solembum , gives Eragon some mysterious advice . With Jeod 's help , they are able to track the Ra 'zac to the southern city of Dras @-@ Leona . Although they manage to infiltrate the city , Eragon encounters the Ra 'zac in a cathedral and he and Brom are forced to flee . Later that night , their camp is ambushed by the Ra 'zac . A stranger named Murtagh rescues them , but Brom is gravely injured . Saphira watches over Brom as the night progresses , yet when morning comes they realize there is nothing they can do to save him . Brom gives Eragon his blessing , reveals that he was also once a dragon rider and that his dragon 's name was Saphira , and dies . Saphira then encases Brom in a tomb made of a diamond .
Murtagh becomes Eragon 's new companion and they travel to the city Gil 'ead to find information on how to find the Varden , a group of rebels who want to see the downfall of Galbatorix . While stopping near Gil 'ead , Eragon is captured and imprisoned in the same jail that holds a woman he has been having dreams about . As she is being dragged past she is revealed as an elf when her pointed ears are uncovered . Murtagh and Saphira stage a rescue , and Eragon escapes with the unconscious elf . During the escape , Eragon and Murtagh battle with Durza . Murtagh shoots Durza between the eyes with an arrow , and the Shade disappears in a cloud of mist . Then escaping , they run off . Eragon succeeds in communicating with the elf , whose name is revealed as Arya , and learns the location of the Varden . After some arguing , Murtagh decides to still travel with Eragon to the Varden but is still wary of them .
An army of Kull ( Urgals who can grow up to 8 feet ) reach Eragon right outside the Varden 's entrance , but are driven off with the help of the Varden , who escort Eragon , Saphira , Murtagh , and Arya to Farthen Dûr the mountain hideout of the varden . When they arrive in Farthen Dûr , Eragon is led to the leader of the Varden , Ajihad . Ajihad imprisons Murtagh after he refuses to allow his mind to be read to determine if he is a friend or a foe to the Varden . Eragon is told by Ajihad that Durza was not destroyed by Murtagh 's well placed arrow , because the only way to kill a Shade is with a stab through the heart . Orik , nephew of the dwarf King Hrothgar , is appointed as Eragon and Saphira 's guide . Orik shows them a place to stay and introduces them to Hrothgar . Eragon also meets Ajihad 's daughter , Nasuada , and Ajihad 's right @-@ hand man , Jörmundur . He also runs into Angela and Solembum , who have arrived in Tronjheim , and visits Murtagh in his prison . He is tested by two magicians , The Twins , as well as Arya .
Eragon and the Varden are then attacked by the Kull , as well as the rest of the Urgal army . Eragon personally battles Durza again , and succeeds in stabbing him in the heart with Zar 'roc , but at a price . Durza manages to slice a deep cut like Murtagh 's on his back . He then passes out , and is visited telepathically by a stranger while he is unconscious who tells Eragon to visit him in the Elven capital , Ellesméra .
= = Reception = =
Eragon received generally mixed reviews and was criticized for its derivative nature . Liz Rosenberg of The New York Times Book Review criticized Eragon for having " clichéd descriptions " , " B @-@ movie dialogue " , " awkward and gangly " prose . " However , she concluded the review by noting that " for all its flaws , it is an authentic work of great talent " . School Library Journal wrote that in Eragon " sometimes the magic solutions are just too convenient for getting out of difficult situations " . Common Sense Media called Eragon 's dialogue " long @-@ winded " and " clichéd " , with a plot " straight out of Star Wars by way of The Lord of the Rings , with bits of other great fantasies thrown in here and there . " The website did concede that the book is a notable achievement for such a young author , and that it would be " appreciated " by younger fans .
Favorable reviews of Eragon often focused on the book 's characters and plot . IGN 's Matt Casamassina called the book " entertaining " , and added that " Paolini demonstrates that he understands how to hold the reader 's eyes and this is what ultimately separates Eragon from countless other me @-@ too fantasy novels . " Chris Lawrence of About.com thought the book had all the " traditional ingredients " that make a fantasy novel " enjoyable " . The book was a " fun read " for him because it is " quick and exciting " and " packed " with action and magic . Lawrence concluded his review by giving the book a rating of 3 @.@ 8 / 5 , commenting that " the characters are interesting , the plot is engrossing , and you know the good guy will win in the end . "
Eragon was the third best @-@ selling children 's hardback book of 2003 , and the second best @-@ selling children 's paperback of 2005 . It placed on the New York Times Children 's Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks . In 2006 , the novel was awarded with a Nene Award by the children of Hawaii . It won the Rebecca Caudill Young Reader 's Book Award and the Young Reader 's Choice Award the same year .
= = Film adaptation = =
A film adaptation of Eragon was released in the United States on December 15 , 2006 . Plans to create the film were first announced in February 2004 , when 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to Eragon . The film was directed by first @-@ timer Stefen Fangmeier , and written by Peter Buchman . Edward Speleers was selected for the role of Eragon . Over the following months , Jeremy Irons , John Malkovich , Chris Egan and Djimon Hounsou were all confirmed as joining the cast . Principal photography for the film took place in Hungary and Slovakia .
The film received mostly negative reviews , garnering a 16 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes ; the tenth worst of 2006 . The Seattle Times described it as " technically accomplished , but fairly lifeless and at times a bit silly " . The Hollywood Reporter said the world of Eragon was " without much texture or depth " . The story was labelled " derivative " by The Washington Post , and " generic " by the Las Vegas Weekly . Newsday stressed this point further , asserting that only " nine @-@ year @-@ olds with no knowledge whatsoever of any of the six Star Wars movies " would find the film original . The acting was called " lame " by the Washington Post , as well as " stilted " and " lifeless " by the Orlando Weekly . The dialogue was also criticized : MSNBC labelled it " silly " ; the Las Vegas Weekly called it " wooden " . Positive reviews described the film as " fun " and " the stuff boys ' fantasies are made of " . The CGI work was called " imaginative " and Saphira was called a " magnificent creation " . Paolini stated he enjoyed the film , particularly praising the performances of Jeremy Irons and Ed Speleers .
Eragon grossed approximately $ 75 million in the United States and $ 173 @.@ 9 million elsewhere , totaling $ 249 million worldwide . It is the fourth highest grossing film with a dragon at its focal point , and the sixth highest grossing film of the sword and sorcery subgenre . Eragon was in release for seventeen weeks in the United States , opening on December 15 , 2006 and closing on April 9 , 2007 . It opened in 3 @,@ 020 theaters , earning $ 8 @.@ 7 million on opening day and $ 23 @.@ 2 million across opening weekend , ranking second behind The Pursuit of Happyness . Eragon ’ s $ 75 million total United States gross was the thirty @-@ first highest for 2006 . The film earned $ 150 million in its opening weekend across 76 overseas markets , making it the # 1 film worldwide . The film ’ s $ 249 million total worldwide gross was the sixteenth highest for 2006 .
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= University of North Dakota =
The University of North Dakota ( UND ) is a public research university located in Grand Forks , North Dakota .
Established by the Dakota Territorial Assembly in 1883 , six years before the establishment of the state of North Dakota , UND is the oldest and largest university in the state . UND was founded as a university with a strong liberal arts foundation and is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as high research activity institution . UND is ranked among the top 100 public universities in the country by U.S. News & World Report . UND offers a variety of professional and specialized programs , including the only schools of law and medicine in the state , but is perhaps best known for its John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences , which trains pilots and air traffic controllers from around the world . It is the first university to offer a degree in unmanned aircraft systems operations .
UND specializes in aerospace , health sciences , nutrition , energy and environmental protection , and engineering research . Several research institutions are located on the UND campus including the Energy and Environmental Research Center , the School of Medicine and Health Sciences , and the USDA Human Nutrition Research Center .
The athletic teams compete in the NCAA 's Division I. Most teams compete as members of the Big Sky Conference , with the exceptions of men 's hockey ( National Collegiate Hockey Conference ) , women 's hockey ( Western Collegiate Hockey Association ) , baseball ( Western Athletic Conference ) , and swimming ( Western Athletic Conference ) . The men 's ice hockey team has won eight national championships , and plays in the Ralph Engelstad Arena .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
UND was founded in 1883 , six years before North Dakota became a state . Grand Forks native George H. Walsh submitted the bill to the Territorial Legislature of Dakota Territory that called for the new state of North Dakota 's university to be located in Grand Forks . The first classes were held on September 8 , 1884 . The first building at UND , Old Main , housed all classrooms , offices , dorm rooms , and a library . In the 1880s , UND consisted of only a few acres of property , surrounded by farms and fields , nearly two miles west of the city of Grand Forks . Students living off campus had to take a train or a horse and carriage bus , dubbed the " Black Maria " , from downtown to the campus .
= = = 20th century = = =
Gradually , as the university grew , more buildings were constructed on campus and a trolley system was built to connect the growing university to downtown Grand Forks . However , there were several major interruptions in the life of the university . In 1918 , UND was the hardest @-@ hit single institution in the country by the flu epidemic which killed 1 @,@ 400 people in North Dakota alone . Later that year , classes were suspended so the campus could become an army base for soldiers during World War I. During the Great Depression , UND provided free housing to students willing to do manual labor on campus . " Camp Depression , " as it was called , consisted of railroad cabooses that housed eight male students each . " Camp Depression " students did not get regular meals from the cafeteria and had to be satisfied with only free leftovers . However , a number of Grand Forks citizens often opened their homes and kitchen tables to many of these young men .
After World War II , enrollment quickly grew to more than 3 @,@ 000 . A large amount of housing had to be built on campus as well as several new academic buildings . The 1950s saw the rise of the Fighting Sioux hockey tradition . In the 1960s and 1970s , many student protests occurred at UND . The largest occurred in May 1970 when over 1 @,@ 500 students gathered to protest the Kent State shootings . In 1975 , enrollment swelled to a record 8 @,@ 500 . The 1970s also saw the establishment of the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences at UND . During the 1980s and 1990s the University continued to grow . However , the devastating 1997 Red River Flood inundated numerous buildings on campus and forced the cancellation of the remainder of the school year .
= = = 21st century = = =
The start of the 21st century was marked by the opening of two major venues for UND athletics . The Ralph Engelstad Arena , home of men 's and women 's hockey , and the Alerus Center , home of UND football , both opened in 2001 . The Betty Engelstad Sioux Center opened in August 2004 , and currently serves as home to UND volleyball and men 's and women 's basketball .
Millions of dollars worth of construction and renovation projects have dotted the campus landscape in recent years . As part of a plan to improve student facilities on campus , UND recently constructed a Wellness Center , a parking garage , and an apartment @-@ style housing complex . Other construction projects around campus have included a new LEED Platinum @-@ certified alumni center , a renovation and expansion of the College of Education and Human Development , and an expansion of the Energy and Environmental Research Center . A $ 124 million Medicine and Health Services building is currently under construction . The new building was designed by JLG Architects in partnership with Perkins + Will and Steinberg Architects .
UND 's economic impact on the state and region is more than $ 1 @.@ 3 billion a year and it is the second largest employer in the state of North Dakota , after the Air Force .
= = Campus = =
The main campus of the University of North Dakota sits in the middle of Grand Forks on University Avenue . The campus is made up of 240 buildings ( 6 @.@ 4 million square feet ) on 550 acres ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) . The campus stretches roughly one and half miles from east to west and is divided by the meandering English Coulee . The western edge of campus is bordered by Interstate 29 , the eastern edge is bordered with University Park , the Grand Forks railyards sit on the south side of campus , and the north side of campus is marked by U.S. Highway 2 which is called Gateway Drive in Grand Forks .
= = = Central campus and eastern campus = = =
The central campus area is the oldest part of UND and contains many historic buildings . This area is home to most academic buildings on campus . At the heart of campus sits the Chester Fritz Library , the largest library in North Dakota . The 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) tower of the library is a familiar landmark on University Avenue . Behind the library is the park @-@ like setting of the central campus mall . The mall includes several statues and is a popular place for students to study . The mall is lined with historic buildings including Merrifield Hall , Twamley Hall , Babcock Hall , Montgomery Hall , and the old Carnegie Library . The location of the first building on campus , Old Main , is marked with Old Main Memorial Plaza and the eternal flame of the Old Main Memorial Sphere . Other buildings in the central part of campus include the School of Law , the North Dakota Museum of Art , Memorial Union , Gamble Hall , the J. Lloyd Stone Alumni Center , the Burtness Theatre , and Chandler Hall — the oldest remaining building on the UND campus . The English Coulee flows along the western edge of the central campus area and on the western bank of the Coulee sits the Chester Fritz Auditorium and the Hughes Fine Arts Center . The historic 1907 Adelphi Fountain is located next to the Coulee as is the on @-@ campus Spiritual Center .
On the eastern edge of the central campus area sits Memorial Stadium , the old Ralph Engelstad Arena , and the Hyslop Auditorium . These structures are all old athletic venues which have been replaced with new structures located elsewhere on campus . The eastern part of campus is also the home of the Energy and Environmental Research Center complex which includes the National Center for Hydrogen Technology . The Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center , which is operated by the United States Department of Agriculture , is also found in this part of campus . A five @-@ story parking garage sits directly at the corner of University Avenue and Columbia Road . At the extreme eastern portion of campus sits University Park which is operated by the Grand Forks Park District .
= = = Northern campus and western campus = = =
To the north of the central campus area , along Columbia Road , sits the School of Medicine complex . The main School of Medicine building is the remodeled St. Michael 's Hospital building which was built in 1951 . Other buildings in the medical school complex include the Biomedical Research Center and the Neuroscience Research Facility . Further north sits an area that is called University Village . This land sat virtually empty for decades , but has recently been developed for UND , commercial , and residential purposes . University Village is anchored by the $ 100 million Ralph Engelstad Arena , which is used by both the men 's and women 's hockey teams . University Village is also home to the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center , the new Student Wellness Center , university apartments , the UND bookstore , a medical clinic , and several residential and commercial properties .
The western part of the UND campus is a newer area with modern styles of architecture . This area is home to the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences , which includes Odegard Hall , Clifford Hall , Ryan Hall , and Streibel Hall . Directly adjacent to the Aerospace Complex sits the Skalicky Business Incubator , the Ina Mae Rude Entrepreneur Center , the “ REAC 1 , ” which houses the University of North Dakota ’ s Center of Excellence in Life Sciences and Advanced Technologies ( COELSAT ) , and a Hilton Garden Inn . The western part of campus is also the location of most residence halls and student apartments , including a new $ 20 million student housing project called University Place on University Avenue .
= = = Other facilities = = =
UND operates a satellite campus consisting of several buildings at Grand Forks International Airport where aviation students train . UND Aerospace also operates flight training centers in Crookston , Minnesota , and Phoenix , Arizona . UND owns and operates the Ray Richards 9 @-@ hole golf course south of the main UND campus . The School of Medicine and Health Sciences operates several clinics throughout North Dakota . The UND football team is a major tenant of the city of Grand Forks @-@ owned Alerus Center .
= = = Sustainability = = =
The Council on Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability made up of representatives from various departments is exploring ways to improve sustainability . The campus ’ s current recycling system reduces UND ’ s overall waste stream by 20 percent . UND has conducted lighting retrofits and installed heat recovery systems and power management technology for peak and off @-@ peak use adjustment . Students are involved in promoting sustainability via recycling and other initiatives . The University received a B- grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card released by the Sustainable Endowments Institute .
The Gorecki Alumni Center on campus is North Dakota 's first LEED Platinum build . The building uses a combination of Geothermal and Solar Panels to power the building .
= = Academics = =
UND has ten academic divisions :
John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences
College of Arts and Sciences
College of Business and Public Administration
College of Education and Human Development
College of Engineering and Mines
Graduate School
School of Law
School of Medicine and Health Sciences
College of Nursing and Professional Disciplines
Division of Continuing Education
UND offers a total of 224 fields of study , including 90 undergraduate majors , 73 undergraduate minors , 54 master 's programs , 27 doctoral programs , two professional programs ( medicine and law ) , and a specialist diploma program in educational leadership . UND also has an interdisciplinary program that allows students to obtain a degree in virtually any course of study . A collection of online classes and degree programs are offered for students around the nation and world . This online program has been highly ranked by US News and other leading online college rankings . On campus , academic classrooms range from smaller rooms capable of seating around twenty students to large lecture bowls capable of seating hundreds at a time . Many areas have wireless access for laptops and technologically equipped classrooms enable professors to offer interactive lectures . UND offers 1 @,@ 000 computer workstations for student use and computer labs can be found in the libraries , Memorial Union , and in several academic areas .
= = = Division of Continuing Education = = =
The Division of Continuing Education offers many distance learning and online degree programs . It offers undergraduate level programs in Chemical Engineering , Civil Engineering , Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering . Graduate level programs like MBA , Applied Economics , Educational Leadership , Forensic Psychology , Social Work , Public Administration and Nursing are offered , in addition to doctoral level programs in Educational Leadership , Teaching & Learning , and Nursing .
= = = Libraries = = =
UND has three major libraries which , together , form the largest system of research libraries in the state of North Dakota . The Chester Fritz Library is the largest library in the state . It houses 1 @.@ 6 million volumes , provides access to approximately 28 @,@ 000 electronic journal subscriptions , and owns over 20 @,@ 000 electronic books . It also serves as a U.S. patent and trademark depository and a government document depository . UND 's special collections department is known for its genealogical resources , including Norwegian Bygdeboker , or Norwegian farm and town records . Branches of the Chester Fritz Library include the Energy and Environmental Research Library , the F.D. Holland Geology Library , and the Gordon Erickson Music Library . The School of Law operates the Thormodsgard Law Library and the School of Medicine operates the Harley E. French Library of the Health Sciences .
= = Research = =
UND is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a doctoral / research @-@ intensive institution . This level of research activity is shown in UND 's research statistics which , in fiscal year 2006 , included program awards that reached $ 94 @.@ 3 million , sponsored program expenditures that reached $ 81 @.@ 2 million , and an overall research portfolio that included $ 315 million in total ongoing and committed accounts . Research activity at UND focuses on health sciences , nutrition , energy and environmental protection , aerospace , and engineering . As a major component of the Red River Valley Research Corridor , UND operates many research units including the Energy and Environmental Research Center , the School of Medicine , the Center for Rural Health , the Center for Innovation , the Upper Midwest Aerospace Consortium , the Bureau of Governmental Affairs , the Bureau of Educational Services and Applied Research , and the Social Science Research Institute . The Energy and Environmental Research Center ( EERC ) , located on the eastern fringes of the UND campus , has been recognized as a leader in researching cleaner , more efficient forms of energy . The EERC operates a number of research units at UND including the National Center for Hydrogen Technology .
= = Athletics = =
UND currently competes in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . The men 's ice hockey team compete in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference and the women 's hockey team compete as members of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association , while all others compete in the Big Sky Conference .
The men 's ice hockey team has won eight national championships and has been runner @-@ up five times . Both the men 's and women 's ice hockey teams play at the Ralph Engelstad Arena . The football team won the Division II national championship in 2001 and was the runner @-@ up in 2003 , and play at the Alerus Center . The basketball and volleyball teams play in the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center . The women 's basketball team has won three national championships in 1997 , 1998 , and 1999 and was runner @-@ up in 2001 .
The colors of UND athletics are green and white , which were adopted in the 1920s . The official school colors of the university are green and pink , representative of North Dakota 's state flower , the Wild Prairie Rose ; however , this combination is rarely employed outside of official or ceremonial applications . UND 's athletic teams previously bore the name of the Fighting Sioux , but were without a nickname and mascot from 2012 – 2015 , in compliance with the NCAA 's policy against the use of Native American nicknames . On November 18 , 2015 , it was announced that the new nickname would be " Fighting Hawks " , effective immediately .
A notable UND athletic alumnus is National Basketball Association ( NBA ) coach and former player Phil Jackson , widely considered one of the greatest coaches in the history of the NBA . In addition , many UND alumni have played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , including : Minnesota Wild wing Zach Parise , New Jersey Devils center Travis Zajac , Los Angeles Kings defensemen Matt Greene and Mike Commodore , Chicago Blackhawks forward and captain Jonathan Toews , former NHL goalie Ed Belfour , and Washington Capitals center T. J. Oshie .
= = = Fight song = = =
The school 's primary fight song is " Stand Up and Cheer . Two other fight songs are " UND " and It 's For You , North Dakota U ( or North Dakota U ) , composed by Franz Rickaby in 1921 .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student body = = =
Currently over 15 @,@ 000 students attend classes on the UND campus each year . About 40 percent of the student body is from North Dakota and the other half is made up of students from all 50 states and over 60 other nations . The ratio between male and female students is about even . Demographically , about 80 percent of the student body is caucasian . Students can choose to live on or off campus . On campus , there are 13 residence halls and 850 student apartment units , as well as twelve fraternities and six sororities . There are over 275 student organizations at UND as well as an intramural sports program called RecSports . The student body is represented by the Student Government , which is composed of three branches : executive , legislative , and judicial . The executive branch consists of seven executives who each have different areas of focus . The legislative branch consists of 23 student senators who represent each academic and residential district . The judicial branch consists of seven justices that deal with judicial matters when necessary . In addition , three standing committees are committed to enhancing university life for all students . The three standing committees are : University Programming Council ( UPC ) , Student Organization Funding Agency ( SOFA ) , and Student Communications Funding Committee ( SCFC ) . In addition , five administrative assistants assist with all areas of Student Government .
= = = Greek life = = =
The fraternity and sorority community has a rich history at the University of North Dakota . Sanctioned chapters on campus include seven sororities ( Alpha Chi Omega , Alpha Phi , Delta Gamma , Gamma Phi Beta , Kappa Alpha Theta , Pi Beta Phi , Kappa Delta ) and thirteen fraternities ( Alpha Tau Omega , Beta Theta Pi , Delta Tau Delta , Delta Upsilon , Kappa Sigma , Lambda Chi Alpha , Phi Delta Theta , Pi Kappa Alpha , Pi Kappa Phi , Sigma Alpha Epsilon , Sigma Chi , Sigma Nu , Sigma Phi Epsilon ) .
= = = Culture = = =
The North Dakota Museum of Art , the official art museum of the state of North Dakota , is located in the heart of campus and offers exhibits throughout the year . The Burtness Theater and the Chester Fritz Auditorium regularly feature theater and concert events . The Ralph Engelstad Arena also features non @-@ athletic events including concerts . The nearby city @-@ owned Alerus Center hosts several concerts each year as well as other events . Each year , UND hosts the University of North Dakota Writers Conference . This is a week @-@ long event that brings together prominent American and foreign writers . Participants have included Truman Capote , Tennessee Williams , Eudora Welty , Tom Wolfe , Allen Ginsberg , Louise Erdrich , Chuck Klosterman , and Gary Snyder .
= = = Media = = =
= = = = Print = = = =
The Dakota Student is UND 's student newspaper .
North Dakota Quarterly , a literary journal , is edited at UND .
The North Dakota Law Review , published by the School of Law since 1924 , serves as the journal of the State Bar Association of North Dakota .
The Alumni Review is published by the UND Alumni Association and Foundation .
= = = = Broadcasting = = = =
UND owns two public radio stations , which are both operated by Prairie Public Radio : KUND and KFJM . KUND @-@ FM rebroadcasts the Prairie Public radio network , which also carries National Public Radio programming . KFJM broadcasts some Prairie Public and NPR programming , but also broadcasts some locally produced programs .
UND operates two local cable television channels . One operates as an information billboard and also features a weekly student @-@ produced news program entitled Studio One . The other is a movie channel for the campus residence halls , Residence Life Cinema , on cable channel 17 . The University separately licenses movies for showing on this channel . UND also formerly operated the UND Sports Network .
= = Notable people and alumni = =
Alumni of the University of North Dakota have become notable in a variety of different fields including politics and government , business , science , literature , arts and entertainment , and athletics . Eight Governors of North Dakota were educated at UND , including Fred G. Aandahl , Louis B. Hanna , Lynn Frazier , William Langer , John Moses , Ragnvald A. Nestos , Allen I. Olson , and Ed Schafer , who was also the US Secretary of Agriculture from 2008 – 2009 . Former Deputy National Security Advisor at the White House , Mark Pfeifle is a 1997 graduate in the School of Communications . Many U.S. Senators and Representatives of North Dakota were also graduates of UND , including former Senator Byron Dorgan and former Representative Earl Pomeroy . Former House Majority Leader Dick Armey is a UND graduate . Ronald Davies , a UND graduate and former federal judge , became a part of history when he ordered the integration of Little Rock Central High School during the American Civil Rights Movement .
UND alumni who went on to notable careers in the business world include chairman of TNSE & president of the Winnipeg Jets hockey club Mark Chipman , current president and former CEO of Cargill Gregory R. Page , current president and CEO of the Buffalo Wild Wings restaurant chain Sally J. Smith , current CEO of Forum Communications William C. Marcil , former Las Vegas casino owner and UND philanthropist Ralph Engelstad , and former CEO of American Skandia and founder of WealthVest Marketing Wade Dokken .
In the realm of science , notable UND alumni include important contributor to information theory Harry Nyquist , pioneer aviator Carl Ben Eielson , Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson , engineer and NASA astronaut Karen L. Nyberg , and leading NASA manager John H. Disher .
Alumni who have become notable through literature include the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning playwright and author Maxwell Anderson , Rhodes scholar and poet Thomas McGrath , essayist and journalist Chuck Klosterman , and novelist Jon Hassler . UND graduates have become editors of major magazines : Carroll Eugene Simcox of The Living Church , former Ebony editor Era Bell Thompson and former LIFE editor Edward K. Thompson . Alumni who have become notable in arts and entertainment include actor Sam Anderson and America 's Next Top Model winner Nicole Linkletter .
Former UND students who have gone on to notable careers in athletics include former NBA player and coach and current president of the New York Knicks , Phil Jackson , ice hockey player who played in the 1980 Winter Olympics " Miracle on Ice " game Dave Christian , NHL professional ice hockey players Ed Belfour , Tony Hrkac , Jonathan Toews – captain of the Chicago Blackhawks , Zach Parise – Minnesota Wild , Travis Zajac – New Jersey Devils , T.J. Oshie and Taylor Chorney – Washington Capitals , Ryan Bayda – Pittsburgh Penguins , Drew Stafford – Winnipeg Jets , Brian Lee – Ottawa Senators , Matt Smaby – Tampa Bay Lightning , Matt Jones and Matt Frattin – Toronto Maple Leafs , Mike Commodore – Columbus Blue Jackets , Jason Blake – Anaheim Ducks , Ryan Johnson – Vancouver Canucks , Chris VandeVelde - Philadelphia Flyers NFL professional football players Jim Kleinsasser and Dave Osborn both of the Minnesota Vikings , Chris Kuper of the Denver Broncos , and Weston Dressler of the Canadian Football League 's Saskatchewan Roughriders .
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= Ways That Are Dark =
Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China is a 1933 non @-@ fiction book by Ralph Townsend which presents Townsend 's observations on the state of then @-@ contemporary China . The book is considered an anti @-@ Chinese polemic .
A harsh critique of Chinese society and culture , Ways That Are Dark was written at a time when China was in the grip of considerable civil strife . Townsend claimed that the source of China 's problems lay in fundamental defects in the ethnic characteristics of the Chinese people . Although the book was a bestseller in the United States , it met with highly polarized reactions from its supporters and detractors . Though praised by some periodicals , it was denounced by missionaries and sinologists , including Owen Lattimore who condemned it as " a general indictment of a whole race " . It was banned by the government of China .
After World War II , the book fell into obscurity . It was reprinted in 1997 by the white nationalist publisher Barnes Review and subsequently gained renewed popularity in Japan in 2004 when a Japanese translation was published .
= = Background = =
Ways That Are Dark is based on its author 's experience of living in China for more than one year . Townsend had worked as a journalist and educator in New York before joining the United States Foreign Service on 16 December 1930 . He served as a vice @-@ consul in Shanghai between 10 December 1931 and 9 January 1932 and then in Fuzhou until 1 March 1933 . The book was released on 10 November 1933 by G. P. Putnam 's Sons .
= = Summary of contents = =
In his introduction , Townsend describes the book as " an honest attempt to present the facts as they are , however unpleasant " and a counterbalance to the " maudlin sentiment " and " misinformation " of other writers on China who have made " fatuous attempts to sprinkle bright hopes over dark facts . " He argues that existing literature available in the West is skewed in favor of China because of the demands for " political correctness " on the part of publishers and the vested interests of the three major categories of foreigners in China , the missionaries , businesspeople and government officials . He notes that while China 's virtues will speak for themselves , " in appraising a stranger with whom we are to deal , it is important to know his shortcomings " .
In the first two chapters he describes the atrocious conditions he witnessed in China . Shanghai is depicted as a squalid , noisy , and polluted den of crime , poverty , and disease , and yet still comparatively wealthy compared to the rest of the country . The interior of the country is difficult to access due to lack of infrastructure , is mostly unsafe for travel , and is wracked constantly by famine and starvation .
Townsend had asserted in chapter one that the cause of China 's present misery lies in the fundamental defects that exist in the ethnic characteristics of the Chinese people and in chapters three and four he explains what he believes these defects are . Townsend states that dishonesty is " the most prominent characteristic in the Chinese mentality as opposed to our own " . Townsend gives many examples of him being lied to by Chinese employees , coolies , shopkeepers , and government officials , and notes that many other consuls were driven out of the service by this relentless and " aimless lying , with each lie merely a pretext for another " . The other highly salient trait of the Chinese is their " indifference to fellow suffering " . Through a large number of personal and second @-@ hand anecdotes , Townsend argues that the Chinese may be the only people in the world who are completely unable to comprehend the basic human impulses of sympathy or gratitude toward other people . Because the Chinese feel no empathy toward others , they behave in an unbelievably sadistic and cruel fashion toward one another , and they view altruistic foreigners as targets to be mercilessly taken advantage of . Other traits Townsend identifies as being typically Chinese are cowardice , lust for money , lack of a sense of personal hygiene , lack of critical thinking skills , insincerity , and obsession with hollow rites . Townsend believes that these traits are as notable among China 's leaders and educated strata as much as they are in the poor masses , and his analysis of historical documents leads him to believe that they are not a recent product of the present chaos , but rather are deeply ingrained traits of China 's national character . He concludes that the " outstanding characteristics " of the Chinese people " neither enable other peoples to deal satisfactorily with them , nor enable the Chinese to deal satisfactorily with themselves . "
In chapters five and six Townsend discusses US @-@ funded charitable organizations in China , especially missions . He points out that although the United States had given at least $ 160 million in philanthropy to China , these charities in China , even secular hospitals and schools , are generally preyed upon by the very Chinese people who the charitable workers seek to help . These charities are subject to rampant looting , arson , and murderous mob violence by Chinese people who their government refuses to prosecute . Much of this violence is incited by the anti @-@ foreigner propaganda of the KMT , a party described as being " worse than the Ku Klux Klan at its most degenerate stage " , and through US aid to China Townsend suggests that America is actually bankrolling propaganda against itself . Though the missionaries are sincere and hard @-@ working , Townsend finds that they suffer from extreme delusion over the ultimate futility of their goal of reforming the Chinese . The missionaries , he states , have willfully ignored overwhelming evidence that no degree of care or education can uproot the intrinsic sickness of Chinese culture . He calls for an end to all missionary and charitable work in China .
In chapter seven Townsend details the sheer horror of China 's ongoing civil war . Among the factions competing for power in China , Townsend believes that none of them , neither the leaders nor their men , have any fixed loyalties or higher motivations apart from desire for loot . With every man only out for himself and " China 's microscopically few good men ... too weak to be felt " , Townsend predicts no end to the chaos . Much of the violence , Townsend explains in chapter eight , is fuelled by opium , the addiction of one out of every eight Chinese . Peasants are often compelled to plant opium by local administrators and warlords to pay for their armies , to such an extent that many districts are more heavily planted with opium than food , and all the while KMT officials lie incessantly to the international community about their efforts to suppress the trade . In contrast to the depredations of the KMT and other warlords , in chapter nine Townsend praises the positive influence of the Japanese in China . The Japanese themselves are considered by him to be a loyal , brave , reliable , honest , and cleanly people , and thus the polar opposites of the Chinese . Townsend provides his own firsthand account of the Shanghai Incident of 1932 , which he claims was probably provoked by Chinese aggression , and similarly sees the Japanese decision to invade Manchuria as a fitting response to the " foredoomed contest of covert violence against the Japanese " waged by Zhang Xueliang . Townsend also lavishes praise on the puppet state of Manchukuo as " a blessing to the thirty million or so Chinese living there " which has achieved " stability and well @-@ being for millions " . Townsend concludes that informed observers are grateful for Japan 's role in dealing with an unruly China .
Finally , in chapter ten Townsend affirms that the " backward Chinese " are America ’ s " only legitimate problem in Asia " and asks what can be done to deal with a nation that spends aid money corruptly , does not respect its loans , mistreats and attacks foreigners , ignores international drug laws , will not protect foreign investment , and does not engage in productive diplomacy with other nations . He warns Americans that the Chinese see kindness only as weakness and thus can never respond to any type of positive reinforcement . " For every Chinese , from highest to lowest , " he argues , " all the acts of life are concentrated upon extracting , from those who mean nothing to him , what he can for the benefit of himself and his clan . " By contrast , he believes that the Chinese do understand force and respect strength . Therefore , he advocates that the United States forgo naive " sentimentalist " thinking and adopt a policy of " stern insistence upon our rights without cruel abuse of our strength " , including withholding further loans without strict conditions and holding on to foreign concessions and extraterritoriality .
= = Reception = =
Ways That Are Dark hit the bestsellers list in the United States , and The Robesonian noted that the book " was given lavish praise and bitter abuse by some of the leading newspapers in America " . It was advertised as doing " for China what Katherine Mayo did for Mother India " , and Foreign Affairs magazine described it as " a sensationally unorthodox and unvarnished picture of the Chinese " .
= = = Praise = = =
E. Francis Brown , writing for Current History , approved of the book 's comprehensive and frank discussion of conditions within China . Though the book takes a strongly negative stance towards China , Brown argued that " this very unfriendliness makes the book a welcome antidote to much that has been written in recent years and some of its conclusions might be well pondered by those who shape America 's Far Eastern Policy . " Willis J. Abbot of the Christian Science Monitor especially praised Townsend 's study of the social life and customs of the Chinese and claimed that " Any capable observer with a few weeks at his disposal in China will corroborate much that appears in this volume . " His praise was echoed by Douglas Jerrold of The English Review who found the work " brilliant and outspoken " .
= = = Negative criticism = = =
By contrast , Lewis S. Gannett of The Nation criticized Townsend for writing an " apology for Japan " and painting the Chinese as " all alike , all generically different from Japanese and Westerners " . A similarly negative assessment published in The China Weekly Review observed that " A Chinese might easily write a similar book and by emphasizing the activities of the Capones and Dillingers , the bootleggers , kidnappers and racketeers , prove to his own satisfaction at least that the Americans constituted a degenerate branch of the white race . " The Republican concluded its review of the book with " Throughout the presentation of his observations runs a thread of ill @-@ considered bias which taints his words . We must look to other ... more discerning writers for the truth about China . "
Prominent sinologists were also critical of the work . In the pages of The New York Times , Owen Lattimore condemned Ways That Are Dark as " a general indictment of a whole race " which lacks insight , contains factual errors , and relies on second @-@ hand accounts . He stated that the book would " only convince people who are convinced already . " Nathaniel Peffer likewise denounced the book as " a rehash of all the old patter of the outport hotel lobbies , with all its half @-@ truths , inaccuracies , provincialism , ignorance and sometimes crassness ... [ Townsend ] has not managed to observe accurately the most simple and superficial things . " JOP Bland , though deeming Townsend 's conclusions " as a whole ... unconvincing " , at least found the chapter on opium " particularly instructive . "
Also among the book 's detractors were missionaries , whom Townsend had criticized . They reviewed the book negatively in a variety of periodicals , including The Chinese Recorder , which accused Townsend of having " gathered a lot of stories and put them together in a clever , cynical and unusually warped way " . Other negative reviews appeared in The Missionary Review of the World , The China Christian Year Book , and The Missionary Herald at Home and Abroad .
Ways That Are Dark continues to be noted for its Sinophobic viewpoint . In 1985 the historian Frank P. Mintz called it " a classic in the literature of Sinophobia . " In 2000 the scholar Yong Chen referred to Townsend 's attitude towards the ethnic characteristics of the Chinese people as being derivative of " the anti @-@ Chinese prejudice that nineteenth @-@ century writers had propagated . " In 2004 the writer Gregory Clark described it as " a viciously anti @-@ China book " that " contrasts an allegedly dirty , devious Chinese nation with the trustworthy , hardworking Japanese " .
Though the book was originally to be called " Chinese Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round " , the title under which it was ultimately published is a quote from Bret Harte 's poem " The Heathen Chinee " . Though " The Heathen Chinee " had been used a rallying cry by opponents of Chinese immigration to the United States , Harte had intended it as a parody of the anti @-@ Chinese bigotry prevalent in the United States of the nineteenth century .
= = = Political responses = = =
The Japanese Army and Navy strongly approved of the book and several thousand copies of it were bought by the War Ministry and Naval Ministry who by the beginning of 1934 were distributing the books for free to foreign journalists and officials . By contrast , the Nationalist Government of China responded by banning Townsend 's book throughout China from 1935 . Even so , the journalist George Moorad reported that in 1946 Chinese communists distributed contraband copies of the book to American China Marines in the hopes of disillusioning them about conditions in China .
= = Revival in Japanese translation = =
Ways That Are Dark was already in its fifth printing by 1937 , but in 1942 Townsend was imprisoned for having accepted money from the Japanese Committee on Trade and Information between 1937 and 1940 without registering as a foreign agent . The book was not re @-@ printed again until the white supremacist magazine Barnes Review published a new edition in 1997 .
The Barnes Review edition was subsequently translated into Japanese in 2004 by a pair of Japanese translators , Hideo Tanaka and Kenkichi Sakita , and became an instant success , selling out 10 successive re @-@ printings before 2007 when it was reissued as a mass market paperback . Gregory Clark noted that the Japanese edition of Ways That Are Dark , which was entitled Ankoku Tairiku Chūgoku no Shinjitsu ( " The Truth About the Dark Continent China " ) , had garnered widespread popularity among members of the Japanese right @-@ wing .
Tanaka , one of the translators of the book , praised Townsend in Shokun ! magazine for his " penetrating insight " in reporting " starkly and vividly on the true nature of the Chinese that he had witnessed firsthand " . Sakita , the other translator , likewise lauded the book in an article written for Nobukatsu Fujioka 's Association for Advancement of Unbiased View of History . Sakita called the book " essential reading to understand what China really is " and argued that Townsend 's ideas continue to offer important lessons in conducting Sino @-@ Japanese relations today . The book was also reviewed positively by the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun .
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= Buah Rindu =
Boeah Rindoe ( Perfected Spelling : Buah Rindu , Indonesian for Fruits of Longing ) is a 1941 poetry collection by Amir Hamzah . The poems date to Amir 's first years in Java , between 1928 and 1935 . According to Anthony Johns of Australia National University , the poems are arranged chronologically , as indicated by Amir 's increasing maturity as a writer while developing the poems . The collection includes twenty @-@ three titled poems and two untitled pieces . Ten of the poems had previously been published , including Amir 's first published works ( both from 1932 ) , " Mabuk ... " and " Sunyi " .
In Buah Rindu , Amir shows an affinity for using traditional Malay poetic forms such as the quatrain , but unlike the highly fixed traditional forms , he mixes the rhyming patterns . The text is dominated by terms related to love and searching , and according to Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw the collection is united by a theme of longing . Johns states that the imagery in Buah Rindu is dependent on traditional Malay literature , and that Amir 's terminology is heavily influenced by classical Malay poetry . The author 's use of language is also notably coloured by Javanese terms and ideas , and another source of influence appears to be Indian literature , with references to Hindu gods and goddesses .
Buah Rindu was published in its entirety in the June 1941 edition of Poedjangga Baroe , a magazine Amir had helped establish in 1933 . It was later republished as a stand @-@ alone book by Poestaka Rakjat in Jakarta .
= = Background = =
Amir Hamzah ( 1911 – 46 ) was a Dutch @-@ educated Malay writer of noble descent . He was well @-@ oriented in traditional Malay literature , with favourites including historical texts such as Hikayat Hang Tuah , Syair Siti Zubaidah , and Hikayat Panca Tanderan . Amir likewise read works of Arabic , Persian , and Hindu literature . As a result , he had an extensive vocabulary .
Although Buah Rindu was published in 1941 , four years after Amir 's debut collection Nyanyi Sunyi , general consensus is that its poems are less recent . The poems in Buah Rindu date to the period between 1928 and 1935 , Amir 's first years in Java ; the collection gives the two years , as well the location of writing as Jakarta – Solo ( Surakarta ) – Jakarta . The dates of the poems themselves are unclear . None of Amir 's works are dated , meaning a definite date is impossible to establish . There are several hypotheses . Nh . Dini , in her biography of Amir , suggests that some , such as " Tinggallah " , were written not long after he boarded the Plancus , on his way to Java . Anthony Johns of Australia National University suggests that the poems are arranged chronologically , pointing to the increasing maturity Amir shows as a writer while the poems develop .
= = Contents = =
Buah Rindu contains twenty @-@ three titled poems and two untitled pieces : a short quatrain at the beginning of the book and a three @-@ line dedication at the end . The closing dedication reads " to the lord , Greater Indonesia / to the ashes of the Mother @-@ Queen / and to the feet of the Sendari @-@ Goddess " , Achdiat Karta Mihardja , a classmate of Amir 's , writes that Amir 's Javanese sweetheart Ilik Sundari was immediately recognisable to any of Amir 's classmates ; he considers her the poet 's inspiration as " Laura to Petrarch , Mathilde to Jacques Perk " .
The titled poems are as follows :
Of the poems included in Buah Rindu , ten had previously been published . These included Amir 's first published works , " Mabuk ... " and " Sunyi " , which had been included in the March 1932 edition of the magazine Timboel , as well as " Dagang " , " Hang Tuah " , " Harum Rambutmu " , " Kenang @-@ Kenangan " , " Malam " , " Berdiri Aku " , " Berlagu Hatiku " , and " Naik @-@ Naik " . The other works had never previously seen wide readership .
= = Style = =
In Buah Rindu , particularly its earlier poems , Amir shows an affinity for using traditional Malay poetic forms such as the quatrain ( found in pantun and syair ) . However , unlike the highly fixed traditional forms , Amir mixes the rhyming patterns ; for instance , one quatrain may have a monorhyme ( seloka ) while the next may have an alternating simple 4 @-@ line ( pantun ) pattern . Lines are generally divided by a clear caesura , and in some cases even two . The caesura may not always be in the centre of a line ; it is at times towards the front , and at times towards the rear .
The text is dominated by terms related to love and searching , including kelana , merantau ( wandering ) , cinta ( love ) , and asmara ( passion ) .
According to Johns , the imagery in Buah Rindu is highly dependent on traditional Malay literature . Flowers are prominent . In some cases , such as when the lover in " Buah Rindu II " contemplates the clouds , as a " motif which is clearly derivative , but retold in Hamzah 's words is fresh and moving " . Amir 's terminology is likewise heavily influenced by classical Malay poetry . In " Hang Tuah " , for instance , the term perenggi is used to refer to the Portuguese who are attacking Malacca ; the same term can be found in classic texts such as Sejarah Melayu and Hikayat Hang Tuah . Other classic terms include galyas and pusta , rather than kapal perang and kapal ( warship and ship , respectively ) .
Amir 's language use is notably coloured by Javanese terms and ideas . Johns counts terms unknown in Malay , such as banyu , yayi , and Tejaningsun . He also notes an apparent influence of the Javanese macapatan poetic form . Another source of influence appears to be Indian literature . Indonesian documentarian HB Jassin finds instances in " Buah Rindu II " , particularly the verses regarding clouds , which are similar with Kālidāsa 's Meghadūta . Hindu gods and goddesses also make an appearance .
= = Themes = =
Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw writes that this collection is united by a theme of longing , which Jassin expands on : Amir is longing for his mother , longing for his loves , and longing for his homeland . All are referred to as " kekasih " ( beloved ) in turn . These longings , Teeuw writes , are unlike the religious overtones of Nyanyi Sunyi : they are more worldly , grounded in reality ; Jassin notes another thematic distinction between the two : unlike Nyanyi Sunyi , with its clear depiction of one god , Buah Rindu explicitly puts forth several deities , including the Hindu gods Shiva and Parvati and abstract ones like the god and goddess of love .
= = Reception = =
Buah Rindu was published in its entirety in the June 1941 edition of Poedjangga Baroe , a magazine Amir had helped establish in 1933 . It was later republished as a stand @-@ alone book by Poestaka Rakjat in Jakarta .
Johns writes that , though elements of individuality are evident in the collection , " nothing suggests the striking individuality and intensity " of Amir 's later writings . He notes two poems , " Tinggallah " and " Senyum Hatiku , Senyum " , as particularly weak . The poet Chairil Anwar , though generally of a positive viewpoint of Amir 's work , disliked Buah Rindu ; he considered it too classical .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Typhoon Matsa =
Typhoon Matsa , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Gorio , was the second of eight Pacific tropical cyclones to make landfall on China during the 2005 Pacific typhoon season . The ninth tropical storm and fifth typhoon of the season , Matsa developed on July 30 to the east of the Philippines . Matsa intensified as it tracked northwestward , and attained peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) near Taiwan before weakening and striking the Chinese province of Zhejiang on August 5 . The system continued northward into the Yellow Sea , and on August 7 Matsa became extratropical after again moving ashore along the Liaodong Peninsula . Matsa is a Laotian name for a lady fish .
In Taiwan , Matsa dropped torrential rainfall of up to 1 @,@ 270 mm ( 50 in ) , which caused mudslides and moderate damage across the island . Flooding from the rainfall contaminated some water supplies , leaving around 80 @,@ 000 homes without water at one point ; much of Taoyuan County ( now Taoyuan City ) was without water for at least 5 days . As in Taiwan , the typhoon dropped heavy precipitation in the People 's Republic of China , and in combination with strong winds destroyed about 59 @,@ 000 houses and damaged more than 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) of croplands . Throughout the country , Matsa caused 25 direct fatalities and ￥ 18 billion ( 2005 CNY , $ 2 @.@ 23 billion 2005 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Typhoon Matsa is traced to the formation of an area of convection about 185 km ( 115 mi ) east of Yap in late July . The convection gradually consolidated over a weak low @-@ level circulation , and at 0300 UTC on July 30 the system was first mentioned in the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) Significant Tropical Weather Outlook . Located within an area of moderate wind shear , the system continued to slowly organize , and by 1200 UTC on July 30 it was sufficiently organized for the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) to classify it as a weak tropical depression while located about 65 km ( 40 mi ) east of Yap . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC followed suit by issuing a tropical cyclone formation alert . The depression tracked steadily westward , followed by a turn to the northwest on July 31 under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge to its east . It continued to organize , and at 1200 UTC on July 31 it intensified into Tropical Storm Matsa ; the depression was unofficially classified a tropical storm six hours earlier by the JTWC . Additionally , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) named the system Tropical Storm Gorio , due to its location within the administration 's area of responsibility .
Tropical Storm Matsa gradually intensified as it tracked steadily northwestward ; by late on August 1 it strengthened into a severe tropical storm . Outflow and deep convection to the north remained limited , though the storm was able to intensity further to attain typhoon status on August 2 about 780 km ( 480 mi ) south of Okinawa . Intensification slowed , and late on August 3 Matsa reached a peak intensity of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) while located 495 km ( 308 mi ) east of the southern tip of Taiwan as reported by the JMA ; the JTWC and the National Meteorological Center of China reported the typhoon as strengthening further to attain peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on August 4 . Shortly after passing over the Japanese island of Ishigaki , Matsa began to weaken steadily as it approached the coast of China , and made landfall as a minimal typhoon late on August 5 near Yuhuan in the southern region of Zhejiang Province . It crossed the Gulf of Yueqing and 40 minutes after its first landfall it struck Mainland China near Yueqing . It quickly weakened to a tropical storm , and within hours of moving ashore the JTWC issued its last advisory . Matsa turned to the north , weakening to a tropical depression on August 7 shortly before entering the Yellow Sea . The weakening depression continued northward , and became an extratropical cyclone on August 9 after hitting the Liaodong Peninsula .
= = Preparations = =
The Taiwan Central Weather Bureau warned for the potential for heavy amounts of rainfall across the island . This resulted in officials to close schools and offices in Taipei . Additionally , the typhoon caused the cancellation or delay of several flights in and out of Taipei , though complete air service was restored by the day after Matsa 's passage . The Taiwan Stock Exchange closed due to the threat of the typhoon .
Prior to the arrival of the typhoon , officials in China ordered the evacuation of about 2 @.@ 3 million people , mostly in Zhejiang . The typhoon also resulted in the cancellation or delay of thousands of flights , with the two main airports in Shanghai closed for 30 hours . Officials near Matsa 's projected landfall were advised to lower the levels in reservoirs to mitigate the threat of flooding . In Zhejiang , officials set up shelters for about 35 @,@ 000 boats to prevent marine damage . Due to the potential for rough seas , officials closed the port at Ningbo and Shanghai and also canceled some ferry service . Matsa was predicted to be first typhoon to affect Beijing in 11 years by dropping heavy amounts of rainfall . Local officials advised water operators to lower water levels to prevent flooding . Up to 100 mm ( 4 in ) of rainfall was forecast for the city , and officials prepared to evacuate 40 @,@ 000 residents in the outskirts of the city .
= = Impact = =
= = = Taiwan = = =
While passing to the north of Taiwan , Matsa produced strong winds reaching 144 km / h ( 89 mph ) , with gusts of up to 188 km / h ( 117 mph ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall across the island , with precipitation totals reaching up to 1270 mm ( 50 in ) in a 30 ‑ hour period ; one station located in Taitung County recorded 843 mm ( 33 @.@ 2 in ) in one day , which was the highest daily rainfall total in association with the storm . The rainfall led to flooding and mudslides throughout the island . In response to the flooding , residents placed sandbags around houses and office buildings to prevent flood damage . The mudslides blocked roads across the mountainous region , leaving hundreds stranded , and in combination with flooding the mudslides washed away several bridges and damaged some roadways . Strong winds left 56 @,@ 211 houses without power , most of which were quickly repaired . Typhoon Matsa caused moderate crop damage across the island , which was still recovering from the damage caused by Typhoon Haitang a month before . More than 80 @,@ 000 homes were left without water due to the passage of the typhoon . Subsequent flooding left more than 630 @,@ 000 homes without water or receiving water at infrequent intervals . About 368 ha ( 909 acres ) of crop fields were destroyed , and crop damage from Matsa totaled NT $ 47 million ( 2005 TWD , $ 1 @.@ 5 million 2005 USD ) . According to the Taiwan Council of Agriculture , the banana and pear crops were the worst affected .
= = = China = = =
Upon making landfall in China , several coastal locations reported winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , with wind gusts peaking at 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Further inland , winds reached 147 km / h ( 91 mph ) at Shanghai , the highest wind gust on record in the city . The storm produced heavy amounts of rainfall , reaching a maximum of 701 mm ( 27 @.@ 6 in ) at a station in Yongjia County . Extreme amounts of precipitation fell in short durations , including 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in just 1 hour and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) in 3 hours at Dinghai District . Just days after a previous heavy rainfall event , the rainfall from Matsa caused record @-@ breaking river flooding along eight Chinese rivers , including a station at a floodgate on Suzhou Creek which peaked at 4 @.@ 55 m ( 14 @.@ 93 feet ) .
In Zhejiang , where Matsa made landfall , high storm tides occurred along the coastline . In some areas , water levels rose quickly , with some coastal homes experiencing flooding from the tide . Rough seas off of Ningbo capsized a fishing boat , leaving its three occupants missing . About two @-@ thirds of the province reported more than 50 mm ( 2 in ) of rainfall , resulting in flooding in low @-@ lying areas as well as several mudslides , one of which killed two people . The combined effects of the winds and rains destroyed 21 reservoirs and more than 200 km ( 120 mi ) of embankment , and damaged several water stations . Matsa damaged 3 @,@ 380 km2 ( 1 @,@ 310 sq mi ) of crops , with around 224 km2 ( 86 sq mi ) of cropland destroyed from the flooding . About 13 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed in the province . Throughout Zhejiang , Matsa caused $ 8 @.@ 9 billion ( 2005 CNY , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion 2005 USD ) in damage and five direct fatalities .
Heavy rainfall in Shanghai flooded 84 city streets ; in some locations insufficient water drainage left homes and apartments flooded , with a total of 20 @,@ 000 houses reporting flooding . The flooding also closed the city subway system for a few hours . Strong winds downed 2 @,@ 700 trees and 400 power lines in the city . The typhoon damaged a construction site in the city , leaving three injured and one person killed . Throughout the city an estimated 15 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed . Additionally , four people were electrocuted as a result of the flooding . In Shanghai alone , damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 33 billion ( 2005 CNY , $ 164 @.@ 5 million 2005 USD ) ; seven people died in the city .
Despite the anticipated effects , Beijing experienced only light rainfall . Throughout China , over 31 million people were affected in over eight provinces . Typhoon Matsa left the agricultural industry severely impacted , with over 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) damaged . The combination of its winds and flooding damaged around 200 @,@ 000 buildings , including a total of 59 @,@ 000 destroyed houses . Damage in the country totaled about $ 18 billion ( 2005 CNY , $ 2 @.@ 23 billion 2005 USD ) .
= = = Okinawa and South Korea = = =
Typhoon Matsa affected the southernmost Okinawa Prefecture , and produced peak wind gusts of 182 km / h ( 51 m / s ; 113 mph ) on Ishigaki . The storm dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across the region , peaking at 318 mm ( 12 @.@ 5 in ) on Miyako @-@ jima .
The remnants of Matsa also affected South Korea , with moderate amounts of rainfall reaching 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) in Masan .
= = Aftermath = =
Subsequent to the passage of the typhoon in Taiwan , large quantities of mud and impurities entered and polluted the Shihmen Reservoir in Taoyuan County ( now Taoyuan City ) , the county 's primary source of water . Severe cloudiness occurred in the water , and at one time the reservoir recorded 25 @,@ 000 nephelometric turbidity units . Such facilities are unable to operate with mud in the water , and in response , the Taiwan Water Corporation established temporary water stations to alleviate the situation , and the Pingting Water Treatment Plant worked to treat the problem . Furthermore , officials drilled wells to accommodate the shortage . Water supply in the southern portion of Taoyuan County was restored by five days after the storm , with supply restored to the northern portion of the county by ten days after the passage of the typhoon . The same problem had occurred previously after Typhoon Mindulle in July 2004 . As a result of the crop damage , the Taiwan Council of Agriculture opened its reserve of frozen vegetables to prevent overharvesting of the existing crops . Despite the measures , crop prices reached record levels , which led to groups calling out for the government to stabilize the price of foods . In reaction , a member of the Council of Agriculture remarked that " vegetable prices [ were ] expected to go back to normal gradually ... as supplies increase [ d ] . " The passage of the typhoon left hundreds of residents in Hsinchu County isolated from the outside world for four days . As a result , officials deployed helicopters with rescue supplies and returned with the injured . Aid from one internal organization totaled $ NT300,000 ( 2005 TWD , $ 9 @,@ 500 2005 USD ) . Shortly after the effects of the typhoon ended on the island , work began to repair and rebuild the impacted bridges and roads . Electricians quickly began restoring power across northern Taiwan ; by the day after the typhoon 's passage , the number of houses without power decreased by 90 % .
In the People 's Republic of China , members of the People 's Liberation Army assisted in search and rescue operations . Officials called for about 100 @,@ 000 citizens in Shanghai for work in disaster control and distribution of relief aid , with some providing relief supplies to flooded areas by inflatable rafts . Within a month , Typhoons Talim and Khanun also affected the same area , further compounding the effects of Matsa . During the 38th Session of the World Meteorological Organization in Hanoi , Vietnam , the name Matsa was retired ; during the next session , the name Pakhar was nominated as its replacement .
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= I 'm Just Wild About Harry =
" I 'm Just Wild About Harry " is a song written in 1921 with lyrics by Noble Sissle and music by Eubie Blake for the Broadway show Shuffle Along . " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " was the most popular number of the production , which was the first financially successful Broadway play to have African @-@ American writers and an all African @-@ American cast . The song broke what had been a taboo against musical and stage depictions of romantic love between African @-@ Americans .
Originally written as a waltz , Blake rewrote the number as a foxtrot at the singer 's request . The result was a simple , direct , joyous , and infectious tune enhanced onstage by improvisational dancing . In 1948 Harry S. Truman selected " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " as his campaign song for the United States presidential election of 1948 . Its success in politics led to a popular revival .
= = Background = =
Both " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " and the show Shuffle Along broke racial taboos . During the early 20th century African @-@ Americans were excluded from most mainstream theater in the United States : white Vaudeville refused to book more than one African @-@ American act on a bill and for over a decade no Broadway show used African @-@ American performers at all . Blake and Sissle met F. E. Miller and Aubrey Lyles for the first time at a fundraising benefit for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1920 . Vaudeville 's exclusionary practices limited bills to one African @-@ American act per night , so as a result the two leading African @-@ American acting teams knew of each other only by reputation . The four performers agreed that the only feasible way for African @-@ Americans to return to Broadway with dignity would be musical comedy . Miller proposed they collaborate .
The resulting show adapted plot and characters from Miller and Aubrey 's Vaudeville comic sketches with music by Blake and Sissle . Although the music of Shuffle Along was new to the public , only three compositions were actually written for the production : " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " , " Bandana Days " , and " Love Will Find A Way " . The other songs used in the show were material that Blake and Sissle had tried unsuccessfully to sell to Tin Pan Alley . " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " and " Love Will Find a Way " in particular were politically risky for the era .
" If anything approaching a love duet was introduced in a musical comedy , it had to be broadly burlesqued , " recalled black poet and lyricist James Weldon Johnson . " The reason ... lay in the belief that a love scene between two Negroes could not strike a white audience except as ridiculous . "
The title and chorus of the musical 's most famous number challenge that taboo : I 'm just wild about Harry and he 's just wild about me is a clear statement of mutual romantic interest . Sissle and Blake risked the public 's rejection by shedding most of the racial stereotypes that had been the norm for theatrical performances .
= = Creation = =
" I 'm Just Wild About Harry " underwent a complete rewrite during rehearsals and was nearly cut from the show . Blake 's original version of the song was a Viennese waltz , but according to the authors of America 's Songs , performer Lottie Gee encouraged rewriting the number as an up @-@ tempo one @-@ step . Blake disliked the suggestion and feared it would ruin his waltz but capitulated after Sissle agreed with Gee .
Audiences did not respond well to the revised version during early performances . Blake was on the verge of dropping the number from the show when a dancer took ill and had to be replaced . The understudy was a singer who did not know the steps , so when he was unable to follow the routine he ignored it and improvised . America 's Songs quotes Sissle 's recollection of how the performance saved the song : " He dropped out of line and with a jive smile and a high @-@ stepping routine of his own , he stopped the show cold . "
= = Structure = =
Alec Wilder and James T. Maher call " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " a " strong , direct , simple song , the principal device of which is a strong fourth beat tied to the down beat " . The song moves in short melodic bursts characteristic of the era : lighthearted but rhythmic .
" It 's of the genre of Hallelujah , Fine and Dandy and all those cut @-@ time theater rhythm songs . It uses a lot of step @-@ wise writing and only one note out of its C @-@ major scale , a d sharp . For a theater song it is not rangy , being only an octave and a third . "
The tightly rhymed lyrics comprise a straightforward set of comparisons that border on comic exaggeration .
The heavenly blisses
Of his kisses
Fill me with ecstasy .
He 's sweet just like chocolate candy
And just like honey from the bee .
Yet Furia and Lasser describe the song 's overall impact as an infectious delight .
Within the context of the play , the number occurs early in the second act when the leading lady declares her love for the leading man . Her father is the wealthiest man in town , which poses obstacles to the match . The overall plot concerns a mayoral race in all @-@ black Jimtown where two dishonest grocery store owners vie for political office . One of the corrupt grocers wins the race shortly afterward and appoints the other chief of police . Harry leads the community protest that returns the two grocers to their store , and wins the girl .
= = Reception = =
Shuffle Along was a significant theatrical success that " ended more than a decade of systematic exclusion of blacks from the Broadway stage " . The show opened in New York City at Daly 's 63rd Street Music Hall on May 23 , 1921 and ran 504 performances . The venue was actually a converted lecture hall that lacked a proper stage or orchestra pit . The show overcame financial straits and a poor location to become " the first all @-@ black musical to enjoy a long run and be treated as more than an oddity . "
" On the New York opening night , the audience loved the show . Influential critics like Alan Dale , George Jean Nathan , and Heywood Broun were highly enthusiastic . Gradually Shuffle Along built up a cult status . So big were the crowds that the police had trouble controlling the traffic . Eventually they had to make Sixty @-@ third a one @-@ way street . A black show was back on Broadway , even if 63rd Street , a long way uptown , was barely Broadway ! In Eubie Blake 's words , ' It wasn 't Broadway but we made it Broadway . ' "
" I 'm Just Wild About Harry " was the most popular number of the show . Blake conducted the show 's orchestra and recorded the song for the Victor label . Noble Sissle 's 1937 recording for the Victory label altered the original tone considerably in order to showcase the talents of clarinetist Sidney Bechet . Other early recordings include those by Benny Krueger , Louis Mitchell and Paul Whiteman .
In 2016 , it returned to Broadway in a revival of Shuffle Along .
= = Use in other media = =
Judy Garland sang the piece as one of several songs in a minstrel show in the M @-@ G @-@ M musical Babes in Arms ( 1939 ) .
Alice Faye sang it with Louis Prima 's band in the 1939 film Rose of Washington Square . It was signature tune of Hi Gang ! , a popular BBC Radio comedy show of the early WWii years , starring the American actors Bebe Daniels and her husband Ben Lyon , who had settled in London , and the British comedian Vic Oliver . In 1946 , Daffy Duck sang a chorus of it in Daffy Doodles .
In 1948 " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " underwent a revival when Harry S. Truman selected it as his campaign song for the presidency of the United States . Republicans and some Democrats that year joked , " I 'm just mild about Harry . " The next year Al Jolson performed it in the film Jolson Sings Again and the song became a jazz standard . This return to popularity briefly reunited Blake and Sissle for the first time since 1933 . In 1955 , the song again appeared in the Warner Brothers cartoon short One Froggy Evening as one of the songs sung by Michigan J. Frog during his dance routine . Writing about American popular songs in 1972 , Wilder and Maher call " I 'm Just Wild About Harry " the only enduringly popular song from Shuffle Along . On The Muppet Show , Jean Stapleton performed the song with the mad bomber and pyrotechnician Muppet character , Crazy Harry , who accompanies her singing on his explodaphone , which consisted partly of a line of plunger blasting machines wired to set off numerous explosive charges in time with the lyrics .
= = Other versions = =
Kathy Linden released a version of the song on her 1958 album , That Certain Boy .
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= No Podrás =
" No Podrás " ( English : " You Can 't " ) is a song written and composed by Alejandro Zepeda and Peter Skrabak , originally recorded by Mexican recording artist Cristian Castro . Lyrically , the song describes the end of a relationship between two lovers where the protagonist tells the lover that she will not forget how much he loved her . The song was released by Fonovisa Records as the lead single from Castro 's debut studio album Agua Nueva ( 1992 ) . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . It was well received by music critics , despite negative reception of its parent album .
In 1993 , Dominican merengue musician Fernando Villalona covered the song on his album El Niño Mimado . His version of the song peaked at number thirty @-@ two on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs .
= = Background = =
Cristian Castro rose to fame at age five when he began his acting career with his mother , famous actress and singer , Verónica Castro . His first role was on the telenovela El Derecho de Nacer ( 1981 ) . At age seven , he became the lead singer of his band Cristian y los Pollitos ( Cristian and the Little Roosters ) and performed live on the TV show Siempre en Domingo . At age fourteen , he formed rock band Los Demonios Deliciosos ( The Delicious Demons ) whom he performed with for two years . After his departure from the band , Castro became a presenter at the annual OTI Festival where he performed the song " 16 Diciembres " ( " 16 Decembers " ) .
Castro could not afford to record a studio album with his own finances . His friend , Alejandro Zepeda , resolved this problem by selling Castro 's personal belongings , including his car . As a result , Castro recorded his first album , Agua Nueva , produced by Zepeda and released by Fonovisa Records . In 2012 , Castro recorded a live version of " No Podrás " with new arrangements by Matt Rolling and produced Aureo Baqueiro and features fellow Mexican singer Benny Ibarra . This version was included on his second live album En Primera Fila : Día 2 in 2014 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" No Podrás " was written and composed by Alejandro Zepeda and Peter Skrabak . Lyrically , the song describes the end of a relationship between two lovers where the protagonist tells the lover that she will not forget how much he loved her . As with the other songs in the album , " No Podrás " was recorded and produced in California and promoted by Televisa .
= = Release and reception = =
" No Podrás " debuted at number 39 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week of July 25 , 1992 . The song climbed to the top ten on the week of August 29 , 1992 and peaked at number three two weeks later . To promote the song , a music video was made for " No Podrás " which shows Castro performing the song for a live audience . The song also reached number one on the hit parade chart in Mexico City .
An editor of Caretas magazine , while giving Agua Nueva a negative review , felt that " No Podrás " was " excellent work " and remarked that the other songs in the album did not come close to its quality . An editor of Cromos magazine praised the lyrics of the song and said " it was the most beautiful song I have heard " . On the review of the Castro 's compilation album Esenciales : The Ultimate Collection , Heather Phares of Allmusic commented that " No Podrás " had a " slinky " feel .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Allmusic .
Cristian Castro – vocals
Alejandro " Alex " Zepeda – producer , arranger , songwriting , vocals
Kiko Cibrian – Arranger , Chorus , Production Coordination ,
= = Fernando Villalona version = =
In 1993 , Dominican merengue musician Fernando Villalona covered the song on his album , El Nino Mimado and released it as the album 's first single . His version peaked at number 32 on the Hot Latin Songs chart . In 1997 , it appeared on his compilation album Historia de Una Vida . Stephen Erlewine of Allmusic considered the song to be " one of his finest " in his career .
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Credits and personnel = = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
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= Freddy Galvis =
Freddy Jose Galvis ( born November 14 , 1989 ) is a Venezuelan Major League Baseball shortstop for the Philadelphia Phillies . Galvis was born in Punto Fijo , Falcón , Venezuela , and played Little League Baseball including the Little League World Series there before being discovered by one of the Phillies ' scouts in the area . At age 16 , he signed a contract with the Phillies despite not receiving much attention from scouts ; he went on to spend the next several years in their minor league system , including a particularly lengthy stint with the Reading Phillies , the Phillies ' Double @-@ A ( AA ) affiliate . In 2012 , he made his major league debut on opening day at second base , substituting for the injured Chase Utley . He became a fan favorite for his performance early in the season , especially on defense , until he sustained an injury , and subsequently was suspended 50 games after a positive test for performance @-@ enhancing drugs . He missed the remainder of the season . Over the course of the next two seasons , he split time between the Lehigh Valley IronPigs – the Phillies ' Triple @-@ A affiliate – and the major league ball club , but struggled to establish himself offensively . Entering 2015 , his future with the club was uncertain , although with the departure of Jimmy Rollins , he was a candidate to be the team 's starting shortstop .
Galvis is an outstanding defensive shortstop , capable of making acrobatic plays and utilizing a strong throwing arm . Conversely , he has struggled to establish himself as an effective offensive player , having consistently posted batting averages below .250 at the major league level , which hinders the team 's ability to utilize him regularly . He aspires to emulate fellow Venezuelan Omar Vizquel , his role model .
= = Early life = =
Galvis was born November 14 , 1989 , in Punto Fijo , Falcón , Venezuela , and at age 14 , the Philadelphia Phillies began to scout him during his days playing youth baseball . He participated on Latin America 's team in the Little League World Series , but due to his slight stature ( 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) 154 pounds ( 70 kg ) ) , struggled to captivate scouts ' attention . Galvis said , " They told me that I couldn 't play ( pro ) baseball . But I knew I had the ability . " In 2006 , scouts Sal Agostinelli and Jesus Mendez signed him during the amateur player signing period ; Galvis , 16 years old , was not a particularly heralded prospect , but did receive some attention from scouting experts before signing with the Phillies .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
Galvis participated in the Florida Instructional League in 2006 . The next season , he officially began affiliated baseball in 2007 with the Williamsport Crosscutters at age 17 , as one of just five players not born in the United States . He made an impression with Phillies ' personnel due to outstanding defensive skills that drew comparisons to those of Baseball Hall of Famer Omar Vizquel , and also demonstrated solid instincts while baserunning , despite struggling to get on base . Concurrently , he hit .203 with nine stolen bases in 38 games . In 2008 , with the Lakewood Blue Claws in the South Atlantic League , Galvis hit .238 with 14 stolen bases in 127 games . He had a particularly strong May , during which he hit .313 with 14 RBIs in May . He also earned placement on the league 's postseason all @-@ star team . He began 2009 with the Clearwater Threshers in Class A @-@ Advanced , and was the Phillies minor league player of the week after he hit .417 from April 20 to 26 . The following May , he fractured his right ring finger , and spent more than two months on the disabled list . Thereafter , he spent seven games with the GCL Phillies before finishing the season at Double @-@ A , where he hit just .197 .
Galvis returned to Reading for his 2010 season after earning an invitation to the Phillies ' major league spring training . He led all shortstops in the Eastern League in fielding percentage , assists , putouts , and total chances . He was named an Eastern League all @-@ star . After the season , he played for Navegantes del Magallanes in the Venezuelan Winter League . Entering 2011 , he was " was considered major @-@ league @-@ ready defensively but a major liability offensively . " But in 2011 , at age 21 , Galvis had the best season of his career to date . Always known as an excellent defender , but mediocre hitter , he was finally able to improve at the plate , thanks in part to a much more rigorous off @-@ season conditioning regimen , and also due to hitting higher in the batting order , where he was thus challenged to make greater offensive contributions by utilizing a more aggressive approach . He also improved his arm strength to the point that at least defensively , coaches and front office personnel felt he was ready to be a major league shortstop . Starting the year in Double @-@ A ( AA ) with the Reading Phillies , Galvis hit .273 , with 35 RBIs , in 464 plate appearances across 104 games . In August , Galvis was promoted to the Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) Lehigh Valley IronPigs , with whom he hit .321 with nine multi @-@ hit games and 13 runs scored in his first 23 games . He hit in the leadoff spot with Lehigh Valley as well . Overall with Lehigh Valley , he hit .298 , with eight RBIs in 126 plate appearances during 33 games . Between AA and AAA , he combined to hit .278 with eight home runs , 43 RBIs , 78 runs , and 23 stolen bases in 137 games . His excellent numbers were enough to earn the 2011 Paul Owens Award , which is given to the best position player and pitcher , respectively , in the Philadelphia Phillies minor league system . At the end of the 2011 season , Galvis was sent to the Venezuelan Winter League , and despite a brief ganglion cyst injury , played there until December 1 .
= = = Major league career = = =
Galvis was disappointed to learn that that Phillies ' shortstop Jimmy Rollins had re @-@ signed with the Phillies during offseason preceding 2012 , as Galvis had hoped to replace him . He said that he allowed himself to pout for two hours , and then moved on . With Rollins re @-@ signing with the Phillies , Galvis thought he was headed back to the minor leagues . He entered spring training as the " one of the most intriguing story lines " for the Phillies , and led the team in several statistical categories , but still presumed to open the season in AAA . However , on March 19 , 2012 , Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. announced that Chase Utley would miss the beginning of the season due to a knee injury , and Galvis would be the opening day starter there .
Galvis became the first Phillies ' player to make his major league debut on opening day in 42 years when he did so on April 5 . In his debut , he hit into two double plays . Galvis recorded his first major league hit in his fourth career game on April 9 , a two @-@ run double off of Miami Marlins pitcher Aníbal Sánchez . Four days later , he hit his first major league home run off of R.A. Dickey in a game against the New York Mets . After spending two months as the Phillies ' starting second baseman , Galvis injured his back on June 8 ; the injury was initially thought to be a lower back strain , but eventually diagnosed as a Pars fracture in his back . He was placed on the disabled list shortly thereafter . By that time , he had " won the hearts of fans and earned the confidence of his manager ... with dazzling defense . " While on the disabled list , Galvis tested positive for having a metabolite of Clostebol in his system , a violation of Major League Baseball 's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program . Galvis denied any wrongdoing , commenting , " I cannot understand how even this tiny particle of a banned substance got into my body . I have not and never would knowingly use anything illegal to enhance my performance . " He did not play for the remainder of the Phillies ' 2012 season .
There was considerable debate as to whether Galvis should open the 2013 season working on his hitting in AAA , or on the bench of the major league Phillies . Manager Charlie Manuel preferred the latter , commenting that even in 300 major league at bats splitting time between second base , shortstop , and third base , Galvis could make a greater contribution than in a season in the minor leagues . Ultimately , he did make the opening day roster , but struggled through the first third of the season , and was optioned to AAA on June 27 . Correspondingly , the Phillies acquired veteran infielder John McDonald . He performed better in AAA , including a 40 @-@ game streak during which he did not commit any errors , and a leadoff home run on the Fourth of July . He returned to the major league Phillies as a September callup , and on September 7 , 2013 , he compiled four hits including a game @-@ winning home run against the Atlanta Braves . Overall , 19 at second base , 14 at third base , 10 in left field , and six at shortstop comprised his 49 total major league starts . At the major league level , he hit .234 with six home runs and 19 RBIs , and in AAA , he hit .245 with three home runs and 25 RBIs .
Galvis opened the 2014 season with a health scare . During spring training , Galvis contracted a methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection ( more commonly known as MRSA ) , ostensibly from the Phillies ' clubhouse at Bright House Field in Clearwater , Florida . " The team 's most versatile and best defensive player " , Galvis returned to the major league club on April 11 . After he struggled early in the season , the Phillies optioned him to AAA on May 9 in favor of Reid Brignac . Two days later , he broke his clavicle , and spent two months on the disabled list . After a rehabilitation assignment , he performed well at AAA , and earned a call @-@ up to the major leagues , replacing Brignac , whom the Phillies designated for assignment . Overall , Galvis posted his worst offensive season thus far ; he hit .176 at the major league level with four home runs and 12 RBIs . After the season , Michael Baumann of Crashburn Alley wrote , " After two years of medical and developmental setbacks , Galvis is still only entering his age @-@ 25 season , so it 's possible the bat develops from bad to below @-@ average and Galvis turns into something . I wouldn ’ t count on it , but it 's still within the realm of possibility . "
When the Phillies traded Rollins to the Los Angeles Dodgers prior to the 2015 season , media reports speculated that Galvis and César Hernández were the presumptive nominees to start at shortstop for the upcoming season , likely seeking to bridge the gap between Rollins and J.P. Crawford , the top prospect in the Phillies ' organization .
= = Player profile = =
Galvis is a slap hitter who , throughout his major league career , has struggled to assert himself as a competent offensive player . Generally , he seeks to drive the ball in the center of the field , and has shortened his stroke . He has very little ability as a power hitter , but he has hit several home runs in key situations throughout his career , an anomaly that confounded Baumann , who noted that Galvis 's inability " to force his way into the lineup by this point has probably scuttled any chance Galvis has of being the Phillies ’ starting shortstop of the future . " Despite his offensive struggles , Phillies staff and media have long recognized Galvis 's strong defensive skills , noting his propensity to make acrobatic and athletic plays , as well as utilize a strong throwing arm . He aspires to emulate Omar Vizquel , his role model . Sam Donellon , a columnist for The Philadelphia Inquirer , noted that " there are similarities between Galvis and his idol . Both were signed at 16 , both are switch @-@ hitters , both struggled to hit pitching at any level in their early minor league seasons . " Cognizant that he is a smaller player , Galvis has spent significant time working to improve his physical strength and conditioning in the offseasons .
= = Personal life = =
Galvis struggled off the field after his injury in 2012 , noting that he only emerged from the covers of his bed to answer the door for takeout food , namely Chinese food , pizza , and cheesesteaks . Since then , he has started a daily therapeutic routine aimed at preventing future injuries , to which he is apparently susceptible after his first back injury . His hobbies include relaxing at the beach and playing basketball . Galvis married his wife , Anna , in 2013 , and is the father of a girl named Anastasia .
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= Batman : The Dark Knight ( roller coaster ) =
Batman : The Dark Knight ( formerly known as Batman : The Ride ) is a steel floorless roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard located in the south end of Six Flags New England . The roller coaster has 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) of track , reaches a maximum height of 117 @.@ 8 feet ( 35 @.@ 9 m ) , and features five inversions . The coaster was announced on February 6 , 2002 and opened to the public on April 20 , 2002 . In 2008 , the ride 's name was changed to Batman : The Ride to avoid confusion with The Dark Knight Coaster that was planned to be built at the park ; after the project was cancelled , the ride 's name reverted to its original .
= = History = =
Batman : The Dark Knight was announced to the public on February 6 , 2002 though construction had started in September 2001 . After construction and testing was completed by Martin & Vleminckx , the ride officially opened on April 20 , 2002 .
In 2007 , Six Flags announced three The Dark Knight Coaster roller coasters would be built at Six Flags Great Adventure , Six Flags Great America , and Six Flags New England . Because Batman : The Dark Knight 's name was so similar to the new roller coaster , it was renamed to Batman : The Ride . However , as construction on the new roller coaster progressed , the city of Agawam forced Six Flags to stop construction after it was discovered the park had not received the appropriate construction permits . In April 2008 , Six Flags cancelled the project due to the delays and Batman : The Ride was renamed back to its original .
= = Ride experience = =
Once the train is ready to dispatched , part of the station 's floor is lowered . The train then departs and immediately begins to climb the 117 @.@ 8 @-@ foot ( 35 @.@ 9 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train goes through a pre @-@ drop before making a sharp downward left turn back to the ground . When the train reaches the bottom , it then enters a vertical loop . Upon exiting the loop , the train then rises back up and goes through a dive loop . The train then makes a 180 degree left turn through the loop before going through a set of trim brakes . Next , the train enters a zero @-@ gravity roll followed by a right turn leading into interlocking corkscrew 's . After exiting the first corkscrew , the train makes a left turn before going through the second corkscrew . The train then makes another left turn into the final brake run which leads back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 20 seconds .
= = = Track = = =
The steel box track of Batman : The Dark Knight is approximately 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) long and the lift is 117 @.@ 8 feet ( 35 @.@ 9 m ) tall . It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio who manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters . The track is colored purple ( with blue rails ) while the supports are black .
= = = Trains = = =
Batman : The Dark Knight operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has seven cars that can seat four riders in one row for a total of 28 riders per train . The train structure uses similar colors as the track , the seats are purple , and uses over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints that are yellow . Also , unlike traditional steel roller coasters , Batman : The Dark Knight has no floor on its trains .
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= Music hall =
Music hall is a type of British theatrical entertainment that was popular from the early Victorian era circa 1850 and lasting until 1960 . It involved a mixture of popular songs , comedy , speciality acts , and variety entertainment . The term is derived from a type of theatre or venue in which such entertainment took place . British music hall was similar to American vaudeville , featuring rousing songs and comic acts , while in the United Kingdom the term " vaudeville " ' referred to more working @-@ class types of entertainment that would have been termed " burlesque " in America .
Originating in saloon bars within public houses during the 1830s , music hall entertainment became increasingly popular with audiences , so much so , that during the 1850s , the public houses were demolished and specialized music hall theatres developed in their place . These theatres were designed chiefly so people could consume food and alcohol and smoke tobacco in the auditorium while the entertainment took place . This differed somewhat from the conventional type of theatre , which until then seated the audience in stalls with a separate bar @-@ room . Major music halls , were based around London and included Early music halls like the Canterbury Music Hall in Lambeth , Wilton 's Music Hall in Tower Hamlets , and The Middlesex , in Drury Lane , otherwise known as the Old Mo .
By the mid @-@ 19th century , the halls created a demand for new and catchy popular songs . As a result , professional songwriters were enlisted to provide the music for a plethora of star performers , such as Marie Lloyd , Dan Leno , Little Tich , and George Leybourne . Music hall did not adopt its own unique style . Instead all forms of entertainment were performed : male and female impersonators , lions comiques , mime artists and impressionists , trampoline acts , and comic pianists such as John Orlando Parry and George Grossmith were just a few of the many types of entertainments the audiences could expect to find over the next forty years .
Music halls in London were the scene of important industrial conflict in 1907 with a dispute between artists and stage hands on the one hand and theatre managers on the other , which ended in a strike . The halls had recovered by the start of the First World War and were used to stage charity events in aid of the war effort . Music hall entertainment continued after the war , but became less popular due to upcoming Jazz , Swing , and Big Band dance music acts . Licensing restrictions had also changed , and drinking was banned from the auditorium . A new type of music hall entertainment had arrived , in the form of variety , and many music hall performers failed to make the transition . Deemed old fashioned and with the closure of many halls , music hall entertainment ceased and the modern day variety began .
= = Origins and development = =
Music hall in London had its origins in entertainment provided in the new style saloon bars of public houses during the 1830s . These venues replaced earlier semi @-@ rural amusements provided by fairs and suburban pleasure gardens such as Vauxhall Gardens and the Cremorne Gardens . These latter became subject to urban development and became fewer and less popular .
The saloon was a room where for an admission fee or a greater price at the bar , singing , dancing , drama or comedy was performed . The most famous London saloon of the early days was the Grecian Saloon , established in 1825 , at The Eagle ( a former tea @-@ garden ) , 2 Shepherdess Walk , off the City Road in east London . According to John Hollingshead , proprietor of the Gaiety Theatre , London ( originally the Strand Music Hall ) , this establishment was " the father and mother , the dry and wet nurse of the Music Hall " . Later known as the Grecian Theatre , it was here that Marie Lloyd made her début at the age of 14 in 1884 . It is still famous because of an English nursery rhyme , with the somewhat mysterious lyrics :
Up and down the City Road
In and out The Eagle
That 's the way the money goesPop goes the weasel .
Another famous " song and supper " room of this period was Evans Music @-@ and @-@ Supper Rooms , 43 King Street , Covent Garden , established in the 1840s by W.H. Evans . This venue was also known as ' Evans Late Joys ' – Joy being the name of the previous owner . Other song and supper rooms included the Coal Hole in The Strand , the Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane , Covent Garden and the Mogul Saloon in Drury Lane .
The music hall as we know it developed from such establishments during the 1850s and were built in and on the grounds of public houses . Such establishments were distinguished from theatres by the fact that in a music hall you would be seated at a table in the auditorium and could drink alcohol and smoke tobacco whilst watching the show . In a theatre , by contrast , the audience was seated in stalls and there was a separate bar @-@ room . An exception to this rule was the Britannia Theatre , Hoxton ( 1841 ) which somehow managed to evade this regulation and served drinks to its customers . Though a theatre rather than a music hall , this establishment later hosted music hall variety acts .
= = = Early music halls = = =
The establishment often regarded as the first true music hall was the Canterbury , 143 Westminster Bridge Road , Lambeth built by Charles Morton , afterwards dubbed " the Father of the Halls " , on the site of a skittle alley next to his pub , the Canterbury Tavern . It opened on 17 May 1852 and was described by the musician and author Benny Green as being " the most significant date in all the history of music hall " . The hall looked like most contemporary pub concert rooms , but its replacement in 1854 was of then unprecedented size . It was further extended in 1859 , later rebuilt as a variety theatre and finally destroyed by bombing in 1942 .
Another early music hall was The Middlesex , Drury Lane ( 1851 ) . Popularly known as the ' Old Mo ' , it was built on the site of the Mogul Saloon . Later converted into a theatre it was demolished in 1965 . The New London Theatre stands on its site .
Several large music halls were built in the East End . These included the London Music Hall , otherwise known as The Shoreditch Empire , 95 – 99 Shoreditch High Street , ( 1856 – 1935 ) . This theatre was rebuilt during 1894 by Frank Matcham , the architect of the Hackney Empire . Another in this area was the Royal Cambridge Music Hall , 136 Commercial Street ( 1864 – 1936 ) . Designed by William Finch Hill ( the designer of the Britannia theatre in nearby Hoxton ) , it was rebuilt after a fire in 1898 .
The construction of Weston 's Music Hall , High Holborn ( 1857 ) , built up on the site of the Six Cans and Punch Bowl Tavern by the licensed victualler of the premises , Henry Weston , signalled that the West End was fruitful territory for the music hall . During 1906 it was rebuilt as a variety theatre and renamed as the Holborn Empire . It was closed as a result of enemy action in the Blitz on the night of 11 – 12 May 1941 and the building was pulled down in 1960 . Significant West End music halls include :
The Oxford Music Hall , 14 / 16 Oxford Street ( 1861 ) – built on the site of an old coaching inn called the Boar and Castle by Charles Morton , the pioneer music hall developer of The Canterbury , who with this development brought music hall to the West End . Demolished in 1926 .
The London Pavilion ( 1861 ) . Facade of 1885 rebuild still extant .
The Alhambra , Leicester Square ( 1860 ) , in the former premises of the London Panopticon . This sophisticated venue was noted for its alluring corps de ballet and was a focal point for West End pleasure seekers . It was demolished in 1936 .
Other large suburban music halls included :
The Old Bedford , 93 – 95 High Street , Camden Town ( 1861 ) . Built on the site of the tea gardens of a pub called the Bedford Arms . The Bedford was a favourite haunt of the artists known as the Camden Town Group headed by Walter Sickert who featured interior scenes of music halls in his paintings , including one entitled ' Little Dot Hetherington at The Old Bedford ' . The Old Bedford was demolished in 1969 .
Collins ' , Islington Green ( 1862 ) . Opened by Sam Collins , in 1862 , as the Lansdowne Music Hall , converting the pre @-@ existing Lansdowne Arms public house , it was renamed as Collins ' Music Hall in 1863 . It was colloquially known as ' The Chapel on the Green ' . Collins was a star of his own theatre , singing mostly Irish songs specially composed for him . It closed in 1956 , after a fire , but the street front of the building still survives ( see below ) .
Deacons in Clerkenwell ( 1862 ) .
A noted music hall entrepreneur of this time was Carlo Gatti who built a music hall , known as Gatti 's , at Hungerford Market in 1857 . He sold the music hall to South Eastern Railway in 1862 , and the site became Charing Cross railway station . With the proceeds from selling his first music hall , Gatti acquired a restaurant in Westminster Bridge Road , opposite The Canterbury music hall . He converted the restaurant into a second Gatti 's music hall , known as " Gatti 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Road " , in 1865 . It later became a cinema . The building was badly damaged in the Second World War , and was demolished in 1950 . In 1867 , he acquired a public house in Villiers Street named " The Arches " , under the arches of the elevated railway line leading to Charing Cross station . He opened it as another music hall , known as " Gatti 's @-@ in @-@ The @-@ Arches " . After his death his family continued to operate the music hall , known for a period as the Hungerford or Gatti 's Hungerford Palace of Varieties .
It became a cinema in 1910 , and the Players ' Theatre in 1946 .
By 1865 , there were 32 music halls in London seating between 500 to 5 @,@ 000 people plus an unknown , but large , number of smaller venues .
In 1878 , numbers peaked , with 78 large music halls in the metropolis and 300 smaller venues . Thereafter numbers declined due to stricter licensing restrictions imposed by the Metropolitan Board of Works and LCC , and because of commercial competition between popular large suburban halls and the smaller venues , which put the latter out of business .
= = = Variety theatre = = =
A new era of variety theatre was developed by the rebuilding of the London Pavilion in 1885 . Contemporary accounts noted :
Hitherto the halls had borne unmistakeable evidence of their origins , but the last vestiges of their old connections were now thrown aside , and they emerged in all the splendour of their new @-@ born glory . The highest efforts of the architect , the designer and the decorator were enlisted in their service , and the gaudy and tawdry music hall of the past gave way to the resplendent " theatre of varieties " of the present day , with its classic exterior of marble and freestone , its lavishly appointed auditorium and its elegant and luxurious foyers and promenades brilliantly illuminated by myriad electric lights
One of the most famous of these new palaces of pleasure in the West End was the Empire , Leicester Square , built as a theatre in 1884 but acquiring a music hall licence in 1887 . Like the nearby Alhambra this theatre appealed to the men of leisure by featuring alluring ballet dancers and had a notorious promenade which was the resort of courtesans . Another spectacular example of the new variety theatre was the Tivoli in the Strand built 1888 – 90 in an eclectic neo @-@ Romanesque style with Baroque and Moorish @-@ Indian embellishments . " The Tivoli " became a brand name for music @-@ halls all over the British Empire . During 1892 , the Royal English Opera House , which had been a financial failure in Shaftesbury Avenue , applied for a music hall licence and was converted by Walter Emden into a grand music hall and renamed the Palace Theatre of Varieties , managed by Charles Morton . Denied by the newly created LCC permission to construct the promenade , which was such a popular feature of the Empire and Alhambra , the Palace compensated in the way of adult entertainment by featuring apparently nude women in tableaux vivants , though the concerned LCC hastened to reassure patrons that the girls who featured in these displays were actually wearing flesh @-@ toned body stockings and were not naked at all .
One of the grandest of these new halls was the Coliseum Theatre built by Oswald Stoll in 1904 at the bottom of St. Martin 's Lane . This was followed by the London Palladium ( 1910 ) in Little Argyll Street .
Both were designed by the prolific Frank Matcham . As music hall grew in popularity and respectability , and as the licensing authorities exercised ever firmer regulation , the original arrangement of a large hall with tables at which drink was served , changed to that of a drink @-@ free auditorium . The acceptance of music hall as a legitimate cultural form was established by the first Royal Variety Performance before King George V during 1912 at the Palace Theatre . However , consistent with this new respectability the best @-@ known music hall entertainer of the time , Marie Lloyd , was not invited , being deemed too " saucy " for presentation to the monarchy .
= = = ' Music Hall War ' of 1907 = = =
The development of syndicates controlling a number of theatres , such as the Stoll circuit , increased tensions between employees and employers . On 22 January 1907 , a dispute between artists , stage hands and managers of the Holborn Empire worsened . Strikes in other London and suburban halls followed , organised by the Variety Artistes ' Federation . The strike lasted for almost two weeks and was known as the Music Hall War . It became extremely well known , and was advocated enthusiastically by the main spokesmen of the trade union and Labour movement – Ben Tillett and Keir Hardie for example . Picket lines were organized outside the theatres by the artistes , while in the provinces theatre management attempted to oblige artistes to sign a document promising never to join a trade union .
The strike ended in arbitration , which satisfied most of the main demands , including a minimum wage and maximum working week for musicians .
Several music hall entertainers such as Marie Dainton , Marie Lloyd , Arthur Roberts , Joe Elvin and Gus Elen were strong advocates of the strike , though they themselves earned enough not to be concerned personally in a material sense . Lloyd explained her advocacy :
We ( the stars ) can dictate our own terms . We are fighting not for ourselves , but for the poorer members of the profession , earning thirty shillings to £ 3 a week . For this they have to do double turns , and now matinées have been added as well . These poor things have been compelled to submit to unfair terms of employment , and I mean to back up the federation in whatever steps are taken .
The pressure for greater rewards for music hall songwriters resulted in the application of copyright law to musical compositions . This in turn increased the profitability of the music publication industry , and the sale of music in printed form . The music publishers at the time ( Feldman , Francis and Day ... ) were large , extremely profitable companies . They sold the right to sing songs to particular artists , and no other person had the right to sing the songs in public .
= = = Recruiting = = =
World War I may have been the high @-@ water mark of music hall popularity . The artists and composers threw themselves into rallying public support and enthusiasm for the war effort . Patriotic music hall compositions such as " Keep the Home Fires Burning " ( 1914 ) , " Pack up Your Troubles " ( 1915 ) , " It 's a Long Way to Tipperary " ( 1914 ) and " We Don 't Want to Lose You ( but we think you ought to Go ) " , were sung by music hall audiences , and sometimes by soldiers in the trenches .
Many songs promoted recruitment ( " All the boys in khaki get the nice girls " , 1915 ) ; others satirised particular elements of the war experience . " What did you do in the Great war , Daddy " ( 1919 ) criticised profiteers and slackers ; Vesta Tilley 's " I 've got a bit of a blighty one " ( 1916 ) showed a soldier delighted to have a wound just serious enough to be sent home . The rhymes give a sense of grim humour ( When they wipe my face with sponges / and they feed me on blancmanges / I 'm glad I 've got a bit of a blighty one ) .
Tilley became more popular than ever during this time , when she and her husband , Walter de Frece , managed a military recruitment drive . In the guise of characters like ' Tommy in the Trench ' and ' Jack Tar Home from Sea ' , Tilley performed songs such as " The army of today 's all right " and " Jolly Good Luck to the Girl who Loves a Soldier " . This is how she got the nickname Britain 's best recruiting sergeant – young men were sometimes asked to join the army on stage during her show . She also performed in hospitals and sold war bonds . Her husband was knighted in 1919 for his own services to the war effort , and Tilley became Lady de Frece .
Once the reality of war began to sink home , the recruiting songs all but disappeared – the Greatest Hits collection for 1915 published by top music publisher Francis and Day contains no recruitment songs . After conscription was brought in 1916 , songs dealing with the war spoke mostly of the desire to return home . Many also expressed anxiety about the new roles women were taking in society ;
Possibly the most notorious of music hall songs from the First World War was " Oh ! It 's a lovely war " ( 1917 ) , popularised by male impersonator Ella Shields .
= = = Decline = = =
Music hall continued during the interwar period , but no longer as the single dominant form of popular entertainment in Britain . The improvement of cinema , the development of radio , and the cheapening of the gramophone damaged its popularity greatly . It now had to compete with jazz , swing and big band dance music . Licensing restrictions also changed its character .
In 1914 , the London County Council ( LCC ) enacted that drinking be banished from the auditorium into a separate bar and during 1923 even the separate bar was abolished by parliamentary decree . The exemption of the theatres from this latter act prompted some critics to denounce this legislation as an attempt to deprive the working classes of their pleasures , as a form of social control , whilst sparing the supposedly more responsible upper classes who patronised the theatres ( though this could be due to the licensing restrictions brought about due to the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 , which also applied to public houses as well ) . Even so , the music hall gave rise to such major stars as George Formby , Gracie Fields , Max Miller , Will Hay , and Flanagan and Allen during this period .
In the early 1950s , rock and roll , whose performers initially topped music hall bills , attracted a young audience who had little interest in the music hall acts while driving the older audience away . The final demise was competition from television , which grew very popular after the Queen 's coronation was televised . Some music halls tried to retain an audience by putting on striptease acts . In 1957 , the playwright John Osborne delivered this elegy :
The music hall is dying , and with it , a significant part of England . Some of the heart of England has gone ; something that once belonged to everyone , for this was truly a folk art .
Moss Empires , the largest British Music Hall chain , closed the majority of its theatres in 1960 , closely followed by the death of music hall stalwart Max Miller in 1963 , prompting one contemporary to write that : " Music @-@ halls ... died this afternoon when they buried Max Miller " . Miller himself had sometimes said that the genre would die with him . Many music hall performers , unable to find work , fell into poverty ; some did not even have a home , having spent their working lives living in digs between performances .
Stage and film musicals , however , continued to be influenced by the music hall idiom , including Oliver ! , Dr Dolittle and My Fair Lady . The BBC series The Good Old Days , which ran for thirty years , recreated the music hall for the modern audience , and the Paul Daniels Magic Show allowed several speciality acts a television presence from 1979 to 1994 . Aimed at a younger audience , but still owing a lot to the music hall heritage , was the late ' 70s series The Muppet Show .
= = Music halls of Paris = =
The music hall was first imported into France in its British form in 1862 , but under the French law protecting the state theatres , performers could not wear costumes or recite dialogue , something only allowed in theaters .. When the law changed in 1867 , the Paris music hall flourished , and a half @-@ dozen new halls opened , offering acrobats , singers , dancers , magicians , and trained animals . The first Paris music call built specially for that purpose was the Folies @-@ Bergere ( 1869 ) ; it was followed by the Moulin Rouge ( 1889 ) , the Alhambra ( 1866 ) , the first to be called a music hall , and the Olympia ( 1893 ) . The Printania ( 1903 ) was a music @-@ garden , open only in summer , with a theater , restaurant , circus , and horse @-@ racing . Older theaters also transformed themselves into music halls , including the Bobino Music Hall ( 1873 ) , the Bataclan ( 1864 ) , and the Alcazar ( 1858 ) . At the beginning , music halls offered dance reviews , theater and songs , but gradually songs and singers became the main attraction .
Paris music halls all faced stiff competition in the interwar period from the most popular new form of entertainment , the cinema . They responded by offering more complex and lavish shows . In 1911 , the Olympia had introduced the giant stairway as a set for its productions , an idea copied by other music halls . The singer Mistinguett made her debut the Casino de Paris in 1895 and continued to appear regularly in the 1920s and 1930s at the Folies Bergère , Moulin Rouge and Eldorado . Her risqué routines captivated Paris , and she became one of the most highly @-@ paid and popular French entertainers of her time .
One of the most popular entertainers in Paris during the period was the American singer Josephine Baker . Baker sailed to Paris , France . She first arrived in Paris in 1925 to perform in a show called " La Revue Nègre " at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées . She became an immediate success for her erotic dancing , and for appearing practically nude on stage . After a successful tour of Europe , she returned to France to star at the Folies Bergère . Baker performed the ' Danse sauvage , ' wearing a costume consisting of a skirt made of a string of artificial bananas .
The music @-@ halls suffered growing hardships in the 1930s . The Olympia was converted into a movie theater , and others closed . Others continued to thrive . In 1937 and 1930 , the Casino de Paris presented shows with Maurice Chevalier , who had already achieved success as an actor and singer in Hollywood .
In 1935 , a twenty @-@ year old singer named Édith Piaf was discovered in the Pigalle by nightclub owner Louis Leplée , whose club Le Gerny , off the Champs @-@ Élysées , was frequented by the upper and lower classes alike . He persuaded her to sing despite her extreme nervousness . Leplée taught her the basics of stage presence and told her to wear a black dress , which became her trademark apparel . Leplée ran an intense publicity campaign leading up to her opening night , attracting the presence of many celebrities , including Maurice Chevalier . Her nightclub appearance led to her first two records produced that same year , and the beginning of a legendary career .
Competition from movies and television largely brought an end to the Paris music hall . However , a few still flourish , with tourists as their primary audience . Major music halls include the Folies @-@ Bergere , Crazy Horse Saloon , Casino de Paris , Olympia , and Moulin Rouge .
= = History of the songs = =
The musical forms most associated with music hall evolved in part from traditional folk song and songs written for popular drama , becoming by the 1850s a distinct musical style . Subject matter became more contemporary and humorous , and accompaniment was provided by larger house @-@ orchestras as increasing affluence gave the lower classes more access to commercial entertainment and to a wider range of musical instruments , including the piano . The consequent change in musical taste from traditional to more professional forms of entertainment arose in response to the rapid industrialisation and urbanisation of previously rural populations during the Industrial Revolution . The newly created urban communities , cut off from their cultural roots , required new and readily accessible forms of entertainment .
Music halls were originally tavern rooms which provided entertainment , in the form of music and speciality acts , for their patrons . By the middle years of the nineteenth century , the first purpose @-@ built music halls were being built in London . The halls created a demand for new and catchy popular songs that could no longer be met from the traditional folk song repertoire . Professional songwriters were enlisted to fill the gap .
The emergence of a distinct music hall style can be credited to a fusion of musical influences . Music hall songs needed to gain and hold the attention of an often jaded and unruly urban audience . In America , from the 1840s , Stephen Foster had reinvigorated folk song with the admixture of Negro spiritual to produce a new type of popular song . Songs like " Old Folks at Home " ( 1851 ) and " Oh , Dem Golden Slippers " ( James Bland , 1879 ) spread round the globe , taking with them the idiom and appurtenances of the minstrel song . Other influences on the rapidly developing music hall idiom were Irish and European music , particularly the jig , polka , and waltz .
Typically , a music hall song consists of a series of verses sung by the performer alone , and a repeated chorus which carries the principal melody , and in which the audience is encouraged to join .
In Britain , the first music hall songs often promoted the alcoholic wares of the owners of the halls in which they were performed . Songs like " Glorious Beer " , and the first major music hall success , Champagne Charlie ( 1867 ) had a major influence in establishing the new art form . The tune of " Champagne Charlie " became used for the Salvation Army hymn " Bless His Name , He Sets Me Free " ( 1881 ) . When asked why the tune should be used like this , William Booth is said to have replied " Why should the devil have all the good tunes ? " The people the Army sought to save , knew nothing of the hymn tunes or gospel melodies used in the churches , but ' the music hall had been their melody school . ' "
By the 1870s , the songs were free of their folk music origins , and particular songs also started to become associated with particular singers , often with exclusive contracts with the songwriter , just as many pop songs are today . Towards the end of the style the music became influenced by ragtime and jazz , before being overtaken by them .
Music hall songs were often composed with their working class audiences in mind . Songs like My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) , Knocked ' em in the Old Kent Road , and Waiting at the Church , expressed in melodic form situations with which the urban poor were very familiar . Music hall songs could be romantic , patriotic , humorous or sentimental , as the need arose . The most popular music hall songs became the basis for the pub songs of the typical Cockney " knees up " .
Although a number of songs show a sharply ironic and knowing view of working class life , no doubt a larger number were repetitive , derivative , written quickly and sung to make a living rather than a work of art .
= = = Famous music hall songs = = =
" Any Old Iron " ( Charles Collins ; Terry Sheppard ) sung by Harry Champion .
" Boiled Beef and Carrots " ( Charles Collins and Fred Murray ) sung by Harry Champion .
" The Boy I Love is Up in the Gallery " ( George Ware ) sung by Nellie Power and Marie Lloyd .
" Burlington Bertie from Bow " ( William Hargreaves ) sung by Ella Shields .
" Daddy Wouldn 't Buy Me a Bow Wow " ( Joseph Tabrar ) sung by Vesta Victoria .
" Daisy Bell " ( Harry Dacre ) sung by Katie Lawrence .
" Down at the Old Bull and Bush " ( Harry von Tilzer ; Andrew B. Sterling ) sung by Florrie Forde .
" Goodbye , Dolly Grey " ( Paul Barnes ; Will . D. Cobb ) sung by George Lashwood .
" Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly ? " ( C. W. Murphy and Will Letters ) sung by Florrie Forde .
" Hello , Hello , Who 's Your Lady Friend ? " ( Harry Fragson ; Worton David and Bert Lee ) sung by Mark Sheridan .
" Hold Your Hand Out , Naughty Boy " ( C. W. Murphy and Will Letters ) sung by Florrie Forde .
" I Belong to Glasgow " , written and performed by Will Fyffe .
" I Do Like to Be Beside the Seaside " ( John A. Glover @-@ Kind )
" I 'm Henery the Eighth , I Am " ( 1911 ) [ 1 ] ( Fred Murray and Bert Weston ) sung by Harry Champion .
" I Live in Trafalgar Square " ( C. W. Murphy ) sung by Morny Cash .
" If It Wasn 't For The ' Ouses In Between " ( George Le Brunn ; Edgar Bateman ) sung by Gus Elen .
" It 's a Bit of a Ruin That Cromwell Knocked About a Bit " ( Harry Bedford ; Terry Sullivan ) sung by Marie Lloyd .
" It 's a Long Way to Tipperary " ( 1914 ) [ 2 ] ( Jack Judge and Harry Williams ) sung by John McCormack .
" Let 's All Go Down the Strand " ( Harry Castling and C. W. Murphy ) sung by Charles R. Whittle .
" My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " ( Charles Collins and Fred W. Leigh ) sung by Marie Lloyd .
" Oh , What a Lovely War ! " sung by Ella Shields .
" Oh ! Mr Porter " ( George Le Brunn and Thomas Le Brunn ) sung by Marie Lloyd and Norah Blaney
" Ta @-@ ra @-@ ra @-@ boom @-@ de @-@ ay " ( Harry J. Sayers ) sung by Lottie Collins .
" Where Did You Get That Hat ? " ( James Rolmaz ) sung by J. C. Heffron .
" Waiting at the Church " [ 3 ] ( Henry E. Pether ; Frank W. Leigh ) sung by Vesta Victoria .
= = = Music hall songwriters = = =
Harry Dacre , composer of " Daisy Bell "
Augustus Durandeau , writer of " If You Want To Know The Time , Ask A Policeman " , " Come Where The Booze Is Cheaper " , " Never introduce yer Donah to a pal "
Noel Gay , writer of " Lambeth Walk " , " There 's Something About a Soldier " , " Leaning on a Lamppost "
Fred Gilbert , composer of " The Man that Broke the Bank At Monte Carlo "
Harry Lauder , writer of " Stop your Tickling Jock " , " I Love A Lassie "
George Le Brunn , writer of " Oh ! Mr Porter ! "
Fred W Leigh , composer of " Don 't Dilly Dally " and " The Army of Today "
Arthur Lloyd , over 100 songs .
Lionel Monckton , composer of " Moonstruck " , " Soldiers in the Park " , " The Pipes of Pan "
C. W. Murphy , composer of " Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly ? "
Felix Powell , writer of " Pack up Your Troubles "
George Alex Stevens , writer of " On Mother Kelly 's Doorstep " , " Mother I Love You " , " Chump Chop and Chips " and " When the Harvest Moon is Shining " .
Joseph Tabrar , writer of " Daddy Wouldn 't Buy Me a Bow Wow " and at least 7 @,@ 200 other songs
Harry Wincott , writer of " The Old Dun Cow "
Joseph Bryan Geoghegan born 1816 Barton upon Irwell , Lancashire ( musician and songwriter ) writer of " Down in a Coal Mine " , " John Barleycorn " , " Ten Thousand Milesaway " , " Pat works on the Railway " , " Johnny , I hardly knew ya " , and many others . In later life he managed Music Halls including Bolton Music Hall .
Matthew Hall ( Merry Matt Hall ) born 1849 Batley , West Yorkshire . Music Hall comic , married Joseph B Geoghegan 's daughter Kathleen . Their many children became actors and entertainers .
= = Music hall comedy = =
The typical music hall comedian was a man or woman , usually dressed in character to suit the subject of the song , or sometimes attired in absurd and eccentric style . Until well into the twentieth century , the acts were essentially vocal , with songs telling a story , accompanied by a minimum of patter . They included a variety of genres , including :
Lion comiques : essentially , men dressed as " toffs " , who sang songs about drinking champagne , going to the races , going to the ball , womanising and gambling , and living the life of an aristocrat .
Male and female impersonators , perhaps more in the style of a pantomime dame than a modern drag queen . Nevertheless , these included some more sophisticated performers such as Vesta Tilley , whose male impersonations communicated real social commentary .
= = Speciality acts = =
The vocal content of the music hall bills , was , from the beginning , accompanied by many other kinds of act , some of them quite weird and wonderful . These were known collectively as speciality acts ( abbreviated to " spesh " ) , which , over time , have included :
Aerial acts , of the sort usually seen at the circus
Adagio : essentially a sort of cross between a dance act and a juggling act , consisting usually of a male dancer who threw a slim , pretty young girl around . Some aspects of modern dance choreography evolved from Adagio acts .
Magic acts and escapologists , such as Harry Houdini .
Cycling acts : again , a development of a circus act , consisting of either a solo or a troupe of trick cyclists . There was even seven @-@ piece a cycling band called Seven Musical Savonas , who played fifty instruments between them , and Kaufmann 's Cycling Beauties , a troupe of girls in Victorian swim wear .
Ventriloquists , or Vent acts as they were called in the business .
Electric acts , using the newly discovered phenomenon of static electricity to produce tricks such as lighting gas jets and setting fire to handkerchiefs through the performers fingertips .
Drag artists . Female entertainers dressed as men , such as Vesta Tilley . Or male entertainers dressed as women , such as impressionist , Danny La Rue , or comedian , Rex Jameson , in the character of Mrs Shufflewick .
Knife throwing and sword swallowing . The most spectacular of its time was the Victorina Troupe , who swallowed a sword fired from a rifle .
Juggling and plate spinning acts . Another variation was the Diabolo .
Feats of strength by both strongmen and strongwomen .
Fire eaters and other eating acts , such as eating glass , razor blades , goldfish etc .
Wrestling and jujitsu exhibitions were both popular speciality acts , forming the basis of modern professional wrestling .
Mentalism acts . Commonly a male mentalist , blindfolded on stage , and an attractive female assistant passing among the audience . The assistant would collect objects from the audience , and the mentalist would identify each by " reading " the assistants mind . This was usually accomplished by a clever system of codes and clues from the assistant .
Mime artists and impressionists .
Trampoline acts .
Animal acts : Talking dogs , flea circuses , and all manner of animals doing tricks .
Stilt walkers .
Puppet acts , including human puppets and living doll acts .
Comic pianists , such as John Orlando Parry and George Grossmith .
Cowboy / Wild West acts .
Shadow puppet acts .
= = Music hall performers = =
= = Cultural influences of music hall : Literature , drama , screen , and later music = =
The music hall has been evoked in many films , plays , TV series , and books .
About half of the film Those Were the Days ( 1934 ) is set in a music hall . It was based on a farce by Pinero and features the music hall acts of Lily Morris , Harry Bedford , the gymnasts Gaston & Andre , G. H. Elliott , Sam Curtis and Frank Boston & Betty .
A music hall with a ' memory man ' act provides a pivotal plot device in the classic 1935 Alfred Hitchcock thriller The 39 Steps .
The Arthur Askey comedy film I Thank You ( 1941 ) features old @-@ time music hall star Lily Morris as an ex @-@ music hall artiste now ennobled as " Lady Randall " . In the last scene of the film , however , she reverts to type and gives a rendition of " Waiting at the Church " at an impromptu concert at Aldwych tube station organised by Askey and his side @-@ kick Richard " Stinker " Murdoch .
The Victorian era of music hall was celebrated by the 1944 film , Champagne Charlie .
The comedy of Benny Hill , first seen on British television in 1951 , was heavily influenced by the traditions and conventions of Music hall comedy and he actively kept those traditions ( comedy , songs , patter , pantomime , and female impersonations ) alive on his more than 100 television specials broadcast from 1955 through 1991 .
Charlie Chaplin 's 1952 film Limelight , set in 1914 London , evokes the music hall world of Chaplin 's youth where he performed as comedian before he achieved worldwide celebrity as a film star in America . The film depicts the last performance of a washed @-@ up music hall clown called Calvero at The Empire theatre , Leicester Square . The film premiered at the Empire Cinema , which was built on the same site as the Empire theatre .
The Good Old Days ( 1953 to 1983 ) was a popular BBC television light entertainment programme recorded live at the Leeds City Varieties which recreated an authentic atmosphere of the Victorian – Edwardian music hall with songs and sketches of the era performed by present @-@ day performers in the style of the original artistes . The audience dressed in period costume and joined in the singing , especially the singing of Down at the Old Bull and Bush which closed the show . The show was compered by Leonard Sachs who introduced the acts . In the course of its run , it featured about 2000 artists . The show was first broadcast on 20 July 1953 . The Good Old Days was inspired by the success of the Ridgeway 's Late Joys at the Players ' Theatre Club in London : a private members ' club that ran fortnightly programmes of variety acts in London 's West End .
John Osborne 's play The Entertainer ( 1957 ) portrays the life and work of a failing third @-@ rate music hall stage performer who tries to keep his career going even as his personal life falls apart . The story is set at the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956 , against the backdrop of the dying music hall tradition , and has been seen as symbolic of Britain 's general post @-@ war decline , its loss of its Empire , its power , and its cultural confidence and identity . It was made into a film in 1960 starring Laurence Olivier in the title role of Archie Rice .
In Grip of the Strangler ( 1958 ) , set in Victorian London , the raunchy can @-@ can dancers and loose women of the sleazy " Judas Hole " music hall are terrorised by the Haymarket Strangler , played by Boris Karloff .
J. B. Priestley 's 1965 novel Lost Empires also evokes the world of Edwardian music hall just before the start of World War I ; the title is a reference to the Empire theatres ( as well as foreshadowing the decline of the British Empire itself ) . It was recently adapted as a television miniseries , shown in both the UK and in the U.S. as a PBS presentation . Priestley 's 1929 novel The Good Companions , set in the same period , follows the lives of the members of a " concert party " or touring Pierrot troupe .
The parodic film Oh ! What a Lovely War ( 1969 ) , based on the stage musical Oh , What a Lovely War ! ( 1963 ) by Joan Littlewood 's Theatre Workshop , featured the music hall turns and songs that had provided support for the British war effort in World War I.
The popular British television series Upstairs , Downstairs ( 1971 – 1975 ) and its spin @-@ off Thomas & Sarah ( 1979 ) each dealt frequently with the world of the Edwardian music hall , sometimes through references to actual Edwardian era performers such as Vesta Tilley or to characters on the show attending performances , and other times through the experiences of the popular character Sarah Moffat , who left domestic service several times and often ended up going on stage to support herself when she did .
Between 1978 and 1984 , BBC television broadcast two series of programmes called The Old Boy Network . These featured a star ( usually a music hall performer , but also some younger turns like Eric Sykes ) performing some of their best known routines while giving a slide show of their life story . Artistes featured included Arthur Askey , Tommy Trinder , Sandy Powell , and Chesney Allen .
The modern Players ' Theatre Club provides a brief impression of contemporary music hall in the film The Fourth Angel , where Jeremy Irons ' character creates an alibi by visiting a show .
Sarah Waters 's book Tipping the Velvet ( 1998 ) revolves around the world of music halls in the late Victorian era , and in particular around two fictional " mashers " ( drag kings ) named Kitty Butler and Nan King .
Music hall had a profound influence on The Beatles through Paul McCartney , who is himself the son of a music hall performer ( Jim McCartney , who led Jim Mac 's Jazz Band ) . Many of McCartney 's songs are indistinguishable from music hall except in some of their instrumentation . " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " and " Honey Pie " are two examples , as are " Your Mother Should Know " and " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " .
Herman 's Hermits , led by Peter Noone , also incorporated music hall into their repertoire , scoring a major hit with their cover of the Harry Champion music hall standard , " I 'm Henery the Eighth , I Am " , in 1965 ( but Noone 's version included only the chorus , not the many verses of the original ) .
In James Joyce 's short story The Boarding House , Mrs. Mooney 's boarding @-@ house in Hardwicke Street accommodates " occasionally ( ... ) artistes from the music halls " . The Sunday night " reunions " with Jack Mooney in the drawing @-@ room create a certain atmosphere .
In Vivian Stanshall and Ki Longfellow @-@ Stanshall 's musical , Stinkfoot , a Comic Opera , the lead performer is an ageing music hall artiste named Soliquisto .
British rockers Queen incorporated music hall styles into several of their songs , such as 1974 's " Killer Queen " and 1976 's " Good Old @-@ Fashioned Lover Boy " .
Garry Bushell 's punk pathetique band , The Gonads , did rock versions of music hall songs . Many punk pathetique acts were indebted to the music hall tradition .
The Theatre of the Absurd was heavily influenced by music hall in its use of comedy , as well as avant @-@ garde cultural forms ( such as surrealism ) being a more obvious influence .
The spirit of the music hall lives on in the form of pensioner rapper , Ida Barr who mashes up music hall and rap . Based on a real artiste , the act is performed by Christopher Green .
= = Surviving music halls = =
London was the centre of music hall with hundreds of venues , often in the entertainment rooms of public houses . With the decline in popularity of music hall , many were abandoned , or converted to other uses , such as cinemas and their interiors lost . There are a number of purpose @-@ built survivors , including the Hackney Empire , an outstanding example of the late music hall period ( Frank Matcham 1901 ) . This has been restored to its Moorish splendour and now provides an eclectic programme of events from opera to " Black Variety Nights " . A mile to the south is Hoxton Hall an 1863 example of the saloon @-@ style . It is unrestored but maintained in its original layout , and currently used as a community centre and theatre . In the neighbouring borough , Collins Music Hall ( built about 1860 ) still stands on the north side of Islington Green . The hall closed in the 1960s and currently forms part of a bookshop .
In Clapham , The Grand , originally the Grand Palace of Varieties ( 1900 ) , has been restored , but its interior reflects its modern use as a music venue and nightclub . The Greenwich Theatre was originally the Rose and Crown Music Hall ( 1855 ) , and later became ' Crowder 's Music Hall and Temple of Varieties ' . The building has been extensively modernised and little of the original layout remains .
In the nondescript Grace 's Alley , off Cable Street , Stepney stands Wilton 's Music Hall . This 1858 example of the giant pub hall survived use as a church , fire , flood and war intact , but was virtually derelict , after its use as a rag warehouse , in the 1960s . The Wilton 's Music Hall Trust has embarked on a fund @-@ raising campaign to restore the building . In June 2007 , the World Monuments Fund added the building to its list of the world 's " 100 most endangered sites " . The music video of the Frankie Goes to Hollywood single Relax was shot here . Many of these buildings can be seen as part of the annual London Open House event .
There are also surviving music halls outside London , a notable example being the Leeds City Varieties ( 1865 ) with a preserved interior . This was used for many years as the setting for the BBC television variety show , based on the music hall genre , The Good Old Days . The Alhambra Theatre , Bradford was built in 1914 for theatre impresario Francis Laidler , and later owned by the Stoll @-@ Moss Empire ' . It was restored in 1986 , and is a fine example of the late Edwardian style . It is now a receiving theatre for touring productions , and opera .
In Nottingham , the Malt Cross music hall retains its restored cast @-@ iron interior . It is run as a cafe bar by a Christian charitable trust promoting responsible drinking , also as the location of a safe space late at night and for operating a street pastor service . It is an award @-@ winning and popular venue true to its original purpose of providing a venue for up and coming musical acts .
In Northern Ireland , the Grand Opera House , Belfast , Frank Matcham 1895 , was preserved and restored in the 1980s . The Gaiety Theatre , Isle of Man is another Matcham design from 1900 that remains in use after an extensive restoration programme in the 1970s . In Glasgow , the Britannia Music Hall ( 1857 ) , by architects Thomas Gildard and H.M. McFarlane remains standing , with much of the theatre intact but in a poor state having closed in 1938 . There is a preservation trust attempting to rescue the theatre .
One of the few fully functional music hall entertainments , is at the Brick Lane Music Hall in a former church in North Woolwich . The Players ' Theatre Club is another group performing a Victorian style music hall show at a variety of venues and The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America stage music hall @-@ style entertainments .
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= Monaro Highway =
The Monaro Highway is a highway that is located in Victoria , New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory , in Australia .
The 285 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 177 mi ) roadway links Cann River in Victoria to Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) via the Monaro region . From its southern terminus , it follows the nearby Cann River upstream towards the New South Wales border through heavily forested terrain . Within New South Wales ( NSW ) , it makes its way through further forest before reaching the pastures typical of the Monaro . There are multiple towns and villages along the highway , including Bombala , Nimmitabel , and Cooma . The terrain within the Monaro is largely hilly , and there are numerous crossings . The road also parallels the former Bombala railway line in several locations . Within the ACT , the road becomes a high volume roadway and serves the southern suburbs of Canberra .
Originally known as Cann Valley Road , the Victorian section was designated as a highway in 1960 , and received the name Cann Valley Highway . The Monaro Highway name was applied to the road within Victoria in 1996 . Within NSW , the highway was created in 1938 and designated as State Highway 19 within the Department of Main Roads . In 1958 , It was named the Monaro Highway in both NSW and the ACT , though the same name had been in use by the Snowy Mountains Highway until 1955 . The Monaro Highway has more recently had a grade @-@ separated dual carriageway extension constructed within Canberra , as part of the Eastern Parkway construction project .
The Monaro Highway initially bore the National Route 23 route markers along its entire length , excluding the Eastern Parkway extension , which was instead part of Alternate National Route 23 . Now that each jurisdiction has converted to alphanumeric markers , it instead carries the B23 route marker along almost its entire length . The extension currently does not have a route marker . There is a duplex along the highway where it additionally carries the B72 route marker between the two sections of the Snowy Mountains Highway . Within the ACT , a section of the road is also part of Tourist Drive 5 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Victoria = = =
The Monaro Highway begins at the Princes Highway in Cann River in the East Gippsland region . After leaving the town , it heads north along a relatively flat area following the Cann River upstream through a locality known as Noorinbee . To the west is farmland between the road and river and a mountain range beyond and to the east are some smaller hills . The land to the east is largely part of Drummer State Forest . As the sides close in at the northern end of this wider valley area , the highway crosses to the west bank of the river highway and enters the Noorinbee North locality . Continuing north , the terrain is more hilly and forested and the alignment more closely parallels the winding river upstream to the area of Weeragua . At this point , the land to the west of the river is part of Buldah State Forest , and to the east is Coopracambra National Park . The road has now entered the Chandlers Creek locality and at Weeragua , the road crosses the west branch of the Cann River and continues further north along the east branch through a small farmland area . From here , it follows the river through more forest before coming to another small farmland area and crossing Chandlers Creek itself . The road once again enters forest as it follows the Cann River east branch to its upper end at the confluence of Fiddlers Green Creek and Flat Rock Creek , the latter of which the road follows through Coopracambra National Park to the New South Wales border .
= = = New South Wales = = =
From the state border , the road continues north through forest , generally keeping Bondi State Forest to the west and South East Forest National Park to the east . The immediate landscape by the roadside also includes the occasional small tract of farmland at several points . There is a crossing over the Genoa River within the forest , and the road roughly follows it upstream . Upon exiting the large forested area that exists near the border , the road enters farmland . This farmland continues as a patchwork of pastures for the rest of the journey within New South Wales and is only interrupted by the occasional town . The road continues roughly northwest until it meets Delegate Road at a T @-@ intersection just outside Bombala . Turning towards the northeast at the intersection , the road quickly reaches Bombala . Within the urban area , the road firstly takes on the name Maybe Street . It then turns northeast at Forbes Street and crosses over the Bombala River . After the bridge , the road returns to a northeast heading as Mahratta Street . This street continues for a short distance before a right angle bend to the northwest to match the same manoeuvre by the river . The road then becomes Stephen Street before returning to the Monaro Highway name at the edge of the urban area and concluding its zig @-@ zag trajectory through Bombala .
The road then travels in a north @-@ easterly direction , crossing the Bombala River again and making its way towards Bibbenluke . The road bypasses the village just to its west and makes a further crossing of the Bombala River . Continuing north , the road winds its way towards a ridge near Native Dog Creek . After crossing the creek , the road climbs the ridge and continues northbound . At this point , the former Bombala railway line alignment winds along the western side and is visible in some locations . Eventually the road swings east and meets the western end of the eastern section of the Snowy Mountains Highway at another T @-@ intersection . The Monaro Highway turns towards the northwest at this intersection and , after a short distance , crosses the Maclaughlin River . A little further along this heading , the road enters Nimmitabel . The highway takes on the name Bombala Street within the urban area and swings to the northeast through the small town . From here , the road continues northwest once again with the railway alignment never far to the west and sometimes paralleling the road . The road crosses several small creeks along this stretch of road . Before reaching Cooma , the road also passes to the west of Kuma Nature Reserve and crosses over the former Bombala railway line . Within the town of Cooma , the road initially takes up the name Bombala Street . Where this street meets Sharp Street at a 4 @-@ way roundabout , the highway turns east , while the western section of the Snowy Mountains Highway begins from the same point and heads west . Continuing east as Sharp Street , the road soon curves north and transitions back to the Monaro Highway . It then parallels the railway within the urban area and also passes by the Tadeusz Kościuszko Monument as it leaves the town .
North of Cooma , the highway follows the same general path as the railway alignment as far as the area of Bunyan . From there , it continues along the same rough heading and crosses the Numeralla River just prior to its confluence with the Murrumbidgee River . The road then follows the Murrumbidgee downstream at some distance to its east . The highway continues on towards Bredbo and crosses the Bredbo River as it enters the village . The highway takes on the name Cooma Street through Bredbo and crosses over the railway yet again just north of the town . Further to the north , the road passes through Gungoandra Gap to the east of Round Hill . Mount Colinton is now visible to the highway 's east , and a larger range known as the Clear Range is visible to west . The ridgeline of the Clear Range forms the eastern border of the ACT in this area . Heading further downstream , continuing the distant parallel of the Murrumbidgee , the road enters Michelago and crosses the railway a final few times as the railway winds through the area . It does not enter the urban area of Michelago itself and instead passes to the west of the village . North of Michelago the road and railway parallel each other very closely as they head towards the ACT border at the north end of the Clear Range . The road crosses the border just east of Cunningham Hill .
= = = Australian Capital Territory = = =
From the territory border , the road passes into the rural southern reaches of the Tuggeranong District . In this area of the ACT , the railway line forms the eastern border of the territory , with the railway line itself situated on the NSW side . To the western side of the road flows Guises Creek , with a range of hills beyond it , Rose Hill and Mount Rob Roy being two of the more prominent peaks . As the road reaches the Tuggeranong urban area , it begins to parallel the urban area instead and forms part of the border of Tuggeranong 's eastern suburbs . Approaching the Tharwa Drive intersection , the road becomes a dual carriageway . The road climbs onto a small ridge with views of the urban area to the west and the Tuggeranong Pine Plantation to the east . The road then descends towards the Jerrabomberra district border where it meets Isabella Drive , and then passes through the light industrial suburb of Hume , although the land to the west of the road is largely undeveloped . Within Hume , the road meets Lanyon Drive , which heads across the nearby border towards Jerrabomberra and Queanbeyan . The road then continues roughly north and crosses a largely open area of pasture . The SouthCare emergency helicopter is stationed to the east of the road not far after its intersection with Lanyon Drive , and further on , a prison is located to the west . Approaching the northern end of the pasture , Jerrabomberra Creek flows to the east . At the northern end is the Hindmarsh Drive interchange . The highway passes underneath Hindmarsh Drive and continues over Jerrabomberra Creek . A further interchange , passing over Canberra Avenue is a little further on , along with an overpass above the Canberra railway line branch , and an interchange above Newcastle Street . The road then doglegs across a wide flat and terminates at Morshead Drive , just across the Molonglo River . In 2010 the average annual daily traffic count was approximately 43 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , at this final section just prior to the northern terminus .
= = History = =
= = = Early roads = = =
A minor road appears in this region on Thomas Mitchell 's 1834 map of the Nineteen Counties of New South Wales . Located within Murray county , the road continues from Bungendore towards the south before turning west crossing the Queanbeyan River near its confluence with the Molonglo River ( The current location of Queanbeyan ) , and then heads south towards what was then known as the " Miccaligo Plains " ( now Michelago ) . The road is then marked as continuing south beyond the border of the county ; although no settlement could legally occur beyond the Nineteen Counties at that time , those who settled beyond this area were known as squatters . The detail of the road beyond Murray county is not plotted on the map . By 1844 the road had reached Cooma , and was extended to Bombala by 1852 . Mapping from 1882 shows the road had extended all the way to the Victorian border , crossing near Delegate .
= = = Highway = = =
= = = = Victoria = = = =
The Cann Valley Highway was designated a state highway on 10 August 1960 , and was formerly known as Cann Valley Road . The roadway was sealed along its entire length to the border in March 1985 as part of the Bicentennial Road Development Programme . It was again renamed as the Monaro Highway on 25 October 1996 to match the highway to which it connects at the NSW border . Within Victoria , VicRoads has classified the Monaro Highway as an arterial road , with the road number 6760 .
= = = = New South Wales = = = =
The roads of New South Wales were re @-@ classified by the Main Roads Board ( MRB ) in their 1928 annual report . The following year , the MRB 's hierarchical system which supported this listing was proclaimed with the passing of the Main Roads ( Amendment ) Act , April 1929 . The roads forming the future highway were given the following classifications :
Trunk Road 53 between the Victorian border and Nimmitabel ( via Delegate ) .
State Highway 4 between Nimmitabel and Cooma .
Trunk Road 52 between Cooma and the ACT .
The Monaro Highway name was actually applied to State Highway 4 at that time , which ran from Tathra to Wagga Wagga . It was decided to expand the main roads network over the following years , and in 1938 the Trunk Road sections of the future highway were reclassified as State Highway 19 by the Department of Main Roads ( DMR ) ( which had succeeded the MRB in 1932 ) . State Highway 19 at this time connected to the Bonang Highway at the Victoria Border . In 1955 it was decided to rename State Highway 4 , and it was renamed as the Snowy Mountains Highway . As part of these changes the section of the State Highway 4 between Nimmitabel and Cooma was also redesignated to be part of State Highway 19 . Three years later in 1958 , the various roads classified as State Highway 19 , were then named the Monaro Highway . In contrast with the Snowy Mountains Highway , the entire length of State Highway 19 was within the Monaro region . During the mid to late 1960s the highway south of Nimmitabel was rerouted along a newly constructed roadway . The former alignment is now known as Old Bombala Road . The Snowy Mountains Highway was also realigned in this area as part of these works and connected to the Monaro Highway along the new alignment . In November 1976 , the alignment was changed so as not to pass through Delegate any longer . The highway now connected to what was then the Cann Valley Highway in Victoria . The former alignment was classified as Main Road 93 and is now known as Delegate Road for most of its length . The State Highway terminology is no longer used , and as such the Monaro Highway is currently classified as Highway 19 ( or HW19 ) by Roads and Maritime Services .
= = = = Australian Capital Territory = = = =
In 1958 Federal government agreed to apply the Monaro Highway name to Cooma @-@ Canberra road within the ACT . This gave the roadway a single name between Canberra and the Victorian border . Originally , the highway ended where it met Jerrabomberra Avenue . Plans were publicised during the mid @-@ 1980s for an upgrade of the existing Monaro Highway to dual @-@ carriageway standard between Isabella Drive and Jerrabomberra Avenue , and an extension of the roadway to the north . These works were known as the Eastern Parkway . These plans were then given the go ahead in a report tabled on 5 May 1987 , the estimated costs were $ 50 million including upgrades to other nearby roadways . Around the same time period a large service centre was proposed for near the Isabella Drive intersection , though it was quite controversial , and the developer pulled out . Between 1988 and November 1989 the duplication was completed , and the roadway extended as far as Canberra Avenue . After this the road was extended to its current terminus at Morshead Drive , although the northbound carriageway was originally routed over Dairy Flat Road until a southbound carriageway was constructed later on . Further duplication was performed to other sections of the extension until all sections were completed in mid @-@ 2012 . The northern end of the Monaro Highway will connect to the southern end of the Majura Parkway following its expected completion in 2016 . Territory and Municipal Services has classified the Monaro Highway as an arterial road within the ACT Road Hierarchy .
= = = Route markers = = =
Route markers were first introduced in Australia in late 1954 . Over the following decades they were progressively rolled out to the various highways around the nation , under a nationwide route numbering scheme . The highway originally carried the National Route 23 route marker . Although after the construction of the Eastern Parkway extension , the highway north of Canberra Avenue was signed with the Alternate National Route 23 route marker . The section of the Monaro Highway between Steeple Flat and Cooma was also signed the National Route 18 shield in addition to the National Route 23 route marker used along the remainder of its length ; this kind of arrangement is known as a concurrency . This allowed one route to cover the Snowy Mountains Highway from end to end , as the Monaro Highway forms a link between that highway 's two sections .
After Victoria converted to alphanumeric route markers the Victorian section was signed as B23 . In 2013 the NSW / ACT conversion to alphanumeric routes occurred and the remainder of the highway ( south of Hindmarsh Drive in the ACT ) was then also signed as B23 . The route duplex along the Monaro Highway remains intact with B72 used in addition to B23 between Steeple Flat and Cooma , to link the two sections of the Snowy Mountains Highway . North of Hindmarsh Drive , the highway no longer carries a route marker .
= = Junctions = =
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= Peveril Castle =
Peveril Castle ( also Castleton Castle or Peak Castle ) is a ruined 11th @-@ century castle overlooking the village of Castleton in the English county of Derbyshire . It was the main settlement ( or caput ) of the feudal barony of William Peverel , known as the Honour of Peverel , and was founded some time between the Norman Conquest of 1066 and its first recorded mention in the Domesday Survey of 1086 , by Peverel , who held lands in Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire as a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of the king . The town became the economic centre of the barony . The castle has views across the Hope Valley and Cave Dale .
William Peveril the Younger inherited his father 's estates , but in 1155 they were confiscated by King Henry II . While in royal possession , Henry visited the castle in 1157 , 1158 , and 1164 , the first time hosting King Malcolm IV of Scotland . During the Revolt of 1173 – 1174 , the castle 's garrison was increased from a porter and two watchmen to a force led by 20 knights shared with the castles of Bolsover and Nottingham . The Earls of Derby had a claim to the Peveril family 's estates through marriage , and in 1199 William de Ferrers , the fourth earl , paid 2 @,@ 000 marks for the Peak lordship , although the castle remained under royal control . The closest Peveril Castle came to seeing battle was in 1216 , when King John gave the castle to William de Ferrers , but the castellan refused to relinquish control . Although they were both John 's supporters , the king authorised the earl to use force to evict the castellan , who eventually capitulated , although there is no evidence that the castle was assaulted .
In 1223 the castle returned to the Crown . In the 13th century there were periods of building work at the castle , and by 1300 its final form had been established . Toward the end of the 14th century , the barony was granted to John of Gaunt , Duke of Lancaster . Having little use for the castle , he ordered some of its material to be stripped out for re @-@ use , marking the beginning of its decline . From the time of John of Gaunt to the present day , the castle has been owned and administered by the Duchy of Lancaster . Peveril Castle became less important administratively , and by 1609 it was " very ruinous and serveth for no use " . In the 19th century , Sir Walter Scott featured the castle in his novel Peveril of the Peak . The site is situated in a national park , and cared for by English Heritage . Peveril Castle is protected as a scheduled monument and a Grade I listed building .
= = History = =
Peveril Castle stands on a limestone outcrop overlooking the west end of Hope Valley , in the midst of an ancient landscape . Overlooking the head of the valley , 2 km to the west , is Mam Tor , a Bronze Age hill fort , and 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the east at Brough @-@ on @-@ Noe is the Roman fort of Navio . The valley formed a natural line of communication and had extra importance due to valuable mineral resources in the area , particularly lead .
= = = From the Norman Conquest = = =
The small Hope Castle lay halfway along the valley . The castle 's founder , William Peveril , was a follower of William the Conqueror and was rewarded for supporting him during the Norman Conquest . The first mention of him in England records that in 1068 he was granted the new castle at Nottingham by William the Conqueror , who was in the process of subduing the Midlands and northern England . An unsubstantiated legend states that Peveril was William 's illegitimate son . By the Domesday Book of 1086 , Peveril had become a powerful landowner , with holdings in Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire . The exact year he founded the castle is uncertain , although it must have been started by 1086 as it is recorded in the Domesday Book , one of 48 castles mentioned in the survey and the only one in Derbyshire . The castle was recorded as standing at Pechesers which has been translated as both " Peak 's Tail " and " Peak 's Arse " . Although the earliest Norman castles were usually built in timber , Peveril Castle seems to have been designed from outset to be built in stone .
William Peveril had custody of royal lands such as the district of Hope , and although he had his own estates , he relied on continued royal favour to maintain power in this way . In 1100 the new king , Henry I , granted William " his demesne in the Peak " . Thus the Peak became an independent lordship under William Peveril 's control , and the castle became an important centre of administration for the area , allowing the collection of taxes . Castleton benefited from the castle 's new status and began to grow as the lordship 's economic heart . William Peveril died in 1114 and was succeeded by his son , William Peveril the Younger . In the civil war known as The Anarchy between King Stephen and the Empress Matilda , Peveril backed the losing side and his fortunes suffered after his capture at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141 . In 1153 Peveril was suspected of attempting to poison Ranulf de Gernon , 4th Earl of Chester . In 1153 the future King Henry II accused Peveril of " plundering and treachery " and threatened to confiscate his estates and hand them over to the Earl of Chester . Two years later Henry , now king , followed through his threat . The Earl of Chester was dead by this time , and the king kept the property for himself . Once under royal control , Peveril became the administrative centre of the Forest of High Peak .
William Peveril the Younger died in 1155 , and as his only male heir had predeceased him , the family 's claim on the confiscated estates was taken up by the husband of William 's daughter , Margaret Peveril . Margaret had married Robert de Ferrers , 2nd Earl of Derby . King Henry II visited Peveril Castle three times during his reign . During the first visit , in 1157 , he hosted King Malcolm IV of Scotland who paid homage to Henry after ceding Cumberland and Westmorland to the English king . Henry II visited again in 1158 and 1164 . When a group of barons led by Henry 's sons Henry the Young King , Geoffrey , Duke of Brittany , and Prince Richard , later Richard the Lionheart , took part in the Revolt of 1173 – 1174 against the king 's rule , the king spent £ 116 on building work at Peveril and Bolsover Castles in Derbyshire . The garrison was also increased . Previously Peveril was guarded by two watchmen and a porter , but this was expanded to a force led by 20 knights shared with Bolsover and Nottingham castles during the revolt . After the revolt ended in 1174 , further steps were taken to improve Peveril Castle , and the Pipe Rolls ( records of royal expenditure ) show that between 1175 and 1177 £ 184 was spent on building the keep . Building in stone was expensive , and though Peveril 's keep was small , moderately @-@ sized stone castles such as the contemporary Orford could cost thousands of pounds . Henry II 's average income during his reign has been estimated to be around £ 10 @,@ 000 per year . As few documents have survived , it is uncertain when parts of the castle were built , and archaeological investigations have been unsuccessful in dating the stonework . Henry II died in 1189 and was succeeded by his son , Richard the Lionheart . Soon after his coronation , Richard granted the lordship of the Peak , including the castle , to his brother John . While Richard was on crusade , John rebelled and on his return Richard confiscated the lordship .
John became king in 1199 after Richard 's death . William de Ferrers , 4th Earl of Derby maintained the claim of the Earls of Derby to the Peveril estates . He paid King John 2000 marks ( £ 1333 ) for the lordship of the Peak , but the Crown retained possession of Peveril and Bolsover Castles . John finally gave Ferrers these castles in 1216 to secure his support in the face of country @-@ wide rebellion . However , the castellan Brian de Lisle refused to hand them over . Although de Lisle and Ferrers were both King John 's supporters , the king gave Ferrers permission to use force to retake the castles .
= = = Henry III = = =
The situation was still chaotic when King Henry III became king after his father 's death in 1216 . Although Bolsover fell to Ferrers ' forces in 1217 after a siege , there is no indication that Peveril was assaulted , and it is likely that Brian de Lisle negotiated his surrender . Ferrers only had possession of the lordship until King Henry III came of age . When the time came he was reluctant to hand over the property , and after an initial deadlock the Crown took control in 1223 . Although contemporary Pipe Roll records of expenditure at Peveril survive , they do not specify how the money was spent . As a result , it is unclear what constitutes maintenance and what marks substantial construction work ; however , Richard Eales , who wrote the 2006 English Heritage guidebook , suggests that there were two periods of building , when sums spent were larger than usual : £ 54 in 1204 – 1207 and £ 67 in 1210 – 1212 . The medieval historian Sidney Painter estimated that in about 1200 there were only seven magnates in England whose annual income exceeded £ 400 and a knight could easily live on £ 10 to £ 20 per year .
The rest of the 13th century was relatively peaceful , and records show that Peveril Castle was maintained by the Crown . In 1235 , in preparation for the king 's visit , the north wall and bridge were repaired . After significant work in 1250 – 52 ( £ 60 spent ) , 1272 – 1275 ( £ 40 ) and 1288 – 1290 ( £ 151 ) , it is likely that the castle buildings were complete by 1300 . King Henry gave Prince Edward ( later King Edward I ) Peveril Castle along with the County Palatine of Chester with the royal holdings in Wales and Ireland . Some of the lands , including Peveril , were made part of Eleanor of Castile 's dower , to come into her possession should her husband , Prince Edward , die . At this time , the Peak lordship was worth around £ 300 a year . At the outbreak of the Second Barons ' War in 1264 , Peveril Castle was occupied by Robert de Ferrers , 6th Earl of Derby . Simon de Montfort pressured King Henry III into giving him Peveril , although it was recovered by the Crown after De Montfort 's death in 1265 . The castle was returned to Eleanor 's dower , and as she predeceased her husband the lordship returned into royal hands . Its income was used to provide for members of the royal family such as King Edward II 's queen , Isabella of France , and their children , and royal favourites such as Piers Gaveston . In 1331 Edward III gave the lordship to his wife , Philippa of Hainault . It was given to John de Warenne , 7th Earl of Surrey , in 1345 . After its return to the Crown , the estate was given to John of Gaunt , Edward III 's third surviving son , partially in exchange for the Earldom of Richmond .
= = = The Lancastrians = = =
John of Gaunt 's ownership marked the start of Peveril Castle 's decline . He was the richest nobleman in England and held several castles . As Peveril Castle was relatively unimportant , John decided not to maintain it and in 1374 gave orders to strip the lead from the buildings for re @-@ use at Pontefract Castle . It was inherited by his son Henry Bolingbroke , later King Henry IV , and remained under royal control , administered by the Duchy of Lancaster . During the 15th century , Peveril became less important as administrative functions were moved elsewhere . Although other castles administered by the Duchy of Lancaster were repaired in 1480 , there is no indication that this happened at Peveril . A survey conducted for the Duchy in 1561 revealed that Peveril was in a state of decay , and as a result , along with Donnington , was one of two castles that were subsequently abandoned . The castle however hosted local courts until 1600 . A survey in 1609 found that Peveril was " very ruinous and serveth for no use " . At some point in the post @-@ medieval period the keep 's facing stone was removed from three sides . The steep slope prevented the removal of the stone from the fourth side . At one point , the castle was used to house animals .
= = = Modern era = = =
With the advent of the railways in the 19th century , the area became a tourist attraction . The Duchy of Lancaster undertook maintenance in the 19th century to ensure the castle 's condition did not deteriorate further , mostly by clearing rubble and adding mortar . Sir Walter Scott 's 1823 novel Peveril of the Peak , set in the mid 17th century , described the castle ruins .
In 1932 the Duchy gave custody of the castle to the Office of Works , while retaining ownership . The site is today cared for by English Heritage , the successor to the Office of Works . The surrounding landscape has been protected as a national park since 1951 . The castle is a scheduled monument , which means it is a " nationally important " historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change . It is also a Grade I listed building ( first listed in 1985 ) , and recognised as an internationally important structure . It has been described as " perhaps the finest medieval landmark of the Peak District " , and architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner remarked that it is " By far the most important castle in the county – in fact the only one of importance " . Before Duffield Castle in the south of the county was destroyed in 1266 it had one of the largest keeps in England , though only the foundations survive .
= = Layout = =
Peveril Castle in Castleton is roughly triangular in shape , about 90 by 65 m ( 295 by 213 ft ) , on top of a hill overlooking the Hope Valley . The land slopes steeply away from the castle 's perimeter , forming an almost sheer face to the south east , and the winding approach from the north is the most practical way to the castle . Not only was the site naturally defensible , but its prominence would have allowed the castle to be a highly visible symbol of the builder 's power . The town of Castleton provided supplies to the castle . It commands views of Hope Valley below and Treak Cliff , Mam Tor , Black Tor , and Lose Hill . The castle was entered through the gatehouse to the east . Its design was simple , 7 m ( 23 ft ) wide with a gatepassage 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) across . Little survives , although earlier drawings contain details of mouldings that suggest the structure was built in the 12th century , perhaps by Henry II or King John .
The curtain walls enclosing the castle show the multiple phases of construction at Peveril , with stonework from the Norman period – differentiated by the use of opus spicatum – to modern repairs . The walls were surmounted by walkways , which next to the gatehouse would have stood about 5 m ( 16 ft ) above the ground level immediately outside the castle . In the 12th century , a tower projecting less than 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) was added to the north wall . In Eales ' opinion , it " would have been of limited military value , compared with the boldly projecting towers of later castles " which allowed defenders to deploy flanking fire along the base of the walls . The land within the castle slopes downwards from west to east . Water storage would have been a concern for the garrison of the castle , but how they procured water is uncertain .
The southern curtain wall is a modern replacement along the line of the medieval wall . There are the remains of two round or semi @-@ circular towers projecting from the wall . Enough of one tower survives that one can see the use of Roman tiles in the construction , probably from the fort of Navio 2 mi ( 3 km ) away . It is uncertain when these towers were built , although it is thought they may date from the 13th century . Foundations mark the position of buildings abutting the south wall , probably the old hall and a chapel . A document from 1246 recorded a chapel at the castle ; the remains of the easternmost building against the south wall are assumed to mark the site of the chapel , as they are oriented roughly east – west . Foundations at the west end of the north wall mark a large building : probably a hall where the lord of the castle would have eaten and entertained high @-@ status guests . It is unclear when the new hall was built , probably replacing the old hall in the south of the castle , although an " old hall " was mentioned in a document of 1251 , implying there was also a new hall by that time . The kitchen and food stores would have stood at the east end of the hall , although little remains of those structures . Buildings were also constructed against the west curtain wall , probably high @-@ status apartments . Although the main approach to Peveril Castle was from the north , there was also a gate in the west . A bridge spanned the gorge , linking the castle with an enclosure on the other side . As it has not been excavated , the exact form the enclosure took is uncertain . Its purpose is also a matter of speculation , whether it was an elaborate outer bailey for defence or used for storage and stabling .
The keep occupies the southern corner of Peveril Castle . Construction probably began in around 1176 , instigated by Henry II . Its plan is square , measuring less than 12 by 12 m ( 39 by 39 ft ) , and the parapet is 15 m ( 49 ft ) above the keep 's base ; as the ground is uneven , on the other side it rises 10 @.@ 5 m ( 34 ft ) above ground level . It is smaller than contemporary royal keeps such as those at Dover and Scarborough Castles . Today the exterior is coarse , but originally the facing would have been smooth ; the south @-@ east side , where the steep natural slope prevented removal of the facing stone , gives an idea of how it may once have appeared . A projection in the south @-@ east face of the keep housed a garderobe . As was usual with Norman keeps , Peveril 's was entered through the first floor and was accessed by a staircase . This entrance level would have been a large public room and the basement used for storage . A narrow staircase in the east corner allowed access to the basement and the wall walk around the top of the keep .
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= The Beatles in India =
In February 1968 , the Beatles travelled to Rishikesh , in northern India , to attend an advanced Transcendental Meditation ( TM ) training session at the ashram of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . Amid widespread media attention , their visit was one of the band 's most productive periods . Led by George Harrison 's commitment , the Beatles ' interest in the Maharishi changed Western attitudes about Indian spirituality and encouraged the study of Transcendental Meditation .
The Beatles first met the Maharishi in London in August 1967 and then attended a seminar in Bangor , Wales . They had planned to attend the entire ten @-@ day session , but their stay was cut short by the death of their manager , Brian Epstein . Wanting to learn more , they kept in contact with the Maharishi and made arrangements to spend time with him at his teaching centre located near Rishikesh , in " the Valley of the Saints " at the foothills of the Himalayas .
Along with their wives , girlfriends , assistants and numerous reporters , the Beatles arrived in India in February 1968 and joined the group of 60 people who were training to be TM teachers , including musicians Donovan , Mike Love of the Beach Boys , and flautist Paul Horn . While there , John Lennon , Paul McCartney and Harrison wrote many songs and Ringo Starr finished writing his first . Eighteen of those songs were recorded for The Beatles ( " the White Album " ) , two songs appeared on the Abbey Road album , and others were used for various solo projects .
Starr and his wife left on 1 March , after a ten @-@ day stay ; McCartney left after one month due to other commitments ; while Lennon and Harrison stayed about six weeks , then left abruptly following financial disagreements and rumours of inappropriate behaviour by the Maharishi . Harrison later apologised for the way he and Lennon had treated the Maharishi , and in 1992 gave a benefit concert for the Maharishi @-@ associated Natural Law Party . In 2009 , McCartney and Starr performed at a benefit concert for the David Lynch Foundation , which raises funds for the teaching of Transcendental Meditation to at @-@ risk students .
= = Background = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the Beatles became interested in Indian culture , after using drugs in an effort to expand their consciousness and in 1966 Harrison visited India for six weeks and took sitar lessons from Ravi Shankar . Alexis " Magic Alex " Mardas , a friend of the Beatles and head of Apple Electronics , had heard a lecture by the Maharishi in Athens , Greece and Harrison 's wife , Pattie Boyd , attended a lecture by the Maharishi in London and they encouraged the Beatles to hear the Maharishi speak .
At Boyd 's suggestion , the Beatles attended the Maharishi 's lecture at the London Hilton on Park Lane on 24 August 1967 . The Maharishi had announced his intention to retire , so this was expected to be his last public lecture in the West . Some band members had seen him on a Granada TV program years earlier . The Beatles were given front row seats and were invited to meet the Maharishi in his hotel suite after the lecture . During the ninety @-@ minute meeting , he invited them to be his guests at a training retreat in Wales .
Two days later , on 26 August , the Beatles travelled by train to the college campus in Bangor , Wales . It was perhaps the first time the band had travelled without their tour managers and they had not even thought to bring money . The station was mobbed because of a bank holiday and Cynthia Lennon , mistaken for a fan , was held back . She ran after the train but missed it and arrived later by car . The group , along with Mick Jagger , Marianne Faithfull , Cilla Black , Harrison 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Jenny Boyd , and around 300 others , learned the basics of Transcendental Meditation , and were given their mantras . The group " hesitated only slightly " when asked to donate the customary week 's wages , a large sum for a Beatle , to learn . While there , they announced at a press conference that they were giving up drugs ( apparently referring to psychedelics , but not marijuana ) . This was a choice " in keeping with the Maharishi 's teachings " but one made prior to meeting the Maharishi . The Maharishi did advise them privately to avoid involvement with the " Ban the Bomb " movement and to support the elected government of the day . Their intention was to attend the entire ten @-@ day seminar but their stay was cut short by the death of their manager , Epstein , in London on 27 August . The Maharishi consoled them by saying that Epstein 's spirit was still with them and their good thoughts would help him " to have an easy passage " and journey to his " next evolution " . According to McCartney , the Maharishi " was great to us when Brian died " and Cynthia Lennon wrote " it was as though , with Brian gone , the four needed someone new to give them direction and the Maharishi was in the right place at the right time . "
Curious to learn more , the Beatles made plans to spend time at the " Maharishi 's training center " in India in late October . However , the trip was postponed due to commitments related to the Magical Mystery Tour film and the soundtrack album . Harrison and Lennon appeared twice on David Frost 's programme in autumn 1967 to talk about their involvement with TM when , according to Lennon 's wife , John was " evangelical in his enthusiasm for Maharishi " . Now publicised as " The Beatles ' Guru " , the Maharishi went on his eighth world tour , giving lectures in Britain , Scandinavia , Germany , Italy , Canada , and California . At that time , Lennon said that , thanks to his meditation , " I 'm a better person and I wasn 't bad before . " When the Maharishi spoke to 3 @,@ 600 people at Madison Square Garden in New York City , in January 1968 , the Beatles sent a large flower arrangement to his suite at the Plaza Hotel .
Harrison flew to Bombay in January 1968 to work on the Wonderwall Music soundtrack , expecting the rest of the group to follow shortly . When they were delayed he flew back to London , where the group spent a week in the studio . Before leaving for India , the band recorded the instrumental tracks for " Across the Universe " , whose refrain , " Jai Guru Deva " , was a standard greeting within the Maharishi 's Spiritual Regeneration Movement . Also in January , the Maharishi , Mia Farrow , Prudence Farrow and their brother , flew from the US to London and on to India .
= = Arrival = =
Lennon , his wife Cynthia , the Harrisons and Jenny Boyd arrived in Delhi on 15 February , where they were met by Mal Evans , their advance man , who had arranged the 150 @-@ mile ( 240 km ) , six @-@ hour taxi drive to Rishikesh . McCartney , his girlfriend Jane Asher , Starr and his wife Maureen arrived four days later . The group arrived three weeks after the session , due to end 25 April , had already begun . They were accompanied by a small retinue of reporters and photographers who were mostly kept out of the fenced and gated compound . Entourage members Evans , Brown and Neil Aspinall were there for all or part of the time and Mardas arrived four weeks later .
As soon as Starr arrived in Delhi he asked Evans to take him to a doctor because of a reaction to an inoculation : " When we arrived at the local hospital , I tried to get immediate treatment for him [ Starr ] , to be told curtly by the Indian doctor , ' He is not a special case and will have to wait his turn . ' So off we go to pay a private doctor ten rupees for the privilege of hearing him say it will be all right " . Also there at the same time were Mia Farrow , her sister Prudence and brother John , Donovan , Gyp " Gypsy Dave " Mills , Mike Love , jazz flautist Paul Horn , journalist Lewis H. Lapham , film @-@ maker Paul Saltzman , socialite Nancy Cooke de Herrera , actors Tom Simcox and Jerry Stovin , and dozens of others , all Europeans or Americans . Despite speculation , Shirley MacLaine did not attend and Lennon , who had thought of bringing Yoko Ono , decided against it .
= = = Facility = = =
Located in the holy " Valley of the Saints " , the International Academy of Meditation , also called the Chaurasi Kutia ashram , was a 14 @-@ acre ( 57 @,@ 000 m2 ) compound . It stood across the River Ganges from Rishikesh , the " yoga capital of the world " and home to many ashrams in the foothills of the Himalayas , 150 feet ( 46 m ) above the river and surrounded by jungle . The Maharishi 's facility was built in 1963 with a $ 100 @,@ 000 gift from American heiress Doris Duke , on land leased from the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department . The training centre was designed to suit Western habits and was described variously as " luxurious " and " seedy " . Starr later compared the ashram to " a kind of spiritual Butlins " ( a low @-@ cost British holiday camp ) . It was built to accommodate several dozen people and each of its stone bungalows contained five rooms . Each was equipped with electric heaters , running water , toilets , and English @-@ style furniture . According to DeHerrera , the Maharishi obtained many " special items " from a nearby village so that the Beatles rooms would have mirrors , wall @-@ to @-@ wall carpeting , wall coverings , " foam mattresses " and bedspreads . She wrote that " by the standard of the other " bungalows , the Beatles ' cottages " looked like a palace " .
While the Beatles were there , the Maharishi was negotiating with the Indian government to use some nearby parkland for an airstrip for a plane which he had been given ; a deal which several thousand landless peasants objected to as they had been denied the use of the land for farming . The ashram was surrounded by barbed wire and the gates were kept locked and guarded . While the Maharishi kept the media away from his famous students , he himself gave interviews to the press .
= = Experience = =
The Maharishi had arranged a simple lifestyle for his guests , which included stone cottages and vegetarian meals taken outdoors in a communal setting . The days were devoted to meditating and attending lectures by the Maharishi , who spoke from a flower @-@ bedecked platform in an auditorium . The Maharishi also gave private lessons to the individual Beatles , nominally due to their late arrival . The tranquil environment provided by the Maharishi – complete with meditation , relaxation , and away from the media throng – helped the band to relax . Harrison told Saltzman , " Like , we 're The Beatles after all , aren 't we ? We have all the money you could ever dream of . We have all the fame you could ever wish for . But , it isn 't love . It isn 't health . It isn 't peace inside , is it ? " Lennon was respectful of the Maharishi but not in awe of him . At their first meeting Donovan remembers that the Maharishi was " amiable but non @-@ talkative " , and during an awkward silence Lennon walked across the room and patted the Maharishi on the head , saying , " There 's a good little guru " while the room erupted in laughter . Maharishi cancelled the formal lectures for a time and told students to meditate for as long as possible . One student meditated for 42 straight hours , and Pattie Boyd once meditated for seven hours . Boyd 's sister Jenny meditated for long periods as well , but also suffered from dysentery ( misdiagnosed as tonsilitis ) ; she said Lennon also felt unwell , suffering from jet lag and insomnia . The lengthy meditation sessions left many students moody and oversensitive . Like the 60 other students at the ashram , the Beatles adopted native dress and the ashram had a tailor on the premises to make clothes for the students . The Beatles shopped in Rishikesh and the women bought saris for themselves and to be made into shirts and jackets for the men , which affected Western fashion when the Beatles wore them after going home .
Vegetarian meals were eaten in a " communal " dining area , where food was vulnerable to aggressive monkeys and crows . Accounts of the food vary , some calling it spicy while others said it was bland . Lennon described the food as " lousy " , while Pattie Boyd says it was delicious . Menu items included chickpeas mixed with cumin seeds , whole wheat dough baked over a fire , spiced eggplant , potatoes that had been picked locally , and , for breakfast , cornflakes , toast and coffee . Starr had problems with the diet because of his past illnesses : " The food was impossible for me , because I 'm allergic to so many different things , so I took two suitcases with me : one of clothes and one of Heinz beans " and eggs . After dinner , the musicians gathered on the roof of Harrison 's bungalow to talk and listen to the Ganges river . Sometimes they listened to records and played guitar or sitar while their wives gathered in one of their rooms and discussed life as the partner of a Beatle .
Donovan taught Lennon a guitar finger @-@ picking technique that he passed on to Harrison . The technique was subsequently implemented by Lennon on the Beatles songs " Julia " and " Dear Prudence " . The latter was composed by Lennon to lure Prudence Farrow out of her intense meditation . Lennon later said : " She 'd been locked in for three weeks and was trying to reach God quicker than anyone else " . Another inspiration was hearing for the first time Bob Dylan 's newly released album , John Wesley Harding . The stay at the ashram turned out to be one of the group 's most creative periods . According to Lennon he wrote some of the " most miserable " and some of his " best songs " while he was in Rishikesh . Both Lennon and McCartney often spent time composing rather than meditating , and even Starr wrote a song , " Don 't Pass Me By " , which was his first solo composition . Plans were made for a concert in Delhi to feature the Beatles , the Beach Boys , Donovan , and Paul Horn . Harrison complained that more time should be spent on meditating , saying , " We 're not here to talk about music . We 're here to meditate . " Lennon commented on Harrison 's commitment to meditation by saying : " The way George [ Harrison ] is going , he 'll be flying a magic carpet by the time he 's forty . "
While Lennon was " evangelical in his enthusiasm for the Maharishi " , according to his wife , Cynthia , she herself was " a little more sceptical " . Cynthia later wrote that she " loved being in India " and had hoped she and Lennon would " rediscover our lost closeness " ; to her disappointment , however , Lennon became " increasingly cold and aloof " . The Lennons ' room contained a " four @-@ poster bed , a dressing table , a couple of chairs and an electric fire " . Lennon played guitar , while his wife drew pictures and wrote poetry between their long meditation sessions . After two weeks Lennon asked to sleep in a separate room , saying he could only meditate when he was alone . Meanwhile , he walked to the local post office every morning to check for Ono 's almost daily telegrams . One of these telegrams read : " Look up at the sky and when you see a cloud think of me " .
= = = Special events = = =
The " world press " arrived at the ashram gate and the Maharishi asked them to come back after the Beatles had had " a little time with the course " . According to author and course participant , Cooke de Herrera , the Beatles were " very happy at the way it was done " . De Herrara wrote in her memoir that the Maharishi gave " special attention " to all the celebrities despite her warnings not to feed their egos . Mia Farrow wrote that she felt overwhelmed by the Maharishi 's attention to her , including private sessions , gifts of mangoes , and a birthday party where he gave her a paper crown . Early the following morning the Maharishi arranged for a group photo and told everyone where to sit . Since it was her birthday the day before , Mia was asked to sit in the centre and each student was adorned with a marigold garland . All sat on a podium and the Maharishi had a large picture of his guru , Brahmananda Saraswati , behind him . The photo took half an hour and has been described as " one of the most iconic photographs in the history of rock ' n ' roll " . Photographers included Paul Saltzman , a Canadian filmmaker who was visiting the ashram after completing film work elsewhere in India . Saltzman 's snapshots from this time were later assembled into a book , The Beatles in India ( 2000 ) .
The Maharishi celebrated Harrison 's 25th birthday and Harrison played sitar . He gave Harrison an upside @-@ down plastic globe of the world and said : " George , the globe I am giving you symbolizes the world today . I hope you will help us all in the task of putting it right . " Harrison immediately turned the globe to its correct position , shouting , " I 've done it ! " ( Harrison " affectionately " referred to the Maharishi as the " Big M " ) . On 8 April , the Maharishi gave an Indian prince 's outfit to the Lennons for their son in England on his birthday . McCartney was uncomfortable with the Maharishi 's flattery , including calling the band " the blessed leaders of the world 's youth " .
An aviation company owner and patron of the Maharishi 's , Kershi Cambata ( K. S. Khambatta ) , flew two helicopters to Rishikesh to take the Maharishi and his guests for rides , for the publicity value , even though the flights required the transportation of fuel by truck to Rishikesh . McCartney asked Lennon why he was so eager to be the one to go with the Maharishi on his helicopter ride , to which Lennon replied , " I thought he 'd slip me the answer . " On another occasion , an Italian newsreel company filmed the Maharishi and many students , including the Beatles and other musicians , going down to the river while the musicians sang standards such as " When the Saints Go Marching In " and " You Are My Sunshine " . One evening , when the moon was full , the Maharishi arranged for everyone to cruise on the Ganges in two barges . The trip started with the chanting of Vedas by two pandits , but soon the musicians brought out their instruments . The Beatles sang Donovan 's songs , while Love and Donovan sang Beatles songs , and Horn played flute .
= = Early departures = =
Starr 's wife had a strong aversion to insects and McCartney recalled she was once " trapped in her room because there was a fly over the door . " Spiders , mosquitoes and flies were present at the ashram and when Starr complained to the Maharishi he was told : " For people travelling in the realm of pure consciousness , flies no longer matter very much . " Starr found the food " impossible " because he was " allergic to so many different things " and he and his wife left India on 1 March saying " I wouldn 't want anyone to think we didn 't like it there ; " they returned home " because we missed the children . " Their departure was per schedule by one account , but premature by others . McCartney and Asher departed in mid to late March as he needed to get back to London to supervise Apple Corps and she had a theatrical commitment . When he left he told another student , " I 'm a new man " . Alex Mardas arrived after McCartney left , either at Lennon 's invitation or on his own initiative .
Mia Farrow , who had come and gone from the ashram before , left again and drifted around India before returning to the United States . Geoffrey Giuliano in Revolver : The Secret History of the Beatles says that , before leaving , she told the Beatles that the Maharishi had made a pass at her . Ned Wynn , one of Farrow 's childhood friends , wrote in his 1990 memoir that she had told him in the early 1970s that the Maharishi had definitely made sexual passes at her . In her 1993 autobiography , Cooke de Herrera wrote that Farrow had confided to her , before the arrival of the Beatles , that the Maharishi had made a pass during a private puja ceremony by stroking her hair . Cooke de Herrera wrote that she told Farrow that she had misinterpreted the Maharishi 's actions . Farrow 's 1997 memoirs are ambiguous , describing an encounter with the Maharishi in his private meditation " cave " when he tried to put his arms around her . She reports that her sister Prudence told her that it was " an honour " and " a tradition " for a " holy man " to touch someone after meditation .
= = = Tensions = = =
Business negotiations , allegations of sexual impropriety , alcohol and non @-@ prescription drug use were sources of tension between the Maharishi and the Beatles . Aspinall was surprised when he realised the Maharishi was a sophisticated negotiator , knowing more than the average person about financial percentages . Evans told Saltzman that the Maharishi wanted the band to deposit up to 25 % of their next album 's profits in his Swiss bank account as a tithe , to which Lennon replied , " Over my dead body " . Mardas pointed to the luxury of the facility and the business acumen of the Maharishi and asked Lennon why the Maharishi always had an accountant by his side . Mardas said the Maharishi offered him money to build a high @-@ powered radio station . Lennon later told his wife that he felt that the Maharishi had , in her words , " too much interest in public recognition , celebrities and money " for a spiritual man . According to her sister , Pattie Boyd had dreamt that " the Maharishi wasn 't what he seemed " . Cynthia Lennon , Cooke de Herrera and authors such as Barry Miles have blamed Mardas for turning Lennon against the Maharishi but Mardas denies this . Meanwhile , the weather , which had been quite cool in February , was growing hot and the Maharishi was planning to move the whole group to Kashmir , at a higher and cooler altitude in a week .
Some business negotiations concerned arrangements for a film . According to Cooke de Herrera the Maharishi had given the Beatles and their Apple Corporation the rights for a movie about the Maharishi , his movement and his teacher , Guru Dev . While their " people and equipment were on the way " , Charles Lutes , the head of the Maharishi 's Spiritual Regeneration Movement in the US arrived and signed a contract with Four Star Films . The contract was negotiated by Horn and John Farrow was scheduled to direct the film . Horn expected that Donovan , the Beatles , the Beach Boys and Mia Farrow would appear in it . When some of the film crew from Four Star Films arrived around 11 April , Harrison and Lennon stayed out of sight . Cooke de Herrera felt the contract with Four Star Films and presence of the film crew was the reason for the sudden departure of Harrison and Lennon and Horn said it was the catalyst for their discontent .
Lennon became convinced that the Maharishi , who said he was celibate , had made a pass at Farrow or was having relations with other young female students and later called the Maharishi a " lecherous womaniser " . According to Mardas an American teacher named Rosalyn Bonas had told both him and Lennon that the Maharishi had made " sexual advances " towards her . However , Cynthia Lennon said she thought Mardas had put the " young and impressionable " girl up to it . Brown recalls that Mardas told him that a young blonde nurse from California had said she 'd had a sexual relationship with the Maharishi . In addition , Mardas arranged to spy on the Maharishi when Bonas was with him , and said that he saw the two of them in a compromising position . At the same time , many of the people who were there , including Harrison , Horn , Cooke de Herrera , Cynthia Lennon and Jennie Boyd did not believe that the Maharishi had made a pass at any woman . According to Cynthia Lennon , Mardas ' allegations about the Maharishi 's indiscretions with a lady gained momentum " without a single shred of evidence or justification . " Likewise McCartney said " It was Magic Alex who made the original accusation and I think that it was completely untrue " .
Deepak Chopra , who was not present but later became a disciple of the Maharishi and a friend of Harrison 's , said in 2008 that the Beatles and their entourage " were doing drugs , taking LSD , at Maharishi 's ashram " . An article in the Washington Post reported that " others said the Beatles resumed drug use at the ashram " . The Beatles ' group also violated the Maharishi 's " no alcohol rule " when they consumed " hooch " which Mardas , who Cynthia thought was not an active meditator , " smuggled in " from a nearby village .
= = Later departures = =
On the night of 11 April , Lennon , Harrison and Mardas sat up late discussing their views of the Maharishi and decided to leave the next morning . They packed hurriedly , while Mardas went to Dehradun to find taxis . Lennon was chosen to speak to the Maharishi . When asked why they were leaving , Lennon replied " If you 're so cosmic , you 'll know why " . Paul Mason , a biographer of the Maharishi , later interpreted Lennon 's statement as a challenge to the Maharishi 's claim of cosmic consciousness . Lennon said that his mind was made up when the Maharishi gave him a murderous look in response . According to Mardas : " John Lennon and I went to the Maharishi about what had happened ... he asked the Maharishi to explain himself " ; and the Maharishi answered Lennon 's accusation by saying , " I am only human " . But Lennon said he was " a bit rough to him " and the Maharishi responded by saying " I don 't know why , you must tell me . " While waiting for Mardas to return , Lennon wrote the song " Maharishi " , which was later renamed " Sexy Sadie " because Harrison advised Lennon that was potentially libellous . According to Harrison , Lennon " had wanted to leave anyway " and this gave him a " good reason to get out . "
According to Cynthia Lennon , when the group walked past the Maharishi on the way to their taxis he looked " very biblical and isolated in his faith " . The Maharishi reportedly said , " Wait , talk to me " . After leaving the ashram , the taxis kept breaking down , leading the Beatles to wonder if the Maharishi had placed a curse on them . The car that the Lennons were in suffered a flat tyre and the driver left them , apparently to find a replacement tyre , but did not return for hours . After it grew dark the Lennons hitchhiked a ride to Delhi and took the first available flight back to London , during which John drunkenly recounted a litany of his numerous infidelities to Cynthia . The Harrisons were not ready to go home , so they travelled to other Indian cities and spent time with Ravi Shankar . Harrison said when he got dysentery he thought it might have been due to a spell cast by the Maharishi , but he recovered after Shankar gave him some amulets . Harrison later said he had never intended to stay for the second half of the course in Kashmir and that he thought Lennon wanted to get back to his relationship with Ono .
The departure and split with the Maharishi was well @-@ publicised . In Delhi , Lennon and Harrison told the reporters that they had urgent business in London and they did not want to appear in the Maharishi 's film . Back in the UK the band members said that they were disillusioned by the Maharishi 's desire for financial gain . McCartney said that " Rishikesh was a good experience . I enjoyed it " . Lennon said on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , " We believe in meditation , but not the Maharishi and his scene " , and , " We made a mistake . He 's human like the rest of us " . Lennon went on to say : " I don 't know what level he 's on but we had a nice holiday in India and came back rested . "
According to a 2006 statement by Chopra , the Beatles and their entourage " were doing drugs , taking LSD , at Maharishi 's ashram , and he lost his temper with them . He asked them to leave , and they did in a huff " . A 2008 article in The Washington Post reported that " others said the Beatles resumed drug use at the ashram . " Prudence Farrow stayed with the three @-@ month programme and became a TM teacher , along with 40 other students . Mike Love also became a TM teacher and travelled with the Maharishi to Kashmir later in the year . The trip to India was the last time all four Beatles travelled abroad together .
= = Legacy = =
Philip Goldberg , in his book American Veda : From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation , How Indian Spirituality Changed the West , wrote that the Beatles ' trip to Rishikesh , " may have been the most momentous spiritual retreat since Jesus spent those forty days in the wilderness " . Despite their temporary rejection of the Maharishi , they generated wider interest in Transcendental Meditation , which encouraged the study of Eastern spirituality in Western popular culture . Chopra credits Harrison with spreading TM and other Eastern spiritual practices to America almost single @-@ handedly .
After 1968 the Maharishi fell out of the public spotlight for a period and TM was described as a passing fad . Mike Love arranged for the Beach Boys to tour with the Maharishi in the US during the summer of 1968 . However , the tour was cancelled after several appearances and was called " one of the more bizarre entertainments of the era " . Interest grew again in the mid @-@ 1970s when scientific studies began showing concrete results . The Maharishi moved to Europe in the early years of that decade and appeared twice on American television 's The Merv Griffin Show in the mid 1970s , leading to a surge of popularity called the " Merv wave " . That was followed by the introduction of " Yogic Flying " , a technique which offered the promise of levitation . In a 1975 interview , Harrison said of the Beatles ' association with Transcendental Meditation : " In retrospect , that was probably one of the greatest experiences I 've ever had … Maharishi was always put down for propagating what was basically a spiritual thing but there 's so much being propagated that 's damaging to life that I ’ m glad there are good people around like him . " In 1978 Lennon wrote that he considered his meditation a " source of creative inspiration " .
In her 2005 book Gurus in America , author Cynthia Ann Humes comments that although the " public falling out " between the Beatles and Maharishi was widely reported , there has been " little mention " of " the continued positive relationship Maharishi maintained " with Harrison and McCartney . During the 1990s both Harrison and McCartney were so convinced of the Maharishi 's innocence that they offered their apologies . Harrison gave a benefit concert for the Maharishi @-@ associated Natural Law Party in 1992 , and later apologised for the way the Maharishi had been treated by saying , " We were very young " and " It 's probably in the history books that Maharishi ' tried to attack Mia Farrow ' – but it 's bullshit , total bullshit . " Cynthia Lennon wrote in 2006 that she " hated leaving on a note of discord and mistrust , when we had enjoyed so much kindness from the Maharishi " . Asked if he forgave the Beatles , the Maharishi replied , " I could never be upset with angels . " McCartney took his daughter , Stella , to visit the Maharishi in the Netherlands in 2007 , which renewed their friendship .
By the time of the Maharishi 's death in 2008 , more than 5 million people had learned Transcendental Meditation , and his world @-@ wide movement was valued in the billions of dollars . The ashram , built on land belonging to the Rajaji National Park , was reclaimed by the government in the mid @-@ 1990s after the lease expired in 1981 , and fell into disrepair . After the Maharishi died , McCartney said : " my memories of him will only be joyful ones . He was a great man who worked tirelessly for the people of the world and the cause of unity " . Starr said in 2008 , " I feel so blessed I met the Maharishi – he gave me a mantra that no one can take away , and I still use it " . In 2009 , McCartney , Starr , Donovan , and Horn reunited at a concert held at New York 's Radio City Music Hall to benefit the David Lynch Foundation , which funds the teaching of Transcendental Meditation in schools . A 2008 article in Rolling Stone magazine reported Yoko Ono as saying : " John would have been the first one now , if he had been here , to recognize and acknowledge what Maharishi has done for the world and appreciate it " . Author Gary Tillery wrote in 2010 that Lennon " benefited from the experience " and " for the rest of his life he often turned to meditation to restore himself and improve his creativity . "
In 2011 , a 1967 letter surfaced in which Lennon wrote to a fan saying the Beatles " were lucky to have met " the Maharishi . A 2011 article in The Telegraph reported Harrison as saying : " Maharishi only ever did good for us , and although I have not been with him physically , I never left him " . In 2007 , a Canadian actress , Maggie Blue O 'Hara , announced plans to renovate and convert the property into a home for the street children of New Delhi . In 2011 , a plan was announced by the state government to build an Ayush Gram on the site . In 2003 , Jerry Hall produced a series for the BBC titled Gurus , which included interviews with TM initiates , Jagger , and Cooke de Herrera , and a visit to the ashram in Rishikesh . Saltzman 's photographs at the ashram have subsequently been displayed in galleries worldwide , published in two books and in a permanent exhibition above the retail units in the departure lounge of Liverpool John Lennon Airport . Mira Nair began work on a documentary film about the Beatles ' visit to India ; although no date for the film release has been announced .
= = = Songs = = =
The Beatles wrote many songs during their visit to Rishikesh : 30 by one count , and " 48 songs in seven weeks " by others . Lennon said : " We wrote about thirty new songs between us . Paul must have done about a dozen . George says he 's got six , and I wrote fifteen " . Many of the songs became part of the album The Beatles ( aka " the White Album " ) , while others appeared on Abbey Road , and solo records . Several of the songs contained Eastern musical influences .
Recorded for The Beatles :
" Back in the U.S.S.R. "
" Blackbird "
" Cry Baby Cry "
" Dear Prudence " ( named after Prudence Farrow , who would not " come out and play " )
" Don 't Pass Me By " ( written by Starr )
" Everybody 's Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey "
" I Will "
" I 'm So Tired "
" Julia "
" Long , Long , Long "
" Mother Nature 's Son " ( inspired by a lecture given by the Maharishi )
" Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da "
" Revolution "
" Rocky Raccoon " ( co @-@ written with Donovan and inspired by Bob Dylan 's new album John Wesley Harding , which they heard for the first time at Rishikesh )
" Sexy Sadie " ( originally named " Maharishi " but changed to avoid libel )
" The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill " ( inspired by the son of an American student who went tiger hunting )
" Why Don 't We Do It in the Road ? " ( inspired by monkeys mating in the road )
" Wild Honey Pie "
" Yer Blues "
Recorded for Abbey Road :
" Mean Mr. Mustard "
" Polythene Pam "
Recorded for solo records and others :
" Child of Nature " ( reworked as " Jealous Guy " for Lennon 's Imagine )
" Circles " ( on Gone Troppo in 1982 )
" Cosmically Conscious " ( on Off the Ground in 1993 )
" Dehradun " ( Harrison 's song , but never released )
" Junk " ( on McCartney in 1970 )
" Look at Me " ( on John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band in 1970 )
" Not Guilty " ( on George Harrison in 1979 )
" The Rishikesh Song " ( also called " The Happy Rishikesh Song " , but never released )
" Sour Milk Sea " ( performed by Jackie Lomax and released on a single )
" Spiritual Regeneration / Happy Birthday Mike Love " ( recorded on tape at Rishikesh )
" Teddy Boy " ( on McCartney in 1970 )
" What 's the New Mary Jane " ( officially released on the 1996 compilation Anthology 3 )
Donovan :
" Happiness Runs "
" Hurdy Gurdy Man " ( Harrison wrote a chorus which was not recorded )
" Lord of the Reedy River " ( later recorded by Kate Bush )
= = = Filming = = =
Although there was talk of making a film about the Maharishi in co @-@ operation with Apple Films , it was discovered that the Maharishi was independently negotiating with ABC Television in the US , to create a TV special featuring the band . Two visits by business manager Peter Brown to the Maharishi — who was lecturing in Malmö , Sweden — and one by Harrison and McCartney , failed to stop him proclaiming that he could deliver the band for a TV show .
A film crew led by producer Gene Corman – linked to ABC Television – did eventually arrive to film proceedings , but within a day of their arrival the remaining Beatles had left ; Upon returning to England , Lennon dismissed the idea that the presence of the film crew had contributed to the timing of their exit .
Video footage of the Beatles ' stay does exist , sourced from a 16mm silent handheld camera that was used by many of the guests during their stay there . Segments of this can be seen in the documentary The Beatles Anthology .
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= Old Bacon Academy =
The Bacon Academy , nicknamed Old Bacon Academy , was the original Bacon Academy until 1993 . The Old Bacon Academy was built in 1803 and is located at 84 Main Street , Colchester , Connecticut . The main structure is a 70 feet ( 21 m ) long by 34 feet ( 10 m ) wide three @-@ story Flemish bond brick structure with Federal style details . Noted for its plain , utilitarian floor plan consisting of two rooms off a central hall and stairway , the inside has seen some renovations throughout its history . The Day Hall , a contributing property purchased by the Bacon Academy trustees in 1929 , is a church hall that was used for the high school until 1962 .
Originally operating as a white male school , Bacon Academy integrated " negroes and persons of color " around 1833 and began to educate women in 1842 . The school has educated important figures like Edwin Denison Morgan , Morgan Bulkeley , William A. Buckingham , Lyman Trumbull , and Morrison Waite . Due to the structure 's utilitarian style combined with its Federal details , the National Register of Historic Places recognizes it as architecturally significant . Currently , the Old Bacon Academy building is used as part of an alternative education program and Day Hall is used as a nursery . The properties were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 .
= = Design = =
Bacon Academy is named for Pierpoint Bacon , a prosperous farmer who died childless in 1800 . Bacon bequeathed most of his property and assets to the First Society of Colchester to support schooling . The trustees decided to build an academy , an institution to have young men be educated , and then go directly into the workforce . Completed in 1803 for the cost of $ 7000 , the main Bacon Academy structure is a 70 feet ( 21 m ) long by 34 feet ( 10 m ) wide three @-@ story Flemish bond brick structure with Federal style details . The foundation of the academy is made of fieldstone with a facing of dressed granite blocks . The bricks were produced on a local farm for the purpose building Bacon Academy . The front facade has 26 windows arranged in 9 bays with gaps for the chimneys in between the second and third bay from the corners . The sash is 6 @-@ by @-@ 6 and was noted to appear original in the nomination form . Originally the hipped roof had four chimneys , with two matching chimneys on each the west and east sides . Only the east chimneys remain . Facing the front entrance , the chimneys are spaced about 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) from the side corners . In the 1982 nomination , the hipped roof was reported to have asphalt shingles .
The building was altered in 1890 , with two additions of Victorian architecture , the first being the main entrance , above the fanlight , is an arched awning with incised consoles . The other addition was the octagonal cupola on the roof over the original bell tower which dates from 1830 . The exterior of the school has complementary colors . The walls are painted a cream color while the foundation , doors , window trims , and cornices are a chocolate @-@ brown .
The interior of the building was termed " severely plain " and utilitarian for its simple design of two large rooms on each side with a central hall and stairwell . Each room was filled with natural light from the windows , and had a chimney for the iron stoves on the east and west ends of the building . The oak floors were installed in the early 20th @-@ century and the ceiling was covered with modern acoustical tiles . The third floor is a shallow attic that gives access to the cupola . The ceiling and roof framing is supported with two king @-@ post trusses at the ends of the main ridge . The basement is divided into halves and supported by summer beams that run the length of the sills and supported by posts on stone pedestals . By 1982 , the steel I @-@ beams were " recently " inserted under the floor joists and between the summer and the sills . The cellar also has an old furnace that is not in service due to the building using electrical heating .
The other contributing property , Day Hall , is a church hall that was originally built in 1858 . It was acquired and used for " high school purposes " from 1929 until they completed construction of the new Bacon Academy in 1962 . After that it was adopted for use as a kindergarten and offices for the trustees . Described as " vaguely Italianate " , the one @-@ room church hall has a basement and a T @-@ shaped addition dating to around 1928 . It has a steep gabled , hipped roof . The entrance has two modern fire doors that lead to an auditorium and gallery on the east and stage on the west end .
= = Operation = =
The school was originally only for white male students , with " negroes and persons of color " using a separate facility , but integration occurred thirty years later and the school also began to educate women in 1842 . Throughout the first 136 years of Bacon Academy 's operation its endowment was its sole provider of funding . In 1939 , the town began contributing funds to the institution , resulting in the loss of complete control of its own affairs . In 1982 , at the time of its National Register of Historic Places nomination , the trust provided a " small percentage " of Bacon Academy 's funding .
In 2013 , the Bacon Academy building was used by the school as part of an alternative education program and Day Hall functions as a nursery school . The school is rented by the Board of Education for around $ 21 @,@ 000 a year and the Bacon Academy Board of Trustees says that the operational costs are between $ 25 @,@ 000 and $ 28 @,@ 000 a year . According to the Colchester Public Schools website , " the Mission of the Alternative Education Program is to provide academic , social , and emotional supports for students at risk of dropping out of high school . "
= = Importance = =
The National Register of Historic Places nomination submitted Bacon Academy as being important under criteria A , B and C. Bacon Academy 's development in the 176 years , up to the time of nomination , represents the evolution of social attitudes and ideas of education ; criteria A. Under criteria B , Bacon Academy is associated with numerous influential and prominent figures . The school was responsible for educating New York governor and senator Edwin Denison Morgan , Connecticut governors Morgan Bulkeley and William A. Buckingham , Iowa senator Lyman Trumbull , and Morrison Waite , the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court . Criteria C reflects the architectural significance and merit of the structure which is only impeded by its Victorian @-@ era cupola . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 .
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= Early history of video games =
The history of video games spans a period of time between the invention of the first electronic games and today , covering a long period of invention and changes . Video gaming would not reach mainstream popularity until the 1970s and 1980s , when arcade video games , gaming consoles and home computer games were introduced to the general public . Since then , video gaming has become a popular form of entertainment and a part of modern culture in most parts of the world . The early history of video games , therefore , covers the period of time between the first interactive electronic game with an electronic display in 1947 , the first true video games in the early 1950s , and the rise of early arcade video games in the 1970s ( Pong and the beginning of the first generation of video game consoles with the Magnavox Odyssey , both in 1972 ) . During this time there were a wide range of devices and inventions corresponding with large advances in computing technology , and the actual first video game is dependent on the definition of " video game " used .
Following the 1947 invention of the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to use an electronic display , the first true video games were created in the early 1950s . Initially created as technology demonstrations , such as the Bertie the Brain and Nimrod computers in 1950 and 1951 , video games also became the purview of academic research . A series of games , generally simulating real @-@ world board games , were created at various research institutions to explore programming , human – computer interaction , and computer algorithms . These include OXO and Christopher Strachey 's draughts program in 1952 , the first software @-@ based games to incorporate a CRT display , and several chess and checkers programs . Possibly the first video game created simply for entertainment was 1958 's Tennis for Two , featuring moving graphics on an oscilloscope . As computing technology improved over time , computers became smaller and faster , and the ability to work on them was opened up to university employees and undergraduate students by the end of the 1950s . These new programmers began to create games for non @-@ academic purposes , leading up to the 1962 release of Spacewar ! as one of the earliest known digital computer games to be available outside a single research institute .
Throughout the rest of the 1960s , digital computer games were created by increasingly numerous programmers and sometimes sold commercially in catalogs . As the audience for video games expanded to more than a few dozen research institutions with the falling cost of computers , and programming languages that would run on multiple types of computers were created , a wider variety of games began to be developed . Video games transitioned into a new era in the early 1970s with the launch of the commercial video game industry with the display of the coin @-@ operated arcade game Galaxy Game and the release first widely available arcade game Computer Space , and then in 1972 with the release of the immensely successful arcade game Pong and the first home video game console , the Magnavox Odyssey , which launched the first generation of video game consoles .
= = Defining the video game = =
The term " video game " has evolved over the decades from a purely technical definition to a general concept defining a new class of interactive entertainment . Technically , for a product to be a video game , there must be a video signal transmitted to a cathode ray tube ( CRT ) that creates a rasterized image on a screen . This definition would preclude early computer games that outputted results to a printer or teletype rather than a display , any game rendered on a vector @-@ scan monitor , any game played on a modern high definition display , and most handheld game systems . From a technical standpoint , these would more properly be called " electronic games " or " computer games " .
Today , however , the term " video game " has completely shed its purely technical definition and encompasses a wider range of technology . While still rather ill @-@ defined , the term " video game " now generally encompasses any game played on hardware built with electronic logic circuits that incorporates an element of interactivity and outputs the results of the player 's actions to a display . Going by this broader definition , the first video games appeared in the early 1950s ; they were tied largely to research projects at universities and large corporations , though , and had little influence on each other due to their primary purpose as academic and promotional devices rather than entertainment games .
The ancestors to these games include the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to incorporate a cathode ray tube screen . The player simulates an artillery shell trajectory on a CRT screen connected to an oscilloscope , with a set of knobs and switches . The device uses purely analog electronics and does not use any digital computer or memory device or execute a program . It was patented by Thomas T. Goldsmith , Jr. and Estle Ray Mann in 1947 . While the idea behind the game was potentially to use a television set as the display and thus sell the invention to consumers , as Goldsmith and Mann worked at television designer DuMont Laboratories , the patent , the first for an electronic game , was never used and the device never manufactured beyond the original handmade prototypes . This , along with the lack of electronic logic circuits , keeps the device from being considered the first video game . Around the same time as the device was invented , the earliest known written computer game was developed by Alan Turing and David Champernowne in 1948 , a chess simulation called Turochamp , though it was never actually implemented on a computer as the code was too complicated to run on the machines of the time . Turing tested the code in a game in 1952 where he mimicked the operation of the code in a real chess game against an opponent , but was never able to run the program on a computer .
= = Initial games = =
The first publicly demonstrated electronic game was created in 1950 . Bertie the Brain was an arcade game of tic @-@ tac @-@ toe , built by Josef Kates for the 1950 Canadian National Exhibition . To showcase his new miniature vacuum tube , the additron tube , he designed a specialized computer to use it , which he built with the assistance of engineers from Rogers Majestic . The large metal computer , which was four meters tall , could only play tic @-@ tac @-@ toe on a lightbulb @-@ backed display , and was installed in the Engineering Building at the Canadian National Exhibition from August 25 – September 9 , 1950 . The game was a success at the two @-@ week exhibition , with attendees lining up to play it as Kates adjusted the difficulty up and down for players . After the exhibition , Bertie was dismantled , and " largely forgotten " as a novelty . Kates has said that he was working on so many projects at the same time that he had no energy to spare for preserving it , despite its significance .
Nearly a year later on May 5 , 1951 , the Nimrod computer — created by engineering firm and nascent computer developer Ferranti — was presented at the Festival of Britain , and then showcased for three weeks in October at the Berlin Industrial Show before being dismantled . Using a panel of lights for its display , it was designed exclusively to play the game of Nim ; moves were made by players pressing buttons which corresponded with the lights . Nimrod could play either the traditional or " reverse " form of the game . The machine was twelve feet wide , nine feet deep , and five feet tall . It was based on an earlier Nim @-@ playing machine , " Nimatron " , designed by Edward Condon and built by Westinghouse Electric in 1940 for display at the New York World 's Fair . " Nimatron " had been constructed from electromechanical relays and weighed over a ton . The Nimrod was primarily intended to showcase Ferranti 's computer design and programming skills rather than entertain , and was not followed up by any future games . Despite this , most of the onlookers at the Festival of Britain were more interested in playing the game than in the programming and engineering logic behind it .
Around this time , non @-@ visual games were being developed at various research computer laboratories ; for example , Christopher Strachey developed a simulation of the game draughts , or checkers , for the Pilot ACE that he unsuccessfully attempted to run for the first time in July 1951 at the British National Physical Laboratory and completed in 1952 ; this is the first known computer game to be created for a general @-@ purpose computer , rather than a machine specifically made for the game like Bertie . Strachey 's program inspired Arthur Samuel to develop his own checkers game in 1952 for the IBM 701 ; successive iterations developed rudimentary artificial intelligence by 1955 and a version was shown on television in 1956 . Also in 1951 , Dietrich Prinz wrote the first limited program of chess for the University of Manchester 's general @-@ purpose Ferranti Mark 1 computer , one of the first commercially available computers . The program was only capable of computing " mate @-@ in @-@ two " problems as it was not powerful enough to play a full game , and it had no video output . Around the same time in the early 1950s , the RAND Corporation developed a series of combat simulation games of increasing complexity , where the player would enter orders to intercept enemy aircraft , or set up their forces to counter an enemy army invasion . These simulations were not yet true video games , as they required human intervention to interpret the player 's orders and the final results ; the computer only controlled the paths that the enemies would take .
= = Interactive visual games = =
In 1952 , Alexander S. Douglas created OXO , a software program for the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator ( EDSAC ) computer , which simulates a game of tic @-@ tac @-@ toe . The EDSAC was one of the first stored @-@ program computers , with memory that could be read from or written to , and filled an entire room ; it included three 35 × 16 dot matrix cathode ray tubes to graphically display the state of the computer 's memory . As a part of a thesis on human – computer interaction , Douglas used one of these screens to portray other information to the user ; he chose to do so via displaying the current state of a game . The player entered input using a rotary telephone controller , selecting which of the nine squares on the board they wished to move next . Their move would appear on the screen , and then the computer 's move would follow . The game was not available to the general public , and was only available to be played in the University of Cambridge 's Mathematical Laboratory , by special permission , as the EDSAC could not be moved . Like other early video games , after serving Douglas 's purpose , the game was discarded . Around the same time , Strachey expanded his draughts program for another mainframe computer , the Manchester Mark 1 , culminating in a version for the Ferranti Mark 1 in 1952 , which had a CRT display . Like OXO , the display was mostly static , updating only when a move was made . OXO and Strachey 's draughts program are the earliest known games to display visuals on an electronic screen .
The first known game incorporating graphics that updated in real time , rather than only when the player made a move , was a pool game programmed by William Brown and Ted Lewis specifically for a demonstration of the University of Michigan @-@ developed MIDSAC computer at the University of Michigan in 1954 . The game , developed over six months by the pair , featured a pool stick controlled by a joystick and a knob , and a full rack of 15 balls on a table seen in an overhead view . The computer calculated the movements of the balls as they collided and moved around the table , disappearing when they reached a pocket , and updated the graphics continuously , forty times a second , so as to show real @-@ time motion . Like previous video games , the pool game was intended primarily to showcase the computing power of the MIDSAC computer .
While further games like checkers and chess were developed on research computers , the next milestone in video games came in 1958 with Tennis for Two . Perhaps the first game created solely for entertainment rather than as a technology demonstration or a research tool , the program simulated a game of tennis . Created by American physicist William Higinbotham for visitors at the Brookhaven National Laboratory to be more entertaining for visitors on their public day than the usual static exhibits about nuclear power , the game ran on a Donner Model 30 analog computer and displayed a side view of a tennis court on an oscilloscope . The players controlled the angle of their shots with attached controllers , and the game calculated and simulated the trajectory of the ball , including the possibility of hitting the net . The game was first shown on October 18 , 1958 . Hundreds of visitors lined up to play the new game during its debut . Due to the game 's popularity , an upgraded version was shown the following year , with enhancements including a larger screen and different levels of simulated gravity . Afterwards , having served its purpose , the game was dismantled for its component parts . While the game had no innovations in game design or technological development , its status as an entertainment @-@ focused game , rather than an academic project or technological showpiece , has led it to be considered one of the first " real " video games as they are generally thought of today .
Over the next few years , during 1957 – 61 , various computer games continued to be created in the context of academic computer and programming research , particularly as computer technology improved to include smaller , transistor @-@ based computers on which programs could be created and run in real time , rather than operations run in batches . A few programs , however , while used to showcase the power of the computer they ran on were also intended as entertainment products ; these were generally created by undergraduate students , such as at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where they were allowed on occasion to develop programs for the TX @-@ 0 experimental computer . These interactive graphical games were created by a community of programmers , many of them students affiliated with the Tech Model Railroad Club ( TMRC ) led by Alan Kotok , Peter Samson , and Bob Saunders . The games included Tic @-@ Tac @-@ Toe , which used a light pen to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer , and Mouse in the Maze . Mouse in the Maze allowed users to use a light pen to set up a maze of walls on the monitor , and spots that represented bits of cheese or glasses of martini . A virtual mouse was then released and would traverse the maze to find the objects . Additionally , the wargame simulations from the early 1950s by the RAND Corporation had expanded into more complicated simulations which required little human intervention , and had also sparked the creation of business management simulation games such as The Management Game , which was used in business schools such as at Carnegie Mellon University by 1958 . By 1961 , there were over 89 different business simulation games in use , with various graphical capabilities . As the decade ended , despite several video games having been developed , there was no such thing as a commercial video game industry ; almost all games had been developed on or as a single machine for specific purposes , and the few simulation games were neither commercial nor for entertainment .
= = The spread of games = =
By 1961 , MIT had acquired the DEC PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer , the successor to the TX @-@ 0 , which also used a vector display system . The system 's comparatively small size and processing speed meant that , like with the TX @-@ 0 , the university allowed its undergraduate students and employees to write programs for the computer which were not directly academically related whenever it was not in use . In 1961 @-@ 62 , Harvard and MIT employees Martin Graetz , Steve Russell , and Wayne Wiitanen created the game Spacewar ! on the PDP @-@ 1 , inspired by science fiction books such as the Lensman series . The game was copied to several of the early minicomputer installations in American academic institutions , making it potentially the first video game to be available outside a single research institute .
The two @-@ player game has the players engaged in a dogfight between two spaceships set against the backdrop of a randomly generated background starfield . The game was developed to meet three precepts : to use as much of the computer 's resources as possible , to be consistently interesting and therefore have every run be different , and to be entertaining and therefore a game . The game was a multiplayer game because the computer had no resources left over to handle controlling the other ship . After the game 's initial development , members of the TMRC worked to improve the game , adding an accurate starfield and a gravitational body , and spread it to the couple dozen other institutions with a PDP @-@ 1 , a process which continued over the next few years . As the computer was uncomfortable to use for extended periods of time , Kotok and Saunders created a detached control device , essentially an early gamepad . Spacewar was reportedly used as a smoke test by DEC technicians on new PDP @-@ 1 systems before shipping , since it was the only available program that exercised every aspect of the hardware . Although the game was widespread for the era , it was still very limited in its direct reach : the PDP @-@ 1 was priced at US $ 120 @,@ 000 and only 55 were ever sold , many without a monitor , which prohibited Spacewar or any game of the time from reaching beyond a narrow , academic audience . Russell has been quoted as saying that the aspect of the game that he was most pleased with was the number of other programmers it inspired to write their own games .
Although the market for commercial games — and software in general — was small , due to the cost of computers limiting their spread to research institutions and large corporations , several were still created by programmers and distributed by the computer manufacturers . A number of games could be found in an April 1962 IBM program catalog . These included board games , " BBC Vik The Baseball Demonstrator " , and " Three Dimensional Tic @-@ Tack @-@ Toe " . Following the spread of Spacewar , further computer games developed by programmers at universities were also developed and distributed over the next few years . These included the Socratic System , a question and answer game designed to teach medical students how to diagnose patients by Wallace Feurzeig in 1962 , and a dice game by Edward Steinberger in 1965 .
The creation of general programming languages like BASIC , which could be run on different hardware types , allowed for programs to be written for more than one specific computer , in turn letting games written in them to spread to more end players in the programming community than before . These games included a baseball simulation game written in BASIC by John Kemeny in 1965 ; a BASIC bingo game by Larry Bethurum in 1966 ; a basketball simulation game written in BASIC by Charles R. Bacheller in May 1967 ; another baseball game that simulates the 1967 World Series written in BASIC by Jacob Bergmann in August 1967 ; Space Travel , written by Ken Thompson for a Multics system in 1969 and which led in part to the development of the Unix operating system ; and Hamurabi , a text @-@ based FOCAL game written by Doug Dyment in 1968 and converted to BASIC by David H. Ahl in 1969 , and one of the first strategy video games ever made . Hamurabi and Space Travel were among several early mainframe games that were written during the time , and spread beyond their initial mainframe computers to general @-@ purpose languages like BASIC .
= = A new industry = =
At the beginning of the 1970s , video games existed almost entirely as novelties passed around by programmers and technicians with access to computers , primarily at research institutions and large companies . The history of video games transitioned into a new era early in the decade , however , with the rise of the commercial video game industry . In 1971 , Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck developed a coin @-@ operated computer game , Galaxy Game , at Stanford University using a DEC PDP @-@ 11 computer with vector displays . The pair was inspired to make the game by Spacewar ; Tuck had remarked in 1966 while playing the game that a coin @-@ operated version of the game would be very successful . Such a device was unfeasible in 1966 due to the cost of computers , but in 1969 DEC released the PDP @-@ 11 for US $ 20 @,@ 000 ; while this was still too high for a commercially viable product , as most games in arcades cost around US $ 1 @,@ 000 at the time , the pair felt it was low enough to build a prototype to determine interest and optimal per @-@ game pricing . Only prototype units were ever built , though the second prototype was adapted to run up to eight games at once ; after its initial installation at Stanford in September 1971 , the pair met with Nolan Bushnell , who informed them of his own game he was making for a much lower price .
That game was Computer Space , developed by Bushnell and Ted Dabney . They had found the Data General Nova , a US $ 4 @,@ 000 computer that they thought would be powerful enough to run four games of Spacewar at once ; the computer turned out to not actually be powerful enough for the project . While investigating the concept of replacing some of the computer with purpose @-@ built hardware , however , the pair discovered that making a system explicitly for running such a game , rather than general programs , would be much less expensive : as low as $ 100 . By 1971 when Bushnell met with Pitts and Tuck , a prototype version had been successfully displayed for a short time in August 1971 in a local bar , the design was nearly finished , and the pair had founded a company around it called Syzygy . Bushnell had also found a manufacturer for the game , Nutting Associates , who would make the final game cabinets and sell them to distributors . Bushnell felt that Galaxy Game was not a real competitor to Computer Space , due to its high price . Pitts and Tuck believed , however , that despite the economic argument their game was superior , as they felt that Galaxy Game was a true expansion of Spacewar , while Computer Space just a pale imitation . Some players at the time , however , believed Galaxy Game to actually be just a version of Spacewar ! . Galaxy Game 's prototype installation was very popular , though at a low price @-@ per @-@ game , and the pair developed a second version to display at the same location ; they were never able to enter production , though , as they eventually had to abandon the idea after spending US $ 65 @,@ 000 developing it due to the high cost and lack of business plan .
Two months after Galaxy Game 's installation , Computer Space was released . It was the first coin @-@ operated video game to be commercially sold ( and the first widely available video game of any kind ) . While it did well in its initial locations near college campuses , it performed very poorly in bars and arcades where pinball and other arcade games were typically placed ; while it was commercially successful and made over US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , it did not meet the high expectations of Nutting , who had expected to sell more than 1 @,@ 500 units . Bushnell and Dabney immediately started work on another game , using the same television set design as Computer Space , as well as founding their own company Atari , Inc. to back their projects . While initially this game was to be a driving game that Bushnell planned to design , their first employee , Allan Alcorn , took a prototype ping @-@ pong game suggestion of Bushnell 's and expanded on it to create a game the company immediately seized on . They were unable to find a manufacturer , but on the evidence of the success of their prototype installation , decided to produce the game cabinets themselves . Pong was released in 1972 , a year after Computer Space . It was immensely commercially successful , selling over 8 @,@ 000 units . It inspired copycat games to be sold in America , Europe , and Japan , and led to the popularization of the medium .
That same year saw the release of the Magnavox Odyssey , the first home video game console which could be connected to a television set . The inventor , Ralph H. Baer , had initially had the idea in 1951 to make an interactive game on a television set . Unable to do so with the technological constraints at the time , he began work on a device that would attach to a television set and display games in 1966 , and the " Brown Box " , the last prototype of seven , was licensed to Magnavox to adapt and produce . They announced the console in May 1972 , and it went on sale that September . The console and its games featured numerous innovations beyond being the first video game device for home consumers : it was the first game to use a raster @-@ scan video display , or television set , directly displayed via modification of a video signal ; it was also the first video gaming device to be displayed in a television commercial . It sold for US $ 100 and shipped with several games , including " Table tennis " , which Bushnell had seen a demo of and which Pong had been based on . The Odyssey sold over 100 @,@ 000 units in 1972 , and more than 350 @,@ 000 by the end of 1975 , buoyed by the popularity of the table tennis game , in turn driven by the success of Pong . Pong and the Odyssey kicked off a new era of video gaming , with numerous other competitors starting up in the video game industry as it grew in popularity .
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= Military of Mycenaean Greece =
The military nature of Mycenaean Greece ( c . 1600 – 1100 BC ) in the Late Bronze Age is evident by the numerous weapons unearthed , warrior and combat representations in contemporary art , as well as by the preserved Greek Linear B records . The Mycenaeans invested in the development of military infrastructure with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centres . This militaristic ethos inspired later Ancient Greek tradition , and especially Homer 's epics , which are focused on the heroic nature of the Mycenaean @-@ era warrior élite .
Late Bronze Age Greece was divided into a series of warrior kingdoms , the most important being centered in Mycenae , to which the culture of this era owes its name , Tiryns , Pylos and Thebes . From the 15th century BC , Mycenaean power began expanding towards the Aegean , the Anatolian coast and Cyprus . Mycenaean armies shared several common features with other contemporary Late Bronze Age powers : they were initially based on heavy infantry , with spears , large shields and in some occasions armor . In the 13th century BC , Mycenaean units underwent a transformation in tactics and weaponry and became more uniform and flexible and their weapons became smaller and lighter . Some representative types of Mycenaean armor / weapons were the boar 's tusk helmet and the " Figure @-@ of @-@ eight " shield . Moreover , most features of the later hoplite panoply of Classical Greece were already known at this time .
= = Military ethos = =
The presence of the important and influential military aristocracy that formed in Mycenaean society offers an overwhelming impression of a fierce and warlike people . This impression of militarism is reinforced by the fortifications erected throughout Mycenaean Greece , the large numbers and quality of the weapons retrieved from the Mycenaean royal graves , artistic representations of war scenes and the textual evidence provided by the Linear B records . The Linear B scripts also offer some detail about the organization of the military personnel , while military production and logistics were supervised by a central authority from the palaces . According to the records in the palace of Pylos , every rural community ( the damos ) was obliged to supply a certain number of men who had to serve in the army ; similar service was also performed by the aristocracy .
The main divinities who appear to be of warlike nature were Ares ( Linear B : A @-@ re ) and Athena Potnia ( Linear B : A @-@ ta @-@ na Po @-@ ti @-@ ni @-@ ja ) .
= = Tactics and evolution = =
Mycenaean armies shared several common features with other significant Late Bronze Age powers : they were initially based on heavy infantry , which bore spears , large shields and , in some occasions , armor . Later in the 13th century BC , Mycenaean warfare underwent major changes both in tactics and weaponry . Armed units became more uniform and flexible , while weapons became smaller and lighter . The spear remained the main weapon among Mycenaean warriors until the collapse of the Bronze Age , while the sword played a secondary role in combat .
The precise role and contribution of war chariots in battlefield is a matter of dispute due to the lack of sufficient evidence . In general , it appears that during the first centuries ( 16th – 14th century BC ) chariots were used as a fighting vehicle while later in the 13th century BC their role was limited to a battlefield transport . Horse @-@ mounted warriors were also part of the Mycenaean armies , however their precise role isn 't clear due to lack of archaeological data .
= = Fortifications = =
The construction of defensive structures was closely linked with the establishment of the palatial centers in mainland Greece . The principal Mycenaean centers were well @-@ fortified and usually situated on an elevated terrain , such as in Athens , Tiryns and Mycenae or on coastal plains , in the case of Gla . Mycenaean Greeks appreciated the symbolism of war as expressed in defensive architecture , thus they aimed also at the visual impressiveness of their fortifications . The walls were built in Cyclopean style ; consisted of walls built of large , unworked boulders more than 8 m ( 26 ft ) thick and weighing several metric tonnes . The term Cyclopean was derived by the Greeks of the classical era who believed that only the mythical giants , the Cyclops , could have constructed such megalithic structures . On the other hand , cut stone masonry is used only in and around gateways .
= = Weaponry = =
= = = Offensive weapons = = =
Spears were initially long and two @-@ handed , more than 3 m ( 10 ft ) long and possibly handled with both hands . During the later Mycenaean centuries , shorter versions were adopted which were usually accompanied with small types of shields , mainly of circular shape . These short spears have been used for both thrusting and throwing .
From the 16th century BC , swords with rounded tips appeared , having a grip which was an extension of the blade . They were 130 cm ( 4 ft ) long and 3 cm ( 1 in ) broad . Another type , the single @-@ edged sword was a solid piece of bronze c . 66 cm ( 2 @.@ 17 ft ) – 74 cm ( 2 @.@ 43 ft ) long . This shorter sword was most probably used for close @-@ quarters combat . In the 14th century BC , both types were progressively modified with stronger grips and shorter blades . Finally in the 13th century BC , a new type of sword , the Naue II , became popular in Mycenaean Greece .
Archery was commonly used from an early period in battlefield . Other offensive weapons used were maces , axes , slings and javelins .
= = = Shields = = =
Early Mycenaean armies used " tower shields " , large shields that covered almost the entire body . However , with the introduction of bronze armor , this type was less utilized , even if it didn 't completely go into disuse , as attested in iconography . " Figure @-@ of @-@ eight " shields became the most common type of Mycenaean shields . These shields were made of several layers of bull @-@ hide and in some cases they were reinforced with bronze plates . During the later Mycenaean period , smaller types of shields were adopted . They were either of completely circular shape , or almost circular with a cut @-@ out part from their lower edge . These were made of several layers of leather with a bronze boss and reinforcements . They occasionally appear to have been made entirely of bronze .
= = = Helmets = = =
The most common type of Mycenaean helmet is the conical one reinforced with rows of boar tusks . This type was widely used and became the most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor , being in use from the beginning to the collapse of Mycenaean culture . It is also known from several depictions in contemporary art in Greece and the Mediterranean . Boar 's tusk helmets consisted of a felt @-@ lined leather cap , with several rows of cut boar 's tusk sewn onto it .
Helmets made entirely of bronze were also used , while some of them had large cheek guards , probably stitched or riveted to the helmet , as well as an upper pierced knot to hold a crest . Small holes all around the cheek guards and the helmet 's lower edge were used for the attachment of internal padding . Other types of bronze helmets were also used . During the late Mycenaean period , additional types were also used such as horned helmets made of strips of leather .
= = = Armor = = =
A representative piece of Mycenaean armor is the Dendra panoply ( c . 1450 – 1400 BC ) which consisted of a cuirass of a complete set made up of several elements of bronze . It was flexible and comfortable enough to be used for fighting on foot , while the total weight of the armor is around 18 kg ( about 40 lb ) . Important evidence of Mycenaean armor has also been found in Thebes ( c . 1350 – 1250 BC ) , which include a pair of shoulder guards , smaller than to those from Dendra , with additional plates protecting the upper arms , attached to the lower edge of the shoulder guards .
The use of scale armour is evident during the later Mycenaean centuries , as shown on iconography and archaeological finds . In general , most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity , were already known to Mycenaean Greece .
= = Chariots = =
The two @-@ horse chariot appeared on the Greek mainland at least from the 16th century BC . Mycenaean chariots differed from their counterparts used by contemporary Middle Eastern powers . According to the preserved Linear B records , the palatial states of Knossos and Pylos were able to field several hundreds . The most common type of Mycenaean chariot was the " dual chariot " , which appeared in the middle of the 15th century BC . In 14th century BC , a lighter version appeared , the " rail chariot " , which featured an open cab and was most probably used as a battlefield transport rather than a fighting vehicle .
= = Ships = =
Mycenaean ships were shallow @-@ draught vessels and could be beached on sandy bays . There were vessels of various sizes containing different numbers of oarsmen . The largest ship probably had a crew of 42 – 46 oarsmen , with one steering oar , a captain , two attendants and a complement of warriors .
The most common type of Mycenaean vessel based on depictions of contemporary art was the oared galley with long and narrow hulls . The shape of the hull was constructed in a way to maximize the number of rowers . Thus , a higher speed could have been achieved regardless of wind conditions . Although it carried mast and sail , it was less efficient as a sailing ship . The Mycenaean galley offered certain advantages . Although lighter compared to the oared @-@ sailing ship of the Minoans of Crete , it seated more rowers . Its steering mechanism was a triangular steering oar , a forerunner of the latter steering oar of Archaic era .
= = Campaigns = =
Around 1450 BC , Greece was divided into a series of warrior kingdoms , the most important being centered in Mycenae , Tiryns , Pylos and Thebes . Before the end of the same century , this militaristic civilization replaced the former priestess @-@ dominated civilization of Minoan Cretans in the Aegean . Thus , the Mycenaeans began to build up their maritime power in the Aegean Sea , expanding towards the Aegean Islands and Anatolian coast . The warlike nature of the Mycenaeans was probably a decisive factor in their diplomatic relations towards the other Late Bronze Age powers . Mycenaean warriors were also hired as mercenaries in foreign armies , such as in Egypt .
Contemporary Hittite texts indicate the presence of Ahhiyawa , which strengthened its position in western Anatolia from c . 1400 to c . 1220 BC . Ahhiyawa is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece ( Achaeans in Homeric Greek ) . During this period , the kings of Ahhiyawa were clearly able to deal with the Hittite kings both in a military and diplomatic way . Ahhiyawa activity was to interfere in Anatolian affairs , with the support of anti @-@ Hittite uprisings or through local vassal rulers , which the king of the Ahhiyawa used as agents for the extension of his influence . In one occasion , in c . 1400 BC , Attarsiya ( a possible Hittite translation of Atreus ) launched a campaign deploying an army headed by war chariots and attacked regions which were under Hittite influence . Later , Attarsiya , invaded the island of Alashiya ( Cyprus ) together with a number of his Anatolian allies . The invading force finally succeeded in controlling the island and overthrowing the local Hittite authorities . The campaigns of Attarsiya represent the earliest recorded Mycenaean Greek military activity against the Hittites . The Hittite @-@ Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa , the Hittite name for Troy , in the 13th century BC may have provided the historical foundation for the Trojan War tradition .
In circa 1250 BC , the first wave of destruction has been witnessed in various centers of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists . These incidents appear to have triggered the massive strengthening and expansion of the fortifications in various sites . In some cases , arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns . Nevertheless , none of these measures appear to have prevented the final destruction of the Mycenaean palace centers in the 12th century BC . The reasons that lead to the collapse of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars . The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict .
= = Legacy = =
Due to the information offered by the Greek epics and especially by Homer 's epics , the Iliad and Odyssey , this time period of Greek history was regarded as a period of warrior @-@ heroes who led various military campaigns in Greece and adjacent areas . The picture of the Mycenaean Greeks in the Homeric Epics is one of a quarrelsome people and of a warrior élite to whom personal honor was the highest value .
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