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= Hemlock Hoax , the Detective =
Hemlock Hoax , the Detective is an American short comedy film produced and distributed in 1910 by the Lubin Manufacturing Company . The silent film features a detective named Hemlock Hoax who tries to solve a murder , which unbeknownst to him is a practical joke being played on him by two young boys . It was one of many shorts designed to derive its humor from a sleuth whose name was similar to Sherlock Holmes .
The character of Hemlock Hoax was based on a minor character from a film story that had been rejected . The finished film was released in April as a split reel , being presented with two other Lubin comedies . The black @-@ and @-@ white short received positive reviews with several journalists praising the film 's humor . It is unclear whether there is a surviving print of the film , and the identities of the film 's cast and crew are not recorded .
= = Plot = =
Hemlock Hoax is a detective who has little respect in the small tropical town where he lives , despite the fact that he thinks he is a better sleuth than Sherlock Holmes . A pair of boys decide to play a trick on Hoax and tell him about a murder . Hoax rushes to scene of the crime where he discovers a shred of cloth , later finding that a tramp is wearing the same type of clothes that he found . The tramp runs away and Hoax gives chase , with other people helping the pursuit . Eventually , Hoax captures the tramp with the aid of a police officer , and returns to the victim 's body with the man . Hoax then comes to a realization that the body was just a dummy that had been stuffed with the leaves . The crowd has a laugh at Hoax 's expense while the two boys are punished .
= = Production = =
Hemlock Hoax , the Detective was produced by the Lubin Manufacturing Company , a company founded by German @-@ American film pioneer Siegmund Lubin . It was known for producing films that were similar to others successful at the time . Author Ron Haydock wrote in his book Holmes and Watson On Screen that Hemlock Hoax " was another in the long and ever @-@ growing line of comedies that were having fun with sleuths whose names were similar to [ Sherlock ] Holmes " .
The featured character of Hemlock Hoax had originally been a minor character in a film story that had been rejected before he appeared in Hemlock Hoax , the Detective . It is a silent film and was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , and the finished product comprised 232 feet ( 71 m ) of film . The identities of the cast and crew are not recorded .
= = Release and reception = =
Hemlock Hoax , the Detective was released on April 11 , 1910 , being distributed by the Lubin Manufacturing Company . Advertising touted the film as " a roaring comedy that cannot but be funny . " The film was a split @-@ reeler , and was presented alongside the Lubin comedies Jones ' Watch , about a man who believes his watch has been robbed , and The Fisherman 's Luck , centering on a fisherman who causes mischief while at the lake one day .
Hemlock Hoax , the Detective received positive reviews upon release . An article in film journal The Moving Picture World written by an unnamed journalist opined that the fact that the films only totaled up to 990 feet ( 300 m ) and yet had " three strong comedy subjects on the same reel " was notable . The reviewer wrote that " the three topics are so entirely different that there is no confliction and the reel is one of the best comedy offerings in a long time . "
Another Moving Picture World reviewer wrote positively of the film , opining " the acting is clever , developing many amusing features as it proceeds . To see a detective hunting clews with a magnifying glass is funny indeed . " A May review in Indiana newspaper The Huntington Herald described the film positively as " a comical detective picture full of exciting situations " .
A review in Connecticut newspaper The New London Day lauded the three films , writing that the pictures were " a trio of laugh provokers . " Hemlock Hoax , the Detective was still being screened as late as October 1911 . As of October 2009 , it is unclear whether there is a surviving print of Hemlock Hoax , the Detective ; it has likely become a lost film . If rediscovered , the film would be in the public domain .
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= Mark O. Hatfield Library =
The Mark O. Hatfield Library is the main library at Willamette University in Salem , Oregon , United States . Opened in 1986 , it is a member of the Hatfield Library Consortium along with several library lending networks and is a designated Federal depository library . Willamette 's original library was established in 1844 , two years after the school was founded . The library was housed in Waller Hall before moving to its own building ( now Smullin Hall ) in 1938 .
Two @-@ stories tall , the library contains over 350 @,@ 000 volumes overall in its collections , and includes the school 's archives . Designed by MDWR Architects , the red @-@ brick building has glass edifices on two sides and a clocktower outside the main entrance . The building also includes a 24 @-@ hour study area , private study rooms , and a classroom . The academic library is named in honor of former Senator Mark O. Hatfield , a 1943 graduate of Willamette and former member of the faculty .
= = History = =
Founded in 1844 , Willamette University 's library was started two years after the establishment of the school . The library grew to a size of 2 @,@ 500 volumes in 1874 . University Hall ( now Waller Hall ) , which was built in 1867 , was one of the homes of the library in the early years . The library was located on the third floor of the building . The early name for the institution was the Willamette University Library , which by 1901 was a free , general library with both circulating and reference collections . That year the library collection had grown to 4 @,@ 686 volumes , along with a total of 2 @,@ 753 pamphlets .
By 1909 the school library had 6 @,@ 000 books valued at $ 3 @,@ 500 and Ray D. Fisher as librarian . During November of that year the library received new furniture as Eaton Hall opened , and many departments were moved to it from Waller Hall . The library was re @-@ cataloged in 1912 by Lucia Haley , a specialist from New York City hired by the school for this task . At that time the librarian was Dr. Lyle . Plans at this time called for constructing a building where the Art Building now stands to serve as a memorial to the pioneers of the university . This was to be the future home of the library , but the building was never built . In 1913 , the librarian was Mary Field , and the collection was still about 6 @,@ 000 volumes . Field was replaced the following year by Fannie J. Elliot .
On December 17 , 1919 , a fire gutted Waller Hall , the home of the library . The school rebuilt the interior of the hall , with construction beginning in February 1920 . The library was moved to the second floor of the rebuilt structure and reopened in December 1920 . At that time William E. Kirk was the librarian and the facility had a capacity of 100 people . By 1922 the collection had grown to 16 @,@ 000 volumes , and F. G. Franklin served as the school 's librarian .
In 1937 , construction began on a new concrete and brick @-@ faced building to house the library . Completed in 1938 , the building housed a collection that grew to 35 @,@ 000 volumes in 1940 . Now known as Smullin Hall , the library building was designed by architect Pietro Belluschi in the Georgian style of architecture . In 1965 , the school received a $ 450 @,@ 000 loan from the federal government for the library . Congressman Al Ullman worked to secure status as a Federal Depository Library in the late 1960s , with status conferred in 1969 . In 1980 , Willamette began a multi @-@ year fund raising campaign intended to raise funds to renovate academic halls and build a new library , with $ 18 million total raised during the funding drive . At the time the library held a collection of 143 @,@ 000 volumes .
Plans for a new library to be named in honor of alumnus and former faculty member Mark Hatfield were announced in the spring of 1985 . Originally estimated to cost $ 6 @.@ 8 million , groundbreaking was on April 13 , 1985 , with Hatfield in attendance . On September 4 , 1986 , the new library building was dedicated in a ceremony featuring Hatfield , then Senator Bob Packwood , and then Librarian of Congress Daniel J. Boorstin . Then school president Jerry E. Hudson presided over the ceremony that had over 700 people in attendance .
All funds for the $ 7 @.@ 4 million library came from private donors that numbered over 1 @,@ 300 companies , individuals , or non @-@ profit organizations . Large donations came from the Fred Meyer Charitable Trust , the M. J. Murdock Charitable Trust , and The Collins Foundation . Construction was a part of a broader plan to open up the southern portion of the campus after railroad tracks were removed in 1981 and the Mill Race re @-@ routed and landscaped .
The library lost a rare book in 1999 when a vandal used a razorblade to cut out the 30 pages of The Old Days in and Near Salem , Oregon . A limited edition art book , a replacement was donated to the school by the Oregon State Library . In 2002 , the library received a $ 500 @,@ 000 grant from the Meyer Memorial Trust for the library ’ s archives department . The library dedicated the Hatfield Library Consortium in September 2002 that includes the two state run libraries and the university ’ s law library . These four libraries share a common online card catalog .
= = Building = =
Located in the middle of Willamette 's campus along the Mill Race , the Hatfield library was built in 1986 with the design by Theodore Wofford of MDWR Architects in St. Louis , Missouri . The building is two @-@ stories tall and has a total of 58 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 400 m2 ) . Architectural plans allow for the addition of a third floor to the structure .
The library is a modern looking rectangular structure with orange brick and clear glass which is adjacent to Glenn Jackson Plaza and Hudson 's Bay , with the Mill Race flowing by on the north side . The north and south faces are clear glass , while the other two sides are brick . The exterior walls taper slightly outward on the brick sides of the building . Bricks on these sides were laid horizontally , while the overhanging roof line contains bricks that were laid vertically . A glass @-@ enclosed stairwell and the main entrance near the northwest corner are the only parts that jut out from the primarily rectangular building .
Inside , the Hatfield Library contains a 24 @-@ hour study area , private study rooms , a classroom , the university 's archives , and listening rooms . On the main floor is the circulation desk , reference section , and work stations , among others . The building also holds a formal reception area , the Mark O. Hatfield Room , and the Hatfield archives that contain the former Senator 's papers , both located on the second floor . Interior space was left mainly open to allow for flexibility with the evolving needs and technology of the library . Artist Dean Larson painted the portrait of Hatfield that hangs in the library .
Outside the library is a 61 @.@ 75 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 82 m ) tall steel and brick clock tower . The tower has one clock face on each of the four sides , a copper roof , and glass running down each side towards the 18 ton base . The glass consists of vertical panels created by taking strips of bent glass and weaving them together . There are inscriptions of various quotes in the exposed portions of the concrete on the tower . Lawrence Halperin was responsible for the landscaping designs of the library .
= = Operations = =
Hatfield Library is the main library on Willamette 's campus , with the law school 's library as the only other library at the school . The director of the library is Deborah B. Dancik , who heads a staff of 23 employees , of which 10 are librarians , and a total budget of $ 1 @,@ 771 @,@ 376 in expenditures in 2006 . The library averages 6 @,@ 720 visitors weekly at the school with 2 @,@ 700 students . Regular circulation transactions totaled 39 @,@ 764 in 2004 , with an additional 46 @,@ 004 in reference requests .
= = = Collections = = =
The library contains over 390 @,@ 000 volumes , more than 317 @,@ 000 titles , and over 1 @,@ 400 journal subscriptions . These collections include periodicals , books , newspapers , microforms , sound recordings , videos , government documents , CD @-@ ROMS , and musical scores . As of 2006 , this includes 365 @,@ 609 volumes of books , past issues of periodicals , and other printed sources ; 11 @,@ 508 items in the audio visual collection ; 5 @,@ 147 subscriptions to periodicals ; and 337 @,@ 918 microforms . The library also offers access to electronic sources through FirstSearch , RLIN , OCLC , EPIC , and DIALOG among others . Additionally , university publications such as the yearbook ( The Wallulah ) , the student newspaper ( Willamette Collegian ) , school catalogs , the Willamette Journal of the Liberal Arts , and the Willamette Scene among others , are collected by the library .
Hatfield Library is a member of ORBIS , Northwest Association of Private Colleges and Universities ( NAPCU ) , Summit , Valley Link , and the Hatfield Library Consortium lending networks . These networks allow students to borrow additional materials from other member libraries and institutions from around the Pacific Northwest . As of 2006 , this led to Willamette providing 17 @,@ 869 interlibrary loans while requesting 14 @,@ 650 of these loans .
Hatfield Library also contains the Mark O. Hatfield Archives containing the papers , memorabilia , and books of the former United States Senator and Willamette alumni . The papers include those from his time in the Oregon legislature through his time in the Senate and after leaving the Senate . Hatfield ’ s personal library is part of the regular library catalog , however the books are non @-@ circulating . The rest of the collection is not open to the public , as Hatfield 's archives will not become accessible until 20 years after his death . The library also contains the university 's archives on the second floor . The climate @-@ controlled archives are housed in a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 140 m2 ) area that includes offices for staff , including the school 's official archivist .
Willamette ’ s library was designated as a Federal Depository Library in 1969 . It serves as the library for the 5th Congressional District population . The library selects around 20 % of the documents available with areas of concentration in earth sciences , education , history , politics , economics , health , accounting , business , government , public policy , human resources , and others . Additionally , the university selects major items from the Census Bureau , Bureau of Labor Statistics , the office of the President , and Congress . Other materials come from the Smithsonian Institution , the Small Business Administration , the Department of State , and the Department of Education to list a few .
= = = Consortium = = =
The Hatfield Library Consortium is a cooperative library catalog shared between several libraries in Salem . Participating libraries are the State of Oregon Law Library at the Oregon Supreme Court Building , the Oregon State Library , the Hatfield Library , and Willamette University College of Law 's J. W. Long Library . This public @-@ private cooperative network allows students and the state government to share resources to expand the breadth of research . Dedicated on September 4 , 2002 , the consortium started in 2000 when the libraries received a $ 215 @,@ 000 federal grant . The collection includes more than 500 @,@ 000 records .
= = Namesake = =
The Mark O. Hatfield Library is named for the former Senator and Governor of Oregon , Mark Odom Hatfield . Hatfield was born west of Salem in Dallas , Oregon , in 1922 and graduated from Salem High School in 1940 . He graduated from Willamette University in 1943 and joined the U.S. Navy to fight in World War II . After the war Hatfield obtained a graduate degree from Stanford University before returning to Willamette as a professor and then as a dean . During this time he also served in Oregon ’ s legislature before becoming Oregon Secretary of State , and then in 1958 he was elected as Oregon ’ s governor . In 1966 , he was elected to the United States Senate and served there until his retirement in 1997 . He died in 2011 .
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= Deogarh , Uttar Pradesh =
Deogarh is a village in Lalitpur district of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . It is located on the right bank of Betwa River and to the west of Lalitpur hills . It is known for Gupta monuments and for many ancient monuments of Hindu and Jain origins are in and outside the walls of the fort .
The Gupta temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu , popularly known as the Dashavatara Temple , is the earliest known Panchyatana temple in North India . The fort on the hill is dominated by a cluster of Jain temples on its eastern part , the oldest of these dating to the 8th or 9th century . Apart from Jain temples , the wall frescoes of Jain images of " iconographic and the stylistic variety " , are special features of the fort . The three ghats ( ghat means " flight of stone steps leading to the river " ) , which provide approach to the Betwa river edge from the fort — the Nahar Ghat , the Rajghat and the ghat with the Siddh ki Ghufa ( saints cave ) — are also of archeological significance .
The Deogarh monuments are protected by the Department of Archaeology of the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , and managed through its Northern Circle Office located in Agra . ASI maintain an archaeological museum at the Deogarh site , which is noted for its treasured archaeological sculptures .
= = Etymology = =
" Deogarh " derives from the Sanskrit Deo and garh , " God " and " fort " , compounded to mean " fort of the Gods " . This term , " House of God " , is also widely used as a place name for villages in the vicinity of temples within fort @-@ walls throughout India .
= = Geography = =
Deogarh village lies on the right bank of the Betwa River , at the point where it joins the reservoir formed by the Rajghat Dam . The village is at the western end of the Lalitpur hill range , situated 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) south @-@ east from Lalitpur town in Lalitpur district and 123 kilometres ( 76 mi ) south of the divisional administrative centre at Jhansi . The village is spread over an area of 5 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) with an average elevation of 211 metres ( 692 ft ) .
The fort of Deogarh is in a valley which generally has a gentle slope . The valley is formed by the Betwa River at the western end of the hills of the Vindhya Range . Known earlier as Vetravati ( Sanskrit , meaning " containing reeds " ) , the Betwa River is a tributary of the Yamuna River , and skirts the fort hill on its southern side . The river , flowing at a bend near the fort , has a rocky bed . It flows in a cascade of deep pools with steep rocky banks of sandstone formations . The fort is located on a precipice of the steep cliff , just above the river on its right bank .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 1991 Census , the population of the Deogarh village was 553 . Hindi and Bundeli are the languages spoken in the area . The Census figures of 2001 for the Deogarh village in Birdha block of Lalitpur district ( Rural ) , has recorded a population of 699 covering 125 households . The distribution of male and female population was 375 and 320 respectively . The village had presence of 314 Schedule Caste ( SC ) population ( Male @-@ 164 and Female @-@ 150 ) . The literacy rate recorded was 43 @.@ 77 % ( 306 persons out of total of 699 ) .
= = History = =
Deogarh 's strategic location on the ancient route to the Deccan Plateau made it a historically important place . Its antiquarian , archaeological and epigraphical importance are linked to the Gupta period , the Gurjara – Prathiharas , the Gonds , the Muslim rulers of Delhi , the Marathas and the British eras .
The earliest religious influence in the Deogarh area can be traced to the Gupta period ( 320 @-@ 550 ) , known as the " golden period " of Indian history . This was followed by the Jain period between the 8th and 17th centuries , where innumerable temples have been traced .
The present village 's history has not been examined at depth , even though many inscriptions have been located in the fort and the valley , relating to various stylistic and palaeographical denominations . Although the dynasties who ruled over the territory are known , who built what is not clear , except for the Jain temples , which were built by the merchant Jain community . More archaeological explorations would therefore be essential , to establish the linkages of building activities with the dynasties who ruled over the territory , considering the enormous amount of Hindu and Jain temple remains and artifacts found here .
The earliest history of Deogarh is that of the architectural evolution traced to the ancient Gupta period , which flourished between the 4th and 6th centuries in Northern India . During this period , the arts , science and literature saw aesthetic evolution . It was the period when Brahminical , Buddhist and Jain activities flourished .
During this time , sculptural arts peaked and " India entered upon the classical phase of sculpture " . Even though Guptas were Hindu rulers , the cultures of Buddhism and Jainism also flourished during their reign . During this period , Buddhist sculptures were more puritanical with total elimination of nudity in its depictions . However , transparent tight fitting drapery were dictated by moral values and hence , were restrained . Indian temple architecture emerged with figurine sculptures in decorative settings , attaining excellence of form . This is inferred from the large panel of Sheshashayi Vishnu ( Hindu god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha ) at the Deogarh temple . < jominhg to >
= = Monuments = =
The Deogarh monuments can be categorized based on their location at valley and fort temples , which are generally built with sand stones of brick @-@ red colour . The valley temples consist mainly of Hindu temples from the Gupta period near the Deogarh village .
= = = Shantinath Temple = = =
The fort temples are dominated by the Jain temples in the eastern part of the hill fort ; the jaina images here are mostly of the " iconographic and the stylistic variety " . The Jain temples have a large number of panels depicting scenes from Jain mythology , tirthankara images and votive tablets . The pillars are carved with a thousand Jain figures .
According to a survey conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , 31 Jain temples of different sizes , age and character have been deciphered . All these are dated later than the Hindu temples . They are categorized into two distinct periods : the early medieval period from 850 to 950 , and the medieval period between 950 and 1150 . During the Islamic iconoclastic depredations , the temples were devastated ; this was compounded by the growth of vegetation and neglect of maintenance .
The Jain temples have also been examined individually and reports prepared by ASI . The number of images and inscriptions for each temple have been recorded . These findings testify their political history and early medieval status . Out of the many sculptures in the Jaina compound , at least 400 carvings were worthy of recording for their " stylistic and iconographic variety " .
The extravagance of the intricacies of the Jain sculptures are similar to that of nearby Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh and adjoining areas of Bihar . Jain sculptures lie scattered on both sides of the path from the gate , on the walls of the fort . A notable pillar seen here is called the Manastambha . The complete image of each of the 24 tirthankaras depicting the emblem of a bird , flower or animal are seen here . Images of Yaksha and Yakshini are also part of such depictions . Thousands of sculptures are seen embedded in the walls surrounding the complex . The large number of idols lying scattered around the fort area is attributed to the fact that this was the sculptors ' workshop .
Worship at some of the Jain temples are still held regularly . The most famous of the Jain temples in the fort is the Shantinath temple , which was built before 862 AD . It is testament that a prosperous Jain community lived in this region . In 1959 , robbers looted a number of Jain images or even cut off heads of many images . This resulted in the Jain community of the area taking precautionary action by setting up a temple committee . This temple committee oversees the protection of the monuments and work to improve the ambience of the entire place . It has been suggested however , that restoration works be carried out on more scientific terms , following guidelines set by " UNESCO 's World Heritage Sites " .
Within a 50 miles ( 80 km ) radius from Deogarh , the Parwar community of Jains have lived in 1 @,@ 438 towns and villages ( as per 1924 records ) ; the largest number of them living in Lalitpur .
= = = Dashavatara temple = = =
The " Gupta Temple " , dedicated to god Vishnu , was first discovered by Captain Charles Strahan . It was given its name by the archaeologist , Cunnigham . Archaeologists have inferred that it is the earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India . It was subsequently renamed by Cunningham as Dashavatara Mandir or Dashavatara Temple ( because the temple depicts ten incarnations of Vishnu ) , and also as Sagar Marh ( meaning : the temple by the well ) . It was the first North Indian temple with a shikhara or tower , although the shikhara is curtailed and part of it has disappeared . The temple has a high plinth and is set with a basement porch . The Dashavatara temple has a " compelling presence " in spite of its dilapidated condition . Sculpted panels are seen on the terraced basement , with carved figurines of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna flanking the doorway to the sanctum sanctorum . In addition , on the side walls , three large carved panels of Vaishnava mythology related to Gajendra Moksha , the Nara Narayana Tapasya ( austerities ) , and the Sheshashayi Vishnu ( reclining on the serpent ) , are portrayed . A protective wall made of undressed stone was built around the temple after it was first discovered . However , the idol of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is missing , believed to have been relocated elsewhere.The ancient treatise Vishnudharmottara Purana describes several temples including a " Sarvatobhadra temple " , which has been identified by archaeologists and Indologists with the Dashavatara Temple .
= = = Fort = = =
The fort on the hill is located a few hundred yards east of Deogarh village . The fort , when originally built , was known as ' Karnali ' . Subsequently , it was renamed " Kirtigiridurga " after it was built in 1057 ( samvat 1154 ) during the reign of Chandela King Kirtivarman . However , some believe that fort was built earlier by the Pratihara rulers of Kannauj in the 9th century , changed hands from the builders to the Chandelas and the Bundelas , before it came under the control of the Scindias of Gwalior .
The fort has an external wall for the most part , except in stretches where the steep hill slopes towards the Betwa river . It is also subdivided by many internal walls . A circular structure , the west gate and the east gate ( south @-@ east of the Jain temples ) are notable monuments . Additionally , there are two gates of entry into the fort , the " Hathi Darvaja " meaning " Elephant gate " , and " Delhi Darvaja " which means " Delhi gate " .
There are three ghats which provide approach to the Betwa river edge , which have archaeological significance . These are the Nahar Ghat , the Rajghat and the Ghat , with the Siddi ki Ghufa ( Saints cave ) .
The Nahar Ghat ( " nahar " means boat ) at the east end of the fort , has steep steps that go down from the plateau of the fort to the Betwa river . The ghat is aligned parallel to the wall of the cliff and the river . The " Siddhi ki Ghufa " ( Cave of the Saint ) , is an archaeological find , located on the cliff wall to the left , along the descent from the Nehar Ghat . While descending via the Rajghat , the cliff wall is to the right . It is a plain cave . The cave depicts , on its right , an image of the goddess Mahishasuramardini .
The cliffs above the three ghats are embellished with Gupta sculptures and inscriptions dating from various periods . The Nahar Ghat has about a dozen niches , which house lingas and various deities . From an archaeological perspective , this ghat is considered the richest of the three flights of steps . The Rajghat ( Kings steps ) also accommodate more than a dozen niches with lingas and statues , but the sculptures are small and in an unfinished state .
Matrika statues ( seated ) are also important archaeological finds at the Nehar Ghat and Rajghat sections , as they establish early sculptural activity in the 6th century . Both these matrika panels are flanked by images of Vinadhara Shiva ( Shiva as " bearer of the vina " ) and his son Ganesha , though with differences in detailing . The sculpted figurines show large breasts , tiny waists and broad hips .
The Varaha temple is also situated in the southeast corner of the fort . But it is in ruins except for a few architectural fragments .
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= Capture of Fort Ticonderoga =
The Capture of Fort Ticonderoga occurred during the American Revolutionary War on May 10 , 1775 , when a small force of Green Mountain Boys led by Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold overcame a small British garrison at the fort and looted the personal belongings of the garrison . Cannons and other armaments from the fort were later transported to Boston and used to fortify Dorchester Heights and break the standoff at the Siege of Boston .
After seizing Ticonderoga , a small detachment captured the nearby Fort Crown Point on May 11 . Seven days later , Arnold and 50 men boldly raided Fort Saint @-@ Jean on the Richelieu River in southern Quebec , seizing military supplies , cannons , and the largest military vessel on Lake Champlain .
Although the scope of this military action was relatively minor , it had significant strategic importance . It impeded communication between northern and southern units of the British Army , and gave the nascent Continental Army a staging ground for the invasion of Quebec later in 1775 . It also involved two larger @-@ than @-@ life personalities in Allen and Arnold , each of whom sought to gain as much credit and honor as possible for these events . Most significantly , artillery from Ticonderoga would be dragged across Massachusetts to the heights commanding Boston Harbor , forcing the British to withdraw from that city .
= = Background = =
In 1775 , Fort Ticonderoga 's location did not appear to be as strategically important as it had been in the French and Indian War , when the French famously defended it against a much larger British force in the 1758 Battle of Carillon , and when the British captured it in 1759 . After the 1763 Treaty of Paris , in which the French ceded their North American territories to the British , the fort was no longer on the frontier of two great empires , guarding the principal waterway between them . The French had blown up the fort 's powder magazine when they abandoned the fort , and it had fallen further into disrepair since then . In 1775 it was garrisoned by only a small detachment of the 26th Regiment of Foot , consisting of two officers and forty @-@ six men , with many of them " invalids " ( soldiers with limited duties because of disability or illness ) . Twenty @-@ five women and children lived there as well . Because of its former significance , Fort Ticonderoga still had a high reputation as the " gateway to the continent " or the " Gibraltar of America " , but in 1775 it was , according to historian Christopher Ward , " more like a backwoods village than a fort . "
Even before shooting started in the American Revolutionary War , American Patriots were concerned about Fort Ticonderoga . The fort was a valuable asset for several reasons . Within its walls was a collection of heavy artillery including cannons , howitzers , and mortars , armaments that the Americans had in short supply . The fort was situated on the shores of Lake Champlain , a strategically important route between the Thirteen Colonies and the British @-@ controlled northern provinces . British forces placed there would expose the colonial forces in Boston to attack from the rear . After the war began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19 , 1775 , the British General Thomas Gage realized the fort would require fortification , and several colonists had the idea of capturing the fort .
Gage , writing from the besieged city of Boston following Lexington and Concord , instructed Quebec 's governor , General Guy Carleton , to rehabilitate and refortify the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point . Carleton did not receive this letter until May 19 , well after the fort had been captured .
Benedict Arnold had frequently traveled through the area around the fort , and was familiar with its condition , manning , and armaments . En route to Boston following news of the events of April 19 , he mentioned the fort and its condition to members of Silas Deane 's militia . The Connecticut Committee of Correspondence acted on this information ; money was " borrowed " from the provincial coffers and recruiters were sent into northwestern Connecticut , western Massachusetts , and the New Hampshire Grants ( now Vermont ) to raise volunteers for an attack on the fort .
John Brown , an American spy from Pittsfield , Massachusetts who had carried correspondence between revolutionary committees in the Boston area and Patriot supporters in Montreal , was well aware of the fort and its strategic value . Ethan Allen and other Patriots in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory also recognized the fort 's value , as it played a role in the dispute over that area between New York and New Hampshire . Whether either took or instigated action prior to the Connecticut Colony 's recruitment efforts is unclear . Brown had notified the Massachusetts Committee of Safety in March of his opinion that Ticonderoga " must be seized as soon as possible should hostilities be committed by the King 's Troops . "
When Arnold arrived outside Boston , he told the Massachusetts Committee of Safety about the cannons and other military equipment at the lightly defended fort . On May 3 , the Committee gave Arnold a colonel 's commission and authorized him to command a " secret mission " , which was to capture the fort . He was issued £ 100 , some gunpowder , ammunition , and horses , and instructed to recruit up to 400 men , march on the fort , and ship back to Massachusetts anything he thought useful .
= = Colonial forces assemble = =
Arnold departed immediately after receiving his instructions . He was accompanied by two captains , Eleazer Oswald and Jonathan Brown , who were charged with recruiting the necessary men . Arnold reached the border between Massachusetts and the Grants on May 6 , where he learned of the recruitment efforts of the Connecticut Committee , and that Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys were already on their way north . Riding furiously northward ( his horse was subsequently destroyed ) , he reached Allen 's headquarters in Bennington the next day . Upon arrival , Arnold was told that Allen was in Castleton , 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the north , awaiting supplies and more men . He was also warned that , although Allen 's effort had no official sanction , his men were unlikely to serve under anyone else . Leaving early the next day , Arnold arrived in Castleton in time to join a war council , where he made a case to lead the expedition based on his formal authorization to act from the Massachusetts Committee .
The force that Allen had assembled in Castleton included about 100 Green Mountain Boys , about 40 men raised by James Easton and John Brown at Pittsfield , and an additional 20 men from Connecticut . Allen was elected colonel , with Easton and Seth Warner as his lieutenants . When Arnold arrived on the scene , Samuel Herrick had already been sent to Skenesboro and Asa Douglas to Panton with detachments to secure boats . Captain Noah Phelps , a member of the " Committee of War for the Expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point " , had reconnoitered the fort disguised as a peddler seeking a shave . He saw that the fort walls were dilapidated , learned from the garrison commander that the soldiers ' gunpowder was wet , and that they expected reinforcements at any time . He reported this intelligence to Allen , following which they planned a dawn raid .
Many of the Green Mountain Boys objected to Arnold 's wish to command , insisting that they would go home rather than serve under anyone other than Ethan Allen . Arnold and Allen worked out an agreement , but no documented evidence exists concerning the deal . According to Arnold , he was given joint command of the operation . Some historians have supported Arnold 's contention , while others suggest he was merely given the right to march next to Allen .
= = Capture of the fort = =
By 11 : 30 pm on May 9 , the men had assembled at Hand 's Cove ( in what is now Shoreham , Vermont ) and were ready to cross the lake to Ticonderoga . However , boats did not arrive until 1 : 30 am , and they were inadequate to carry the whole force . Eighty @-@ three of the Green Mountain Boys made the first crossing with Arnold and Allen , and Douglas went back for the rest . As dawn approached , Allen and Arnold became fearful of losing the element of surprise , so they decided to attack with the men at hand . The only sentry on duty at the south gate fled his post after his musket misfired , and the Americans rushed into the fort . The Patriots then roused the small number of sleeping troops at gunpoint , and began confiscating their weapons . Allen , Arnold , and a few other men charged up the stairs toward the officers ' quarters . Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham , assistant to Captain William Delaplace , was awakened by the noise , and called to wake the captain . Stalling for time , Feltham demanded to know by what authority the fort was being entered . Allen , who later claimed that he said it to Captain Delaplace , replied , " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " Delaplace finally emerged from his chambers ( fully clothed , not with " his breeches in his hand " , as Allen would later say ) and surrendered his sword .
Nobody was killed in the assault . The only injury was to one American , Gideon Warren , who was slightly injured by a sentry with a bayonet . Eventually , as many as 400 men arrived at the fort , which they plundered for liquor and other provisions . Arnold , whose authority was not recognized by the Green Mountain Boys , was unable to stop the plunder . Frustrated , he retired to the captain 's quarters to await forces that he had recruited , reporting to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress that Allen and his men were " governing by whim and caprice " at the fort , and that the plan to strip the fort and send armaments to Boston was in peril . When Delaplace protested the seizure of his private liquor stores , Allen issued him a receipt for the stores , which he later submitted to Connecticut for payment . Arnold 's disputes with Allen and his unruly men were severe enough that there were times when some of Allen 's men drew weapons .
On May 12 , Allen sent the prisoners to Connecticut 's Governor Jonathan Trumbull with a note saying " I make you a present of a Major , a Captain , and two Lieutenants of the regular Establishment of George the Third . " Arnold busied himself over the next few days with cataloging the military equipment at Ticonderoga and Crown Point , a task made difficult by the fact that walls had collapsed on some of the armaments .
= = Crown Point and the raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean = =
Seth Warner sailed a detachment up the lake and captured nearby Fort Crown Point , garrisoned by only nine men . It is widely recorded that this capture occurred on May 10 ; this is attributed to a letter Arnold wrote to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety on May 11 , claiming that an attempt to sail up to Crown Point was frustrated by headwinds . However Warner claimed , in a letter dated May 12 from " Head Quarters , Crown Point " , that he " took possession of this garrison " the day before . It appears likely that , having failed on May 10 , the attempt was repeated the next day with success , as reported in Warner 's memoir . A small force was also sent to capture Fort George on Lake George , which was held by only two soldiers .
Troops recruited by Arnold 's captains began to arrive , some after seizing Philip Skene 's schooner Katherine and several bateaux at Skenesboro . Arnold rechristened the schooner Liberty . The prisoners had reported that the lone British warship on Lake Champlain was at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , on the Richelieu River north of the lake . Arnold , uncertain whether word of Ticonderoga 's capture had reached Saint @-@ Jean , decided to attempt a raid to capture the ship . He had Liberty outfitted with guns , and sailed north with 50 of his men on May 14 . Allen , not wanting Arnold to get the full glory for that capture , followed with some of his men in bateaux , but Arnold 's small fleet had the advantage of sail , and pulled away from Allen 's boats . By May 17 , Arnold 's small fleet was at the northern end of the lake . Seeking intelligence , Arnold sent a man to reconnoiter the situation at Fort Saint @-@ Jean . The scout returned later that day , reporting that the British were aware of the fall of Ticonderoga and Crown Point , and that troops were apparently on the move toward Saint @-@ Jean . Arnold decided to act immediately .
Rowing all night , Arnold and 35 of his men brought their bateaux near the fort . After a brief scouting excursion , they surprised the small garrison at the fort , and seized supplies there , along with the HMS Royal George , a seventy @-@ ton sloop . Warned by their captives that several companies were on their way from Chambly , they loaded the more valuable supplies and cannons on the George , which Arnold renamed the Enterprise . Boats that they could not take were sunk , and the enlarged fleet returned to Lake Champlain . This activity was observed by Moses Hazen , a retired British officer who lived near the fort . Hazen rode to Montreal to report the action to the local military commander , and then continued on to Quebec City , where he reported the news to General Carleton on May 20 . Major Charles Preston and 140 men were immediately dispatched from Montreal to Saint @-@ Jean in response to Hazen 's warning .
Fifteen miles out on the lake , Arnold 's fleet met Allen 's , which was still heading north . After an exchange of celebratory gunfire , Arnold opened his stores to feed Allen 's men , who had rowed 100 miles ( 160 km ) in open boats without provisions . Allen , believing he could seize and hold Fort Saint @-@ Jean , continued north , while Arnold sailed south . Allen arrived at Saint @-@ Jean on May 19 , where he was warned that British troops were approaching by a sympathetic Montreal merchant who had raced ahead of those troops on horseback . Allen , after penning a message for the merchant to deliver to the citizens of Montreal , returned to Ticonderoga on May 21 , leaving Saint @-@ Jean just as the British forces arrived . In their haste to escape the British , three men were left behind ; one was captured , but the other two eventually returned south by land .
= = Aftermath = =
Ethan Allen and his men eventually drifted away from Ticonderoga , especially once the alcohol began to run out , and Arnold largely controlled affairs from a base at Crown Point . He oversaw the fitting of the two large ships , eventually taking command of Enterprise because of a lack of knowledgeable seamen . His men began rebuilding Ticonderoga 's barracks , and worked to extract armaments from the rubble of the two forts and build gun carriages for them .
Connecticut sent about 1 @,@ 000 men under Colonel Benjamin Hinman to hold Ticonderoga , and New York also began to raise militia to defend Crown Point and Ticonderoga against a possible British attack from the north . When Hinman 's troops arrived in June , there was once again a clash over leadership . None of the communications to Arnold from the Massachusetts committee indicated that he was to serve under Hinman ; when Hinman attempted to assert authority over Crown Point , Arnold refused to accept it , as Hinman 's instructions only included Ticonderoga . The Massachusetts committee eventually sent a delegation to Ticonderoga . When they arrived on June 22 they made it clear to Arnold that he was to serve under Hinman . Arnold , after considering for two days , disbanded his command , resigned his commission , and went home , having spent more than £ 1 @,@ 000 of his own money in the effort to capture the fort .
When Congress received news of the events , it drafted a second letter to the inhabitants of Quebec , which was sent north in June with James Price , another sympathetic Montreal merchant . This letter , and other communications from the New York Congress , combined with the activities of vocal American supporters , stirred up the Quebec population in the summer of 1775 .
When news of the fall of Ticonderoga reached England , Lord Dartmouth wrote that it was " very unfortunate ; very unfortunate indeed " .
= = = Repercussions in Quebec = = =
News of the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point , and especially the raids on Fort Saint @-@ Jean , electrified the Quebec population . Colonel Dudley Templer , in charge of the garrison at Montreal , issued a call on May 19 to raise a militia for defense of the city , and requested Indians living nearby to also take up arms . Only 50 men , mostly French @-@ speaking landowning seigneurs and petty nobility , were raised in and around Montreal , and they were sent to Saint @-@ Jean ; no Indians came to their aid . Templer also prevented merchants sympathetic to the American cause from sending supplies south in response to Allen 's letter .
General Carleton , notified by Hazen of the events on May 20 , immediately ordered the garrisons of Montreal and Trois @-@ Rivières to fortify Saint @-@ Jean . Some troops garrisoned at Quebec were also sent to Saint @-@ Jean . Most of the remaining Quebec troops were dispatched to a variety of other points along the Saint Lawrence , as far west as Oswegatchie , to guard against potential invasion threats . Carleton then traveled to Montreal to oversee the defense of the province from there , leaving the city of Quebec in the hands of Lieutenant Governor Hector Cramahé . Before leaving , Carleton prevailed on Monsignor Jean @-@ Olivier Briand , the Bishop of Quebec , to issue his own call to arms in support of the provincial defense , which was circulated primarily in the areas around Montreal and Trois @-@ Rivières .
= = = Later actions near Ticonderoga = = =
In July 1775 , General Philip Schuyler began using the fort as the staging ground for the invasion of Quebec that was launched in late August . In the winter of 1775 – 1776 , Henry Knox directed the transportation of the guns of Ticonderoga to Boston . The guns were placed upon Dorchester Heights overlooking the besieged city and the British ships in the harbor , prompting the British to evacuate their troops and Loyalist supporters from the city in March 1776 .
Benedict Arnold again led a fleet of ships at the Battle of Valcour Island , and played other key roles in thwarting Britain 's attempt to recapture the fort in 1776 . The British did recapture the fort in July 1777 during the Saratoga campaign , but had abandoned it by November after Burgoyne 's surrender at Saratoga .
= = = Broken communications = = =
Although Fort Ticonderoga was not at the time an important military post , its capture had several important results . Rebel control of the area meant that overland communications and supply lines between British forces in Quebec and those in Boston and later New York were severed , so the British military command made an adjustment to their command structure . This break in communication was highlighted by the fact that Arnold , on his way north to Saint @-@ Jean , intercepted a message from Carleton to Gage , detailing the military troop strengths in Quebec . Command of British forces in North America , previously under a single commander , was divided into two commands . General Carleton was given independent command of forces in Quebec and the northern frontier , while General William Howe was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of forces along the Atlantic coast , an arrangement that had worked well between Generals Wolfe and Amherst in the French and Indian War . In this war , however , cooperation between the two forces would prove to be problematic and would play a role in the failure of the Saratoga campaign in 1777 , as General Howe apparently abandoned an agreed @-@ upon northern strategy , leaving General John Burgoyne without southern support in that campaign .
= = = War of words between Allen and Arnold = = =
Beginning on the day of the fort 's capture , Allen and Arnold began a war of words , each attempting to garner for himself as much credit for the operation as possible . Arnold , unable to exert any authority over Allen and his men , began to keep a diary of events and actions , which was highly critical and dismissive of Allen . Allen , in the days immediately after the action , also began to work on a memoir . Published several years later ( see Further reading ) , the memoir fails to mention Arnold at all . Allen also wrote several versions of the events , which John Brown and James Easton brought to a variety of Congresses and committees in New York , Connecticut , and Massachusetts . Randall ( 1990 ) claims that Easton took accounts written by both Arnold and Allen to the Massachusetts committee , but conveniently lost Arnold 's account on the way , ensuring that Allen 's version , which greatly glorified his role in the affair , would be preferred . Smith ( 1907 ) indicates that it was highly likely that Easton was interested in claiming Arnold 's command for himself . There was clearly no love lost between Easton and Arnold . Allen and Easton returned to Crown Point on June 10 and called a council of war while Arnold was with the fleet on the lake , a clear breach of military protocol . When Arnold , whose men now dominated the garrison , asserted his authority , Easton insulted Arnold , who responded by challenging Easton to a duel . Arnold later reported , " On refusing to draw like a gentleman , he having a [ sword ] by his side and cases of loaded pistols in his pockets , I kicked him very heartily and ordered him from the Point . "
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= 2009 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships =
The 2009 International Canoe Federation ( ICF ) Canoe Sprint World Championships were held 12 – 16 August 2009 in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , Canada , on Lake Banook . The Canadian city was selected to host the championships in October 2003 after having done so previously in 1997 . Final preparations were made after the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , with competition format changed for the first time since the 2001 championships . Four exhibition events for both paddleability and women 's canoe were added . Sponsorship was local within the province of Nova Scotia and the Halifax Regional Municipality . Media coverage was provided from Canada , Europe and the United States on the Internet , television and mobile phone . 669 canoeists from 68 nations participated at the championships themselves .
Germany won the most medals with 18 medals and seven golds . Men 's canoe 's overall winner was Russia with seven medals ( one gold , five silver and one bronze ) . In men 's kayak , the big winner was Germany with five medals ( three golds , one silver and one bronze ) . Hungary won medals in all nine events of women 's kayak . Athlete comments ranged from disgust over the format adjustment made to the canoe sprint program for the 2012 Summer Olympics to not being upset at all . Paddleability 's success at these championships will hopefully push for inclusion into future Paralympic level events .
= = Explanation of events = =
Canoe sprint competitions are broken up into Canadian canoe ( C ) , an open canoe with a single @-@ blade paddle , or in kayaks ( K ) , a closed canoe with a double @-@ bladed paddle . Each canoe or kayak can hold one person ( 1 ) , two people ( 2 ) , or four people ( 4 ) . For each of the specific canoes or kayaks , such as a K @-@ 1 ( kayak single ) , the competition distances can be 200 metres ( 660 ft ) , 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) , or 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) long . When a competition is listed as a C @-@ 2 500 m event as an example , it means two people are in a canoe competing at a 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) distance .
= = Preliminaries to the event = =
Dartmouth was awarded the 2009 championships at an ICF Board of Directors meeting in Madrid , Spain , on 23 October 2003 .
= = = Event format changes = = =
At the 2008 ICF Congress in Rome , a new program for the championships was approved . This marked the first change in the program since the addition of the K @-@ 4 1000 m women 's event at the 2001 championships in Poznań . Men 's C @-@ 4 500 m , men 's K @-@ 4 500 m , women 's K @-@ 4 1000 m events were replaced by C @-@ 1 4 × 200 m relay ( men only ) and K @-@ 1 4 × 200 m relay ( both men and women ) . Women 's C @-@ 1 200 m , C @-@ 1 500 m , C @-@ 2 200 m and C @-@ 2 500 m events were shown as exhibition . Paddleability exhibition events of K @-@ 1 200 m LTA ( men & women ) , K @-@ 2 200 m TA & A ( mixed ) , and C @-@ 2 200 m LTA & A ( mixed ) also took place ( LTATA – Legs , Trunks , and Arms or Trunks and Arms ; LTA – Legs , Trunks , and Arms ; and TA & A – Trunks and Arms , or Arms ) . Support for women 's Canadian and the paddle ability events were confirmed at an ICF Board of Directors meeting in Lausanne , Switzerland , on 18 – 20 March 2009 . A training camp was held for women 's canoe in conjunction with the championships .
= = = Official meetings = = =
In January 2009 , ICF Secretary General Simon Toulson visited Halifax for three days and was impressed with the history of canoeing in the area and the development of future canoeists for Canada . Two public meetings were held in Dartmouth and Halifax on 24 and 26 March regarding the championships .
= = = Facility = = =
During the end of 2008 , Lake Banook had its canoe course upgraded by Dexter Construction Limited . Water that had been pumped out of lake ceased on 15 December 2008 , allowing the lake to rise back to its regular level by February 2009 . Cleanup , restoration and landscaping was completed in the spring of 2009 . By May 2009 , this construction included new concrete abutments at the 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) , 200 metres ( 660 ft ) , and finish points , debris and abutment cleanup , ten new lane wires , four new cross wires , and 800 new buoys . Starting gates were tested during the second national team trials held at the lake on 27 – 28 June 2009 . Temporary grandstands for 20 @,@ 000 spectators per day were also constructed .
Additional changes were for environmental reasons . This included the Halifax Regional Water Commission , Conserve Nova Scotia , and Nova Scotia Environment providing water stations for athletes , spectators and volunteers to fill up reusable water bottles which were purchased on site . It eliminated 100 @,@ 000 disposable bottles and 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) of plastic waste . Dalhousie University 's residence halls used energy efficient lighting and cleaning products . The university 's cafeteria eliminated the use of trays , lessening food waste , energy consumption and daily water usage by 4 @,@ 000 litres ( 880 imp gal ; 1 @,@ 100 US gal ) . A buy local policy and delivery truck that ran entirely on vegetable oil fuel was also used .
According to a 10 August 2009 press release , the staging area was at Birch Cove Park in Halifax . 669 from 68 countries competed at the championships with an estimated 100 @,@ 000 spectators .
= = = Sponsorships = = =
The Atlantic Lottery Corporation presented the " Women in Canoe " program that included 21 female canoeists from 12 different countries . Festival entertainment was sponsored by the Nova Scotia Gaming Corporation , including a " Concert on the Lake " by Matt Mays on 14 August that drew 10 @,@ 000 spectators . Other sponsors include Bell Aliant as presenters , silver sponsors were The Chronicle Herald of Halifax , CFRQ Q104 FM radio , CBC Sports and the Halifax Water Authority ; the bronze sponsors were NOREX , Helly Hansen , Conserve Nova Scotia , Nova Scotia environment , Mills fashion and NELO ; government sponsorship of Department of Canadian Heritage , Nova Scotia Health Promotion and Protection , and the Halifax Regional Municipality ; other supporters of Mic Mac Mall , CBS Outdoor , Metro Transit of Halifax , and Office Interiors ; and friends of Ambassadors , Priority Management , KayakPro , the Office of Aboriginal Affairs , and The Cider House Company Limited .
= = Participating nations = =
68 nations were listed on the preliminary entry list . The numbers in parentheses shown are for men and women who competed for each respective nation .
Russia had the most overall attendees with 46 while Canada topped the number of women competing with 16 .
The media guide listed 71 nations as participating , but seven nations listed did not compete ( Cameroon , Dominican Republic , Montenegro , Nigeria , South Korea , Togo and Uganda ) while four nations who competed were not listed ( Ghana , Kyrgyzstan , Senegal and Tajikistan ) .
The ICF sponsored ten athletes in a development program in Romania in early 2009 that allowed them to compete at the world championships . These countries included Algeria , Armenia , Sri Lanka , and Thailand .
= = Coverage = =
Media coverage was provided by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) Sports in Canada , Eurosport , and Universal Sports in the United States . Live results were provided onsite from the official website that was sponsored by Bell Aliant which ran 9 am to 4 : 30 pm AST on 13 August , 9 AM to 3 : 55 pm AST on 14 August , 8 : 44 am to 5 : 45 pm AST on 15 August 2009 , and 8 : 30 am to 3 : 46 pm AST on 16 August . Championship information was also available on Twitter . CBC Sports had broadcast times of 2 – 3 PM AST on 15 August 2009 followed by late night coverage at 12 : 30 am AST on 16 August 2009 along with coverage on the web at http : / / www.cbcsports.ca. Universal Sports telecasted the finals for both the 15th and the 16th live and are now seen on demand on their website . A total of 30 million people from 36 countries worldwide watched the event on television .
Results were transmitted for free with mobile web application named ZAP result . This mobile widget was developed by Norex.ca.
= = Schedule = =
= = = Opening and closing ceremonies = = =
Opening ceremonies took place at 8 pm AST on 12 August . 10 @,@ 000 people watched 68 countries participate in the opening ceremonies that included Canoe ' 09 chair Chris Keevill , ICF President José Perurena , and Sport Canada minister Gary Lunn . The Concert on the Lake took place at 8 pm AST on 14 August with over 10 @,@ 000 attendees . Closing ceremonies occurred on 16 August at 4 pm AST . Medals were presented in Mi 'kmaq baskets for gold medalists , traditional European baskets for silver medalists , and in traditional African Nova Scotian baskets for bronze medalists . Mi 'kmaq is a territory in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada prior to the settlement by the French in the 17th century . The settlement was rotated between the French and British between 1627 and 1755 before the British took over the area after the French and Indian War . Africans settled in Nova Scotia during the Atlantic slave trade that ran from the 16th to 19th centuries . The closing ceremonies on 16 August included passing the ICF flag from Dartmouth to the 2010 world championship hosts in Poznań .
= = = Festival performances = = =
Festivals for all four days started 30 minutes before the first race and ended 30 minutes after the last race each day . Live entertainment took place each of the days along with vendors , displays and exhibits . Boating safety was discussed along with interactive exhibits on canoe construction and allowing to touch live animals from around the world , including tarantulas and a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) -long python .
= = = Competition schedule = = =
= = = = Men 's canoe = = = =
= = = = Men 's kayak = = = =
= = = = Women 's kayak = = = =
= = = = Women 's canoe ( exhibition ) = = = =
= = = = Paddleability ( exhibition ) = = = =
= = Results = =
The preliminary draw was released on 9 August . This was updated again on 11 August .
= = = Men 's = = =
= = = = Canoe = = = =
Russia was the top winner with seven medals with Nikolay Lipkin winning five medals . Belarus won three gold medals . Azerbaijan won a complete set of medals in the canoe discipline while Uzbekistan won its first ever gold medal at the championships .
= = = = Kayak = = = =
Germany won five medals in the men 's kayak . Ronald Rauhe 's three medals for Germany at these championships pushed his career total to 20 , tying him with Torsten Gutsche ( East Germany @-@ Germany : 1989 – 99 ) . Belarus won four golds with Vadzim Makhneu and Raman Piatrushenka each winning four of those golds .
= = = Women 's = = =
= = = = Kayak = = = =
Hungary medaled in all nine events with Natasa Janics and Katalin Kovacs each winning five medals . Kovacs ' five medals pushed her total medal count to 35 , three behind Birgit Fischer 's 38 ( East Germany @-@ Germany : 1978 – 2005 ) . Bridgette Hartley 's bronze medal in the K @-@ 1 1000 m event was the first for both South Africa and Africa at the world championships . Josefa Idem 's bronze in the K @-@ 1 500 m event makes her the oldest medalist in the history of the championships .
= = = Exhibition = = =
= = = = Women 's canoe = = = =
Host nation Canada won all four of the exhibition events . Jenna Marks won three of these events ( C @-@ 1 200 m , C @-@ 2 200 m , C @-@ 2 500 m ) . Other nations with top three finishes included Brazil , Ecuador , Great Britain and the United States .
= = = = Paddleability = = = =
Italy had four top three finishes to lead all nations in this event while the United States was second with three .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Athlete comments = = =
Australia 's Wallace commented that he was upset at the ICF 's decision that was made during the championships to replace the men 's 500 m events ( C @-@ 1 , C @-@ 2 , K @-@ 1 and K @-@ 2 ) at the Summer Olympics with the 200 m events ( men 's C @-@ 1 , K @-@ 1 and K @-@ 2 ; and women 's K @-@ 1 ) for the upcoming Summer Olympics in London . Kovacs of Hungary stated that the addition of the women 's K @-@ 1 200 m event for the 2012 Olympics will not change her training routine . Italy 's Idem , who was competing in her 20th world championships , stated that she was just as " ... nervous when ... [ she ] ... was a 13 year old girl ( 1977 ) and ... [ she was ] ... the same today . " Germany 's Rauhe expressed his love for Canada by " ... going on holiday now . " in the host nation .
= = = Paddleability 's ( Paracanoe 's ) future = = =
In a 25 August 2009 ICF article , ICF Canoeing for All Committee and Canoe Kayak Canada 's Domestic Development Director John Edwards thanked efforts of the paddlers involved in the paddleability events for the 2009 championships . Edwards stated that the efforts for paddleability 's success are twofold . The first is for inclusion into the 2011 Special Olympics World Summer Games in Athens , Greece . Once this is recognized , the next goal is to get Special Olympic programs at a national level for inclusion into the 2016 Summer Paralympics . The second , a shorter @-@ term one , is to have 24 nations from three continents participate at next year 's canoe sprint world championships in Poznań . Besides the medalists from this year 's world championships being from Italy , the United States , Canada , Brazil and France , other participants included Great Britain and Portugal . The process to include paddleability into the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil began on 1 October 2009 and approval was reached on 16 July 2010 .
= = Medals Table = =
Shown for the non @-@ exhibition events only .
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= Dominator ( roller coaster ) =
Dominator is a steel floorless roller coaster built by Bolliger & Mabillard at Kings Dominion in Doswell , Virginia . It originally opened at Six Flags Ohio on May 5 , 2000 under the name Batman : Knight Flight . Cedar Fair Entertainment Company purchased the park in 2004 and renamed it Dominator . In 2007 , the park closed and Dominator was relocated to Kings Dominion where it opened on May 24 , 2008 in the International Street section of the park .
Dominator is notable for having the 4th @-@ tallest vertical loop in the world at 135 ft ( 41 m ) . Only three are larger : Superman : Krypton Coaster at Six Flags Fiesta Texas has a 145 ft ( 44 m ) loop , Viper at Six Flags Magic Mountain has a 144 ft ( 44 m ) loop and Full Throttle , also at Magic Mountain , has a 160 ft ( 49 m ) loop . It is also the world 's longest floorless coaster at 4 @,@ 210 feet ( 1 @,@ 280 m ) .
= = History = =
= = = Geauga Lake era ( 2000 – 2007 ) = = =
= = = = Six Flags era ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = = =
Dominator , then known as Batman : Knight Flight , was announced at an event on December 9 , 1999 as the only floorless roller coaster in the Midwest . It opened on May 5 , 2000 at what was then known as Six Flags Ohio . The ride was a part of the conversion and major expansion that occurred between the 1999 and 2000 season , transforming the park from Geauga Lake to Six Flags Ohio . Dominator was built in the Gotham City section of the park , a common themed area in many Six Flags parks .
= = = = Cedar Fair era ( 2004 – 2007 ) = = = =
In March 2004 , Six Flags sold Geauga Lake ( then known as Six Flags Worlds of Adventure ) to Cedar Fair for $ 145 million . All references to Looney Tunes and DC Comics characters had to be removed prior to opening day the same year , since Cedar Fair did not have licensing rights . As a result , Cedar Fair renamed Batman : Knight Flight to Dominator . The process included the melting of the Batman symbol off every seat , the removal of the Bruce Wayne Foundation text on the station , and the renaming of the Gotham City section to " Power City . "
In August 2007 , rumors of Dominator being relocated to Kings Dominion surfaced . On September 21 , 2007 , Cedar Fair announced that Geauga Lake would no longer operate as a traditional amusement park , and instead become solely a waterpark , Wildwater Kingdom . As a result , September 16 , 2007 was the last day the ride would operate at Geauga Lake . With that announcement , the rides from the amusement park side began to be relocated to other Cedar Fair properties . The new location of Dominator , however , was not released .
= = = Kings Dominion era ( 2008 – present ) = = =
On October 23 , 2007 , it was announced that the Dominator would be moved to Kings Dominion in Doswell , Virginia . Dominator sits on the former site of the bus parking lot , behind Berserker , an Intamin Looping Starship . When it was relocated to Kings Dominion , it received a new paint job . The supports remained dark blue , but the track was painted orange instead of yellow . The record @-@ breaking loop , however , is still painted yellow . It opened to the public on May 24 , 2008 .
= = Experience = =
While at Geauga Lake , the ride was notable for interacting with the lake numerous times throughout the course . When it was relocated to Kings Dominion , it was built behind the Berserker flat ride , in the International Street section of the park .
= = = Layout = = =
After leaving the station , the train makes a small dip before making a 180 degree right turn to climb the 161 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) lift hill . Once the train apexes the top of the lift , riders drop 148 feet ( 45 m ) to the right at a 57 degree angle , reaching a top speed of 67 miles per hour ( 108 km / h ) . The train then enters the record breaking , 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) tall vertical loop . Following the loop , riders go past the queue and rise up into a turnaround around the ride 's station . After the turn , riders enter a cobra roll , which contains two of the ride 's five inversions . Riders then pass by the station again and enter the mid @-@ course brake run . After the brakes , there is a small drop followed by the interlocking corkscrews , the last two inversions of the ride . Following the corkscrews , the train completes a 135 @-@ degree curve to the left that dives into a 270 @-@ degree curve along the ground , entering the final brake run . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 6 seconds .
= = = Trains = = =
Dominator operates with three open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that have four seats in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . Riders are secured by an over the shoulder restraint with a lap belt .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is approximately 4 @,@ 210 feet ( 1 @,@ 280 m ) in length , making it the longest Floorless Coaster in the world . The height of the lift is approximately 161 feet ( 49 m ) . Dominator features the fourth @-@ tallest vertical loop at 135 feet ( 41 m ) . When the coaster first opened at Geauga Lake , it was painted with blue supports , yellow track and unpainted rails . When Dominator was relocated to Kings Dominion , the supports remained blue and the rails remained unpainted . The track was painted orange but the loop remained yellow .
= = = Theme = = =
During Six Flags ' ownership , Dominator was the star attraction of the Gotham City themed area and featured various Batman theming . The seats of the ride 's trains had the Batman symbol engraved into the headrests and the station originally had text reading , " Bruce Wayne Foundation . " When Cedar Fair bought the park in 2004 , they did not own the rights to DC Comics characters . All Batman theming had to be removed before opening day , which included melting the Batman symbol off every seat , removing the Bruce Wayne Foundation text on the station , and renaming the Gotham City section into " Power City . " There has been no theme for the ride while it has been owned by Cedar Fair .
= = Incidents = =
On July 20 , 2012 , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old woman from Pitt County , North Carolina , was found unresponsive on Dominator after its train returned to the ride 's unloading station . An incident report described that she had a " seizure @-@ like episode " after riding the roller coaster . The woman was taken to a hospital , where she died . Autopsy results revealed that she had a brain aneurysm . A Hanover County , Virginia , inspector found no operational problems with Dominator . The ride reopened on July 23 , 2012 , after it passed two safety inspections .
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= Skin Deep ( Once Upon a Time ) =
" Skin Deep " is the twelfth episode of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time . The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine , in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In this episode , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) suspects Mr. Gold ( Robert Carlyle ) is planning to seek vigilante justice when a cat burglar ( Eric Keenleyside ) robs his house . Meanwhile , Mary Margaret ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) plans a special girls ' night out on Valentine 's Day with Ruby ( Meghan Ory ) and Ashley ( Jessy Schram ) , and a fateful deal made between Rumpelstiltskin ( Carlyle ) and Belle ( Emilie de Ravin ) is revealed – in which she gives up her freedom to save her village from the horrors of the Ogre Wars .
The episode was written by consulting producer Jane Espenson and directed by Milan Cheylov . It featured the first appearance of de Ravin , who was cast as Belle in November 2011 after being approached by series co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz . Espenson created a love @-@ themed episode ; initially its main theme was to focus on Rumpelstiltskin choosing power over love , but during the writing process Espenson decided to make him instead believe that he was not worthy of love at all .
" Skin Deep " first aired in the United States on ABC on February 12 , 2012 . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Several reviewers felt that the Belle @-@ Rumpelstiltskin relationship resembled Stockholm Syndrome and was not developed enough to make it believable . Others , however , praised the complex characterization of the episode 's female characters , as well as Carlyle 's performance . A novelization of " Skin Deep " was released in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Opening Sequence = = =
A straw spinning wheel is shown in the forest .
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
In The Enchanted Forest , the Ogre Wars continue but are not going well for the lands controlled by Sir Maurice ( Eric Keenleyside ) . Rumpelstiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) arrives and agrees to aid the battle in exchange for Maurice 's daughter , Belle ( Emilie de Ravin ) . Belle 's fiancée , Gaston ( Sage Brocklebank ) , and her father are against the terms but Belle agrees . At his castle , Rumpelstiltskin gives Belle a list of tasks , including skinning the children that he hunts for their pelts . At this Belle drops and chips a teacup in shock , but he explains that it is a joke and doesn 't mind about the chipped cup . As time goes by , Rumpelstiltskin and Belle develop a strong bond with each other . After a few months of living with him , Belle asks the dark one why she found children 's clothing upstairs . Rumpelstiltskin tells her it belonged to his son whom he unfortunately lost along with his wife . Gaston arrives to take Belle back but Rumpelstiltskin turns him into a rose and presents it to her as a gift . When asked about Gaston , Belle says that it was an arranged marriage , not one of love . She left him because she wanted to be heroic and there are not many chances for women to be heroic . Rumpelstiltskin asks Belle to go into town to buy more straw , and she cannot believe he trusts her to come back . Rumpelstiltskin says he does not expect to see her again .
As Belle is walking down the road , she runs into The Evil Queen ( Lana Parrilla ) , who asks her if she is running from someone . Belle admits the man she is leaving is overcome by evil yet she loves him . The Evil Queen offers the solution : true love 's kiss will break the curse . Belle returns to Rumpelstiltskin 's castle and the Dark one asks why she came back to him . She replies that she wasn 't going to return but something changed her mind . After a moment of silence between the two , they both share true love 's kiss , the magic starts to turn him back into an ordinary man , but becomes furious and shakes off the magic , accusing Belle of conspiring with The Evil Queen . Rumpelstiltskin yells in a rage that no one will love him , and The Evil Queen will never take away his power . He throws Belle in his dungeon and smashes every cup against the wall but he cannot bring himself to destroy the chipped one . Once he has cooled off , he tells Belle to leave because his powers are more important to him than she is . Belle admonishes him for not believing she can love him . She warns him that he will regret his actions when all he has is an empty heart and a chipped cup .
A month later , The Evil Queen appears ; Rumpelstiltskin says that her deception with Belle failed , and that The Evil Queen will never be more powerful than him . She then tells him that she had nothing to do with Belle 's actions ( even though she prodded her , Belle 's feelings were real ) and informs him that upon Belle 's return to her home , she had been shunned by her village for her association with Rumpelstiltskin and Gaston 's disappearance and was subsequently imprisoned and tortured by her father . She eventually killed herself , leaping off the tower she was kept prisoner in . Rumpelstiltskin is devastated and replaces a treasured gold chalice with the chipped cup and weeps over his loss .
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In the present day , Mr. Gold ( Carlyle ) repossesses florist Moe French 's ( Keenleyside ) van the day before Valentine 's Day . At Granny 's Cafe , David ( Josh Dallas ) and Mary Margaret ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) talk from separate tables , until Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) interrupts to ask about Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) . Ashley ( Jessy Schram ) arrives with her baby , noting how rarely she gets a babysitter or sees her boyfriend , Sean ( Tim Phillipps ) . Ruby ( Meghan Ory ) suggests a girl 's night out . Emma investigates a robbery of Mr. Gold 's home , who says he knows that Moe is responsible , seeking revenge for the repossession . Emma recovers the majority of Mr. Gold 's items but one thing is missing and he will stop at nothing until it is recovered . He kidnaps Moe , ties him up and beats him , demanding where it is . However , he soon starts saying " she 's gone , " referring to Belle , until Emma arrives to stop him . Mr. Gold believes Regina ( Parrilla ) put Moe up to the theft and she knows where the last stolen item is . Emma still has to arrest Mr. Gold for kidnapping and assault .
Elsewhere , during their girls night out , Ruby is trying to convince Ashley to find another guy since Sean is always working . Ashley tells Mary Margaret that all she wants is to be with Sean . Mary Margaret understands since her own romantic arrangement is not ideal . Sean shows up on a break from work and proposes to Ashley ; she accepts and they go out for a drive . David shows up next to give Mary Margret her Valentine , but mistakenly gives her Kathryn 's . Mary Margaret says she thought if two people were meant to be together they would find a way , but maybe she and David need another way . She tells him he should probably go home .
At the sheriff 's office , Mr. Gold reminds Emma about the favor she owes him but he does not use it to ask for his freedom . Regina shows up and tells Emma that she can see Henry for only 30 minutes if she will allow her to visit Mr. Gold . He asks Regina if she has what he wants and she in fact does . Regina put Moe up to the robbery because she wants Mr. Gold to say his real name . After some prodding he admits his name is Rumpelstiltskin and addresses Regina as " Your Majesty , " confirming that both are aware of their alternate identities . Regina returns the chipped cup to Mr. Gold then makes a visit to the hospital . She goes to see Belle 's counterpart , who did not die in the Enchanted Forest , but is now being held prisoner in the hospital 's mental ward .
= = Production = =
" Skin Deep " was written by consulting producer Jane Espenson , while 24 veteran , Milan Cheylov , directed the installment . Knowing that they were going to recreate the story of " Beauty and the Beast " , series co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz wanted its heroine , Belle , " to exude intelligence and strength and be someone you would immediately love , " which led them to approach Emilie de Ravin . Her casting was announced in November 2011 . The actress agreed after reading the script , believing that the character was " very courageous " with a playful side that would endear her to Rumpelstiltskin . During their casting meeting , Kitsis and Horowitz told de Ravin that Belle is defined as a strong intelligent woman in a world that disapproves of those characteristics , and that de Ravin was going to be " tak [ ing ] the icon of Belle and mak [ ing ] her a woman . "
Espenson said that this was one of their most love @-@ centered episodes ; when they realized it was going to be airing near Valentine 's Day , they decided to " lean into " this theme . Unusual for Once Upon a Time , the theme of this episode changed during the writing process . It was initially meant to center on Rumpelstiltskin choosing power over love . However , as Espenson went through drafts and discussed them with others , she decided that Rumpelstiltskin might think he is doing this , but really his actions are motivated by not believing that he is worthy of love at all . In the interest of time , Espenson was forced to edit out many plot points , including a failed escape attempt by Belle . Despite this , she sought to trim down more time from the Storybrooke scenes and " preserve as much as we could of the fairy tale side , " as the Belle @-@ Rumpelstiltskin relationship was a love story that needed time to grow in order to be believable .
De Ravin was a fan of the series before being cast and was happy to be able to view the costumes up close , describing her character 's gold dress as " absolutely stunning . " The casting of her former suitor , Gaston , was announced in December 2011 with Psych actor Sage Brocklebank . De Ravin described the episode 's version of Gaston as " maybe not as cocky as the animation [ version of him ] , but it ’ s funny . " Rumpelstiltskin 's castle was shot almost entirely on greenscreen , with only a few real props being used . It was de Ravin 's first time working with this technology , which caused her to become " quite nervous . " The physical props helped her with the scenes , and " they ha [ d ] a fantastic set up of a couple of monitors that you can see a markup of basically how it ’ s going to look . "
The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
There are multiple references made to Disney 's Beauty and the Beast . The chipped tea cup that Belle accidentally drops is a reference to the character Chip in the film . Also , Belle 's fiancée in the show is named Gaston , the Disney antagonist , and he was turned into a red rose , which featured prominently in the film . In addition , most of Belle 's clothing in the fantasy world appears to be directly inspired by clothing worn by Belle in the Disney film , such as her yellow ballgown and her blue and white plainclothes . Mr. French 's flower shop is called " Game of Thorns , " a reference to Game of Thrones , a popular fantasy show and book series . The name and a logo can be seen on the side of his van at the start of the episode . David is seen reading Anna Karenina , another story about an affair that ends tragically . In the end of the episode , a reference to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest is shown , when Regina meets a nurse , who looks like nurse Ratchet and the janitor mopping up bears a striking resemblance to the Chief in the novel and film adaptation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Ratings and viewership for " Skin Deep " were down from the last episode . It had an 18 @-@ 49 rating of 3 @.@ 0 and was seen by 8 @.@ 65 million viewers , down 14 percent , but still came in second overall for the night . This was partially due to the fact that the episode aired in the same time @-@ slot as the 54th Grammy Awards , who had their best numbers ever since the 1984 telecast and the sudden news of Whitney Houston 's death the day prior to the event . In Canada , the episode finished in sixteenth place for the week with an estimated 1 @.@ 55 million viewers , a slight decrease from the 1 @.@ 58 million of the previous episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Skin Deep " received mixed reviews from television critics .
Amy Ratcliffe , writing for IGN , rated the episode with an 8 out of 10 . She expressed her love of Robert Carlyle , opining that " I especially liked him in the episode . He managed to show true emotion in spite of his silly Rumpelstiltskin accent , and he improves every scene he 's in . I feel like this episode will start something bigger . At least , I hope it will . " Laura Prudom of The Huffington Post felt Espenson was a " perfect fit for this episode – when she 's firing on all cylinders , the Buffy alumna is one of the best in the industry at writing layered , empowered women , even when circumstances conspire against them . " The A.V. Club 's Oliver Sava graded the episode with a C + . He felt that because Belle did not come from " humble beginnings " like the Disney version , she was a " much less interesting character . " In addition , to Sava another major failing was that the Belle @-@ Rumpelstiltskin relationship resembled Stockholm Syndrome and " doesn ’ t develop organically . " He did however love Regina 's final scene with Rumpelstiltskin , and expressed the wish that the other characters would begin remembering their pasts soon .
Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly opined that Espenson 's attempt to tell a " nightmarish , twisty tale of obsession and loss " was " decidedly mixed " due to the lack of development in the relationship between Belle and Rumpelstiltskin . Busis explained , " Yes , people fall in love quickly in traditional bedtime stories . But at least in the animated version of Beauty and the Beast , we could understand why Belle and her hairy paramour were meant to be . ' Skin Deep ' didn 't bother to explain that attraction . " In a contribution for Tor.com , Teresa Jusino defined " Skin Deep " as an " amazing retelling of the Beauty and the Beast story that contained some wonderful character moments and some great one @-@ liners ... Funny , charming , and at times harrowing , the script takes us into the depths of Rumpelstiltskin ’ s soul , showing us this character both at his most warm and at his most dark . " Jusino was critical of the subplot with David and Mary Margaret , however , saying that " it didn ’ t seem necessary as it didn ’ t really move much forward . "
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= 172nd Infantry Brigade ( United States ) =
The 172nd Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the United States Army headquartered at Grafenwöhr , Germany . An active duty separate brigade , it was part of V Corps and was one of five active @-@ duty , separate , combat brigades in the U.S. Army before its most recent inactivation on 31 May 2013 .
First activated in 1917 , the brigade was deployed to France during World War I and used to reinforce front @-@ line units . The brigade 's actions in France during that time are not completely clear . It would later be converted to a reconnaissance unit that was deployed during World War II and saw several months of combat in the European Theater . The brigade has multiple tours of duty in Operation Iraqi Freedom from 2005 until 2006 and from 2008 until 2010 and in Operation Enduring Freedom from 2011 until 2012 . Its infamous 16 @-@ month deployment was one of the longest deployments for a unit serving in the OIF campaign . Most recently the brigade served a 12 @-@ month tour in Afghanistan from 2011 until 2012 .
The unit has been activated and inactivated numerous times , and has also seen several redesignations . The 172nd was one of the first brigade combat teams before it was deactivated in 2006 . Reactivated in 2008 from another reflagged unit , it immediately prepared for another tour of duty in Iraq . Following a series of budget cuts and force structure reductions , the unit formally inactivated on 31 May 2013 in Grafenwöhr , Germany .
= = Organization = =
The brigade was a separate unit and did not report to a higher division @-@ level headquarters , but instead reported directly to the V Corps of United States Army Europe . It consisted of six battalions and four companies . These components included two infantry battalions , one armor battalion , one field artillery battalion , a combat engineer battalion and a support services battalion . It also contained a headquarters company , a Signal company , a military intelligence company , and an armored cavalry company for reconnaissance .
The Headquarters and Headquarters Company of the unit was located at Grafenwöhr , Germany . The Unit also contained the 1st Battalion , 2d Infantry , the 2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry , the 1st Battalion , 77th Field Artillery , the 9th Engineer Battalion , the 3rd Battalion , 66th Armor , and the 172nd Forward Support Battalion . In addition , the brigade contained three independent companies ; 504th Military Intelligence Company , and Echo Troop , 5th Cavalry Regiment , the 57th Signal Company . All of these subordinate units were last located in Grafenwöhr .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 172nd Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) , officially titled the " 172d Infantry Brigade " , was first constituted on 5 August 1917 in the National Army as the 172nd Infantry Brigade . It was organized on the 25th of that month at Camp Grant , in Rockford , Illinois and assigned to the 86th Infantry Division . The brigade was assigned to the 86th Division and deployed to Europe for duty during World War I. It arrived in Bordeaux , France , in September 1918 The combat record of the unit during its World War I service is not clear , but it is known that the 86th Division was depleted when much of its force was used to reinforce other units already on the front lines . Thus , the brigade received a World War I campaign streamer without an inscription , as it was not known to have fought in any engagements . After a cease fire was signed in 1918 , the Brigade returned to the United States . It was demobilized in January 1919 at Camp Grant , and the camp itself was abandoned in 1921 .
On 24 June 1921 the unit was reconstituted in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 172nd Infantry Brigade , and again assigned to the 86th Division . It was organized in January 1922 at Springfield , Illinois and went through several redesignations , including Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 172nd Brigade , on 23 March 1925 and Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 172nd Infantry Brigade on 24 August 1936 .
= = = World War II = = =
The Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 172nd Infantry Brigade , was converted and redesignated the 3rd Platoon , 86th Reconnaissance Troop , and assigned to the 86th Infantry Division on 31 March 1942 , while the Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 171st Infantry Brigade , became the remainder of the 86th Reconnaissance Troop . On 15 December 1942 the troop was mobilized and reorganized at Camp Howze , in Gainesville , Texas , as the 86th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop , only to be reorganized and redesignated again on 5 August 1943 as the 86th Reconnaissance Troop , Mechanized . For the majority of the US involvement in World War II it remained stateside , participating in the Third Army # 5 Louisiana Maneuvers in 1943 , among other exercises , until finally staging at Camp Myles Standish , at Boston , Massachusetts on 5 February 1945 and shipping out from Boston on 19 February 1945 .
The 86th Reconnaissance Troop arrived in France on 1 March 1945 , acclimated and trained , and then moved to Köln , Germany , and participated in the relief of the 8th Infantry Division in defensive positions near Weiden which is now part of Lindenthal on 28 – 29 March 1945 . During its few months of combat duty in Europe , the troop participated in amphibious assaults across was Danube , Bigge , Altmuhl , Isar , Inn , Mittel @-@ Isar and Salzach rivers in Germany and Austria . It was assigned to First , Third , Seventh , and Fifteenth US Armies . The unit was at Salzburg on 7 May 1945 ( V @-@ E Day ) . It was then sent back stateside to prepare for operation in the Pacific . Arriving back in New York City on 17 June 1945 , the unit proceeded to Fort Gruber in Braggs , Oklahoma before staging at Camp Stoneman in Pittsburg , California on 14 August 1945 . The unit shipped out from San Francisco on 21 August 1945 and arrived in the Philippines on 7 September 1945 , five days after the Japanese surrender .
= = = The Cold War = = =
On 10 October 1945 the 86th Reconnaissance Troop ( Mechanized ) was again redesignated the 86th Mechanized Reconnaissance Troop before finally being inactivated on 30 December 1946 while still stationed in the Philippines . However the 86th Mechanized Reconnaissance Troop was reactivated again on 9 July 1952 as part of the Army Reserve . It continued serving within the Army Reserve for some years . Activation of the brigade with its new structure took place on 1 July 1963 at Fort Richardson , Alaska . The Army set up an experimental Airborne Company " Company F ( FoxTrot ) Airborne in 1962 in Fort Richardson . The Company Commander was Capt Lawrence . Under the new structure , the unit was renamed Company C Airborne . The Airborne Company was used to see how best to use Airborne Troops in Arctic conditions throughout the vast area of Alaska .
The new structure included one Light Infantry Battalion ; one Mechanized Infantry Battalion ; and one Tank Company . Its shoulder sleeve insignia was authorized for use on 28 August 1963 and its distinctive unit insignia was authorized on 8 June 1966 . The Brigade was reorganized from Mechanized Infantry to Light Infantry on 30 June 1969 , with a reduction to two mechanized infantry battalions . In 1974 the 172nd Infantry Brigade was reorganized again to include three light infantry battalions ,
US Army Alaska was known as USARAL through the 60s and 70s , whereas after the activation of the 6th Infantry Division it was known as USARAK . The two Arctic brigades , the 171st ( 4 @-@ 9th Infantry , 1 @-@ 47th Infantry [ which was subsequently deactivated ] , and other components at Fort Wainwright ) and the 172d ( 4 @-@ 23d Infantry , 1 @-@ 60th Infantry , 1 @-@ 37th Artillery , 561st Combat Engineer Company , and other components at Fort Richardson ) were consolidated in 1973 with the drawdown after Viet Nam . There was an administrative split between the " LIB " ( Light Infantry Brigade ) and the " Brigade Alaska " , with the 1 @-@ 43d Air Defense , 222d Aviation , 56th MP Company , 23d Construction Engineer Company , Northern Warfare Training Center- then at Fort Greely , ' being assigned .
It was again reorganized in 1978 to a structure that included one infantry battalion , one mechanized infantry battalion , and one tank battalion The brigade was again inactivated on 15 April 1986 at Fort Richardson , Alaska , being reflagged as part of the newly reformed 6th Infantry Division .
= = = Transformation = = =
In the late 1990s , Army leaders including General Eric Shinseki began shifting the Army force toward brigade centered operations . All separate brigades had been deactivated in the 1990s as part of the US Army 's drawdown following the end of the Cold War . These inactivations , along with subsequent reorganization of US Army divisions , saw several divisional brigades stationed in bases that were far from the division 's headquarters and support units . These brigades had difficulty operating without support from higher headquarters .
It was Shinseki 's idea to reactivate a few separate brigades and assign them their own support and sustainment units , which would allow them to function independently of division @-@ level headquarters . These formations were termed " Brigade Combat Teams " . Such units could be stationed in bases far from major commands , not requiring division @-@ level unit support , an advantage in places like Alaska and Europe , where stationing entire divisions was unnecessary or impractical . The first of the separate brigades was to be the 172nd Infantry Brigade . On 17 April 1998 , the U.S. Army reactivated the " 172nd Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) " and reflagged the 1st Brigade , 6th Infantry Division as that unit was headquartered at Fort Wainwright , Alaska . Two years later , the 173rd Airborne Brigade was reactivated on 12 June 2000 at Caserma Ederle in Vicenza , Italy > . The 172nd was given an airborne infantry battalion , one of only three existing outside of the 82nd Airborne Division ( the other two battalions were part of the 2nd Infantry Division based in Korea ) . The 172nd Infantry was designed as a " pacific theater contingency brigade " . Located in Alaska , the 172nd would be able to deploy to any contingencies in Alaska , Europe ( over the north pole ) or the Pacific .
In July 2001 the US Army announced that the 172nd Infantry Brigade was to become one of the Army 's new Interim Brigade Combat Teams , later to be known as Stryker Brigade Combat Teams ( SBCTs ) . Changes to the brigade included the addition of some 300 Stryker vehicles , and several Unmanned Aerial Vehicles . The transformation was intended to increase the brigade 's mobility in operations as well as reduce its logistical footprint . The project entailed around $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in construction costs for training facilities , motor pools , and other buildings . This transformation was completed when the unit was formally redesignated on 16 October 2003 . After the transformation was complete , the 172nd became the third Stryker brigade in the US Army , with a force of 3 @,@ 500 soldiers . In 2005 , the new Brigade Commander changed the motto of the infantry brigade from " Snow Hawks " to " Arctic Wolves " . In early 2005 , the brigade was alerted that it would be deployed to Operation Iraqi Freedom for the first time . To prepare , it participated in several large exercises at the Joint Readiness Training Center at Fort Polk , Louisiana . The 220th Military Police Brigade , a reserve unit , provided additional soldiers to assist the brigade in the exercises during their final preparations for deployment .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
In August 2005 , the 172nd Infantry Brigade deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . The unit deployed to Mosul , Iraq . 4 @-@ 14 CAV and a Stryker infantry company ( A / 4 @-@ 23 IN and later , B / 2 @-@ 1 IN ) were attached to 2nd Marine Expeditionary Force , and stationed at COP Rawah ; away from the rest of the BDE . Duties of the unit during deployment included numerous patrol operations , searches for weapons caches , and counterinsurgency operations . Its tour was to have ended on 27 July 2006 , but the U.S. Army unexpectedly extended the deployment until the end of November 2006 . During the extension , the unit was sent to Baghdad to quell growing sectarian violence concerns . The infamous extension of the deployment had happened after some of the units of the Brigade were already touched down at their home base of Fort Wainwright , AK , forcing them to fly back to staging areas in Iraq . The extension occurred after the unit 's regular 12 @-@ month tour was complete , making the deployment last for a total of 16 months . As a result of the unit 's action in Iraq , the brigade was awarded the Valorous Unit Award .
During this action , 26 soldiers of the brigade were killed in action , and another 350 were wounded . Ten additional soldiers in units attached to the brigade were killed .
= = = Inactivation 2006 = = =
Having returned from its extended tour in Baghdad , Iraq , the 172nd Stryker Brigade Combat Team was officially deactivated and the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team , 25th Infantry Division was activated in its place on 14 December 2006 .
The brigade 's six battalions and four separate companies were likewise reflagged as part of the change . The reflagged units were :
1st Battalion , 17th Infantry Regiment to 1st Battalion , 5th Infantry Regiment .
2nd Battalion , 1st Infantry Regiment to 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry Regiment .
4th Battalion , 23rd Infantry Regiment to 3rd Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment .
4th Squadron , 14th Cavalry Regiment to 5th Squadron , 1st Cavalry Regiment .
4th Battalion , 11th Field Artillery Regiment to 2nd Battalion , 8th Field Artillery Regiment .
172nd Brigade Support Battalion to 25th Brigade Support Battalion .
A Company , 52nd Infantry Regiment to D Company , 52nd Infantry Regiment .
572nd Military Intelligence Company to 184th Military Intelligence Company .
562nd Engineer Company to 73rd Engineer Company .
21st Signal Company to 176th Signal Company .
= = = Reactivation in Germany = = =
As part of the Grow the Army Plan announced 19 December 2007 , the Army will activate and retain two Infantry Brigades in Germany until 2012 and 2013 . On 6 March 2008 , it was announced that the 172nd Infantry Brigade would be activated as the first of these brigades , with the other being the 170th Infantry Brigade . On 17 March , the 172nd Infantry Brigade was formally activated in Schweinfurt , Germany by reflagging the 1st Infantry Division 's 2nd ( Dagger ) Brigade , which relocated to Ft . Riley , KS . Colonel Jeffrey Sinclair was commanding the brigade at the time . The 172nd Infantry Brigade relocated to Grafenwöhr , Germany , The unit it was activated using the assets of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Infantry Division , which had recently completed its own tour of duty in Iraq . The 172nd Infantry Brigade was activated with the following unit redesignations :
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 172nd Infantry Brigade ( formed from HHC , 2 @-@ 1 ID )
2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry ( reflagged from 1 – 26 Infantry )
1st Battalion , 2nd Infantry ( reflagged from 1 – 18 Infantry )
3rd Battalion , 66th Armor ( reflagged from 1 – 77 Armor )
Troop E , 5th Cavalry ( reflagged from Troop E , 4th Cavalry )
1st Battalion , 77th Field Artillery ( reflagged from 1 – 7 Field Artillery )
172nd Support Battalion ( reflagged from 299th Forward Support Battalion )
57th Signal Company , 9th Engineer Battalion and 504th Military Intelligence Company remain attached to 172nd but were not reflagged .
When the brigade converts to a modular design , the Brigade Special Troops Battalion will be given organic , unnumbered signal , engineer and military intelligence companies along with a chemical and military police platoons .
After its activation , the brigade began moving its components from Schweinfurt to Grafenwöhr , Germany , as part of the Grow the Army plan . Simultaneously , the brigade converted to a modular structure to become a Brigade Combat Team upon completion . In May 2008 , the brigade was alerted that it would be returning to Iraq in the fall of that year . The deployment was set to last 12 months , and was set to start after the unit 's 12 @-@ month out @-@ of @-@ action cycle ended on November 2008 . This would be the brigade 's third tour to Iraq , as it completed a tour of duty in Iraq shortly before being redesignated from the 2nd Brigade , 1st Infantry Division . The brigade began training for its deployment to the country as soon as it received orders for deployment . German military officers trained with the brigade during this preparation . The soldiers of the brigade were part of a 40 @,@ 000 @-@ soldier troop rotation into Iraq and Afghanistan , intended to maintain previous troop levels in both countries until late 2009 . In fall of 2008 , the brigade completed its transition to a brigade combat team , and was redesignated as the 172nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team .
In late October 2008 the brigade began moving equipment and vehicles by train from Germany in preparation for their tour in Iraq . 385 containers full of gear , as well as 75 M1A1 Abrams Tanks , M2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicles , and HMMWVs were sent by train on 28 October. the brigade picked up additional MRAP and uparmored HMMWVs in Kuwait . The brigade deployed into theater by December 2008 , replacing the 4th Brigade Combat Team , 3rd Infantry Division .
A proposal was made to relocate the unit to White Sands Missile Range , New Mexico in 2012 as the 7th Brigade Combat Team , 1st Armored Division , pending discussions to leave two heavy brigades in Europe .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
The 172 IBCT deployed to Afghanistan in the summer of 2011 . The brigade left behind its " heavy " vehicles , Bradley fighting vehicles and Abrams tanks , for MRAPs . Soldiers will spend some of their time during the deployment patrolling on foot , as their normal heavy tracked vehicles are incompatible with rugged terrain of Afghanistan . . During this deployment the Brigade was responsible for Paktika province along the Pakistani border . One of the more controversial aspects of the deployment was the formation of the first US / Afghan Joint firing base with Afghan National Army Artillery firing in support of U.S. forces in the Urgun district .
Following a number of budget cuts and force structure reductions , the brigade deactivated in Germany on 31 May 2013 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Tropical cyclone scales =
Tropical cyclones are officially ranked on one of five tropical cyclone scales , according to their maximum sustained winds and which tropical cyclone basin ( s ) they are located in . Only a few scales of classifications are used officially by the meteorological agencies monitoring the tropical cyclones , but some alternative scales also exist , such as accumulated cyclone energy , the Power Dissipation Index , the Integrated Kinetic Energy Index , and the Hurricane Severity Index .
Should a tropical cyclone form in the North Atlantic Ocean or the North @-@ eastern Pacific Ocean , it will be classified using one of the categories in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . In the Western Pacific , tropical cyclones will be ranked using the Japan Meteorological Agency 's scale . The Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in New Delhi , India also uses a different scale to assess the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone . In the Southern Hemisphere , the Météo @-@ France forecast center on La Reunion uses a scale that covers the whole of the South West Indian Ocean . Both the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and the RSMC in Nadi , Fiji use the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale .
The definition of sustained winds recommended by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and used by most weather agencies is that of a 10 @-@ minute average at a height of 10 m ( 33 ft ) . However , the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale is based on wind speed measurements averaged over a 1 @-@ minute period , at 10 m ( 33 ft ) above the surface . The scale used by RSMC New Delhi applies a 3 @-@ minute averaging period , and the Australian scale is based on both 3 @-@ second wind gusts and maximum sustained winds averaged over a 10 @-@ minute interval . These make direct comparisons between basins difficult .
Within all basins tropical cyclones are named when the sustained winds hit 35 kn ( 40 mph ; 65 km / h )
= = Background = =
Tropical cyclones are defined as being warm cored , non @-@ frontal synoptic cyclones , that develop over tropical or subtropical waters , with organized atmospheric convection and have a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation . They are classified by the wind speeds located around the circulation centre and are ranked , by the World Meteorological Organisation 's Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers on one of five tropical cyclone scales . The scale used for a particular tropical cyclone depends on what basin the system is located in ; with for example the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale and the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scales both used in the Western Hemisphere . All of the scales rank tropical cyclones using their maximum sustained winds , which are either observed , measured or estimated using various techniques , over a period between one and ten minutes .
= = Atlantic , Eastern and Central Pacific = =
Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere to the east of the anti @-@ meridian , are officially monitored by either the National Hurricane Center or the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined to be a warm cored , non @-@ frontal synoptic cyclone , that develops over tropical or subtropical waters , with organized atmospheric convection and a closed well defined circulation centre . The region also defines a subtropical cyclone as a non @-@ frontal low pressure system , that has the characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones . Once either of these classifications are met then the warning centers will classify the system as either a tropical or subtropical depression , if the one @-@ minute sustained winds estimated or measured as less than 33 kn ( 38 mph ; 62 km / h ) . Should the system intensify further or already have one @-@ minute sustained winds of 34 – 63 kn ( 39 – 73 mph ; 63 – 118 km / h ) , then it will be called either a tropical or subtropical storm and assigned a name . Should the tropical system further intensify and have winds estimated or measured , as greater than 64 kn ( 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) , then it will be called a hurricane and classified on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . The lowest classification on the SSHWS is a Category 1 hurricane , which has winds of between 64 – 82 kn ( 74 – 95 mph , 119 – 153 km / h ) . Should the hurricane intensify further then it will be rated as a Category 2 hurricane , if it has winds of between 83 – 95 kn ( 96 – 110 mph , 154 – 177 km / h ) . When a system becomes a Category 3 hurricane with winds of between 96 – 112 kn ( 111 – 129 mph , 178 – 208 km / h ) , it is considered to be a major hurricane by the warning centers . A Category 4 hurricane has winds of 113 – 136 kn ( 130 – 156 mph , 209 – 251 km / h ) , while a Category 5 hurricane has winds of above 137 kn ( 157 mph , 252 km / h ) .
The SSHS was originally created using both wind speed and storm surge , but since the relationship between wind speed and storm surge is not necessarily definite , the scale was changed to the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) , based entirely on wind speed .
Although increasing echelons of the scale correspond to stronger winds , the rankings are not absolute in terms of effects . Lower @-@ category storms can inflict greater damage than higher @-@ category storms , depending on factors such as local terrain , population density and total rainfall . For instance , a Category 2 that strikes a major urban area will likely do more damage than a large Category 5 hurricane that strikes a mostly rural region . In fact , tropical systems of less than hurricane strength can produce significant damage and human casualties , especially from flooding and landslides .
Historically , the term great hurricane was used to describe storms that possessed winds of at least 110 kn ( 125 mph ; 200 km / h ) , large radii ( over 160 km / 100 mi ) and that caused large amounts of destruction . This term fell into disuse after the introduction of the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale in the early 1970s .
A minor change to the scale was made ahead of the 2012 hurricane season , with the wind speeds for categories 3 @-@ 5 tweaked to eliminate the rounding errors , that had occurred during previous seasons when a hurricane had wind speeds of 115 kn ( 130 mph ; 215 km / h ) .
= = Western Pacific = =
Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere between the anti @-@ meridian and 100 ° E , are officially monitored by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA , RSMC Tokyo ) . Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined to be a non @-@ frontal synoptic scale cyclone originating over tropical or sub @-@ tropical waters , with organized convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation . The lowest classification used by the Typhoon Committee is a tropical depression , which has 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of less than 33 kn ( 17 m / s ; 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) . Should the tropical depression intensify further it is named and classified as a tropical storm , which has winds speeds between 33 – 47 kn ( 17 – 24 m / s ; 38 – 54 mph ; 61 – 87 km / h ) . Should the system continue to intensify further then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm , which has winds speeds between 48 – 63 kn ( 25 – 32 m / s ; 55 – 72 mph ; 89 – 117 km / h ) . The highest classification on the Typhoon Committees scale is a typhoon , which has winds speeds greater than 64 kn ( 33 m / s ; 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) .
The China Meteorological Administration , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) , PAGASA and the JMA , all divide the typhoon category further for domestic purposes . The JMA divides the typhoon category into three categories , with a 10 @-@ minute maximum wind speed below 84 kn ( 43 m / s ; 97 mph ; 156 km / h ) assigned for the ( strong ) typhoon category . A very strong typhoon has wind speeds between 85 – 104 kn ( 44 – 54 m / s ; 98 – 120 mph ; 157 – 193 km / h ) , while a violent typhoon has wind speeds of 105 kn ( 54 m / s ; 121 mph ; 194 km / h ) or greater . The HKO and the CMA also divide the typhoon category into three categories , with both assigning a maximum wind speed of 80 kn ( 41 m / s ; 92 mph ; 150 km / h ) to the typhoon category . A severe typhoon has wind speeds of 85 – 104 kn ( 44 – 54 m / s ; 98 – 120 mph ; 157 – 193 km / h ) , while a super typhoon has winds of 100 kn ( 51 m / s ; 120 mph ; 190 km / h ) . During May 2015 PAGASA introduced the term Super Typhoon and used it for systems with winds greater than 120 kn ( 62 m / s ; 140 mph ; 220 km / h ) .
In addition to the National Meteorological Services of each nation the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Centre monitors the basin , and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones for the United States Government . These warnings use a 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , however , the JTWC use their own scale for intensity classifications in this basin . These classifications are Tropical Depression , Tropical Storm , Typhoon and Super Typhoon . In addition , the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau has its own scale in Chinese but uses the Typhoon Committee scale in English .
= = North Indian Ocean = =
Any tropical cyclone that develops within the North Indian Ocean between 100 ° E and 45 ° E is monitored by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD , RSMC New Delhi ) . Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined as being a non frontal synoptic scale cyclone , that originates over tropical or subtropical waters with organized convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation . The lowest official classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Depression , which has 3 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of between 17 – 27 kn ( 20 – 31 mph ; 31 – 49 km / h ) . Should the depression intensify further then it will become a Deep Depression , which has winds between 28 – 33 kn ( 32 – 38 mph ; 50 – 61 km / h ) . The system will be classified as a cyclonic storm and assigned a name by the IMD , if it should develop gale force wind speeds of between 34 – 47 kn ( 39 – 54 mph ; 62 – 88 km / h ) . Severe Cyclonic Storms have storm force wind speeds of between 48 – 63 kn ( 55 – 72 mph ; 89 – 117 km / h ) , while Very Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane @-@ force winds of 64 – 89 kt ( 73 – 102 mph ; 118 – 166 km / h ) . Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane @-@ force winds of 90 – 119 kn ( 166 – 221 km / h , 104 – 137 mph ) . The highest classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Super Cyclonic Storm , which have hurricane @-@ force winds of above 120 kn ( 138 mph ; 222 km / h ) .
Historically , a system has been classified as a depression if it is an area where the barometric pressure is low compared with its surroundings . Other classifications historically used include : cyclonic storm where the winds did not exceed force 10 on the Beaufort scale and a Cyclone where the winds are either force 11 and 12 on the Beaufort scale . Between 1924 and 1988 , tropical cyclones were classified into four categories : depression , deep depression , cyclonic storms and severe cyclonic storms . However , a change was made during 1988 to introduce the category " severe cyclonic storm with core of hurricane winds " for tropical cyclones , with wind speeds of more than 64 kn ( 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) . During 1999 the categories Very Severe Cyclonic Storm and Super Cyclonic Storm were introduced , while the severe cyclonic storm with a core of hurricane winds category was eliminated . During 2015 another modification to the intensity scale took place , with the IMD calling a system with 3 @-@ minute maximum sustained wind speeds between 90 – 119 kn ( 166 – 221 km / h , 104 – 137 mph ) : an extremely severe cyclonic storm . The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Centre also monitors the basin , and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . These warnings use a 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , however , regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones .
= = South @-@ Western Indian Ocean = =
Any tropical cyclone that develops within the Southern Hemisphere between Africa and 90 ° E is monitored by Meteo France 's La Reunion tropical cyclone centre ( MFR , RSMC La Reunion ) . Within the region a tropical disturbance is defined to be a non @-@ frontal synoptic scale low pressure area , originating over tropical or sub @-@ tropical waters with organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation with the average wind speed estimated to be not exceeding 27 knots ( 50 km / h ) ) .
A tropical disturbance is MFR 's generic term for a non @-@ frontal area of low pressure that has organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation . The system should be estimated to have wind speeds of less than 28 knots ( 50 km / h , 32 mph ) .
A system is designated as a tropical depression or a subtropical depression when it reaches wind speeds above 28 knots ( 50 km / h , 32 mph ) . Should a tropical depression reach wind speeds of 35 knots ( 65 km / h , 40 mph ) then it will be classified as a moderate tropical storm and assigned a name by either the Sub Regional Center in Mauritius or Madagascar . No matter how strong a subtropical system is in this basin , it is always designated as a subtropical depression .
Should the named storm intensify further and reach winds speeds of 48 knots ( 89 km / h , 55 mph ) , then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm . A severe tropical storm is designated as a tropical cyclone when it reaches wind speeds of 64 knots ( 118 km / h , 74 mph ) . Should a tropical cyclone intensify further and reach wind speeds of 90 knots ( 166 km / h , 103 mph ) , it will be classified as an intense tropical cyclone . A very intense tropical cyclone is the highest category on the South @-@ West Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone scale , and has winds of over 115 knots ( 212 km / h , 132 mph ) .
At the tenth RA I tropical cyclone committee held during 1991 , it was recommended that the intensity classifications be changed ahead of the 1993 @-@ 94 tropical cyclone season . Specifically it was decided that the classifications : Weak Tropical Depression , Moderate Tropical Depression and Severe Tropical Depression would be changed to Tropical Depression , Moderate Tropical Storm and Severe Tropical Storm . This change was implemented ahead of the 1993 @-@ 94 tropical cyclone season . The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Centre also monitors the basin , and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . These warnings use a 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , however , regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones .
= = Australia and Fiji = =
Tropical cyclones that occur within the Southern Hemisphere to the east of 90 ° E , are officially monitored by one or more tropical cyclone warning centres . These are run by the Fiji Meteorological Service , New Zealand 's MetService , Indonesia 's Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi dan Geofisika , Papua New Guinea 's National Weather Service , while three others are run by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined as being a non @-@ frontal low pressure system of synoptic scale that develops over warm waters , with a definite organized wind circulation and 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 34 kn ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) or greater near the centre . Once this definition has been met then all of the centres name the system and start to use the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , which measures tropical cyclones using a five category system based on 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds . A Category 1 tropical cyclone is estimated to have 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 34 – 47 kn ( 39 – 54 mph ; 63 – 87 km / h ) , while a Category 2 tropical cyclone is estimated to have 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 48 – 63 kn ( 55 – 72 mph ; 89 – 117 km / h ) . When a system becomes a Category 3 tropical cyclone it is reclassified as a Severe tropical cyclone and has wind speeds of 64 – 85 kn ( 74 – 98 mph ; 119 – 157 km / h ) . A Category 4 severe tropical cyclone has winds of 86 – 110 kn ( 99 – 130 mph ; 157 – 200 km / h ) , while the maximum rating a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone has winds of above 110 kn ( 130 mph ; 200 km / h ) .
For systems below tropical cyclone strength there are various terms used , including Tropical Disturbance , Tropical Low and Tropical Depression . A tropical disturbance is defined as being a non — frontal system of synoptic scale originating over the tropics , with persistent enhanced convection and / or some indication of a circulation . A tropical depression or tropical low is a disturbance with a defined circulation , where the central position can be estimated , and the maximum 10 @-@ minute average wind speed is less than 34 kn ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) near the centre . The FMS numbers these systems when they have a potential to develop into a tropical cyclone or persist to cause significant impact to life and property , within its area of responsibility and have been analysed for the previous 24 hours . The Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale was introduced by the BoM , ahead of the 1989 @-@ 90 cyclone season . The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Centre also monitors the basin , and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . These warnings use a 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , however , regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones .
= = Alternative scales = =
There are other scales that are not officially used by any of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres or the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres . However they are used by other organizations , such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . An example of such scale is the Integrated Kinetic Energy index , which measures the destructive potential of the storm surge ; it works on a scale that ranges from one to six , with six having the highest destructive potential .
Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) is used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and other agencies to express the activity of individual tropical cyclones that are above tropical storm strength and entire tropical cyclone seasons . It is calculated by taking the squares of the estimated maximum sustained velocity of every active tropical storm ( wind speed 35 knots or higher ) at six @-@ hour intervals . The numbers are usually divided by 10 @,@ 000 to make them more manageable . The unit of ACE is 104 kn2 , and for use as an index the unit is assumed . As well as being squared for ACE , wind speed can also be cubed , which is referred to as the Power Dissipation Index ( PDI ) .
The Hurricane Severity Index ( HSI ) is another scale used and rates the severity of all types of tropical and subtropical cyclones based on both the intensity and the size of their wind fields . The HSI is a 0 to 50 point scale , allotting up to 25 points for a Tropical cyclone 's intensity and up to 25 points for wind field size . Points are awarded on a sliding scale , with the majority of points reserved for hurricane force and greater wind fields .
= = Comparisons across basins = =
The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another . Below is a summary of the classifications used by the official warning centres worldwide .
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= The Decay of Fiction =
The Decay of Fiction is a 2002 American 35mm part color and part black @-@ and @-@ white experimental film noir project directed by independent filmmaker and artist Pat O 'Neill . The film , initially conceived as a documentary , was produced by O 'Neill and Rebecca Hartzell for Lookout Mountain Films . Filming took place in Los Angeles .
The film is set at the site of the old Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles . It has no identifiable plot and features no recurring characters . An estimated budget of $ 250 @,@ 000 was put forth to fund the film and it took eight years to complete . It premiered on October 12 , 2002 , at the New York Film Festival . The film has also been screened at six other film festivals and at eight non @-@ festival exhibitions . It received generally favorable reviews . Multiple critics commented on the film 's visual appeal .
= = Production = =
The movie was directed by filmmaker Pat O 'Neill and produced by O 'Neill and Rebecca Hartzell . O 'Neill turned the historic Ambassador Hotel of Los Angeles into a haunted mansion full of specters using a mixture of " 35mm location shooting and a digital overlay " . He worked with 45 actors and took eight years to complete his film . It has been described as the most complicated of O 'Neill 's works to that date . O 'Neill has said that it was " a huge bust financially " ; it was made on an estimated US $ 250 @,@ 000 budget . Pat O 'Neill mentioned the film as early as 1997 in an interview with David James . It was then referred to as the " Ambassador film " and called a " documentary " . While still a work in progress , excerpts were shown at the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art 's Ahmanson Theatre in September 2002 .
= = Storyline = =
According to O 'Neill , the film is an " intersection of fact and hallucination " . It is set inside the decaying halls of the closed Ambassador Hotel , former home to the Cocoanut Grove restaurant and the first Academy Awards ceremonies . The film superimposes reenactments of classic Hollywood films onto shots of the dilapidated establishment , with ghostly gangsters and their gun molls interacting with icy blondes and wisecracking bartenders in carefully deconstructed snatches of dialogue . O 'Neill 's time @-@ lapse photography lends the film an ethereal effect that serves an intentionally distancing purpose . In this study of the historic Hollywood edifice , there is no discernible plot and there are no recurring characters . The film construction has the appearance of snippets taken from lost films of the 1940s ; it uses surreal vignettes of nude men and women , stop @-@ motion animated mannequin torsos , flickering film projections and dim light bulbs to create what devolves in a sense of nightmares , giving a result that feels more like an art installation than the expected film .
When displayed in museum exhibitions , the interactive DVD installation is called Tracing the Decay of Fiction . The presentation is shown in a continuous loop and allows museum patrons to explore the narrative and create their own stories .
= = Cast = =
= = Screenings and release = =
= = = Festivals = = =
The Decay of Fiction had its festival premiere screening on October 12 , 2002 , at the New York Film Festival . Subsequent festival screenings include :
International Film Festival Rotterdam ( 2003 )
San Francisco International Film Festival ( 2003 ) . Shown with O 'Neill 's earlier films Squirtgun / Step Print ( 1998 ) and Coreopsis ( 1998 )
Wisconsin Film Festival ( 2003 )
Philadelphia Film Festival ( 2003 )
Athens International Film Festival as I parakmi tis mythoplasias ( 2003 )
London Film Festival ( 2003 )
= = = Exhibitions = = =
The film had its non @-@ festival premiere at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles in 2003 and showcased in 2003 at Kiasma , a contemporary art museum in Helsinki , Finland . Later exhibitions include :
Art Gallery of Ontario , Toronto , Canada ( 2003 ) . Shown with Bump City ( 1964 ) and Runs Good ( 1970 ) as part of a retrospective of O 'Neill 's work .
Santa Monica Museum of Art 's Bergamot Station exhibition " Views from Lookout Mountain " ( 2004 ) .
Nelson @-@ Atkins Museum of Art , Kansas City , Missouri ( 2005 )
Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona , Spain ( 2005 ) . Shown with Catalan language subtitles .
Echo Park Film Center , Los Angeles as part of their June " filmmobile " program . ( 2010 )
Museum of the Moving Image , New York City ( 2012 ) . Shown August through October as part of the " Film After Film " exhibition .
= = Reception = =
Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating in the 0 – 100 range based on reviews from top mainstream critics , calculated an average score of 74 based on 6 reviews , indicating " generally favorable " reaction . Based on 7 reviews collected by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film received an 86 % approval rating , with an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . Deborah Young of Variety commented that " The attention given to constructing each shot makes for a hypnotic visual experience , while lack of a progressive narrative telescopes film 's running time into infinity . " Brian McKay of eFilmCritic.com gave the film 3 stars and summed up his review saying of the film " [ While it ] is a visually intriguing piece , it also ends up being highly repetitious and overlong . " The Village Voice praised the filmmaker for allowing the Ambassador Hotel , used many times previously as a film set , to represent itself and its own history . In their review wrote " In its abstract movie @-@ ness , O 'Neill 's 73 @-@ minute fantasia exudes a wistful longing to connect , not so much with Hollywood history as with the history of that history " .
Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine felt that " [ t ] he film 's superimpositions , movie @-@ dialogue samples , and audio @-@ visual burps collectively suggest an acid trip , and as such will have a different disorienting effect on everyone who picks up its frequency " . Jonathan Rosenbaum of Chicago Reader called the film a " treasure chest of narrative fragments " which " lacks the itinerary and ' instructions for use ' that automatically comes with a linear story . " He offered that the threads of the various " implied " plot lines are a result " of O 'Neill 's all @-@ encompassing sense of form , which for better or worse is conceptual rather than technical or material " and wrote that the film evoked both Last Year at Marienbad ( 1961 ) and The Shining ( 1980 ) , but that " it doesn 't quite live up to the high standards " set by those earlier films . He concluded that while the film " seeps into one 's bones with a chilling conviction and leaves behind a poignant aftertaste " , the film 's lack of linear narrative makes its totality " less brilliant than its parts — despite the meditative possibilities that its nonlinearity offers . "
TV Guide reviewer Maitland McDonagh gave The Decay of Fiction nearly full marks ( 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 ) , saying that the result of the film was " hypnotic " . Time Out London 's film reviewer considered the film to be " all very elegant , teasing and occasionally haunting , but it does wear a little thin at times . " J. Hoberman wrote in his 2012 book Film After Film : ( Or , What Became of 21st Century Cinema ? ) that O 'Neill " spectrally populated the abandoned Ambassador Hotel " with his film . Doug Harvey of LA Weekly called the film " his most accomplished hybrid to date , superimposing intricately choreographed actors going through vague but archetypal film noir routines on top of gorgeous full @-@ color time @-@ lapse footage of the entropy @-@ shredded Ambassador Hotel " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times found the film to be an entertaining " luminous Hollywood ghost story " , and offered that if more experimental films were as entertaining , " the notion of a thriving avant @-@ garde cinema might not be so intimidating to the moviegoing public . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Hymns for the Amusement of Children =
Hymns for the Amusement of Children ( 1771 ) was the final work completed by English poet Christopher Smart . It was completed while Smart was imprisoned for outstanding debt at the King 's Bench Prison , and the work is his final exploration of religion . Although Smart spent a large portion of his life in and out of debt , he was unable to survive his time in the prison and died soon after completing the Hymns .
Smart 's Hymns are one of the first works of hymns dedicated to children , and they are intended to teach Christian virtues . Unlike some of the other works produced by Smart after his release from a mental asylum , such as A Song to David or Hymns and Spiritual Songs , this work was a success and went into many immediate editions . Part of the success of this work lies in the simplicity and accessibility of the text . However , Smart died before he ever saw the proceeds of the work and never learned of the book 's success .
= = Background = =
Smart was released from asylum in 1763 and published two religious works , A Song to David and Hymn and Spiritual Songs , soon after . These were quickly attacked by critics that declared Smart was still " mad " and subsequently failed to become popular . Smart continued to work on religious works as he struggled to publish and support himself . However , he quickly fell into debt and , on 20 April 1770 , he was arrested and sent to Debtors ' prison .
On January 11 , 1771 , he was recommended to the King 's Bench Prison . Although he was in prison , Charles Burney purchased the " Rules " ( allowing him some freedom ) in order to help make Smart 's final weeks peaceful although pathetic . In his final letter , written to Rev. Mr. Jackson , Smart begged for three shillings in order to purchase food . Soon after , Smart died , May 20 , 1771 , from either liver failure or pneumonia , after completing his final work , Hymns , for the Amusement of Children .
It is unknown how many poems published in the Hymns were written before Smart was imprisoned or during his final days , but at least one , titled " Against Despair " was produced during this time . A different version of the poem was published after his death in the Gentleman 's Magazine . This version included a note claiming , " Extempore by the late C. Smart , in the King 's @-@ Bench , " which verifies that he was writing hymns throughout this time , or , at least , editing them to create a better version .
Although five editions of the Hymns were published in the 18th century , only one edition was published before Smart died . This edition was published by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Carnan , and was announced in the Public Advertiser 27 December 1770 . However , this edition did not list Smart as the author . It is possible that there was a sixth edition of the Hymns , but that has since " disappeared " ; there is also a possible pirated edition produced by Thomas Walker . Although the work made it as far as Boston , Massachusetts , as shown by an advertisement for selling the work in 1795 , no Boston editions have been found , but such editions could exist in addition to the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania edition .
Smart 's first children 's hymn was " A Morning Hymn , for all the little good boys and girls " in the Lilliputian Magazine in 1751 . During this time , there were only two models for him to base his children 's hymns on : the works of Isaac Watts and of Charles Wesley . Watts 's work attempted to amuse children while Wesley 's attempted to simplify morality for them . It is possible that Smart 's Hymns were not modelled on Watts 's or Wesley 's actual hymns or songs , but instead after a note in Watts 's work the Divine Songs which says :
A Slight Specimen of Moral Songs , such as I wish some happy and condescending genius would undertake for the use of children , and perform much better ... The sense and subjects might be borrow 'd plentifully from the Proverbs of Solomon , from all the common appearances of nature , from all the occurrences in the civil life , both in city and country : ( which would also afford matter for other Divine Songs . ) Here the language and measures should be easy and flowing with chearfulness , and without the solemnities of religion , or the sacred names of God and holy things ; that children might find delight and profit together .
The work was dedicated " to his Royal Highness Prince Frederick , Bishop of Osnabrug , these hymns , composed for his amusement , are , with all due Submission and Respect , humbly inscribed to him , as the best of Bishops , by his Royal Highness 's Most Obedient and Devoted Servant , Christopher Smart . " Although the prince , the second son of King George III , was only seven at the time , Smart was given special permission to dedicate the work to the boy through the intervention with the royal family by either Richard Dalton or the King 's Chaplain , William Mason .
= = Hymns for the Amusement of Children = =
In essence , the Hymns for the Amusement of Children is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work . While trying to accomplish this goal , Smart emphasizes the joy of creation and Christ 's sacrifice that allowed for future salvation . However , he didn 't just try to spread joy , but structured his poems to treat valuable lessons about morality ; his subjects begin with the three Theological Virtues ( Faith , Hope , and Charity ) , then the four Cardinal Virtues ( Prudence , Justice , Temperance , and Fortitude ) and adds Mercy . The next six hymns deal with Christian duties and are followed by ten hymns on the Gospels . The final works introduce the miscellaneous Christian virtues that were necessary to complete Christopher 's original self @-@ proclaimed " plan to make good girls and boys . "
All but three of the hymns were provided with a corresponding woodblock illustration . The original illustrations either represented the scene of the hymn or a symbolic representation of the hymn . However , later editions of the work sometimes included illustrations that did not match the corresponding hymn , which was the fault of " a general deterioration of standards in book production " . With such possibilities , it is hard to justify an exact relationship between any particular hymn and illustration .
There are thirty @-@ nine hymns included in Hymns for the Amusement of Children :
= = = Mirth = = =
Besides the hymns that are " expected " in a book of hymns , Arthur Sherbo points out that the collection contains hymns " on learning and on ' good @-@ nature to animals ' . " In particular , he emphasizes Hymn XXV " Mirth " as " showing anew the love for flowers that is a recurring characteristic of his poetry " as it reads :
If you are merry sing away ,
And touch the organs sweet ;
This is the Lord 's triumphant day ,
Ye children in the gall 'ries gay ,
Shout from each goodly seat .
It shall be May to @-@ morrow 's morn ,
A field then let us run ,
And deck us in the blooming thorn ,
Soon as the cock begins to warn ,
And long before the sun .
I give the praise to Christ alone ,
My pinks already shew ;
And my streak 'd roses fully blown ,
The sweetness of the Lord make known ,
And to his glory grow .
To Sherbo , this poem is " a good example of the artless quality " of the whole collection of Hymns .
= = = Long @-@ Suffering of God = = =
According to Moira Dearnley , Hymn XXIX " Long @-@ Suffering of God " is " one of the more pathetic poems in Hymns for the Amusement of Children . " As a poem , it " restates Smart 's certainty that the long @-@ suffering God will eventually bestow his grace upon the barren human soul " as it reads :
Thus man goes on from year to year ,
And bears no fruit at all ;
But gracious God , still unsevere ,
Bids show 'rs of blessing fall .
The beams of mercy , dews of grace ,
Our Saviour still supplies-
Ha ! ha ! the soul regains her place ,
And sweetens all the skies .
This final poem fittingly ends in " manic exultation " and shows " that for Smart , presentiments of the grace and mercy of God were inseparable from madness . "
= = = The Conclusion of the Matter = = =
Smart 's final poem of the work , XXXIX " The Conclusion of the Matter " , demonstrates to Neil Curry that the " joy and optimism of [ Smart ] are unwavering . " Smart " does not look back , he looks forward and the sequence ends on a note of triumph " as it reads :
Fear God - obey his just decrees ,
And do it hand , and heart , and knees ;
For after all our utmost care
There 's nought like penitence and prayer .
Then weigh the balance in your mind ,
Look forward , not one glance behind ;
Let no foul fiend retard your pace ,
Hosanna ! Thou hast won the race .
However , as Curry claims , " in this world Smart himself had won nothing . " Instead , Curry believes what Christopher Hunter stated about his uncle : " I trust he is now at peace ; it was not his portion here . "
= = Critical response = =
Although he wrote his second set of hymns , Hymns for the Amusement of Children , for a younger audience , Smart cares more about emphasizing the need for children to be moral instead of " innocent " . These works have been seen as possibly too complicated for " amusement " because they employ ambiguities and complicated theological concepts . In particular , Mark Booth questions " why , in this carefully polished writing .... are the lines sometimes relatively hard to read for their paraphrasable sense ? " Arthur Sherbo disagreed with this sentiment strongly and claims the Hymns " are more than mere hack work , tossed off with speed and indifference . They were written when Smart was in prison and despairing of rescue . Into these poems , some of them of a bare simplicity and naiveté that have few equals in literature of merit anywhere ... " However , he does admit some of the argument when he claims that " Generosity " , along with a handful other hymns , was " not so simple and surely proved too much for the children for whom they were bought . "
Not all critics agree that the work is too complex for children , and some , like Marcus Walsh and Karina Williamson , view that the works would have fit the appropriate level for children in the 18th century , especially with the short length of each hymn and a small illustration of the scene proceeding each one . This is not to say that the works are " simple " , because many words are complex , but , as Donald Davie explains , there is a " naiveté " in the work that allow them to be understood . In particular , Moira Dearnley claims that the hymns contain a " high @-@ spirited delight in the day @-@ to @-@ day life of children , the joy that characterizes the best the Hymns for the Amusement of Children . "
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= Naraka ( Hinduism ) =
Naraka ( Sanskrit : नरक ) is the Hindu equivalent of Hell , where sinners are tormented after death . It is also the abode of Yama , the god of Death . It is described as located in the south of the universe and beneath the earth .
The number and names of hells , as well as the type of sinners sent to a particular hell , varies from text to text ; however , many scriptures describe 28 hells . After death , messengers of Yama called Yamadutas bring all beings to the court of Yama , where he weighs the virtues and the vices of the being and passes a judgement , sending the virtuous to Svarga ( heaven ) and the sinners to one of the hells . The stay in Svarga or Naraka is generally described as temporary . After the quantum of punishment is over , the souls are reborn as lower or higher beings as per their merits . In a few texts , a hell is described as a bottomless pit of darkness where souls are trapped for eternity and deprived of rebirth .
= = Location = =
The Bhagavata Purana describes Naraka as beneath the earth : between the seven realms of the underworld ( Patala ) and the Garbhodaka Ocean , which is the bottom of the universe . It is located in the South of the universe . Pitrloka , where the dead ancestors ( Pitrs ) headed by Agniṣvāttā reside , is also located in this region . Yama , the Lord of Naraka , resides in this realm with his assistants . The Devi Bhagavata Purana mentions that Naraka is the southern part of universe , below the earth but above Patala . The Vishnu Purana mentions that it is located below the cosmic waters at the bottom of the universe . The Hindu epics too agree that Naraka is located in the South , the direction which is governed by Yama and is often associated with Death . Pitrloka is considered as the capital of Yama , from where Yama delivers his justice .
= = Administration = =
The god of Death , Yama , employs Yama @-@ dutas ( messengers of Yama ) or Yama @-@ purushas , who bring souls of all beings to Yama for judgement . Generally , all living beings , including humans and animals , go to Yama 's abode upon death where they are judged . However , very virtuous beings are taken directly to Svarga ( heaven ) . People devoted to charity , especially donors of food , and eternal truth speakers are spared the justice of Yama 's court . War @-@ heroes who sacrifice their life and people dying in holy places like Kurukshetra are also described as avoiding Yama . Those who get moksha ( salvation ) also escape from the clutches of yamadutas . Those who are generous and ascetics are given preferential treatment when entering Naraka for judgement . The way is lighted for those who donated lamps , while those who underwent religious fasting are carried by peacocks and geese .
Yama , as Lord of Justice , is called Dharma @-@ raja . Yama sends the virtuous to Svarga to enjoy the luxuries of paradise . He also assesses the vices of the dead and accords judgement , assigning them to appropriate hells as punishment commensurate with the severity and nature of their sins . A person is not freed of samsara ( the cycle of birth @-@ death @-@ rebirth ) and must take birth again after his prescribed pleasure in Svarga or punishment in Naraka is over .
Yama is aided by his minister Chitragupta , who maintains a record of all good and evil actions of every living being . Yama @-@ dhutas are also assigned the job of executing the punishments on sinners in the various hells .
= = Number and names = =
Naraka , as a whole , is known by many names conveying that it is the realm of Yama . Yamālaya , Yamaloka , Yamasādana and Yamalokāya mean the abode of Yama . Yamakṣaya ( the akṣaya of Yama ) and its equivalents like Vaivasvatakṣaya use pun for the word kṣaya , which can be mean abode or destruction . It is also called Saṃyamanī , " where only truth is spoken , and the weak torment the strong " , Mṛtyulokāya – the world of Death or of the dead and the " city of the king of ghosts " , Pretarājapura .
The Agni Purana mentions only 4 hells . Some texts mention 7 hells : Put ( " childless " , for the childless ) , Avichi ( " waveless " , for those waiting for reincarnation ) , Samhata ( " abandoned " , for evil beings ) , Tamisra ( " darkness " , where darkness of hells begin ) , Rijisha ( " expelled " , where torments of hell begin ) , Kudmala ( " leprous " , the worst hell for those who are going to be reincarnated ) and Kakola ( " black poison " , the bottomless pit , for those who are eternally condemned to hell and have no chance of reincarnation ) .
The Manu Smriti mentions 21 hells : Tamisra , Andhatamisra , Maharaurava , Raurava , Kalasutra , Mahanaraka , Samjivana , Mahavichi , Tapana , Sampratapana , Samhata , Sakakola , Kudmala , Putimrittika , Lohasanku , Rijisha , Pathana , Vaitarani , Salmali , Asipatravana and Lohadaraka . The Yajnavalkya Smriti also lists twenty @-@ one : Tamisra , Lohasanku , Mahaniraya , Salamali , Raurava , Kudmala , Putimrittika , Kalasutraka , Sanghata , Lohitoda , Savisha , Sampratapana , Mahanaraka , Kakola , Sanjivana , Mahapatha , Avichi , Andhatamisra , Kumbhipaka , Asipatravana and Tapana .
The Bhagavata Purana , the Vishnu Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana enlist and describe 28 hells ; however , they end the description by stating that there are hundreds and thousands of hells . The Bhagavata Purana enumerates the following 28 : Tamisra , Andhatamisra , Raurava , Maharaurava , Kumbhipaka , Kalasutra , Asipatravana , Sukaramukha , Andhakupa , Krimibhojana , Samdamsa , Taptasurmi , Vajrakantaka @-@ salmali , Vaitarani , Puyoda , Pranarodha , Visasana , Lalabhaksa , Sarameyadana , Avichi , Ayahpana , Ksharakardama , Raksogana @-@ bhojana , Sulaprota , Dandasuka , Avata @-@ nirodhana , Paryavartana and Suchimukha . The Devi Bhagavata Purana agrees with the Bhagavata Purana in most of names ; however , a few names are slightly different . Taptasurmi , Ayahpana , Raksogana @-@ bhojana , Avata @-@ nirodhana , Paryavartana are replaced by Taptamurti , Apahpana , Raksogana @-@ sambhoja , Avatarodha , Paryavartanataka respectively . The Vishnu Purana mentions the 28 in the following order : Raurava , Shukara , Rodha , Tala , Visasana , Mahajwala , Taptakumbha , Lavana , Vimohana , Rudhirandha , Vaitaraní , Krimiśa , Krimibhojana , Asipatravana , Krishna , Lalabhaksa , Dáruńa , Púyaváha , Pápa , Vahnijwála , Adhośiras , Sandansa , Kalasutra , Tamas , Avichi , Śwabhojana , Apratisht ́ ha , and another Avichi .
= = Description of hells = =
Early texts like the Rigveda do not have a detailed description of Naraka . It is simply a place of evil and a dark bottomless pit . The Atharvaveda describes a realm of darkness , where murderers are confined after death . The Shatapatha Brahmana is the first text to mention the pain and suffering of Naraka in detail , while the Manu Smriti begins naming the multiple hells . The epics also describe Hell in general terms as a dense jungle without shade , where there is no water and no rest . The Yamadutas torment souls on the orders of their master .
The names of many of hells is common in Hindu texts ; however , the nature of sinners tormented in particular hells varies from text to text .
The summary of twenty @-@ eight hells described in the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana are as follows :
Tamisra ( darkness ) : It is intended for a person who grabs another 's wealth , wife or children . In this dark realm , he is bound with ropes and starved without food or water . He is beaten and reproached by Yamadutas till he faints .
Andhatamisra ( blind @-@ darkness ) : Here , a man – who deceives another man and enjoys his wife or children – is tormented to the extent he loses his consciousness and sight . The torture is described as cutting the tree at its roots .
Raurava ( fearful or hell of rurus ) : As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana , it is assigned for a person who cares about his own and his family 's good , but harms other living beings and is always envious of others . The living beings hurt by such a man take the form of savage serpent @-@ like beasts called rurus and torture this person . The Vishnu Purana deems this hell fit for a false witness or one who lies .
Maharaurava ( great @-@ fearful ) : A person who indulges at the expense of other beings is afflicted with pain by fierce rurus called kravyadas , who eat his flesh .
Kumbhipaka ( cooked in a pot ) : A person who cooks animals and birds is cooked alive in boiling oil by Yamadutas here , for as many years as there were hairs on the bodies of their animal victims .
Kalasutra ( thread of Time / Death ) : The Bhagavata Purana assigns this hell to a murderer of a brahmin ( the Hindu priestly caste ) , while the Devi Bhagavata Purana allocates it for a person who disrespects his parents , elders , ancestors or brahmins . This realm is made entirely of copper and extremely hot , heated by fire from below and the red hot sun from above . Here , the sinner burns from within by hunger and thirst and the smouldering heat outside , whether he sleeps , sits , stands or runs .
Asipatravana / Asipatrakanana ( forest of sword leaves ) : The Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana reserve this hell for a person who digresses from the religious teachings of the Vedas and indulges in heresy . The Vishnu Purana states that wanton tree @-@ felling leads to this hell . Yamadutas beat them with whips as they try to run away in the forest where palm trees have swords as leaves . Afflicted with injury of whips and swords , they faint and cry out for help in vain .
Shukaramukha ( hog 's mouth ) : It houses kings or government officials who punish the innocent or grant corporal punishment to a Brahmin . Yamadutas crush him as sugar cane is crushed to extract juice . He will yell and scream in agony , just as the guiltless suffered .
Andhakupa ( well with its mouth hidden ) : It is the hell where a person who harms others with the intention of malice and harms insects is confined . He is attacked by birds , animals , reptiles , mosquitoes , lice , worms , flies and others , who deprive him of rest and compel him to run hither and thither .
Krimibhojana / Krimibhaksha ( worm @-@ food ) : As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana , it is where a person who does not share his food with guests , elders , children or the gods , and selfishly eats it alone , and he who eats without performing the five yajnas ( panchayajna ) is chastised . The Vishnu Purana states that one who loathes his father , Brahmins or the gods and who destroys jewels is punished here . This hell is a 100 @,@ 000 yojana lake filled with worms . The sinful person is reduced to a worm , who feeds on other worms , who in turn devour his body for 100 @,@ 000 years .
Sandansa / Sandamsa ( hell of pincers ) : The Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana state that a person who robs a Brahmin or steals jewels or gold from someone , when not in dire need , is confined to this hell . However , the Vishnu Purana tells the violators of vows or rules endure pain here . His body is torn by red @-@ hot iron balls and tongs .
Taptasurmi / Taptamurti ( red @-@ hot iron statue ) : A man or woman who indulges in illicit sexual relations with a woman or man is beaten by whips and forced to embrace red @-@ hot iron figurines of the opposite sex .
Vajrakantaka @-@ salmali ( the silk @-@ cotton tree with thorns like thunderbolts / vajras ) : A person who has sexual intercourse with animals or who has excessive coitus is tied to the Vajrakantaka @-@ salmali tree and pulled by Yamadutas so that the thorns tear his body .
Vaitarni / Vaitarna ( to be crossed ) : It is a river that is believed to lie between Naraka and the earth . This river , which forms the boundary of Naraka , is filled with excreta , urine , pus , blood , hair , nails , bones , marrow , flesh and fat , where fierce aquatic beings eat the person 's flesh . As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana , a person born in a respectable family – kshatriya ( warrior @-@ caste ) , royal family or government official – who neglects his duty is thrown into this river of hell . The Vishnu Purana assigns it to the destroyer of a bee @-@ hive or a town .
Puyoda ( water of pus ) : Shudras ( workmen @-@ caste ) and husbands or sexual partners of lowly women and prostitutes – who live like animals devoid of cleanliness and good behaviour – fall in Puyoda , the ocean of pus , excreta , urine , mucus , saliva and other repugnant things . Here , they are forced to eat these disgusting things .
Pranarodha ( obstruction to life ) : Some Brahmins , Kshatriyas and Vaishyas ( merchant caste ) indulge in the sport of hunting with their dogs and donkeys in the forest , resulting in wanton killing of animals . Yamadutas play archery sport with them as the targets in this hell .
Visashana ( murderous ) : The Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana mention that Yamadutas whip a person , who has pride of his rank and wealth and sacrifices animals as a status symbol , and finally kill him . The Vishnu Purana associates it with the maker of spears , swords , and other weapons .
Lalabhaksa ( saliva as food ) : As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana , a Brahmin , a Ksahtriya or a Vaishya husband , who forces his wife to drink his semen out of lust and to enforce his control , is thrown in a river of semen , which he is forced to drink . The Vishnu Purana disagrees stating that one who eats before offering food to the gods , the ancestors or guests is brought to this hell .
Sarameyadana ( hell of the sons of Sarama ) : Plunderers who burn houses and poison people for wealth , and kings and other government officials who grab money of merchants , mass murder or ruin the nation , are cast into this hell . Seven hundred and twenty ferocious dogs , the sons of Sarama , with razor @-@ sharp teeth , prey on them at the behest of Yamadutas .
Avici / Avicimat ( waterless / waveless ) : A person , who lies on oath or in business , is repeatedly thrown head @-@ first from a 100 yojana high mountain whose sides are stone waves , but without water . His body is continuously broken , but it is made sure that he does not die .
Ayahpana ( iron @-@ drink ) : Anybody else under oath or a Brahmin who drinks alcohol is punished here . Yamadutas stand on their chests and force them to drink molten @-@ iron .
Ksarakardama ( acidic / saline mud / filth ) : One who in false pride , does not honour a person higher than him by birth , austerity , knowledge , behaviour , caste or spiritual order , is tortured in this hell . Yamadutas throw him head @-@ first and torment him .
Raksogana @-@ bhojana ( food of Rakshasas ) : Those who practise human @-@ sacrifice and cannibalism are condemned to this hell . Their victims , in the form of Rakshasas , cut them with sharp knives and swords . The Rakshasas feast on their blood and sing and dance in joy , just as the sinners slaughtered their victims .
Shulaprota ( pierced by sharp pointed spear / dart ) : Some people give shelter to birds or animals pretending to be their saviours , but then harass them poking with threads , needles or using them like lifeless toys . Also , some people behave the same way to humans , winning their confidence and then killing them with sharp tridents or lances . The bodies of such sinners , fatigued with hunger and thirst , are pierced with sharp , needle @-@ like spears . Ferocious carnivorous birds like vultures and herons tear and gorge their flesh .
Dandasuka ( snakes ) : Filled with envy and fury , some people harm others like snakes . These are destined to be devoured by five or seven hooded serpents in this hell .
Avata @-@ nirodhana ( confined in a hole ) : People who imprison others in dark wells , crannies or mountain caves are pushed into this hell , a dark well engulfed with poisonous fumes and smoke that suffocates them .
Paryavartana ( returning ) : A householder who welcomes guests with cruel glances and abuses them is restrained in this hell . Hard @-@ eyed vultures , herons , crows and similar birds gaze on them and suddenly fly and pluck his eyes .
Sucimukha ( needle @-@ face ) : An ever @-@ suspicious man is always wary of people trying to grab his wealth . Proud of his money , he sins to gain and to retain it . Yamadutas stitch thread through his whole body in this hell .
Though the Vishnu Purana mentions 28 hells , it gives information only about sinners condemned in 21 hells and does not give details about the punishments . The hells described in the Vishnu Purana , but not in the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana are as follows :
Rodha ( obstruction ) : A causer of abortion , a murderer of a cow , a plunderer or one who strangles a man is cast here .
Sukara ( hog ) : A murderer of a Brahmin , a stealer of gold or an alcoholic and those all associated with them fall into this hell .
Tala ( padlock ) : Murder of a Kshatriya or a Vaishya and adultery with wife of a religious leader leads here .
Taptakumbha ( hot pots ) : Incest with sister and murderer of an ambassador results in torment in this hell .
Taptaloha ( hot iron ) : A wife @-@ seller , a jailer and one who abandons his followers is tortured here .
Mahajwala ( great @-@ fire ) : Incest with daughter or daughter @-@ in @-@ law brings one here .
Lavana ( salt ) : One who vilifies his guru , people superior to them or the Vedas go to this hell .
Vimohana ( the place of bewildering ) : A thief or those who despise prescribed observances are tormented here .
Krimisha ( hell of insects ) : One who uses magic to harm others is condemned here .
Vedhaka ( piercing ) : The maker of arrows is damned to this hell .
Adhomukha ( head @-@ inverted ) : He who takes bribes , an astrologer and he who worships improper objects is cast here .
Púyaváha ( where matter falls ) : A Brahmin who sells lac , meat , alcohol , salt ; he who commits violence and he who eats sweets without sharing falls in this hell .
Rudhirándha ( wells of blood ) : Wrestlers or boxers who commit violence for entertainment , fishermen , followers of bastards , arsonists , poisoners , informants , fortune @-@ tellers , traitors , those who have coitus on sacred taboo days and those who live off their wives ' prostitution are cast here .
Krishna ( dark / black ) : A fraudster , a trespasser and one who causes impotence is cast into this hell .
Vahnijwala ( fiery flame ) : Potters , hunters and shepherds are punished here .
Shwabhojana ( food of dogs ) : A religious student who sleeps in the day and one who does not have spiritual knowledge and learns it from children are damned here .
= = Narrative , social and economic functions = =
The Hindu religion regards Hell not as a place of lasting permanence , but as an alternate domain from which an individual can return to the present world after crimes in the previous life have been compensated for . These crimes are eventually nullified through an equal punishment in the next life . The concept of Hell has provided many different opportunities for the Hindu religion including narrative , social and economic functions .
= = = Narrative = = =
A narrative rational for the concept of Hell can be found in the Hindu epic , Mahabharata . This narrative ends with Yudhishthira 's visit to hell after being offered acceptance into heaven . This journey creates a scene for the audience that helps illustrate the importance of understanding hell as well as heaven before accepting either extreme . This idea provides an essential lesson regarding Dharma , a primary theme within the Mahabharata . Dharma is not a black and white concept , and all people are not entirely good or entirely evil . As such , tolerance is essential in order to truly understand the “ right way of living ” . We all must understand the worst to truly understand and appreciate the best just as we must experience the best before we can experience the worst . This narrative utilizes the Hindu religion in order to teach lessons on tolerance and acceptance of one another 's faults as well as virtues .
= = = Social = = =
A social rational for the Hindu concept of rebirth in Hell is evident in the metric work of the Manusmrti : a written discourse focused on the “ law of the social classes ” . A large portion of it is designed to help people of the Hindu faith understand evil deeds ( pätaka ) and their karmic consequences in various hellish rebirths . The Manusmrti , however , does not go into explicit detail of each hell . For this we turn to the Bhagavata Purana . The Manusmrti lists multiple levels of hell in which a person can be reborn into . The punishments in each of these consecutive hells is directly related the crimes ( pätaka ) of the current life and how these deeds will effect the next reincarnation during the cycle of Saṃsāra This concept provides structure to society in which crimes have exacting consequences . An opposite social facet to these hellish rebirths is the precise way in which a person can redeem oneself from a particular crime through a series of vows ( such as fasting , water purification rituals , chanting , and even sacrifices ) . These vows must take place during the same life cycle that the crimes were committed in . These religious lessons assist the societal structure by defining approved and unapproved social behavior .
= = = Economic = = =
The last Hindu function for Hell @-@ based reincarnations is the text Preta khanda in the Garuda Purana used by Hindu priests during Śrāddha rituals . During these rituals , the soul of a dying or deceased individual is given safe passage into the next life . This ritual is directly related to the economic prosperity of Hindu priests and their ability to “ save ” the dying soul from a hellish reincarnation through gifts given on behalf of the deceased to the priest performing the ritual . With each gift given , crimes committed during the deceased 's life are forgiven and the next life is progressively improved .
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= Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II =
During the last weeks of World War II , warships of the United States Navy , the British Royal Navy , and the Royal New Zealand Navy bombarded industrial and military facilities in Japan . Most of these bombardments involved battleships and caused heavy damage to several of the factories targeted , as well as nearby civilian areas . A major goal of the attacks was to provoke the Japanese military into committing some of its reserve force of aircraft into battle . However , the Japanese did not attempt to attack the Allied bombardment forces , and none of the involved warships suffered any damage .
The major bombardments began on 14 and 15 July 1945 , when US Navy warships attacked the cities of Kamaishi and Muroran . The next attack was made by a joint American and British force against the city of Hitachi during the night of 17 / 18 July . Groups of cruisers and destroyers subsequently shelled the Nojima Saki and Shionomisaki areas on 18 July and the night of 24 / 25 July , respectively . On 29 July , American and British warships attacked Hamamatsu , and on the night of 30 / 31 several American destroyers shelled Shimizu . The final bombardment took place on 9 August , when Kamaishi was attacked again by American , British and New Zealand warships . Two US Navy submarines conducted small @-@ scale attacks during June and July 1945 ; one of the submarines also landed a small raiding party .
The Allied naval bombardments disrupted industrial production in the cities targeted , and convinced many Japanese civilians that the war was lost . As many as 1 @,@ 739 Japanese were killed in the attacks , and up to 1 @,@ 497 were wounded . The only Allied casualties were 32 prisoners of war , who were killed in the bombardments of Kamaishi .
= = Background = =
By mid @-@ 1945 , cities and industrial facilities in the Japanese home islands were under sustained attack from United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bombers based in the Mariana Islands . Attacks by Allied submarines and surface ships had also cut most of the country 's trade routes , and US Navy aircraft carrier task groups had raided locations in the home islands on several occasions . Shortages of fuel had confined most of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's surviving ships to port and forced them and the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service to hold its air units in reserve against the Allied invasion that was expected to be launched late in the year . Prior to the war , the Japanese military had assessed that coastal artillery was no longer suited to the country 's circumstances . As a result , only a few strategic ports were protected by artillery capable of engaging enemy warships , and most of these guns were of relatively small calibers .
During the Pacific War , the US Navy 's fast battleships had mainly been used to escort the groups of aircraft carriers that formed the United States Pacific Fleet 's main striking force . They had also occasionally bombarded Japanese positions near the shore , and had fought some actions with Japanese warships .
Allied naval commanders decided to use battleships to conduct a series of attacks against Japanese coastal cities in mid @-@ 1945 . It was hoped that the Japanese military would respond to these bombardments by attacking the Allied forces with the aircraft that were being held in reserve to respond to the planned invasion of Japan , thereby exposing these aircraft to destruction by Allied fighter aircraft . However , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters had anticipated that the Allies would conduct bombardments and other operations with this goal , and decided to not attack naval forces operating off Japan . Instead , the aircraft would remain in reserve until Allied landing operations in the home islands began .
= = Bombardments = =
= = = First attack on Kamaishi = = =
On 1 July 1945 , the United States Third Fleet sortied from Leyte Gulf in the Philippines under the command of Admiral William Halsey to attack the Japanese home islands . Halsey 's plans included the use of battleships and cruisers to bombard military facilities and factories . To prepare for these attacks , US Navy submarines sailed into Japan 's inshore waters to search for naval mines . USAAF B @-@ 29 Superfortress and B @-@ 24 Liberator aircraft also conducted photo reconnaissance flights over much of Japan in search of airfields and facilities which could be attacked by the Third Fleet .
The Third Fleet 's main component , Task Force 38 ( TF 38 ) , began striking targets in Japan on 10 July under the command of Vice Admiral John S. McCain . On this day , aircraft flying from the Task Force 's aircraft carriers attacked facilities around Tokyo . Task Force 38 sailed north , and on 14 July began raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu . These areas were outside the range of the B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers , and had at that point not been attacked in the war . The American aircraft met little opposition , and sank 11 warships and 20 merchant ships . A further eight warships and 21 merchant ships were damaged , and the carrier aviators claimed to have destroyed 25 Japanese aircraft .
The first Allied bombardment of a Japanese coastal town was conducted on 14 July in conjunction with the air attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu . A bombardment group commanded by Rear Admiral John F. Shafroth designated Task Unit 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 ( TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 ) was detached from TF 38 to attack the iron works at Kamaishi in northern Honshu . At the time the city had a population of 40 @,@ 000 and the iron works was among the largest in Japan . However , due to shortages of coking coal and other raw materials , the iron works was running at less than half its capacity . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 comprised the battleships USS South Dakota , Indiana and Massachusetts as well as the heavy cruisers USS Quincy and Chicago and nine destroyers . Allied prisoners of war had been assigned to work at the Nippon Steel Company , and were housed in two camps in Kamaishi .
The bombardment group opened fire on the ironworks at 12 : 10 p.m. from a range of 29 @,@ 000 yd ( 27 @,@ 000 m ) . The ships then moved closer to the city , but did not cross the 100 @-@ fathom line as no minesweepers were available to clear the area of mines . The bombardment lasted for over two hours , during which time the force made six passes across the mouth of Kamaishi 's harbor and fired 802 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , 728 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells and 825 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shells . While most of the shells landed within the grounds of the ironworks , the concussion from their explosions caused kitchen fires to break out across Kamaishi . The resulting smoke prevented US Navy aircraft from being able to support or spot for the warships , which continued to fire accurately on predetermined targets . No Japanese aircraft or coastal guns responded to this bombardment . Allied aircraft photographed the ironworks following the attack , but photo interpreters underestimated the extent to which they had been damaged . This was one of the first times that photographic intelligence had been used to determine the extent of damage from a naval bombardment , and the interpreters placed too much weight on the fact that none of the ironworks ' buildings had been destroyed . The Allies learned after the war that the ironworks had been extensively damaged and forced to cease production for a period . This resulted in a loss of the equivalent of four weeks of pig iron production and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months of coke production . Five Allied prisoners of war were killed by the bombardment .
= = = Muroran = = =
On the night of 14 / 15 July , another bombardment unit — TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 — was detached from TF 38 to attack the town of Muroran on the south @-@ east coast of Hokkaido . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 was commanded by Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger and comprised the battleships Iowa , Missouri and Wisconsin , the light cruisers Atlanta and Dayton , and eight destroyers . Admiral Halsey accompanied this force on board Missouri . The targets of this attack were the Japan Steel Company 's facilities and the Wanishi Iron Works . Also that night , a force of four cruisers and six destroyers cruised along the east coast of Honshu seeking to attack Japanese shipping but did not locate any targets .
TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 's bombardment began at dawn on 15 July . The three battleships fired 860 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells at the city from a range of 28 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 yd ( 26 @,@ 000 – 29 @,@ 000 m ) . Aerial observation and spotting of damage was made difficult by hazy conditions , and only 170 shells landed within the grounds of the two plants . Nevertheless , considerable damage was inflicted on the industrial facilities , resulting in the loss of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months of coke production and slightly less pig iron production . Damage to buildings across the city was also extensive . As with the bombardment of Kamaishi , photo interpreters underestimated the scale of the damage . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 was highly vulnerable to air attack throughout the more @-@ than @-@ six @-@ hour period in which it was visible from the shore of Hokkaido , and Halsey later wrote that these were the longest hours of his life . The failure of the Japanese to attack his ships convinced Halsey that they were preserving aircraft for use against the Allied invasion force . On 15 July , aircraft flying from TF 38 's aircraft carriers struck again at Hokkaido and northern Honshu , devastating the fleet of ships that carried coal between the two islands .
= = = Hitachi = = =
The attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu ended on 15 July , and TF 38 sailed away from the Japanese coast to refuel and rendezvous with the main body of the British Pacific Fleet , which was designated Task Force 37 ( TF 37 ) . On the morning of 17 July , the British and American carriers attacked targets to the north of Tokyo . Later that day , TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 detached from the carrier force to bombard targets around the city of Hitachi , which is located about 80 mi ( 130 km ) northeast of Tokyo . This force was commanded by Rear Admiral Badger and comprised the battleships Iowa , Missouri , Wisconsin , North Carolina , Alabama , and HMS King George V , light cruisers Atlanta and Dayton , and eight American and two British destroyers . King George V and her two escorts sailed astern of the American force , and operated independently . Halsey again accompanied this force on board Missouri .
The bombardment of the Hitachi area took place on the night of 17 / 18 July . Rain and fog made locating the targets difficult and prevented spotting aircraft from flying , but several carrier aircraft flew protective patrols over the bombardment force . The Allied warships opened fire at 11 : 10 p.m. , and aimed at their targets using radar and LORAN . The attackers targeted nine industrial facilities , and King George V was assigned similar targets to those engaged by the American battleships . By the time the bombardment ceased at about 1 : 10 a.m. , the American battleships had fired 1 @,@ 238 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , and the British battleship 267 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) shells . The two light cruisers also fired 292 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells at radar and electronics installations south of Hitachi . All firing was conducted at a range of 23 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 yd ( 21 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 m ) from the targets .
The attack on Hitachi had mixed results . Only three of the bombardment 's nine targets were hit , and the overall damage to the city 's industrial area was assessed as " slight " . However , the attack inflicted considerable damage on the city 's urban area and essential services . This damage was greatly increased by a B @-@ 29 raid on Hitachi on the night of 18 / 19 July that destroyed or damaged 79 percent of the city 's urban area . The official history of the US Navy in World War II states that " individual Japanese " considered the naval bombardment to have been more terrifying than the air attack .
= = = Nojima Saki and Shionomisaki = = =
On 18 July , TFs 37 and 38 conducted further air strikes in the Tokyo area , with the American force 's main effort being an attempt to sink the Japanese battleship Nagato at Yokosuka Naval Base . That night , Cruiser Division 17 ( CruDiv 17 ) , which comprised the light cruisers USS Astoria , Pasadena , Springfield and Wilkes @-@ Barre and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral J. Cary Jones , fired 240 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells at a radar station on Cape Nojima over a five @-@ minute period but did not score any hits .
After completing its strikes on the Tokyo region , the Allied fleet conducted an at @-@ sea replenishment from 21 to 23 July before attacking Kure and the Inland Sea from the 24th to the 28th of the month . On the night of 24 / 25 July , CruDiv 17 patrolled the Kii Channel and bombarded the naval seaplane base at Kushimoto , a landing field near Cape Shionomisaki , and a radio station . This attack lasted for only four minutes and caused little damage .
= = = Hamamatsu = = =
On 29 July , a group of warships was detached from the main body of the Allied fleet to bombard the city of Hamamatsu , which lies on the south coast of Honshu between Nagoya and Tokyo . This force comprised the same ships which had attacked Kamaishi on 14 July with the addition of King George V and the destroyers HMS Ulysses , Undine and Urania ; the four British ships were designated Task Unit 37 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 ( TU 37 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 ) . The city had previously suffered extensive damage from air attacks .
The British and American ships engaged their targets independently . King George V opened fire at the Japan Musical Instrument Company 's Plant No. 2 ( which was being used to manufacture aircraft propellers ) at 11 : 19 p.m. from a range of 20 @,@ 075 yd ( 18 @,@ 357 m ) . The battleship fired 265 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) rounds at the plant in 27 minutes and was able to make use of artillery spotting aircraft , with visibility being good . Even so , little damage was inflicted on the facility . Massachusetts fired at Plant No. 1 but scored only a small number of hits . Despite the limited physical damage , the shelling caused increased labor absenteeism and disruption to vital services that caused the factory to cease production . The American ships also shelled the Imperial Government Railway locomotive works and three other industrial facilities .
Of these targets , the locomotive works ceased operations for about three months due to damage , but two of the other facilities had almost ceased production before the attack and the third was not damaged . Two bridges on the important Tōkaidō Main Line were fired upon but not hit , though damage to rail infrastructure in Hamamatsu closed the line for 66 hours . During the bombardment Undine twice opened fire on small groups of ships that were probably fishing boats . No Japanese aircraft or shore batteries responded to the Allied attack . The bombardment of Hamamatsu was the last time a British battleship fired its guns in anger .
= = = Shimizu = = =
The next bombardment of Japan took place on the night of 30 / 31 July . On that night Destroyer Squadron 25 ( DesRon 25 ) , which was commanded by Captain J.W. Ludewig aboard USS John Rodgers , searched the Suruga Gulf for Japanese shipping to attack . No ships were located , and in the early hours of 31 July the squadron sailed deep into the gulf and fired 1 @,@ 100 rounds of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shells during seven minutes at a railway yard and aluminum plant in the town of Shimizu . While the aluminum plant was hit , this was of little importance as it had almost ceased production due to a shortage of raw materials . No damage was caused to the rail yard .
= = = Second attack on Kamaishi = = =
During the last days of July and into early August , the Allied fleet sailed away from the Japanese coast to avoid a typhoon and allow the ships to replenish their stocks of fuel and ammunition . The fleet then sailed north and , on both 9 and 10 August , the carrier aircraft attacked a large concentration of Japanese aircraft on airfields in northern Honshu . The carrier pilots claimed the destruction of 720 Japanese aircraft in this operation .
As part of these operations off northern Japan , Kamaishi was bombarded again on 9 August in the mistaken belief that the iron works had not been badly damaged . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 conducted this attack , and comprised the ships that had bombarded the city in July with the addition of the heavy cruisers USS Boston and Saint Paul , British light cruiser HMS Newfoundland , Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser HMNZS Gambia and destroyers HMS Terpsichore , Termagant and Tenacious . King George V did not participate in this action as mechanical problems affecting two of her propeller shafts meant that she was unable to sail at the speed specified for the bombardment force .
The Allied ships opened fire on the iron works and docks in Kamaishi at 12 : 54 p.m. The bombardment was conducted from an average range of 14 @,@ 000 yd ( 13 @,@ 000 m ) and lasted for almost two hours . During this time , the ships made four passes across Kamaishi harbor and fired 803 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , 1 @,@ 383 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells and 733 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells . Gambia fired the final shots of the attack . During the bombardment , several Japanese aircraft approached the Allied ships and two were shot down by Allied naval fighters . This bombardment caused more damage than the attack conducted in July , and large quantities of pig iron were destroyed . The sounds of this bombardment were broadcast live on radio in the United States via a radio relay on board Iowa . One of the prisoner of war camps in Kamaishi was destroyed by the Allied attack , resulting in the deaths of 27 Allied prisoners .
A further bombardment by King George V , three light cruisers and escorting destroyers was planned to be conducted against an unspecified Japanese target on 13 August . This attack was cancelled due both to the battleship 's mechanical problems and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Allied fleet did not conduct any other bombardments as Japan surrendered on 15 August .
= = = Submarine attacks = = =
Two US Navy submarines attacked locations in the Japanese home islands during June and July 1945 . On 20 June USS Barb arrived off Japan 's northern islands under the command of Commander Gene Fluckey . For this patrol the submarine had been fitted with an experimental 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) rocket launcher intended for shore bombardments . Shortly after midnight on 22 June the submarine fired 12 rockets at the town of Shari in north @-@ east Hokkaido . Barb then proceeded north , and on 2 July bombarded the town of Kaiyo in south @-@ east Sakhalin with its deck gun . This attack destroyed three sampans docked in the town , damaged a seal rookery and caused several fires to break out . The next day the submarine fired more rockets at the town of Shisuka . A party of eight men from Barb was landed on the east coast of Sakhalin on 23 July and planted demolition charges on a railroad track . Shortly after the men began rowing back to the submarine the charges were triggered by a passing train ; 150 people , including civilians , were killed . On 24 July , Barb fired 32 rockets at the town of Shiritori and 12 rockets at Kashiho . As the submarine returned to base it shelled the towns of Chiri on 25 July and Shibertoro the next day .
The other submarine bombardment took place during the morning of 24 June , when USS Trutta fired some shells at the island of Hirado Shima in the Tsushima Strait between Japan and Korea . This attack sought to convince the Japanese that a force of American submarines that had been operating in the Sea of Japan would attempt to depart via the Tsushima Strait , instead of their actual route far to the north through the La Pérouse Strait between Honshu and Sakhalin .
= = Results = =
Although the naval bombardments did not result in the reaction the Allies were hoping for from the Japanese military , they disrupted the country 's steel industry . While several of the factories attacked were operating at reduced capacity , the important Kamaishi and Wanishi Iron Works suffered heavy damage when they were bombarded in July and August . During both these attacks , the Allied gunnery was accurate and focused on the factories ' coke batteries , which were critical to continued production . Post @-@ war assessments found that the damage caused to industrial buildings by even 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) naval shells was less than that which could be inflicted by the 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) and 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) general @-@ purpose bombs that were used by Allied naval aircraft . While this supported a view put forward by Vice Admiral McCain that the aircraft assigned to protect the bombardment forces could have caused more damage than the ships themselves , the post @-@ war United States Strategic Bombing Survey judged that the naval bombardments were justified as there had been little risk to the ships involved .
The bombardments also affected Japanese morale . Japanese civilians who experienced both air and naval bombardment found the naval attacks to be more terrifying due to their unpredictability and longer duration . Several of the industrial facilities that suffered little damage in bombardments incurred a significant loss in production due to absenteeism and reduced productivity . This was not the case for all facilities that were attacked though , and the morale among workers in two of the bombarded factories was reported to have increased . The appearance of Allied warships just off the coast also convinced many Japanese that the war had been lost . However , such attitudes did not contribute to bringing the war to an end as the views of civilians had little influence on the Japanese Government 's decision to surrender .
In 1949 , the Japanese Economic Stabilization Agency calculated that the Allied naval bombardments and other forms of attack other than bombing had caused 3 @,@ 282 casualties , representing 0 @.@ 5 percent of all casualties inflicted by the Allies in the Japanese home islands . The casualties attributed to naval bombardments and other causes included 1 @,@ 739 fatalities , 46 persons who were still classified as missing and 1 @,@ 497 people who were wounded .
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= Typhoon Bess ( 1974 ) =
Typhoon Bess , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Susang , was responsible for the disappearance of a United States Air Force weather reconnaissance aircraft . Developing out of a poorly organized system on October 8 to the east of the Philippines , Bess featured two centers of circulation . Initially the southern low was monitored ; however , a low to the north soon became the dominant center . Tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , the storm gradually intensified before striking northern Luzon as a minimal typhoon on October 11 . Temporary weakening took place due to interaction with land . After moving back over water the following morning , Bess regained typhoon intensity . This was short @-@ lived though , as conditions surrounding the cyclone soon caused it to weaken . Now moving due west , the weakening storm eventually struck Hainan Island as a tropical storm on October 12 before diminishing to a tropical depression . The depression briefly moved back over water before dissipating in northern Vietnam on October 14 .
Bess produced heavy rains throughout the Philippines , especially in Luzon where 782 @.@ 3 mm ( 30 @.@ 80 in ) was measured in Baguio . These rains triggered extensive flooding and landslides that killed 26 people and left 3 others missing . Many homes were destroyed and damage amounted to $ 9 @.@ 2 million ( 1974 USD ) . On October 12 , a reconnaissance plane , with a crew of six , investigating the periphery of the storm went missing . It is presumed that the entire crew was lost when the aircraft crashed off the coast of Luzon . Though the center remained offshore , strong winds and high tides also impacted Hong Kong , causing minor flooding .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 6 , 1974 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring a tropical disturbance several hundred miles southeast of Guam . Tracking quickly westward to west @-@ northwestward in response to a strong subtropical ridge to the north , the system gradually organized , passing near Ulithi atoll on October 7 . Accompanied by a broad monsoonal flow , the disturbance featured multiple centers of circulation . On October 8 , it developed into a tropical depression and soon into a tropical storm , at which time it was assigned the name Bess . Early on October 9 , an aircraft reconnaissance mission into Bess revealed that a new dominant center of circulation had developed to the north of the original low . The southern low soon dissipated as the northern one became a tropical storm . The northern system retained the name Bess and is considered the same storm by the JTWC .
After the northern circulation became the dominant center on October 9 , a deepening trough in the westerlies caused a decrease in synoptic pressures , resulting in Bess ' forward motion greatly decreasing . Maintaining a west @-@ northwesterly track , strong outflow developed , especially to the southwest of the circulation . The storm eventually intensified into a typhoon on October 10 as it approached the northern Philippines . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the country , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Susang . Later that day , Bess made landfall in northern Luzon , roughly 95 km ( 60 mi ) south of Escarpada Point , with winds estimated at 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Though classified a minimal typhoon by the JTWC , the Hong Kong Royal Observatory reported that reconnaissance planes had recorded surface winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) before the system moved ashore . Inland , a barometric pressure of 976 @.@ 9 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) was recorded in Tuguegarao as the typhoon passed 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the north .
Due to the interaction with the high terrain of northern Luzon , Bess temporarily weakened to a tropical storm before regaining typhoon strength over the South China Sea during the afternoon of October 11 . As the storm emerged back over water , satellite images revealed a relatively large system with clouds spanning an area 485 km ( 300 mi ) in diameter . Upon reintensifying , Bess turned due west in response to a dominating high pressure area over Southern China . With a large difference in pressures between the two systems , a strong northeasterly flow developed between them . This resulted in gale @-@ force winds occurring up to 400 km ( 250 mi ) from Bess 's center . During the evening of October 12 , the combined effects of a winter monsoon and entrainment of cool , dry air from mainland China began to weaken the system . By the following morning , Bess had weakened to tropical storm as it passed 305 km ( 190 mi ) south of Hong Kong . The system later struck Hainan Island with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) before lessening to a tropical depression . The dissipating system emerged over the Gulf of Tonkin on October 14 and ultimately dissipated as it began moving ashore in northern Vietnam later that day .
= = Impact = =
Striking northern Luzon as a typhoon , Bess produced damaging winds and torrential rainfall across the region . Gusts peaked at 178 km / h ( 111 mph ) in Aparri , Cagayan while Baguio City experienced gusts of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Communication across the region was greatly disrupted as numerous power lines and trees were downed . While much of the peninsula received 130 to 150 mm ( 5 to 6 in ) of rain , a 24 ‑ hour maxima of 782 @.@ 3 mm ( 30 @.@ 8 in ) was reported in Baguio . The rainfall triggered widespread flash flooding and landslides , resulting in 26 fatalities and extensive damage . One death took place in Baguio after a girl was buried in a landslide . At least three other people were reported missing . In a town roughly 805 km ( 500 mi ) south of Manila , a landslide destroyed eight homes and a school . Flood waters inundated four villages in the central Philippines . The storm affected a total of 35 @,@ 562 people , of which about 4 @,@ 000 became homeless . Total losses amounted to $ 9 @.@ 2 million ( 1974 USD ) .
On October 11 , a level one warning signal was raised for Hong Kong , indicating that a tropical cyclone was approaching the region . This was soon raised to level three as strong winds were expected to affect the area . Although the center of Bess passed roughly 305 km ( 190 mi ) south of Hong Kong , the pressure gradient between the tropical storm and high pressure to the north resulted in strong winds across the region . On the Pratas Islands , ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) were reported . In Hong Kong itself , winds reached 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) and gusted to 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Gusts up to 113 km / h ( 71 mph ) occurred on Tate 's Cairn . In contrast to the unusually strong winds , Bess produced virtually no rainfall as it passed by , with only a trace of precipitation measured between October 11 and 14 in Hong Kong . Along the coast , abnormally high tides combined with storm surge flooded low @-@ lying areas of the city . Tides at Tai Po Kau reached 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) with a surge of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) . Sea water leaked into the city 's underground sewage system and caused minor flooding in the area 's western district . Some property damage was reported .
While over the South China Sea on October 12 , a United States Air Force WC @-@ 130H Hercules reconnaissance aircraft ( call sign Swan 38 ) , with a crew of six , went missing while collecting data on the cyclone . The plane took off from Clark Air Base during the night on October 12 and made its final contact six hours later roughly 95 km ( 60 mi ) north of Manila . A rescue team of five Air Force aircraft and the USS White Plains was dispatched to look for survivors . Search and rescue missions for the crew only found pieces of debris , such as an aircraft survival radio , soundproofing material , and orange cushion @-@ like material . All six crewmen were never found and are presumed dead . Following the incident , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron established the Swan 38 Memorial Scholarship for outstanding students in the 403d Wing .
Because of the damage and loss of life caused by the storm , the name Bess was retired and replaced with Bonnie . However , when the list of typhoon names was changed to incorporate male names in 1979 , the name was re @-@ introduced to the roster . Coincidentally , it was again retired in 1982 when a powerful storm named Bess caused extensive damage and loss of life in Japan . This marked the only occasion where a single name was removed twice in the same basin .
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= Ralph Stackpole =
Ralph Ward Stackpole ( May 1 , 1885 – December 13 , 1973 ) was an American sculptor , painter , muralist , etcher and art educator , San Francisco 's leading artist during the 1920s and 1930s . Stackpole was involved in the art and causes of social realism , especially during the Great Depression , when he was part of the Public Works of Art Project , Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration , and the Treasury Department 's Section of Painting and Sculpture . Stackpole was responsible for recommending that architect Timothy L. Pflueger bring Mexican muralist Diego Rivera to San Francisco to work on the San Francisco Stock Exchange and its attached office tower in 1930 – 31 . His son Peter Stackpole became a well @-@ known photojournalist .
= = Early career = =
Stackpole worked as a laborer early in life to support himself and his mother following the death of his father in a lumber mill circular saw accident . At sixteen , he came to San Francisco to study at the California School of Design beginning in 1903 ; he was influenced strongly by Arthur Frank Mathews , muralist and painter at the school . He met painter Helen Arnstein ( later Helen Salz ) while both were teenagers , and she became his first girlfriend . Arnstein , the daughter of wealthy Jewish art lovers and one year Stackpole 's senior , described him as " a remarkable draftsman " who painted and sketched constantly . She was less impressed with his sense of color than with his precision in line . Stackpole polished his craft by working with artists at the Montgomery Block , playfully called " Monkey Block " , a bohemian hangout which included studios for painting and sculpture . After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , he used a grant of US $ 200 ( $ 5 @,@ 300 in current value ) to travel to France to attend the École des Beaux @-@ Arts and Atelier Merces in 1906 – 1908 , exhibiting at the Salon in 1910 . It was in Paris that he became friends with painter Diego Rivera He painted under Robert Henri in New York in 1911 .
= = San Francisco = =
Stackpole returned to San Francisco in 1912 and married Adele Barnes , two months younger than he , an art student of Xavier Martinez and one of the first graduates of the California Academy of Arts and Crafts . Adele Stackpole was a perfectionist in many ways , including the precision of her bookplate engravings and the demands she placed on her relationships . On June 15 , 1913 , the Stackpoles ' son Peter was born in San Francisco .
Stackpole was part of the foursome that founded , early in 1913 , the California Society of Etchers ( CSE ) . The other founders were Robert B. Harshe , an etcher and art professor at Stanford University , etcher and educator Pedro Lemos , who taught at the San Francisco Institute of Art , and Gottardo Piazzoni , an Italian @-@ American painter and muralist who was Stackpole 's master in France . The CSE exhibited twice in 1913 , and grew to 78 artist members and five associate after two years . In 1926 , the annual publication listed 46 artist members and 156 associate members : Stackpole was still a member . Decades later , the CSE merged with another group to become the California Society of Printmakers .
= = = Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition = = =
Around the same time , Stackpole was commissioned to sculpt architectural features for the 1915 Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition , a major assignment that was to take two years to complete , even with the aid of assistants . To give a grand entrance portal to the Palace of Varied Industries , he completed a copy of the main entrance to the Hospice of Santa Cruz , built in Toledo , Spain in the 16th century . Stackpole 's design replaced the original figures of Catholic saints with figures of industry . His works for the Palace of Varied Industries included " Man with a pick " , " Tympanum group of Varied Industries " , " New World Receiving Burdens of Old " , " Keystone figure " , and " Power of Industry " . Stackpole also sculpted figures of " Thought " on the columns flanking the half domes of the west facade of the Palace Group . At the Palace of Fine Arts , Stackpole produced a kneeling " Venus " on the Altar of Inspiration . Visitors wishing to view " Venus " were kept some 50 yards ( 50 m ) away by a man @-@ made lagoon .
= = = Modern trends = = =
With Piazzoni , Stackpole went to France again in 1922 , taking his family ; he enrolled his nine @-@ year @-@ old son in the École Alsacienne , a private school in Paris . The two artists wished to investigate the most modern trends in Europe , and they encountered Diego Rivera . While there , Stackpole 's marriage unraveled , and he returned to the Bay Area in 1923 with a 24 @-@ year @-@ old French still life artist and model named Francine Mazen , nicknamed " Ginette " ; his wife and son returned after the school year to take up residence across the bay in Oakland . Stackpole obtained a divorce , and then married Ginette in Mexico .
In late 1923 , Stackpole organized a major art exhibit , in partnership with Piazzoni . This was the first large @-@ scale art show in San Francisco since 1915 ; there had been no expected rush of artists after the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition . The exhibit , held in Polk Hall in the Civic Auditorium , was companion to a nearby print exhibit which included Gauguin and Matisse works . Critic and author Laura Bride Powers felt that the event was a disappointment — it displayed " inconspicuous examples " of leading artists , and failed to show any Picasso , avant @-@ garde or Dadaist works .
In 1926 , Stackpole delivered the William A. Coleman Fountain to the city of Sacramento , a Moderne work ( centrally located in what is now known as Cesar Chavez Park ) which celebrated the city 's completion of a difficult water filtration project . That same year , Stackpole traveled to Mexico City to see Rivera working on some of his 124 frescoes in the courtyard of the Secretariat of Public Education . Returning with a small Rivera painting , Stackpole gave it to San Francisco Arts Commission president William Gerstle ( who was initially unimpressed ) , and began a several @-@ year effort to bring Rivera to work in California .
Stackpole accepted an offer to teach at his former school , its name changed to the California School of Fine Arts ( CSFA ) . For a stretch of almost twenty years , he taught a number of subjects . Dorr Bothwell studied sculpture under Stackpole , then the head of the Sculpture Department , and thought him to be sexist — she said he told the women in the class that " the place they really belonged was in bed . "
Kenneth Rexroth wrote of Stackpole in 1929 that " He knew everybody in town from top to bottom ... and he took us everywhere . " Stackpole 's sizable San Francisco studio at 716 Montgomery ( adjacent to Montgomery Block ) served as a social center for San Francisco 's artist community . Photographer Dorothea Lange rented upstairs studio space there in 1926 , and Helen Clark and Otis Oldfield , both artists , married there the same year . Lange 's husband Maynard Dixon had his studio next door , and the Stackpole and Dixon families were close — both men were members of the Bohemian Club .
Throughout the 1930s , Stackpole worked frequently with architect Timothy Pflueger on various commissions . Beginning in 1929 when the two men first met , Stackpole was given responsibility for selecting the artists who worked to execute and augment Pflueger 's basic design scheme for the San Francisco Stock Exchange and its associated Tower , especially the Luncheon Club occupying the top floors of the Tower . Stackpole said later of the experience , " the artists were in from the first . They were called in conference and assumed responsibility and personal pride in the building . " At the Sansome Street tower entrance , Stackpole worked on a scaffolding with a crew of assistants to direct carve heroic figures in stone . After the building was completed , Stackpole was finally successful in winning a commission for Rivera ; Pflueger became convinced that Rivera would be the perfect muralist for decorating the staircase wall and ceiling of the Stock Exchange Club . This was a controversial selection considering Rivera 's leftist political beliefs in contradiction to the Stock Exchange 's capitalist foundation . Into the mural , Rivera painted a figure of Stackpole 's son Peter holding a model airplane .
During his stay , Rivera and his wife Frida Kahlo lived and worked at the studio , becoming in the process lifelong friends with Stackpole and Ginette . They met tennis champion Helen Wills Moody , an avid painter @-@ hobbyist , who soon agreed to model for Rivera at the studio . Neighbor Dixon saw the attention , and the American money being given to Rivera , and with etcher Frank Van Sloun organized a short @-@ lived protest against the Communist artist . However , both Dixon and Van Sloun quickly realized that the San Francisco art world " oligarchy " who were obviously smitten with Rivera , including Stackpole 's well @-@ connected patrons , were the same group that they themselves would need to support their own art aspirations .
For much of 1931 , Stackpole partnered with other artists to decorate Pflueger 's Paramount Theatre in Oakland , an Art Deco masterpiece . A bas @-@ relief scene of horses , waves and a central winged figure was placed over the stage 's proscenium arch , finished in gold @-@ toned metal leaf — the work jointly designed by Stackpole and Robert Boardman Howard . The design worked into Pflueger 's metal grille ceiling grid likely came unattributed from Stackpole 's sketches . Pflueger was an able project leader ; Stackpole later described his involvement : " He was the boss alright , as an architect should be ... He would call the plays just as a symphony conductor does ... There wasn 't a lock , molding , or window that he did not inspect in the drawings and in the actual building with the utmost thoroughness and care . "
Stackpole worked through ten months of 1932 on a monumental pair of sculptures flanking the grand entrance of the Stock Exchange : a male and a female grouping showing the polarity of agriculture and industry , showing in their rounded human shapes the influence of Rivera . Chiseling into 15 short tons ( 14 t ) of Yosemite granite , he wore goggles and a mask . The unveiling ceremony took place in the cold of New Year 's Eve , with Mayor Angelo Rossi joining Stackpole , Pflueger and artisans in smocks .
Stackpole took his son Peter to visit their photographer friend Edward Weston in Carmel in the early 1930s , and the two older men spent the day discussing photography , " the difference between making and taking a photograph , between the intended and the random " . This conversation , and the 1932 exhibit by Group f / 64 , a collection of innovative photographers such as Weston and Ansel Adams , was later seen as foundational to Peter Stackpole 's conception of photography .
In July 1933 , Stackpole completed a model of a design to be incorporated into the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge 's central anchorage on the western side . The anchorage , to be constructed of concrete rising 197 feet ( 60 m ) above the water , was to display over much of its height a bare @-@ chested male figure standing solidly between the two suspension spans . However , Arthur Brown , Jr . , Pflueger 's colleague on the Bay Bridge project , did not like the scale of the figure , which belittled the bridge . Engineer Ralph Modjeski agreed , writing " The gigantic figure which is proposed for the centre anchorage is out of place for a structure of this kind and would not harmonize with the end anchorage . " Stackpole 's design was abandoned in favor of a largely flat expanse of poured concrete .
In 1933 and 1934 , Stackpole took part in the Public Works of Art Project assignment to paint murals for Coit Tower . Many of the murals were executed in styles reminiscent of Rivera , and Stackpole himself was portrayed in five of them ; in one he is shown reading a newspaper announcing the destruction of a Rivera mural in New York .
In 1937 , Stackpole received a commission to sculpt his interpretation of Colorado River explorer John Wesley Powell , for display in the Main Interior Building of the U.S. Department of Interior . It was to be a companion piece to Heinz Warneke 's portrayal of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Warneke learned that Stackpole intended a water scene , so he changed his portrayal of Lewis and Clark to be one of them on land . Stackpole and Warneke delivered their stone reliefs in 1940 , and the two panels were mounted on either side of the stage of the building 's auditorium .
= = = Golden Gate International Exposition = = =
Pflueger made certain that Stackpole was given a major commission for art in preparation for the Golden Gate International Exposition , also called the Pacific Pageant , a world 's fair to be held on Treasure Island between San Francisco and Oakland . Stackpole worked to create an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) tall frame @-@ and @-@ stucco embodiment of Pacifica , the theme of the exposition . By November 1938 , when Life photographer Alfred Eisenstaedt was capturing images to promote the event , Pacifica was ready for his camera . The magazine carried the image of this , Stackpole 's most monumental work , " a peaceful , contemplative , almost prayer @-@ like female figure " intended only for temporary placement . The heroic sculpture stood in front of a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tall " prayer curtain " of regular star @-@ shaped steel bangles that rippled in the wind . Vivid orange and blue lights washed the curtain at night , while Pacifica , the image of Peace , was brilliant in white . Over two years , 16 million visitors came to the exposition . When it was over , Stackpole proposed that the sculpture be recast in a more permanent form — steel , stone or concrete — and positioned prominently on an island in the San Francisco Bay , perhaps Alcatraz or Angel Island , in a manner similar to the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor . The plan was not seriously considered by civic leaders whose attention was on the gathering war clouds in Asia and Europe . The sculpture and most of the exposition buildings were dynamited in 1942 , and the U.S. Navy took ownership of the island as a base in World War II .
= = Later life = =
In the early 1940s , Stackpole left the CSFA to teach privately . In April 1945 , he led a sculpting class at the California Labor School , a leftist organization advocating equal rights for workers . From 1941 to 1945 , he served on the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts , the first commission member from the West Coast .
In 1949 , Stackpole moved to Chauriat in the Puy @-@ de @-@ Dôme area of central France , returning with his second wife Ginette to her birthplace . There , his art became less figurative and more abstract , both in sculpture and in painting . He kept a flow of correspondence with his old friends in San Francisco , including Helen Salz , who described his letters as devoid of any mention of sculpture or painting , or any project that Stackpole might have been working on — instead , he wrote of musicians and music , and of his encounters with people . Salz bought a Stackpole bust of poet George Sterling and donated it to the University of California in 1955 – 56 , to be displayed in Dwinelle Hall . In early 1964 , Stackpole visited San Francisco to see his family , and he called up his old friend Kenneth Rexroth . In his San Francisco Examiner newspaper column , Rexroth wrote of having lunch with the Stackpole family , and reminded his readers that the man had been known " for 20 years or more [ as ] San Francisco 's leading artist . "
Stackpole died in France in 1973 , his wife in 1978 .
Some of Stackpole 's sculptures , paintings and drawings were destroyed in the Oakland Firestorm of 1991 , a blaze which leveled the home of Peter Stackpole . Floyd Winter , a neighbor , helped rescue a very few items " moments before the conflagration consumed the house " .
= = Selected works = =
1915 — Venus , Altar of Inspiration , Palace of Fine Arts
1927 @-@ William Coleman Memorial Fountain , Sacramento , California
1928 – 1932 — figures carved in Yosemite granite at the San Francisco Stock Exchange ( 301 Pine ) and Tower ( 155 Sansome ) including Bountiful Earth ( also known as Mother Earth and Agriculture ) and Industry ( 1931 ) ( also known as Man and His Invention )
1930 — the proscenium ceiling panel at Oakland 's Paramount Theatre
1934 — mural at Coit Tower : Industries of California ( left and right halves )
1938 – 1939 — figures at the Golden Gate International Exposition including the heroic embodiment of the Exposition , the 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) tall frame @-@ and @-@ stucco figure of Pacifica
|
= Seventh generation of video game consoles =
In the history of video games , the seventh generation includes consoles released since late 2005 by Nintendo , Microsoft , and Sony Computer Entertainment . For home consoles , the seventh generation began on November 22 , 2005 with the release of Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and continued with the release of Sony Computer Entertainment 's PlayStation 3 on November 17 , 2006 , and Nintendo 's Wii on November 19 , 2006 . Each new console introduced a new type of breakthrough in technology . The Xbox 360 offered games rendered natively at high @-@ definition video ( HD ) resolutions , the PlayStation 3 offered HD movie playback via a built @-@ in 3D Blu @-@ ray Disc player , and the Wii focused on integrating controllers with movement sensors as well as joysticks . Some of the Wii controllers could be moved about to control in @-@ game actions , which enabled players to simulate real @-@ world actions during gameplay ( e.g. , in the Wii sports tennis game , the user swings the controller to hit the on @-@ screen image of a tennis ball ) . Video game consoles had become an important part of the global IT infrastructure . It is estimated that video game consoles represented 25 % of the world 's general @-@ purpose computational power in the year 2007 .
Joining Nintendo in the motion market , Sony Computer Entertainment released the PlayStation Move in September 2010 . The PlayStation Move features motion sensing gaming , similar to that of the Wii . Microsoft joined the scene in November 2010 , with its Kinect ( previously announced under the working title " Project Natal " in June 2009 ) . Unlike the other two systems ( PlayStation 3 and Wii ) , Kinect does not use controllers of any sort and makes the users the " controller . " Having sold 8 million units in its first 60 days on the market , Kinect has claimed the Guinness World Record of being the " fastest selling consumer electronics device " . While the Xbox 360 offers wired controllers as a standalone product , all PlayStation 3 controllers can be used in wired and wireless configurations . Starting with handheld consoles , the seventh generation began on November 21 , 2004 with the North American introduction of the Nintendo DS as a " third pillar " , alongside Nintendo 's existing Game Boy Advance and GameCube consoles .
The Nintendo DS ( NDS ) features a touch screen and built @-@ in microphone , and supports wireless IEEE 802 @.@ 11 ( Wi @-@ Fi ) standards . Additionally , the revised version of the NDS , the Nintendo DSi , features two built in cameras , the ability to download games from the DSi store , and a web browser . The PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) released later the same year on December 12 , 2004 , followed a different pattern . It became the first handheld video game console to use an optical disc format , Universal Media Disc ( UMD ) , as its primary storage media . Sony also gave the PSP robust multi @-@ media capability , connectivity with the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 2 ( only on some games ) , other PSPs , as well as Internet connectivity . The Nintendo DS likewise had connectivity to the internet through the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection and Nintendo DS Browser , as well as wireless connectivity to other DS systems and Wii consoles . Despite high sales numbers for both consoles , PlayStation Portable sales have consistently lagged behind those of the Nintendo DS ; nevertheless , the PlayStation Portable has the distinction of being the best @-@ selling non @-@ Nintendo handheld gaming system . Sony announced in 2014 that they had discontinued the production of the PlayStation Portable worldwide , this follows Nintendo 's announcement in 2013 that it had discontinued its original line of the Nintendo DS family devices to move onto the Nintendo 3DS line . Microsoft also announced in 2016 , that they would discontinue the Xbox 360 at the end of April that year .
The multimillion @-@ dollar pre @-@ sale success of Ouya , an Android @-@ based microconsole initially founded through crowdfunding has raised open @-@ source development and the free @-@ to @-@ play model as key issues to be addressed in later firmware updates to the seventh generation consoles , as well as by the eighth generation consoles . The microconsoles like Nvidia Shield Console , MOJO , Razer Switchblade , GamePop , GameStick , Ouya , and even more powerful PC @-@ based Steam Machine consoles are attempting to compete in the game console market ; but even though some of these are theoretically powerful on paper , they are however seldom referred to as " seventh generation " consoles .
= = Home consoles = =
= = = Wii = = =
Nintendo entered this generation with a new approach embodied by its Wii . The company planned to attract current hardcore and casual gamers , non @-@ gamers , and lapsed gamers by focusing on new gameplay experiences and new forms of interaction with games rather than cutting edge graphics and expensive technology . This approach was previously implemented in the portable market with the Nintendo DS . Nintendo expressed hope that the new control schemes it had implemented would render conventionally controlled consoles obsolete , leading to Nintendo capturing a large portion of the existing market as well .
This strategy paid off , with demand for the Wii outstripping supply throughout 2007 . Since Nintendo profited on each console right from the start unlike its competitors , it achieved very positive returns . With only a few exceptions , monthly worldwide sales for the Wii were higher than those of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , eroding Microsoft 's early lead and widening the gap between its market share and Sony 's . On September 12 , 2007 , it was reported by the British newspaper Financial Times that the Wii 's sales surpassed those of the Xbox 360 , which had been released one year previously , and became the market leader in worldwide home console sales for the generation .
As in previous generations , Nintendo provided strong support for its new console with popular first @-@ party franchises like Mario , The Legend of Zelda , Metroid , and Pokémon , among others . To appeal to casual and non @-@ gamers , Nintendo developed a group of core Wii games , consisting of Wii Sports , Wii Play , Wii Fit , and Wii Music , where players make use of the motion @-@ sensing abilities of the console and its peripherals to simulate real world activities . With the exception of Wii Music , the games and their sequels have all been highly successful .
Publishers such as Ubisoft , Electronic Arts , Capcom , and Majesco continued to release exclusive titles for the console , but the Wii 's strongest titles remained within its first @-@ party line @-@ up . Analysts speculated that this would change in time as the Wii 's growing popularity persuaded third @-@ party publishers to focus on it ; however , some third party developers expressed frustration at low software sales . Goichi Suda , developer of No More Heroes for the Wii , noted that " only Nintendo titles are doing well . This isn 't just because of the current situation in Japan , as this is happening outside Japan . I am very surprised about the reality about Wii , because before I was making this game , I wasn 't expecting that Wii would be a console targeted only for non @-@ gamers . I expected more games for hardcore gamers . The reality is different to what I expected . " Conversely , the PAL publisher of No More Heroes Rising Star Games were greatly impressed with the game 's sales . Goichi Suda later retracted his comment , saying his " point was that No More Heroes , unlike a lot of Nintendo Wii titles currently available is the kind of product that will attract a different kind of consumer to the hardware , i.e. gamers who are looking for a different genre to the products that have been successful on this platform thus far . "
In early 2008 , the NPD Group revealed sales data showing that , while the Wii 's life @-@ to @-@ date attach rate was low , in December 2007 , it reached 8 @.@ 11 — higher than the attach rates for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in that month . The Wii 's low overall attach rate could be explained by reference to its rapidly increasing installed base , as financial analysts have pointed to the Xbox 360 's high attach rates as indicative of an unhealthy lack of installed base growth , and warned that what actually benefits third @-@ party developers is " quicker adoption of hardware and a rapidly growing installed base on which to sell progressively more game units , " which tends to lower the attach rate of a product .
On September 23 , 2009 , Nintendo announced its first price drops for the console . In the United States , the price was reduced by fifty dollars , resulting in a new Manufacturer 's Suggested Retail Price ( MSRP ) of $ 199 @.@ 99 , effective September 27 , 2009 . For Japan , the price dropped from ¥ 25 @,@ 000 to ¥ 20 @,@ 000 , effective October 1 , 2009 . In Europe ( with the exception of the United Kingdom ) , the price of a Wii console dropped from € 249 to € 199 . On May 3 , 2010 , Nintendo announced that Wii consoles sold in the Americas now would include Wii Sports Resort and Wii MotionPlus , effective May 9 , 2010 . Since May 15 , 2011 , the Wii Console is US $ 149 @.@ 99 and comes bundled with Mario Kart Wii .
= = = Xbox 360 = = =
Microsoft Xbox 360 gained an early lead in terms of market share , largely due to its established Xbox Live online gaming system , and its early launch date , which was one year before its rivals . Sales in North America and Europe have continued to be strong , even after the release of the Wii and PlayStation 3 . Like its predecessor , the Xbox 360 received a muted reception in Japan , attributed to the lack of content aimed at Japanese gamers .
This early launch did come with some trouble , as technical problems appeared in a portion of Xbox 360 units sold . The most well @-@ known problem is the " red ring of death " and Error E74 , which received ( and still receives ) a great deal of attention due to some users having to replace their consoles multiple times . Microsoft attempted to address this by offering a three @-@ year warranty on all affected consoles and repairing them free of charge . It also retroactively reimbursed owners of affected systems who paid for repairs . According to The Mercury News , new models of the console featuring 65 @-@ nanometer technology will address this and other issues ; the new technology is expected to reduce heat production , which will lower the risk of overheating and system failures ; although , this has never been officially confirmed by Microsoft .
As they share many cross @-@ platform games and compete for the same audience as their predecessors , frequent comparisons are made between the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . The PS3 uses the Blu @-@ ray format , while the Xbox 360 uses a standard DVD9 . The Xbox 360 is less expensive to produce , and analysts expect that a mid @-@ revision will allow Microsoft to break @-@ even on manufacturing costs , while industry consensus is that the Xbox 360 's conventional architecture is easier to develop for .
At the end of first half of 2007 , the console stabilized at 11 @.@ 6 million units shipped as sales dropped 60 % while its rival , Wii , gained momentum and Sony announced a competitive price drop on the PlayStation 3 . Microsoft 's strategy to boost sales with the release of the highly anticipated Halo 3 in September 2007 paid off , outselling the Wii that month in North America . Microsoft 's Entertainment and Devices Division experienced a huge increase in revenue , largely driven by the release of Halo 3 , and posted a quarterly profit for the first time in two years .
The Xbox 360 's advantage over its competitors owes itself to the release of high @-@ profile games , such as additions to the Halo franchise . The 2007 Game Critics Awards honored the platform with 38 nominations and 12 wins – more than any other platform . By March 2008 , the Xbox 360 had reached a software attach rate of 7 @.@ 5 games per console in the US ; the rate was 7 @.@ 0 in Europe , while its competitors were 3 @.@ 8 ( PS3 ) and 3 @.@ 5 ( Wii ) , according to Microsoft . At the 2008 Game Developers Conference , Microsoft announced that it expected over 1 @,@ 000 games available for Xbox 360 by the end of the year . The Xbox 360 has managed to gain a simultaneous release of titles that were initially planned to be PS3 exclusives , including Devil May Cry , Ace Combat , Virtua Fighter , Grand Theft Auto IV , Final Fantasy XIII , Tekken 6 , Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance , and L.A. Noire .
In August 2007 , the first price drop was announced for all Stock Keeping Units ( SKU 's ) of the Xbox 360 . The Core system 's price was reduced in the United States by $ 20 , the Premium by $ 50 , and the Elite model by $ 30 . Also , the HDMI port , previously exclusive to the Elite system , was added to new models of the Premium and Arcade systems ; the Core system was discontinued .
At E3 2010 , Microsoft revealed a new US $ 299 @.@ 99 Xbox 360 SKU known officially as the Xbox 360 S and referred to as the " Slim " by various media outlets . It replaced the Elite and comes with an integrated 802.11n WLAN adapter , integrated TOSLINK port , 5 USB ports and a 250 GB HDD . It also does not require an additional power supply to make use of Microsoft Kinect motion control accessory . A US $ 199 @.@ 99 version was released on August 3 , 2010 in the US which replaced the Arcade model . It has 4 GB and a 250 GB model of internal memory , it has a matte or glossy finish and it comes with a headset . At E3 2013 Microsoft revealed the Xbox 360 E , the final iteration of the Xbox 360 series , to be succeeded by Xbox One . The Xbox 360 E was originally priced at US $ 199 @.@ 99 for a 4GB model , and US $ 299 @.@ 99 for the 250GB model . The 360 E featured a new square design with a simplified exterior akin to the Xbox One .
= = = PlayStation 3 = = =
Sony Computer Entertainment PlayStation 3 was released on November 11 , 2006 in Japan and November 17 , 2006 in the US and Canada . The system 's reliance on new technologies such as the Cell microprocessor and Blu @-@ ray format caused difficulties in manufacturing , especially the Blu @-@ ray diode , leading to shortages at launch and the delay of the PAL region launches ; however , by early December 2006 , Sony announced that all production issues had been resolved . Market analysts and Sony executives noted that the success of the PlayStation 3 and the Blu @-@ ray format were dependent on each other ; Rich Marty , VP of New Business Development at Sony Pictures Home Entertainment stated that the " PS3 is critical to the success of Blu @-@ ray , " while Phil Harrison stated that the PlayStation 3 's success would be ensured because " the growth of the Blu @-@ ray Disc movie market ... is a positive factor which will play more into the consumer psyche ... as more consumer electronics firms launch standalone disc players , as more Blu @-@ ray Disc movies become available , and as more shelf space is dedicated to the category at retail . "
Sony would provide support for its console with new titles from acclaimed first @-@ party franchises such as Gran Turismo , Team Ico , and God of War , and secured a number of highly anticipated third @-@ party exclusive titles , including Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots , Yakuza 3 and Valkyria Chronicles . Titles that were originally exclusive or recognized with the platform , such as Devil May Cry , Ace Combat , Virtua Fighter , and Monster Hunter , have been released on other platforms . The previous Grand Theft Auto titles were originally timed exclusives on the PlayStation 2 , before making their release on other platforms , such as the Xbox , months later ; however , Grand Theft Auto IV , the latest installment , was released simultaneously on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Announced exclusives titles for the PlayStation 3 such as Assassin 's Creed ; Bladestorm : The Hundred Years ' War , and Fatal Inertia were released on Xbox 360 as well , with the latter making its release on Xbox 360 before the PlayStation 3 version .
The Katamari series , which has long been PlayStation 2 exclusives , found one of the more recent installments , Beautiful Katamari , exclusive to Xbox 360 . These releases fueled rumors and fear that Final Fantasy XIII and Tekken 6 , two highly anticipated exclusive PlayStation 3 games at the time , would also be available for Xbox 360 , the PlayStation 3 's primary competitor and at E3 2008 , it was announced that Final Fantasy XIII would be simultaneously released on the Xbox 360 in Europe and North America ; later on October 8 , 2008 , it was announced that Tekken 6 would also be releasing on the Xbox 360 . After the multiplatform releases of these games , the fifth installment of the Metal Gear series , Metal Gear Solid : Rising , has also been announced for the Xbox 360 ; L.A. Noire , which was announced as an exclusive since the beginning of its development , has also been released for the Xbox 360 ; Dark Souls , the spiritual successor to Demon 's Souls , has also been released on Xbox 360 ; the Persona series , which has a long history of being PlayStation exclusive , found the seventh generation installment , Persona 4 Arena multiplatform ; however , Metal Gear Solid 4 , Yakuza 3 , Tekken 5 : Dark Resurrection ONLINE , and Disgaea 3 : Absence of Justice still remain PlayStation 3 exclusives . Sony has blamed lower @-@ than @-@ expected sales , loss of exclusive titles in the PlayStation 3 software library , its higher price , and stock shortages .
In July 2007 , Sony announced a drop in the price of the console by $ 100 . This measure only applied to the 60 GB models and was exclusive to the United States and Canada , where those models are no longer in production . On October 18 , 2007 , Sony announced a US $ 100 price drop for the 80 GB model and a new US $ 399 40 GB model to launch on November 2 , 2007 with reduced features such as the removal of backward compatibility with PS2 games . Within weeks , Sony announced that sales of the 40 GB and 80 GB models by major retailers had increased 192 % . In November 2008 , Sony launched a $ 499 160 GB model , and on August 18 , 2009 , Sony announced the PS3 Slim . The PS3 slim sold 1 million in under a month . It was then announced that a 250GB slim model was to be released . It was released on September 1 ( or 3 depending on country ) and costs $ 299 , £ 249 and € 299 . In Australia the console will cost A $ 499 , which is A $ 200 less than the standard PS3 . In September 2009 , a $ 299 120 GB Slim Model was released . A $ 349 250 GB Model was later released later in 2009 . In August 2010 , the 160 GB Slim Model was released for $ 299 . The same price for a 120 GB PS3 slim Model . In Japan , the 160GB slim model is also available in white . On September 17 , 2010 , Sony released the 320 GB Slim Model , but it only sold with the PlayStation Move for US $ 399 @.@ 99 .
In September 2012 , Sony announced a new slimmer PS3 redesign ( CECH @-@ 4000 ) , commonly referred to as the " Super Slim " PS3 . It was released in late 2012 it became available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive . The " Super Slim " model is currently the only model in production .
= = = Comparison = = =
^ a Game packages not listed . Bundles , special editions and limited editions may include additional or exchanged items . ^ b There is a verity of other input devices available for all three consoles , including rhythm game controllers , microphones and third @-@ part gamepads / controllers . ^ c All consoles are capable of producing 3D images using anaglyph or frame @-@ compatible systems ( side @-@ by @-@ side / SbS , top and bottom / TaB ) , as these do not require any special output hardware . As such , these display modes are dependent on the software being displayed rather than the console . ^ d Facebook and Twitter apps for Xbox 360 were retired in October 2012 .
= = = = Sales standings = = = =
Worldwide figures are based on data from the manufacturers . The Canada and the United States figures are based on data from the NPD Group , the Japan figures are based on data from Famitsu / Enterbrain , and the United Kingdom figures are based on data from GfK Chart @-@ Track .
= = = = Discontinuations and revisions = = = =
The PlayStation 3 20 GB was discontinued in North America in April 2007 and effectively discontinued in Japan in early 2008 .
The PlayStation 3 60 GB was discontinued in NTSC territories by September 2007 , and replaced with the 80 GB version .
The PlayStation 3 60 GB was effectively discontinued for PAL territories in late 2007 . When the remaining stock in stores was sold , the 40 GB version served as its replacement .
Sony announced before the PS3 launch in Europe that the PlayStation 2 's Emotion Engine CPU would be removed from it for cost savings , and all backwards compatibility would be software @-@ based . This is also the same for the 80 GB model launched in the North American market in 2007 .
An HDMI out port was added to the Premium Xbox 360 in May 2007 .
The Xbox 360 Core system was discontinued and replaced by the " Arcade " version in October 2007 .
The price of the Xbox 360 Premium version was dropped to US $ 299 in North America on July 13 , 2008 . Supplies of the existing 20 GB model were exhausted by early August and it was replaced by an identical model with a 60 GB HDD at a MSRP of US $ 349 .
The PlayStation 3 40 GB was discontinued in all territories in early August 2008 and the new 80 GB version served as its replacement .
The Xbox 360 Arcade 256 MB internal memory SKU was discontinued in all territories in early 2009 and a new 512 MB internal memory SKU still named the Xbox 360 Arcade was released .
The PlayStation 3 Slim was introduced on August 18 , 2009 . At US $ 299 , it is US $ 100 cheaper than the previous model ; it is also approximately ⅓ lighter and more energy efficient . The two original PS3 Slim models , priced at US $ 299 @.@ 99 and US $ 349 @.@ 99 respectively , hold 120 / 250 GB . These were then superseded by 160 GB and 320 GB models , which are priced at US $ 249 @.@ 99 and US $ 299 @.@ 99 respectively .
The black Wii console was released in Japan on August 1 , 2009 and in Europe in November 2009 .
The Wii package for North America has been updated to include a copy of Wii Sports Resort as well as the required Wii MotionPlus accessory to play it , beginning May 9 , 2010 . The console is also available in black .
A special edition red Wii console was released in honor of Super Mario Bros. 25th Anniversary .
The Xbox 360 S was announced at E3 2010 by Microsoft . It is a smaller revision of the Xbox 360 hardware , which includes either a built @-@ in 250 GB hard drive or 4 GB of Flash storage , 802.11n Wi @-@ Fi , a TOSLINK connector , 5 USB ports and an AUX connector for the Kinect sensor device .
The Wii Family Edition was released on October 23 , 2011 . It drops support for GameCube games and accessories , and is designed to sit horizontally .
The Xbox 360 E was revealed and released at E3 2013 on June 10 , 2013 . It featured a new slimmer design , that was quieter than previous models .
= = = = Backward compatibility = = = =
Early models of the Wii are fully backwards compatible with GameCube software and most of its accessories ; the Wii Family Edition and the Wii Mini iterations lack GameCube support . Early versions of the PlayStation 3 and all models of the Xbox 360 only offer partial support and use software emulation for backwards compatibility . Current versions of the PS3 do not offer PlayStation 2 compatibility , though PS1 compatibility is retained . Some models of the first generation of the PS3 offered full backwards compatibility for PS2 games . The Xbox 360 's compatibility is increased through game @-@ specific patches automatically downloaded from Xbox Live or downloaded and burned to a CD or DVD from the Xbox website and the PS3 's compatibility is expanded with firmware updates .
All three consoles provide titles from older consoles for download ; the Xbox 360 through the Xbox Originals service , the PlayStation 3 through the PlayStation Store , and the Wii through the Virtual Console . When purchased , the game is saved to console 's internal memory or , optionally on the Wii , to an inserted SD / SDHC card . Initially the Xbox 360 also provided Xbox Live support for backwards compatible games , but the service has since been discontinued for original Xbox games . No more games will be added to the list of backwards compatible games for the Xbox 360 . In response to the lack of backward compatibility for most PS3s , many popular games have been released for download as PlayStation 2 Classics and other popular series have been updated with gameplay / graphics as high @-@ definition remasters for PlayStation consoles and have been released on Blu @-@ ray Disc or are available for download on the PlayStation Network .
= = = = High definition and enhanced definition video = = = =
Both the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 support 1080p high definition video output . However , the output signal may be protected by digital rights management and may require an HDCP @-@ compliant display if HDMI is used . The Xbox Live Marketplace service and the PlayStation Store offer HD movies , TV shows , movie trailers , and clips for download to the console 's HDD . Other regional PlayStation Stores only allow download of movie trailers and short segment clips . As of November 2009 , the Video Download service present on the American PlayStation Store will be available for select European countries .
While only a small number of games render video in native 1080p , many games can be automatically scaled to output this resolution . The Wii is capable of outputting 480p for the Wii Menu and most games through a component cable , which must be purchased separately .
= = = = Reliability = = = =
In the September 2009 issue of Game Informer magazine , survey results were published in which among nearly 5000 readers who responded , 54 @.@ 2 % of those who owned an Xbox 360 had experienced a console failure for that system , compared with 10 @.@ 6 % for PlayStation 3 , and 6 @.@ 8 % for Wii .
In August 2009 , warranty provider SquareTrade published console failure rate estimates , in which the proportion of its customers reporting a system failure in the first two years is 23 @.@ 7 % for Xbox 360 , 10 @.@ 0 % for PlayStation 3 , and 2 @.@ 7 % for Wii .
= = Handheld systems = =
For video game handhelds , the seventh generation began with the release of the Nintendo DS on November 21 , 2004 . This handheld was based on a design fundamentally different from the Game Boy and other handheld video game systems . The Nintendo DS offered new modes of input over previous generations such as a touch screen , the ability to connect wirelessly using IEEE 802.11b , as well as a microphone to speak to in @-@ game NPCs . On December 12 , 2004 , Sony released its first handheld , PlayStation Portable . The PlayStation Portable was marketed at launch to an above @-@ 25 @-@ year @-@ old or " core gamer " market , while the Nintendo DS proved to be popular with both core gamers and new customers .
Nokia revived its N @-@ Gage platform in the form of a service for selected S60 devices . This new service launched on April 3 , 2008 . Other less @-@ popular handheld systems released during this generation include the Gizmondo ( launched on March 19 , 2005 and discontinued in February 2006 ) and the GP2X ( launched on November 10 , 2005 and discontinued in August 2008 ) . The GP2X Wiz , Pandora , and Gizmondo 2 were scheduled for release in 2009 .
Another aspect of the seventh generation was the beginning of direct competition between dedicated handheld gaming devices , and increasingly powerful PDA / cell phone devices such as the iPhone and iPod Touch , and the latter being aggressively marketed for gaming purposes . Simple games such as Tetris and Solitaire had existed for PDA devices since their introduction , but by 2009 PDAs and phones had grown sufficiently powerful to where complex graphical games could be implemented , with the advantage of distribution over wireless broadband .
Sony announced in 2014 that they had discontinued the production of the PlayStation Portable worldwide , this follows Nintendo 's announcement in 2013 that it had discontinued its original line of DS family devices to move onto the 3DS line .
= = = Handheld comparison = = =
Note : First year of release is the first year of the system 's worldwide availability .
= = Other systems = =
There were also other consoles released during the seventh generation time period . Generally , they are either niche products or less powerful .
= = = Home consoles = = =
= = = Handhelds = = =
Released in China only
Released in South Korea only
= = = Resembles = = =
= = Cloud gaming / Gaming on demand services = =
= = Software = =
= = = Milestone titles = = =
Assassin 's Creed II ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Ubisoft Montreal and Ubisoft was met with widespread critical acclaim . Its success spawned two direct sequels , Assassin 's Creed : Brotherhood , and Assassin 's Creed : Revelations . It garnered Metacritic scores of 91 , 90 , and 86 respectively . The game was praised for its stronger emphasis on open @-@ world exploration and interaction , non @-@ linear gameplay and greater mission variety compared to the first Assassin 's Creed .
Batman : Arkham Asylum ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Rocksteady Studios , Eidos Interactive , and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment has been praised for its innovation , gameplay , and compelling storyline . It won a Guinness World Record for ' Most Critically Acclaimed Superhero Game Ever ' . It broke the record in this category by achieving an average score of 91 @.@ 67 from reviews around the world . Its sequel Batman : Arkham City ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 , Wii U ) would later become even more critically acclaimed than its predecessor , becoming the highest @-@ rated game of 2011 . It received universal acclaim for its narrative , character and world designs , and Batman 's combat and navigation abilities and was the recipient of several awards including : Game of the Year , Best Action Game , Best Action Adventure Game , Best Adventure Game , and Best Original Score from different media outlets .
Bayonetta ( PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Platinum Games and Sega received universal critical acclaim , including perfect scores from Famitsu and Edge , and is considered to have surpassed peers in its genre .
BioShock ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Irrational Games and 2K Games is considered a major influential and artistic game of this generation with a plot that quickly created controversy with the decisions the player makes during the game – such as making moral choices as to whether to save or kill children . BioShock 2 ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) and BioShock Infinite ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) , the franchise 's subsequent titles , have received mostly positive reviews from critics and players alike . BioShock Infinite in particular received universal acclaim upon release , with reviews singling out the game 's plot and visual aesthetics as the main standouts , becoming the highest rated first @-@ person shooter of 2013 . It was also favorably compared to the first BioShock game , with some critics even considering Infinite had surpassed it .
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Infinity Ward and Activision garnered universal critical acclaim and is considered among the best games in its genre . With the release of its direct sequel and every single installment up until the launch of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , the Call of Duty franchise quickly propelled into the fastest and best selling video game franchise of the seventh generation of video games .
Dark Souls ( PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by From Software generated universal critical acclaim upon release . Known for its brutally challenging gameplay , critics consider Dark Souls to be one of the most influential and rewarding video games of the seventh console generation .
The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Bethesda Game Studios and Bethesda Softworks was one of the fastest selling games of all times , and one of the most critically acclaimed of this generation . The art style of the game world drew acclaim from many reviewers and it became the highest rated role @-@ playing game of 2011 .
Gears of War ( PC , Xbox 360 ) by Epic Games and Microsoft Studios had preorder sales that were second only to Halo 2 in the studio 's history . Gears of War was also the first Xbox or Xbox 360 game to sell out and reach the top ten charts in Japan . On November 7 , 2006 — the day that it was released — it became the most popular game on the Xbox Live service , overtaking Halo 2 , which had held the spot since its launch in November 2004 . By January 19 , 2007 , just ten weeks after its debut , over three million units of the game had been sold .
Grand Theft Auto IV ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Rockstar Games is a sandbox @-@ style action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North . The game received universal acclaim , and was so popular that a few Hollywood producers set precedent by beginning to browse video @-@ game release dates to check for conflicts with movie release dates , due to Grand Theft Auto IV 's potential harm to May 2 , 2008 release of Iron Man . As of January 2014 , the PS3 and Xbox 360 version has taken the fourth and seventh positions of GameRankings ' best @-@ rated games of all time , respectively . GTA IV also shattered worldwide weekly sales records of any entertainment media to date by grossing over $ 500 million within the first week of its release .
Grand Theft Auto V ( PS3 , Xbox 360 ) as one of the AAA titles to release initially in the seventh generation of video game consoles , it was highly anticipated preceding its release . It was acclaimed by many reviewers who praised the story , presentation and open world gameplay . It broke industry sales records by earning US $ 800 million in the first 24 hours of its release , and $ 1 billion within its first three days , making it the fastest selling entertainment product in history .
Guitar Hero and Rock Band ( Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Wii ) , music game franchises which used specially designed controllers that mimicked musical instruments and allowed uses to play a large selection of licensed music , were extremely popular during the seventh generation , with over twenty different title releases across various platforms . Activision 's Guitar Hero series sold more than 25 million units with over $ 2 billion in retail revenue , while Harmonix 's Rock Band series has sold over 13 million copies ; both series were augmented with a large volume of downloadable content . However , due to saturation of the market in 2009 along with the economic recess , both series have since ceased publishing , though Harmonix has stated they will bring back Rock Band to the eighth @-@ generation when the time is right .
Halo 3 ( Xbox 360 ) by Bungie and Microsoft Studios broke many first day records , including preorders ( 1 @.@ 7 million + ) , and first day sales ( US $ 170 million + ) , surpassing its predecessor , Halo 2 , in both of these fields . It also featured advanced artificial intelligence ( AI ) technology for enemies , though the player 's allies ' intelligence was less refined .
The Last of Us ( PS3 ) by Naughty Dog and SCE scored over 50 perfect scores from gaming publications . It has been rated as the best PlayStation 3 game of 2013 on Metacritic , and has had one of the biggest launches of the year with 1 @.@ 3 million sold .
The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword ( Wii ) by Nintendo EAD and Nintendo received perfect scores from at least 30 publications and was praised for its intuitive motion @-@ based swordplay .
LittleBigPlanet ( PS3 ) by Media Molecule and Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCE ) was one of the most highly anticipated games of 2008 . Upon release , it received high critical acclaim with a score of 95 / 100 on Metacritic and was the second most highly rated game of that year ( behind Grand Theft Auto IV ) . It was praised by G4 as a game that " not only lives up to the hype but exceeds it so many ways " and IGN called it " nothing short of astounding " . Its sequel , LittleBigPlanet 2 was released in 2011 to similar acclaim and is considered an improvement over its predecessor in almost every aspect .
Mario Kart Wii ( Wii ) by Nintendo EAD and Nintendo received highly positive reviews which commended the wide array of characters , tracks , karts , and distinctive online gameplay . Overall , it is the second best @-@ selling game for Wii at 35 @.@ 53 million copies sold , after Wii Sports as of March 31 , 2014 . Mario Kart Wii is also the best @-@ selling racing game of all time .
Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots ( PS3 ) by Kojima Productions and Konami received widespread critical acclaim upon release , receiving a perfect 10 from IGN , GameSpot and numerous other game reviewers . It also got a 94 % from Metacritic . The game was a financial driving force for Konami , reaching 5 million units sold in the financial year of 2009 . It is often considered one of the best games of the generation by critics and players alike .
Portal and Portal 2 ( PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Valve Corporation were critically acclaimed and have sold millions of copies . Both games are often cited as some of the most influential games of the decade for rejuvenating the " first person puzzle " genre and have been selected , along with a few other titles , to be put in the Museum of Modern Art as an example of a work of art in video games .
Red Dead Redemption ( PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Rockstar is one of the most critically acclaimed games of 2010 . It won numerous Game of the Year Awards and received a 95 / 100 on the review aggregate site Metacritic .
Street Fighter IV ( Arcade , PC , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) by Dimps and Capcom garnered universal critical acclaim and is considered perhaps the finest 2D fighter ever made .
Super Mario Galaxy ( Wii ) by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development ( Nintendo EAD ) and Nintendo sold more copies in its first week , including over 500 @,@ 000 in the US , than any other Mario title in the history of the franchise . As of November 2012 , Galaxy and its sequel , Super Mario Galaxy 2 , are the first and third highest rated games of all time respectively , as listed on GameRankings , along with being the recipients of many game of the year awards .
Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( Wii ) by Sora Ltd. and Nintendo is the first in the series to have third @-@ party characters , with the inclusion of Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog . It dominated sales during its first week in Japan and the United States , selling 820 @,@ 000 in Japan and becoming the fastest @-@ selling video game in Nintendo of America 's history with 1 @.@ 4 million sold in the US . The game was critically acclaimed , receiving 93 % on Metacritic .
Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves ( PS3 ) by Naughty Dog and SCE was the most positively reviewed game of 2009 and is one of the most critically acclaimed games of the generation . It received universal critical acclaim with a Metacritic score of 96 out of 100 , a GameRankings score of 96 @.@ 38 % . At E3 2009 , Uncharted 2 won the most E3 awards of any game . Critics praised almost every aspect of the game ranging from high quality music and sound to graphics .
Wii Sports ( Wii ) by Nintendo EAD and Nintendo has been attributed as a major factor in the Wii 's worldwide success . The game , along with Wii Fit , has been cited as attracting a more broad mainstream audience . This is a rarity among seventh generation games , as developers tend to try to attract young men . It has also been cited as one game that can provide a bonding experience among family members , and as a means of exercising and losing weight when played regularly . As of March 31 , 2014 , the game has sold 82 @.@ 54 million copies worldwide — including bundled copies , making it the best @-@ selling Wii game and the best @-@ selling video game of all time .
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= The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power =
" The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " is an article , written in 1991 by U.S. investigative journalist Richard Behar , which is highly critical of Scientology .
It was first published by Time magazine on May 6 , 1991 , as an eight @-@ page cover story , and was later published in Reader 's Digest in October 1991 . Behar had previously published an article on Scientology in Forbes magazine . He stated that he was investigated by attorneys and private investigators affiliated with the Church of Scientology while researching the Time article , and that investigators contacted his friends and family as well . Behar 's article covers topics including L. Ron Hubbard and the development of Scientology , its controversies over the years and history of litigation , conflict with psychiatry and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service , the suicide of Noah Lottick , its status as a religion , and its business dealings .
After the article 's publication , the Church of Scientology mounted a public relations campaign to address issues in the piece . It took out advertisements in USA Today for twelve weeks , and Church leader David Miscavige was interviewed by Ted Koppel on Nightline about what he considered to be an objective bias by the article 's author . Miscavige alleged that the article was actually driven by the company Eli Lilly , because of Scientology 's efforts against the drug Prozac . The Church of Scientology brought a libel suit against Time Warner and Behar , and sued Reader 's Digest in multiple countries in Europe in an attempt to stop the article 's publication there . The suit against Time Warner was dismissed in 1996 , and the Church of Scientology 's petition for a writ of certiorari to the Supreme Court of the United States was denied in 2001 .
Behar received awards in honor of his work on the article , including the Gerald Loeb Award , the Worth Bingham Prize , and the Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award . The article has had ramifications in the current treatment of Scientology in the media , with some publications theorizing that journalists are wary of the litigation that Time Warner went through . The article has been cited by Anderson Cooper on CNN , in a story on Panorama 's 2007 program " Scientology and Me " on the BBC , and has been used as a reference for background on the history of Scientology , in books from both the cult and new religious movement perspectives .
= = Research for the article = =
Before penning " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " , Behar had written a 1986 article in Forbes magazine , " The Prophet and Profits of Scientology " , which reported on the Church of Scientology 's business dealings and L. Ron Hubbard 's financial success . Behar wrote that during research for " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " , he and a Time contributing editor were themselves investigated by ten attorneys and six private investigators affiliated with the Church of Scientology . According to Behar , investigators contacted his friends and previous coworkers to ask them if he had a history of tax or drug problems , and obtained a copy of his personal credit report that had been obtained illegally from a national credit bureau . Behar conducted 150 interviews in the course of his research for the article .
Behar wrote that the motive of these operatives was to " threaten , harass and discredit him " . He later learned that the Church of Scientology had assigned its head private investigator to direct the Church 's investigation into Behar . Anderson Cooper 360 ° reported that Behar had been contacted by Church of Scientology attorneys numerous times while doing research on the article . The parents of Noah Lottick , a Scientologist who had committed suicide , cooperated with Time and Reader 's Digest .
= = Synopsis = =
The full title of the article is " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power : Ruined lives . Lost fortunes . Federal crimes . Scientology poses as a religion but is really a ruthless global scam — and aiming for the mainstream " . The article reported on the founding of the Church of Scientology by L. Ron Hubbard and controversies involving the Church and its affiliated business operations , as well as the suicide of a Scientologist . The article related the May 11 , 1990 , suicide of Dr. Edward Lottick 's son Noah Antrim Lottick . Lottick was a Russian studies student who had taken a series of Scientology courses ; he died after jumping from a hotel tenth floor window . The Church of Scientology and Lottick 's family have differing positions on the effect Scientology coursework had on him . While none of the parties assigned blame , they expressed misgivings about his death . Initially , his father had thought that Scientology was similar to Dale Carnegie 's self @-@ improvement techniques ; however , after his ordeal , the elder Lottick came to believe that the organization is a " school for psychopaths " . Mike Rinder , the head of the Church of Scientology 's Office of Special Affairs and a Church spokesman , stated " I think Ed Lottick should look in the mirror ... I think Ed Lottick made his son 's life intolerable " .
The article outlined a brief history of Scientology , discussing Hubbard 's initial background as a science fiction writer , and cited a California judge who had deemed Hubbard a " pathological liar " . The Church of Scientology 's litigation history was described , in addition to its conflicts with the Internal Revenue Service , with countries regarding whether or not to accept it as a religion , and its position against psychiatry . Behar wrote of the high costs involved in participation in the Church of Scientology , what he referred to as " front groups and financial scams " , and harassment of critics . He estimated that the Church of Scientology paid US $ 20 million annually to over one hundred attorneys . Behar maintained that though the Church of Scientology portrays itself as a religion , it was actually a " hugely profitable global racket " which intimidated members and critics in a Mafia @-@ like manner .
Cynthia Kisser , then director of the Cult Awareness Network , was quoted : " Scientology is quite likely the most ruthless , the most classically terroristic , the most litigious and the most lucrative cult the country has ever seen . No cult extracts more money from its members " .
= = Post @-@ publication = =
= = = Church of Scientology 's response = = =
The Church of Scientology responded to the publication of " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " by taking out color full @-@ page ads in USA Today in May and June 1991 , on every weekday for twelve weeks , denouncing the Time magazine cover article . Two official Church of Scientology responses were titled " Facts vs. Fiction , A Correction of Falsehoods Contained in the May 6 , 1991 , Issues of Time Magazine " , and " The Story That Time Couldn 't Tell " . Prior to the advertising campaign , Scientologists distributed 88 @-@ page bound booklets which disputed points from Behar 's article . The " Fact vs. Fiction " piece was a 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 0 @.@ 64 cm ) booklet , which criticized Behar 's article and asserted " Behar 's article omits the information on the dozens of community service programs conducted by Scientologists ... which have been acknowledged by community officials " . One of the advertisements in USA Today accused Time of promoting Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany , and featured a 1936 issue of Time which had Hitler 's picture on the front cover . The Church of Scientology sent out a news release condemning Time 's " horrible history of supporting fascism " , and said that the article was written because Time had been pressured by " vested interests " . When asked by the St. Petersburg Times whether this was the case , Time Executive Editor Richard Duncan responded " Good Lord , no " . Heber Jentzsch , at the time president of Church of Scientology International , issued a four @-@ page news release which stated " Advertising is the only way the church could be assured of getting its message and its side of the story out to the public without the same vested interests behind the Time article distorting it " .
After the advertising run critiquing Time magazine in USA Today had completed , the Church of Scientology mounted a $ 3 million public relations campaign about Scientology in USA Today , in June 1991 . The Church of Scientology placed a 48 @-@ page advertising supplement in 1 @.@ 8 million copies of USA Today . In a statement to the St. Petersburg Times , Scientology spokesman Richard Haworth explained " What we are trying to do is put the actual facts of Dianetics and Scientology out there " .
In response to the Church of Scientology 's claims of inaccuracies in the article , a lawyer for Time responded " We 've reviewed all of their allegations , and find nothing wrong with the Time story . " In June 1991 , Newsweek reported that staffers for Time said they had received calls from a man claiming to be a paralegal for Time , who asked them if they had signed a confidentiality form about the article . Time editors sent staffers a computer memo , warning them about calls related to the article , and staffers told Newsweek that " sources named in the story say detectives have asked about their talks with Time " . A Church of Scientology spokesman called the claims " scurrilous " .
On February 14 , 1992 , Scientology leader David Miscavige gave Ted Koppel his first interview on Scientology on the ABC News program Nightline . The program noted that Scientology has vocal critics and cited Behar 's 1991 article . Behar appeared on the program and gave his opinion of why individuals join Scientology , stating that the organization 's " ulterior motive " is really to get people to take high @-@ priced audit counseling . Behar stated on the program that he had evidence that members of the Church of Scientology had obtained his personal phone records . Later in the program , Koppel questioned Miscavige on the Church of Scientology 's response to the Time magazine article , particularly the $ 3 million the church spent advertising in USA Today . Miscavige explained that the first three weeks of the advertising campaign was meant to correct falsehoods from the Time article , and the rest of the twelve @-@ week campaign was dedicated to informing the public about Scientology . Koppel asked Miscavige what specifically had upset him about the Time article , and Miscavige called Behar " a hater " . Miscavige noted that Behar had written an article on Scientology and the Internal Revenue Service three years before he began work on the Time piece , and made allegations that Behar had attempted to get two Scientologists kidnapped . When Koppel questioned Miscavige further on this , Miscavige said that individuals had contacted Behar after an earlier article , and Behar had told them to " kidnap Scientologists out " . Koppel pressed further , noting that this was a serious charge to make , and asked Miscavige if his allegations were accurate , why he had not pressed charges for attempted kidnapping . Miscavige said Koppel was " missing the issue " , and said that his real point was that he thought the article was not an objective piece .
Miscavige alleged on Nightline that the article itself was published as a result of a request by Eli Lilly and Company , because of " the damage we had caused to their killer drug Prozac " . When Koppel asked Miscavige if he had affidavits or evidence to this effect , Miscavige responded " You think they 'd admit it ? " Miscavige stated that " Eli Lilly ordered a reprint of 750 @,@ 000 copies of Time magazine before it came out " , and that his attempts to investigate the matter with Eli Lilly and associated advertising companies were not successful .
= = = Litigation = = =
The Church brought a libel lawsuit against Time Warner and Behar , seeking damages of $ 416 million . The Church alleged false and defamatory statements were made concerning the Church of Scientology International in the Time article . More specifically , the Church of Scientology 's court statements claimed that Behar had been refining an anti @-@ Scientology focus since his 1986 article in Forbes , which included gathering negative materials about Scientology , and " never accepting anything a Scientologist said and uniformly ignoring anything positive he learned about the Church " . In its initial complaint filing , the Church quoted portions of the Behar article that it alleged were false and defamatory , including the quote from Cynthia Kisser , and Behar 's own assertion that Scientology was a " global racket " that intimidated individuals in a " Mafia @-@ like manner " .
Noah Lottick 's parents submitted affidavits in the case , in which they " affirmed the accuracy of each statement in the article " ; Edward Lottick " concluded that Scientology therapies were manipulations , and that no Scientology staff members attended the funeral " of their son . During the litigation , the Church of Scientology attempted to subpoena Behar in a separate ongoing lawsuit with the Internal Revenue Service , and accused a federal magistrate of leaking information to him . Behar was questioned for over 190 hours during 30 days of depositions with Scientology attorneys in the libel case . One question was about Behar 's life in his parents ' home while he was still inside the womb . St. Petersburg Times explained that this question was prompted by Scientology teachings that certain problems come from prenatal memories . Behar told the St. Petersburg Times he " felt it was extremely excessive " . In a countersuit , Behar brought up the issues of Church of Scientology private investigators and what he viewed as harassment . By July 1996 , all counts of the libel suit had been dismissed . In the course of the litigation through 1996 , Time Warner had spent $ 7 @.@ 3 million in legal defense costs . The Church of Scientology also sued several individuals quoted in the Time article .
The Church of Scientology sued Reader 's Digest in Switzerland , France , Italy , the Netherlands , and Germany for publishing a condensed version of the Time story . The only court to provide a temporary injunction was in Lausanne , Switzerland . In France , Italy , and the Netherlands , the courts either dismissed the Church of Scientology 's motions , or set injunction hearings far beyond the date of actual publication . The company defied the injunction and mailed copies of the article , " Scientology : A Dangerous Cult Goes Mainstream " , to their 326 @,@ 000 Swiss subscribers . Worldwide editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Reader 's Digest , Kenneth Tomlinson , told The New York Times that " a publisher cannot accept a court prohibiting distribution of a serious journalistic piece . ... The court order violates freedom of speech and freedom of the press " . The Church of Scientology subsequently filed a criminal complaint against the Digest in Lausanne , and Mike Rinder stated it was in blatant violation of the law . By defying the Swiss court ban , the Reader 's Digest risked a fine of about $ 3 @,@ 400 , as well as a potential three months ' jail time for the Swiss Digest editor @-@ in @-@ chief . A hearing on the injunction was set for November 11 , 1991 , and the injunction was later lifted by the Swiss court .
In January 2001 , a United States federal appeals court upheld the dismissal of the Church of Scientology International 's case against Time Warner . In its opinion , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled that Time Warner had not published " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " with an actual intent of malice , a standard that must be met for libel cases involving individuals and public groups . On October 1 , 2001 , the Supreme Court of the United States refused to consider reinstating the church 's libel case Church of Scientology International v. Time Warner Inc . , 00 @-@ 1683 . Time Warner said it refused to be " intimidated by the church 's apparently limitless legal resources . " In arguments presented to the Supreme Court , the Church of Scientology acknowledged that church officials had " committed improper acts " in the past , but also claimed that : " allegations of past misconduct were false and distorted , the result of the misunderstanding , suspicion and prejudice that typically greet a new religion " . Of the rulings for Time Warner , the Church of Scientology complained that they " provide a safe harbor for biased journalism " . Behar commented on the Church of Scientology 's legal defeat , and said that the lawsuit had a chilling effect : " It 's a tremendous defeat for Scientology ... But of course their doctrine states that the purpose of a suit is to harass , not to win , so from that perspective they hurt us all . They 've had a real chilling effect on journalism , both before and after my piece " .
= = = Awards = = =
As a result of writing the piece , Behar was presented with the 1992 Gerald Loeb Award for distinguished business and financial journalism , the Worth Bingham Prize , the Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors , awarded to " those who have demonstrated singular commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice , " and the Cult Awareness Network 's Leo J. Ryan Award , in honor of Congressman Leo J. Ryan . Paulette Cooper was also awarded the 1992 Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award by the American Society of Journalists and Authors , for her book The Scandal of Scientology . This was the only time in the history of the American Society of Journalists and Authors that the award was presented to more than one journalist in the same year .
In a February 1992 issue of Time , editor Elizabeth Valk congratulated Behar on his Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award , stating " Needless to say , we are delighted and proud " . Valk noted that the honor had only been awarded seven times in the previous seventeen years of its existence . Managing editor Henry Muller also congratulated Behar in an April 1992 issue of Time .
= = Analysis = =
Several authors have commented on the article and used it as a reference for background on Scientology . Not all analysis of the article has been positive . David Healy 's book criticizing the pharmaceutical industry , Let Them Eat Prozac , was critical : " The Time article was way over the top . Even Saddam Hussein was portrayed less badly . " Healy addressed the article 's claim that lawsuits were one of the Church 's key tactics against enemies . He noted that the Citizens Commission on Human Rights ( CCHR ) , a Church of Scientology affiliated group discussed in the article , had filed a petition with the Food and Drug Administration inquiring what it was going to do about Prozac . Healy dismissed the notion that CCHR engaged in " orchestrated campaigns " , writing that very few of the 50 lawsuits filed against Prozac were related to the Church of Scientology . Mark Silk criticized Behar 's article in his book Unsecular Media : Making News of Religion in America . Silk classified the work among what he referred to as the " false @-@ prophecy topos " , and characterized Behar 's account of Noah Lottick 's suicide as an " atrocity tale " .
Insane Therapy noted that Scientology " achieved more notoriety ... with the publication of the journalist Richard Behar 's highly critical article " . Larson 's Book of World Religions and Alternative Spirituality described the cover design of the article as it appeared in Time , writing that it " shouted " the headline from the magazine cover . In a 2005 piece , Salon.com magazine noted that for those interested in the Church of Scientology , the Time article still remains a " milestone in news coverage " , and that those who back the Church believe it was " an outrageously biased account " .
= = Legacy = =
The Church of Scientology 's use of private investigators was cited in a 1998 article in the Boston Herald , and compared to Behar 's experiences when researching " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " . After the paper ran a five @-@ part series of critical articles in 1998 , Church of Scientology President Heber Jentzsch confirmed that a private investigative firm was hired to look into the personal life of Joseph Mallia , the reporter who wrote the articles . In a later piece titled " Church of Scientology probes Herald reporter — Investigation follows pattern of harassment " this investigation was likened to Behar 's assertions of harassment , as well as other reporters ' experiences from 1974 , 1988 , and 1997 .
Because of the history of conflict between Reader 's Digest and Scientology , the writer of a 2005 cover story on Tom Cruise agreed to certain demands , including giving Scientology issues equal play in the writer 's profile of Cruise , submitting questions for Cruise to Church of Scientology handlers , and sending the writer of the article to a one @-@ day Church immersion course . Also in 2005 , an article in Salon questioned whether the tactics of the Church 's litigation and private investigations of Time Warner and other media sources had succeeded in decreasing the amount of investigative journalism pieces on Scientology in the press . A 2005 article in The Sunday Times cited the article , and came to the determination that the Church of Scientology 's lawsuit against Time Warner " served to warn off other potential investigations " , and that " The chill evidently lingers still " .
" The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " continues to be used today by journalists in the media , as a reference for historical information on the Church of Scientology . In April 2007 , CNN anchor Anderson Cooper interviewed former Office of Special Affairs director Mike Rinder , in a live piece on Anderson Cooper 360 ° titled " Inside Scientology " . The CNN story was prompted by the May 2007 airing of a BBC Panorama investigative program , " Scientology and Me " . In the interview , Anderson Cooper quoted directly from " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power " article , when asking Rinder about the history of Operation Snow White , and if those tactics were currently used by the Church . Rinder answered by stating that the individuals involved with Operation Snow White were no longer involved in Church of Scientology activities , and that the incident was " ancient history " . Cooper then again referenced the Time magazine article noting that Behar asserted that he was illegally investigated by Scientology contacts during research for his article . Cooper questioned Rinder on the dismissed lawsuit against Time Warner , and Rinder acknowledged that all of the Church of Scientology 's appeals against Time Warner were eventually rejected .
The article has been cited as a reference used for background on Scientology in books which take a critical look at cults such as Larson 's Book of World Religions and Alternative Spirituality and Insane Therapy : Portrait of a Psychotherapy Cult , those that analyze new religious movements including Understanding New Religious Movements and The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements , and in a work that includes researchers from both schools of thought , Misunderstanding Cults : Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field .
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= Germanium =
Germanium is a chemical element with symbol Ge and atomic number 32 . It is a lustrous , hard , grayish @-@ white metalloid in the carbon group , chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon . Pure germanium is a semiconductor with an appearance similar to elemental silicon . Like silicon , germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with oxygen in nature . Unlike silicon , it is too reactive to be found naturally on Earth in the free ( elemental ) state .
Because it seldom appears in high concentration , germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry . Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth 's crust . In 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties from its position on his periodic table , and called the element ekasilicon . Nearly two decades later , in 1886 , Clemens Winkler found the new element along with silver and sulfur , in a rare mineral called argyrodite . Although the new element somewhat resembled arsenic and antimony in appearance , the combining ratios in compounds agreed with Mendeleev 's predictions for a relative of silicon . Winkler named the element after his country , Germany . Today , germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite ( the primary ore of zinc ) , though germanium is also recovered commercially from silver , lead , and copper ores .
Germanium " metal " ( isolated germanium ) is used as a semiconductor in transistors and various other electronic devices . Historically , the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium . Today , the amount of germanium produced for semiconductor electronics is one fiftieth the amount of ultra @-@ high purity silicon produced for the same . Presently , the major end uses are fibre @-@ optic systems , infrared optics , solar cell applications , and light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Germanium compounds are also used for polymerization catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of nanowires . This element forms a large number of organometallic compounds , such as tetraethylgermane , useful in organometallic chemistry .
Germanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism . Some complex organic germanium compounds are being investigated as possible pharmaceuticals , though none have yet proven successful . Similar to silicon and aluminum , natural germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral toxicity . However , synthetic soluble germanium salts are nephrotoxic , and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with halogens and hydrogen are irritants and toxins .
= = History = =
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements in 1869 , the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown chemical elements , including one that would fill a gap in the carbon family in his Periodic Table of the Elements , located between silicon and tin . Because of its position in his Periodic Table , Mendeleev called it ekasilicon ( Es ) , and he estimated its atomic weight to be about 72 @.@ 0 .
In mid @-@ 1885 , at a mine near Freiberg , Saxony , a new mineral was discovered and named argyrodite because of the high silver content . The chemist Clemens Winkler analyzed this new mineral , which proved to be a combination of silver , sulfur , and a new element . Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to antimony . Before Winkler published his results on the new element , he decided that he would name his element neptunium , since the recent discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence . However , the name " neptunium " had already been given to another proposed chemical element ( though not the element that today bears the name neptunium , which was discovered in 1940 ) . So instead , Winkler named the new element germanium ( from the Latin word , Germania , for Germany ) in honor of his homeland . Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag8GeS6 .
Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony , its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration , but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev 's predicted element " ekasilicon " confirmed that place on the periodic table . With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony , Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887 . He also determined an atomic weight of 72 @.@ 32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride ( GeCl
4 ) , while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72 @.@ 3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the element .
Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium , including fluorides , chlorides , sulfides , dioxide , and tetraethylgermane ( Ge ( C2H5 ) 4 ) , the first organogermane . The physical data from those compounds — which corresponded well with Mendeleev 's predictions — made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev 's idea of element periodicity . Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler 's data :
Until the late 1930s , germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal . Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an electronic semiconductor were recognized . During World War II , small amounts of germanium were used in some special electronic devices , mostly diodes . The first major use was the point @-@ contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse detection during the War . The first silicon @-@ germanium alloys were obtained in 1955 . Before 1945 , only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year , but by the end of the 1950s , the annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons .
The development of the germanium transistor in 1948 opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics . From 1950 through the early 1970s , this area provided an increasing market for germanium , but then high @-@ purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors , diodes , and rectifiers . For example , the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors . Silicon has superior electrical properties , but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor electronics .
Meanwhile , the demand for germanium for fiber optic communication networks , infrared night vision systems , and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically . These end uses represented 85 % of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000 . The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material , calling for a 146 ton ( 132 t ) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987 .
Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources , while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and quartz . While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $ 10 per kg , the price of germanium was almost $ 800 per kg .
= = Characteristics = =
Under standard conditions , germanium is a brittle , silvery @-@ white , semi @-@ metallic element . This form constitutes an allotrope known as α @-@ germanium , which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure , the same as diamond . At pressures above 120 kbar , it becomes the allotrope β @-@ germanium with the same structure as β @-@ tin . Like silicon , gallium , bismuth , antimony , and water , germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies ( i.e. freezes ) from the molten state .
Germanium is a semiconductor . Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010 , making it one of the purest materials ever obtained . The first metallic material discovered ( in 2005 ) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium , uranium , and rhodium .
Pure germanium spontaneously extrudes very long screw dislocations , and this is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium ; depending on what they eventually touch , they may lead to an electrical short .
= = = Chemistry = = =
Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250 ° C. Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ( [ GeO
3 ] 2 − ) . Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state + 4 although many + 2 compounds are known . Other oxidation states are rare : + 3 is found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6 , and + 3 and + 1 are found on the surface of oxides , or negative oxidation states in germanes , such as − 4 in GeH
4 . Germanium cluster anions ( Zintl ions ) such as Ge42 − , Ge94 − , Ge92 − , [ ( Ge9 ) 2 ] 6 − have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand . The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers — similar to the ozonides O3 − .
Two oxides of germanium are known : germanium dioxide ( GeO
2 , germania ) and germanium monoxide , ( GeO ) . The dioxide , GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium disulfide ( GeS
2 ) , and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates . The monoxide , germanous oxide , can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal . The dioxide ( and the related oxides and germanates ) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light , but transparency to infrared light . Bismuth germanate , Bi4Ge3O12 , ( BGO ) is used as a scintillator .
Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known , such as the disulfide ( GeS
2 ) , diselenide ( GeSe
2 ) , and the monosulfide ( GeS ) , selenide ( GeSe ) , and telluride ( GeTe ) . GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge ( IV ) . The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides . Nevertheless , it is not soluble in acidic water , which allowed Winkler to discover the element . By heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen , the monosulfide ( GeS ) is formed , which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster , and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis . Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur , germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates .
Four tetrahalides are known . Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid , GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids . For example , germanium tetrachloride , GeCl4 , is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83 @.@ 1 ° C by heating the metal with chlorine . All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide . GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds . All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids . Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula GenCl2n + 2 are known . The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure .
Germane ( GeH4 ) is a compound similar in structure to methane . Polygermanes — compounds that are similar to alkanes — with formula GenH2n + 2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known . The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues . GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3 − anion . The germanium hydrohalides with one , two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids .
The first organogermanium compound was synthesized by Winkler in 1887 ; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane ( Ge ( C
2H
5 )
4 ) . Organogermanes of the type R4Ge ( where R is an alkyl ) such as tetramethylgermane ( Ge ( CH
3 )
4 ) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles . Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane ( ( CH
3 )
2CHCH
2GeH
3 ) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications . Many germanium reactive intermediates are known : germyl free radicals , germylenes ( similar to carbenes ) , and germynes ( similar to carbynes ) . The organogermanium compound 2 @-@ carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s , and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti @-@ tumor qualities .
Using a ligand called Eind ( 1 @,@ 1 @,@ 3 @,@ 3 @,@ 5 @,@ 5 @,@ 7 @,@ 7 @-@ octaethyl @-@ s @-@ hydrindacen @-@ 4 @-@ yl ) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen ( germanone ) .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Germanium occurs in 5 natural isotopes : 70Ge , 72Ge , 73Ge , 74Ge , and 76Ge . Of these , 76Ge is very slightly radioactive , decaying by double beta decay with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 78 × 1021 years . 74Ge is the most common isotope , having a natural abundance of approximately 36 % . 76Ge is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7 % . When bombarded with alpha particles , the isotope 72Ge will generate stable 77Se , releasing high energy electrons in the process . Because of this , it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries .
At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized , ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89 . The most stable of these is 68Ge , decaying by electron capture with a half @-@ life of 270 @.@ 95 days . The least stable is 60Ge , with a half @-@ life of 30 ms . While most of germanium 's radioisotopes decay by beta decay , 61Ge and 64Ge decay by β + delayed proton emission . 84Ge through 87Ge isotopes also exhibit minor β − delayed neutron emission decay paths .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Germanium is created by stellar nucleosynthesis , mostly by the s @-@ process in asymptotic giant branch stars . The s @-@ process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars . Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars and in the atmosphere of Jupiter .
Germanium 's abundance in the Earth 's crust is approximately 1 @.@ 6 ppm . Only a few minerals like argyrodite , briartite , germanite , and renierite contain appreciable amounts of germanium , and none in mineable deposits . Some zinc @-@ copper @-@ lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate . An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams , discovered by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits . The highest concentration ever found was in Hartley coal ash with as much as 1 @.@ 6 % germanium . The coal deposits near Xilinhaote , Inner Mongolia , contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium .
= = Production = =
About 118 tonnes of germanium was produced in 2011 worldwide , mostly in China ( 80 t ) , Russia ( 5 t ) and United States ( 3 t ) . Germanium is recovered as a by @-@ product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0 @.@ 3 % , especially from low @-@ temperature sediment @-@ hosted , massive Zn – Pb – Cu ( – Ba ) deposits and carbonate @-@ hosted Zn – Pb deposits . A recent study found that at least 10 @,@ 000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves , particularly those hosted by Mississippi @-@ Valley type deposits , while at least 112 @,@ 000 t will be found in coal reserves . In 2007 35 % of the demand was met by recycled germanium .
While it is produced mainly from sphalerite , it is also found in silver , lead , and copper ores . Another source of germanium is fly ash of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium . Russia and China used this as a source for germanium . Russia 's deposits are located in the far east of Sakhalin Island , and northeast of Vladivostok . The deposits in China are located mainly in the lignite mines near Lincang , Yunnan ; coal is also mined near Xilinhaote , Inner Mongolia .
The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic ; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air in a process known as roasting :
GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2
Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced , while the rest is converted to germanates , which are then leached ( together with zinc ) from the cinder by sulfuric acid . After neutralization , only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate . After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process , the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time . The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium tetrachloride , which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation :
GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O
GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2
Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide ( GeO2 ) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed . The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass . It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen , producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production :
GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O
The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon :
GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2
= = Applications = =
The major end uses for germanium in 2007 , worldwide , were estimated to be : 35 % for fiber @-@ optics , 30 % infrared optics , 15 % polymerization catalysts , and 15 % electronics and solar electric applications . The remaining 5 % went into such uses as phosphors , metallurgy , and chemotherapy .
= = = Optics = = =
The notable properties of germania ( GeO2 ) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion . These make it especially useful for wide @-@ angle camera lenses , microscopy , and the core part of optical fibers . It has replaced titania as the dopant for silica fiber , eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle . At the end of 2002 , the fiber optics industry consumed 60 % of the annual germanium use in the United States , but this is less than 10 % of worldwide consumption . GeSbTe is a phase change material used for its optic properties , such as that used in rewritable DVDs .
Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths , it is an important infrared optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows . It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron range for passive thermal imaging and for hot @-@ spot detection in military , mobile night vision , and fire fighting applications . It is used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive infrared detectors . It has a very high refractive index ( 4 @.@ 0 ) and must be coated with anti @-@ reflection agents . Particularly , a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond @-@ like carbon ( DLC ) , refractive index 2 @.@ 0 , is a good match and produces a diamond @-@ hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse .
= = = Electronics = = =
Silicon @-@ germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high @-@ speed integrated circuits . Circuits utilizing the properties of Si @-@ SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone . Silicon @-@ germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide ( GaAs ) in wireless communications devices . The SiGe chips , with high @-@ speed properties , can be made with low @-@ cost , well @-@ established production techniques of the silicon chip industry .
Solar panels are a major use of germanium . Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high @-@ efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications . High @-@ brightness LEDs , used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens , are an important application .
Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants , germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells . The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells .
Germanium @-@ on @-@ insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips . Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps and solid @-@ state light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the " fuzz " -tone from the early rock and roll era , most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face .
= = = Other uses = = =
Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the production of polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) . The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan . In the United States , germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts .
Due to the similarity between silica ( SiO2 ) and germanium dioxide ( GeO2 ) , the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be replaced by GeO2 .
In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys . In sterling silver alloys , for instance , it reduces firescale , increases tarnish resistance , and improves precipitation hardening . A tarnish @-@ proof silver alloy trademarked Argentium contains 1 @.@ 2 % germanium .
Semiconductor detectors made of single crystal high @-@ purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources — for example in airport security . Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X @-@ ray diffraction . The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X @-@ ray applications . Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter . Germanium crystals are also used in X @-@ ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus , chlorine and sulfur .
= = = Germanium and health = = =
Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals . Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact . This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials , and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested . For similar reasons , end @-@ use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard . Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous ( see precautions , below ) .
Germanium supplements , made from both organic and inorganic germanium , have been marketed as an alternative medicine capable of treating leukemia and lung cancer . There is , however , no medical evidence of benefit ; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful .
Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non @-@ FDA @-@ allowed injectable solutions . Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first , notably the citrate @-@ lactate salt , resulted in some cases of renal dysfunction , hepatic steatosis , and peripheral neuropathy in individuals using them over a long term . Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals , several of whom died , were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels . A more recent organic form , beta @-@ carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide ( propagermanium ) , has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects .
U.S. Food and Drug Administration research has concluded that inorganic germanium , when used as a nutritional supplement , " presents potential human health hazard " .
Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals , but have toxic effects against certain bacteria .
= = Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds = =
Some of germanium 's artificially @-@ produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure . For example , germanium chloride and germane ( GeH4 ) are a liquid and gas , respectively , that can be very irritating to the eyes , skin , lungs , and throat .
= = Future = =
As of the year 2000 , about 15 % of United States consumption of germanium was used for infrared optics technology and 50 % for fiber @-@ optics . Over the past 20 years , infrared use has consistently decreased ; fiber optic demand , however , is slowly increasing . In America , 30 – 50 % of fiber optic current lines in America are unused dark fiber , sparking discussion of over @-@ production and a future reduction in demand . Worldwide , demand is increasing dramatically as countries such as China are installing fiber optic telecommunication lines throughout the country .
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= Djibouti francolin =
The Djibouti francolin ( Pternistis ochropectus ) is one of over forty species of francolins , a group of birds in the Phasianidae family . It is critically endangered and found only in Djibouti , a nation in the Horn of Africa . This species is grayish @-@ brown overall with white stripes and streaks on its underparts which become finer towards the upperparts . It has black markings on the head and a gray crown and has a short tail . It is 35 cm ( 1 @.@ 15 ft ) in length , and weighs 940 g ( 33 oz ) .
Its natural habitat is high altitude subtropical or tropical dry forests composed primarily of African juniper . However , the juniper forests preferred by the francolin are dying , so it may be found in other habitats , such as box @-@ tree forests . This bird is only known from two locations in Djibouti , one of which is largely unsurveyed . It can be found in small groups and is extremely shy . It is known to feed on berries , seeds , and termites , and it breeds between December and February . It is considered a critically endangered species because it underwent a 90 % population decline in twenty years . The degrading of its juniper habitat through man @-@ made disturbances , such as overgrazing , is a major threat to the francolin 's survival . Ongoing conservation work includes the restoration of some juniper forest , and surveys to obtain accurate population counts and to raise awareness .
= = Taxonomy = =
Birds in the Phasianidae family , such as the Djibouti francolin , are Old World ground @-@ dwelling gamefowl , many of which are found in forests . Francolins are terrestrial birds of the that feed on insects , vegetable matter , and seeds . Most species have a hooked upper beak , tails with fourteen feathers , and in many of them the male has tarsal spurs . Of the 41 extant species , 36 are found solely in Africa .
The Djibouti francolin was originally collected on February 22 , 1952 by Captain Albospeyre , the military commander of Tadjoura in the Forêt du Day . It was then described by French ornithologists Jean Dorst and Christian Jouanin later that year as Francolinus ochropectus in L 'Oiseau et la Revue française d 'Ornithologie . Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek ochros , which means " ochre " , and the Latin pectus , meaning " breast " . Other authors have since proposed moving the species to other genera , including Oreocolinus and Pternistis , the latter a move proposed in a recent attempt to reorganize Francolinus , and one which would include 23 other francolins . Though some still maintain all these in Francolinus , the split into multiple genera is becoming more widespread .
The distinctness of this species has been described as weak by some authors , although its status as a full species has been maintained . It forms a superspecies with Jackson 's francolin , handsome francolin , chestnut @-@ naped francolin , and Erckel 's francolin ; it is particularly closely related to the latter two species and is intermediate to them in both location and morphological features . The Djibouti francolin has no recognized subspecies .
This species has formerly been named as the ochre @-@ breasted francolin , the Tadjoura francolin , and the pale @-@ bellied francolin . To the native people of Djibouti , it is known as the kukaaqe .
= = Description = =
This francolin is a large , rotund bird of approximately 35 cm ( 1 @.@ 15 ft ) in length and 940 g ( 33 oz ) in weight . It is grayish @-@ brown overall with white stripes and streaks on its underparts which become finer toward the head . The bird is darker on its back than on its underside . The nape has a hint of rufous , while the top of the head is gray . The forehead , lore , and eye stripe form a black mask , and the chin and throat are whitish . The eyes are brown . The feathers on the body and neck have a gold or straw @-@ colored center that is bordered with dark brown and edged in white . The tail is short . The bill is black with some yellow on the lower mandible , and the Djibouti francolin 's legs are a greenish @-@ yellow .
The sexes are similar , although the male averages slightly larger than the female and has two prominent spurs on the legs , whereas the female is virtually unspurred . The female also has more rufous in its tail . The juvenile resembles the adults , but is duller , with buff barring , rather than streaking , on the underparts .
The call of this species is a rattling erk erk erk @-@ kkkkkkkk that descends into a chuckling gurgle . Feeding birds may give a low conversational clucking .
No other francolin share this bird 's restricted range ( although the yellow @-@ necked francolin occurs elsewhere in Djibouti ) so it is unlikely to be confused with any other species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Djibouti francolin is endemic to Djibouti , a nation in eastern Africa , and is known from only two locations . One is the Forêt du Day in the Goda Mountains , approximately 25 km ( 16 mi ) north of the Gulf of Tadjoura . This site is only 15 km2 ( 3 @,@ 700 acres ) and is undergoing habitat changes . The other site is located in the Mabla Mountains , which are 80 km ( 50 mi ) northeast of the Forêt du Day and remain unsurveyed . This site has been exposed to more human disturbance than the Forêt du Day , and is therefore considered less viable . Combined , the total estimated range of this bird is 58 km2 ( 14 @,@ 000 acres ) .
This francolin prefers dense African juniper woodland with a closed canopy between 700 and 1 @,@ 780 m ( 2 @,@ 300 and 5 @,@ 840 ft ) in elevation , and preferably on a plateau . Mixed in with this forest habitat are box @-@ trees ( Buxus hildebrandtii ) and African olives ( Olea europaea africana ) . This francolin has been found in secondary woodland , box @-@ tree woodlands ( Buxus hildebrandtii ) , and acacia woodland ( Acacia seyal ) . It is also known to venture into more open woodland and wadis following the breeding season . Much of the bird 's African juniper forest habitat has been damaged or destroyed due to human usage ; the ability of this dead woodland to support the Djibouti francolin remains unknown , although some juveniles have been seen in it . It is believed that the birds are reacting to the destruction of their juniper habitat by trying to find habitat as close to it as possible . It has been noted that due to the decline of the juniper , Buxus hildebrandtii is now the dominant tree in areas most frequently inhabited by the francolin .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
This species lives in small groups and is very shy , often remaining in dense vegetation to avoid detection , and therefore its ecology is very little studied . It is believed that the francolin may migrate from lower altitudes to higher altitudes and juniper forest in the warmer months . Its main predator is the common genet . The bird is most active and most likely to call between 6 am and 9 am . After this it may spend most of the day perched motionless in a tree up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) above the ground . It eats berries , seeds , termites and figs . It scratches the ground to collect seeds and , when it finds an area disturbed by warthogs , also scratches the ground for termites . It is monogamous and breeds between December and February .
Only one nest has been recorded ; this was located on a mountain ledge , and was a shallow grass @-@ lined depression in the earth . These birds roost in nearby trees at heights of 5 to 8 m ( 16 to 26 ft ) . It is probably monogamous , and local people say that the clutch is typically 7 – 9 eggs , but this is unconfirmed .
= = Conservation = =
This species is considered critically endangered by the IUCN because it underwent a 90 % population decrease over twenty years . In 1977 , there were an estimated 5600 birds in Forêt du Day , which was the only known location for the species at the time . By 1986 , this number had dropped to 1500 individuals . The species was discovered at its second site in the Mabla Mountains in 1986 . While the population in the Mabla Mountains has yet to be surveyed , numbers in the Forêt du Day continued to drop , with 500 – 1000 Djibouti francolins recorded in 1998 and only 115 – 135 in 2004 . The total world population in 2006 was estimated to be between 612 and 723 adults .
This species is threatened because of habitat destruction . At the Forêt du Day site , 95 % of its preferred juniper habitat is dead or dying and is unable to support this bird . While an overarching reason behind this destruction remains unknown , overgrazing by cattle , camels , and goats is believed to have been a significant contributor , along with rain , climate change , and a fungal disease . Hunting , the gathering of firewood , egg collecting , and general human disturbance are also believed to be threats . At the Mabla Mountains site , the habitat is also being degraded by the collection of firewood and overgrazing .
In 1937 , part of the Forêt du Day site was set aside as Day Forest National Park ; this designation is no longer valid . There have been studies of the area and the related environmental and economic issues involved ; very few of the suggestions made by these surveys have been implemented , partially due to the unrest in Djibouti since the early 1990s . In May 2008 , 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 250 @,@ 000 acres ) of forest near the village of Day were set aside for a tree nursery in an attempt to restore some of the francolin 's damaged habitat . Surveys are under way to determine population sizes and current range , including plans to survey the largely unknown site in the Mabla Mountains and potentially suitable areas in between the two known sites . A promotional campaign in local schools took place in 2008 to raise awareness for the species .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The majority of native people in areas surrounding the francolin 's range believe that the species is important , either because of its meat , which may be eaten by the Muslims who comprise the predominant religious group of the region , or because it is part of the natural heritage of the region . While the species is rarely eaten today due to its rarity , decades ago the species was so common that it was easily captured when it approached nearby villages .
The Djibouti francolin has been featured on two stamps : one in 1989 from Djibouti , and another from the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas , which was what Djibouti was known as under French rule , in 1972 .
= = Other sources = =
Blot , J ( 1985 ) Contribution to our knowledge of the biology and ecology of the pale @-@ bellied Francolin Francolinus ochropectus Dorst and Jouanin . Alauda . 63 ( 4 ) : 244 @-@ 256 .
Zomo S. Y. Fisher , Samantha Cartwright , Clive Bealey , Houssein A. Rayaleh , Philip McGowan and E. J. Milner @-@ Gulland ( 2009 ) . The Djibouti francolin and juniper forest in Djibouti : the need for both ecosystem and species @-@ specific conservation . Oryx 43 : 542 @-@ 551 doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0030605309990214
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= Cactus =
A cactus ( plural : cacti , cactuses , or cactus ) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae , a family comprising ca 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales . The word " cactus " derives , through Latin , from the Ancient Greek κάκτος , kaktos , a name originally used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant whose identity is not certain . Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes . Most cacti live in habitats subject to at least some drought . Many live in extremely dry environments , even being found in the Atacama Desert , one of the driest places on earth . Cacti show many adaptations to conserve water . Almost all cacti are succulents , meaning they have thickened , fleshy parts adapted to store water . Unlike many other succulents , the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place . Most species of cacti have lost true leaves , retaining only spines , which are highly modified leaves . As well as defending against herbivores , spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade . In the absence of leaves , enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis . Cacti are native to the Americas , ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north — except for Rhipsalis baccifera , which also grows in Africa and Sri Lanka .
Cactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles , a kind of highly reduced branch . Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti . As well as spines , areoles give rise to flowers , which are usually tubular and multipetaled . Many cacti have short growing seasons and long dormancies , and are able to react quickly to any rainfall , helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorb any water reaching the ground surface . Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted , which allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain , followed by long drought periods . Like other succulent plants , most cacti employ a special mechanism called " crassulacean acid metabolism " ( CAM ) as part of photosynthesis . Transpiration , during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes , does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis , but instead occurs at night . The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid , retaining it until daylight returns , and only then using it in photosynthesis . Because transpiration takes place during the cooler , more humid night hours , water loss is significantly reduced .
Many smaller cacti have globe @-@ shaped stems , combining the highest possible volume for water storage , with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration . The tallest [ 1 ] free @-@ standing cactus is Pachycereus pringlei , with a maximum recorded height of 19 @.@ 2 m ( 63 ft ) , and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana , only about 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter at maturity . A fully grown saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons ( 760 l ; 170 imp gal ) of water during a rainstorm . A few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family . At least superficially , plants of the genus Pereskia resemble other trees and shrubs growing around them . They have persistent leaves , and when older , bark @-@ covered stems . Their areoles identify them as cacti , and in spite of their appearance , they , too , have many adaptations for water conservation . Pereskia is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved . In tropical regions , other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes ( plants that grow on trees ) . Their stems are typically flattened , almost leaf @-@ like in appearance , with fewer or even no spines , such as the well @-@ known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus ( in the genus Schlumbergera ) .
Cacti have a variety of uses : many species are used as ornamental plants , others are grown for fodder or forage , and others for food ( particularly their fruit ) . Cochineal is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti .
= = Morphology = =
The 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 800 species of cacti mostly fall into one of two groups of " core cacti " : opuntias ( subfamily Opuntioideae ) and " cactoids " ( subfamily Cactoideae ) . Most members of these two groups are easily recognizable as cacti . They have fleshy succulent stems that are major organs of photosynthesis . They have absent , small , or transient leaves . They have flowers with ovaries that lie below the sepals and petals , often deeply sunken into a fleshy receptacle ( the part of the stem from which the flower parts grow ) . All cacti have areoles — highly specialized short shoots with extremely short internodes that produce spines , normal shoots , and flowers .
The remaining cacti fall into only two genera , Pereskia and Maihuenia , and are rather different , which means any description of cacti as a whole must frequently make exceptions for them . Pereskia species superficially resemble other tropical forest trees . When mature , they have woody stems that may be covered with bark and long @-@ lasting leaves that provide the main means of photosynthesis . Their flowers may have superior ovaries ( i.e. , above the points of attachment of the sepals and petals ) , and areoles that produce further leaves . The two species of Maihuenia have small , globe @-@ shaped bodies with prominent leaves at the top .
= = = Growth habit = = =
Cacti show a wide variety of growth habits , which are difficult to divide into clear , simple categories . They can be tree @-@ like ( arborescent ) , meaning they typically have a single more @-@ or @-@ less woody trunk topped by several to many branches . In the genus Pereskia , the branches are covered with leaves , so the species of this genus may not be recognized as cacti . In most other cacti , the branches are more typically cactus @-@ like , bare of leaves and bark , and covered with spines , as in Pachycereus pringlei or the larger opuntias . Some cacti may become tree @-@ sized but without branches , such as larger specimens of Echinocactus platyacanthus . Cacti may also be described as shrubby , with several stems coming from the ground or from branches very low down , such as in Stenocereus thurberi .
Smaller cacti may be described as columnar . They consist of erect , cylinder @-@ shaped stems , which may or may not branch , without a very clear division into trunk and branches . The boundary between columnar forms and tree @-@ like or shrubby forms is difficult to define . Smaller and younger specimens of Cephalocereus senilis , for example , are columnar , whereas older and larger specimens may become tree @-@ like . In some cases , the " columns " may be horizontal rather than vertical . Thus , Stenocereus eruca has stems growing along the ground , rooting at intervals .
Cacti whose stems are even smaller may be described as globular ( or globose ) . They consist of shorter , more ball @-@ shaped stems than columnar cacti . Globular cacti may be solitary , such as Ferocactus latispinus , or their stems may form clusters that can create large mounds . All or some stems in a cluster may share a common root .
Other cacti have a quite different appearance . In tropical regions , some grow as forest climbers and epiphytes . Their stems are typically flattened , almost leaf @-@ like in appearance , with fewer or even no spines . Climbing cacti can be very large ; a specimen of Hylocereus was reported as 100 meters ( 330 ft ) long from root to the most distant stem . Epiphytic cacti , such as species of Rhipsalis or Schlumbergera , often hang downwards , forming dense clumps where they grow in trees high above the ground .
= = = Stems = = =
The leafless , spiny stem is the characteristic feature of the majority of cacti ( and all of those belonging to the largest subfamily , the Cactoideae ) . The stem is typically succulent , meaning it is adapted to store water . The surface of the stem may be smooth ( as in some species of Opuntia ) or covered with protuberances of various kinds , which are usually called tubercles . These vary from small " bumps " to prominent , nipple @-@ like shapes in the genus Mammillaria and outgrowths almost like leaves in Ariocarpus species . The stem may also be ribbed or fluted in shape . The prominence of these ribs depends on how much water the stem is storing : when full ( up to 90 % of the mass of a cactus may be water ) , the ribs may be almost invisible on the swollen stem , whereas when the cactus is short of water and the stems shrink , the ribs may be very visible .
The stems of most cacti are some shade of green , often bluish or brownish green . Such stems contain chlorophyll and are able to carry out photosynthesis ; they also have stomata ( small structures that can open and close to allow passage of gases ) . Cactus stems are often visibly waxy .
= = = Areoles = = =
Areoles are structures unique to cacti . Although variable , they typically appear as woolly or hairy areas on the stems from which spines emerge . Flowers are also produced from areoles . In the genus Pereskia , believed similar to the ancestor of all cacti , the areoles occur in the axils of leaves ( i.e. in the angle between the leaf stalk and the stem ) . In leafless cacti , areoles are often borne on raised areas on the stem where leaf bases would have been .
Areoles are highly specialized and very condensed shoots or branches . In a normal shoot , nodes bearing leaves or flowers would be separated by lengths of stem ( internodes ) . In an areole , the nodes are so close together , they form a single structure . The areole may be circular , elongated into an oval shape , or even separated into two parts ; the two parts may be visibly connected in some way ( e.g. by a groove in the stem ) or appear entirely separate ( a dimorphic areole ) . The part nearer the top of the stem then produces flowers , the other part spines . Areoles often have multicellular hairs ( trichomes ) that give the areole a hairy or woolly appearance , sometimes of a distinct color such as yellow or brown .
In most cacti , the areoles produce new spines or flowers only for a few years , and then become inactive . This results in a relatively fixed number of spines , with flowers being produced only from the ends of stems , which are still growing and forming new areoles . In Pereskia , a genus close to the ancestor of cacti , areoles remain active for much longer ; this is also the case in Opuntia and Neoraimondia .
= = = Leaves = = =
The great majority of cacti have no visible leaves ; photosynthesis takes place in the stems ( which may be flattened and leaflike in some species ) . Exceptions occur in three groups of cacti . All the species of Pereskia are superficially like normal trees or shrubs and have numerous leaves . Many cacti in the opuntia group ( subfamily Opuntioideae , opuntioids ) also have visible leaves , which may be long @-@ lasting ( as in Pereskiopsis species ) or be produced only during the growing season and then be lost ( as in many species of Opuntia ) . The small genus Maihuenia also relies on leaves for photosynthesis . The structure of the leaves varies somewhat between these groups . Pereskia species have " normal " leaves , with a midrib and a flattened blade ( lamina ) on either side . Opuntioids and Maihuenia have leaves that appear to consist only of a midrib .
Even those cacti without visible photosynthetic leaves do usually have very small leaves , less than 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) long in about half of the species studied and almost always less than 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) long . The function of such leaves cannot be photosynthesis ; a role in the production of plant hormones , such as auxin , and in defining axillary buds has been suggested .
= = = Spines = = =
Botanically , " spines " are distinguished from " thorns " : spines are modified leaves , and thorns are modified branches . Cacti produce spines , always from areoles as noted above . Spines are present even in those cacti with leaves , such as Pereskia , Pereskiopsis and Maihuenia , so they clearly evolved before complete leaflessness . Some cacti only have spines when young , possibly only when seedlings . This is particularly true of tree @-@ living cacti , such as Rhipsalis or Schlumbergera , but some ground @-@ living cacti , such as Ariocarpus , also lack spines when mature .
The spines of cacti are often useful in identification , since they vary greatly between species in number , color , size , shape and hardness , as well as in whether all the spines produced by an areole are similar or whether they are of distinct kinds . Most spines are straight or at most slightly curved , and are described as hair @-@ like , bristle @-@ like , needle @-@ like or awl @-@ like , depending on their length and thickness . Some cacti have flattened spines ( e.g. Schlerocactus papyracanthus ) . Other cacti have hooked spines . Sometimes , one or more central spines are hooked , while outer spines are straight ( e.g. , Mammillaria rekoi ) .
In addition to normal @-@ length spines , members of the subfamily Opuntioideae have relatively short spines , called glochids that are barbed along their length and easily shed . These enter the skin and are difficult to remove , causing long @-@ lasting irritation .
= = = Roots = = =
Most ground @-@ living cacti have only fine roots , which spread out around the base of the plant for varying distances , close to the surface . Some cacti have taproots ; in genera such as Copiapoa , these are considerably larger and of a greater volume than the body . Taproots may aid in stabilizing the larger columnar cacti . Climbing , creeping and epiphytic cacti may have only adventitious roots , produced along the stems where these come into contact with a rooting medium .
= = = Flowers = = =
Like their spines , cactus flowers are variable . Typically , the ovary is surrounded by material derived from stem or receptacle tissue , forming a structure called a pericarpel . Tissue derived from the petals and sepals continues the pericarpel , forming a composite tube — the whole may be called a floral tube , although strictly speaking only the part furthest from the base is floral in origin . The outside of the tubular structure often has areoles that produce wool and spines . Typically , the tube also has small scale @-@ like bracts , which gradually change into sepal @-@ like and then petal @-@ like structures , so the sepals and petals cannot be clearly differentiated ( and hence are often called " tepals " ) . Some cacti produce floral tubes without wool or spines ( e.g. Gymnocalycium ) or completely devoid of any external structures ( e.g. Mammillaria ) . Unlike the flowers of other cacti , Pereskia flowers may be borne in clusters .
Cactus flowers usually have many stamens , but only a single style , which may branch at the end into more than one stigma . The stamens usually arise from all over the inner surface of the upper part of the floral tube , although in some cacti , the stamens are produced in one or more distinct " series " in more specific areas of the inside of the floral tube .
The flower as a whole is usually radially symmetrical ( actinomorphic ) , but may be bilaterally symmetrical ( zygomorphic ) in some species . Flower colors range from white through yellow and red to magenta .
= = Adaptations for water conservation = =
All cacti have some adaptations to promote efficient water use . Most cacti — opuntias and cactoids — specialize in surviving in hot and dry environments ( i.e. they are xerophytes ) , but the first ancestors of modern cacti were already adapted to periods of intermittent drought . A small number of cactus species in the tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae have become adapted to life as climbers or epiphytes , often in tropical forests , where water conservation is less important .
= = = Leaves and spines = = =
The absence of visible leaves is one of the most striking features of most cacti . Pereskia ( which is close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved ) does have long @-@ lasting leaves , which are , however , thickened and succulent in many species . Other species of cactus with long @-@ lasting leaves , such as the opuntioid Pereskiopsis , also have succulent leaves . A key issue in retaining water is the ratio of surface area to volume . Water loss is proportional to surface area , whereas the amount of water present is proportional to volume . Structures with a high surface area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio , such as thin leaves , necessarily lose water at a higher rate than structures with a low area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio , such as thickened stems .
Spines , which are modified leaves , are present on even those cacti with true leaves , showing the evolution of spines preceded the loss of leaves . Although spines have a high surface area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio , at maturity they contain little or no water , being composed of fibers made up of dead cells . Spines provide protection from herbivores and camouflage in some species , and assist in water conservation in several ways . They trap air near the surface of the cactus , creating a moister layer that reduces evaporation and transpiration . They can provide some shade , which lowers the temperature of the surface of the cactus , also reducing water loss . When sufficiently moist air is present , such as during fog or early morning mist , spines can condense moisture , which then drips onto the ground and is absorbed by the roots .
= = = Stems = = =
The majority of cacti are stem succulents , i.e. , plants in which the stem is the main organ used to store water . Water may form up to 90 % of the total mass of a cactus . Stem shapes vary considerably among cacti . The cylindrical shape of columnar cacti and the spherical shape of globular cacti produce a low surface area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio , thus reducing water loss , as well as minimizing the heating effects of sunlight . The ribbed or fluted stems of many cacti allow the stem to shrink during periods of drought and then swell as it fills with water during periods of availability . A mature saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons ( 760 l ; 170 imp gal ) of water during a rainstorm . The outer layer of the stem usually has a tough cuticle , reinforced with waxy layers , which reduce water loss . These layers are responsible for the grayish or bluish tinge to the stem color of many cacti .
The stems of most cacti have adaptations to allow them to conduct photosynthesis in the absence of leaves . This is discussed further below under Metabolism .
= = = Roots = = =
Many cacti have roots that spread out widely , but only penetrate a short distance into the soil . In one case , a young saguaro only 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) tall had a root system with a diameter of 2 m ( 7 ft ) , but no more than 10 cm ( 4 in ) deep . Cacti can also form new roots quickly when rain falls after a drought . The concentration of salts in the root cells of cacti is relatively high . All these adaptations enable cacti to absorb water rapidly during periods of brief or light rainfall . Thus , Ferocactus cylindraceus reportedly can take up a significant amount of water within 12 hours of as little as 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall , becoming fully hydrated in a few days .
Although in most cacti , the stem acts as the main organ for storing water , some cacti have in addition large taproots . These may be several times the length of the above @-@ ground body in the case of species such as Copiapoa atacamensis , which grows in one of the driest places in the world , the Atacama Desert in northern Chile .
= = = Metabolism = = =
Photosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas ( CO2 ) . As they do so , they lose water through transpiration . Like other types of succulents , cacti reduce this water loss by the way in which they carry out photosynthesis . " Normal " leafy plants use the C3 mechanism : during daylight hours , CO2 is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms ( 3 @-@ phosphoglycerate ) and then into products such as carbohydrates . The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata , which are able to open and close . The need for a continuous supply of CO2 during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open , so water vapor is continuously being lost . Plants using the C3 mechanism lose as much as 97 % of the water taken up through their roots in this way . A further problem is that as temperatures rise , the enzyme that captures CO2 starts to capture more and more oxygen instead , reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25 % .
Crassulacean acid metabolism ( CAM ) is a mechanism adopted by cacti and other succulents to avoid the problems of the C3 mechanism . In full CAM , the stomata open only at night , when temperatures and water loss are lowest . CO2 enters the plant and is captured in the form of organic acids stored inside cells ( in vacuoles ) . The stomata remain closed throughout the day , and photosynthesis uses only this stored CO2 . CAM uses water much more efficiently at the price of limiting the amount of carbon fixed from the atmosphere and thus available for growth . CAM @-@ cycling is a less efficient system whereby stomata open in the day , just as in plants using the C3 mechanism . At night , or when the plant is short of water , the stomata close and the CAM mechanism is used to store CO2 produced by respiration for use later in photosynthesis . CAM @-@ cycling is present in Pereskia species .
By studying the ratio of 14C to 13C incorporated into a plant — its isotopic signature — it is possible to deduce how much CO2 is taken up at night and how much in the daytime . Using this approach , most of the Pereskia species investigated exhibit some degree of CAM @-@ cycling , suggesting this ability was present in the ancestor of all cacti . Pereskia leaves are claimed to only have the C3 mechanism with CAM restricted to stems . More recent studies show that " it is highly unlikely that significant carbon assimilation occurs in the stem " ; Pereskia species are described as having " C3 with inducible CAM . " Leafless cacti carry out all their photosynthesis in the stem , using full CAM . As of February 2012 , it is not clear whether stem @-@ based CAM evolved once only in the core cacti , or separately in the opuntias and cactoids ; CAM is known to have evolved convergently many times .
To carry out photosynthesis , cactus stems have undergone many adaptations . Early in their evolutionary history , the ancestors of modern cacti ( other than one group of Pereskia species ) developed stomata on their stems and began to delay developing bark . However , this alone was not sufficient ; cacti with only these adaptations appear to do very little photosynthesis in their stems . Stems needed to develop structures similar to those normally found only in leaves . Immediately below the outer epidermis , a hypodermal layer developed made up of cells with thickened walls , offering mechanical support . Air spaces were needed between the cells to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse inwards . The center of the stem , the cortex , developed " chlorenchyma " – a plant tissue made up of relatively unspecialized cells containing chloroplasts , arranged into a " spongy layer " and a " palisade layer " where most of the photosynthesis occurs .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Naming and classifying cacti has been both difficult and controversial since the first cacti were discovered for science . The difficulties began with Carl Linnaeus . In 1737 , he placed the cacti he knew into two genera , Cactus and Pereskia . However , when he published Species Plantarum in 1753 — the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature — he relegated them all to one genus , Cactus . The word " cactus " is derived through Latin from the Ancient Greek κάκτος ( kaktos ) , a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant , which may have been the cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus ) .
Later botanists , such as Philip Miller in 1754 , divided cacti into several genera , which , in 1789 , Antoine Laurent de Jussieu placed in his newly created family Cactaceae . By the early 20th century , botanists came to feel Linnaeus 's name Cactus had become so confused as to its meaning ( was it the genus or the family ? ) that it should not be used as a genus name . The 1905 Vienna botanical congress rejected the name Cactus and instead declared Mammillaria was the type genus of the family Cactaceae . It did , however , conserve the name Cactaceae , leading to the unusual situation in which the family Cactaceae no longer contains the genus after which it was named .
The difficulties continued , partly because giving plants scientific names relies on " type specimens " . Ultimately , if botanists want to know whether a particular plant is an example of , say , Mammillaria mammillaris , they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached . Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying , after which they are stored in herbaria to act as definitive references . However , cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way ; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress . A further difficulty is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists ; as a result , the provisions of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( which governs the names of cacti , as well as other plants ) were often ignored . Curt Backeberg , in particular , is said to have named or renamed 1 @,@ 200 species without one of his names ever being attached to a specimen , which , according to David Hunt , ensured he " left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries . "
= = = Classification = = =
In 1984 , it was decided that the Cactaceae Section of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study should set up a working party , now called the International Cactaceae Systematics Group ( ICSG ) , to produce consensus classifications down to the level of genera . Their system has been used as the basis of subsequent classifications . Detailed treatments published in the 21st century have divided the family into around 125 – 130 genera and 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 500 species , which are then arranged into a number of tribes and subfamilies . The ICSG classification of the cactus family recognizes four subfamilies , the largest of which is divided into nine tribes . The subfamilies are :
Subfamily Pereskioideae K. Schumann
The only genus is Pereskia . It has features considered closest to the ancestors of the Cactaceae . Plants are trees or shrubs with leaves ; their stems are smoothly round in cross section , rather than being ribbed or having tubercles . Two systems may be used in photosynthesis , both the " normal " C3 mechanism and crassulean acid metabolism ( CAM ) — an " advanced " feature of cacti and other succulents that conserves water .
Subfamily Opuntioideae K. Schumann
Some 15 genera are included in this subfamily . They may have leaves when they are young , but these are lost later . Their stems are usually divided into distinct " joints " or " pads " ( cladodes ) . Plants vary in size from the small cushions of Maihueniopsis to treelike species of Opuntia , rising to 10 m ( 33 ft ) or more .
Subfamily Maihuenioideae P. Fearn
The only genus is Maihuenia , with two species , both of which form low @-@ growing mats . It has some features that are primitive within the cacti . Plants have leaves , and crassulean acid metabolism is wholly absent .
Subfamily Cactoideae
Divided into nine tribes , this is the largest subfamily , including all the " typical " cacti . Members are highly variable in habit , varying from tree @-@ like to epiphytic . Leaves are normally absent , although sometimes very reduced leaves are produced by young plants . Stems are usually not divided into segments , and are ribbed or tuberculate . Two of the tribes , Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae , contain climbing or epiphytic forms with a rather different appearance ; their stems are flattened and may be divided into segments .
Molecular phylogenetic studies have supported the monophyly of three of these subfamilies ( not Pereskioideae ) , but have not supported all of the tribes or even genera below this level ; indeed , a 2011 study found only 39 % of the genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research were monophyletic . Classification of the cacti currently remains uncertain and is likely to change .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
= = = Phylogeny = = =
A 2005 study suggested the genus Pereskia was basal within the Cactaceae , but confirmed earlier suggestions it was not monophyletic , i.e. , did not include all the descendants of a common ancestor . The Bayesian consensus cladogram from this study is shown below .
A more recent 2011 study using fewer genes but more species also found that Pereskia was divided into these two clades , but was unable to resolve the members of the " core cacti " clade . It was accepted that the relationships shown above are " the most robust to date . "
The two clades of Pereskia differ in their geographical distribution ; with one exception , clade A is found around the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , whereas clade B occurs south of the Amazon Basin . Species of Pereskia within clade A always lack two key features of the stem present in most of the remaining " caulocacti " : like most non @-@ cacti , their stems begin to form bark early in the plants ' life and also lack stomata — structures that control admission of air into a plant and hence control photosynthesis . By contrast , caulocacti , including species of Pereskia clade B , typically delay forming bark and have stomata on their stems , thus giving the stem the potential to become a major organ for photosynthesis . ( The two highly specialized species of Maihuenia are something of an exception . )
The first cacti are thought to have been only slightly succulent shrubs or small trees whose leaves carried out photosynthesis . They lived in tropical areas that experienced periodic drought . If Pereskia clade A is a good model of these early cacti , then , although they would have appeared superficially similar to other trees growing nearby , they had already evolved strategies to conserve water ( some of which are present in members of other families in the order Caryophyllales ) . These strategies included being able to respond rapidly to periods of rain , and keeping transpiration low by using water very efficiently during photosynthesis . The latter was achieved by tightly controlling the opening of stomata . Like Pereskia species today , early ancestors may have been able to switch from the normal C3 mechanism , where carbon dioxide is used continuously in photosynthesis , to CAM cycling , in which when the stomata are closed , carbon dioxide produced by respiration is stored for later use in photosynthesis .
Pereskia clade B marks the beginnings of an evolutionary switch to using stems as photosynthetic organs . Stems have stomata and the formation of bark takes place later than in normal trees . The " core cacti " show a steady increase in both stem succulence and photosynthesis accompanied by multiple losses of leaves , more @-@ or @-@ less complete in the Cactoideae . One evolutionary question at present unanswered is whether the switch to full CAM photosynthesis in stems occurred only once in the core cacti , in which case it has been lost in Maihuenia , or separately in Opuntioideae and Cactoideae , in which case it never evolved in Maihuenia .
Understanding evolution within the core cacti clade is difficult as of February 2012 , since phylogenetic relationships are still uncertain and not well related to current classifications . Thus , a 2011 study found " an extraordinarily high proportion of genera " were not monophyletic , so were not all descendants of a single common ancestor . For example , of the 36 genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research , 22 ( 61 % ) were found not monophyletic . Nine tribes are recognized within Cactoideae in the International Cactaceae Systematics Group ( ICSG ) classification ; one , Calymmantheae , comprises a single genus , Calymmanthium . Only two of the remaining eight , Cacteae and Rhipsalideae , were shown to be monophyletic in a 2011 study by Hernández @-@ Hernández et al . For a more detailed discussion of the phylogeny of the cacti , see Classification of the Cactaceae .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
No known fossils of cacti exist to throw light on their evolutionary history . However , the geographical distribution of cacti offers some evidence . Except for a relatively recent spread of Rhipsalis baccifera to parts of the Old World , cacti are plants of South America and mainly southern regions of North America . This suggests the family must have evolved after the ancient continent of Gondwana split into South America and Africa , which occurred during the Early Cretaceous , around 145 to 101 million years ago . Precisely when after this split cacti evolved is less clear . Older sources suggest an early origin around 90 – 66 million years ago , during the Late Cretaceous . More recent molecular studies suggest a much younger origin , perhaps in very Late Eocene to early Oligocene periods , around 35 – 30 million years ago . Based on the phylogeny of the cacti , the earliest diverging group ( Pereskia clade A ) may have originated in Central America and northern South America , whereas the caulocacti , those with more @-@ or @-@ less succulent stems , evolved later in the southern part of South America , and then moved northwards . Core cacti , those with strongly succulent stems , are estimated to have evolved around 25 million years ago . A possible stimulus to their evolution may have been uplifting in the central Andes , some 25 – 20 million years ago , which was associated with increasing and varying aridity . However , the current species diversity of cacti is thought to have arisen only in the last 10 – 5 million years ( from the late Miocene into the Pliocene ) . Other succulent plants , such as the Aizoaceae in South Africa , the Didiereaceae in Madagascar and the genus Agave in the Americas , appear to have diversified at the same time , which coincided with a global expansion of arid environments .
= = Distribution = =
Cacti inhabit diverse regions , from coastal plains to high mountain areas . With one exception , they are native to the Americas , where their range extends from Patagonia to British Columbia and Alberta in western Canada . A number of centers of diversity exist . For cacti adapted to drought , the three main centers are Mexico and the southwestern United States ; the southwestern Andes , where they are found in Peru , Bolivia , Chile and Argentina ; and eastern Brazil , away from the Amazon Basin . Tree @-@ living epiphytic and climbing cacti necessarily have different centers of diversity , as they require moister environments . They are mainly found in the coastal mountains and Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil ; in Bolivia , which is the center of diversity for the subfamily Rhipsalideae ; and in forested regions of Central America , where the climbing Hylocereeae are most diverse .
Rhipsalis baccifera is the exception ; it is native to both the Americas and the Old World , where it is found in tropical Africa , Madagascar , and Sri Lanka . One theory is it was spread by being carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of migratory birds ; the seeds of Rhipsalis are adapted for bird distribution . Old World populations are polyploid , and regarded as distinct subspecies , supporting the idea that the spread was not recent . The alternative theory is the species initially crossed the Atlantic on European ships trading between South America and Africa , after which birds may have spread it more widely .
Many other species have become naturalized outside the Americas after having been introduced by people , especially in Australia , Hawaii , and the Mediterranean region . In Australia , species of Opuntia , particularly Opuntia stricta , were introduced in the 19th century for use as natural agricultural fences and in an attempt to establish a cochineal industry . They rapidly became a major weed problem , but are now controlled by biological agents , particularly the moth Cactoblastis cactorum . The weed potential of Opuntia species in Australia continues however , leading to all opuntioid cacti except O. ficus @-@ indica being declared Weeds of National Significance by the Australian Weeds Committee in April 2012 .
= = Reproductive ecology = =
Cactus flowers are pollinated by insects , birds and bats . None are known to be wind @-@ pollinated and self @-@ pollination occurs in only a very few species ; for example the flowers of some species of Frailea do not open ( cleistogamy ) . The need to attract pollinators has led to the evolution of pollination syndromes , which are defined as groups of " floral traits , including rewards , associated with the attraction and utilization of a specific group of animals as pollinators . "
Bees are the most common pollinators of cacti ; bee @-@ pollination is considered to have been the first to evolve . Day @-@ flying butterflies and nocturnal moths are associated with different pollination syndromes . Butterfly @-@ pollinated flowers are usually brightly colored , opening during the day , whereas moth @-@ pollinated flowers are often white or pale in color , opening only in the evening and at night . As an example , Pachycereus schottii is pollinated by a particular species of moth , Upiga virescens , which also lays its eggs among the developing seeds its caterpillars later consume . The flowers of this cactus are funnel @-@ shaped , white to deep pink , up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , and open at night .
Hummingbirds are significant pollinators of cacti . Species showing the typical hummingbird @-@ pollination syndrome have flowers with colors towards the red end of the spectrum , anthers and stamens that protrude from the flower , and a shape that is not radially symmetrical , with a lower lip that bends downwards ; they produce large amounts of nectar with a relatively low sugar content . Schlumbergera species , such as S. truncata , have flowers that correspond closely to this syndrome . Other hummingbird @-@ pollinated genera include Cleistocactus and Disocactus .
Bat @-@ pollination is relatively uncommon in flowering plants , but about a quarter of the genera of cacti are known to be pollinated by bats — an unusually high proportion , exceeded among eudicots by only two other families , both with very few genera . Columnar cacti growing in semidesert areas are among those most likely to be bat @-@ pollinated ; this may be because bats are able to travel considerable distances , so are effective pollinators of plants growing widely separated from one another . The pollination syndrome associated with bats includes a tendency for flowers to open in the evening and at night , when bats are active . Other features include a relatively dull color , often white or green ; a radially symmetrical shape , often tubular ; a smell described as " musty " ; and the production of a large amount of sugar @-@ rich nectar . Carnegiea gigantea is an example of a bat @-@ pollinated cactus , as are many species of Pachycereus and Pilosocereus .
The fruits produced by cacti after the flowers have been fertilized vary considerably ; many are fleshy , although some are dry . All contain a large number of seeds . Fleshy , colorful and sweet @-@ tasting fruits are associated with seed dispersal by birds . The seeds pass through their digestive systems and are deposited in their droppings . Fruit that falls to the ground may be eaten by other animals ; giant tortoises are reported to distribute Opuntia seeds in the Galápagos Islands . Ants appear to disperse the seeds of a few genera , such as Blossfeldia . Drier spiny fruits may cling to the fur of mammals or be moved around by the wind .
= = Uses = =
= = = Early history = = =
As of March 2012 , there is still controversy as to the precise dates when humans first entered those areas of the New World where cacti are commonly found , and hence when they might first have used them . An archaeological site in Chile has been dated to around 15 @,@ 000 years ago , suggesting cacti would have been encountered before then . Early evidence of the use of cacti includes cave paintings in the Serra da Capivara in Brazil , and seeds found in ancient middens ( waste dumps ) in Mexico and Peru , with dates estimated at 12 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Hunter @-@ gatherers likely collected cactus fruits in the wild and brought them back to their camps .
It is not known when cacti were first cultivated . Opuntias ( prickly pears ) were used for a variety of purposes by the Aztecs , whose empire , lasting from the 14th to the 16th century , had a complex system of horticulture . Their capital from the 15th century was Tenochtitlan ( now Mexico City ) ; one explanation for the origin of the name is that it includes the Nahuatl word nōchtli , referring to the fruit of an opuntia . The coat of arms of Mexico shows an eagle perched on a cactus while holding a snake , an image at the center of the myth of the founding of Tenochtitlan . The Aztecs symbolically linked the ripe red fruits of an opuntia to human hearts ; just as the fruit quenches thirst , so offering human hearts to the sun god ensured the sun would keep moving .
Europeans first encountered cacti when they arrived in the New World late in the 15th century . Their first landfalls were in the West Indies , where relatively few cactus genera are found ; one of the most common is the genus Melocactus . Thus , melocacti were possibly among the first cacti seen by Europeans . Melocactus species were present in English collections of cacti before the end of the 16th century ( by 1570 according to one source , ) where they were called Echinomelocactus , later shortened to Melocactus by Joseph Pitton de Tourneville in the early 18th century . Cacti , both purely ornamental species and those with edible fruit , continued to arrive in Europe , so Carl Linnaeus was able to name 22 species by 1753 . One of these , his Cactus opuntia ( now part of Opuntia ficus @-@ indica ) , was described as " fructu majore ... nunc in Hispania et Lusitania " ( with larger fruit ... now in Spain and Portugal ) , indicative of its early use in Europe .
= = = Food = = =
The plant now known as Opuntia ficus @-@ indica , or the Indian fig cactus , has long been an important source of food . The original species is thought to have come from central Mexico , although this is now obscure because the indigenous people of southern North America developed and distributed a range of horticultural varieties ( cultivars ) , including forms of the species and hybrids with other opuntias . Both the fruit and pads are eaten , the former often under the Spanish name tuna , the latter under the name nopal . Cultivated forms are often significantly less spiny or even spineless . The nopal industry in Mexico was said to be worth US $ 150 million in 2007 . The Indian fig cactus was probably already present in the Caribbean when the Spanish arrived , and was soon after brought to Europe . It spread rapidly in the Mediterranean area , both naturally and by being introduced — so much so , early botanists assumed it was native to the area . Outside the Americas , the Indian fig cactus is an important commercial crop in Sicily , Algeria and other North African countries . Fruits of other opuntias are also eaten , generally under the same name , tuna . Flower buds , particularly of Cylindropuntia species , are also consumed .
Almost any fleshy cactus fruit is edible . The word pitaya or pitahaya ( usually considered to have been taken into Spanish from Haitian creole ) can be applied to a range of " scaly fruit " , particularly those of columnar cacti . The fruit of the saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) has long been important to the indigenous peoples of northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States , including the Sonoran Desert . It can be preserved by boiling to produce syrup and by drying . The syrup can also be fermented to produce an alcoholic drink . Fruits of Stenocereus species have also been important food sources in similar parts of North America ; Stenocereus queretaroensis is cultivated for its fruit . In more tropical southern areas , the climber Hylocereus undatus provides pitahaya orejona , now widely grown in Asia under the name dragon fruit . Other cacti providing edible fruit include species of Echinocereus , Ferocactus , Mammillaria , Myrtillocactus , Pachycereus , Peniocereus and Selenicereus . The bodies of cacti other than opuntias are less often eaten , although Anderson reported that Neowerdermannia vorwerkii is prepared and eaten like potatoes in upland Bolivia .
= = = Psychoactive agents = = =
A number of species of cacti have been shown to contain psychoactive agents , chemical compounds that can cause changes in mood , perception and cognition through their effects on the brain . Two species have a long history of use by the indigenous peoples of the Americas : peyote , Lophophora williamsii , in North America , and the San Pedro cactus , Echinopsis pachanoi , in South America . Both contain mescaline .
L. williamsii is native to northern Mexico and southern Texas . Individual stems are about 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high with a diameter of 4 – 11 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) , and may be found in clumps up to 1 m ( 3 ft ) wide . A large part of the stem is usually below ground . Mescaline is concentrated in the photosynthetic portion of the stem above ground . The center of the stem , which contains the growing point ( the apical meristem ) , is sunken . Experienced collectors of peyote remove a thin slice from the top of the plant , leaving the growing point intact , thus allowing the plant to regenerate . Evidence indicates peyote was in use more than 5 @,@ 500 years ago ; dried peyote buttons presumed to be from a site on the Rio Grande , Texas , were radiocarbon dated to around 3780 – 3660 BC . Peyote is perceived as a means of accessing the spirit world . Attempts by the Roman Catholic church to suppress its use after the Spanish conquest were largely unsuccessful , and by the middle of the 20th century , peyote was more widely used than ever by indigenous peoples as far north as Canada . It is now used formally by the Native American Church .
Echinopsis pachanoi is native to Ecuador and Peru . It is very different in appearance from L. williamsii . It has tall stems , up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) high , with a diameter of 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) , which branch from the base , giving the whole plant a shrubby or tree @-@ like appearance . Archaeological evidence of the use of this cactus appears to date back to 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 300 years ago , with carvings and ceramic objects showing columnar cacti . Although church authorities under the Spanish attempted to suppress its use , this failed , as shown by the Christian element in the common name " San Pedro cactus " — Saint Peter cactus . Anderson attributes the name to the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven , the effects of the cactus allow users " to reach heaven while still on earth . " It continues to be used for its psychoactive effects , both for spiritual and for healing purposes , often combined with other psychoactive agents , such as Datura ferox and tobacco . Several other species of Echinopsis , including E. peruviana , also contain mescaline .
= = = Ornamental plants = = =
Cacti were cultivated as ornamental plants from the time they were first brought from the New World . By the early 1800s , enthusiasts in Europe had large collections ( often including other succulents alongside cacti ) . Rare plants were sold for very high prices . Suppliers of cacti and other succulents employed collectors to obtain plants from the wild , in addition to growing their own . In the late 1800s , collectors turned to orchids , and cacti became less popular , although never disappearing from cultivation .
Cacti are often grown in greenhouses , particularly in regions unsuited to the cultivation of cacti outdoors , such the northern parts of Europe and North America . Here , they may be kept in pots or grown in the ground . Cacti are also grown as houseplants , many being tolerant of the often dry atmosphere . Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios , and then kept under cover during the winter . Less drought @-@ resistant epiphytes , such as epiphyllum hybrids , Schlumbergera ( the Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus ) and Hatiora ( the Easter cactus ) , are widely cultivated as houseplants .
Cacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates . Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of gardens requiring less watering ( xeriscaping ) . For example , in California , the East Bay Municipal Utility District sponsored the publication of a book on plants and landscapes for summer @-@ dry climates . Cacti are one group of drought @-@ resistant plants recommended for dry landscape gardening .
= = = Other uses = = =
Cacti have many other uses . They are used for human food and as fodder for animals , usually after burning off their spines . In addition to their use as psychoactive agents , some cacti are employed in herbal medicine . The practice of using various species of Opuntia in this way has spread from the Americas , where they naturally occur , to other regions where they grow , such as India .
Cochineal is a red dye produced by a scale insect that lives on species of Opuntia . Long used by the peoples of Central and North America , demand fell rapidly when European manufacturers began to produce synthetic dyes in the middle of the 19th century . Commercial production has now increased following a rise in demand for natural dyes .
Cacti are used as construction materials . Living cactus fences are employed as barricades . The woody parts of cacti , such as Cereus repandus and Echinopsis atacamensis , are used in buildings and in furniture . The frames of wattle and daub houses built by the Seri people of Mexico may use parts of Carnegiea gigantea . The very fine spines and hairs ( trichomes ) of some cacti were used as a source of fiber for filling pillows and in weaving .
= = Conservation = =
All cacti are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , which " lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled . " Control is exercised by making international trade in most specimens of cacti illegal unless permits have been issued , at least for exports . Some exceptions are allowed , e.g. , for " naturalized or artificially propagated plants " . Some cacti , such as all Ariocarpus and Discocactus species , are included in the more restrictive Appendix I , used for the " most endangered " species . These may only be moved between countries for scientific purposes , and only then when accompanied by both export and import permits .
The three main threats to cacti in the wild are development , grazing and over @-@ collection . Development takes many forms . The construction of a dam near Zimapan , Mexico , caused the destruction of a large part of the natural habitat of Echinocactus grusonii . Urban development and highways have destroyed cactus habitats in parts of Mexico , New Mexico and Arizona , including the Sonoran Desert . The conversion of land to agriculture has affected populations of Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus in Mexico , where dry plains were plowed for maize cultivation , and of Copiapoa and Eulychnia in Chile , where valley slopes were planted with vines . Grazing , in many areas by introduced animals , such as goats , has caused serious damage to populations of cacti ( as well as other plants ) ; two examples cited by Anderson are the Galápagos Islands generally and the effect on Browningia candelaris in Peru . Over @-@ collection of cacti for sale has greatly affected some species . For example , the type locality of Pelecyphora strobiliformis near Miquihuana , Mexico , was virtually denuded of plants , which were dug up for sale in Europe . Illegal collecting of cacti from the wild continues to pose a threat .
Conservation of cacti can be in situ or ex situ . In situ conservation involves preserving habits through enforcement of legal protection and the creation of specially protected areas such as national parks and reserves . Examples of such protected areas in the United States include Big Bend National Park , Texas ; Joshua Tree National Park , California ; and Saguaro National Park , Arizona . Latin American examples include Parque Nacional del Pinacate , Sonora , Mexico and Pan de Azúcar National Park , Chile . Ex situ conservation aims to preserve plants and seeds outside their natural habitats , often with the intention of later reintroduction . Botanical gardens play an important role in ex situ conservation ; for example , seeds of cacti and other succulents are kept in long @-@ term storage at the Desert Botanical Garden , Arizona .
= = Cultivation = =
The popularity of cacti means many books are devoted to their cultivation . Cacti naturally occur in a wide range of habitats and are then grown in many countries with different climates , so precisely replicating the conditions in which a species normally grows is usually not practical . A broad distinction can be made between semidesert cacti and epiphytic cacti , which need different conditions and are best grown separately . This section is primarily concerned with the cultivation of semidesert cacti in containers and under protection , such as in a greenhouse or in the home , rather than cultivation outside in the ground in those climates that permit it . For the cultivation of epiphytic cacti , see Cultivation of Schlumbergera ( Christmas or Thanksgiving cacti ) , and Cultivation of epiphyllum hybrids .
= = = Growing medium = = =
The purpose of the growing medium is to provide support and to store water , oxygen and dissolved minerals to feed the plant . In the case of cacti , there is general agreement that an open medium with a high air content is important . When cacti are grown in containers , recommendations as to how this should be achieved vary greatly ; Miles Anderson says that if asked to describe a perfect growing medium , " ten growers would give 20 different answers " . Roger Brown suggests a mixture of two parts commercial soilless growing medium , one part hydroponic clay and one part coarse pumice or perlite , with the addition of soil from earthworm castings . The general recommendation of 25 – 75 % organic @-@ based material , the rest being inorganic such as pumice , perlite or grit , is supported by other sources . However , the use of organic material is rejected altogether by others ; Hecht says that cacti ( other than epiphytes ) " want soil that is low in or free of humus " , and recommends coarse sand as the basis of a growing medium .
= = = Watering = = =
Semi @-@ desert cacti need careful watering . General advice is hard to give , since the frequency of watering required depends on where the cacti are being grown , the nature of the growing medium , and the original habitat of the cacti . Brown says that more cacti are lost through the " untimely application of water than for any other reason " and that even during the dormant winter season , cacti need some water . Other sources say that water can be withheld during winter ( November to March in the Northern Hemisphere ) . Another issue is the hardness of the water ; where it is necessary to use hard water , regular re @-@ potting is recommended to avoid the build up of salts . The general advice given is that during the growing season , cacti should be allowed to dry out between thorough waterings . A water meter can help in determining when the soil is dry .
= = = Light and temperature = = =
Although semi @-@ desert cacti may be exposed to high light levels in the wild , they may still need some shading when subjected to the higher light levels and temperatures of a greenhouse in summer . Allowing the temperature to rise above 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) is not recommended . The minimum winter temperature required depends very much on the species of cactus involved . For a mixed collection , a minimum temperature of between 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) is often suggested , except for cold @-@ sensitive genera such as Melocactus and Discocactus . Some cacti , particularly those from the high Andes , are fully frost @-@ hardy when kept dry ( e.g. Rebutia minuscula survives temperatures down to − 9 ° C ( 16 ° F ) in cultivation ) and may flower better when exposed to a period of cold .
= = = Propagation = = =
Cacti can be propagated by seed , cuttings or grafting . Seed sown early in the year produces seedlings that benefit from a longer growing period . Seed is sown in a moist growing medium and then kept in a covered environment , until 7 – 10 days after germination , to avoid drying out . A very wet growing medium can cause both seeds and seedlings to rot . A temperature range of 18 – 30 ° C ( 64 – 86 ° F ) is suggested for germination ; soil temperatures of around 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) promote the best root growth . Low light levels are sufficient during germination , but afterwards semi @-@ desert cacti need higher light levels to produce strong growth , although acclimatization is needed to conditions in a greenhouse , such as higher temperatures and strong sunlight .
Reproduction by cuttings makes use of parts of a plant that can grow roots . Some cacti produce " pads " or " joints " that can be detached or cleanly cut off . Other cacti produce offsets that can be removed . Otherwise , stem cuttings can be made , ideally from relatively new growth . It is recommended that any cut surfaces be allowed to dry for a period of several days to several weeks until a callus forms over the cut surface . Rooting can then take place in an appropriate growing medium at a temperature of around 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) .
Grafting is used for species difficult to grow well in cultivation or that cannot grow independently , such as some chlorophyll @-@ free forms with white , yellow or red bodies , or some forms that show abnormal growth ( e.g. , cristate or monstrose forms ) . For the host plant — the " stock " — growers choose one that grows strongly in cultivation and is compatible with the plant to be propagated — the scion . The grower makes cuts on both stock and scion and joins the two , binding them together while they unite . Various kinds of graft are used — flat grafts , where both scion and stock are of similar diameters , and cleft grafts , where a smaller scion is inserted into a cleft made in the stock .
Commercially , huge numbers of cacti are produced annually . For example , in 2002 in Korea alone , 49 million plants were propagated , with a value of almost US $ 9 million . Most of them , 31 million plants , were propagated by grafting .
= = = Pests and diseases = = =
A range of pests attack cacti in cultivation . Those that feed on sap include : mealybugs , living on both stems and roots ; scale insects , generally only found on stems ; whiteflies , which are said to be an " infrequent " pest of cacti ; red spider mites , which are very small but can occur in large numbers , constructing a fine web around themselves and badly marking the cactus via their sap sucking , even if they do not kill it ; and thrips , which particularly attack flowers . Some of these pests are resistant to many insecticides , although there are biological controls available . Roots of cacti can be eaten by the larvae of sciarid flies and fungus gnats . Slugs and snails also eat cacti .
Fungi , bacteria and viruses attack cacti , the first two particularly when plants are over @-@ watered . Fusarium rot can gain entry through a wound and cause rotting accompanied by red @-@ violet mold . " Helminosporium rot " is caused by Bipolaris cactivora ( syn . Helminosporium cactivorum ) ; Phytophthora species also cause similar rotting in cacti . Fungicides may be of limited value in combating these diseases . Several viruses have been found in cacti , including cactus virus X. These appear to cause only limited visible symptoms , such as chlorotic ( pale green ) spots and mosaic effects ( streaks and patches of paler color ) . However , in an Agave species , cactus virus X has been shown to reduce growth , particularly when the roots are dry . There are no treatments for virus diseases .
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= No Rest for the Wicked ( Supernatural ) =
" No Rest for the Wicked " is the third season finale of the CW television series Supernatural . It is the sixteenth episode of the third season , and is the show 's sixtieth episode overall . Written by series creator Eric Kripke and directed by Kim Manners , the episode was first broadcast on May 15 , 2008 . The narrative follows the series ' protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) — brothers who travel the continental United States hunting supernatural creatures — as they attempt to save the latter 's soul from damnation . Having made a year @-@ long demonic pact in the previous season finale , Dean has just one day left to live . The brothers must track down the demonic overlord Lilith , who holds Dean 's contract . Lilith , meanwhile , is entertaining herself by possessing a young girl ( Sierra McCormick ) and terrorizing her family , a homage to the Twilight Zone episode " It 's a Good Life " .
Marking the final appearance of Katie Cassidy as the demon Ruby , the episode was originally intended to feature the return of Samantha Ferris as recurring character Ellen Harvelle . The writers initially intended that Sam would save Dean by giving into his demonic abilities , but the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike prevented the development of that storyline throughout the season . Dean is instead killed ; the final scene of him in Hell was the " most complicated shot [ the ] visual effects department has ever done " .
The episode received high ratings for the season , and garnered generally positive reviews from critics . The decision to follow through with Dean 's Hell @-@ bound contract was praised , as were the performances of Padalecki and Ackles . General consensus was that McCormick was " creepy " as Lilith , but lacked the menace of Fredric Lehne 's Azazel of the second season .
= = Background = =
Supernatural follows brothers Sam ( Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) as they travel the continental United States hunting supernatural creatures that pose a threat to society . At times , they are assisted by fellow " hunter " and family friend Bobby Singer ( Jim Beaver ) . Their greatest enemies come in the form of demons , corrupted human souls that have escaped from Hell . A cloud of black smoke in their true form , they take possession of human hosts .
Twenty @-@ two years earlier than the series ' main storyline , the demonic tyrant Azazel fed his blood to Sam and other infants , to imbue them with demonic abilities . He gathers them together in the second season finale " All Hell Breaks Loose " and coerces the young adults into a fight to the death to determine a leader for his demonic army . Sam is killed by the super @-@ strong Jake Talley , but Dean sells his own soul to a crossroads demon in exchange for Sam 's resurrection , a contract that leaves Dean with only a year to live . The Winchesters , Bobby , and fellow hunter Ellen Harvelle kill Jake and Azazel , but are too late to prevent the release of hundreds of demons from Hell .
One of the freed demons is Ruby ( Cassidy ) , a former witch who claims to oppose the demonic world . She frequently helps the brothers throughout the third season with her demon @-@ killing knife and knowledge of witchcraft , but Dean mistrusts her manipulative nature . As the deadline approaches , the Winchesters learn that Azazel 's successor , Lilith , holds the contract to Dean 's deal . He now only has one day remaining before he is sent to Hell .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) being chased through a forest by a hellhound ; as it mauls him , he awakens from his dream . His brother , Sam ( Padalecki ) , tells him that Bobby has devised a way to locate Lilith , but unconvinced that it will succeed , Dean suggests he live up the rest of his time . Sam insists that he will be saved , but Dean feigns reassurance as he hallucinates a demonic @-@ looking Sam .
Bobby tracks Lilith to New Harmony , Indiana . Dean does not want to attack unprepared , but he refuses to seek help from Ruby . Sam secretly summons her and asks for her knife , and Ruby tells him that his dormant psychic abilities could easily kill Lilith , whose guard is down as she is on " shore leave " . Sam considers the alternative , but Dean shows up and tricks Ruby into a devil 's trap — mystical symbols capable of rendering a demon powerless — and the brothers take her knife and leave . Despite Dean 's objections , Bobby insists that he accompany them , and draws attention to Dean 's hallucinations . With his demise rapidly approaching , Dean has begun " piercing the veil " , allowing him to glimpse the demons ' true forms .
When the trio arrive in New Harmony , they discover that Lilith is possessing a young girl ( McCormick ) and terrorizing her family . Pretending to be their daughter , Lilith kills the family dog when it is " mean " towards her and snaps the grandfather 's neck after he seeks help from neighbors . As Bobby blesses a waterline running to the sprinklers of the family 's home , Sam and Dean dispatch some of the demons who have taken over the neighborhood . Ruby appears and angrily confronts them , but is stopped short by an oncoming horde of demons . The three of them run into the house as Bobby activates the sprinklers , creating a barrier of holy water . While Dean takes the girl 's father to safety in the basement , Sam and Ruby go upstairs and split up in search of Lilith . Sam finds the possessed girl in her bedroom , and although initially hesitant he prepares to strike until he is stopped by Dean , who reveals that Lilith has left her . As midnight approaches , they take the rest of the family into the basement .
Sam begs Ruby to teach him how to use his abilities , but she tells him that it is too late . Dean accepts his fate as the clock strikes midnight , but runs from the approaching hellhound . The three barricade themselves inside a room , but Dean quickly realizes that Lilith has taken over Ruby 's host . Claiming to have sent Ruby " far , far away " , Lilith telekinetically pins the brothers down and lets in the hellhound . As Dean is mauled to death , Lilith blasts Sam with white energy from her hand . Horrified to see that it has no effect , she flees her host before Sam can retaliate . A devastated Sam cradles Dean , whose soul is then shown in Hell hanging from a vast landscape of chains and meathooks while fruitlessly screaming for Sam .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" No Rest for the Wicked " marked the final appearance of Katie Cassidy as the demon Ruby . Dismissed for budgetary reasons , the actress was replaced by Genevieve Cortese for the fourth season . The writers intended Samantha Ferris to return as hunter Ellen Harvelle , a guest stint Ferris believed would have ended in her character 's demise . She ultimately declined the offer because it " could cost [ her ] money and work " . Following the mythological Lilith 's role of " destroyer of children " , the demon takes on a child host portrayed by Sierra McCormick . Series writer Sera Gamble commented that it was an " interesting " choice because it presented Lilith as " creepy and kind of molesty " .
= = = Writing = = =
Originally entitled " No Quarter " , the episode was written by series creator Eric Kripke . Much of the storyline served as a homage to the Twilight Zone episode " It 's a Good Life " , in which a powerful child terrorizes his town . Although Kripke found it difficult to write many of the episode 's scenes , the terrorizing sequences " just came right out " because they were " just so fun " .
The writers initially intended that Sam would save Dean from Hell , possibly even before " No Rest for the Wicked " , by giving in to his demonic powers and becoming " this fully operational dark force " who would then want to go after Lilith . The battle would have been " much more climactic " , with the Winchesters " going to war to save Dean 's life " . By the middle of the season , however , the writers realized the costs associated with depicting such an engagement and scaled it down . To make matters worse , the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike prevented them from fleshing out Sam 's evolving abilities throughout the season , and his entire story arc was pushed back into the fourth season . With Sam 's storyline no longer dovetailing with Dean 's , the writers " [ never had ] any doubt in [ their ] minds " to send Dean to Hell . Kripke disliked that the second season finale " just ended " , and he felt that this episode provided a cliffhanger ending that had people " biting their nails " . Although the viewers ' expectations that Dean would be saved was " reason enough " , his imprisonment in Hell also served as a " turning point " for both the character and the series . Kripke commented , " You need huge moves to happen that can cause radical shifts in the characters , that set them off in a new direction . So what happens to Dean in Hell and how Dean gets out become primary concerns of season four . "
= = = Hell = = =
The episode 's final moments linger on Dean " meat @-@ hooked in the center of what looks like a thousand mile spiderweb of rusty chains " , a scene Kripke described as " M. C. Escher meets Hellraiser " . The original vision for the final scene would have placed Dean in a " really nasty , bloody slaughterhouse , hanging from meat hooks " . Here , Dean would start screaming as shadows fall over him . Discussions between Kripke , Manners , and Hayden led to the decision to present " one epic glimpse " of Hell , though they avoided aspects such as fire and brimstone to focus on more affordable visuals . Much debate went into the appearance of Hell because of its many variations . Though the scene matched with the many versions of " chains and people being ripped apart " , art director John Marcynuk felt they should have made it " a little more mysterious and dark " . He commented , " My opinion is , the vaguer the better , because you let the imagination take over . People have different fears , and Hell 's such a personal torment . " In series writer Sera Gamble 's opinion , Dean 's location is more of the " waiting room " — the place " they stick you before they hand you the sign @-@ in sheet " — a far cry from what he will experience " once he gets into the first chamber of Hell " .
The sequence was miserable for Ackles , who spent four hours in make @-@ up having the various hooks and other prosthetics applied . Wired cuffs around his wrists and ankles , as well as a harness around his waist , were used to lift him 13 feet into the air in front of a green screen . To his discomfort , the harness slipped , causing its buckle to continuously dig into his hip throughout the scene 's three or four takes . The actor , who " had tears rolling down [ his ] face " as he was lowered down , deemed it the most physical pain he has endured for a single shot .
The visual effects department also found it quite a challenge , often referring to the ten @-@ day process as the " Hell Shot " . Initially planned as 12 – 13 seconds , the shot ended up running 35 seconds , a huge feat to render on high @-@ definition film . They were also required to digitally remove the wires attached to Ackles , and add in chains . Lightning strikes occur throughout the scene , based on practical lightning effects done during the shoot to meet Manners ' and cinematographer Serge Ladouceur 's demands . This " [ slaved the department ] into the frequency of the lightning " , forcing them to " reverse @-@ engineer the randomness " . Because of the vast complications and expenses in presenting Hell to such an extent , future representations are restricted to " very tight angles " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The neighborhood scenes were shot in a cul @-@ de @-@ sac of million @-@ dollar homes , and production housed the residents in hotels for two nights to allow for filming . Although the sequence of Sam and Dean looking across the street as the grandfather is killed appears to be shot from inside one of the houses , the actors were actually standing on a two @-@ story scaffolding across the street , looking through fake windows . Shots of them inside the house in the same scene made use of one of the basements .
= = = Music = = =
The episode 's synthesized orchestral score was written by Jay Gruska , who especially enjoyed working on the episode due to his friendship with an actor from " It 's a Good Life " . The music , however , was not influenced by The Twilight Zone , as Gruska prefers to base his scores on an episode 's visuals . The terrorizing scenes thus featured child sounds such as the high register of a toy piano , which used a " low approach underneath it " to make it " absolutely sinister " .
In addition to the score , the episode followed the series tradition of a rock soundtrack . On their drive to New Harmony , Sam and Dean sing along to Bon Jovi 's " Wanted Dead or Alive " . To mask Ackles ' " very impressive singing voice " , Kripke asked the actor to sing off @-@ key .
= = Reception = =
On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 998 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews from critics , with TV Guide ranking the episode No. 95 in its 2009 list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " . BuddyTV 's Don Williams deemed the finale " absolutely fantastic " , and ranked it tenth on his list of the top Supernatural episodes of the first three seasons . Although he " respected the show for having the guts to follow through with [ Dean 's ] deal " — the ending was a " complete jaw @-@ dropper " — he pointed out the previous times the Winchesters have died and were subsequently resurrected . Memorable moments for Williams include Sam and Dean singing " Wanted Dead or Alive " , and Dean admitting that his love for Sam is his main weakness . Likewise , TV Guide 's Tina Charles described the episode as " creepy and suspenseful and funny and sad and just plain awesome " , and felt it came close to outdoing the first season finale " Devil 's Trap " . Especially praised were the actors ' performances . Padalecki " totally stepped up to the plate and knocked one out of the park " , and Ackles was " nine kinds of awesome " . On the latter , Charles noted , " From acting out Dean 's stubborn ways , his inappropriate humor , those crushing looks of despair and doom and Dean 's death , the man can play it all . " McCormick was described as " creepy " , leading to Charles ' " huge compliment " of comparing the episode to The Twilight Zone . For the critic , the " totally unexpected " Bon Jovi sing @-@ along " totally rocked " and has " instantly become a classic " . Her main disappointment with the episode , however , was the lack of Sam " going dark side " . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune listed the episode as one of the " gems " of the third season , and believed it likely to end up as one of her " Favorite ' Supernatural ' Episodes of All Time " . The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune 's Karla Peterson agreed , giving the episode a grade of A- . Although it " got off to a shaky start with some weirdly paced scenes " , it ended up a " finale that wrapped us in sticky threads of old fears , mind @-@ bending new business and one awesome Bon Jovi song " .
Brett Love of TV Squad , on the other hand , " [ stopped ] short of calling [ it ] an excellent finale " . While the deal 's payoff was " fantastic " — he was surprised by Dean 's death , and looked forward to its implications for the fourth season — Love was slightly disappointed with Lilith . McCormick " impressed " him as Lilith , but he did not find her as " menacing and scary " as Fredric Lehne 's Azazel . The villain 's storyline of terrorizing a family would have made a " great regular episode " , but was not epic enough for a finale . Diana Steenbergen of IGN felt the scenes of Lilith 's shore leave briefly " [ dragged ] the episode down " because the viewers " understood the situation quickly enough " . She otherwise liked the episode , and gave it a score of 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Steenbergen enjoyed the " first @-@ rate brotherly scenes " , and was happy that the series followed through with its promise of sending Dean to Hell , commenting that the related hellhound attack was " one of the scariest things the show has done yet " . Like Charles , she applauded the acting , noting that " we feel [ Dean 's ] fear as the deadline approaches " . She went on to write that Padalecki 's " best moments are in the barely contained rage at his inability to save his brother , and in his grief at losing Dean " , while " Lilith and her little girl mannerisms in Ruby 's body were far more chilling , and interesting , than Ruby 's tough chick persona ever has been " .
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= Pilot ( The Blacklist ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the first season of the American crime drama The Blacklist . The episode premiered in the United States on NBC on September 23 , 2013 . It was written by series creator Jon Bokenkamp and was directed by Joe Carnahan .
NBC bought the rights to The Blacklist from Sony Pictures Television in August 2012 and green @-@ lit production in January 2013 . Producers said that the casting process was difficult . They initially offered the male lead to Kiefer Sutherland before James Spader accepted the role three days before filming began . Even though the series is set in Washington , D.C. , the pilot was mainly filmed in the same Manhattan studio where Law & Order was filmed .
In this episode , ex @-@ government agent and FBI Most Wanted fugitive Raymond Reddington ( James Spader ) turns himself in to the FBI and offers to give up information about the criminals he has worked with in exchange for sole communication with FBI profiler Elizabeth Keen ( Megan Boone ) . After Reddington convinces Keen to work with him , they work to capture Ranko Zamani ( Jamie Jackson ) , a terrorist thought to be dead by the FBI .
" Pilot " debuted the series for the 2013 – 14 season . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several critics praising James Spader 's portrayal of Raymond Reddington . In its original airing , " Pilot " received a 3 @.@ 8 / 10 Nielsen rating with 12 @.@ 58 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated television show in its time slot and the eleventh most @-@ watched television show of the week .
= = Plot = =
One of the FBI ’ s most wanted men , Raymond Reddington ( James Spader ) , strolls into the bureau headquarters in D.C. and turns himself in . He has information on a crime about to be perpetrated by a Serbian terrorist believed by the bureau to be dead . When the Serbian is recognized at the airport by facial identification software as Ranko Zamani ( Jamie Jackson ) , the division head answers to Reddington ’ s demands in order to get his help catching Zamani . Reddington insists on working exclusively with Elizabeth Keen ( Megan Boone ) , a profiler who had just been hired . Reddington knows quite a bit about Keen , which convinces her and the SAIC to acquiesce to Reddington ’ s plan . Zamani plans to kidnap and booby trap the daughter of a general responsible for destroying a chemical weapons factory that poisoned Zamani 's family .
Keen gets to the girl first but loses her in a daring raid by Zamani 's forces . Now aware of Keen , Zamani attacks her husband , Tom , in their home , gravely wounding him . Keen notes a stamp on the man ’ s hand and deduces the attack will take place at a zoo . Reddington briefly escapes custody to meet with Zamani , revealing that unbeknownst to the FBI , he masterminded the ploy , as well as the attack on Tom . Reddington removes the tracking device and places it with Zamani , which helps the FBI track down and kill the latter . Keen finds the daughter and a bomb in her backpack . Reddington calls in a clandestine bomb tech to disable the bomb , who then escapes with it . Reddington tells Elizabeth that her husband , with whom she is trying to adopt a baby , is not what he appears to be .
Returning to the FBI , Reddington offers to provide information on a number of the world ’ s dangerous criminals , his “ blacklist , ” in order to commute sentence and work with Keen . At home , Keen discovers a hidden box of cash , passports , and a gun , all belonging to her husband . She confronts Reddington to find out what he knows and stares at him as the episode ends .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
NBC bought the rights to The Blacklist from Sony Pictures Television in August 2012 and greenlighted the show in January 2013 . During an NBC upfront presentation in May 2013 , it was announced that The Blacklist was NBC 's highest @-@ testing drama in 10 years .
After showing a screening of " Pilot " at Comic @-@ Con , producers revealed that their inspiration for The Blacklist came from the capture of Whitey Bulger . Recalling the experience in an interview with Collider.com , executive producer John Eisendrath stated :
= = = Casting = = =
Eisendrath said the casting process for " Pilot " was difficult . In February 2013 , Zap2it reported that NBC offered Kiefer Sutherland the lead role of Raymond Reddington . After considering other actors for the role , Einsendrath and Bokencamp called James Spader to see if he would be interested in it . Feeling confident in Spader 's understanding of the character , they casted him three days before filming began .
Megan Boone took a week to prepare for her audition as FBI profiler Elizabeth Keen . After getting called back for multiple auditions , Boone accepted the role as the female lead in the series in March 2013 .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode debuted the series for the 2013 – 14 season . Written by series creator Jon Bokenkamp , Eisendrath joined John Davis and John Fox of Davis Entertainment as executive producers , while Joe Carnahan directed the episode .
Despite being set in Washington , D.C. , the series is mainly filmed in the same Manhattan studio where Law & Order was filmed for 20 years . Producer Richard Heus said they chose to film specific Washington , D.C. locations for " Pilot " because they were " iconic American locations " . These locations included the Lincoln Memorial , the Washington Monument , and the National Mall . In March 2013 , NBC filmed the bridge action scene for " Pilot " on the Michael Valente Memorial Bridge in Long Beach . Since it took two days to film that scene , northbound traffic had to be diverted onto one lane of the southbound bridge . NBC covered all overtime costs and permit fees , as the scene involved numerous special effects , such as fire , smoke , and car collisions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pilot " premiered on NBC on September 23 , 2013 in the 10 – 11 p.m. time slot . The episode garnered a 3 @.@ 8 / 10 Nielsen rating with 12 @.@ 58 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated show in its time slot . The series premiere was the eleventh most @-@ watched television show of the week , and was the highest @-@ rated 10 p.m. drama since Revolution on September 17 , 2012 . In addition , the episode added 5 @.@ 696 million DVR viewers within seven days after its original broadcast , bringing a total of 18 @.@ 279 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews for " Pilot " were generally favorable . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B + , calling the show " a slick action @-@ adventure tale with knotty plotting and zeitgeisty villains " . Hank Steuver of The Washington Post praised the episode for being " stylish and swiftly paced " with " intriguing plot twists " , but felt that there was " not a lot of motivation to keep coming back " . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette felt that the " tone change " in the episode was " a bit abrupt " , but noted that " viewers who can handle the twists and turns will be intrigued " . James Poniewozik gave a mixed review of the episode , noting that the show is " setting itself up to be largely a bad @-@ guy @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week show " and that its success will " depend on how interesting Reddington and Keen ’ s backstories become " . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said the episode was " stylish and expertly paced " , saying that " it is never boring " . Dorothy Rabinowitz of The Wall Street Journal gave a positive review of the episode , saying that the episode " reaches undeniably satisfying levels of menace " .
Several critics praised James Spader 's performance as Raymond " Red " Reddington in " Pilot " . Diane Werts of Newsday labeled Spader " TV 's most voracious thespian " , but felt that he was " the only one who actually [ understood ] the gameplay " of the series . Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said that Spader was " the ace in the hole " of the episode , noting that " the sheer swoony pleasure of watching James Spader chew through scenes and scenery with epicurean delight " was the " reason to watch " the show . Brian Lowry of Variety said that Spader was the only actor " that lifts The Blacklist above mundane " , saying that Spader did not get enough screen time . Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post praised Spader 's performance in the episode , stating that Spader " digs into this part with all the relish of Hannibal Lecter tucking into some organic escarole @-@ and @-@ human parts pie " .
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= Familial hypercholesterolemia =
Familial hypercholesterolemia ( abbreviated FH , also spelled familial hypercholesterolaemia ) is a genetic disorder characterized by high cholesterol levels , specifically very high levels of low @-@ density lipoprotein ( LDL , " bad cholesterol " ) , in the blood and early cardiovascular disease . Since individuals with FH underlying body biochemistry is slightly different , their high cholesterol levels are less responsive to the kinds of cholesterol control methods which are usually more effective in people without FH ( such as dietary modification and statin tablets ) . Nevertheless , treatment ( including higher statin doses ) is usually effective .
Many people have mutations in the LDLR gene that encodes the LDL receptor protein , which normally removes LDL from the circulation , or apolipoprotein B ( ApoB ) , which is the part of LDL that binds with the receptor ; mutations in other genes are rare . People who have one abnormal copy ( are heterozygous ) of the LDLR gene may develop cardiovascular disease prematurely at the age of 30 to 40 . Having two abnormal copies ( being homozygous ) may cause severe cardiovascular disease in childhood . Heterozygous FH is a common genetic disorder , inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern , occurring in 1 : 500 people in most countries ; homozygous FH is much rarer , occurring in 1 in a million births .
Heterozygous FH is normally treated with statins , bile acid sequestrants , or other lipid lowering agents that lower cholesterol levels . New cases are generally offered genetic counseling . Homozygous FH often does not respond to medical therapy and may require other treatments , including LDL apheresis ( removal of LDL in a method similar to dialysis ) and occasionally liver transplantation .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Physical signs = = =
High cholesterol levels normally do not cause any symptoms . Yellow deposits of cholesterol @-@ rich fat may be seen in various places on the body such as around the eyelids ( known as xanthelasma palpebrarum ) , the outer margin of the iris ( known as arcus senilis corneae ) , and in the tendons of the hands , elbows , knees and feet , particularly the Achilles tendon ( known as a tendon xanthoma ) .
= = = Cardiovascular disease = = =
Accelerated deposition of cholesterol in the walls of arteries leads to atherosclerosis , the underlying cause of cardiovascular disease . The most common problem in FH is the development of coronary artery disease ( atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries that supply the heart ) at a much younger age than would be expected in the general population . This may lead to angina pectoris ( chest pain or tightness on exertion ) or heart attacks . Less commonly , arteries of the brain are affected ; this may lead to transient ischemic attacks ( brief episodes of weakness on one side of the body or inability to talk ) or occasionally stroke . Peripheral artery occlusive disease ( obstruction of the arteries of the legs ) occurs mainly in people with FH who smoke ; this can cause pain in the calf muscles during walking that resolves with rest ( intermittent claudication ) and problems due to a decreased blood supply to the feet ( such as gangrene ) . Atherosclerosis risk is increased further with age and in those who smoke , have diabetes , high blood pressure and a family history of cardiovascular disease .
= = Diagnosis = =
Approximately 85 % of individuals with this disorder have not been diagnosed and consequently are not receiving lipid @-@ lowering treatments . Physical examination findings can help a physician make the diagnosis of FH . Tendon xanthomas are seen in 20 @-@ 40 % of individuals with FH and are pathognomonic for the condition . A xanthelasma or corneal arcus may also be seen . These common signs are supportive of the diagnosis , but are non @-@ specific findings .
= = = Lipid measurements = = =
Cholesterol levels may be determined as part of health screening for health insurance or occupational health , when the external physical signs such as xanthelasma , xanthoma , arcus are noticed , symptoms of cardiovascular disease develop , or a family member has been found to have FH . A pattern compatible with hyperlipoproteinemia type IIa on the Fredrickson classification is typically found : raised level of total cholesterol , markedly raised level of low @-@ density lipoprotein ( LDL ) , normal level of high @-@ density lipoprotein ( HDL ) , and normal level of triglycerides . Total cholesterol levels of 350 – 550 mg / dL are typical of heterozygous FH while total cholesterol levels of 650 – 1000 mg / dL are typical of homozygous FH . The LDL is typically above the 75th percentile , that is , 75 % of the healthy population would have a lower LDL level . Cholesterol levels can be drastically higher in people with FH who are also obese .
= = = Mutation analysis = = =
On the basis of the isolated high LDL and clinical criteria ( which differ by country ) , genetic testing for LDL receptor mutations and ApoB mutations can be performed . Mutations are detected in between 50 and 80 % of cases ; those without a mutation often have higher triglyceride levels and may in fact have other causes for their high cholesterol , such as combined hyperlipidemia due to metabolic syndrome .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
FH needs to be distinguished from familial combined hyperlipidemia and polygenic hypercholesterolemia . Lipid levels and the presence of xanthomata can confirm the diagnosis . Sitosterolemia and cerebrotendineous xanthomatosis are two rare conditions that can also present with premature atherosclerosis and xanthomas . The latter condition can also involve neurological or psychiatric manifestations , cataracts , diarrhea and skeletal abnormalities .
= = Genetics = =
The most common genetic defects in FH are LDLR mutations ( prevalence 1 in 500 , depending on the population ) , ApoB mutations ( prevalence 1 in 1000 ) , PCSK9 mutations ( less than 1 in 2500 ) and LDLRAP1 . The related disease sitosterolemia , which has many similarities with FH and also features cholesterol accumulation in tissues , is due to ABCG5 and ABCG8 mutations .
= = = LDL receptor = = =
The LDL receptor gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 19 ( 19p13.1 @-@ 13 @.@ 3 ) . It comprises 18 exons and spans 45 kb , and the protein gene product contains 839 amino acids in mature form . A single abnormal copy ( heterozygote ) of FH causes cardiovascular disease by the age of 50 in about 40 % of cases . Having two abnormal copies ( homozygote ) causes accelerated atherosclerosis in childhood , including its complications . The plasma LDL levels are inversely related to the activity of LDL receptor ( LDLR ) . Homozygotes have LDLR activity of less than 2 % , while heterozygotes have defective LDL processing with receptor activity being 2 – 25 % , depending on the nature of the mutation . Over 1000 different mutations are known .
There are five major classes of FH due to LDLR mutations :
Class I : LDLR is not synthesized at all .
Class II : LDLR is not properly transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus for expression on the cell surface .
Class III : LDLR does not properly bind LDL on the cell surface because of a defect in either apolipoprotein B100 ( R3500Q ) or in LDL @-@ R.
Class IV : LDLR bound to LDL does not properly cluster in clathrin @-@ coated pits for receptor @-@ mediated endocytosis ( pathway step 2 ) .
Class V : LDLR is not recycled back to the cell surface ( pathway step 5 ) .
= = = Apolipoprotein B = = =
Apolipoprotein B , in its ApoB100 form , is the main apolipoprotein , or protein part of the lipoprotein particle . Its gene is located on the second chromosome ( 2p24 @-@ p23 ) and is between 21 @.@ 08 and 21 @.@ 12 Mb long . FH is often associated with the mutation of R3500Q , which causes replacement of arginine by glutamine at position 3500 . The mutation is located on a part of the protein that normally binds with the LDL receptor , and binding is reduced as a result of the mutation . Like LDLR , the number of abnormal copies determines the severity of the hypercholesterolemia .
= = = PCSK9 = = =
Mutations in the proprotein convertase subtilisin / kexin type 9 ( PCSK9 ) gene were linked to autosomal dominant ( i.e. requiring only one abnormal copy ) FH in a 2003 report . The gene is located on the first chromosome ( 1p34.1 @-@ p32 ) and encodes a 666 amino acid protein that is expressed in the liver . It has been suggested that PCSK9 causes FH mainly by reducing the number of LDL receptors on liver cells .
= = = LDLRAP1 = = =
Abnormalities in the ARH gene , also known as LDLRAP1 , were first reported in a family in 1973 . In contrast to the other causes , two abnormal copies of the gene are required for FH to develop ( autosomal recessive ) . The mutations in the protein tend to cause the production of a shortened protein . Its real function is unclear , but it seems to play a role in the relation between the LDL receptor and clathrin @-@ coated pits . People with autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia tend to have more severe disease than LDLR @-@ heterozygotes but less severe than LDLR @-@ homozygotes .
= = Pathophysiology = =
LDL cholesterol normally circulates in the body for 2 @.@ 5 days , and subsequently the apolipoprotein B portion of LDL cholesterol binds to the LDL receptor on the liver cells , triggering its uptake and digestion . This process results in the removal of LDL from the circulatory system . Synthesis of cholesterol by the liver is suppressed in the HMG @-@ CoA reductase pathway . In FH , LDL receptor function is reduced or absent , and LDL circulates for an average duration of 4 @.@ 5 days , resulting in significantly increased level of LDL cholesterol in the blood with normal levels of other lipoproteins . In mutations of ApoB , reduced binding of LDL particles to the receptor causes the increased level of LDL cholesterol . It is not known how the mutation causes LDL receptor dysfunction in mutations of PCSK9 and ARH .
Although atherosclerosis occurs to a certain degree in all people , people with FH may develop accelerated atherosclerosis due to the excess level of LDL . The degree of atherosclerosis approximately depends on the number of LDL receptors still expressed and the functionality of these receptors . In many heterozygous forms of FH , the receptor function is only mildly impaired , and LDL levels will remain relatively low . In the more serious homozygous forms , the receptor is not expressed at all .
Some studies of FH cohorts suggest that additional risk factors are generally at play when a person develops atherosclerosis . In addition to the classic risk factors such as smoking , high blood pressure , and diabetes , genetic studies have shown that a common abnormality in the prothrombin gene ( G20210A ) increases the risk of cardiovascular events in people with FH . Several studies found that a high level of lipoprotein ( a ) was an additional risk factor for ischemic heart disease . The risk was also found to be higher in people with a specific genotype of the angiotensin @-@ converting enzyme ( ACE ) .
= = Screening = =
Screening among family members of people with known FH is cost @-@ effective . Other strategies such as universal screening at the age of 16 have also been suggested . The latter approach may however be less cost @-@ effective in the short term . Screening at an age lower than 16 would lead to an unacceptably high rate of false positives .
A 2007 meta analysis found that , " The proposed strategy of screening children and parents for familial hypercholesterolaemia could have considerable impact in preventing the medical consequences of this disorder in two generations simultaneously . " " The use of total cholesterol alone may best discriminate between people with and without FH between the ages of 1 to 9 years . "
= = Treatment = =
= = = Heterozygous FH = = =
FH is usually treated with statins . Statins act by inhibiting the enzyme hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductase ( HMG @-@ CoA @-@ reductase ) in the liver . In response , the liver produces more LDL receptors , which remove circulating LDL from the blood . Statins effectively lower cholesterol and LDL levels , although sometimes add @-@ on therapy with other drugs is required , such as bile acid sequestrants ( cholestyramine or colestipol ) , nicotinic acid preparations or fibrates . Control of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease is required , as risk remains somewhat elevated even when cholesterol levels are controlled . Professional guidelines recommend that the decision to treat a person with FH with statins should not be based on the usual risk prediction tools ( such as those derived from the Framingham Heart Study ) , as they are likely to underestimate the risk of cardiovascular disease ; unlike the rest of the population , FH have had high levels of cholesterol since birth , probably increasing their relative risk . Prior to the introduction of the statins , clofibrate ( an older fibrate that often caused gallstones ) , probucol ( especially in large xanthomas ) and thyroxine were used to reduce LDL cholesterol levels .
More controversial is the addition of ezetimibe , which inhibits cholesterol absorption in the gut . While it reduces LDL cholesterol , it does not appear to improve a marker of atherosclerosis called the intima @-@ media thickness . Whether this means that ezetimibe is of no overall benefit in FH is unknown .
There are no interventional studies that directly show mortality benefit of cholesterol lowering in FH . Rather , evidence of benefit is derived from a number of trials conducted in people who have polygenic hypercholesterolemia ( in which heredity plays a smaller role ) . Still , a 1999 observational study of a large British registry showed that mortality in people with FH had started to improve in the early 1990s when statins were introduced .
A cohort study suggested that treatment of FH with statins leads to a 48 % reduction in death from coronary heart disease to a point where people are no more likely to die of coronary heart disease than the general population . However , if the person already had coronary heart disease the reduction was 25 % . The results emphasize the importance of early identification of FH and treatment with statins .
Alirocumab and evolocumab , both monoclonal antibodies against PCSK9 , are specifically indicated as adjunct to diet and maximally tolerated statin therapy for the treatment of adults with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia , who require additional lowering of LDL cholesterol .
= = = Homozygous FH = = =
Homozygous FH is harder to treat . The LDL receptors are minimally functional , if at all . Only high doses of statins , often in combination with other medications , are modestly effective in improving lipid levels . If medical therapy is not successful at reducing cholesterol levels , LDL apheresis may be used ; this filters LDL from the bloodstream in a process reminiscent of dialysis . Very severe cases may be considered for a liver transplant ; this provides a liver with normally functional LDL receptors , and leads to rapid improvement of the cholesterol levels , but at the risk of complications from any solid organ transplant ( such as rejection , infections , or side @-@ effects of the medication required to suppress rejection ) . Other surgical techniques include partial ileal bypass surgery , in which part of the small bowel is bypassed to decrease the absorption of nutrients and hence cholesterol , and portacaval shunt surgery , in which the portal vein is connected to the vena cava to allow blood with nutrients from the intestine to bypass the liver .
Lomitapide , an inhibitor of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein , was approved by the US FDA in December 2012 as an orphan drug for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia . In January 2013 , The US FDA also approved mipomersen , which inhibits the action of the gene apolipoprotein B , for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia . Gene therapy is a possible future alternative .
= = = Children = = =
Given that FH is present from birth and atherosclerotic changes may begin early in life , it is sometimes necessary to treat adolescents or even teenagers with agents that were originally developed for adults . Due to safety concerns , many physicians prefer to use bile acid sequestrants and fenofibrate as these are licensed in children . Nevertheless , statins seem safe and effective , and in older children may be used as in adults .
An expert panel in 2006 advised on early combination therapy with LDL apheresis , statins and cholesterol absorption inhibitors in children with homozygous FH at the highest risk .
= = Epidemiology = =
The global prevalence of FH is approximately 10 million people . In most populations studied , heterozygous FH occurs in about 1 : 500 people , but not all develop symptoms . Homozygous FH occurs in about 1 : 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
LDLR mutations are more common in certain populations , presumably because of a genetic phenomenon known as the founder effect — they were founded by a small group of individuals , one or several of whom was a carrier of the mutation . The Afrikaner , French Canadians , Lebanese Christians , and Finns have high rates of specific mutations that make FH particularly common in these groups . APOB mutations are more common in Central Europe .
= = History = =
The Norwegian physician Dr C. Müller first associated the physical signs , high cholesterol levels and autosomal dominant inheritance in 1938 . In the early 1970s and 1980s , the genetic cause for FH was described by Dr Joseph L. Goldstein and Dr Michael S. Brown of Dallas , Texas . Initially , they found increased activity of HMG @-@ CoA reductase , but studies showed that this did not explain the very abnormal cholesterol levels in people with FH . The focus shifted to the binding of LDL to its receptor , and effects of impaired binding on metabolism ; this proved to be the underlying mechanism for FH . Subsequently numerous mutations in the protein were directly identified by sequencing . They later won the 1985 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their discovery of the LDL receptor and its impact on lipoprotein metabolism .
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= West Pier =
The West Pier is a pier in Brighton , England . It was designed by Eugenius Birch , opening in 1866 and closing in 1975 . The pier was the first to be Grade I listed in Britain but has become increasingly derelict since closure .
The pier was constructed during a boom in pleasure pier building in the 1860s , and was designed to attract tourism in Brighton . It was the town 's second pier , joining the Royal Suspension Chain Pier of 1823 . It was extended in 1893 , and a concert hall was added in 1916 . The pier reached its peak attendance during this time , with 2 million visitors between 1918 and 1919 . Its popularity began to decline after World War II , and concerts were replaced by a funfair and tearoom . A local company took ownership in 1965 , but could not meet the increased maintenance cost , and ultimately filed for bankruptcy . They could not find a suitable buyer , so the pier closed in 1975 and subsequently fell into disrepair .
The West Pier Trust now owns the pier and has proposed various plans to renovate it . Some schemes have been opposed by local residents and the owners of the nearby Palace Pier , who have claimed unfair competition . The pier gradually collapsed during the early 21st century . Major sections collapsed in late 2002 , and two fires in March and May 2003 left little of the original structure . Subsequently , English Heritage declared it to be beyond repair . Structured demolition took place in 2010 to make way for the observation tower i360 ; further structural damage from storms has occurred since .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century = = =
The West Pier was constructed during a boom in pleasure pier building in the 1860s , during which 22 new piers were erected across Britain . It was designed by architect Eugenius Birch as a place for seaside visitors to enjoy fresh sea air . Some wealthy residents in the nearby Regency Square objected to construction , complaining that the planned toll houses at the entrance would spoil the view of the sea from their homes . It was felt that the pier would have a positive effect on property values in the town , so the pier was approved . Construction began in 1863 and the pier opened to the public on 6 October 1866 .
The pier had a length of 1 @,@ 115 feet ( 340 m ) and a width of 310 feet ( 94 m ) at the pierhead . It was built with cast iron threaded columns screwed into the seabed . The superstructure 's ironwork was manufactured by Robert Laidlaw , featuring an " oriental " style . Upon opening , the pier was fitted with gas lamps with ornamental serpent designs , which had been directly influenced by similar examples inside the nearby Royal Pavilion . The pier had ornamental houses , two toll houses and glass screens at the pierhead to protect visitors from the weather . A New Scientist report covering Britain 's piers called the pier Birch 's " masterpiece " .
In 1893 , the pierhead was extended under the supervision of Birch 's nephew , Peregrine , who added a pavilion with a capacity for 1400 people . After the Royal Suspension Chain Pier was demolished following a storm in 1896 , the West Pier became the only one on Brighton 's seafront until the construction of the Palace Pier .
= = = 20th century = = =
In April 1900 , seven sailors from HMS Desperate drowned in bad weather as they approached the pier .
By the early 20th century , the earlier priority of good sea air on the pier had been replaced with a desire for public entertainment . The pier reached record levels of attendance in the early 20th century , attracting around 1 @.@ 5 million visitors between 1910 and 1911 . Attendance fell due to the onset of World War I , but resumed afterwards , with around 2 million people visiting between 1918 and 1919 .
Competition with the Palace Pier led to a new concert hall , designed by local architects Clayton & Black . The 19th century bandstand was demolished between 1914 and 1916 . It was replaced by an eight @-@ sided grand concert hall , constructed from cast @-@ iron arches . It opened on 20 April 1916 with a concert by the King 's Royal Rifles silver band , made up of war veterans .
The concert hall had its own in @-@ house orchestra by November , and ticket sales for concerts accounted for 43 % of the pier 's revenue by 1920 . The West Pier was favoured by locals , while the Palace Pier was used more by day trippers . A top @-@ deck entrance was added to the hall in 1932 . The pier 's central decking was removed during World War II to prevent enemy landings , and its popularity began to decline . On 26 November 1944 a Royal Air Force Hawker Typhoon fighter hit the pier , crashing onto the beach . The pilot sustained head injuries . The Typhoon was one of four aircraft escorting a VIP flight .
The concert hall was converted into a tea room and the theatre redesigned as a restaurant in the early 1950s . A funfair was added around the same time . By the 1960s , the pier was suffering from serious financial difficulties . In 1965 , it was bought by a company that owned some seafront hotels and entertainment venues . They had ambitions for the pier but were unable to cope with increasing maintenance costs . Some portions of wood and iron from the pier fell on the beach , and the pierhead was closed in 1970 due to safety concerns . The pier was Grade II listed in 1969 and the council served compulsory repair notices , but the company was unable to afford them and opted for voluntary liquidation . The remainder of the pier was closed in 1975 when the Brighton Corporation declined to buy it , passing control to the Crown Estates Commissioners .
= = Restoration = =
After 1975 , various attempts were made to restore the pier . Supporters complained that the council was more interested in developing Brighton Marina . In 1982 , the pier became the only one in Britain to be awarded Grade I listed status . The West Pier Trust was formed to save the pier , and bought it from the council in 1983 for a peppercorn fee of £ 100 , though the council also demanded £ 800 @,@ 000 required for immediate repairs before it could be opened to the public . A proposal to restore the pier with a 60 @-@ metre ( 200 ft ) ferris wheel failed after the backer went bankrupt .
The pier suffered structural damage due to the Great Storm of 1987 , and access from the shore was removed for safety reasons in 1991 . The West Pier Trust continued to offer regular tours of the pier throughout the 1990s . In 1998 , the National Lottery pledged £ 14 million to restore the pier , but the West Pier Trust was unable to find a suitable partner to help with restoration . The owners of the Palace Pier , who had become financially self @-@ sufficient under their own means , claimed unfair competition . In 2001 , English Heritage identified the pier as the most at @-@ risk Grade I listed structure in the United Kingdom .
= = Decline and damage = =
In December 2002 , the pier partially collapsed during a storm , when a walkway connecting the concert hall and pavilion fell into the sea . The following month , the concert hall in the middle of the pier fell over , leaving the entire structure close to total collapse .
On 28 March 2003 the pavilion at the pierhead caught fire . Fire crews were unable to save the building from destruction because the collapsed walkway prevented them from reaching it . The cause of the fire remains unknown , since fire investigators were unable to access the site for safety reasons . A more severe fire burned through 11 and 12 May 2003 , consuming most of what was left of the concert hall . On 23 June 2004 , high winds caused the middle of the pier to collapse completely . The following month , English Heritage declared the pier to be beyond repair .
Despite these setbacks , the West Pier Trust remained adamant that they would soon begin full restoration work . Retired boxer Chris Eubank criticised the delays in restoring the pier , saying he could raise the money himself in six months . In December 2004 , the Trust confirmed the restoration would not be going ahead after their plans were rejected by the Heritage Lottery Fund . The pier was partially demolished in February 2010 , partly to make way for the planned i360 observation tower . In February 2014 , due to stormy weather , the pier split in half and a large part of the centre fell into the sea . Waves swept away the eastern side of the damaged metal skeleton , which remained after the 2003 fire . A selection of artefacts rescued from the pier is exhibited in the Brighton Fishing Museum . A further section of the pier collapsed in 2016 .
= = Media appearances = =
The pier can be seen in several films , including Oh ! What a Lovely War ( 1968 ) and Carry On Girls ( 1973 ) which was filmed on the pier and in locations nearby in Brighton . It was also prominently featured in the French comedy La Course à l 'échalote ( 1975 ) , starring Pierre Richard and Jane Birkin .
In Nick Cave 's novel The Death of Bunny Munro , Bunny 's son speculates on a reason for the 2003 fires . The band James filmed the video for " Just Like Fred Astaire " on and around the West Pier .
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= Selina Meyer =
Selina Catherine Meyer ( née Eaton ) is a fictional character portrayed by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus on the HBO television comedy series Veep . Louis @-@ Dreyfus has been critically acclaimed for the role , earning a record @-@ tying four consecutive Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series awards and four Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy nominations .
Meyer is a former United States Senator and Vice President of the United States following an unsuccessful run for President . During the first season , as Vice President she was powerless and disregarded by most other important officials , leading to various humiliations and indignities . During the second season she begins to amass some power and influence . In the third season , she contemplates challenging the incumbent president for their unnamed party 's nomination in light of his political weakness , but the issue is mooted when he abruptly resigns , allowing her to become the president . In the fourth season , she has assumed office but is facing strong primary and general @-@ election challengers of her own . The general election results in a tie , setting the stage for the fifth season , as the House of Representatives prepares to choose the president .
The role garnered Louis @-@ Dreyfus several milestone accolades : Her fourteenth Primetime Emmy Award nomination for a role in the regular cast of a comedy series surpassed Lucille Ball as the most ever . Her Primetime Emmy Award for her third different regular cast role also was a record @-@ setting achievement for a comedy actress . Her four consecutive Primetime Emmy Lead Actress wins tied a record and her five overall Primetime Emmy Lead Actress wins also tied a record .
= = Fictional biography = =
Meyer was born Selina Catherine Eaton to mother Catherine Calvert Eaton and Gordon Dunn Eaton . In her childhood , she loved her father ( whom she affectionately called Daddy ) , but resented her narcissistic mother . Her father died when she was 12 , and she claims that her mother blamed Selina for his death .
The show 's original opening sequence details some of her career . She was a United States Senator from Maryland ( where she was born and raised ) . She announced her candidacy for the 2012 presidential election . Media outlets initially praised her and had high hopes for her becoming the President , with headlines such as " Magic Meyer " and " Is this Meyer 's Moment ? " . Despite strong initial victories , she ultimately is defeated by primary challenger Stuart Hughes on Super Tuesday , and suspends her campaign . He then selects her as his running mate , and is elected to the presidency .
As the Vice President , Meyer found herself increasingly ignored by the President , and often demoted to trivial matters . When the sitting President decides that he will not seek a second term , his Chief of Staff Ben Cafferty encourages Meyer to run , which she ultimately does . She faces a primary challenge from war veteran and governor Danny Chung , Secretary of Defense George Maddox , Congressman Owen Pierce , and baseball coach Joe Thornhill . During the course of the primary season , President Hughes resigns abruptly to care for his ailing wife , and Meyer ascends to the presidency . Headlines question whether Meyer will be " the 8 @-@ month president " , confirming that Hughes ' term was near over , and Meyer is constitutionally eligible to serve two full terms as President . Though she chooses Senator Andrew Doyle to become her Vice President , he declines to serve as her running mate for a full term as Vice President . She offers the running mate position to both Chung and Maddox , but both decline , and she ultimately chooses popular Senator Tom James when she secures the party nomination .
Meyer is challenged in the general election by Southern Senator Jim O 'Brien . The election ends in an electoral college tie , but with Meyer having won the popular vote . After an ambiguous result in Nevada , the Meyer camp successfully campaigns for a recount . The recount backfires , and O 'Brien keeps Nevada as a victory , as well as overtakes the popular vote . Congress must then decide who will be the President . After the House of Representatives fails to elect the President , Meyer agrees to be Vice President for her running mate Tom James , however the Senate instead elects O 'Brien 's running mate Laura Montez as President . As a result , James makes plans to return to the private sector while Meyer , now completely out of office , contemplates her future .
= = Character = =
The show 's premise is that Meyer is a former United States Senator who runs a failed Presidential campaign before being asked to be the winning candidate 's Vice President . As Vice President , her world is kept in balance by her assistants : Amy Brookheimer ( Anna Chlumsky ) is the Vice President 's chief of staff , while Gary Walsh ( Tony Hale ) is Meyer 's grovelling personal aide . Selina also hires Dan Egan ( Reid Scott ) , who threatens Amy 's place in the staff , and Mike McLintock ( Matt Walsh ) , a press spokesman . Meyer has no significant other , and requires that her daughter Catherine , from a past marriage , make appointments to see her .
Some suggest that Meyer is likely a Republican , while others feel she is a Democrat . Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times notes that Meyer 's party affiliation is unknown because the show focuses on bullying and ego rather than ideology . James Poniewozik of Time explains the ambiguity as follows : Veep is " almost all politics and almost no political issues " . Robert Lloyd of Los Angeles Times explains the lack of need for party affiliations , or even political ideology in a similar manner , saying that Veep is " less a show about politics than about politicking . " In an interview with The New Yorker Radio Hour , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus suggested that Meyer 's associated political party is intentionally left unknown to the audience . Louis @-@ Dreyfus later elaborated : " [ Selina Meyer 's ] politics are all about her and staying alive ... she will hold any position if it keeps her in office . " In the episode Election Night , CNN represents states won by Meyer as blue . In the same episode , she also comments winning the ' blue wall ' states of Connecticut and Vermont with " A bowl of hair could win those states " .
Poniewozik describes the season 1 Meyer as a " bumbling and overwhelmed " shadow of her former self . Merissa Marr of The Wall Street Journal describes Meyer as " inept " . James Parker of The New York Times describes her as animated , powerless , prone to fits , and at times distracted . He notes that she motorcades and entourages with importance , but also passes time rotating dreamily in her swivel chair . Parker opines that Meyer " swears her head off " because that is what the modern " gaffe @-@ phobic , linguistically constipated " public servant who has sold his / her soul to a lobbyist group does behind closed doors after public speeches about " ceaseless , toneless platitudes " . Variety television critic Brian Lowry describes Meyer as " easily flustered , foul @-@ mouthed " , saying that her " over @-@ reliance on profanity " is a comedic crutch . David Renshaw of The Guardian describes Meyer as " a perfect combination of ineptness and amorality " .
T. A. Frank of The New Republic says that in season 1 she is completely ignored by the president and dismissed by Congress as she endures repeated indignities with a high degree of cynicism . According to Frank , Meyer slowly gains some respect and power , but it is not without effort . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker , noted that the premise of a politician without influence striving for it suited itself well to a comedy and that her frequent cursing should not have been much of an issue given that it was an HBO production . Laura Bennett of The New Republic states that in season 1 Meyer is " a hapless buffoon , fluffing her hair and running in circles " , who endures marginalization and irrelevance , but in season 2 , which is set during midterm elections , she is " a player in the administration with concrete involvement in foreign policy " . By season 3 , presidential candidate Meyer becomes fashion conscious on the campaign trail . In the third season finale , the President resigns , leaving Meyer in charge ; however , her position is threatened when she loses the first presidential primary . Following a congressional inquiry into a data breach in which Meyer and other White House employees must testify , Meyer eventually rebounds with the help of new running mate Tom James . However , during the season four finale , the election ends in a tie between Meyer and senator Bill O 'Brien , putting Meyer 's future as president in jeopardy . Ending on a cliffhanger , what will happen , including when the Electoral College meets and perhaps things being thrown to Congress pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment , is left to the upcoming Fifth Season .
= = Reception = =
The role has established Louis @-@ Dreyfus as the all @-@ time most Primetime Emmy Award decorated actress in terms of regular cast roles in a comedy series ( i.e. , not counting guest acting Emmys ) . It is the third character ( Elaine Benes on Seinfeld and Christine Campbell on The New Adventures of Old Christine being the first two ) for which Louis @-@ Dreyfus has earned a Primetime Emmy Award ( Outstanding Lead Actress or Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series ) . When Louis @-@ Dreyfus earned the second Emmy nomination for this role it marked her fourteenth Primetime Emmy nomination for either Outstanding Lead Actress or Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series , surpassing Lucille Ball 's all @-@ time record . The win tied her with Ball with a total of four and made her the first actress to win Primetime Emmy Awards for three different regular cast comedy roles . Her second win also made her the first actress to become a two @-@ time awardee as a comedy actress for HBO .
She earned Primetime Emmy Awards for her season 1 and season 2 performances in 2012 and 2013 at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Emmy Awards ceremonies . She was nominated at the 70th Golden Globe Awards and 71st Golden Globe Awards for her season 1 and season 2 performances . Her season 2 performance also earned a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series award at the 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards . Louis @-@ Dreyfus has earned a wide range of additional nominations and awards for this role including nominations for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series , Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series , TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy , Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy , and Women 's Image Network Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series .
In season 3 , Meyer continued to be a critically acclaimed role . Louis @-@ Dreyfus earned a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series nomination at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards . At the 30th TCA Awards , Dreyfus won TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy . Louis @-@ Dreyfus again won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards . She was also nominated again for the Female Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards as well as Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards .
The season 4 portrayal of Meyer continued to earn praise . At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards Louis @-@ Dreyfus won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for a fourth consecutive time . She was also nominated again for the Female Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards as well as Best Actress – Television Series Comedy at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards . She also received acting nominations at the 5th Critics ' Choice Television Awards , 20th Satellite Awards , and 31st TCA Awards . In earning her fourth consecutive and fifth overall Lead Actress Emmy , Louis @-@ Dreyfus tied Mary Tyler Moore and Candice Bergen with five wins in the category and tied Helen Hunt for four consecutive wins in the category .
The season 5 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards . She received acting nominations at the 32nd TCA Awards .
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= Robert Hues =
Robert Hues ( 1553 – 24 May 1632 ) was an English mathematician and geographer . He attended St. Mary Hall at Oxford , and graduated in 1578 . Hues became interested in geography and mathematics , and studied navigation at a school set up by Walter Raleigh . During a trip to Newfoundland , he made observations which caused him to doubt the accepted published values for variations of the compass . Between 1586 and 1588 , Hues travelled with Thomas Cavendish on a circumnavigation of the globe , performing astronomical observations and taking the latitudes of places they visited . Beginning in August 1591 , Hues and Cavendish again set out on another circumnavigation of the globe . During the voyage , Hues made astronomical observations in the South Atlantic , and continued his observations of the variation of the compass at various latitudes and at the Equator . Cavendish died on the journey in 1592 , and Hues returned to England the following year .
In 1594 , Hues published his discoveries in the Latin work Tractatus de globis et eorum usu ( Treatise on Globes and Their Use ) which was written to explain the use of the terrestrial and celestial globes that had been made and published by Emery Molyneux in late 1592 or early 1593 , and to encourage English sailors to use practical astronomical navigation . Hues ' work subsequently went into at least 12 other printings in Dutch , English , French and Latin .
Hues continued to have dealings with Raleigh in the 1590s , and later became a servant of Thomas Grey , 15th Baron Grey de Wilton . While Grey was imprisoned in the Tower of London for participating in the Bye Plot , Hues stayed with him . Following Grey 's death in 1614 , Hues attended upon Henry Percy , the 9th Earl of Northumberland , when he was confined in the Tower ; one source states that Hues , Thomas Harriot and Walter Warner were Northumberland 's constant companions and known as his " Three Magi " , although this is disputed . Hues tutored Northumberland 's son Algernon Percy ( who was to become the 10th Earl of Northumberland ) at Oxford , and subsequently ( in 1622 – 1623 ) Algernon 's younger brother Henry . In later years , Hues lived in Oxford where he was a fellow of the University , and discussed mathematics and related subjects with like @-@ minded friends . He died on 24 May 1632 in the city and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral .
= = Early years and education = =
Robert Hues was born in 1553 at Little Hereford in Herefordshire , England . In 1571 , at the age of 18 years , he entered Brasenose College , University of Oxford . English antiquarian Anthony à Wood ( 1632 – 1695 ) wrote that when Hues arrived at Oxford he was " only a poor scholar or servitor ... he continued for some time a very sober and serious servant ... but being sensible of the loss of time which he sustained there by constant attendance , he transferred himself to St Mary 's Hall " . Hues graduated with a Bachelor of Arts ( B.A. ) degree on 12 July 1578 , having shown marked skill in Greek . He later gave advice to the dramatist and poet George Chapman for his 1616 English translation of Homer , and Chapman referred to him as his " learned and valuable friend " . According to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , there is unsubstantiated evidence that after completing his degree Hues was held in the Tower of London , though no reason is given for this , then went abroad after his release . It is possible he travelled to Continental Europe .
Hues was a friend of the geographer Richard Hakluyt , who was then regent master of Christ Church . In the 1580s , Hakluyt introduced him to Walter Raleigh and explorers and navigators whom Raleigh knew . In addition , it is likely that Hues came to know astronomer and mathematician Thomas Harriot and Walter Warner at Thomas Allen 's lectures in mathematics . The four men were later associated with Henry Percy , the 9th Earl of Northumberland , who was known as the " Wizard Earl " for his interest in scientific and alchemical experiments and his library .
= = Career = =
Hues became interested in geography and mathematics – an undated source indicates that he disputed accepted values of variations of the compass after making observations off the Newfoundland coast . He either went there on a fishing trip , or may have joined a 1585 voyage to Virginia arranged by Raleigh and led by Richard Grenville , which passed Newfoundland on the return journey to England . Hues perhaps become acquainted with the sailor Thomas Cavendish at this time , as both of them were taught by Harriot at Raleigh 's school of navigation . An anonymous 17th @-@ century manuscript states that Hues circumnavigated the world with Cavendish between 1586 and 1588 " purposely for taking the true Latitude of places " ; he may have been the " NH " who wrote a brief account of the voyage that was published by Hakluyt in his 1589 work The Principall Navigations , Voiages , and Discoveries of the English Nation . In the year that book appeared , Hues was with Edward Wright on the Earl of Cumberland 's raiding expedition to the Azores to capture Spanish galleons .
Beginning in August 1591 , Hues joined Cavendish on another attempt to circumnavigate the globe . Sailing on the Leicester , they were accompanied by the explorer John Davis on the Desire . Cavendish and Davis agreed that they would part company once they had cleared the Strait of Magellan between Chile and Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego , as Davis intended to sail to America to search for the Northwest Passage . The expedition was ultimately unsuccessful , although Davis did discover the Falkland Islands . In the meantime , delayed in small harbours in the Strait with crew members dying from the cold , illness and starvation , Cavendish turned back eastwards to return to England . He was plagued by mutinous crewmen , and also by natives and Portuguese who attacked his sailors seeking food and water on shore . Increasingly depressed , Cavendish died in 1592 somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean , possibly a suicide .
During the voyage , Hues made astronomical observations of the Southern Cross and other stars of the Southern Hemisphere while in the South Atlantic , and also observed the variation of the compass there and at the Equator . He returned to England with Davis in 1593 , and published his discoveries in the work Tractatus de globis et eorum usu ( Treatise on Globes and Their Use , 1594 ) , which he dedicated to Raleigh . The book was written to explain the use of the terrestrial and celestial globes that had been made and published by Emery Molyneux in late 1592 or early 1593 . Apparently , the book was also intended to encourage English sailors to use practical astronomical navigation , although Lesley Cormack has observed that the fact it was written in Latin suggests that it was aimed at scholarly readers on the Continent . In 1595 , William Sanderson , a London merchant who had largely financed the globes ' construction , presented a small globe together with Hues ' " Latin booke that teacheth the use of my great globes " to Robert Cecil , a statesman who was spymaster and minister to Elizabeth I and James I. Hues ' work subsequently went into at least 12 other printings in Dutch ( 1597 , 1613 and 1622 ) , English ( 1638 and 1659 ) , French ( 1618 ) and Latin ( 1611 , 1613 , 1617 , 1627 , 1659 and 1663 ) . In his book An Accidence or The Path @-@ way to Experience : Necessary for all Young Sea @-@ men ( 1626 ) , John Smith , who founded the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown , Virginia , listed Hues ' book among the works that a young seaman should study .
Tractatus de globis begins with a letter by Hues dedicated to Raleigh that recalled geographical discoveries made by Englishmen during Elizabeth I 's reign . However , he felt that his countrymen would have surpassed the Spaniards and Portuguese if they had a complete knowledge of astronomy and geometry , which were essential to successful navigation . In the preface of the book , Hues rehearsed arguments that proved the earth is a sphere , and refuted opposing theories . The treatise was divided into five parts . The first part described elements common to Molyneux 's terrestrial and celestial globes , including the circles and lines inscribed on them , zones and climates , and the use of each globe 's wooden horizon circle and brass meridian . The second part described planets , fixed stars and constellations ; while the third part described the lands and seas shown on the terrestrial globe , and discussed the length of the circumference of the earth and of a degree of a great circle . Part 4 , which Hues considered the most important part of the work , explained how the globes enabled seamen to determine the sun 's position , latitude , course and distance , amplitudes and azimuths , and time and declination . The final part of the work contained a treatise inspired by Harriot on rhumb lines . In the work , Hues also published for the first time the six fundamental navigational propositions involved in solving what was later termed the " nautical triangle " used for plane sailing . Difference of latitude and departure ( or longitude ) are two sides of the triangle forming a right angle , the distance travelled is the hypotenuse , and the angle between difference of latitude and distance is the course . If any two elements are known , the other two can be determined by plotting or calculation using tables of sines , tangents and secants .
In the 1590s , Hues continued to have dealings with Raleigh – he was one of the executors of Raleigh 's will – and he may have been the " Hewes " who dined with Northumberland regularly in 1591 . He later became a servant of Thomas Grey , the 15th and last Baron Grey de Wilton ( 1575 – 1614 ) . For participating in the Bye Plot , a conspiracy by Roman Catholic priest William Watson to kidnap James I and force him to repeal anti @-@ Catholic legislation , Grey was attainted and forfeited his title in 1603 . The following year , he was imprisoned in the Tower of London . Grey was given consent for Hues to stay in the Tower with him . Between 1605 and 1621 , Northumberland was also confined in the Tower ; he was suspected of involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 because his relative Thomas Percy was among the conspirators .
In 1616 , following Grey 's death , Hues began to be " attendant upon th 'aforesaid Earle of Northumberland for matters of learning " , and was paid a yearly sum of £ 40 to support his research until Northumberland 's death in 1632 . Wood stated that Harriot , Hues and Warner were Northumberland 's " constant companions , and were usually called the Earl of Northumberland 's Three Magi . They had a table at the Earl 's charge , and the Earl himself did constantly converse with them , and with Sir Walter Raleigh , then in the Tower " . Together with the scientist Nathanael Toporley and the mathematician Thomas Allen , the men kept abreast of developments in astronomy , mathematics , physiology and the physical sciences , and made important contributions in these areas . According to the letter writer John Chamberlain , Northumberland refused a pardon offered to him in 1617 , preferring to remain with Harriot , Hues and Warner . However , the fact that these companions of Northumberland were his " Three Magi " studying with him in the Tower of London has been regarded as a romanticisation by the antiquarian John Aubrey and disputed for lack of evidence . Hues was tutor to Northumberland 's sons : first Algernon Percy , who subsequently became the 10th Earl of Northumberland , at Oxford where he matriculated at Christ Church in 1617 ; and later Algernon 's younger brother Henry in 1622 – 1623 . Hues lived at Christ Church at this time , but may have occasionally attended upon Northumberland at Petworth House in Petworth , West Sussex , and at Syon House in London after the latter 's release from the Tower in 1622 . Hues sometimes met Walter Warner in London , and they are known to have discussed the reflection of bodies .
= = Later life = =
In later years , Hues lived in Oxford where he discussed mathematics and allied subjects with like @-@ minded friends . Cormack states he was a fellow at the University . Under the terms of the will of Thomas Harriot , who died on 2 July 1621 , Hues and Warner were given the responsibility of helping Harriot 's executor Nathaniel Torporley to prepare Harriot 's mathematical papers for publication . Hues was also required to help price Harriot 's books and other possessions for sale to the Bodleian Library .
Hues , who did not marry , died on 24 May 1632 in Stone House , St. Aldate 's ( opposite the Blue Boar in central Oxford ) . This was the house of John Smith , M.A. , the son of a cook at Christ Church named J. Smith . In his will , Hues made many small bequests to his friends , including a sum of £ 20 to his " kinswoman " Mary Holly ( of whom nothing is known ) , and 20 nobles to each of her three sisters . He was buried in Christ Church Cathedral , and a monumental brass to him was placed in Christ Church with the following inscription :
Depositum viri literatissimi , morum ac religionis integerrimi , Roberti Husia , ob eruditionem omnigenem [ sic : omnigenam ? ] , Theologicam tum Historicam , tum Scholasticam , Philologicam , Philosophiam , præsertim vero Mathematicam ( cujus insigne monumentum in typis reliquit ) Primum Thomæ Candishio conjunctissimi , cujus in consortio , explorabundis [ sic : explorabundus ? ] velis ambivit orbem : deinde Domino Baroni Gray ; cui solator accessit in arca Londinensi . Quo defuncto , ad studia henrici Comitis Northumbriensis ibidem vocatus est , cujus filio instruendo cum aliquot annorum operam in hac Ecclesia dedisset et Academiae confinium locum valetudinariae senectuti commodum censuisset ; in ædibus Johannis Smith , corpore exhaustus , sed animo vividus , expiravit die Maii 24 , anno reparatae salutis 1632 , aetatis suæ 79 .
[ Here lies a highly lettered man , of the highest moral and religious integrity , Robert Hues , on account of his erudition in all subjects , both Theology and History , and Rhetoric , Philology , and Philosophy , but especially Mathematics ( of which a notable volume [ i.e. , his book ] remains in print ) . He was most closely associated with Thomas Cavendish , in whose company he explored the world by sail ; then with Lord Baron Gray , for whom he came as consoler in the Tower of London . When Gray died , he was summoned to study in the same place with Henry Earl of Northumberland , to teach his son , and when he had worked for some years in this Church [ i.e. , Christ Church Cathedral ] , and had decided that the place next to the School [ i.e. , Christ Church , Oxford ] was suitable for his health in his old age , he breathed his last at the house of John Smith , his body exhausted , but with a lively spirit , on 24 May , in the year of our salvation 1632 , at the age of 79 . ]
= = Works = =
Hues , Robert ( 1594 ) , Tractatus de globis et eorum usu : accommodatus iis qui Londini editi sunt anno 1593 , sumptibus Gulielmi Sandersoni civis Londinensis , conscriptus à Roberto Hues [ Treatise on Globes and their Use : Adapted to those which have been Published in London in the Year 1593 , at the Expense of William Sanderson , a London Resident , Written by Robert Hues ] , London : In ædibus Thomæ Dawson [ in the house of Thomas Dawson ] , OCLC 55576175 ( in Latin ) , octavo . The following reprints are referred to by Clements Markham in his introduction to the Hakluyt Society 's 1889 reprint of the English version of Tractatus de globis at pp. xxxviii – xl :
2nd printing : Hues , Robert ; Hondium , Iudocum , transl . ( 1597 ) , Tractaet Ofte Hendelinge van het gebruijck der Hemelscher ende Aertscher Globe . Gheaccommodeert naer die Bollen , die eerst ghesneden zijn in Enghelandt door Io . Hondium , Anno 1693 [ sic : 1593 ] ende nu gants door den selven vernieut , met alle de nieuwe ontdeckinghen van Landen , tot den daghe van heden geschiet , ende daerenboven van voorgaende fauten verbetert . In 't Latijn beschreven , door Robertum Hues , Mathematicum , nu in Nederduijtsch overgheset , ende met diveersche nieuwe verclaringhe ende figueren vermeerdert en verciert . Door I. Hondium [ Treatise or Essays on the Use of the Celestial and Terrestrial Globes . Tailored for the Globes which were First Made in England by J. Hondius , in the Year 1693 [ sic : 1593 ] , and which have now been Completely Revised by Him , with All New Discoveries of Countries up to the Present Day , and furthermore with Previous Errors Corrected . Described in Latin by Robert Hues , Mathematician , and now Translated into Dutch , and Enhanced and Ornamented with Several New Explanations and Figures , by J. Hondius ] , Amsterdam : Cornelis Claesz , OCLC 42811612 ( in Dutch ) , quarto .
3rd printing : Hues , Robert ( 1611 ) , Tractatus de globis coelesti et terrestri ac eorum usu , conscriptus a Roberto Hues , denuo auctior & emendatior editus [ Treatise on Globes Celestial and Terrestrial and their Use , written by Robert Hues , Second Enlarged and Corrected Edition ] , Amsterdam : Jodocus Hondius , OCLC 187141964 ( in Latin ) , octavo . A reprint of the first edition of 1594 .
4th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1613 ) , Tractaut of te handebingen van het gebruych der hemelsike ende aertscher globe [ Treatise or Essays on the Use of the Celestial and Terrestrial Globes ] , Amsterdam : [ s.n. ] ( in Dutch ) , quarto .
5th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1613 ) , Tractatvs de globis , coelesti et terrestri , ac eorvm vsu [ Treatise on Globes , Celestial and Terrestrial , and their Use ] , Heidelberg : Typis [ Printed by ] Gotthardi Voegelini , OCLC 46414822 ( in Latin ) . Contains the Index Geographicus . DeGolyer Collection in the History of Science and Technology ( now History of Science Collections ) , University of Oklahoma .
6th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1617 ) , Tractatvs de globis , coelesti et terrestri eorvmqve vsv . Primum conscriptus & editus a Roberto Hues . Anglo semelque atque iterum a Iudoco Hondio excusus , & nunc elegantibus iconibus & figuris locupletatus : ac de novo recognitus multisque observationibus oportunè illustratus as passim auctus opera ac studio Iohannis Isacii Pontani ... [ Treatise on Globes , Celestial and Terrestrial , and their Use . First Written and Published by Robert Hues , Englishman , and in the First and Second Editions Drawn by Jodocus Hondius , and now Enlarged by Elegant Pictures and Drawings , and again Revised and Fittingly Illustrated by Many Observations , and throughout Enlarged by the Work and Effort of John Isaac Pontanus ... ] , Amsterdam : Excudebat [ printed by ] H [ enricus ] Hondius ( in Latin ) , quarto .
7th printing : Hues , Robert ; Henrion , Denis , transl . ( 1618 ) , Traicté des globes , et de leur usage , traduit du Latin de Robert Hues , et augmente de plusieurs nottes et operations du compas de proportion par D Henrion , mathematicien [ A Treatise on Globes and their Use , Translated from the Latin version by Robert Hues , and Augmented with Several Notes and Operations of the Compass of Proportion by D Henrion , Mathematician ] , Paris : Chez Abraham Pacard , ruë sainct Iacques , au sacrifice d 'Abraham [ At Abraham Pacard , St. Jacques Street , with the sacrifice of Abraham ] , OCLC 37802904 ( in French ) , octavo .
8th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1622 ) , Tractaet ofte handelinge van het gebruyck der hemelscher ende aertscher globe [ Treatise or Essays on the Use of the Celestial and Terrestrial Globes ] , Amsterdam : Michiel Colijn , boeck @-@ vercooper , woonende op 't water , in 't Huys @-@ boeck , by de Oude Brugghe [ Michiel Colijn , bookseller , who lives at the water 's edge , in Huys @-@ boeck , near the old bridge ] , OCLC 79659147 ( in Dutch ) , quarto .
9th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1627 ) , Tractatvs de globis , coelesti et terrestri , ac eorvm vsv [ Treatise on Globes , Celestial and Terrestrial , and their Use ] , Francofvrti ad Moenvm [ Frankfurt am Main , Germany ] : Typis & sumptibus VVechelianorum , apud Danielem & Dauidem Aubrios & Clementem Schleichium [ Printed and paid for by the Wechelians , by Daniel and David Aubrios and Clement Schleich ] , OCLC 23625532 ( in Latin ) , duodecimo .
10th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1638 ) , A Learned Treatise of Globes , both Cœlestiall and Terrestriall : With their Severall Uses . Written first in Latine , by Mr Robert Hues : And by him so Published . Afterward Illustrated with Notes , by Io . Isa . Pontanus . And now Lastly made English , for the Benefit of the Unlearned by John Chilmead MrA of Christ @-@ Church in Oxon , London : Printed by the assigne of T [ homas ] P [ urfoot ] for P [ hilemon ] Stephens and C [ hristopher ] Meredith , and are to be sold at their shop at the Golden Lion in Pauls @-@ Church @-@ yard , OCLC 165905181 .
11th printing : A Latin version by Jodocus Hondius and John Isaac Pontanus appeared in London in 1659 . Octavo .
12th printing : Hues , Robert ; John Isaac Pontanus ( 1659 ) , A Learned Treatise of Globes , both Cœlestiall and Terrestriall with their Several Uses .. , London : Printed by J.S. for Andrew Kemb , and are to be sold at his shop ... , OCLC 11947725 , octavo . Collection of Yale University Library .
13th printing : Hues , Robert ( 1663 ) , Tractatus de globis coelesti et terrestri eorumque usu ac de novo recognitus multisq [ ue ] observationibus opportunè illustratus ac passim auctus , opera et studio Johannis Isacii Pontani ... ; adjicitur Breviarium totius orbis terrarum Petri Bertii ... [ Treatise on Globes Celestial and Terrestrial and their Use , Collected Anew and Suitably Illustrated with Many Observations and Enlarged Throughout , by the Effort and Devotion of John Isaac Pontanus ... A Brief Account of the Whole Globe is Added by Peter Bertius ... ] , Oxford : Excudebat [ printed by ] W.H. , impensis [ at the expense of ] Ed . Forrest , OCLC 13197923 ( in Latin ) .
The Hakluyt Society 's reprint of the English version was itself published as :
Hues , Robert ; Markham , Clements R. , ed . ( 1889 ) , Tractatus de globis et eorum usu : A Treatise Descriptive of the Globes Constructed by Emery Molyneux and Published in 1592 [ Hakluyt Society , 1st ser . , pt . II , no . 79a ] , London : Hakluyt Society , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8337 @-@ 1759 @-@ 7 , OCLC 149869781 .
The following works also are , or appear to be , versions of Tractatus de globis et eorum usu , though they are not mentioned by Markham :
Hues , Robert ( 1623 ) , Tractaet ofte Handelinge van het gebruyck der Hemelscher ende Aertscher Globe : In 't Latyn eerst beschreven door Robertvm Hves , Mathematicum / en nu in Nederduytsch over @-@ geset en met diversche nieuwe Verklaringen en Figuren vermeerdert en verciert / oock vele disputable questien gesolveert , door Iohannem Isacivm Pontanvm , Medicyn , en Professor der Philosophie inde vermaerde Schole te Harderwyck [ Treatise or Essays on the Use of the Heavenly and Earthly Globe : First Described in Latin by Robert Hues , Mathematician / and now Translated into Dutch , and Expanded and Decorated with New Clarifications and Figures / also many Disputable Questions Solved , by John Isaac Pontanus , Physician and Professor of Philosophy of the renowned School in Harderwijk ] , Amsterdam : Iudocus Hondius , woonende op den Dam [ living on the Dam ] , OCLC 51084257 .
Hues , Robert ( 1624 ) , Tractatvs de globis , coelesti et terrestri eorvmqve vsv [ Treatise on Globes , Celestial and Terrestrial , and their Use ] , Amsterdam : Excudebat [ Printed by ] H [ enricus ] Hondius , OCLC 8909075 ( in Latin ) .
Hues , Robert ( 1627 ) , Tractatus duo mathematici : Quorum primus de globis coelesti et terrestri , eorum usu [ Two Mathematical Treatises : Of which the First One is about the Celestial and Terrestial Globes , and their Use ] , Frankfurt : Bryana , OCLC 179907636 .
Hues , Robert ; Nottnagel , Christoph ( 1627 ) , Tractatus duo quorum primus de globis coelesti et terrestri , eorum usu , à Roberto Hues , Anglo , conscriptus . Alter breviarium totius orbis Terrarum , Petri Bertii . Nunc primum luci commißi [ Two Treatises of which the First One is about the Celestial and Terrestial Globes , and their Use , signed by Robert Hues , Englishman . The Other One is an Anthology of Countries of the Whole World , by Peter Bertius . Now for the first time here gathered . ] ( 3rd ed . ) , Wittenberg : [ s.n. ] , OCLC 257661113 .
Hues , Robert ( 1634 ) , Tractatvs de Globis Coelesti et Terrestri eorvmqve vsv : Primum conscriptus & editus à Roberto Hues Anglo semelque atque iteram à Iudoco Hondio excusus , & nunc elegantibus iconibus & figuris locupletatus : ac de novo recognitus multisque observationibus oportunè illustratus ac passim auctus opera ac studio . Iohannis Isacii Pontani Medici & Philosophiæ Professoris in Gymnasio Gelrico Hardervici [ Treatise on Globes , Celestial and Terrestrial , and their Use . First Written and Published by Robert Hues , Englishman , and in the First and Second Editions Drawn by Jodocus Hondius , and now Enlarged by Elegant Pictures and Drawings , and again Revised and Fittingly Illustrated by Many Observations , and throughout Enlarged by the Work and Effort of John Isaac Pontanus , Physician and Professor of Philosophy of the School in Harderwijk ] , Amsterdam : Excudebat Henricus Hondius , sub signo Canis Vigilantis in Platea Vitulina prope Senatorium [ Printed by Henricus Hondius , under the sign of the Watchful Dog in Calf Street [ Kalverstraat ] near the council hall ] . Collection of the Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal .
Hues , Robert ( 1651 ) , Tractatus duo mathematici . Quorum primus de globis coelesti et terrestri , eorum usu , a Roberto Hues ... conscriptus . Alter breviarium totius orbis terrarum , Petri Bertii ... Editio prioribus auctior & emendatior [ Two Mathematical Treatises . Of which the First One is about the Celestial and Terrestial Globes , and their Use , signed ... Robert Hues . The Other One an Anthology of Countries of the Whole World , of Peter Bertius ... First enlarged & improved edition ] , Oxford : Excudebat [ Printed by ] L. Lichfield , impensis [ at the expense of ] Ed . Forrest , OCLC 14913709 , two pts . Collection of the Bodleian Library .
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= Eyes Without a Face =
Eyes Without a Face ( French : Les yeux sans visage ) is a 1960 French @-@ Italian horror film adaptation of Jean Redon 's novel , directed by Georges Franju , and starring Pierre Brasseur and Alida Valli . During the film 's production , consideration was given to the standards of European censors by setting the right tone , minimizing gore and eliminating the mad @-@ scientist character . Although the film passed through the European censors , the film 's release in Europe caused controversy nevertheless . Critical reaction ranged from praise to disgust .
The film received an American debut in an edited and dubbed form in 1962 under the title of The Horror Chamber of Dr. Faustus . In the United States , Faustus was released as a double feature with The Manster ( 1959 ) . The film 's initial critical reception was not overtly positive , but subsequent theatrical and home video re @-@ releases increased its reputation . Modern critics praise the film today for its poetic nature as well as being a notable influence on other filmmakers .
= = Plot = =
At night just outside Paris , a woman drives along a riverbank and dumps a corpse in the river . After the body is recovered , Dr. Génessier identifies the remains as those of his missing daughter , Christiane Génessier , whose face was horribly disfigured in an automobile accident that occurred before her disappearance , for which her father was responsible . Dr. Génessier lives in a large mansion , which is adjacent to his clinic , with numerous caged German Shepherds and other large dogs .
Following Christiane 's funeral , Dr. Génessier and his assistant Louise , the woman who had disposed of the dead body earlier , return home where the real Christiane is hidden ( it is explained that Louise is deathlessly loyal to Génessier because he repaired her own badly damaged face , leaving only a barely noticeable scar she covers with a pearl choker ) . The body belonged to a young woman who died following Dr. Génessier 's unsuccessful attempt to graft her face onto his daughter 's . Dr. Génessier promises to restore Christiane 's face and insists that she wear a mask to cover her disfigurement . After her father leaves the room , Christiane calls her fiancé Jacques Vernon , who works with Dr. Génessier at his clinic , but hangs up without saying a word .
Louise lures a young Swiss girl named Edna Grüber to Génessier 's home . Génessier chloroforms Edna and takes her to his secret laboratory . Christiane secretly watches her father and Louise carry Edna to the lab , and then goes to tenderly caress the dogs her father keeps caged , who eagerly accept her love , and are unaffected by her appearance .
Dr. Génessier performs heterograft surgery , removing Edna 's face . The doctor successfully grafts the skin onto his daughter 's face and holds the heavily bandaged and faceless Edna against her will . Edna escapes , but falls to her death from an upstairs window . After disposing of Edna 's corpse , Génessier notices flaws on Christiane 's face . Her face grows worse within days ; the new tissue is being rejected and she must resort to wearing her mask again . Christiane again phones Jacques and this time says his name , but the phone call is interrupted by Louise .
Jacques reports the call to the police , who have been investigating the disappearance of several young women with blue eyes and similar facial characteristics . The police have gained a lead concerning a woman who wears a pearl choker , whom Jacques recognizes as Louise . Inspector Parot , an officer investigating Edna 's disappearance , coerces a young woman named Paulette Mérodon ( recently arrested for shoplifting ) to help investigate by checking herself into Génessier 's clinic . After being declared healthy , Paulette leaves for Paris and is promptly picked up by Louise , who delivers her to Dr. Génessier . Génessier is about to begin surgery on Paulette when Louise informs him that the police want to see him .
While the doctor talks with the police , Christiane , who has long been disenchanted with her father 's experiments , and has been slowly losing her sanity from guilt and isolation , frees Paulette and stabs Louise in the neck . She also frees the dogs and doves that her father uses for experiments . Dr. Génessier dismisses the police ( who readily accept his explanations ) and returns to his lab , where an abandoned German Shepherd he 'd only recently obtained for his experiments attacks him , inciting the other dogs to follow suit — maddened by pain and confinement , they maul him to death , disfiguring his face in the process . Christiane , unmoved by her father 's death , and seemingly transformed into something more than human , walks slowly into the woods outside Génessier 's house with one of the freed doves on her hand .
= = Cast = =
Pierre Brasseur as Doctor Génessier , a University professor , physician and father of Christiane . Génessier experiments on his pet dogs and performs heterograft surgeries on women to try and restore the face of his daughter Christiane . Brasseur previously worked with director Georges Franju in the drama , La Tête contre les murs ( 1958 ) , again in a leading role playing a doctor .
Edith Scob as Christiane Génessier , Doctor Génessier 's daughter . Christiane 's face was damaged in a car accident caused by her father . For most of the film , her face is covered by a stiff mask that resembles her face before the accident . Like Brasseur , Scob was also cast by Franju in La Tête Contre les Murs , but in a minor role . Scob later worked with Franju on four other films .
Alida Valli as Louise , a woman who is Génessier 's assistant , kidnaps young women , assists him in the laboratory and acts as a surrogate mother to Christiane . Louise aids Génessier partly because of his help in restoring her damaged face in events that happened before the film begins .
François Guérin as Jacques Vernon , a student of Génessier and Christiane 's fiancé . Jacques is unaware of Doctor Génessier 's criminal activity and believes Christiane is dead . After receiving a phone call from Christiane , he helps the police in investigating the crime .
Juliette Mayniel as Edna Grüber , a young woman who becomes a victim of Doctor Génessier experiments after being befriended by Louise in Paris . Edna is the first woman whose face is successfully transplanted to Christiane . While recovering from the surgery , she attacks Louise and then leaps from a window at Génessier 's home and dies .
Alexandre Rignault as Inspector Parot , a police inspector investigating the disappearances of Génessier 's victims . Parot ultimately discovers that all of the missing girls have similar features .
Béatrice Altariba as Paulette Mérodon , a young woman who is taken into police custody after being caught shoplifting . Due to a resemblance with the women Génessier has kidnapped , she is informed by Parot that the charges against her will be dropped if she checks into Génessier 's clinic . She is subsequently released and kidnapped to have her face transplanted , but is saved by Christiane before Génessier is able to perform surgery on her .
= = Production = =
In the late 1950s , British horror films such as The Curse of Frankenstein ( 1957 ) and Horror of Dracula ( 1958 ) were popular with French filmgoers . At the time , similar modern horror films had not been attempted by French film makers until producer Jules Borkon decided to tap into the horror market . Borkon bought the rights to the Redon novel and offered the directorial role to one of the founders of Cinémathèque Française , Franju , who was directing his first non @-@ documentary feature La Tête contre les murs ( 1958 ) . Franju had grown up during the French silent @-@ film era when filmmakers such as Georges Méliès and Louis Feuillade were making fantastique @-@ themed films , and he relished the opportunity to contribute to the genre . Franju felt the story was not a horror film ; rather , he described his vision of the film as one of " anguish ... it 's a quieter mood than horror ... more internal , more penetrating . It 's horror in homeopathic doses . "
To avoid problems with European censors , Borkon cautioned Franju not to include too much blood ( which would upset French censors ) , refrain from showing animals getting tortured ( which would upset English censors ) and leave out mad @-@ scientist characters ( which would upset German censors ) . All three of these were part of the novel , presenting a challenge to find the right tone for presenting these story elements in the film . First , working with Claude Sautet who was also serving as first assistant director and who laid out the preliminary screenplay , Franju hired the writing team of Boileau @-@ Narcejac ( Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac ) who had written novels adapted as Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot 's Les Diaboliques ( 1955 ) and Alfred Hitchcock 's Vertigo ( 1958 ) . The writers shifted the novel 's focus from Doctor Génessier 's character to that of his daughter , Christiane ; this shift revealed the doctor 's character in a more positive and understandable light and helped to avoid the censorship restrictions .
For his production staff , Franju enlisted people with whom he had previously worked on earlier projects . Cinematographer Eugen Schüfftan , best remembered for developing the Schüfftan process , was chosen to render the visuals of the film . Schüfftan had worked with Franju on La Tête Contre les Murs ( 1958 ) . Film historian David Kalat called Shüfftan " the ideal choice to illustrate Franju 's nightmares " . ( Only two years later , Shüfftan won an Academy Award for Best Cinematography , Black @-@ and @-@ White for his work on The Hustler ( 1961 ) . ) French composer Maurice Jarre created the haunting score for the film . Jarre had also previously worked with Franju on his film La Tête Contre les Murs ( 1958 ) . Modern critics note the film 's two imposing musical themes , a jaunty carnival @-@ esque waltz ( featured while Louise picks up young women for Doctor Génessier ) and a lighter , sadder piece for Christiane . Jarre subsequently wrote the music score Lawrence of Arabia ( 1962 ) and Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) among other films .
= = Release = =
Eyes without a Face completed filming in 1959 , and had its debut in Paris on March 2 , 1960 . Although it passed through the European censors , the film caused controversy on its release in Europe . The French news magazine L 'Express noted the audience " dropped like flies " during the heterografting scene . During the film 's showing at the 1960 Edinburgh Film Festival , seven audience members fainted , to which director Franju responded , " Now I know why Scotsmen wear skirts . "
For the American release in 1962 , the film was cut . It was given an English @-@ language dub , and re @-@ titled The Horror Chamber of Dr. Faustus . Edits in the Dr. Faustus version removed parts of the heterografting scene as well as scenes showing Doctor Génessier 's more human side such his loving care for a small child at his clinic . The distributors recognized the artistic merit of the film and played up that element in promotion with an advertisement quoting the London Observer 's positive statements about the film and noting its showing at the Edinburgh Film Festival . This is in contrast to presentation of the secondary feature , The Manster ( 1962 ) , which mainly focused on the carnie @-@ show aspect with its " two @-@ headed monster " and " Invasion from outer space by two @-@ headed creature killer " . Eyes Without a Face had a very limited initial run and there was little reception from the American mainstream press .
Eyes Without a Face received its second large theatrical release in a September 1986 re @-@ release in conjunction with retrospectives at the National Film Theatre in London and at film archive Cinémathèque Française for its 50th anniversary in France . As a founder of Cinémathèque Française , the archive celebrated Franju by presenting the director 's back catalogue . The film was re @-@ released in its original form to American theatres on October 31 , 2003 under its original running time and title .
= = = Home media = = =
Eyes Without a Face was released on VHS on January 9 , 2001 by Kino Video and on DVD on October 19 , 2004 by The Criterion Collection . The DVD also contains Georges Franju 's first documentary Blood of the Beasts ( 1949 ) , a depiction of a French slaughterhouse . A Region 2 release of Eyes Without a Face was released April 21 , 2008 by Second Sight Films . A Region 4 edition of the film was released on July 2 , 2007 by Umbrella Entertainment . The disc also included Franju 's documentary Blood of the Beasts . In 2013 , The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu @-@ ray , this time transferred directly from the camera negative .
= = Reception = =
On the film 's initial release , the French critics ' general response was moderate , ranging from mild enthusiasm to general disdain or disappointment , claiming it to be either a repetition of German expressionism or simply a disappointment of the director 's leap from documentary filmmaker to a genre filmmaker claiming the film to be in a " minor genre , quite unworthy of his abilities " . Franju responded to these comments claiming the film was his attempt to get the minor genre to be taken seriously . In England , Isabel Quigly , film critic for The Spectator , called it " the sickest film since I started film criticism " , while a reviewer who admitted that she liked the film was nearly fired . A review in Variety was negative , noting specifically that the " stilted acting , asides to explain characters and motivations , and a repetition of effects lose the initial impact " and an " unclear progression and plodding direction give [ the film ] an old @-@ fashioned air " .
With the September 1986 re @-@ release of the film , in conjunction with retrospectives at the National Film Theatre in London and at the Cinémathèque Française in France of the director 's back catalogue , the film 's critical status began to be re @-@ evaluated . French critics ' response to the film was much more positive than it was on its original release , with former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Cahiers du cinéma Serge Daney calling the film " a marvel " . The film was re @-@ released in its original form to American theatres on October 31 , 2003 and received great critical acclaim . Based on 35 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , Eyes Without a Face received an average 97 % fresh rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 . The reviewers commented on the film 's poetic nature and noted the strong influence of French poet and filmmaker Jean Cocteau . Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader praised the film , referring to it as " absurd and as beautiful as a fairy tale " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice declared the film " a masterpiece of poetic horror and tactful , tactile brutality " . The Encyclopedia of Horror Films noted the Cocteau influence , stating that " Franju invests [ the film ] with a weird poetry in which the influence of Cocteau is unmistakable " . David Edelstein of Slate also compared the film to Cocteau 's work , commenting that " the storyline is your standard obsessed @-@ mad @-@ doctor saga , one step above a Poverty Row Bela Lugosi feature ... [ b ] ut it 's Lugosi by way of Cocteau and Ionesco " . In the early 2010s , Time Out conducted a poll with several authors , directors , actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films . Eyes Without a Face placed at number 34 on their top 100 list .
= = Soundtrack = =
Long after the film 's original release , in February 2005 , the French soundtrack record label Play Time released the soundtrack on Compact Disc along with other soundtracks performed by Jarre . This also includes soundtracks from other Franju films including La Tête contre les Murs and Thérèse Desqueyroux .
All music composed by Maurice Jarre .
= = Legacy = =
The film has influenced a handful of European films since its release . Spanish director Jesús Franco created films throughout his career that were influenced by the film . Franco 's first was the Spanish and French co @-@ production of Gritos en la noche ( 1962 ) . Franco 's variation of the film concerns the efforts of a mad surgeon , Dr. Orloff , to reconstruct the face of his disfigured daughter Melissa . Inspector Edgar Tanner investigates Orlof using his girlfriend , Wanda Bronsky , as an undercover spy . Franco followed with several sequels to Gritos en la noche . He made one more film strongly influenced by the Franju film , Faceless ( 1988 ) . Faceless has a similar plot involving beautiful women who are abducted by Dr. Flamand 's ( Helmut Berger ) female assistant and kept hostage . The doctor uses the skin of the women to perform plastic surgery on his disfigured sister , but the experiments leave the victims mutilated and dead . The Italian film Atom Age Vampire ( 1961 ) was also influenced by Eyes Without a Face with a doctor attempting to take the faces of other women to repair his daughter 's face . These homages are seen in the plot line of a police lieutenant who is investigating the circumstances behind the death of a young girl whose body has scars around the eyes . The lieutenant 's investigation eventually leads him to a plastic surgery clinic , a similar plot motivation to Eyes Without a Face . The British film Corruption ( 1968 ) , starring Peter Cushing adds a variation to the theme : a surgeon tries to restore his fiancee 's beauty by repeatedly treating her with fluids extracted from the pituitary glands of murdered female victims . Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar has stated his 2011 film The Skin I Live In , which features a mad scientist who performs skin grafts and surgeries on an unwilling victim , was heavily influenced by Franju 's Eyes without a Face .
The film also influenced American film productions : John Carpenter has suggested that the film inspired the idea of a featureless mask for the Michael Myers character in the slasher film series Halloween . Carpenter recalls that the film crew " didn 't have any money to make a mask . It was originally written the way you see it , in other words , it 's a pale mask with human features , almost featureless . I don 't know why I wrote that down , why Debra [ Hill ] and I decided on that , maybe it was because of an old movie called Eyes Without a Face " .
DVD film reviews have suggested the film influenced director John Woo ; critics have compared the graphic detail of the face transplant scene in Woo 's action film Face / Off ( 1997 ) to the face transplant scene in Eyes Without a Face and noted the similarity . Another resemblance is Woo 's trademark use of white doves in his films that is similar to the character Christiane 's dove @-@ laden escape in the film 's finale .
In 2001 , on VH1 Storytellers , singer Billy Idol cited the film as giving him the idea for his song " Eyes Without a Face " . The song , which has the film 's original French title ( " Les Yeux Sans Visage " ) as the recurring background chorus , takes the father @-@ daughter relationship from the film and recasts it as the deteriorated relationship between the narrator and his lover . The song became Idol 's first top @-@ ten hit in the U.S.
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= Dragon Quest =
Dragon Quest ( Japanese : ドラゴンクエスト , Hepburn : Doragon Kuesuto ) , published as Dragon Warrior in North America until 2005 , is a series of internationally best @-@ selling console role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) titles created by Yuji Horii and his studio , Armor Project .
The series is published by Square Enix ( formerly Enix ) , with localized versions of later installments for the Nintendo DS being published by Nintendo outside Japan . With its first title published in 1986 , there are currently ten main @-@ series titles , along with numerous spin @-@ off games . Nearly every game in the main series has either an anime or manga adaptation , or both . The series has had a significant impact on the development of console RPGs , and introduced a number of features to the genre . Installments of the series have appeared on MSX computers , Nintendo Entertainment System , Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Game Boy Color , Game Boy Advance , Nintendo DS , PlayStation , PlayStation 2 and Wii video game consoles , and several models of mobile phones . Each Dragon Quest video game soundtrack is arranged into an orchestral piece and the video game series is the first to have live @-@ action ballet adaptations .
Early in the series the Dragon Quest games were released under the title Dragon Warrior in North America to avoid trademark conflict with the tabletop role @-@ playing game DragonQuest . Square Enix did not register the Dragon Quest trademark for use in the United States until 2002 .
The basic premise of most Dragon Quest titles is to play a hero who is out to save the land from peril at the hands of a powerful evil enemy , with the hero usually accompanied by a group of party members . Common elements persist throughout the series and its spinoff titles : turn @-@ based combat ; recurring monsters , including the Slime , which became the series ' mascot until the English version of Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King ; a text @-@ based menu system ; and random encounters ( in the main series ) , until Dragon Quest IX : Sentinels of the Starry Skies . The series is one of the few long @-@ running video game series to have a stable key development team ; scenario writer and game designer Yuji Horii , character designer Akira Toriyama and music composer Koichi Sugiyama have handled their respective roles from the beginning of the series . The original concepts , used since the first game , took elements from the western RPGs Wizardry and Ultima . A great deal of care was taken to make the gameplay intuitive so that players could easily start to play the game . The series features a number of religious overtones which were heavily censored in the Western NES versions .
Dragon Quest X is the most recent game in the main series . It is a massively multiplayer online game , featuring online battles . It has been released in Japan for the Wii , Wii U , Microsoft Windows , and Nintendo 3DS . Dragon Quest XI is currently in development , scheduled for a 2016 release on the PlayStation 4 and Nintendo 3DS .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Gameplay = = =
In most Dragon Quest games , players control a character or party of characters that can walk into towns and buy weapons , armor , and items to defeat monsters outside of the towns : on the world map or in a dungeon . However , in the original Dragon Quest , there was only one character walking on the map . In most of the games , battles occur through random monster attacks and improving the characters ' levels requires players to grind . The series uses cursed items , difficult dungeons where players need to use their resources wisely to complete them , and difficult boss battles . When the party encounters monsters the view switches perspective and players are presented with several options on a menu ; these first @-@ person menu @-@ based battles have become a staple of the series . Players use the menus to select weapons , magic , and other items used to attack and defeat the monsters , or can attempt to flee the fight ; though characters cannot flee during a boss battle . Once the party defeats the monsters by winning the battle , each party member gains experience points in order to reach new levels . When a character gains a new level , the statistics ( stats ) of the character are upgraded . Winning battles also rewards players with gold which can be used to purchase items . In addition to the experience points and gold awarded for successfully defeating monsters , occasionally , items will be dropped as well that are added to the player 's inventory .
In most Dragon Quest games , players must visit a church ( known as a House of Healing in the NES translations ) and talk to a priest or nun to save the games ' progress ; in Dragon Warrior , players had to talk to a king to save their progress , though the first two Dragon Quest titles for Famicom use a password save system . If the party dies in battle the group loses half of its gold and warps to the nearest save location where the hero is revived ; players must then pay a priest or nun to revive their party members .
Dragon Quest features " puff puff " – a Japanese onomatopoeia for a girl rubbing her breasts in someone 's face , which can also be used for the general term of a girl juggling her own breasts – massage girls that the player can hire with text describing their actions in the early games ; in later games gags were used since breasts could not be displayed . The text descriptions were removed from some North American translations .
In Dragon Warrior III , Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation , Dragon Warrior VII , and Dragon Quest IX : Sentinels of the Starry Skies , several character classes can be chosen for the party members . Each game has its particular set of classes with typical options , including the Cleric , Fighter , Jester , Thief , Warrior , and Mage . All the aforementioned games also include advanced classes such as the Sage . In addition , Dragon Quest VI and VII include monster classes .
In Dragon Quest IV : Chapters of the Chosen , a new collectible item known as mini medals , resembling small gold coins with a five @-@ pointed star in the middle , was introduced ; they have nothing to do with winning the game , but they can be traded with a certain character for items . Players collect them throughout the game , primarily by opening chests , breaking pots and barrels , and searching in sacks and drawers . Horii introduced them as he wanted to have something players collected that were similar to the crests and orbs in the previous Dragon Quest games , but did not want to repeat the necessity for players having to collect a certain number of them before they could complete the game .
= = = Monsters = = =
The Dragon Quest series features several recurring monsters , including Slimes , Drackies , Skeletons , Shadows , Mummies , Trick Bags , and Dragons . Many monsters in the series were designed by Akira Toriyama .
Several Dragon Quest games allow the player to recruit monsters to fight alongside them . In Dragon Quest IV , a Healie monster can be recruited for the first chapter . Dragon Quest V and VI monsters can be selected by the player to join the player 's party and fight in battles . In Dragon Quest VIII players can defeat and recruit monsters to fight in an arena .
The Slime , designed by Toriyama for use in Dragon Quest , has become the official mascot of the Dragon Quest series . Series designer Yuji Horii cited the monster as an example of Toriyama 's skills , claiming it took " [ artistic ] power to take something like a pool of slime and use his imagination to make it a great character . " A Slime is a small blue blob , shaped like a water droplet , with a face . It has appeared in every Dragon Quest game and it is usually one of the first monsters the players encounter . The Slime 's popularity has netted it the Slime spin @-@ off series on handheld consoles .
= = = Erdrick ( also known as Loto ) = = =
Erdrick , known as Loto ( ロト , Roto ) in Japanese and in the North American remakes of the Game Boy Color version of the first three games , is the legendary hero from the Dragon Quest series . The first three Dragon Quest games , all connected to the legend of Erdrick , comprise the Erdrick or Loto trilogy . He is known in the game as the hero who freed the Kingdom of Alefgard from darkness . The chronological order of the first three Dragon Quest games is : Dragon Quest III , Dragon Quest , and Dragon Quest II .
In the first Dragon Quest game , the hero , the player @-@ character , is a descendant of Erdrick who follows in his footsteps to reach the Dragonlord 's Castle and confront him . In Dragon Quest II the heroes are also descendants of Erdrick , exploring the expanded world of Torland that includes the continent of Alefgard . Erdrick 's legend in the Dragon Quest series was completed in Dragon Quest III when the King of Alefgard bestows the " Order of Erdrick " , the country 's highest honor , upon the hero at the end of the game . Two of the player @-@ character 's three highest @-@ level armaments are named " Erdrick 's Sword " and " Erdrick 's Armor " in Dragon Quest and Dragon Quest II . Playing Dragon Quest III with the name " Erdrick " is impossible in the original release , as the game prompts the player to choose a different name for the hero . The reason for this is that the status of III in the chronological order as a prequel of the first two titles is presented as a plot twist . The Game Boy Color remakes prevent the use of the name " Loto " for the same reason .
= = = Zenithia = = =
Zenithia , also called Zenith Castle , Zenith , or Tenkū @-@ jō ( 天空城 , " Heaven Castle " ) in Japanese , is a floating castle that first appears in Dragon Quest IV ; it is used as a descriptor for several elements in Dragon Quest IV , V and VI . Its appearance in all three games has led to the games being described as the Zenithia or Tenkū trilogy , despite different geographical layouts in each of the three games ' worlds . Horii explained that a trilogy was never the intention : " Each Dragon Quest title represents a fresh start and a new story , so it seems too much of a connection between the games in the series . It could be said that the imagination of players has brought the titles together in a certain fashion . "
In Dragon Quest IV Zenithia can be accessed by climbing the tower above the entrance to the world of darkness . In Dragon Quest V Zenithia has fallen into a lake south of Lofty Peak ( Elheaven in the original release ) , until the Golden Orb is returned leaving the castle able to move freely in the sky . In Dragon Quest VI Zenithia is sealed by Demon Lord Dhuran , and a large hole is left in its place in the " Dream World " . When the Dream World returns to its natural state in Dragon Quest VI , Zenithia is the only part that remains , floating above the " real " world . In addition to the trilogy , a castle in the Dragon Quest III remakes is also called Zenith , although the layout differs from the castle in the Tenkū series .
= = Games = =
= = = Main series = = =
The first four Dragon Quest installments were released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in Japan and North America . The first two installments were released in Japan on NES and ported that same year to the MSX ; all four games have been remade for newer systems . Dragon Quest was first released in Japan on May 27 , 1986 and in North America as Dragon Warrior in August 1989 . Dragon Quest II Akuryo no Kamigami was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1990 as Dragon Warrior II . Dragon Quest III Soshite Densetsu e ... was released in Japan in 1989 and North America as Dragon Warrior III in 1992 . Dragon Quest IV : Chapters of the Chosen was released in Japan in 1990 and in North America in 1992 as Dragon Warrior IV . A 2001 Japanese PlayStation remake of Dragon Warrior IV scheduled for the North American market was never released . The Nintendo DS remake of Dragon Quest IV was released in North America , Europe , and Australia under its original translated title ; the European release removed the number from the title .
Two games were released for the Super Famicom : Dragon Quest V : Hand of the Heavenly Bride in 1992 and Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation in 1995 ; both have been re @-@ released on newer systems . Dragon Quest V was originally scheduled for release in North America but was canceled amid rumors that Enix had given up on the American market . No official reason was ever given . The Nintendo DS remakes were released in North America with Dragon Quest V also being released in Europe and Australia , the latter without the numbering . One game was released for the PS1 : Dragon Quest VII : Eden no Senshi @-@ tachi in 2000 in Japan and 2001 in North America under the title Dragon Warrior VII . Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2004 in Japan , 2005 in North America , and 2006 in Europe and Australia , again without the number in the title for Europe . Dragon Quest VIII was the first Dragon Quest title to be released in North America under the Dragon Quest title , and the first European release of a main @-@ series Dragon Quest game . Dragon Quest IX : Sentinels of the Starry Skies , the only game in the series initially released on the Nintendo DS , was originally released in 2009 in Japan , and in 2010 in North America , Europe , and Australia . Dragon Quest X was announced for the Wii in December 2008 . In September 2011 , Square Enix announced that Dragon Quest X would also be released on the Wii U , with Nintendo 3DS connectivity . It is the first MMORPG in the series , and the only numbered Dragon Quest title not released outside Japan . Dragon Quest XI is currently in development and is scheduled for a 2016 release .
= = = Spinoffs = = =
The franchise includes several spin @-@ off games , including the Dragon Quest Monsters RPG . The series has also inspired arcade games such as the Japanese Dragon Quest : Monster Battle Road , where players compete for real @-@ life cards with monster data that the arcade game issues to the players through a slot on its front . The latter is the only spin @-@ off series to have none of its titles released outside Japan . The Mystery Dungeon and Fortune Street series use characters and other elements from Dragon Quest games , and the Mystery Dungeon series has gone on to spawn its own franchise .
In 1993 Chunsoft developed a SNES game that included Torneko ( a.k.a. Torneko Taloon ) , a character that first appeared in Dragon Quest IV . The roguelike game Torneko no Daibōken : Fushigi no Dungeon continues Torneko 's story from Dragon Quest IV as he attempts to make his store famous , venturing into mysterious dungeons to retrieve items to stock his store with . The game was successful in Japan . In 2000 the direct sequel Torneko : The Last Hope was released in Japan and the United States . The gameplay is similar to the first game , though Torneko : The Last Hope is considered easier to play . The game sold enough copies in Japan to allow development of the second direct sequel on the PlayStation 2 titled Fushigi no Dungeon 3 Torneko no Daibouken ( 不思議のダンジョン3 トルネコの大冒険 ? , lit . " Mystery Dungeon 3 : Torenko 's Adventure " ) . The second and third Torneko games have had remakes for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) . A later game featured Yangus , a character who first appeared in Dragon Quest VIII ; Dragon Quest : Shōnen Yangus to Fushigi no Dungeon follows Yangus on his adventures before he meets up with Hero in afore mentioned game . The success of Torneko no Daibōken spawned the Mystery Dungeon series that has grown to include franchises beyond Dragon Quest , as well as other clones .
When Enix took over the Monopoly @-@ inspired video game Itadaki Street , the Dragon Quest franchise became an integral part of the game in its second version , Itadaki Street 2 : Neon Sain wa Bara Iro ni ( いただきストリート２ ネオンサインはバラ色に , lit . Summit Street 2 : Rose @-@ Colored Neon Sign ) . The first Itadaki Street , released by ASCII , did not contain elements from the Dragon Quest franchise . The fourth game in the series , Dragon Quest & Final Fantasy in Itadaki Street Special ( ドラゴンクエスト ＆ ファイナルファンタジー in いただきストリート Special ) , included characters from the Final Fantasy franchise , and later versions would include characters from Mario .
Like the main series , Dragon Quest Monsters was originally released under the Dragon Warrior name in the US . The next game , Dragon Warrior Monsters 2 , is the only game to be split into two versions , Cobi 's Journey ( Ruka 's Journey in Japan ) andTara 's Adventure ( Iru 's Adventure in Japan ) , named after the main player characters . Each version has slight differences , such as the monster that appear in them . Dragon Quest Monsters : Caravan Heart is a prequel to Dragon Warrior VII , following Keifer who is pulled into Torland and must find the six Orbs of Loto in order to return . The release of Dragon Quest Monsters : Joker is the first spin @-@ off title to be released in English using the Dragon Quest name ; its sequel Dragon Quest Monsters : Joker 2 was released in North America in September 19 , 2011 . There is also an Android title , Dragon Quest Monsters : Wanted ! ( ドラゴンクエスト モンスターズ Wanted ！ ) .
Dragon Quest has also produced a number of smaller spin @-@ off titles . In two of them players use their special controllers as a sword , swinging it to slash enemies and objects . Kenshin Dragon Quest : Yomigaerishi Densetsu no Ken is a stand @-@ alone game in which the controller is shaped like a sword , and a toy shield contains the game 's hardware . Dragon Quest Swords for the Wii uses the motion sensing Wii Remote as a sword . Another spin @-@ off title , Slime MoriMori Dragon Quest , uses the game 's popular slime monster as the protagonist , and its sequel , Dragon Quest Heroes : Rocket Slime , has been translated into English . There is also a downloadable DSiWare turn @-@ based strategy game , Dragon Quest Wars and other titles have been released in Japan for cellphones . Dragon Quest Heroes : The World Tree 's Woe and the Blight Below , a PlayStation 3 and 4 game featuring the gameplay of the Dynasty Warriors series by Koei Tecmo , was released in Japan on February 26 , 2015 , and was released in North America and Europe in October 2015 as a PlayStation 4 exclusive . Theatrhythm Dragon Quest is a rhythm game developed for the Nintendo 3DS . Like the Theatrhythm Final Fantasy games before it , the game allows players to play alongside various songs from the Dragon Quest franchise .
= = Related media = =
= = = Books and anime = = =
= = = = Novels = = = =
Beginning in 1988 with three series , the media franchise expanded into other media . There are now a number of anime and book adaptations , including manga , based on the Dragon Quest games .
On December 23 , 1988 , the first light novel series began publication , starting with a two volume set for Dragon Quest III . After the success of these titles , Enix expanded the books into a series and began publishing volumes starting from the first game in sequential order . Enix published titles from every main series game previously released by March 23 , 1995 , as well as the first Torenko 's Mystery Dungeon game . The titles are written from a second @-@ person perspective ; the reader determines the next course of action and the stories have multiple endings .
Other printed titles released in 1989 include : Doragon Kuesuto Monsutā Monogatari ( ドラゴンクエスト モンスター物語 , Dragon Quest Monster Story ) ; Doragon Kuesuto Aitemu Monogatari ( ドラゴンクエストアイテム物語 , Dragon Quest Item Story ) ; the Dragon Quest Perfect Collection series starting with Dragon Quest Perfect Collection 1990 ( ドラゴンクエストパーフェクトコレクション1990 ) ; and the first two Dragon Quest novels by Takayashiki Hideo . All of these works have had additional titles published for different games by different authors : Hideo wrote the first four volumes spanning the first three games ; Kumi Saori authored ten volumes comprising the next three games ; and Hiroyuki Domon wrote three volumes for Dragon Quest VII . Starting with Shinsho Shousetsu Doragon Kuesuto I ( 新書 小説ドラゴンクエストI , lit . New Light Novel Dragon Quest I ) in 2000 , a new series by all three authors began publication . The authors wrote new stories for their respective series , three stories for Hideo , nine for Saori , and three for Domon ; with the latter 's works featuring illustrations by Daisuke Torii . Several standalone titles and audiobook titles have also been released .
= = = = Manga = = = =
Dragon Quest manga began publication in Weekly Shōnen Jump in 1989 . Based on the world of Dragon Quest , Riku Sanjo 's Dragon Quest : Dai no Daibōken was created as a two @-@ chapter short @-@ story entitled Derupa ! Iruiru ! ( デルバ ! イルイル ! , lit . In ! In ! Poof ! ) . Its success led to the three @-@ chapter sequel , Dai Bakuhatsu ! ! ! ( ダイ爆発 ! ! ! , lit . Dai Bursts Forth ! ! ! ! ) , which set the framework for a later serialization spanning 37 volumes .
Several manga based on the games have been published . The longest @-@ running of these , Emblem of Roto , Warriors of Eden , and Maboroshi no Daichi , were published in Monthly Shōnen Gangan . Emblem of Roto , by Chiaki Kawamata and Junji Koyanagi , with art by Kamui Fujiwara , consists of twenty @-@ one volumes published between 1991 and 1997 . In 2004 Young Gangan ran a mini @-@ series called Emblem of Roto Returns . It takes place between the timeframe of Dragon Quest III and Dragon Quest I. Warriors of Eden consists of eleven volumes , with art by Fujiwara . The series is a retelling of Dragon Quest VII with some minor changes . Maboroshi no Daichi consists of ten volumes . The series is a retelling of Dragon Quest VI with some minor changes . Other shorter manga series have been released including several based on other games , some official 4koma strips , and a manga about the making of the original Dragon Quest game .
The Road to Dragon Quest ( ドラゴンクエストへの道 , Dragon Quest e no Michi ) is a manga about the creators of Dragon Quest , published by Enix . The single @-@ volume manga was released in 1990 and produced by Ishimori Productions . It focuses on the creation of the series and stars Yujii Hori , Koichi Nakamura ( the main programmer ) , Koichi Sugiyama , Akira Toriyama , and Yukinobu Chida ( producer ) .
= = = = Anime = = = =
There are two major television series that were adapted from the games .
Dragon Quest began airing in December 1989 , and ran for 43 episodes . It was supervised by Horii , with a story loosely based on Dragon Quest III . The first 13 episodes of the series were translated into English by Saban Entertainment under the title Dragon Warrior . Due to its early time slot , and a lawsuit filed by Toriyama for not being credited for his work on character designs , it was not renewed .
A second anime series , Dragon Quest : Dai no Daibōken , based on the manga of the same name , was produced by Toei Animation . It ran for 46 episodes from October 17 , 1991 to September 24 , 1992 .
On April 20 , 1996 , a film called Dragon Quest Saga – The Crest of Roto also got released .
= = Development = =
The series ' monsters , characters , and box art were designed by Toriyama . The music for the Dragon Quest series was composed by Koichi Sugiyama . In the past , Dragon Quest games have been developed by Chunsoft , Heartbeat , ArtePiazza and , starting with Dragon Quest VIII , Level @-@ 5 . Horii 's company , Armor Project , is in charge of the Dragon Quest games that were published by Enix and Square Enix .
= = = History = = =
In 1982 Enix sponsored a video game programming contest in Japan which brought much of the Dragon Quest team together , including creator Yuji Horii . The prize was a trip to the United States and a visit to AppleFest ' 83 in San Francisco , where Horii discovered the Wizardry video game series . The contest winners Koichi Nakamura and Yukinobu Chida , together with Horii , released the Enix NES game The Portopia Serial Murder Case . Music composer Sugiyama , known for composing jingles and pop songs , was impressed with the group 's work and sent a postcard to Enix praising the software . Enix asked him to compose music for some of its games . The group then decided to make a role @-@ playing video game that combined elements from the western RPGs Wizardry and Ultima . Horii wanted to introduce the concept of RPGs to the wider Japanese video game audience . He chose the Famicom because , unlike arcade games , players would not have to worry about spending more money if they got a " game over " , and could continue playing from a save point . Horii used the full @-@ screen map of Ultima and the battle and statistics @-@ oriented Wizardry screens to create the gameplay of Dragon Quest . Dragon Ball creator and manga artist Akira Toriyama , who knew of Horii through the manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump , was commissioned to illustrate the characters and monsters to separate the game from other role @-@ playing games of the time . The primary game designs were conceived by Horii before being handed to Toriyama to re @-@ draw under Horii 's supervision . When Horii first created Dragon Quest many people doubted that a fantasy series with swords and dungeons , instead of science fiction elements , would become popular in Japan ; however , the series has become very popular there . Since then Horii has been the games ' scenario director . Dragon Quest was Sugiyama 's second video game he had composed for , Wingman 2 being his first . He says it took him five minutes to compose the original opening theme . His musical motifs from the first game have remained relatively intact .
The first six Dragon Quest stories are divided into two trilogies . The first three games of the series tell the story of the legendary hero known as Roto ( Erdrick or Loto in some versions ) . Dragon Quest IV @-@ VI are based around a castle in the sky called Zenithia , referred to as the Tenku in Japan , meaning " heaven " . Games in the main series from Dragon Quest VII onwards are stand @-@ alone games .
The early Dragon Quest games were released under the title Dragon Warrior in North America to avoid trademark conflict with the pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing game Dragon Quest , which was published by Simulations Publications in the 1980s until the company 's 1982 bankruptcy and acquisition by TSR , Inc .. TSR continued publishing the line as an alternative to Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) until 1987 . On July 23 , 2002 , Square Enix registered the Dragon Quest trademark in the United States for use with manuals , video cassette tapes , and other video game software . On October 8 , 2003 , Square Enix filed for a more comprehensive Dragon Quest trademark . Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King became the first Dragon Quest game released outside Japan , all previous games having used the Dragon Warrior title .
Dragon Quest was not as successful outside Japan , as it was eclipsed by another RPG series , Final Fantasy . Because of Enix 's closure in the mid @-@ 1990s , Dragon Quest V and Dragon Quest VI were not officially released in North America . No games were released in Europe prior to the spin @-@ off Dragon Quest Monsters . With the merger of Square and Enix in 2003 , Dragon Quest games were released in numerous markets . In May 2008 Square Enix announced localizations of the Nintendo DS remakes of Dragon Quest IV , V , and VI for North America and the PAL region , commonly referred to as the " Zenithia " or " Tenku trilogy " . With this announcement , all the main Dragon Quest games have been released outside Japan . The ninth instalment was released in Japan for Nintendo DS on July 11 , 2009 . The North American version was released on July 11 , 2010 , while the European version came out on July 23 , 2010 . The tenth instalment of the main series is currently in development for the Wii . Nintendo has been a major publisher outside Japan for the main Dragon Quest games , publishing the first Dragon Quest game in North America , and recently publishing Dragon Quest IX worldwide outside Japan ; the NDS version of Dragon Quest VI is published by Nintendo in North America .
= = = Creation and design = = =
When designing Dragon Quest , Horii play @-@ tests the games to make certain the controls feel right . This includes going into meticulous details such as how fast a page opens or the way a door opens . According to Horii , " ... little things like here and there the controls not feeling right and such can really grate the players ' nerves if the tempo isn 't right . " He believes players should be able to control the game unconsciously , which is not easy to accomplish . Horii tries to design the games in such a way that players never need to read a manual nor play through a tutorial in order to figure out how to play the game , and tries to create good storylines with short dialogues . Ryutaro Ichimura , who has worked on Dragon Quest titles with Horii since Dragon Quest VIII , has implemented Horii 's suggestions even when it is not obvious why his ideas will work . " [ A ] lot of the time when he [ Horii ] points these things out , we cannot see them at first , but eventually you get it . "
Dragon Quest games have an overall upbeat feeling . The typical Dragon Quest plot involves the player controlling a party of heroes to defeat an ultimate evil villain , who usually threatens the world in some way . The plot @-@ line often consists of smaller stories that involve encounters with other characters . This linear plot @-@ line is intentional , to help ease the generally high learning curve RPGs have for those unaccustomed to them . The gameplay is designed to allow players to decide when , and whether , to pursue certain storyline paths . To ensure players continue to enjoy playing the game , no storyline path is made without some kind of reward and , to help ease players who may be apprehensive about whether they are on the right path , the distance the character has to travel to get rewarded is reduced at the beginning of the game . While the player never starts the game in a wholly non @-@ linear way , they usually allow players to explore an open world in a non @-@ linear manner following an early linear section of the game . Early character levels start players off with more hit points and a substantially increasing growth at later levels , although the effective bonuses of every additional level decreases .
While Toriyama would later become more widely known with the success of Dragon Ball Z in North America , when Dragon Quest was released he was an unknown outside Japan . While the Dragon Quest 's hero was drawn in a super deformed manga style , the Dragon Warrior localization had him drawn in the " West 's template of a medieval hero " . The trend continued through the first four games , although the artwork for weapons and armor began using more of Toriyama 's original artwork for Dragon Warrior III and IV . However , while the bookets ' artwork was altered , the setting and poses remained virtually identical .
The games always feature a number of religious overtones ; after the first Dragon Warrior game saving , and reviving characters who have died , is performed by clergy in churches . Bishops wander around the over @-@ world of Dragon Quest Monsters and can heal wounded characters . The final enemy in some of the Dragon Quest games is called the Demon Lord ; for instance in Dragon Quest VII , the Demon Lord ( known as Orgodemir in that particular game ) is the final boss , and there is a sidequest to battle against God . The first four Dragon Quest titles were subjected to censorship in their North American localizations , largely in keeping with Nintendo of America 's content guidelines at the time that placed severe restrictions on religious iconography and mature content . When these games were remade for the Game Boy Color , most censorship was removed . The translated versions of the games have largely followed the originals since Dragon Quest VII .
= = = Music = = =
The Dragon Quest soundtracks were composed and arranged by Koichi Sugiyama . Sugiyama , already a well @-@ known television composer , sent a feedback questionnaire from an Enix game to the company , and , upon seeing Sugiyama 's feedback , Fukushima contacted him to confirm that " he was the Sugiyama from television . " Upon confirmation , Fukushima asked Sugiyama to compose a score for Dragon Quest . Sugiyama had previously composed a video game score for Wingman 2 . Sugiyama has said it took him five minutes to compose the original opening theme , and noted the difficulty in adding a personal touch to the short jingles , but that his past experience with creating music for television commercials helped . According to Sugiyama , the composer has between three and five seconds to catch the audience 's attention through music . The theme and his other jingles for Dragon Quest have remained relatively intact in its sequels .
The first album of music from the series was released in 1986 and was based on music from the first game , followed by a Symphonic Suite album for each game in the main series . The original soundtrack 's " eight melodies " approach set the template for most RPG soundtracks released since then , hundreds of which have been organized in a similar manner . The original game 's classical score was considered revolutionary for video game music .
Other compilations of Dragon Quest music have been released , including Dragon Quest Game Music Super Collection Vol . 1 . The London Philharmonic performed many of the soundtracks , including a compilation entitled Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest Complete CD @-@ Box . Some of the soundtracks include a second disc with the original game music , as with the Dragon Quest VI soundtrack . In 2003 SME Visual Works released Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest Complete CD @-@ Box , featuring music from the first seven Dragon Quest games .
= = Cultural impact = =
Dragon Quest has become a cultural phenomenon in Japan . According to Ryutaro Ichimura and Yuji Horii , Dragon Quest has become popular enough that it is used as a common topic for conversation in Japan , and is considered by the Japanese gaming industry as Japan 's national game . William Cassidy of GameSpy claims that " the common wisdom is that if you ask someone from Japan to draw ' Slime , ' he 'll draw the onion @-@ like shape of the weak enemies from the game . " With the Japanese release of Dragon Quest IX in January 2009 , a new eatery inspired by the series called Luida 's Bar was opened in Roppongi , a well @-@ known nightlife hotspot in Minato , Tokyo . This was notable due to the usual center of Tokyo 's gaming culture being Akihabara rather than Roppongi . The venue provides a meeting location for fans of the series : styled in the fashion of a Medieval public house like its virtual counterpart , its food is directly inspired by both items and monsters found in the games . It was described by a Western journalist as a cross between a Disneyland resort and a maid café Dragon Quest also served as the inspiration for a live @-@ action television drama . Yūsha Yoshihiko initially aired in July 2011 , with a sequel series being produced and released the following year . For its 2012 April Fool 's Hoax , Google announced a " NES version " of its Google Maps service , which uses graphics and music licensed from Dragon Quest .
There is an urban myth that the release of Dragon Quest III caused a law to be passed in Japan banning the sale of Dragon Quest games or video games in general except on certain days such as weekends or national holidays . When III was released in Japan , over 300 schoolchildren were arrested for truancy while waiting in stores for the game to be released . The rumor claims there was a measurable dip in productivity when a Dragon Quest game was released and although muggings of Dragon Quest titles became so widespread there were hearings in the Japanese Diet , no law was ever passed . However , the Japanese release of every Dragon Quest title continued to be on a Saturday until the release of Dragon Quest X , which was released on Thursday , August 2 , 2012 . Nevertheless , each new Dragon Quest launch is widely anticipated .
Dragon Quest 's music has been influential on various sectors of the performing arts . It is the first video game series to receive live @-@ action ballet adaptations , and musical concerts and audio CDs were produced based on the Dragon Quest universe . Since 1987 the series ' music is performed annually in concert halls throughout Japan . Early Dragon Quest concerts inspired Nobuo Uematsu 's Final Fantasy compositions .
= = Legacy and reception = =
As of June 2014 , the Dragon Quest series has sold over 64 million units worldwide and is one of the most popular video game series in Japan . All games in the main series , and its many spin @-@ offs , have sold over a million copies in Japan and some games have sold over four million copies . The remake of Dragon Quest VI sold 0 @.@ 91 million copies in Japan in the first four days after its release , an exceptional sales figure for a remake . In 2006 readers of the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu voted on the hundred best video games of all time . Dragon Quest III was third , Dragon Quest VIII fourth , Dragon Quest VII ninth , Dragon Quest V eleventh , Dragon Quest IV fourteenth , Dragon Quest II seventeenth , Dragon Quest thirtieth , and Dragon Quest VI thirty @-@ fourth . In 2009 Horii received a special award at the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association Developers Conference for his work on the Dragon Quest franchise .
According to Satoru Iwata , former President of Nintendo , Dragon Quest 's widespread appeal is that it is " made so that anyone can play it ... and anyone can enjoy it depending on their different levels and interests . " According to him , Dragon Quest is designed for anyone to pick up without needing to read the manual in order to understand it . Ryutaro Ichimura , producer at Square Enix , who has played the game since he was a child , says the Dragon Quest storylines allow players to experience a moving sense of achievement where they take the role of a hero saving the world . Horii believes the ability to appeal to larger audiences of casual gamers , while not alienating the more hardcore gamers , is due to being able to lower the initial hurdle without making it too easy . Iwata and Ichimura believe it is because the games are created in a way that allows both groups to pursue their own goals ; casual gamers can enjoy the storyline and battles , but for those who want more there is still content for them to pursue .
Although the series is extremely popular in Japan , by 2002 the success in Japan had not transferred to North America . Although the first four games to be released in America generally received good reviews , Nintendo had to give away copies of Dragon Warrior . However , those four games have been among the most sought @-@ after titles for the NES , especially Dragon Warrior III and IV . It was not until Dragon Warrior VII was released that Dragon Quest became critically acclaimed in North America , although reception was still mixed . The series gained more universal praise with Dragon Quest VIII , and began to sell better outside Japan and Dragon Quest IX sold over 1 million copies outside Japan .
The original Dragon Quest game is often cited as the first console RPG . GameSpot called the original Dragon Quest one of the fifteen most influential games of all time and the " most influential role @-@ playing games of all time " , stating that nearly all Japanese RPGs since then have drawn from its gameplay " in some shape or form . " In response to a survey , Gamasutra cites Quinton Klabon of Dartmouth College as stating Dragon Warrior translated the D & D experience to video games and set the genre standards . Games such as Mother , Breath of Fire and Lufia & the Fortress of Doom were inspired by various Dragon Quest titles . Dragon Quest III 's class @-@ changing system would shape other RPGs , especially the Final Fantasy series . Early games in the series are also credited with affecting D & D 's leveling system to even out its randomness by giving more bonuses early on and giving starting characters maximum hit points at their initial level . Dragon Quest IV 's " Tactics " system , where the player can set the AI routines for NPCs , is seen as a precursor to Final Fantasy XII 's " Gambits " system . Dragon Quest V is cited as having monster recruiting and training mechanics that inspired monster @-@ collecting RPGs such as Pokémon , Digimon , and Dokapon , and in turn the modern trend of collecting achievements . Dragon Quest V also introduced the concept of a playable pregnancy . The real world and dream world setting of Dragon Quest VI is considered an influence on the later Square RPGs Chrono Cross and Final Fantasy X. The Dragon Quest series was recognized by Guinness World Records , with six world records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition . These records include " Best Selling Role Playing Game on the Super Famicom " , " Fastest Selling Game in Japan " , and " First Video Game Series to Inspire a Ballet " .
One of the main aspects of the series that critics point out , either positively or negatively , is that the series " never strays from its classic roots . " Unlike other modern , complex RPGs , Dragon Quest on the DS retains the simple gameplay from the first game that many critics find refreshing and nostalgic . Points of contention are its battle system , comparatively simplistic storylines , general lack of character development , simplistic primitive @-@ looking graphics ( in earlier titles ) , and the overall difficulty of the game . These arguments are countered by noting its strength in episodic storytelling with the various non @-@ player characters the party meets . The stories avoid melodrama and feature relatively more simplistic characters than Final Fantasy 's Squall Leonhart or Tidus , a source of contention . There are exceptions , however , such as Dragon Quest V , which has been praised for its unique , emotional storytelling . Battles are also simple and finish quickly . As for difficulty , Yuji Horii is noted as a gambler . The lack of save points and the general difficulty of the battles were included with the intention of adding a sense of tension . Because of this added difficulty , the punishment for the party 's death was toned down compared to other games by simply going back to where you had last saved , with half of your gold on hand . When asked about criticism of Dragon Quest games , Horii says he does not mind , it means the critics played the game and he would rather know their concerns than remain ignorant .
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= SMS Braunschweig =
SMS Braunschweig was the first of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She was laid down in 1901 and commissioned in October 1904 , at a cost of 23 @,@ 983 @,@ 000 marks . She was named after the then Duchy of Brunswick ( German : Braunschweig ) . Her sister ships were Elsass , Hessen , Preussen , and Lothringen .
The ship served in the II Squadron of the German fleet after commissioning , though by the outbreak of World War I she had been moved to the IV Squadron . Braunschweig saw action in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy . In August 1915 , the ship participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga , during which she engaged the Russian battleship Slava . In 1916 , the ship was placed in reserve owing to crew shortages . She spent the remainder of World War I as a training ship , and after 1917 , as a barracks ship for U @-@ boat crews .
Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , she was retained after the end of the war and modernized in 1921 – 22 . Braunschweig served in the reformed Reichsmarine as a coastal defense ship until 1926 , when she was again placed in reserve . She was stricken in 1931 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Braunschweig was laid down in 1901 , at the Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 97 . The first of her class , she was ordered under the contract name " H " as a new unit for the fleet . The ship cost 23 @,@ 983 @,@ 000 marks . Braunschweig was launched on 20 December 1902 and commissioned into the fleet on 15 October 1904 .
The ship was 127 @.@ 70 m ( 419 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 20 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 ft 7 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Braunschweig 's powerplant was rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Braunschweig 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
Upon commissioning in October 1904 , Braunschweig was assigned to the II Division of the II Squadron of the German fleet . She was joined by her sister Elsass the following month ; the II Division was rounded out by the old battleship Weissenburg . The German Navy in 1905 consisted of four divisions of three battleships each , with two divisions per squadron . This was supported by a cruiser division , composed of two armored cruisers and six protected cruisers .
After the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Braunschweig was assigned to the IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The squadron was commanded by Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . In July 1915 , following the loss of the minelaying cruiser SMS Albatross in the Baltic , the IV Squadron ships were transferred to reinforce the German naval forces in the area . On 11 and 19 July , German cruisers , with the IV Squadron ships in support , conducted sweeps in the Baltic , though without engaging Russian forces .
In August 1915 , the German fleet attempted to clear the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces , in order to aid the German Army advancing on the city . The IV Squadron was joined by the I Squadron , which consisted of the eight Nassau and Helgoland @-@ class battleships , from the High Seas Fleet , along with three battlecruisers and a host of smaller craft . The task force was placed under command of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper , though operational command remained with Vice Admiral Schmidt . On the morning of 8 August , the Germans made their initial push into the Gulf ; Braunschweig and Elsass were tasked with engaging the Russian pre @-@ dreadnought Slava and preventing her from disrupting the German minesweepers . However , when it became clear that the minesweepers could not clear the minefield before nightfall , Schmidt called off the attempt . A second attempt was made on 16 August ; this time , Braunschweig remained outside the Gulf while the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen took over the task of dealing with Slava . By 19 August , the Russian minefields had been cleared and the flotilla entered the Gulf . Reports of Allied submarines in the area , however , prompted the Germans to call off the operation the following day .
On 12 October , the British submarine E18 fired a single torpedo at Braunschweig , though it failed to hit its target . Due to manpower shortages , the IV Squadron ships were demobilized . In 1916 , Braunschweig became a training ship . On 20 August 1917 , she was transferred for use as a barracks ship stationed in Kiel . In this role , the ship supported the III Submarine Flotilla .
The Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war , specified that Germany was permitted to retain six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Braunschweig was chosen to remain on active service with the newly reformed Reichsmarine . The ship was modernized at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven from 1921 – 22 . In 1923 , Braunschweig 's bridge was rebuilt and enlarged . She and Elsass , along with the Deutschland @-@ class battleship Schlesien , were assigned to the North Sea Station . The ship served with the fleet until 1926 , when she was withdrawn from active duty and placed in reserve . On 31 March 1931 , Braunschweig was stricken from the naval register and temporarily used as a hulk in Wilhelmshaven before being broken up for scrap .
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= 2003 FA Community Shield =
The 2003 FA Community Shield was the 81st FA Community Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup competitions . It was held at Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium , on 10 August 2003 . The match was played between Manchester United , champions of the 2002 – 03 Premier League and Arsenal , who beat Southampton 1 – 0 in the 2003 FA Cup Final . Manchester United won the Shield 4 – 3 on penalties , after the match finished 1 – 1 after 90 minutes .
This was Manchester United 's 22nd Community Shield appearance and Arsenal 's 17th . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson assessed before the match that his midfield was stronger than before , despite selling first @-@ team players David Beckham and Juan Sebastián Verón . Arsène Wenger was optimistic of Arsenal 's prospects in the upcoming season despite having only made minor changes to his squad , and Chelsea 's emergence as a competitor following Roman Abramovich 's takeover . Having been linked with a transfer away during the summer , Arsenal captain Patrick Vieira revealed before the game his intention to stay at the club .
Goalkeepers Tim Howard and Jens Lehmann made their competitive debuts for their respective clubs in the match . Ole Gunnar Solskjær started in midfield for Manchester United , with Paul Scholes playing behind the main striker , Ruud van Nistelrooy . For Arsenal , Kolo Touré partnered Sol Campbell in central defence as Martin Keown was absent . Mikaël Silvestre gave Manchester United the lead in the 15th minute from a corner , but Thierry Henry equalised for Arsenal five minutes later from a free @-@ kick . In the second half , substitute Francis Jeffers was sent off for kicking out at Phil Neville . Neither team was able to score in the remaining time , so the match was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . Howard saved the decisive spot @-@ kick taken by Robert Pirès .
Both managers were pleased with their teams ' performances , in particular Ferguson , who felt his players coped well in the heat . The 2003 Community Shield brought its lowest crowd since 1995 ; Wenger reasoned there was " less and less appetite " for the event .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Community Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 , it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the third time ; it took over as the venue for the event while Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
Manchester United qualified for the 2003 FA Community Shield by winning the Premier League – their eighth championship in 11 years . Despite making their worst start to a league campaign since the 1989 – 90 season , the team finished five points clear of second @-@ placed Arsenal , the pre @-@ season favourites . Arsenal 's campaign was compensated by an appearance in the 2003 FA Cup Final ; the team beat Southampton 1 – 0 to retain the trophy and qualify for the Community Shield .
Manchester United were appearing in the Community Shield for the 22nd time , having won 10 outright ( 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1983 , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 ) , sharing four ( 1965 , 1967 , 1977 , 1990 ) and losing seven ( 1948 , 1963 , 1985 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2001 ) . In contrast , Arsenal appeared in 16 previous Shields , likewise winning 10 outright ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 , 1953 , 1998 , 1999 , 2002 ) , while sharing one ( 1991 ) and losing five ( 1935 , 1936 , 1979 , 1989 , 1993 ) . This was the fifth meeting between the two clubs in the Community Shield ; Arsenal won three of those meetings to Manchester United 's one .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson said before the Community Shield that new signings Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba and Kléberson had made his midfield stronger , in spite of selling first @-@ team players David Beckham and Juan Sebastián Verón : " The two of them give us youth in that department and I think it 's important to have young legs in there , particularly with the amount of games we play . "
Arsenal captain Patrick Vieira revealed his intention to stay at the club , despite interest from Chelsea , who had been acquired by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich in the summer . Manager Arsène Wenger used his press conference to look ahead to the new season and felt his team 's chances were as good , if not better than Chelsea 's : " I can understand that we look a little bit poor and out of shape but what is important is what happens on the pitch and you will see that we look good . To write us off just because we haven 't spent £ 100 million is a bit easy . "
Neither United nor Arsenal made noticeable changes to their squad , but Ferguson believed both teams would remain the ones to beat in the Premier League : " There 's only really ourselves and Arsenal who know what it takes to win the Premiership . It 's not an easy thing to achieve . You need experience . "
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Goalkeeper Tim Howard started his first competitive match for Manchester United , replacing Fabien Barthez , while Quinton Fortune was selected at left @-@ back ahead of John O 'Shea . They lined up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation , with forward Ole Gunnar Solskjær positioned on the right wing and Paul Scholes playing just off the main striker , Ruud van Nistelrooy . For Arsenal , Jens Lehmann made his first competitive appearance . The team lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Kolo Touré was paired with defender Sol Campbell at centre @-@ back in the absence of Martin Keown .
= = = Summary = = =
The stadium observed a minute 's silence in memory of Ray Harford and Manchester United reserve player Jimmy Davis , who both died on 9 August 2003 . Arsenal kicked off the match and within the first two minutes Phil Neville and Ashley Cole were booked for mistimed tackles . The match settled into " a more sedate rhythm " soon after , and in the 13th minute , Scholes ' long pass found Solskjær , who was subsequently tackled ; the ball ran out for a corner . It was delivered by Ryan Giggs and the ball was flicked on by Roy Keane at the near post – an unmarked Mikaël Silvestre headed it into the net , which gave United the lead . It was short @-@ lived , however ; in the 18th minute , Nicky Butt conceded a free @-@ kick for a foul on Vieira . From " about 33 yards out " , Henry shot the ball past United 's wall and beat Howard in goal . Arsenal 's equaliser did not hand them the impetus , for United continued to control proceedings . Silvestre 's cross in the 28th minute fashioned a chance for Giggs , though Arsenal 's defence prevented him from getting a shot . Giggs came close to scoring five minutes later ; a cross by Butt found the Welshman whose effort hit the post . United finished the half with two half @-@ chances .
Ray Parlour and Henry came off in the second half for Robert Pirès and Sylvain Wiltord . United created an early chance , but Van Nistelrooy was unable to make the most of Giggs ' delivery . The player went down in the penalty area under the challenge of Campbell , prompting United players to appeal for a penalty ; however , referee Steve Bennett decided to let play continue . Arsenal countered twice thereafter , but their attacks broke down on both counts . Vieira , Scholes and Quinton Fortune were booked for tackles during a 10 @-@ minute spell . Both clubs made substitutions in the midway point of the second half : for Arsenal , Bergkamp , Gilberto and Ljungberg were replaced by Francis Jeffers , Edu and Giovanni van Bronckhorst , whereas for United , Butt and Fortune came off for Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba and John O 'Shea . In the 72nd minute , Jeffers was shown a red card for kicking out at Neville . Ferguson brought on striker Diego Forlán for Neville six minutes later . Djemba @-@ Djemba avoided a yellow card for his challenge on Campbell in the 80th minute ; Bennett deemed it unintentional .
The game descended into a scrappy affair in the last few minutes , with few clear cut chances for either side . With no further goals , it was decided by penalties . Scholes , Edu and Ferdinand converted their kicks , before Howard saved Van Bronkhorst 's effort . Van Nistelrooy missed his and Wiltord scored to level the tally at 2 – 2 in the shoot @-@ out . Solskjær , Lauren and Forlán scored , but Pirès missed – his effort saved by Howard – which won United the Shield , 4 – 3 on penalties .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Henry Winter of The Daily Telegraph opined that , injuries to players aside , " The Community Shield itself experienced most damage " . Arsenal returned 8 @,@ 000 of their ticket allocation , while transport problems meant spectators were unable to reach Cardiff in time . A crowd of 59 @,@ 923 was the Shield 's lowest in eight years .
Ferguson was delighted in how his team coped with the pitchside temperatures : " You had to be down there to appreciate it . I was told it was 41 degrees on the pitch – I know I was roasting just watching them . " When asked about Howard 's positioning for Arsenal 's equaliser , he replied : " Tim wanted three in the wall and he will learn from that . This isn 't America . " Silvestre denied suggestions that the win gave United a psychological edge over Arsenal : " This is still a pre @-@ season game . We won the Premiership title with a strong run at the end of last season . " Howard was unsure whether he would displace Barthez in the first team for a prolonged run – " that 's not my decision " , though continued " We have four great goalkeepers and we 're looking to have a good battle all season long . "
Wenger was content with his team 's performance : " We are at only 80 % fitness and still we got a draw with Manchester United , " and thought his defence stood firm against United 's attack . He felt Jeffers ' dismissal was " deserved " for overreacting , but added , " He 's apologised . He realised he made a mistake . He 's intelligent , he 's young and he 'll learn . " The performance of Lehmann encouraged the Arsenal manager ; he noted that the goalkeeper was " amazed to see the referee wave play on after one aerial challenge . " Wenger made reference to Arsenal 's low crowd turnout and suggested it meant there was " less and less appetite " for the Shield .
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= Howie Morenz =
Howard William Morenz ( September 21 , 1902 – March 8 , 1937 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player . He played centre for three National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams : the Montreal Canadiens ( in two stints ) , the Chicago Black Hawks , and the New York Rangers . Before joining the NHL , Morenz excelled in the junior Ontario Hockey Association , where his team played for the Memorial Cup , the championship for junior ice hockey in Canada . In the NHL , he was one of the most dominant players in the league and set several league scoring records . A strong skater , Morenz was referred to as the " Stratford Streak " and " Mitchell Meteor " in reference to his speed on the ice .
Considered one of the first stars of the NHL , Morenz played 14 seasons in the league . He was a member of a Stanley Cup – winning team three times , all with the Canadiens . During his NHL career he placed in the top 10 leading scorers ten times . For seven straight seasons , Morenz led the Canadiens in both goals scored and points . Three times in his career he was named the most valuable player of the league , and he led the league once in goals scored and twice in points scored . He was named to the NHL All @-@ Star Team three times .
Morenz died from complications of a broken leg , an injury he suffered in a game . After his death , the Canadiens retired his jersey number , the first time the team had done so for any player . When the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in 1945 , Morenz was one of the original nine inductees . In 1950 , the Canadian Press named him the best ice hockey player of the first half of the 20th century .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Mitchell , Ontario to William Frederick Morenz and Rosena ( Rose ) Pauli , Howie Morenz had three sisters , Freda , Erma and Gertrude , and two brothers , Wilfred and Ezra . Morenz learned his hockey by playing shinny on the Thames River . At the age of eight , he played his first organized game as a goaltender , where he allowed 21 goals in a game . After that game , a coach switched Morenz to rover , a defensive position . Starting the 1916 – 17 junior season as a goaltender , Morenz became a forward when it became apparent his speed was much more suitable for an offensive role , and he helped the Mitchell ice hockey team win the Western Ontario junior championship . After the Morenz family moved to Stratford , a nearby community , in May 1917 , Morenz tried enlisting in the Canadian military but was refused when recruiters learned he was only 15 years old .
At the age of 18 , Morenz became an apprentice with the Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) factory in Stratford . When not playing hockey , Morenz bet avidly on horse races and played the ukulele . In 1926 he married Mary McKay ; together , they had three children : Howie , Jr. in 1927 , Donald in 1933 , and Marlene in 1934 . Marlene later married Bernie Geoffrion , who played for both the Canadiens and Rangers from 1950 to 1968 . Their son , Morenz 's grandson , Dan , played for the Canadiens in 1979 @-@ 80 . Dan 's son , Blake , played with the University of Wisconsin and won the Hobey Baker Award as best collegiate player in 2010 . Selected in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Nashville Predators , he made his debut with the Predators in 2011 , the first fourth @-@ generation NHL player . Blake was traded to Montreal in 2012 , meaning that all four generations of the Morenz @-@ Geoffrion family have played within the Canadiens organization .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1920 Morenz joined the Stratford Midgets junior team ( under 20 years old ) , leading the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) in assists and points during the 1920 – 21 regular season , and goals , assists and points in the playoffs . The Midgets won the league title and played in the 1921 Memorial Cup against the Winnipeg Falcons . While Morenz scored a hat trick ( three goals ) in the second game in the series , the Midgets lost the total @-@ goals series 11 – 9 . His performance in the Memorial Cup tournament earned him an invitation to play for the Stratford Indians , a senior league team , for the 1921 – 22 season . While he joined the Indians , he continued to play for the juniors as well . During the playoffs , he led both leagues in goals , assists , and points and he also led the senior league in penalty minutes . Playing exclusively in the senior league in the 1922 – 23 season , he led it in regular season assists , playoff goals , points , and penalty minutes .
During a CNR hockey tournament held in December 1922 in Montreal , Morenz scored nine goals in a game for Stratford . A friend of Léo Dandurand , the owner of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League , refereed the game and told Dandurand how good Morenz was . Dandurand went to Stratford in January 1923 to watch Morenz play , and decided he wanted to sign him to the Canadiens . In April he met with William Morenz , because at the age of 20 , Howie was still legally a minor . William told Dandurand that he wanted Howie to finish his apprenticeship at the CNR factory , which would take another two years . However , in July Dandurand learned that Morenz and his father had been in contact with the Toronto St. Patricks , a rival team in the NHL . Fearing that Morenz would sign in Toronto , Dandurand sent his friend , Cecil Hart , to Stratford with instructions to sign Morenz at any cost . On July 7 , 1923 , Morenz signed a contract with the Canadiens for three years with a salary of $ 3 @,@ 500 per year and a $ 1 @,@ 000 signing bonus , a considerable amount for a first @-@ year professional .
Right after signing the contract with the Canadiens , Morenz began to reconsider joining them . Stratford residents , as well as his senior team , wanted him to stay , and Morenz yielded to the pressure . He wrote a letter in August to Dandurand , explaining that he could not leave Stratford , and included the cheque given to him as a signing bonus . After receiving the letter , Dandurand phoned Morenz and told him to come to Montreal to talk in person . In Montreal , Morenz began explaining his reasons for not signing to Dandurand but began crying and could not finish . In response , Dandurand falsely threatened that if Morenz did not join the Canadiens , his professional hockey career would be over . Hearing this , Morenz relented and agreed to report to the Canadiens ' training camp later in the year .
= = = Montreal Canadiens ( 1923 – 34 ) = = =
On December 3 , 1923 , Morenz arrived at his first Canadiens training camp and quickly impressed his new teammates . He made his NHL debut on December 26 , 1923 , in Ottawa against the Ottawa Senators , scoring a goal . At the conclusion of the 1923 – 24 season , Morenz 's first in the NHL , he finished with 13 goals and 3 assists in 24 games . Finishing first in the league for the first time in five years , the Canadiens faced the Senators in the playoffs for the NHL championship . In the first game of the two @-@ game , total @-@ goals series , Morenz scored the only goal , and added another goal in the second game as the Canadiens won the series , five goals to two . As the champions of the NHL , the Canadiens played two teams from Western Canada for the Stanley Cup . They defeated the Vancouver Maroons of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) in two games of a best @-@ of @-@ three series and then faced the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . In the first game against Calgary , Morenz scored a hat trick as the Canadiens won by a score of 6 – 1 . He scored another goal in the second game , as Montreal defeated the Tigers 3 – 0 to win their second Stanley Cup championship and Morenz 's first with the team .
The following season , Morenz scored 28 goals and 11 assists for 39 points , placing second on the Canadiens and fourth in the NHL in scoring . That was followed with seven goals and eight points in six playoff games , as Montreal lost in the Stanley Cup Finals to the Victoria Cougars of the WCHL . Morenz tied with linemate Aurèle Joliat in leading the Canadiens in scoring in 1925 – 26 with 26 points , finishing fifth in the league . In 1926 – 27 he finished third in the league in goals , with 25 , and points , with 32 , to again lead the Canadiens . The one goal he scored in four playoff games was a series winner in the quarter @-@ finals , eliminating the Montreal Maroons from postseason contention .
The 1927 – 28 season was one of Morenz 's best in the NHL . On March 24 , 1928 , in the final game of the regular season , Morenz earned two assists , tying the then @-@ NHL record for assists in a season with 18 and becoming the first player to score 50 points in a season , finishing with 51 . As the league leader in goals , with 33 , assists and points , Morenz was named the recipient of the Hart Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . Though his scoring totals went down in 1928 – 29 , with 17 goals and 27 points , Morenz still led the Canadiens in scoring , and tied for third overall in the league .
During the 1929 – 30 season the NHL changed its rules to allow for more scoring . As a result , Morenz finished seventh in the league for scoring with 50 points , including scoring 40 goals for the first time ; this included a game against the New York Americans on March 18 , 1930 , in which he scored five goals . In the playoffs , he added another three goals , including his second Stanley Cup @-@ winning goal , as the Canadiens beat the Boston Bruins for their third Stanley Cup . In the 1930 – 31 season , Morenz scored 28 goals and matched his career high with 51 points , winning his second NHL scoring title , and being awarded the Hart Trophy for the second time . He was also named to the newly created NHL All @-@ Star Team , being selected as the first @-@ team centre , as the top player in that position . In the playoffs , the Canadiens reached the Stanley Cup Final for the second consecutive year , playing the Chicago Black Hawks . Playing with an injured shoulder and being held back by the Black Hawks , Morenz only scored one goal throughout ten playoff games , the final goal of the playoffs , as he won his third Stanley Cup with the Canadiens .
The 1931 – 32 season was another productive season for Morenz . With 49 points he finished third in league scoring , and became the first player in NHL history to win the Hart Trophy for a third time , also being named to the First All @-@ Star Team again . In a March 17 , 1932 , game against the New York Americans , Morenz scored his 334th point with an assist , passing Cy Denneny as the NHL record holder for career points . Minor injuries led to Morenz 's point totals going down the following season as he finished second on the Canadiens in scoring behind Joliat , the first time in seven years he did not lead the Canadiens , ending up 10th in the league with 35 points . In the playoffs , he had three assists in two games . The 1933 – 34 season also saw Morenz 's goal and point totals fall , to 8 goals and 21 points . Even with his decline in scoring , he still managed to reach a significant milestone , once again passing Cy Denneny to do so . Against the Detroit Red Wings on December 23 , 1933 , he scored his 249th career goal , to become the NHL leader for career goals . On January 2 , 1934 , Morenz twisted his ankle in a game in New York , bruising the bone and tearing ligaments . It was the first serious injury of his career , and he was unable to play for a month . After returning to the team , Morenz was unable to play at his previous level , and the Canadiens ' fans began booing him .
With the decline in production , reports of the Canadiens wanting to trade Morenz began appearing in Montreal newspapers . When the Canadiens began their playoff series against the Chicago Black Hawks , the Canadiens ' general manager , Léo Dandurand , confirmed that several teams wanted to acquire Morenz . After playing the first game with his usual speed and skill , Morenz broke his thumb in the second game , finishing with a goal and an assist for the playoffs .
After the playoffs , Morenz addressed the trade rumours , telling a reporter that he would only play for the Canadiens , saying that " when I can 't play for them , I 'll never put on a skate again , " though the Canadiens ' management knew he was too passionate about hockey to quit . During the summer of 1934 , Morenz became concerned about his future with the team . Newspapers continued to write that Morenz would be involved in a trade involving several players and teams . Adding to Morenz 's concern was the lack of response from either of the Canadiens ' owners , Léo Dandurand or Joe Cattarinich , informing him of what was happening . The rumours ended on October 3 , 1934 , when Morenz was traded along with goaltender Lorne Chabot and defenceman Marty Burke , to the Chicago Black Hawks for forwards Leroy Goldsworthy and Lionel Conacher , and defenceman Roger Jenkins .
= = = Chicago , New York and Montreal ( 1934 – 37 ) = = =
In his first season with the Black Hawks , 1934 – 35 , Morenz played in all 48 games for the team , scoring 8 goals and 34 points , an improvement over the previous season . The Black Hawks reached the playoffs , though Morenz was held pointless in the two games played . The following season was not as good for Morenz . He did not feel comfortable in Chicago , and was being benched , playing fewer minutes than he was used to . After 23 games with the Black Hawks , in which he scored 15 points , Morenz was traded for the second time in his career ; he was sent to the New York Rangers on January 26 , 1936 , for forward Glen Brydson . Playing 19 games for the Rangers , Morenz scored 2 goals and had another 4 assists for 6 points , giving him 21 points over the season .
Over the summer of 1936 , the Canadiens re @-@ hired Cecil Hart to be the coach of the team . Hart agreed to the job on one condition : that the Canadiens bring Morenz back to the team . On September 1 , 1936 , Morenz once again joined the Canadiens , his contract being purchased by the team from the Rangers . The Canadiens spent most of the 1936 – 37 season as one of the best teams in the NHL ; Morenz contributed regularly , occasionally showing the speed that had made him notable at the start of his career . By mid @-@ January , he had 4 goals and 20 points , far better totals than previous years .
= = = = Final game and death = = = =
The Canadiens played the Chicago Black Hawks in Montreal on January 28 , 1937 . In the first period , Morenz went after the puck in the Chicago end while being chased by Black Hawks defenceman Earl Seibert . Morenz lost his balance and fell to the ice , crashing into the boards and catching his left skate in the wooden siding . Seibert , unable to stop , landed on him with full force . The resulting impact snapped Morenz 's left leg , creating a noise heard throughout the rink . Helped to the Canadiens bench by his teammates , Morenz was taken to Hôpital St @-@ Luc , where it was found that his leg was fractured in four places .
While recovering in the hospital , Morenz received many get @-@ well cards and visits from his teammates and players from other NHL teams . So many of them brought drinks that a teammate remarked that " the whisky was on the dresser and the beer was under the bed . " Though there were many visitors , Morenz often found himself alone in the hospital room , unable to move off his bed . To pass the time , he read newspapers to stay up to date with the Canadiens as they finished the season . Since his injury , the team had dropped in the standings , causing Morenz to worry . He began to think he would never play hockey again and became depressed .
The Canadiens ' team doctor , Dr. J.A. Hector Forgues , visited Morenz in late February and determined that he had suffered a nervous breakdown . To help Morenz , Dr. Forgues banned all visitors to his room , except for family and Canadiens officials . Mary , Morenz 's wife , and their oldest son , Howie Jr . , visited on most days , and William Morenz , his father , travelled from Stratford during the first week of March and stayed through March 5 . Three days later , on March 8 , Morenz began complaining of chest pains , which doctors attributed to a heart attack . Mary Morenz and Cecil Hart were called to the hospital ; around 11 : 30 pm , Morenz tried to get out of bed to use the washroom but collapsed on the floor and died minutes before his wife and coach arrived . He was 34 .
The Canadiens were scheduled to play the Montreal Maroons the evening of March 9 , a game the NHL offered to cancel in honour of Morenz 's death . However Mary insisted the game be played , saying that Morenz would have wanted the game to continue . The players on the Canadiens and Maroons wore black armbands for the game , and prior to the start , two minutes of silence were observed in his honour . A similar event happened in New York , where the New York Rangers and New York Americans had a moment of silence before the start of their game .
A funeral was held on March 11 , 1937 , at the Montreal Forum , the arena where the Canadiens played . Fans were allowed to file past the casket , laid at center ice , and 50 @,@ 000 people paid their respects . A rotating guard of honour of four Canadiens stood around the casket which was covered in flowers including a large wreath from Aurèle Joliat that was shaped like the number 7 , Morenz 's number , and a note from Morenz 's three children . The entire service was broadcast on the radio , and after its conclusion he was buried in Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal .
= = Legacy = =
The city of Montreal mourned the death of Morenz for months . To honour him , the Canadiens retired his jersey number , 7 , on November 2 , 1937 , the first time the team honoured a player in that fashion . Five days later , on November 7 , 1937 , a benefit all @-@ star game was held at the Forum to raise money for the Morenz family . A team composed of players from the Canadiens and Maroons was defeated 6 – 5 by a team of players from the other NHL teams .
One of the most skilled players in the early NHL , Morenz led the Canadiens in both goals and points from 1926 until 1932 , though he tied with Aurèle Joliat for points in 1926 . At the time of his death , he had set an NHL record for most career points with 472 . When the Hockey Hall of Fame was established in 1945 , he was among the first group of nine inductees . A 1950 Canadian Press poll named Morenz the best ice hockey player of the first half of the 20th century . In 1998 he was ranked 15th on The Hockey News ' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players .
Through his exciting play , Morenz encouraged the growth of the NHL , helping bring professional hockey to the United States . Watching Morenz play during the 1924 Stanley Cup Final between Montreal and Calgary , Morenz 's first season in the NHL , Charles Adams , the owner of a chain of grocery stores , went back to Boston wanting a hockey team based in the city . That summer , the NHL granted Adams a franchise for the following season , the Boston Bruins . Boxing promoter Tex Rickard , owner of Madison Square Garden , also saw Morenz play early in his career and agreed to add ice to his building for an NHL team known as the New York Americans . As part of the agreement , Morenz and the Canadiens played the first game against the Americans on December 15 , 1925 .
Morenz 's daughter Marlene married Bernie Geoffrion , who also played for the Canadiens and Rangers , and was later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . When the Canadiens retired Geoffrion 's number on the night of his death on March 11 , 2006 , the team recognized the link between the two men . As Geoffrion 's banner was being raised to the rafters , Morenz ' banner was lowered halfway to the ice . Once Geoffrion 's banner reached Morenz ' banner , the two were raised together .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
All statistics are taken from NHL.com.
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
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= Fortifications of Malta =
The fortifications of Malta consist of a number of walled cities , citadels , forts , towers , batteries , redoubts , entrenchments and pillboxes . The fortifications were built over thousands of years , from around 1450 BC to the mid @-@ 20th century , and they are a result of the Maltese islands ' strategic position and natural harbours , which have made them very desirable for various powers .
The earliest known fortifications in Malta are defensive walls built around Bronze Age settlements . The Phoenicians , Romans and Byzantines built a number of defensive walls around important settlements , but very little remains of these survive today . By the late medieval period , the main fortifications on Malta were the capital Mdina , the Cittadella on Gozo , the Castrum Maris and a few coastal towers or lookout posts .
The fortifications of Malta were greatly improved while the islands were ruled by the Order of St. John between 1530 and 1798 . The Hospitallers built new bastioned fortifications , such as the fortifications of Birgu and Valletta , and upgraded the medieval defences . By the end of the 18th century , Malta had extensive fortifications around the Grand Harbour and Marsamxett , as well as a coastal defence system consisting of towers , batteries , redoubts and entrenchments .
Following a brief French occupation , the islands fell under British rule in 1800 . Between the 1870s and the 1900s a number of polygonal forts and batteries were built around Malta 's coastline and along the Great Fault . In the 1930s and 1940s , Fort Campbell , a series of pillboxes and a number of anti @-@ aircraft batteries were constructed , and these were the last fortifications to be built in Malta .
Malta 's fortifications are considered to be among the best examples of military architecture anywhere in the world . Major General Whitworth Porter of the Royal Engineers , called Malta " the most powerful artificial fortress in the world " in his 1858 book A History of the Fortress of Malta . In his 1893 book The Story of Malta , Maturin Murray Ballou wrote that " there is not a more complete system of fortifications extant , in any part of the world , than the cordon of defensive structures at Malta . "
The British architect Quentin Hughes referred to Malta 's fortifications as " for sheer concentration and majesty quite unmatched " , while judge and historian Giovanni Bonello said that " nowhere in the world are fortifications more extensive , more impressive , more outstanding than they are in Malta . "
= = Ancient and Medieval fortifications ( pre @-@ 1530 ) = =
The first fortifications in Malta were built during the Bronze Age . At least six sites have been identified as possible fortified settlements . The best preserved of these is the village of Borġ in @-@ Nadur , close to the modern town of Birżebbuġa . Around 1450 BC , the inhabitants of the village built a 4.5m high D @-@ shaped bastion to bar access to their village . The wall was built facing inland , showing that the people living in the village were more afraid of attacks from the land than from the sea .
In around 700 BC , the Phoenicians founded and fortified the city of Maleth on one of the highest points of the island , far away from the sea . Eventually the city was taken over by the Roman Empire and it was renamed Melite . The city was again renamed Medina by the Arabs which led to its present name Mdina . Its fortifications were modified a number of times over time , and although most were dismantled and rebuilt between the 16th and 18th centuries , some foundations of the ancient Punic @-@ Roman ramparts , as well as various medieval remains , were recently discovered during excavations .
The remains of several round towers have been found in Malta , and they are believed to date back to the late Punic or Roman periods . It is possible that these were used as watchtowers , but some historians dispute this since their locations do not really make sense in defensive systems .
According to Al @-@ Himyarī , when the Arabs captured Malta in 870 AD , they besieged , captured , sacked and dismantled a fortress .
By 1241 , the Gran Castello or Cittadella on Gozo was definitely fortified , although a settlement on the hill had existed since the Bronze Age . The city 's fortifications were improved over the years , and the northern walls of the city that still stand today were built around the 15th century by the Crown of Aragon .
The Castrum Maris was built sometime in the Middle Ages . The castle definitely existed by the 13th century , and it was involved in the Battle of Malta of 1283 . By the early 16th century , it belonged to the de Nava family .
In the early 15th century , the local militia had a number of watch posts around the Maltese islands , and in some cases there might have been fortified coastal watchtowers at these posts . One of these towers is known to have been built at St Elmo Point on the Sciberras Peninsula by the Aragonese in 1488 .
= = Hospitaller fortifications ( 1530 – 1798 ) = =
= = = Harbour area = = =
In 1530 , the Maltese islands along with the North African port city of Tripoli were given to the Order of Saint John by Emperor Charles V. The knights settled in the town of Birgu and made it their capital . Soon after their arrival , the Order rebuilt the Castrum Maris , calling it Fort Saint Angelo . Later on , the entire town of Birgu began to be surrounded by new fortifications , in a similar style to the Order 's earlier defences in Rhodes . Birgu 's land front was built by 1540 . Following the attack of 1551 , the Order realised the need to build more defences . Two forts were built in 1552 - Fort Saint Elmo at the tip of the Sciberras Peninsula , on the site of an Aragonese watchtower , and Fort Saint Michael on Isola . In 1553 , a new fortified city began to be built around Fort Saint Michael , and it was named Senglea after the Grand Master who built it .
In 1565 , the Ottomans attacked again in the Great Siege of Malta . Fort Saint Elmo fell after fierce fighting ( in which the Ottoman general Dragut Reis was killed ) , but the knights held out in Birgu and Senglea until a relief force arrived . By the end of the siege , most of the fortifications had been destroyed in the attacks , so they were rebuilt . The Grand Master , Jean Parisot de Valette , decided to build a new fortified capital on the Sciberras Peninsula . The first stone of the new city was laid down in 1566 , and it was called Valletta . The city walls , which were constructed mainly in the 1560s and 1570s , remain largely intact to this day , and they include bastions , cavaliers , counterguards and a ditch . The ruined Fort Saint Elmo was rebuilt and integrated into the city walls . The area around St Elmo was strengthened a number of times later on in the 17th century , especially by the building of the Carafa Enceinte in 1687 .
With the development of new technologies , by the 17th century it was realised that while Valletta 's fortifications were well designed , they were not strong enough to withstand a heavy attack . Because of this , the Floriana Lines , encircling Valletta 's original land front , were built from 1635 to the 1640s . In the 18th century , a suburb developed between the Floriana Lines and Valletta 's land front , and it became known as Floriana , today a town in its own right .
In 1638 , the Santa Margherita Lines began to be built encircling the land fronts of Birgu and Sengela . Works were suspended in 1645 due to a lack of funds , and they remained unfinished for many years . Following the fall of Candia to the Ottomans in 1669 , a second line of fortifications , the Cottonera Lines , began to be built encircling both Birgu and Senglea , as well as the unfinished Santa Margherita Lines . They were begun in 1670 , but works stopped in 1680 again due to a lack of funds . By this time , the bastioned enceinte had been built , although other crucial parts had not yet been constructed . Eventually , some effort was done to complete both the Santa Margherita and Cottonera Lines in the early 18th century , although some of the planned ravelins , cavaliers , ditch and other fortifications were never constructed . Fort San Salvatore was built on one of the Cottonera Lines bastions in 1724 .
Fort Ricasoli was built between 1670 and 1698 commanding the eastern arm of the Grand Harbour . It has an irregular plan following the coastline , with bastions , curtains and ravelins . The fort was improved later on in the 18th century . Fort Saint Angelo was also extensively modified in the 1690s , when it was upgraded with the building of various batteries and other defences .
From 1723 to 1733 , Fort Manoel was built on Manoel Island in Marsamxett Harbour , so as to protect Valletta 's western flank . The Baroque fort is square in shape , with four corner bastions . It was the last major fort to be built with the bastioned trace in Malta . The Order 's last major fortification in the harbour area was Fort Tigné , built at Tigné Point between 1793 and 1795 . It was built to protect the entrance of Marsamxett , along with Fort Saint Elmo . The fort 's architecture is very different from the Order 's earlier forts , and although very small by 18th century standards , it has been described as among the most revolutionary and influential of Malta 's fortifications as it is a very early example of a polygonal fort . Many other polygonal forts were built by the British later on in the 19th century .
= = = Mdina and the Cittadella = = =
Although Mdina was no longer the capital city , the Order still strengthened the city 's defences , and gradually upgraded its medieval walls into a gunpowder fortress . In the 1540s , during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon , two bastions were built on the corners of the city 's land front . The central De Redin Bastion was built by Grand Master Martin de Redin in the mid @-@ 17th century . The city was damaged during the 1693 Sicily earthquake , and repairs were made over the course of the 18th century . During the rebuilding , the city 's entrance was replaced by a larger gate by the architect Charles François de Mondion in 1724 , and the last modifications were made in 1746 , when Despuig Bastion was completed . There were other plans to strengthen the city but these were not implemented as the Order focused on the fortifications at the harbour area .
The defences of Gozo 's Cittadella were also improved by the Order . In 1551 , the city was devastated by an Ottoman raid which took almost Gozo 's entire population as slaves . The city 's entrance and southern walls were later completely rebuilt between 1599 and 1622 , although the city 's northern walls were retained in their original medieval form . The early 17th century modifications included the construction of bastions , cavaliers , magazines and a battery .
= = = Coastal fortifications = = =
Despite the significant fortifications in the harbour area , the rest of the islands remained mostly undefended until the 17th century , and they were prone to attacks ( such as the raid of 1551 ) . This changed in 1605 , when Garzes Tower was built in Mġarr on the island of Gozo . This watchtower no longer exists as it was demolished by the British administration in 1848 .
In the following years , more towers were built around the islands . The first group , the Wignacourt towers , were built between 1610 and 1620 . Six of these were built , and they were more than just watchtowers as they formed significant strongpoints intended to protect vulnerable sections of the coast from attack . Of the six towers , one collapsed in around 1715 and another was demolished in 1888 . The other four towers survive to this day .
Seven more towers were built between 1637 and 1638 . These were much smaller than the Wignacourt towers , as they were built as watchtowers and a communication link to warn the Order 's base in the Grand Harbour of an attack . In 1647 , Saint Agatha 's Tower was built in Mellieħa . This was a large tower intended as a strongpoint , and was built in the style of the Wignacourt towers . Two more towers were built at Dwejra and Xlendi on Gozo in 1650 and 1652 . The ten towers built between 1637 and 1652 are collectively known as the Lascaris towers after the Grand Master who built them , and nine of them survive to this day .
Another series of towers were built between 1658 and 1659 . Fourteen towers were built in all , which are together known as the De Redin towers . These were based on the Lascaris towers and had the same function as a communication link . 13 towers were built on mainland Malta having an identical design , and 8 of these survive intact while 2 are in ruins . The fourteenth tower , Mġarr ix @-@ Xini Tower , was built on Gozo in 1661 with a slightly different design .
The last coastal watchtower to be built was Sopu Tower , which was constructed in Gozo in 1667 . The tower had almost collapsed but was rebuilt in the early 2000s and it is now in good condition .
From 1714 onwards , about 52 batteries and redoubts were built around the coasts of Malta and Gozo . A few of the batteries were built around existing coastal watchtowers , such as Qawra and Aħrax Towers . Most of the batteries were destroyed over the years or are in ruins , but a few are still more or less intact , including Mistra , Vendôme , Ferretti , St. Anthony 's , Qolla l @-@ Bajda and St. Mary 's Batteries . Very few redoubts survive , including Briconet , Ximenes and St. George Redoubts . Various entrenchments were also built between the 1720s and 1760s , both around the coastline and along some inland positions . The remains of a few still survive today , including the Naxxar Entrenchment and the Louvier Entrenchment .
From 1749 to the 1760s , Fort Chambray was built on the island of Gozo . It was intended to be a new fortified city like Valletta , and eventually to replace the Cittadella as the island 's capital . This was unsuccessful , and eventually only the fort was built . It saw some action during the French occupation of 1798 , but its importance eventually diminished . It was converted into a hospital in the 19th century . In the 1990s , the interior of the fort began to be redeveloped , but the outer bastions and some barracks remain intact .
Between 1793 and 1795 , Saint Lucian Tower and its battery were strengthened with a ditch and an entrenchment @-@ like enclosure , and the complex was renamed Fort Rohan after the reigning Grand Master , Emmanuel de Rohan @-@ Polduc . Most of the fortifications , with the exception of the tower itself , were dismantled and rebuilt by the British later on in the 19th century and the name Fort Rohan fell into disuse .
Apart from the knights ' fortifications , over the years various individuals or families built their own fortifications . These were mainly fortified residences or private watchtowers . A notable surviving example is Mamo Tower , built in 1657 in Marsaskala .
= = French occupation ( 1798 – 1800 ) = =
The French evicted the Order from Malta during the Mediterranean campaign of 1798 , and the Order surrendered after a couple of days . The Maltese , although initially welcoming the French occupiers , rebelled after a couple of months due to a number of reforms and the looting of churches . The insurgents took control of Gozo which became briefly independent , as well as Mdina and the towns and villages of the main island , leaving the French blockaded in the well @-@ defended harbour area .
The Maltese insurgents , helped by the British , hastily built various fortifications mainly intended to repel a possible French counter @-@ attack , and at the same time also bombard French positions in the harbour area . The insurgents had various camps , and men in these camps were responsible for a number of batteries , redoubts and entrenchments in the vicinity . The most important batteries were the Corradino Batteries , Għargħar Battery , Tal @-@ Borg Battery and Tas @-@ Samra Battery .
The fortifications surrounded the entire harbour area , stretching all the way from Sliema to Kalkara . The design of the batteries was based on the coastal batteries and entrenchments built by the Order in the 18th century , while most of the entrenchments consisted of long stretches of rubble walls . They were armed by guns taken from coastal fortifications such as Saint Mary 's Tower . The usefulness of the fortifications was tested in 1799 when a French counter @-@ attack from Fort Manoel was repelled by the insurgent batteries .
None of these fortifications survive intact , although some pre @-@ existing buildings that were used as blockhouses may still be seen . San Rocco Battery , one of the insurgents ' fortifications , was the location where Fort Saint Rocco was built later on in the late 19th century .
= = British fortifications ( 1800 – 1979 ) = =
= = = Nineteenth and early twentieth centuries = = =
The British took over the Maltese islands as a protectorate in 1800 , and later as a colony in 1813 . They initially used the Hospitaller fortifications without any alterations . Under the military theory of the time , the Royal Navy 's Mediterranean Fleet was regarded as the most reliable protection against invasion , and in fact the British Civil Commissioner , Henry Pigot , wanted to demolish the majority of Valletta 's fortifications in 1801 , although this was never done . During the British period , the various forts of the Order were rearmed , refitted and altered a number of times to keep up with the latest military technology .
In the 1850s , the British built Fort Verdala and St. Clement 's Retrenchment in the Cottonera area , while Lascaris Battery was built in Valletta . Later on in the 19th century , parts of the Cottonera Lines , Santa Margherita Lines and the fortifications of Senglea were demolished to make way for extensions of the Malta Dockyard . Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , the British built barracks in various parts of the island , such as Tigné Point and Pembroke .
In 1866 , Colonel William Jervois produced a report entitled " Memorandum with reference to the improvements to the defences of Malta and Gibraltar , rendered necessary by the introduction of Iron Plated Ships and powerful rifled guns " , in which he gave Malta ( along with Gibraltar , Halifax and Bermuda ) the status of an " imperial fortress " . A programme to improve Malta 's fortifications began soon after , and a number of new polygonal forts and batteries were built , including Sliema Point Battery ( 1872 ) , Fort St. Rocco ( 1872 – 73 ) and Fort Leonardo ( 1875 – 78 ) .
From 1871 to 1880 , the Corradino Lines were built on the Corradino Heights . The V @-@ shaped trace and ditch were meant to protect the dockyard and harbour from landward attacks . They were abandoned in the early 1900s due to advancements in technology , although they saw some use once again in World War II .
Starting from 1875 , the Victoria Lines , originally known as the North West Front , were built along the northern part of Malta , dividing it from the more heavily populated south . The system of defences consisted of a line of fortifications flanked by defensive towers , along with entrenchments and gun emplacements . Several artillery batteries were planned , but only San Giovanni Battery and Tarġa Battery were actually built . Three forts were also built along the lines : Fort Binġemma , Fort Madalena and Fort Mosta . The lines were completed in 1899 , but exercises in 1900 proved that they were of dubious defensive value , and the entire system was decommissioned in 1907 , with the exception of the coastal towers . Today , parts of the lines have collapsed but other parts in the countryside , including the three forts , still survive . Another fort , Fort Pembroke , was built between 1875 and 1878 to cover the gap between the Victoria Lines and the harbour area .
The British also built a number of forts to protect Marsaxlokk Harbour . These included Fort San Lucian ( 1874 – 78 ) , Fort Delimara ( 1876 – 88 ) , Fort Tas @-@ Silġ ( 1879 – 83 ) . In 1881 and 1882 , Saint Paul 's Battery and Żonqor Battery were built in Marsaxlokk and Marsaskala respectively .
Following the arming of the Italian ironclads Duilio and Dandolo with 100 @-@ ton guns , the British feared an Italian attack on Malta , as the ships could fire on Malta 's batteries , destroying them one after the other , while keeping outside their guns ' range . To prevent this , the British requested that four 100 @-@ ton guns be built . Two of these were installed in Malta , and Cambridge Battery and Rinella Battery were built specifically to house these guns . Construction of the batteries began in 1878 and they were complete by 1886 . The gun at Rinella still exists .
From 1888 to 1910 , a new series of fortifications were built to house breech @-@ loading guns . These were Della Grazie Battery , Spinola Battery , Garden Battery , Wolseley Battery , Pembroke Battery and Fort Benghisa . The latter was the last polygonal fort to be built in Malta .
= = = World Wars and aftermath = = =
After the early 20th century , few fortifications were built in Malta . However , new military installations such as airfields began to be built in World War I , when the seaplane base of RAF Kalafrana and the airfield at Marsa were built . More airfields were built in the interwar period and the Second World War , including RAF Hal Far , RAF Ta ' Kali , RAF Luqa , RAF Safi , RAF Qrendi and Ta ' Lambert Airfield .
From the Abyssinian Crisis of 1935 onwards , the British built many pillboxes in Malta for defence in case of an Italian invasion . Many others were built during World War II . Many pillboxes still exist , especially on the north eastern part of the island . A few of them have been restored and are cared for , but many others were demolished . Some pillboxes are still being destroyed as they are not considered to have any architectural or historic value .
The last fort to be built in Malta was Fort Campbell , which was built near Mellieħa between late 1937 and 1938 . The design of the fort is completely different from the earlier fortifications in Malta as it was designed to counter the new threat of aerial bombardment . It had an irregular plan and its perimeter was guarded by machine gun posts and a few rifle loopholes . The buildings inside were scattered so as not to create a concentration of buildings . The fort still exists , although it is largely in ruins .
During the Second World War , the Lascaris War Rooms were built in Valletta to serve as the war headquarters for the defence of Malta . They were later used in the headquarters of the Allied invasion of Sicily . Throughout the war , many air @-@ raid shelters also were dug in the limestone rock of the islands , either by the government or by individuals or families , to protect the civilian population of Malta from Italian or German aerial bombardment . Many of the shelters still exist , and a few are open to the public .
Many anti @-@ aircraft batteries , gun positions and radar stations were also built throughout the course of the war .
Many of the fortifications were decommissioned between the 1950s and 1970s . Some were left abandoned while others were used for a variety of purposes , such as private residences , restaurants , police stations or farms . Some barracks , such as those at Mtarfa and Pembroke , were converted to housing estates .
Several forts and historic military buildings are still in use by the Armed Forces of Malta , such as Luqa Barracks , Fort Madalena and Fort Mosta .
= = Present day = =
= = = Conservation and restoration = = =
Today , the architectural and historical value of Malta 's fortifications is widely acknowledged , and many also serve as tourist attractions . All fortifications were included on the Antiquities List of 1925 , and virtually all surviving Hospitaller fortifications are now listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands , Malta 's national heritage register . The fortified city of Valletta has been listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1980 . The other fortifications around Malta 's harbour area , the fortified cities of Mdina and the Cittadella , as well as the Victoria Lines have been on the tentative list of World Heritage Sites since 1998 .
From the 1970s onwards , some of the fortifications , especially those which were abandoned , became dilapidated and often vandalized . However , since the beginning of the 21st century , a number of fortifications have been restored or are undergoing restoration .
The National Trust of Malta , Din l @-@ Art Ħelwa , was responsible for the restoration of a number of Hospitaller coastal fortifications from the 1970s onwards . Towers and batteries restored by Din l @-@ Art Ħelwa include Wignacourt Tower ( 1975 – 76 and 2003 ) , Mamo Tower ( 1994 – 95 ) , Għallis Tower ( 1995 ) , St. Mary 's Battery ( 1996 – 97 and 2003 – 04 ) , Dwejra Tower ( 1997 ) , St. Mark 's Tower ( 1997 – 98 ) , St. Agatha 's Tower ( 1999 – 2001 ) , St. Mary 's Tower ( 2002 and 2005 ) and Sopu Tower ( 2004 ) . Din l @-@ Art Ħelwa is currently restoring St. Anthony 's Battery and Xlendi Tower .
Fondazzjoni Wirt Artna also restored a number of Maltese fortifications , including the Saluting Battery and Rinella Battery . It is currently restoring Mistra Battery .
From 2001 onwards , MIDI plc began restoration of Fort Manoel as part of its Manoel Island project . The restoration included rebuilding the Chapel of St Anthony of Padua , which had been bombed in World War II . In 2008 , MIDI also restored Fort Tigné as part of its development of Tigné Point . The 19th century Garden Battery , which was believed to have been destroyed in the World War II , was rediscovered during the Tigné Point project , and MIDI decided to restore it as well .
The first plans to restore the fortifications of Valletta , Birgu , Mdina and the Cittadella were made in 2006 .
In 2008 , restoration began in Mdina , Birgu and the Cittadella . In Mdina , some of the bastions had started to slip down the clay slopes , and steel rods were inserted in the walls to reinforce them . Throughout the course of restoration , a number of archaeological remains have been found , including remains of Mdina 's Punic @-@ Roman and medieval walls , a bastion and a caponier in Birgu , the Cittadella 's original entrance , and a number of other features .
In Valletta , restoration started in 2010 , with the project being described as " the biggest in a century " . Squatters were evicted from public lands around the fortifications . Restoration of the upper part of Fort Saint Elmo was completed in 2015 . The Chapel of St Roche on St Michael 's Counterguard , which was bombed in World War II , was rebuilt in 2014 as part of the restoration .
Parts of the fortifications of Senglea began to be restored in 2015 .
= = = Fortifications Interpretation Centre = = =
The Fortifications Interpretation Centre ( FIC ) is a public institution dedicated to communicating and exhibiting Malta 's military architecture . It is located in a building adjoining Saint Andrew 's Bastion , part of the city walls of Valletta . The building was originally a bombproof magazine and artillery school that was built sometime during the reign of Hugues Loubenx de Verdalle in the late 16th century . The uppermost floor had been destroyed in World War II and the rest of the building was subsequently used as an examination hall . The building was restored and the upper floor rebuilt in a project co @-@ financed by the European Regional Development Fund , and the FIC was opened on 16 February 2013 .
The FIC includes information guides on the fortifications of Malta , going back to the first fortifications at Borġ in @-@ Nadur and focusing especially on those built by the Order and the British . It contains models of Maltese forts , as well as informative panels describing fortifications around the world , thus putting Malta 's fortifications in context .
= = Heraldry = =
Malta 's fortifications are featured a number of times on the islands ' heraldry . The coat of arms of Malta contains a mural crown in gold with a sally port and eight turrets ( five of which are visible ) , which represents the fortifications as well as Malta 's status as a city @-@ state . The coats of arms of the five regions of Malta have a similar crown but with five turrets , all of which are visible . A mural crown with four visible turrets can be seen on the coats of arms of Valletta , Mdina and Birgu , indicating their status as capital city or former capitals . Another version with four turrets ( three visible ) can be seen on the coats of arms of Cospicua , Senglea , Qormi , Siġġiewi , Żabbar , Żebbuġ , Żejtun and Victoria , indicating the status of a city .
The coat of arms of Xgħajra features a heraldic representation of Santa Maria delle Grazie Tower , a now @-@ demolished Wignacourt tower . In addition , De Redin towers are featured on the coats of arms of the Armed Forces of Malta ( as well as its Air Wing ) , the Malta Stock Exchange , and the town of Pembroke . The coat of arms of Mtarfa feature a representation of Mtarfa Barracks , reflecting the role of the British military in the founding of the town .
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= Ebbor Gorge =
Ebbor Gorge is a limestone gorge in Somerset , England , designated and notified in 1952 as a 63 @.@ 5 @-@ hectare ( 157 @-@ acre ) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in the Mendip Hills . It was donated to the National Trust in 1967 and is now managed by Natural England as a National Nature Reserve .
The gorge was cut into the Clifton Down Limestone , an example of Carboniferous Limestone , by water . The floor of the gorge is impermeable Millstone Grit and Lower Coal Measures . The rare mineral mendipite has also been found . The site was occupied by humans in the Neolithic Era and their tools and flint arrow heads have been discovered , along with pottery from the Bronze Age . There are also fossils of small mammals from the Late Devensian . The nature reserve provides a habitat for a variety of flora and fauna , including flowers , butterflies and bats .
= = Geology = =
Ebbor Gorge lies on the southwest @-@ facing slope of the Mendip Hills and consists of a steep @-@ sided ravine cut into 350 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Carboniferous Limestone of the Dinantian . The gorge was cut into Clifton Down Limestone by meltwater in the Pleistocene Epoch . The rocks of the area lie above a thrust fault formed during the Variscan orogeny . Millstone Grit and Lower Coal Measures form an impermeable floor to this valley . An example of the rare mineral mendipite was found at the head of the gorge .
A stream issuing to the west of the site runs down the tributary valley of Hope Wood before joining the main gorge . The original watercourse which may have cut the gorge into the limestone became diverted underground and now emerges at Wookey Hole Caves to form the River Axe .
= = History = =
Various caves within the gorge were inhabited by neolithic people from which flint tools are held in the Wells and Mendip Museum . One particularly fine flint flake can be seen in the museum at King John 's Hunting Lodge in Axbridge . Human and animal bones from the Neolithic were recovered from Outlook Cave in 1907 . Bones from the Palaeolithic have been found at Savory 's Hole .
Several caves occur within the Gorge , of which Bridged Pot and Gully Cave provide some of the best Late Devensian small @-@ mammal assemblages known from Britain . Most of the deposits remain in situ and include steppe pika , Arctic lemming , Norway lemming , various voles , red deer and reindeer . Bronze Age finds include pottery from the Beaker culture , a stone axe and flint knife .
= = Current use = =
A 40 @-@ hectare ( 99 @-@ acre ) area of the gorge is owned by the National Trust , and managed by Natural England as a National Nature Reserve . The land was donated to the National Trust by Mrs G.W. Hodgkinson , in 1967 , in memory of Winston Churchill . The site was purchased in 1931 by Wookey Hole Caves Ltd .
The site is close to Wookey Hole village and caves and offers views across the Somerset Levels to Glastonbury Tor and beyond . There are three marked trails of varying lengths around the steeply wooded gorge , the longest being 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long , the shortest of which is suitable for wheelchair users .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Because of the ecology of the area 63 @.@ 5 hectares ( 157 acres ) was designated as a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1952 . The ground flora is indicative of the calcareous nature of the site , with dog 's mercury ( Mercurialis perennis ) being locally dominant . Many of the associated species are characteristic of ancient woodland . Wood anemone ( Anemone nemorosa ) and common bluebell ( Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta ) are both locally abundant . The valley of the main gorge is humid and provides ideal conditions for fungi and ferns . It contains a substantial assemblage of bryophytes with over 120 species recorded including the nationally rare Bryum canariense and the very rare Amblystegiella confervoides .
The varied age and canopy structure of woodland encourages a high diversity of butterflies , nationally scarce species including the white @-@ letter hairstreak ( Strymonidia walbum ) and high brown fritillary ( Argynnis edippe ) , while species such as the chalkhill blue ( Lysandra coridon ) and brown argus ( Aricia agestis ) occur on the limestone grassland . Greater horseshoe bats ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) and lesser horseshoes ( Rhinolophus hipposideros ) regularly use sites in the Gorge as hibernacular roosts . The site also supports birds of prey and a few red deer .
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= 2002 UEFA Cup Final =
The 2002 UEFA Cup Final was a football match played on 8 May 2002 , between Feyenoord of the Netherlands and Borussia Dortmund of Germany . Feyenoord won the match 3 – 2 . It was the 31st UEFA Cup Final and was held in the Feijenoord Stadion in Rotterdam , which is the home ground of Feyenoord . This was the first time since the introduction of single – match finals in the UEFA Cup in 1998 , that the final had been played at a finalists home ground . Previous to this match , Feyenoord had not won a European trophy since 1974 , when they beat Tottenham Hotspur to win the UEFA Cup . Borussia Dortmund , who had already won the Bundesliga title , were hoping to join Ajax , Bayern Munich and Juventus in being the only clubs to win all three European trophies . Feyenoord 's victory marked the first European triumph for a Dutch club in seven years , after Ajax won the Champions League in 1995 .
= = Route to the final = =
Both Feyenoord and Borussia Dortmund started off their European campaigns in the 2001 – 02 Champions League and entered the 2001 – 02 UEFA Cup in the third round , after finishing third in their respective Champions League groups .
= = = Borussia Dortmund = = =
Dortmund started off their campaign in the third qualifying of the Champions League round defeating Shakhtar Donetsk 5 – 1 over two legs . Borussia needed to win their last group game against Liverpool to have any chance of making it to the second group stage , but they lost 2 – 0 and were eliminated from Group B on goal difference , after finishing on the same points as Boavista .
Dortmund were drawn against Copenhagen of Denmark in the third round and won the first leg 1 – 0 away from home with Heiko Herrlich scoring in injury time . The second leg produced the same result , this time , Jan @-@ Derek Sørensen scored in the 89th minute to secure Dortmund a place in the fourth round . In the fourth round , Dortmund were drawn against Lille of France , who had also joined the UEFA Cup , after finishing third in their Champions League group . Dortmund played the first leg away from home and got an away goal , after a 1 – 1 draw . Dortmund had opened the scoring in the 67th minute when Ewerthon scored after a rebound , though the lead only lasted five minutes as Salaheddine Bassir scored a half @-@ volley on 72 minutes to tie the game 1 – 1 , going into the second leg in Dortmund . In a rain @-@ soaked second leg at the Westfalenstadion , the match finished in a 0 – 0 draw , meaning Borussia went through to the quarter – finals on the away goals rule .
Borussia were drawn against Slovan Liberec of the Czech Republic in the quarter – finals , the first leg was drawn 0 – 0 draw in Prague . The draw was significant because it was the first time in the competition , that Liberec had failed to win at home . Dortmund won the second leg 4 – 0 , after goals from Márcio Amoroso on 51 minutes , Jan Koller on 57 minutes , Lars Ricken on 70 minutes , and finally Ewerthon on 89 minutes . Borussia faced stronger opponents in the semi @-@ finals , when they were drawn with the then five times champions of Europe ; Milan . Nevertheless , Borussia won the first leg 4 – 0 , after a hat @-@ trick from Márcio Amoroso , and a goal on 63 minutes from Jörg Heinrich . Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti admitted he was not surprised with the result , stating that , " We knew they had quick strikers . I am more surprised by the terrible performance of our team . The problem stemmed from the wings . I had no reason to change the team because Rui Costa has not trained for ten days . It will be very difficult but it is our duty to give it our best and to try and qualify . " In the second leg , Milan won 3 – 1 , with Filippo Inzaghi , and Cosmin Contra scoring within 18 minutes . However , Milan did not get their third goal until injury time when Serginho scored a penalty after Inzaghi was adjudged to have been pulled back by Christoph Metzelder . With Milan still needing one goal to force extra time , Lars Ricken scored for Dortmund in the fourth minute of injury time to put the club into their first European final since winning the 1997 Champions League Final .
= = = Feyenoord = = =
Feyenoord went straight to the Group stage of the Champions League after finishing second in the Eredivisie but were eliminated after only winning one game , and finishing six points behind Sparta Prague , and were consequently drawn against SC Freiburg of Germany in the third round of the UEFA Cup . Feyenoord won the first leg 1 – 0 , after a late goal from Shinji Ono . The second leg was drawn 2 – 2 , however Feyenoord came close to going out , as Freiburg took a 2 – 0 lead on 49 minutes with goals from Sebastian Kehl and Levan Kobiashvili , to make the aggregate score 2 – 1 in Freiburg 's favour . But on 57 minutes , Pierre van Hooijdonk pulled a goal back , to make it 2 – 2 on aggregate , which would see Feyenoord going through due to the away goal rule . Feyenoord secured their place in the fourth round when Leonardo scored in the 86th minute . Feyenoord faced Rangers of Scotland in the fourth round with the tie proving to be a close affair . The first leg ended 1 – 1 , in Glasgow , Feyenoord had gone ahead on seventy two minutes through Shinji Ono , but Rangers equalised after Peter Løvenkrands was brought down by Glenn Loovens on 81 minutes . Barry Ferguson scored the subsequent penalty . The second leg in Rotterdam ended 3 – 2 in Feyenoord 's favor , the match was notable for the sending off of one player on each side Patrick Paauwe for Feyenoord and Neil McCann for Rangers .
Feyenoord were paired with fellow Dutch side PSV Eindhoven in the quarter – finals , and the tie came down to a penalty shootout , which Feyenoord won 5 – 4 . The first leg was drawn 1 – 1 with Feyenoord taking the lead in first half injury time through Pierre van Hooijdonk . PSV equalised two minutes after the restart when Mateja Kežman scored on 47 minutes . The second leg was again drawn 1 – 1 , with PSV taking the lead on 75 minutes , when Mark van Bommel scored from outside the penalty area . That looked to have sent PSV into the semi @-@ finals , but with seconds remaining , Van Hooijdonk scored from Johan Elmander 's cross to send the tie into extra @-@ time . PSV were reduced to ten men in extra time when Van Bommel was sent off for a second bookable offence but they still managed to hold out for the extra 30 minutes to force a penalty shootout . All penalties were converted until Giorgi Gakhokidze stepped up , and saw his penalty saved . Feyenoord converted their subsequent penalties , with Van Hooijdonk putting away the vital fifth penalty . Like Borussia , Feyenoord faced opposition from the city of Milan in the semi @-@ finals , in the shape of Internazionale . Around 10 @,@ 000 Feyenoord fans made the trip to the scene of Feyenoord ’ s 1970 European Cup victory for the first leg . Feyenoord won the first leg 1 – 0 to gain a vital away goal after Iván Córdoba scored an own goal . The second leg started well for Feyenoord after going 2 – 0 up inside 34 minutes , due to goals from Van Hooijdonk and Jon Dahl Tomasson , to put Feyenoord 3 – 0 up on aggregate . Inter came back into the tie in the last minutes when they pulled two goals back through Javier Zanetti and Mohamed Kallon , but Feyenoord secured their place in the final with a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = Match = =
Feyenoord and Borussia Dortmund had the two highest scorers in the competition that season in Pierre van Hooijdonk , who finished top of the scoring charts with eight goals , and Márcio Amoroso , who scored five goals overall . Both players added to their tallies during this match with Van Hooijdonk scoring two goals and Amoroso scoring one goal .
The match was the last for Borussia Dortmund veteran Jürgen Kohler , who was retiring after this match , however , the match did not go as intended as he was sent off after 31 minutes . The sides had met twice before in European competition , drawing on both occasions in the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Champions League . Borussia Dortmund were also boosted before kick @-@ off by the news that Stefan Reuter had passed a late fitness test on his injured back .
= = = First half = = =
The first shot on goal was registered by Bonaventure Kalou , who forced a save out of Jens Lehmann . After 10 minutes , Shinji Ono spotted Lehmann off his line but sent his lofted shot wide of the target . This sparked Dortmund into life ; they were thwarted when Patrick Paauwe intercepted Jan Koller just as he was looking to get his shot away . On 15 minutes , they came even closer to breaking the deadlock , when Amoroso picked out Tomáš Rosický ; however , he shot straight at Edwin Zoetebier . On 19 minutes , Pierre van Hooijdonk came close to scoring with a free kick , which hit the right @-@ hand post . Feyenoord 's Tomasz Rząsa was then booked for dissent on 23 minutes , and following the resulting free kick , Evanílson came close to scoring , though his shot went over the crossbar after Ewerthon 's pass had sent him through .
The deadlock was broken on 31 minutes when Jürgen Kohler , who was playing his last game for Dortmund , pulled back Jon Dahl Tomasson in the Dortmund penalty area ; Kohler was shown a straight red card , and Van Hooijdonk converted the subsequent penalty , dispatching it to Jens Lehmann 's right hand side . Feyenoord made it 2 – 0 seven minutes later when Van Hooijdonk , scored a free kick from the edge of the area , his eighth goal over the course of the season 's competition .
= = = Second half = = =
After half time , Dortmund were handed a way back into the match when Márcio Amoroso was brought down by Patrick Paauwe . Paauwe was spared Kohler 's fate as he only received a yellow card . Amoroso scored the following penalty and the score was 2 – 1 . Two minutes later , Amoroso was cautioned for diving in an attempt to win another spot kick . Just three minutes after Dortmund scored , Jon Dahl Tomasson who was playing his last game for Feyenoord before his move to Milan , scored after beating the offside trap , and being put through by Shinji Ono . Dortmund once again found a way back into the match when Jan Koller volleyed home his shot from 25 metres on 58 minutes , after capitalizing on a weak defensive header . Dortmund now assumed the ascendancy with attack after attack , whilst Feyenoord seemed content to sit back and try to see the game out . Dortmund tried everything to find the equaliser replacing Lars Ricken with Jörg Heinrich , and Ewerthon was replaced by Otto Addo , however it was to no avail as Feyenoord saw the game out to win 3 – 2 and continue their streak of never losing a European final .
A huge party erupted both inside and outside De Kuip not only because of the title , but also because the final was held two days after Rotterdam 's political hero Pim Fortuyn was murdered . Many Feyenoord fans were still full of emotion before and after the match . As a result of Fortuyn 's murder , the victory was not officially celebrated in Coolsingel Square with their fans . During Feyenoord 's UEFA Cup run , a parody was launched of the song " Put Your Hands Up " by Black & White Brothers , " Put Your Hands Up for Pi @-@ Air " , as a tribute to Pierre van Hooijdonk .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
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= Tangled Lives ( 1910 film ) =
Tangled Lives is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The plot focuses on , John Hill , a bank cashier who decides to fakes his death after the manager finds his accounts are short . Before he can go through with the plan , a reporter interviews the wife , May , and decides to suppress the story because he has become infatuated with her . Five years pass , May and the reporter decide to marry , but John returns on the day of the wedding . Upon sneaking into the house , he sees their love and decides to disappear . As he attempts to leave he accidentally falls to his death and the reporter removes his body before he leads May to the altar . The film was described as a variant of Enoch Arden by one reviewer , but it differs in its execution . The cast and credits of the film are unknown , but a surviving film still shows the principal characters . The film was released on September 13 , 1910 , to positive reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Bioscope from December 22 , 1910 . It states : " A shortage is discovered in the accounts of John Hill , a young bank cashier . The manager of the bank agrees to give him three days ' time in which to make good the shortage . John confides in his young wife , May , and a young reporter interviews May about her husband 's shortage . He becomes interested in the plucky young woman , and decides to suppress the story . The husband fails to raise the money , and leaves his clothes , with a note telling of his intended suicide , on a wharf at the water 's edge . After five years the young reporter wins May for his bride . On the day of their wedding , John is attracted to the house where the ceremony is to take place . Hearing of the many rich gifts which the bride has received , he enters the house , and witnesses a love scene between the young reporter and his ( John 's ) wife . He finds it impossible to escape by the way he entered , and attempts to leave by the floor window , falls to the ground and is killed . Here Hastings finds him , and has the body carried away , and leads May to the altar . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The plot was likened by Walton of The Moving Picture News to Enoch Arden , but the story differs in several ways . Published by Alfred , Lord Tennyson in 1864 , the poem tells of the eponymous character who becomes shipwrecked on a desert island and returns home a decade later to find his wife has remarried and they have a new child . For the sake of his wife 's happiness , he never lets her know that he is alive . The plot differs because the husband willingly fakes his death and returns on the day of the wedding . Rather than announce himself , he attempts to leave and dies in the process , his body is removed by the prospective husband before marrying her . The similarity with the poem comes from refusing to confront or interrupt the wedding by revealing the fact that he is alive is ensured by John 's true death at the climax . The New York Dramatic Mirror noted that the journalists arrived to photograph and cover the apparent suicide too quickly , making it illogical that the fake suicide would not have been revealed .
The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying the three leading actors .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on September 13 , 1910 . The film had a wide release , with theater advertisements known in Kansas , Maryland , Pennsylvania , and Indiana . Some later advertisements for the film may have been referring to the Kalem Company 's Tangled Lives released in May 1911 . The Kalem film is extant . Rare typographical errors also resulted in the Reliance Film Company having a film of this name in some advertisements , but this is an error on Tangled Lines . The film was released in Britain on December 22 , 1910 .
Reviews for the film were mostly positive , with Walton of The Moving Picture News stating , " [ It is another ] variant of Enoch Arden , with a newspaperman interjected . The resurrected undesirable husband is cleverly eliminated . The coincidences are too miraculous to suit a plain newspaperman . " The New York Dramatic Mirror agreed in premise that the plot of the film had been done before , but stated , " ... the Thanhouser people have done it fairly well and added a few details which , while not quite logical , give it some new interest . " The Moving Picture World offered a neutral summary of the plot , but concluded that the film " is a graphic illustration of conditions which might arise almost any time , and develops an interestingly dramatic story as it proceeds . " One local review of the film called it " splendid " , but either by typographical error or for reasons unknown , gives a different story of the plot and even stating that the wife fell to her death by accident when attempting to see her .
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= Briar Creek ( Susquehanna River ) =
Briar Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Columbia County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is 7 @.@ 77 miles ( 12 @.@ 50 km ) in length . The stream has a watershed area of 33 @.@ 0 square miles . It flows through Briar Creek Township and the borough of Briar Creek . The area near the creek was originally inhabited by the Lenni Lenape and the Shawanese . European settlers arrived in the 1770s .
Briar Creek has two named tributaries : West Branch Briar Creek and East Branch Briar Creek . The discharge of Briar Creek ranges from 0 @.@ 06 to 50 cubic feet per second . The water temperature of the creek ranges from 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) to 80 @.@ 96 ° F ( 27 @.@ 20 ° C ) . The rock in the watershed mostly consists of sandstone , siltstone , mudstone , limestone , and shale .
There are Pennsylvania State Game Lands in the watershed , as well as a lake known as the Briar Creek Reservoir . In the lake , the most common species of fish is yellow perch .
= = Course = =
Briar Creek begins where Knob Mountain , Huntington Mountain , and Lee Mountain meet in western Briar Creek Township . It flows east for a short distance before turning south through a gap in Lee Mountain , briefly descending quite steeply . The course levels out as it leaves the mountain behind and begins flowing through a valley after a short distance . It flows under Pennsylvania Route 93 , leaving the valley behind . Soon afterwards , the stream picks up the tributary West Branch Briar Creek and turns southeast . After some distance , it enters the community of Briar Creek and picks up the tributary East Branch Briar Creek . The stream then turns southwest and reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River near French Island .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Briar Creek has two named tributaries : East Branch Briar Creek and West Branch Briar Creek . East Branch Briar Creek joins Briar Creek 1 @.@ 02 miles ( 1 @.@ 64 km ) upstream of its mouth . It watershed has an area of 15 @.@ 10 square miles ( 39 @.@ 1 km2 ) . West Branch Briar Creek joins Briar Creek 2 @.@ 74 miles ( 4 @.@ 41 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 12 @.@ 10 square miles ( 31 @.@ 3 km2 ) .
= = Hydrology = =
The Briar Creek watershed falls into two of Pennsylvania 's ten climate divisions : Division 1 ( Pocono Mountains ) and Division 5 ( Central Susquehanna ) .
The discharge of Briar Creek about two miles ( three kilometers ) downstream of its headwaters ranges from 0 @.@ 06 to 39 @.@ 1 cubic feet per second ( cfs ) , with a median of 0 @.@ 685 cfs . Just upstream of West Branch Briar Creek 's confluence with the creek , the discharge ranges from 0 @.@ 63 to 22 @.@ 1 cfs , with a median of 4 @.@ 03 cfs . Near the mouth of the creek , the discharge ranges from 4 @.@ 14 to 50 cfs . There is a median discharge of 18 @.@ 5 cfs at this point . On East Branch Briar Creek about two miles from its headwaters , the discharge ranges from 0 @.@ 4 to 10 @.@ 425 with a median discharge of 1 @.@ 385 cfs . Near Briar Creek Reservoir , East Branch Briar Creek 's discharge has a minimum of 0 @.@ 54 cfs , a maximum of 11 @.@ 5 cfs , and a median of 4 @.@ 645 cfs . On West Branch Briar Creek , the discharge ranges from 0 @.@ 67 to 31 @.@ 1 cfs , with a median of 3 @.@ 2 cfs .
The water temperature of Briar Creek near its source ranges from 35 @.@ 96 to 64 @.@ 94 ° F ( 2 @.@ 20 to 18 @.@ 30 ° C ) , with a median of 51 @.@ 44 ° F ( 10 @.@ 80 ° C ) . This is the highest minimum temperature of any studied location in the watershed . Near West Branch Briar Creek 's confluence with Briar Creek , the latter creek has a temperature range of 32 to 67 @.@ 46 ° F ( 0 @.@ 00 to 19 @.@ 70 ° C ) and a median of 49 @.@ 28 ° F ( 9 @.@ 60 ° C ) . This is the lowest minimum temperature of any studied location in the drainage basin . Near its mouth , the temperature ranges from 32 @.@ 18 to 80 @.@ 96 ° F ( 0 @.@ 10 to 27 @.@ 20 ° C ) . The median temperature is 57 @.@ 56 ° F ( 14 @.@ 20 ° C ) . On West Branch Briar Creek , the temperature is a minimum of 35 @.@ 6 ° F ( 2 @.@ 0 ° C ) , a median of 57 @.@ 38 ° F ( 14 @.@ 10 ° C ) , and a maximum of 71 @.@ 6 ° F ( 22 @.@ 0 ° C ) . Two miles downstream of East Branch Briar Creek 's headwaters , the median temperature is 49 @.@ 73 ° F ( 9 @.@ 85 ° C ) and the range is 32 @.@ 18 to 71 @.@ 42 ° F ( 0 @.@ 10 to 21 @.@ 90 ° C ) . Near Briar Creek Reservoir , the water temperature has a minimum of 32 @.@ 18 ° F ( 0 @.@ 10 ° C ) , a maximum of 78 @.@ 62 ° F ( 25 @.@ 90 ° C ) , and a median of 50 @.@ 18 ° F ( 10 @.@ 10 ° C ) .
Briar Creek is slightly alkaline on average . The pH of the creek near its mouth ranges from 7 @.@ 16 to 8 @.@ 21 , with a median of 7 @.@ 7 . Upstream of West Branch Briar Creek , the creek 's pH ranges from 6 @.@ 15 to 7 @.@ 69 . The median is 7 @.@ 45 . Near the creek 's headwaters , the pH ranges from 5 @.@ 52 to 7 @.@ 47 and has a median of 6 @.@ 67 . West Branch Briar Creek has a minimum pH of 6 @.@ 96 , a median pH of 7 @.@ 87 , and a maximum pH of 8 @.@ 31 . Not far from its headwaters , East Branch Briar Creek has a pH range of 6 @.@ 78 to 7 @.@ 21 and a median pH of 6 @.@ 92 . Near Briar Creek Reservoir , it has a pH range of 7 @.@ 14 to 8 @.@ 73 and a median pH of 7 @.@ 565 .
The level of total dissolved solids in Briar Creek near its source has a range of 50 to 161 parts per million ( ppm ) and a median of 96 ppm . Upstream of West Branch Briar Creek , the range is 12 to 98 ppm and the median is 38 ppm . Near Briar Creek 's source , the median is 14 ppm , the minimum is 10 ppm , and the maximum is 89 ppm . The concentration of dissolved solids in the upper reaches of East Branch Briar Creek ranges from parts per 25 to 113 ppm , with a median of 35 @.@ 5 ppm . Immediately upstream of Briar Creek Reservoir , the concentration ranges from parts per 34 to 86 ppm , with a median of 43 @.@ 5 ppm .
= = Geology and geography = =
The watershed of Briar Creek is located in the ridge and valley physiographic region . The top of Lee Mountain forms a drainage divide between the creek 's watershed and another watershed . Several points along Briar Creek and its tributaries have erode with ease or moderate ease . The infiltration capacity of these points is mostly moderate to high .
In the very northern reaches of the Briar Creek watershed , the bedrock is made up of sandstone . South of the sandstone layer , there is a section of the watershed where the bedrock is mudstone . In the central part of the watershed , the bedrock is siltstone . In the southern part of the watershed , the bedrock is mostly shale , including the part of the watershed in Berwick , which is has bedrock of calcerous shale . A small area north of Berwick has limestone bedrock .
There are a number of types of soil in the Briar Creek watershed . One of these is the Holly Series , which is an acidic silt loam . Places in the watershed where the Holly Series is found include Briar Creek about one mile upstream of the mouth of West Branch Briar Creek , West Branch Briar Creek about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upstream of its mouth , and near Briar Creek Reservoir . Another soil series in the drainage basin is the Buchanan Series , an acidic stony loam . Places it is found include Briar Creek about two miles downstream of its headwaters . The Albrights Series , a silt loam with gravel , is also found in the watershed , in such places as East Branch Briar Creek two miles downstream of its headwaters . The Chenango Series is a silt loam that occurs , among other places , in the southeastern and southern corners of the watershed . The Watson Series and the Middlebury Series ( sandy and silty loams , respectively ) are found in parts of the central part of the Briar Creek watershed . The Zipp Series is a somewhat acidic silt loam that occurs in places such as the Cabin Run watershed .
Briar Creek is between 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide . Its tributary West Branch Briar Creek is about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide .
= = Watershed = =
The Briar Creek watershed has an area of 33 @.@ 0 square miles ( 85 km2 ) . It is located in Columbia County and Luzerne County . There are six communities that are fully or partly within the watershed : Briar Creek , Briar Creek Township , North Centre Township , Orange Township , and Berwick in Columbia County and Salem Township in Luzerne County . A total of 1 @.@ 04 square miles are located in Briar Creek , 16 @.@ 48 are located in Briar Creek Township , 12 @.@ 04 are located in North Centre Township , 0 @.@ 22 are located in Orange Township , 1 @.@ 24 are in Berwick , and 1 @.@ 94 are in Salem Township . As compared to other watersheds with the same size and land use , the Briar Creek watershed has been given a B rating by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection . According to the Briar Creek Coldwater Conservation Plan , this indicates that " residents in the watershed are working to improve and / or conserve resources in the area " .
A total of 8678 acres , or 41 % of the Briar Creek watershed is forested land . Much of this is on Knob Mountain or belongs to the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 55 . A total of 7210 acres , or 34 % of the watershed , is farmland and 1143 acres , or 6 % of the watershed , is urban land . Most of this is in the southeastern part of the watershed . A total of 3984 acres , or 19 % of the land in the watershed , is non @-@ agricultural grassland .
There are approximately 44 @.@ 23 miles ( 71 @.@ 18 km ) of streams in the Briar Creek watershed . The watershed is made up of seven smaller watersheds , or sub @-@ watersheds . A 53 @-@ acre lake known as the Briar Creek Reservoir is also situated on a tributary to Briar Creek . The lake , which is manmade , was constructed for flood control purposes in the early 1970s . It is also used for fishing and boating .
= = History and etymology = =
Briar Creek was historically known as the " Kawanishoning " to the area 's Native Americans . This name was a Lenni Lenape word for " sweet briar " . However , the creek was also referred to as " Kawanishoning Creek " by white soldiers and explorers during the time of the American Revolutionary War . By 1770 , some maps began referring to the creek as Bryar Creek , which became the more common name by the end of the eighteenth century and remained so as late as 1840 . However , the spelling gradually changed to Brier Creek and then Briar Creek .
Up to approximately 1770 , the area around Briar Creek was inhabited by the Lenni Lenape Indians . They built villages on the banks of the creek . The Shawanese also had a village at the mouth of the creek . In the 1770s , European settlers arrived in the area . The White family from New Jersey was among the first families of settlers to arrive in the Briar Creek valley . The Briar Creek area was one of the first places in Columbia County to be settled , on account of the high level of fertility of the land . The area around Briar Creek was part of Northumberland County in the late 1700s . In 1799 , Samuel Ely was granted a patent from the state of Pennsylvania for 307 acres of land on Briar Creek known as " Manheim " . In 1806 , he gained a 426 @-@ acre tract of land on the creek . This tract was known as " Quincy " . Ely 's four sons inherited the land .
In the beginning of the 1800s , a number of mills were built on tributaries of the creek . A number of other industries were established in the watershed in the early 1800s , including a sawmill , a woolen mill , an iron furnace , and a tannery . In the second half of the 1800s , railroads began to be built in the watershed . Heavy industries and fisheries also began to appear in the area around this time .
By 1911 , two dams had been constructed on Glen Brook ( a subtributary of Briar Creek ) in Briar Creek Township two miles north of Berwick . In 1911 , the first dam , known as Number One , had a capacity of 15 million gallons . The second dam , known as Number Two , had a capacity of 7 @.@ 5 million gallons . In 1911 , a third dam was under construction several hundred feet downstream of the two aforementioned dams . It was intended to have a capacity of 23 @.@ 8 million gallons .
The Briar Creek Watershed Association is a watershed association for Briar Creek . It was formed in 2006 .
= = Biology = =
Pennsylvania State Game Lands # 55 are in the Briar Creek watershed . The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources has designated the Briar Creek watershed as " place of ecological importance " .
More than 90 species of birds breed within the Briar Creek watershed . These include several species of ducks , flycatchers , herons , plovers , rails , and swallows , as well as one species of kingfisher and one species of crane . Bald eagles , sandhill cranes , and several species of waterfowl have been observed on Briar Creek Reservoir . Mammals living in the watershed include minks , muskrats , and short @-@ tailed shrews , and the endangered Indiana bat . Fish , damselflies , mayflies , and other macroinvertebrates also inhabit the watershed . A total of 28 species of fish were observed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission in the watershed in 2006 . Earlier , 34 species were observed .
In April 2010 , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission performed a survey of the fish species residing in Briar Creek Reservoir . The most common fish observed were yellow perch ( 645 specimens ) , brown bullhead ( 322 specimens ) , golden shiner ( 319 specimens ) , white crappie ( 216 specimens ) , hatchery trout ( 153 specimens ) , and bluegill ( 121 specimens ) . The largest fish observed were common carp , of which two specimens between 23 inches ( 58 cm ) and 25 inches ( 64 cm ) were observed . The smallest fish were pumpkinseed , of which 12 specimens between two and four inches ( five and ten centimeters ) were observed . Minnows also live in West Branch Briar Creek .
= = Recreation = =
Briar Creek Reservoir is located in the Briar Creek watershed , on East Branch Briar Creek . It is owned by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission and Columbia County . It was originally constructed to control floods , but most recreational activities in the watershed take place at this lake . These include fishing , picnicking , and weddings . There are also Pennsylvania State Game Lands in the watershed . The waters of Briar Creek are approved trout waters and the stream is stocked with trout .
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= William Claiborne =
William Claiborne ( c . 1600 – c . 1677 ) ( also spelled " William Cleyburne " ) was an English pioneer , surveyor , and an early settler in the colonies / provinces of Virginia and Maryland and around the Chesapeake Bay . Claiborne became a wealthy planter , a trader , and a major figure in the politics of the colonies . He was a central figure in the disputes between the colonists of Virginia and the later settling of Maryland , partly because of his earlier trading post on Kent Island in the mid @-@ way of the Chesapeake Bay , which provoked the first naval military battles in North American waters . Claiborne repeatedly attempted and failed to regain Kent Island from the Maryland Calverts , sometimes by force of arms , after its inclusion in the lands that were granted by a 1632 Royal Charter to the Calvert family ( to Sir George Calvert , first Baron and Lord Baltimore , ( 1579 @-@ 1632 ) , by the reigning King of England , Charles I , ( 1600 – 1649 , reigned 1625 to execution , 1649 ) , thus becoming Maryland territory .
A Puritan , Claiborne sided with Parliament during the English Civil War of 1642 – 1651 and was appointed to a commission charged with subduing and managing the Virginia and Maryland colonies . He played a role in the submission of Virginia to parliamentary rule in this period . Following the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 , he retired from involvement in the politics of the Virginia colony . He died around 1677 at his plantation , " Romancoke " , on Virginia 's Pamunkey River . According to historian Robert Brenner , " William Claiborne may have been the most consistently influential politician in Virginia throughout the whole of the pre @-@ Restoration period " .
= = Early life and emigration to America = =
Claiborne was born the county of Kent in England in 1600 to Thomas Clayborn , an alderman and lord mayor from King 's Lynn , Norfolk , who made his living as a small @-@ scale businessman involved in a variety of industries , including the salt and fish trades , and Sarah Smith , the daughter of a London brewer . The family name was spelled alternately as Cleburn , Cleyborne , or Claiborne . William Claiborne , who was baptized on 10 August 1587 , was the younger of two sons . The family 's business was not profitable enough to make it rich , and so Claiborne 's older brother was apprenticed in London , becoming a merchant involved in hosiery and , eventually , the tobacco trade .
However , Claiborne was offered a position as a land surveyor in the new colony of Virginia , and arrived at Jamestown , on the north shore of the James River in 1621 . The position carried a 200 acre ( 80 hectare ) land grant , a salary of £ 30 per year , and the promise of fees paid by settlers who needed to have their land grants surveyed . His political acumen quickly made him one of the most successful Virginia colonists , and within four years of his arrival he had secured grants for 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 445 hectares ) of land and a retroactive salary of £ 60 a year from the Virginia Colony 's council . He also managed to survive the March 1622 attacks by native / Indian Powhatans on the Virginia settlers that killed more than 300 colonists . His financial success was followed by political success , and he gained appointment as Councilor in 1624 and Secretary of State for the Colony in 1626 . Around 1627 , he began to trade for furs with the native Susquehannock Indians from further north on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay and two of its largest tributaries , the Potomac and Susquehanna Rivers . To facilitate this trade , Claiborne wanted to establish a trading post on Kent Island in the mid @-@ way of the Chesapeake Bay , which he intended to make the center of a vast mercantile empire along the Atlantic Coast . Claiborne found both financial and political support for the Kent Island venture from London merchants Maurice Thomson , William Cloberry , John de la Barre , and Simon Turgis .
= = Kent Island and the first dispute with Maryland = =
In 1629 , George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore , arrived in Virginia , having traveled south from Avalon , his failed colony on Newfoundland . Calvert was not welcomed by the Virginians , both because his Catholicism offended them as Protestants , and because it was no secret that Calvert desired a charter for a portion of the land that the Virginians considered their own . After a brief stay , Calvert returned to England to press for just such a charter , and Claiborne , in his capacity as Secretary of State of Virginia colony , was sent to England to argue the Virginians ' case . This happened to be to Claiborne 's private advantage , as he was also trying to complete the arrangements for the trading post on Kent Island .
Calvert , a former high official in the government of King James I , asked the Privy Council for permission to build a colony , to be called Carolina , on land south of the Virginia settlements in area of the modern @-@ day North Carolina , South Carolina , and Georgia . Claiborne arrived soon afterwards and expressed the concerns of Virginia that its territorial integrity was being threatened . He was joined in his protests by a group of London merchants who planned to build a sugar colony in the same area . Claiborne , still intent on his own project , received a royal trading commission through one of his London supporters in 1631 , one which granted him the right to trade with the natives on all lands in the mid @-@ Atlantic where there was not already a patent in effect .
Claiborne sailed for Kent Island on 28 May 1631 with indentured servants recruited in London and money for his trading post , likely believing Calvert 's hopes defeated . He was able to gain the support of the Virginia Council for his project and , as a reward for London merchant Maurice Thomson 's financial support , helped Thomson and two associates get a contract from Virginia guaranteeing a monopoly on tobacco . Claiborne 's Kent Island settlers established a small plantation on the island and appointed a clergyman . While the settlement on Kent Island was progressing , the Privy Council had proposed to Sir George Calvert , former Secretary of State for the King that he be granted a charter for lands north of the Virginia colony , in replacement for the unsuccessful settlements of his earlier colony of Avalon in Newfoundland ( eastern modern Canada ) , in order to create pressure on the Dutch settlements further north along the Delaware and Hudson Rivers ( modern states of Delaware , New Jersey and New York ) . Calvert accepted , though he died in 1632 before the charter could be formally signed by King Charles I , and the Royal Grant and Charter for the new colony of Maryland was instead granted to his son , Cecilius Calvert , on 20 June 1632 . This turn of events was unfortunate for Claiborne , since the Maryland charter included all lands on either side of the Chesapeake Bay north of the mouth of the Potomac River , a region which included Claiborne 's proposed trading post on Kent Island , mid @-@ way on the Bay . The Virginia Assembly , still in support of Claiborne and now including representatives of the Kent Island settlers , issued a series of proclamations and protests both before and after when the news of the granting of the Maryland charter reached across the ocean , claiming the lands for Virginia and protesting the charter 's legality .
Claiborne 's first appeal to royal authority in the dispute , which complained both that the lands in the Maryland charter were not really unsettled , as the charter claimed , and that the charter gave so much power to Calvert that it undermined the rights of the settlers , was rejected by the Lords of Foreign Plantations in July 1633 . The following year , the main body of Calvert 's settlers arrived in the Chesapeake and established a permanent settlement on Yaocomico lands at St. Mary 's City . With the support of the Virginia establishment , Claiborne made clear to Calvert that his allegiance was to Virginia and royal authority , and not to the proprietary authority in Maryland . Some historical reports claim that Claiborne tried to incite the natives against the Maryland colonists by telling them that the settlers at St. Mary 's were actually Spanish and enemies of the English , although this claim has never been proven . In 1635 , a Maryland commissioner named Thomas Cornwallis swept the Chesapeake for illegal traders and captured one of Claiborne 's pinnaces in the Pocomoke Sound . Claiborne tried to recover it by force , but was defeated ; although he retained his settlement on Kent Island . These were the first naval battles in North American waters , on 23 April and 10 May 1635 ; three Virginians were killed .
During these events , Governor John Harvey of Virginia , who had never been well liked by the Virginian colonists , had followed royal orders to support the Maryland settlement and , just before the naval battles in the Chesapeake , removed Claiborne from office as Secretary of State . In response , Claiborne 's supporters in the Virginia Assembly expelled Harvey from the colony . Two years later , an attorney for Cloberry and Company , who were concerned that the revenues they were receiving from fur trading had not recouped their original investment , arrived on Kent Island . The attorney took possession of the island and bade Claiborne return to England , where Cloberry and Company filed suit against him . The attorney then invited Maryland to take over the island by force , which it did in December 1637 . By March 1638 the Maryland Assembly had declared that all of Claiborne 's property within the colony now belonged to the proprietor . Maryland temporarily won the legal battle for Kent Island and won again when Claiborne 's final appeal was rejected by the Privy Council in April 1638 .
= = Parliamentary Commissioner and the second dispute with Maryland = =
In May 1638 , fresh from his defeat over Kent Island , Claiborne received a commission from the Providence Land Company , who were advised by his old friend Maurice Thomson , to create a new colony on Ruatan Island off the coast of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea . At the time , Honduras itself was a part of Spain 's Kingdom of Guatemala , and Spanish settlements dominated the mainland of Central America . Claiborne optimistically called his new colony Rich Island , but Spanish power in the area was too strong and the colony was destroyed in 1642 .
Soon after , the chaos of the English Civil War gave Claiborne another opportunity to reclaim Kent Island . The Calverts , who had received such constant support from the King , in turn supported the monarchy during the early stages of the parliamentary crisis . Claiborne found a new ally in Richard Ingle , a pro @-@ Parliament Puritan merchant whose ships had been seized by the Catholic authorities in Maryland in response to a royal decree against Parliament . Claiborne and Ingle saw an opportunity for revenge using the Parliamentary dispute as political cover , and in 1644 Claiborne seized Kent Island while Ingle took over St. Mary 's . Both used religion as a tool to gain popular support , arguing that the Catholic Calverts could not be trusted . By 1646 , however , Governor Leonard Calvert had retaken both St. Mary 's and Kent Island with support from Governor Berkeley of Virginia , and , after Leonard Calvert died in 1648 , Cecil Calvert appointed a pro @-@ Parliament Protestant to take over as governor . The rebellion and its religious overtones was one of the factors that led to passage of the landmark Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 , which declared religious tolerance for Catholics and Protestants in Maryland .
In 1648 a group of merchants in London applied to Parliament for revocation of the Maryland charter from the Calverts . This was rejected , but Claiborne received a final opportunity to reclaim Kent Island when he was appointed by the Puritan @-@ controlled Parliament to a commission which was charged with suppressing Anglican disquiet in Virginia ; Virginia in this case defined as " all the plantations in the Bay of the Chesapeake . " Claiborne and fellow commissioner Richard Bennett secured the peaceful submission of Virginia to Parliamentary rule , and the new Virginia Assembly appointed Claiborne as Secretary of the colony . It also proposed to Parliament new acts which would give Virginia more autonomy from England , which would benefit Claiborne as he pressed his claims on Kent Island . He and Bennett then turned their attention to Maryland and , arguing again that the Catholic Calverts could not be trusted and that the charter gave the Calverts too much power , demanded that the colony submit to the Commonwealth . Governor Stone briefly refused but gave in to Claiborne and the Commission , and submitted Maryland to Parliamentary rule .
Claiborne made no overt legal attempts to re @-@ assert control over Kent Island during the commission 's rule of Maryland , although a treaty concluded during that time with the Susquehannocks claimed that Claiborne owned both Kent and Palmer Islands . Claiborne 's legal designs on Maryland were once again defeated when Oliver Cromwell returned Calvert to power in 1653 , after the Rump Parliament ended . In 1654 , Governor Stone of Maryland tried to reclaim authority for the proprietor and declared that Claiborne 's property and his life could be taken at the Governor 's pleasure . Stone 's declaration was ignored and Claiborne and Bennett again overthrew him , creating a new assembly in which Catholics were not allowed to serve . Calvert , now angry at Stone for what he perceived as weakness , demanded that Stone do something , and in 1655 Stone reclaimed control in St. Mary 's and led a group of soldiers to Providence ( modern Annapolis ) . Stone was captured and his force defeated by local Puritan settlers , who took control of the colony . Given the new situation , Claiborne and Bennett went to England in hopes of convincing Cromwell to change his mind but , to their dismay , no decision was made and , lacking royal authority , the Puritans gave power over to a new governor appointed by Calvert . Going behind Claiborne 's back , Bennett and another commissioner reached an agreement with Calvert that virtually guaranteed his continued control over Maryland through the remainder of the Protectorate .
With no authority left in Maryland , Claiborne turned to his political offices in Virginia . However , he was a Puritan and an ally of Parliament during the English Civil War , and upon the restoration of the British monarchy in 1660 , he had few friends left in government . Claiborne therefore retired from political affairs in 1660 and spent the remainder of his life managing his 5 @,@ 000 acre ( 2 @,@ 023 hectare ) estate , " Romancoke " , near West Point on the Pamunkey River , dying there in about 1677 .
= = Family life and descendants = =
In the midst of the political turmoil of the conflict over Kent Island , Claiborne married Elizabeth Butler of Essex , who would remain his wife at least through 1668 . Claiborne was also the forebear of a number of lines of American Claibornes , and among his descendants are William C. C. Claiborne , first governor of Louisiana , fashion designer Liz Claiborne , Daniel Sullivan ( LtCol USMC ) , the late minister Jerry Falwell , and a number of political figures from Tennessee and Virginia . Descendants of the Claiborne family have formed a society to advance the genealogical study of Claiborne 's lineage . Also some descendants of Claiborne are the families of Wood , Rice , McFarland , Harris , Gooch , Church and Estes .
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= Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot =
Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot ( French pronunciation : [ ɑ ̃ ʁi ʒɔʁʒ kluzo ] ; ( 1907 @-@ 08 @-@ 18 ) 18 August 1907 – 12 January 1977 ( 1977 @-@ 01 @-@ 12 ) ) was a French film director , screenwriter and producer . He is best remembered for his work in the thriller film genre , having directed The Wages of Fear and Les Diaboliques , which are critically recognized to be among the greatest films from the 1950s . Clouzot also directed documentary films , including The Mystery of Picasso , which was declared a national treasure by the government of France .
Clouzot was an early fan of the cinema and , desiring a career as a writer , moved to Paris . He was later hired by producer Adolphe Osso to work in Berlin , writing French @-@ language versions of German films . After being fired from German studios due to his friendship with Jewish producers , Clouzot returned to France , where he spent years bedridden after contracting tuberculosis . Upon recovering , Clouzot found work in Nazi occupied France as a screenwriter for the German @-@ owned company Continental Films . At Continental , Clouzot wrote and directed films that were very popular in France . His second film Le Corbeau drew controversy over its harsh look at provincial France and Clouzot was fired from Continental before its release . As a result of his association with Continental , Clouzot was barred by the French government from filmmaking until 1947 .
After the ban was lifted , Clouzot reestablished his reputation and popularity in France during the late 1940s with successful films including Quai des Orfèvres . After the release of his comedy film Miquette et sa mère , Clouzot married Véra Gibson @-@ Amado , who would star in his next three feature films . In the early and mid @-@ 1950s , Clouzot drew acclaim from international critics and audiences for The Wages of Fear and Les Diaboliques . Both films would serve as source material for remakes decades later . After the release of La Vérité , Clouzot 's wife Véra died of a heart attack and Clouzot 's career suffered due to depression , illness and new critical views of films from the French New Wave . Clouzot 's career became less active in later years , limited to a few television documentaries and two feature films in the 1960s . Clouzot wrote several unused scripts in the 1970s and died in Paris in 1977 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot was born in Niort , France , to mother Suzanne Clouzot and father Georges Clouzout , a book store owner . He was the first of three children in a middle @-@ class family . Clouzot showed talent by writing plays and playing piano recitals . In 1922 , Clouzot 's father 's bookstore went bankrupt and his family moved to Brest , France , where his father became an auctioneer . In Brest , Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot went to Naval School , but was unable to become a Naval Cadet due to his myopia . At the age of 18 , Clouzot left for Paris to study political science . While living in Paris , he became friends with several magazine editors . His writing talents led him to theater and cinema as a playwright , lyricist and adaptor @-@ screenwriter . The quality of his work led producer Adolphe Osso to hire him and send him to Germany to work in Studio Babelsberg in Berlin , translating scripts for foreign language films shot there .
= = = Career = = =
= = = = Screenwriting career ( 1931 – 1942 ) = = = =
Throughout the 1930s , Clouzot worked by writing and translating scripts , dialogue and occasionally lyrics for over twenty films . While living in Germany , Clouzot saw the films of F. W. Murnau and Fritz Lang and was deeply influenced by their expressionist style . In 1931 , he made his first short film , La Terreur des Batignolles , from a script by Jacques de Baroncelli . The film is a 15 @-@ minute comedy with three actors . Film historian and critic Claude Beylie reported this short was " surprisingly well made with expressive use of shadows and lighting contrasts that Clouzot would exploit on the full @-@ length features he would make years later " . Clouzot 's later wife , Inès de Gonzalez , said in 2004 that La Terreur des Batignolles added nothing to Clouzot 's reputation . In Berlin , Clouzot saw several parades for Adolf Hitler and was shocked at how oblivious he felt France was to what was happening in Germany . In 1934 , Clouzot was fired from UFA Studios for his friendship with Jewish film producers such as Adolphe Osso and Pierre Lazareffe .
In 1935 , Clouzot was diagnosed with tuberculosis and was sent first to Haute @-@ Savoie and then to Switzerland , where he was bedridden for nearly five years in all . Clouzot 's time in the sanatorium would be very influential on his career . While bedridden , Clouzot read constantly and learned the mechanics of storytelling to help improve his scripts . Clouzot also studied the fragile nature of the other people in the sanatorium . Clouzot had little money during this period , and was provided with financial and moral support by his family and friends . By the time Clouzot left the sanatorium and returned to Paris , World War II had broken out . French cinema had changed because many of the producers he had known had fled France to escape Nazism .
Clouzot 's health problems kept him from military service . In 1939 , he met actor Pierre Fresnay , who was already an established film star in France . Clouzot wrote the script for Fresnay 's only directorial feature Le Duel , as well as two plays for him : On prend les mêmes , which was performed in December 1940 , and Comédie en trois actes , which was performed in 1942 . Despite writing scripts for films and plays , Clouzot was so poor that he resorted to trying to sell lyrics to French singer Édith Piaf , who declined to purchase them . After France was invaded by Germany and subsequently during the German occupation of France during World War II , the German @-@ operated film production company Continental Films was established in France in October 1940 . Alfred Grevin , the director of Continental , knew Clouzot from Berlin and offered him work to adapt stories of writer Stanislas @-@ André Steeman . Clouzot felt uncomfortable working for the Germans , but was in desperate need of money and could not refuse Grevin 's offer . Clouzot 's first film for Continental was the adaptation of Steeman 's mystery novel Six hommes mort ( Six Dead Men ) . Clouzot retitled the film Le Dernier des six , having been influenced by actress Suzy Delair while writing the script , allowing her to choose the name of the character she would play .
= = = = Early directorial work ( 1942 – 1947 ) = = = =
After the success of Le Dernier de six , Clouzot was hired as the head of Continental 's screenwriting division . Clouzot began work on his second Steeman adaptation , which he would also direct , titled The Murderer Lives at Number 21 . It starred Fresnay and Delair playing the same roles they had performed in Le Dernier de six . Released in 1942 , the film was popular with audiences and critics . Clouzot 's next film was Le Corbeau based on a true story about a woman who sent poison pen letters in France in 1922 . Grevin was against Clouzot making this film , stating that topic was " dangerous " . Le Corbeau would be the last film that Fresnay and Clouzot would work together on . Clouzot had used all possible means to try to anger the actor during the filming , and after he quarreled with Fresnay 's wife , Yvonne Printemps , Fresnay and Clouzot broke off their friendship.Le Corbeau was a great success in France , with nearly 250 @,@ 000 people having seen it in the first months of its initial release . Le Corbeau was released in 1943 and generated controversy from the right @-@ wing Vichy regime , the left @-@ wing Resistance press and the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church considered the film " painful and hard , constantly morbid in its complexity " . The Vichy press dubbed it the antithesis of the Révolution nationale and demanded it be banned due to its immoral values . The anti @-@ Nazi resistance press considered it Nazi propaganda because of its negative portrayal of the French populace . Two days before the release of Le Corbeau , Continental films fired Clouzot .
After the liberation of France , Clouzot and several other directors were tried in court for collaborating with the Germans . For his sentence , Clouzot was forbidden from going on set of any film or from using a film camera for the rest of his life . Clouzot received letters of support from filmmakers and artists Jean Cocteau , René Clair , Marcel Carné and Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , who were against the ruling . Clouzot 's sentence was later shortened from life to two years . There is no official document making note of any apology or appeal . During his two @-@ year banishment from filming , Clouzot worked with one of his supporters , Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , who had been one of the first people to defend Le Corbeau .
= = = = Return to filmmaking and acclaim ( 1947 – 1960 ) = = = =
After Clouzot 's ban was lifted , he reestablished his reputation and popularity in France during the late 1940s with films such as Quai des Orfèvres and Manon . For Quai des Orfèvres , Clouzot asked the author Stanislas @-@ André Steeman for a copy of his novel , Légitime défense , to adapt into a film . Clouzot started writing the script before the novel arrived for him to read . Quai des Orfèvres was released in 1947 and was the fourth most popular film in France , drawing 5 @.@ 5 million spectators in that year . Clouzot directed and wrote two films that were released in 1949 . For Manon , he wanted to cast unknown actors . He scoured schools to find an actress for the lead role , and chose 17 @-@ year @-@ old Cécile Aubry after viewing over 700 girls . Manon was released in 1948 and was watched by 3 @.@ 4 million filmgoers in France as well as winning the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival . Clouzot directed and wrote the short film Le Retour de Jean , which was part of anthology film Return to Life . Le Retour de Jean was influenced by the short period when Clouzot lived in Germany in the early 1930s and stars Louis Jouvet as a survivor of a concentration camp who finds a wounded Nazi war criminal whom he interrogates and tortures . Clouzot 's next film was the comedy Miquette et Sa Mère , which was a financial failure . During the film 's production , Clouzot met Véra Gibson @-@ Amado , whom he married on 15 January 1950 . Clouzot and Véra took a film crew with them to Véra 's homeland in Brazil for their honeymoon , where Clouzot made his first attempt at directing a documentary film . The Brazilian government took issue with Clouzot filming the poverty of people in the favelas rather than the more picturesque parts of Brazil . The film was never finished because the costs became too high . Clouzot became fascinated with the region and wrote a book , Le cheval des dieux , recounting his trip .
Upon returning to France , he was offered a script written by Georges @-@ Jean Arnaud , an expatriate living in South America who had written about his own experiences there . Clouzot found it easy to imagine the setting of the script and was very anxious to film Arnaud 's story . He started writing the film , The Wages of Fear , with his brother , Jean Clouzot , who would collaborate with him on all his subsequent films under the name of Jérôme Geronimi . Production on The Wages of Fear lasted from 1951 to 1952 . In order to gain as much independence as possible , Clouzot created his own production company called Véra Films , which he named after his wife . The sole female role in The Wages of Fear is played by Véra . Clouzot wrote the role specifically for his wife , as the character does not exist in the original novel . The Wages of Fear is about a South American town where a group of desperate men are offered money to drive trucks carrying nitroglycerin through rough terrain to put out an oil well fire . The Wages of Fear was the second most popular film in France in 1953 and was seen by nearly 7 million spectators . It won awards for Best Film and Best Actor ( for Charles Vanel ) at the Cannes Film Festival . Clouzot 's next big hit was Diabolique , whose screenplay he took away from director Alfred Hitchcock . Diabolique involves the story of a cruel headmaster who brutalizes his wife and his mistress . The two women murder him and dump his body in a swimming pool , but when the pool is drained , no corpse is found . In 1954 , Diabolique won the Louis Delluc Prize and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for best foreign film . In this early and mid @-@ 1950s period , with the films The Wages of Fear and Diabolique , Clouzot came to be fully embraced by international critics and audiences . Both films were screened and reviewed in America as well as in France , and were rated among the best thrillers of the decade . In 1955 , Clouzot directed the documentary The Mystery of Picasso , about the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso . The film follows Picasso drawing or painting 15 different works , all of which were intentionally destroyed following the film 's production . Clouzot and Picasso were old acquaintances , having met when Clouzot was 14 . The Mystery of Picasso won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival , but was a financial failure in France , being seen by only 37 @,@ 000 filmgoers during its initial run in 1956 . In 1984 , the film was declared a national treasure by the government of France .
Clouzot 's next feature film was Les Espions , which was released in 1957 . Les Espions featured actors from around the world including Véra Clouzot , Curd Jürgens , Sam Jaffe and Peter Ustinov . Les Espions would be the last acting role for Clouzot 's wife Véra , who had been suffering from severe heart problems since filming Diabolique . Les Espions is set in a rundown sanitarium that is taken over by international spies . One of the spies claims to have invented a nuclear explosive device which attracts the attention of the Russian and American counterspies . Les Espions was not released in the United States and was a financial failure in France . Clouzot later admitted that he only liked the first two @-@ thirds of Les Espions . Producer Raoul Levy suggested Clouzot 's next film should feature Brigitte Bardot as the lead actress . In response , Clouzot wrote the script for La Vérité . Bardot plays Dominique Marceau , who is on trial for the murder of her former boyfriend Gilbert Tellier . As her trial progresses , the relationship between Dominique and Gilbert becomes more finely shaped . Bardot later described La Vérité as her favorite of all the films she worked on . Released in 1960 , La Vérité was the second most popular film in France with 5 @.@ 7 million spectators and was Bardot 's highest grossing film . The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film .
= = = = Later career and failing health ( 1960 – 1977 ) = = = =
Although Clouzot 's reputation had grown internationally , he lost notability in French cinema due to rise of the French New Wave . The New Wave directors refused to take Clouzot 's thriller films seriously , and expressed their displeasure publicly through articles and reviews in the film criticism publication , Cahiers du cinéma . Clouzot took their criticism to heart , saying in the magazine Lui that he didn 't find his films Diabolique and Miquette et Sa Mère important or interesting anymore . The next film he worked on was L 'Enfer , which was never completed . The film examines the sexual jealousy of a man towards his flirtatious wife , whose psychological state deforms everything with desire . Lead actor Serge Reggiani fell ill one week after shooting began and had to be replaced . Clouzot himself also became ill during production , which led doctors and insurance agents to order the production be stopped . Between 1965 and 1967 , Clouzot filmed for French television five documentaries of Herbert von Karajan conducting Verdi 's Requiem , Dvořák 's New World Symphony , Schumann 's 4th Symphony , Beethoven 's 5th Symphony and Mozart 's 5th Violin Concerto . After production finished on the documentaries , Clouzot was able to finance his final picture .
Clouzot 's return to work reassured the doctors and insurers and he returned to the film studio to make his final film La Prisonnière . The film began production in September 1967 and was halted when Clouzot fell ill and was hospitalized until April 1968 . He began filming La Prisonnière again in August 1968 . Clouzot incorporated stylistic elements of his aborted film L 'enfer into La Prisonnière . La Prisonnière is about a woman who is introduced to a photographer who takes masochistic submissive pictures of young women . The woman volunteers herself as a model for these pictures and is surprised at her own pleasure in the activity . After finishing La Prisonnière , Clouzot 's health grew worse . In the 1970s , he wrote a few more scripts without ever filming them , including a feature about Indochina . He also planned to direct a pornographic film in 1974 for Francis Micheline , but the film was abandoned . Clouzot 's health grew worse and he required open @-@ heart surgery in November 1976 . On 12 January 1977 Clouzot died in his apartment while listening to The Damnation of Faust . Clouzot is buried beside Véra in the Montmartre Cemetery .
= = = Personal life = = =
In the late @-@ 1930s , Clouzot went to a cabaret show featuring entertainers Mistinguett and Suzy Delair at the Deus Anes Cabaret . Clouzot waited for Delair at the stage door and after meeting her , the two became a romantic couple for the next 12 years . Clouzot had Delair star in two of his films , The Murderer Lives at Number 21 and Quai des Orfèvres . Delair eventually left Clouzot after working with him on Quai des Orfèvres .
Clouzot met his first wife Vera Clouzot through actor Léo Lapara , who had minor parts in Le Retour de Jean and Quai des Orfèvres . Véra met Clouzot after divorcing Lapara and while working as a continuity assistant on Clouzot 's Miquette et Sa Mère . Clouzot named his production company after Véra and had her star in all three films made by the company : The Wages of Fear , Diabolique and Les Espions . Véra also contributed to the script of La Vérité . Véra Clouzot died of a heart attack shortly after the filming of La Vérité . Clouzot fell into a depression over her death . After her funeral , he moved to Tahiti , but returned to France in December 1960 .
Clouzot met his second wife , Inès de Gonzalez , for the first time at a casting call for a film based on Vladimir Nabokov 's Laughter in the Dark . In 1962 , Clouzot met de Gonzalez again after she had returned from South America . In December 1963 , Clouzot and Inès de Gonzalez married . In the 1960s , Clouzot converted to Roman Catholicism .
= = Style = =
With the exception of the comedy film Miquette et sa mère , every directorial feature of Clouzot involves deception , betrayal and violent deaths . When basing screenplays on written work , Clouzot often changed the stories dramatically , using only key points of the original story . The author Stanislas @-@ André Steeman , whom Clouzot worked with twice , said Clouzot would only " build something after having contemptuously demolished any resemblance to the original , purely for the ambition of effect " . When writing for his own features , Clouzot created characters that were usually corrupt and spineless , with the capacity for both good and evil within them .
Clouzot was very demanding with his actors and would often quarrel with them to get them in the mood he desired . Suzy Delair recalled that Clouzot slapped her , but said of it , " So what ? He slapped others as well ... He was tough but I 'm not about to complain " . Pierre Fresnay recalled that Clouzot " worked relentlessly , which made for a juicy spectacle ... That 's to say nothing for his taste of violence , which he never tried with me " . When working with Bardot , one scene required Bardot 's character to drool and sleep . Clouzot offered her powerful sleeping pills , saying they were aspirin , and this led to Bardot 's stomach being pumped . Although Clouzot was harsh on his actors , he did not treat them fiercely off set . Delair recalled that off set there was an " innocence about him " that was not seen .
Clouzot biographer Marc Godin suggested Clouzot 's life provides clues to understanding his style as a filmmaker . Clouzot was viewed by many of his collaborators as a pessimist , short @-@ tempered , and almost always angry . Actress Brigitte Bardot described Clouzot as " a negative being , forever at odds with himself and the world around him " . Clouzot 's outlook on life is reflected in his own films that reveal the darker side of humanity .
= = Legacy = =
Despite criticism following the arrival of the French New Wave , career retrospectives of Clouzot 's work have been positive . Twenty years after his death , film critic Noël Herpe wrote in the French film journal Positif that " Les Diaboliques ( just like Les Espions and La Verite ) reveals a sterile and increasingly exaggerated urge to experiment with the powers of fiction " . Film historian Philipe Pilard wrote , " There is no doubt that if Clouzot had worked for Hollywood and applied the formulas of U.S. studios , today he would be lauded by the very critics who choose to ignore him " . Clouzot today is generally known for his thriller films The Wages of Fear and Diabolique . Clouzot 's ability in the genre led to comparisons with Alfred Hitchcock . Clouzot respected Hitchcock 's work , stating , " I admire him very much and am flattered when anyone compares a film of mine to his " .
Several of Clouzot 's films have been remade since their original releases . Director Otto Preminger adapted Le Corbeau into his 1951 film , The 13th Letter . In 1977 , the year of Clouzot 's death , William Friedkin directed a remake of The Wages of Fear called Sorcerer . French director Claude Chabrol adapted Clouzot 's script for L 'Enfer in 1994 also titled L 'Enfer . In 1996 , an American remake of Les Diaboliques was released under the title Diabolique , starring Sharon Stone .
= = Filmography = =
The Murderer Lives at Number 21 ( 1942 )
Le Corbeau ( 1943 )
Quai des Orfèvres ( 1947 )
Manon ( 1949 )
Retour à la Vie ( 1949 )
Miquette et Sa Mère ( 1950 )
The Wages of Fear ( 1953 )
Les Diaboliques ( 1954 )
The Mystery of Picasso ( 1956 )
Les Espions ( 1957 )
La Vérité ( 1960 )
La prisonnière ( 1968 )
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= Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar =
The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar was a fifty @-@ cent piece struck intermittently by the United States Bureau of the Mint between 1926 and 1939 . The coin was designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and James Earle Fraser , and commemorates those who traveled the Oregon Trail and settled the Pacific Coast of the United States in the mid @-@ 19th century . Struck over a lengthy period in small numbers per year , the many varieties produced came to be considered a ripoff by coin collectors , and led to the end , for the time , of the commemorative coin series .
Ohio @-@ born Ezra Meeker had traveled the Trail with his family in 1852 and spent the final two decades of his long life before his death in 1928 publicizing the Oregon Trail , that it should not be forgotten . In 1926 , at age 95 , he appeared before a Senate committee , requesting that the government issue a commemorative coin that could be sold to raise money for markers to show where the Trail had been . The coin had originally been thought of by Idahoans , led by Dr. Minnie Howard , seeking to further preservation work at Fort Hall ; Meeker broadened the idea . Congress authorized six million half dollars , and placed no restriction on when or at what mint the coins would be struck . Meeker 's Oregon Trail Memorial Association ( OTMA ) had tens of thousands of pieces struck in 1926 and 1928 , and did not sell them all . Nevertheless , most years between 1933 and 1939 , it had small quantities of the half dollar coined , in some years from all three operating mints to produce mintmarked varieties , and raised prices considerably .
Collectors complained that some of the issues were controlled by coin dealers , and individual collectors had to pay high prices . Public protests followed , and in 1939 Congress ended the series . Despite the complaints , the OTMA had difficulty in selling the coins , and they remained available from the OTMA 's successor organization as late as 1953 . Just over 260 @,@ 000 of the 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 authorized coins were struck , of which about 60 @,@ 000 were melted . The US commemorative coin struck over the longest period , the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar has been widely praised for its design .
= = Background = =
In the middle years of the 19th century , before the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 made travel easier , hundreds of thousands of people journeyed along the Oregon Trail to settle the Far West of the United States . Not all who began the journey reached their destination as there was much suffering and death along the way — by one estimate , 20 @,@ 000 people lie in unmarked graves .
Ohio @-@ born farmer Ezra Meeker ( 1830 – 1928 ) traveled the Oregon Trail in 1852 ; he and his young wife and infant child went by ox @-@ drawn wagon from Iowa to Oregon Territory . In his old age , he came to believe that the Oregon Trail , and the sacrifice of those who had died along it , were being forgotten . Amid considerable publicity as one of the last survivors of the pioneers who had blazed the way west , Meeker retraced his route along the Trail between 1906 and 1908 . The Trail had in some places disappeared , swallowed up by town and farm , and in his journeys , he sought to find where he had passed , seeking to have historical markers erected . He took his ox team and wagon across the nation to publicize his cause , parking his rig in front of the White House where he met President Theodore Roosevelt . In New York , he crossed the Brooklyn Bridge . In 1910 , he and his oxen participated in the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena . In the succeeding years , he traveled the route by oxcart , automobile , and , at age 93 in 1924 , airplane , attempting to further his cause , and seeking federal recognition and funding for his efforts .
= = Inception = =
The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar stemmed from various efforts by Idahoans who favored the preservation of the site of Fort Hall , an important way station on the Trail . The idea was sparked by the issuance of the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar , which caused Mabel Murphy , wife of an Idaho newspaperman , to propose to her husband the striking of an Oregon Trail coin , the profits from which could be used for historic preservation . Her husband , D.T. Murphy , on April 16 , 1925 dutifully published an editorial , " Oregon Trail Covered Wagon Half Dollars " in the Idaho State Journal . Mrs. Murphy would not live to see the coin issued , dying November 30 , 1925 of tuberculosis .
The idea for the coin was brought up again when civic activists in Pocatello , Idaho , led by Dr. Minnie Howard , sought ideas for funding a monument on the site of Fort Hall . Insurance salesman F.C. McGowan displayed a Stone Mountain piece , " Yes . Coinage . Like this ! " Howard and her colleagues pursued the idea . Meeker did as well once he heard of it , forming the Oregon Trail Memorial Association , ( " OTMA " or " the Association " ) a national organization , which could also receive the half dollars , and sell them at a profit .
By 1925 , Congress was reluctant to authorize more commemorative coins ; twelve pieces had been issued between 1920 and 1925 , and many legislators felt that coins were being allowed that " commemorate [ d ] events of local and not national interest " . The entire mintages of commemoratives were sold at face value to the sponsoring organizations designated in the authorizing acts . These groups then sold the coins to the public at a premium , thus raising money for causes that Congress had deemed worthy . Made cautious by a series of unsuccessful issues , Congress rejected a number of proposals for special coins in early 1926 . Among these were pieces to honor the completion of the Lincoln and Victory Highways , and a proposal to commemorate the centennial of the birth of American composer Stephen Foster .
The bill authorizing the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar was first introduced in the House of Representatives on January 25 , 1926 by Washington Congressman John Franklin Miller , who had previously been mayor of Seattle . Meeker was living in Seattle while Miller was mayor , having moved from his previous home in Puyallup . According to local historian Bert Webber in his 1986 monograph on the coin , " there is little doubt that Mr. Miller was influenced to propose this coin by Ezra Meeker . " A hearing was held before the House Coinage Committee on March 3 ; Meeker testified . The bill was reported favorably , and then passed by the full House on April 5 , 1926 . The bill was not opposed in the House of Representatives , though one member , Michigan Congressman Louis Cramton , asked several questions before it passed by unanimous consent . According to an October 2013 article in The Numismatist , " Congress was no match for Meeker " .
On April 26 , 1926 , the 95 @-@ year @-@ old Meeker appeared before the Senate ’ s Committee on Banking and Currency . Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon had filed a letter opposing commemorative coin issues , except those of national importance . Meeker , in his testimony , argued that the Trail issue would be of such importance . The OTMA board considered whether to seek amendment of the bill to the alternative suggested by Mellon , a commemorative medal . In part because of Howard 's urging , they decided to stay with the coin . The bill for the half dollar was reported without recommendation , but was passed by the Senate on May 10 . Meeker met with President Calvin Coolidge to ensure it would be signed , which it was on May 17 , 1926 as Public Law 325 , authorizing the issuance of up to 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 half dollars . President Calvin Coolidge signed the bill on the White House lawn ; Meeker was present at the signing ceremony and was photographed shaking hands with President Coolidge .
The bill required that the Association pay for the half dollars at par , and that the dies and other costs of preparation not be at the expense of the United States . The figure of six million was the largest in American commemorative history , exceeding the five million for the Stone Mountain issue . Congress placed no restriction on which mint should strike the coins , and did not put a time limit on the authorization . According to numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen in their encyclopedia of US commemoratives , the bill passed " possibly because the stated purpose was nationalistic rather than obscurely local " . Coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers states that " on the surface the motivation seemed to be good enough ... doubtless many American citizens had family ties to the famous migration " .
= = Preparation = =
Meeker wanted the new half dollars struck as quickly as possible ; he was planning another journey west on the Trail , and wanted to be able to sell the coins along the way . The Association initially contacted Chester Beach , credited with the design of the 1923 Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar , to sculpt the new coin , but he was unavailable , though he prepared sketches .
The OTMA tried to reach agreement with Gutzon Borglum , designer of the Stone Mountain piece , but he wanted too much money and time . Ulric Stonewall Jackson Dunbar , who had played a minor role in the Columbian half dollar of 1892 – 93 , was willing , but lacked the national reputation the Association felt the coin 's sculptor needed . After receiving suggestions from the American Numismatic Society , the Association turned to the husband @-@ and @-@ wife team of James Earle Fraser and Laura Gardin Fraser . James Fraser had designed the Buffalo nickel ; Laura Gardin Fraser had created several commemorative coins , including the Grant Centennial dollar and half dollar . It chose the Frasers at the urging of Minnie Howard , who felt that James Fraser 's work dealt with the West , and might make manifest , in his coin design , the importance of the migration by covered wagon . The Association determined upon a design concept of a map showing the Oregon Trail on one side , and on the other a man leading an ox @-@ drawn wagon , with his wife and infant child riding . Although he is not formally commemorated by the coin , the man was meant to be Meeker .
= = Design = =
James Fraser designed the wagon side while Laura Fraser designed the Indian side and converted both into relief models . Meeker pestered Laura Fraser to complete the modeling , as he wanted the half dollars available for sale at an upcoming event . She completed the work by July 30 , 1926 , when she wrote to enquire where she should send the designs for endorsement by the Commission of Fine Arts . This body since 1921 had been tasked with advising the Secretary of the Treasury on coinage design . She sent photographs of her models to the commission 's offices . On August 5 , 1926 , commission chairman Charles Moore responded enthusiastically , informing her that not only had the commission endorsed the designs , but they were having the prints framed for their meeting room . To save time , the hubs from which coinage dies could be prepared were made by the Medallic Art Company of New York , which had made reductions from plaster models to hubs for several commemorative issues . The resulting hubs were sent to the Philadelphia Mint , where working dies for the issue were made . A compass rose on the Indian side , included in Laura Fraser 's models , does not appear on the issued coin , though the reason for the change is not known .
The wagon side designed by James Fraser depicts a Conestoga wagon drawn by two oxen , heading into an extremely large setting sun , with resplendent rays . The designers ’ initials appear behind the wagon ; five stars appear below the vehicle , though what they represent is uncertain . Swiatek and Breen suggested that they represent five states and territories through which pioneers would have passed .
The Indian side designed by Laura Fraser features a dramatically rendered Native American , standing erect with outstretched arm in what Vermeule describes as a gesture of peace . The Indian was added by the Frasers to the original map design concept endorsed by the OTMA . Swiatek and Breen noted that the Indian 's " position has been irreverently compared to that of a traffic policeman demanding ' Halt ! ' " Such statements were made from the time of issue ; The Numismatist in November 1926 stated that the Indian 's left hand " is upraised as if warning the people of the East of the perils and hardship of the Trail " . Meeker 's 1928 obituary in The New York Times averred that the Indian was " standing with hands upraised to stop the white man 's progress westward " . The Native American wears a headdress , has a blanket and bow , and is superimposed on a map of the United States , with a line of Conestoga wagons heading west . The design is carried to the rim of the coin ; Hudson Bay is visible in the upper right .
The Frasers ' design for the half dollar has been widely admired . Swiatek and Breen deemed the issue " one of the greatest artistic triumphs ever to be released by the Mint " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay called the coin " the most beautiful as well as the most truly ' American ' U.S. coin . It testifies to the fact that authentic genius , even when trammeled by the necessities of a modern , mechanical mint , can transform our coinage into a work of art . "
= = Production = =
= = = Initial release = = =
According to Webber , " during the final stages of manufacture , [ Meeker ] kept heckling the mint to ' hurry up ' " . The Philadelphia Mint struck 48 @,@ 000 pieces in September 1926 , plus 30 reserved for inspection by the 1927 United States Assay Commission . Meeker peddled them along his route at $ 1 each . The difference between the face value and the sale price was to pay the cost for historical markers along the Trail , and to renovate the Whitman Mission in Washington state . The 1926 piece was later dubbed by the Association the " Ezra Meeker Issue " . The first piece struck was presented to Meeker ; its whereabouts are not known , while the second , presented to Howard , rests in the Idaho State Historical Museum .
With the initial quantity committed ( 75 pieces were returned to the mint , most likely because they were damaged or misstruck ) , the Association requested that more pieces be produced . A hundred thousand were coined at the San Francisco Mint in October and November , bearing the mint mark S ( 1926 @-@ S ) . The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar thus became the first commemorative coin struck at multiple mints ; Bowers notes that this set " a precedent which would be expanded and abused in the years to come " . According to Swiatek and Breen , " the Association ... [ was ] expecting that the collectors who bought 1926 Philadelphia coins would turn out in similar or greater numbers for the second variety " . Although a few thousand quickly sold , the market for the half dollars proved saturated , and tens of thousands remained at the mint pending payment . On December 29 , 1926 , Meeker celebrated his 96th birthday in New York ; he was presented with 96 Oregon Trail Memorial half dollars by the Association .
Despite the many unsold 1926 @-@ S half dollars still in the government 's hands , the Association sought the issuance of 1927 @-@ dated half dollars ; this was refused by the Treasury Department ( of which the Bureau of the Mint was a part ) due to the backlog . In 1928 , 50 @,@ 000 more were struck at the Philadelphia Mint . Meeker continued his exploits : he was presented with 97 coins on his birthday in December 1927 by the Association and brought his half dollars to the visitor 's gallery of the New York Stock Exchange , though he was refused permission to go onto the floor . In April 1928 , Meeker wrote to the American Numismatic Association , urging its coin @-@ collecting members to purchase both the 1926 and 1926 @-@ S pieces . Nevertheless , although Meeker organized a national campaign to sell the coins , the OTMA lost $ 10 @,@ 000 by his efforts , due to office and other expenses . " The aged pioneer did not appear to be that good with money " .
Meeker was given a truck chassis and money to modify it into a wagon @-@ topped vehicle by Henry Ford in 1928 for yet another Trail trip . Ford offered to make the vehicle more comfortable for Meeker if he brought it to the Ford factory in Dearborn , Michigan . Accordingly , when he left New York in August 1928 on another journey , planning to sell half dollars along the way , he headed directly for Michigan . He arrived ill , and was hospitalized , almost dying there . He was able to return home , disgruntled at having missed voting in the election ( he supported the successful Republican candidate , Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover , for president ) for the first time since 1853 . At his home in Washington state , Meeker again became ill in November , and died December 3 , 1928 , three and a half weeks before his 98th birthday . He was buried in a cemetery in Puyallup , a place he had helped settle . Meeker 's headstone bears a plaque reproducing the wagon side of the half dollar .
= = = Reissue = = =
After Meeker 's death , the OTMA selected Howard R. Driggs , a professor of English education at New York University as his successor , and elected a new board of directors , which worked to clear the debt Meeker had accrued . Coins on hand continued to be sold . It was able to persuade President Hoover to proclaim the Covered Wagon Centennial in 1930 , the hundredth anniversary both of Meeker 's birth and of the first wagon train leaving St. Louis for the Oregon country . One means of selling coins the Association devised was a campus @-@ wide drive at Yale University , alma mater of Association executive director Lorne W. Buckley , in October 1930 to raise money for Trail markers . More than 600 coins were sold .
Most 1928 Oregon Trail Memorial half dollars remained in the hands of the Treasury for several years after their striking , though the Association purchased an estimated 1 @,@ 000 for sale to the public . This impoundment by the government generated interest in the coin collecting community — several letters to the editor appeared in The Numismatist , enquiring as to the coins 's fate . One collector followed up with the Philadelphia Mint ; Acting Superintendent Fred H. Chaffin replied that the coins were being held there for the Association , and were dated 1928 . The OTMA had a financial crisis in 1931 , and was planning to close its doors , but operations continued , with headquarters moved from its Manhattan office to Driggs 's home in Bayside , Queens . The Association marketed the 1928 coins as the " Jedediah Smith Issue " .
In early 1933 , Driggs sought the issuance of more half dollars on behalf of the OTMA , writing to the acting Mint Director , Mary Margaret O 'Reilly. and then to Treasury Secretary William H. Woodin . Driggs wanted 5 @,@ 000 of the 1928 and 5 @,@ 000 new half dollars struck at Denver ( 1933 @-@ D ) , proposing to exchange 10 @,@ 000 half dollars dated 1926 . All the coins held by the government , including those acquired by the exchange , were to be melted . This was approved , and the pieces were duly struck at the Denver Mint , the first commemorative coins ever struck at Denver .
The Association had turned to the Scott Stamp and Coin Company of New York to market the coins . Scott was able to sell some of the 1928 half dollars . These actions have been interpreted negatively by numismatic scholars : Q. David Bowers alleges that Scott 's representative , Wayte Raymond , proposed melting most of the issue to create an artificial scarcity , and that the company " desired to capitalize on the gullibility of collectors and their need to complete sets by having more varieties coined . Scott figured that if additional Oregon Trail half dollars could be minted with the date 1933 they could be sold effectively at the Century of Progress Exposition held that year in Chicago . " Swiatek and Breen noted , " through God only knows what manner of political manipulation , the Oregon Trail Memorial Association managed to obtain approval of a new 1933 Denver issue " for sale at the exposition .
A total of 5 @,@ 250 of the 1933 @-@ D were struck , of which approximately five were reserved for the Assay Commission and 242 were eventually returned for melting . Bowers believes that the returned pieces were likely defective , rather than unsold . The Association dubbed the 1933 @-@ D the " Century of Progress Exposition Issue " ; both the 1928 and the 1933 @-@ D half dollars were sold for $ 2 each . However , the 1928 could be obtained for $ 1 @.@ 75 by anyone who had recently bought two or more of the 1926 issues , and could be purchased for as little as $ 1 @.@ 10 each by purchasing 10 of the 1926 @-@ dated coins .
With the relative success of the 1933 @-@ D issue , the Association ordered 7 @,@ 000 more in 1934 , also struck at Denver . These were dubbed the " Fort Hall , Fort Laramie and Jason Lee Issue " and were also sold by Scott , for $ 2 . These also were not paid for by the OTMA , but were an exchange for 1926 @-@ S half dollars — the distribution figure of 83 @,@ 055 for the 1926 @-@ S equals 100 @,@ 000 for the OTMA plus 55 assay pieces minus 17 @,@ 000 returned in exchange for the 1933 @-@ D and 1934 @-@ D pieces .
The resurrected Oregon Trail issue became controversial in the collecting community , with a large number of coin clubs passing resolutions against the reissues ; the president of the American Numismatic Association called for commemorative coins to be sold only by the Mint , not by private organizations . Driggs protested against the resolutions , copies of which were sent to federal authorities . Nevertheless , the 1935 @-@ S pieces he had requested of the Mint , and dies for which were prepared , were never struck , perhaps because of the indignation of collectors . Other reasons have been postulated for the lack of an issue in 1935 : in a 1937 monograph quoted by Bowers , early coin dealer B. Max Mehl speculated that it took Scott two years to dispose of the 1934 @-@ D pieces .
= = = Final issues and termination = = =
Beginning in 1934 , organizations and individuals saw small @-@ mintage commemoratives , struck at multiple mints over the course of years , as an opportunity for profit . Congress authorized several issues in 1934 , including the Texas Centennial half dollar , meant to honor the centennial of Texas Independence in 1936 , but struck from 1934 to 1938 , after 1934 at all three mints each year . More new commemoratives followed in 1935 , and over 20 in 1936 . These issues included the Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar , issued to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Cincinnati as a center of music , although nothing out of the ordinary is known to have taken place in that city 's musical life in 1886 .
Numismatist Arlie R. Slabaugh , in his volume on US commemorative coins , discussed the marketing practices of the 1930s :
Added to the abuse of reissues was the manner of selling these [ the Oregon Trail pieces ] and several other later issues of commemoratives . The price was often higher than the dollar per coin usually asked in the past , although most of the commemorative deluge came during the depression years . A few pieces at a higher price would not have been too bad , but on a large number of types , the cost to collectors added up . Then , too , many issues were sold only in sets . Coinage was generally small and sold out in only a few days . Speculation was rife — original cost was low to what it might be a short time later if you unfortunately missed having your order filled ... collectors who had not managed to obtain single specimens from the original source were forced to buy it at higher and higher prices from speculators — it soon became a regular round robin of higher and higher prices .
On December 30 , 1935 , Driggs wrote to O 'Reilly , who with the appointment of Nellie Tayloe Ross as Mint Director had resumed her position as Assistant Mint Director , seeking the issuance of 5 @,@ 000 Oregon Trail coins to be struck at San Francisco ( 1936 @-@ S ) to celebrate the centennial of the arrival of missionary Marcus Whitman and his wife in the Walla Walla Valley . O 'Reilly and other officials did not immediately answer and Driggs wrote again in March 1936 , Chaffin , again acting superintendent at Philadelphia , responded that the dies had been prepared and sent to San Francisco . The coins were sent at Driggs ' request to Scott 's in New York . In May , Driggs asked that 10 @,@ 000 more be struck at Philadelphia , and this was done . These were sold at the height of the commemorative coin boom . Some of the 1936 and 1936 @-@ S pieces were sold by Scott , others by the Association through a New York City mail drop , in either case at an initial price of $ 1 @.@ 60 per half dollar . Six each of the 1936 and 1936 @-@ S were struck in addition to the requested quantities , for assay .
In June 1936 , Herbert G. West , head of the Whitman Centennial Celebration , wrote to Driggs informing him that his group had sought and failed to gain ( unusually for 1936 ) a commemorative half dollar to finance its activities . West wanted Driggs to order a special issue of the Oregon Trail commemorative for the Whitman organization to sell . Driggs was non @-@ committal , first telling West that he hoped they might still be successful in gaining their own half dollar , and then that a special issue would be difficult to get as the mints had shut down for the summer . He eventually agreed to give the Whitman group a thousand 1936 @-@ S half dollars , on condition they not be sold for less than $ 1 @.@ 60 so as not to undercut the OTMA 's sales efforts . In fact , Driggs suggested a sale price of $ 2 , which was what the Whitman organization sold them for . These were dubbed the " Whitman Centennial Issue " , or the " Whitman Mission Issue " . Most of the 1936 pieces struck at Philadelphia were sold by the means of a mailing to Scott 's customer list . Some portion of each of the issues between 1933 and 1937 were reserved for sale by patriotic organizations .
The 1937 issue was distributed only by the Association as the deal with Scott had been ended . A total of 12 @,@ 000 pieces ( plus eight for the Assay Commission ) were struck at Denver , and were sold at $ 1 @.@ 60 . No special name was given to the issue . Coin dealer Mehl wondered in 1937 , " the 1936 Philadelphia Mint coin is now retailing at $ 5 and the San Francisco Mint at $ 10 . Where will this thing stop ? I don 't know . "
The 1938 coins , again without a special name , were struck at all three mints , the first time that had been done for the Oregon Trail coins in one year . Six thousand ( plus pieces for the Assay Commission ) were struck at each mint , and the issue was sold in sets of three , for $ 6 @.@ 25 . The same practice was followed in 1939 , but the price was raised to $ 7 @.@ 50 a set and the mintage reduced to 3 @,@ 000 coins , plus the assay pieces . According to Swiatek and Breen , these sets were also bought up by speculators , and individual collectors often had to pay double or triple the issue price to secure a set . The coins did not sell out instantly ; the OTMA 's accounting records reveal that nine months after the 1938 coins were put on sale , the organization still had almost half the issue available . Similarly , by October 1939 , the Association had sold only 8 @,@ 283 half dollars dated that year , less than the 9 @,@ 000 available for sale . Nevertheless , collectors sent letters of protest to congressmen and to the Treasury Department . On August 5 , 1939 , Congress acted , passing legislation that put an end to all commemorative issues authorized before March 1939 . Swiatek and Breen observed that if Congress had not intervened , " there would probably be Oregon Trail coins dated 1980 " .
A total of 264 @,@ 419 Oregon Trail Memorial half dollars were struck , of which approximately 174 were intended for the Assay Commission , and 61 @,@ 317 were melted . Accordingly , a total of 202 @,@ 928 were issued to the public . The Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar was the commemorative coin struck for the longest period . According to R.S. Yeoman 's 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins , the cheapest Oregon Trail coins are the 1926 and 1926 @-@ S at $ 135 in Almost Uncirculated . The 1939 pieces are listed only as a set and in Mint State condition ( uncirculated ) , beginning at $ 1 @,@ 600 .
= = Aftermath = =
The Oregon Trail Memorial Association became part of the newly formed American Pioneer Trails Association ( APTA ) in 1940 , a group meant to be broader in scope than the OTMA . A 1942 joint financial statement of both organizations reveals that it still held 7 @,@ 212 half dollars . It was selling 1936 and 1937 @-@ D half dollars in 1943 . A letter to the editor in the September 1943 issue of The Numismatist stated that the group was selling the pieces at $ 5 to finance stakes made of Oregon wood with which to mark the Trail . The sum of five dollars , which included membership , paid for a coin at a time , the letter noted , when the pieces were selling at $ 1 @.@ 50 from dealers .
Minnie Howard was still in 1947 trying to secure the site of Fort Hall , and as part of that effort got Idaho Senator Henry Dworshak to introduce legislation allowing the issuance of more Oregon Trail half dollars to benefit Howard 's Idaho organization . No sooner had he done so , on February 26 , than President Harry Truman announced his opposition to various coin bills that had been introduced . Acting Treasury Secretary E.F. Foley wrote in opposition , tracing the history between the OTMA and the Treasury Department , " Coins were ordered to be minted and left in the mints " . The Banking Committee opposed the bill , and it failed . According to a November 2014 article in The Numismatist , " With the efforts in the 1940s , the Oregon Trail half dollar , having seen its sunrise in Pocatello , met its sunset there as well . "
Driggs led the APTA until his death at age 89 in 1963 , but it became less active in his final years . He retained at least some half dollars , notifying the Mint in 1953 that the APTA was the successor to the OTMA , and still had half dollars for sale . After his death , over fifty Oregon Trail half dollars were found among his effects . Other groups have carried the APTA 's missions of Trail preservation and the building of monuments . In 1963 , two years before Howard 's death , the City of Pocatello erected a replica of Fort Hall in a park . The actual site , however , remains undeveloped , with an inconspicuous marker .
No commemorative coins were struck between 1939 and 1945 . When authorizations resumed after the war , issues in honor of Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver were sold , in some years , in low @-@ mintage sets of coins from all three mints . After 1954 , when the last such pieces were struck , the Treasury Department did not again support a non @-@ circulating commemorative until 1982 , when a half dollar in honor of the 250th anniversary of the birth of George Washington was issued . The Washington half dollar was distributed by the Mint , with profits applied to the reduction of the national debt . Bowers writes , " this time around [ , striking of commemorative coins ] would not be on behalf of private or local interests " .
In the past , numismatic writers have described the Association and its activities harshly . Bowers states that the Oregon Trail coins " are beautiful , but circumstances surrounding their issuance leave much to be desired " . Slabaugh noted that " Artistically , this is my favorite commemorative coin . But from an ethical standpoint , it is not . " Swiatek and Breen wrote that the Association 's " activities in exploiting coin collectors and the general public eventually led to the unpopularity of commemoratives in Congress and ultimately to adamant Treasury Department opposition to any further commemorative issues , no matter how worthy the cause to be memorialized , no matter who represented the sponsoring commissions " . According to Bowers , " as far as I know , the financial benefits which provided the reason for issuing the half dollars , ' to rescue the various important points along the old trail from oblivion , ' to erect ' suitable monuments , memorial and otherwise , ' etc . , never came to pass , at least not from money provided by the sale of the coins . " These , however , did not have the benefit of examining OTMA records . Following the opening of Driggs 's papers for research at Southern Utah University , an October 2013 article in The Numismatist concluded that though many documents , such as the arrangements with Scott 's , are missing from his records , what there is " seems consistent with Driggs wanting to use the coins to finance the marking of the Oregon Trail , not to line his own pockets " .
= = Mintages = =
A small number of coins from each year and mint were put aside for inspection by the following year 's Assay Commission , the above figures include such pieces . This accounts for the variance from the even thousand mintages in 1933 and after .
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= Battle of Sangju ( 1950 ) =
The Battle of Sangju ( Korean : 상주 전투 ) was an engagement between the United Nations and North Korean forces , occurring on July 20 – 31 , 1950 , in the village of Sangju in southern South Korea , early in the Korean War . It ended in a victory for the North Korean forces after they were able to push troops of the United States and South Korea out of the area .
Republic of Korea Army units had been unsuccessfully resisting advances by the North Korean People 's Army in the region when they were reinforced by the United States Army 's 25th Infantry Division , newly arrived in the country . In the subsequent fight , the 25th Infantry Division was able to inflict substantial casualties on the advancing NK 15th Division but was not able to hold its positions . In 11 days of fighting , the UN forces performed poorly and were forced to withdraw from Yechon County , the city of Sangju , and the surrounding areas .
The US 24th Infantry Regiment of the 25th Division was ineffective in its first showing . The regiment , composed mostly of black troops , was criticized by the Army for being quick to panic and retreat . Some historians have described the Army 's statements as biased , downplaying the regiment 's successes and overstating its failures .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict in support of South Korea . The United States subsequently sent ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II in 1945 , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , fighting alone and outnumbered for several weeks . They delayed much larger North Korean units while additional UN forces arrived and moved into position : the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units . South Korean forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea 's east coast , with entire divisions being overrun by the North Koreans ' superior firepower and equipment . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , being almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70 @,@ 000 for each side , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = US 25th Infantry Division arrives = = =
At the same time , on the east coast , the NK 12th Division was resting from its heavy battles north of the town of Sangju , a crossroads center for all the mountain roads in that part of Korea . Situated south of the Mun 'gyong plateau and the dividing watershed between the Han River and the Naktong River , Sangju had a commanding position in the valley of the Naktong , 45 miles ( 72 km ) northeast of Taegu . There was a large amount of confused activity around Sangju during the end of July , as refugees and stragglers from the defeated ROK Army poured south through the town . Many ROK units were retreating to Sangju and some had passed south through it . Isolated fighting had already begun between North Koreans and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) forces for control of the Mun 'gyong plateau when the US 25th Infantry Division under Major General William B. Kean , newly arrived in Korea on July 10 – 15 , received orders from General Walker to concentrate there to bolster ROK defenses of the central mountain corridors . Eighth Army Commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker looked to the 25th Division to help the ROK forces in central Korea prevent a major North Korean movement into the valley of the upper Naktong . The division stood at a strength of 13 @,@ 059 as of July 19 .
= = Battle = =
= = = Capture of Yechon = = =
The first action between elements of the 25th Division and North Korean forces took place at Yechon on July 20 . Company K , 3rd Battalion , US 24th Infantry Regiment , led by First Lieutenant Jasper R. Johnson , entered the town during the afternoon . When other units of the 3rd Battalion failed to take a ridge overlooking the town on the left , he requested and received permission to withdraw from the town for the night .
Meeting at the battalion command post , the commanders of the US units planned a renewed assault for 05 : 00 the next morning . Artillery and mortars fired on the town ahead of the infantry advance , and soon the town was on fire from the shells . By this time , however , Yechon had likely been abandoned by the North Koreans . At Hamch 'ang , Colonel Henry G. Fisher , commanding the US 35th Infantry Regiment , received an erroneous message early that morning stating that the North Koreans had driven the 24th Infantry from Yechon . He immediately left for Yechon . He found the battalion commander about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the town , but was dissatisfied with the information that he received from him . Fisher and a small party then drove on into Yechon , which was still burning . He encountered no North Korean troops or South Korean civilians . The 3rd Platoon , 77th Engineer Combat Company , attached to Company K , entered the town with the infantrymen and attempted to halt the spread of flames but were unable to do so because of high , shifting winds . The 24th Infantry then met light resistance from North Korean troops counterattacking the town , but drove them off , securing the town after several hours of fighting at a cost of 2 killed and 12 wounded . North Korean casualties at the fight could not be estimated . However , the US Army , preoccupied by the Battle of Taejon , took little notice and credited the victory to the South Koreans . News of the capture was picked up by the US media as the first fight won by black soldiers of the mostly black unit . By 13 : 00 Yechon was secured , and 3rd Battalion turned over control of the town to the ROK 18th Regiment of the ROK Capital Division . The Capital Division then concentrated the bulk of its forces there , and opposed the NK 8th Division in that vicinity the remainder of the month .
= = = Drawing battle lines = = =
Major General Kean and his 25th Division had to guard two main approaches to Sangju to keep the town from falling to the North Koreans . The main road crossed the Mun 'gyong plateau and passed through Hamch 'ang at the base of the plateau about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Sangju . Next , there was a secondary mountain road that crossed the plateau farther west and , once through the mountains , turned east toward Sangju .
On the main road , the 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry , held a blocking position northwest of Hamch 'ang , supported by a platoon of tanks from A Company , 78th Tank Battalion , and A Battery , 90th Field Artillery Battalion . The 1st Battalion was emplaced with the 2nd Battalion but stayed less than 24 hours before it was sent to reinforce the US 27th Infantry Regiment on the next north @-@ south line of communications westward . Thus , in effect , one battalion of US troops stood behind ROK units on the Hamch 'ang approach . On the second road , that leading into Sangju from the west , the 24th Infantry Regiment assembled two , and later all three , of its battalions .
The 2nd Battalion of the 35th Infantry took up a hill position northwest of Hamch 'ang and south of Mun 'gyong on the south side of a stream that flowed past Sangju to the Naktong . On the north side of the stream an ROK battalion held the front line . Brigadier General Vennard Wilson , the 25th 's Assistant Division Commander , ordered F Company of the battalion to be inserted in the center of the ROK line north of the stream , and this was done over the strong protests of the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel John L. Wilkins . Wilson thought the American troops would strengthen the ROK defense but Wilkins did not want the untried company to be dependent on ROK stability in its first engagement . Behind the ROK and F Company positions the ground rose to another hill within small arms range . Heavy rains had swollen the stream behind the ROK and F Company positions to a torrent that was rolling large boulders along its channel . In the meantime , the ROK 2nd Battalion , 17th Regiment , ambushed a battalion of North Korean troops near Tongkwanri , forcing it to withdraw .
= = = North Korean attack on Sangju = = =
On July 22 the North Koreans attacked . The ROK troops resisted briefly , but withdrew from their positions on either side of F Company without communicating their intentions . The withdrawal had been a part of the plan for reorganizing the line to incorporate the US troops , but F Company expected them to send a message before doing so , and did not adjust their defenses to compensate . North Korean troops quickly flanked F Company and began attacking it from the rear . This precipitated an unorganized withdrawal . The swollen stream prevented F Company from crossing to the south side and the 2nd Battalion positions . Walking wounded crowded along the stream where an effort to get them across failed . Two officers and two noncommissioned officers tied a pair of twisted telephone wires about their bodies and tried to swim to the other bank and fasten a line , but each in turn was swept downstream where they floundered ashore on the same bank where they had started . Some men drowned trying to cross the swollen river . The covering fire of a platoon of tanks on the south side held off the North Koreans and allowed most of the survivors to eventually escape . F Company lost 37 men : 6 killed , 10 wounded , and 21 missing .
The next morning five North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks crossed the river and moved toward Hamch 'ang . Artillery fire from A Battery of the 90th Field Artillery Battalion knocked out four of the tanks immediately . The fifth moved back across the river , where an air strike later destroyed it .
= = = UN consolidates around Sangju = = =
The 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry , was still in its position when it received orders to withdraw to a point 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Sangju on July 23 . On July 28 the battalion fell back 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) further , and the next day it moved to a position south of Sangju . On the last day of July , the 35th Infantry was ordered to a blocking position on a line of hills 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of Sangju on the Kumch 'on road . In 11 days it had fallen back about 30 miles ( 48 km ) on the Sangju front without encountering strong resistance , only North Korean patrols . During the battle , the 35th Infantry merely executed a series of withdrawals on division orders as the front around it collapsed , and was not heavily involved in the fighting .
The ROK 6th Division continued its hard @-@ fought action on the road through the mountains from Mun 'gyong , but gradually it fell back from in front of the NK 1st Division . In the mountains above Hamch 'ang the ROK 6th Division on July 24 destroyed seven North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks . Three days later the ROK 1st Division , now relieved northwest of Sangju by the US 24th Infantry and redeployed on the Hamch 'ang front , destroyed four more tanks there with 2 @.@ 36 @-@ inch bazookas and captured one tank intact . The remnants of the ROK 2nd Division , relieved by the 27th Infantry Regiment on the Hwanggan – Poun road , were incorporated into the ROK 1st Division . Thus , by July 24 the US 25th Division had taken over from the ROK 1st and 2nd Divisions the sector from Sangju westward to the Seoul – Taegu highway , and these ROK troops were moving into the line eastward and northward from Sangju on the Hamch 'ang front .
By July 27 all the Mun 'gyong divide was in North Korean possession and their units were moving into the valley of the upper Naktong in the vicinity of Hamch 'ang . Prisoners taken at the time and others captured later said that the NK 1st Division suffered 5 @,@ 000 casualties in the struggle for control of the divide , including the division commander who was wounded and replaced . The NK 13th Division , following the 1st , suffered about 500 casualties below Mun 'gyong , but otherwise it was not engaged during this period . The NK 15th Division , one of North Korea 's weaker divisions which consisted mostly of inexperienced youth , moved on Sangju . It was part of a concentrated attack by North Korean troops aiming to push the UN forces south before they had time to organize an effective defensive line .
Simultaneously with their appearance on the Hamch 'ang road at the southern base of the Mun 'gyong plateau north of Sangju , the North Koreans approached on the secondary mountain road to the west . On July 22 , F Company of the 35th Infantry was also attacked north of Hamch 'ang , when it was confronted with a North Korean battalion three times its size . The company fought effectively and inflicted heavy casualties , though the next day rains caused flooding of a river to the unit 's rear and cut off its route of supply . Assisted by artillery , it was able to disengage .
= = = The 24th Infantry falters = = =
Elements of the US 24th Infantry Regiment had a similar experience west of Sangju . On that day , the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , and elements of the ROK 17th Regiment were advancing into the mountains 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of the town . There , they came into contact with the NK 48th Regiment , 15th Division , the leading element of the North Korean troops . With E Company leading , 2nd Battalion moved along the dirt road into a gorge with precipitous mountain walls . Suddenly , a North Korean light mortar and one or two automatic weapons fired on E Company . It stopped and the men dispersed along the sides of the road .
Soon North Korean rifle fire came in on the dispersed men and E and F Companies immediately began withdrawing in a disorderly manner . Troops began shying from the front and retreating without orders , ignoring officers ' commands to stay in position . Colonel Horton V. White , the regimental commander , heard of the difficulty and drove hurriedly to the scene . He found the battalion coming back down the road in disorder and most of the men in a state of panic . Historians blame the retreat as much on officers ' ineptitude as individual soldiers panicking . He mustered the men and ordered a retreat but by then many soldiers were withdrawing on their own . The next day the ROK 17th Regiment enveloped the North Korean position that had launched the attack and captured two light machine guns , one mortar , and about 30 North Koreans who appeared to be guerrillas . The ROK 17th Regiment fought in the hills for the next two days , making some limited gains , and then it moved back to Sangju to join other units as part of the ROK Army reorganization in progress around Pusan . This left only the US 24th Infantry Regiment guarding the west approach to Sangju from the Mun 'gyong plateau .
The tendency to panic continued in nearly all the 24th Infantry operations west of Sangju . Men left their positions and straggled to the rear . They abandoned weapons on positions . On many occasions units lost most of their equipment while on the move , even when not under fire , causing logistical shortages . In other cases the majority of a unit would desert its position at the first sign of North Korean fire .
By July 26 all three battalions of the 24th Infantry were concentrated in remote battle positions that were difficult to resupply , astride the road 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Sangju . The shortage of UN troops forced the regiment to devote most of its troops to the front , leaving very few reserves to respond to attacks . Elements of the NK 15th Division advancing on this road had cleared the mountain passes and were closing with the regiment . From July 26 to the end of the month the North Koreans had almost constant contact with the 24th Infantry , which was supported by the 159th and 64th Field Artillery Battalions and one battery of the 90th Field Artillery Battalion . The North Koreans relied heavily on massed charges to close rapidly on the US lines . This caused heavy casualties for the North Koreans , but their mortars and artillery inflicted significant casualties on the American lines in turn .
During the last days of July , the 24th Infantry generally tried to hold positions during the day , and then withdrew at night . Their performance was mixed ; during the first few North Korean attacks , most units held positions until they ran out of ammunition . Higher officers attempted to move the units back in position but were unsuccessful in the face of mounting North Korean resistance . Notably , L Company fought until surrounded by North Korean attackers ; the rest of the regiment was able to drive them off .
On July 29 the 1st Battalion suffered about 60 casualties from North Korean mortar fire . As the men were preparing their perimeter defense for the night , a general panic arose , for reasons that are still unclear . Most of them deserted their positions in a state of alarm . Colonel White found himself , the 77th Combat Engineer Company , and a battery of the 159th Field Artillery Battalion all that was left in the front line . He had to personally reorganize the battalion as many of his officers were unable to get the men to listen to them . As White tried to rally his men , the field artillery maintained a sustained barrage of fire to slow the North Koreans advance . That night alone the artillery fired 3 @,@ 000 rounds in holding back the North Koreans .
= = = US withdrawal = = =
In the final days of the fight , to the west of Sangju , Major John R. Woolridge , one of the regiment 's senior officers , set up a check point west of the town and stopped every vehicle coming from the west , taking off stragglers attempting to retreat . Many jeeps were filled with six or seven men claiming they were retreating after their position was overrun . He averaged about 75 stragglers a day , and 150 on the last day of the battle . A contingent of military police were dispatched specifically to collect men abandoning their positions and to return them to the front .
By July 30 , the 24th Infantry had withdrawn to the last defensible high ground west of Sangju , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the town . The North Korean troops hit the regiment with heavy attacks beginning at 05 : 00 that morning , targeting the 3rd Battalion 's forward positions . Overstretched , lacking reserves and plagued by stragglers , the regiment began to come apart and senior commanders had to personally move into the front lines to help resist the Korean advance with their sidearms . The regiment had deteriorated so badly by this time that General Kean recalled the 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , and placed it in defensive positions behind the 24th Infantry , to hold the line when the 24th withdrew . The next day North Koreans again pressed against the regiment 's forward line of resistance . First Lieutenant Leon A. Gilbert , commanding A Company , and about 15 men then quit the forward line . White and other ranking officers ordered Gilbert back into position , but he refused to go , saying that he was scared . The senior noncommissioned officer returned to the forward position with the men . After regimental commanders pleaded unsuccessfully with Gilbert to return to his position , he was arrested and tried for desertion under fire , a capital offense , and sentenced to death . His sentence was later reduced to 17 years in prison , but he served only five of them .
Finally , during the night of July 31 the 24th Infantry Regiment withdrew through Sangju . The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , covered the withdrawal . The NK 15th Division set up a new defensive line at Sangju the next day as the 25th Infantry Division was moved to deal with a growing attack on Masan to the south .
= = Aftermath = =
In 11 days of action in the Sangju area the 24th Regiment had suffered 323 battle casualties , 27 killed , 293 wounded , and 3 missing . The light casualty count was partially credited to effective use of fortifications and North Korean caution in advancing during the fight , but the fact that 24th Infantry troops were quick to withdraw was also blamed . The regiment , a mostly black unit left over from the US military 's recently abolished segregated system , was blasted for its poor performance during the fight . Walker , seeing the 24th Infantry as an ineffective unit , resolved to use it only as a " trip wire force " on the front lines , requiring it to be reinforced by another regiment in reserve to conduct serious resistance when the 24th broke . Other leaders saw the poor performance as a reason to demand further integration of the armed forces , which had not been easy to do before the war . The 24th Infantry was fully desegregated on October 1 , 1951 .
In reaching the upper Naktong valley at the end of July , the North Korean divisions engaged in this part of the drive southward had suffered heavy casualties . The NK 1st Division in battling across the Mun 'gyong plateau against the ROK 6th Division not only suffered great losses in the ground battle but also took serious losses from UN aerial attack . Prisoners reported that by the time it reached Hamch 'ang at the end of July it was down to 3 @,@ 000 men from the 5 @,@ 500 it had before the push . The NK 15th Division , according to prisoners , also lost heavily to artillery and mortar fire in its drive on Sangju against ROK troops and the US 24th Infantry Regiment , and was down to about 5 @,@ 000 men at the end of July , from 7 @,@ 500 before the fight . In contrast , the NK 13th Division had bypassed Hamch 'ang on the west and , save for minor skirmishes with ROK troops and the 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry , it had not been engaged and consequently had suffered relatively few casualties .
In the years since the war , the battle has been investigated as an example of the prevalence of racism in the US Army during the Korean War . The 24th Infantry , though officially desegregated , was still made up overwhelmingly of African @-@ American soldiers . Historians contend its accomplishments , particularly at Yechon , were ignored while shortcomings were seized upon to depict the 24th as a sub @-@ par unit and African @-@ Americans as inferior soldiers to whites . Historians have also pointed out that although the performance of the 24th Infantry was indeed poor , these failings were exaggerated due to racism . Black Soldier , White Army , a 1988 book by William T. Bowers , William M. Hammond and George L. MacGarrigle , concluded that a combination of an overextended line and inexperienced white officers who were not firm or effective in asserting their authority were the primary factors in the performance of the 24th . Others contend that the untested regiment performed similarly to units of the 24th Infantry Division and 1st Cavalry Division in their first engagements . With training , many of the same troops became effective fighters in a matter of weeks . Lieutenant Colonel Charles M. Bussey , a member of the 24th Infantry that participated in the battle , claimed in his memoir Firefight at Yechon : Courage and Racism in the Korean War that the 24th Infantry 's good performances , particularly at Yechon , were ignored , and soldiers denied medals for their actions because of racism .
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= Missouri Route 246 =
Route 246 is a 15 @.@ 002 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 24 @.@ 143 km ) east — west highway in extreme northern Missouri . The western terminus is at Route 148 in Hopkins . The route travels eastward to supplemental Route E , where it becomes concurrent and starts traveling south . It then continues east to its terminus at Route 46 east of Sheridan . Formerly a spur route of Route 46 and supplemental Route D , Route 246 was designated around 1954 , and was extended west to Hopkins in 1955 .
= = Route description = =
All of Route 246 is a two @-@ lane undivided highway . It starts at Route 148 as McPherson Street in Hopkins and heads eastward . The road soon leaves Hopkins and enters widespread farmlands . Less than a mile later , Route 246 meets the northern terminus of Route AC , a supplemental route . The route continues eastward for several miles , until it intersects Route E. There , it becomes concurrent with Route E , and moves south for two miles . After the route leaves Route E , it continues east towards Sheridan . The road passes through more farmland with a few trees , and crosses into Worth County . Near Sheridan , Route 246 shifts slightly north , and continues east toward the center of the village . Route 246 intersects the southern terminus of Route H , and leaves Sheridan . The road crosses over the One Hundred and Two River and shifts back southward . The route ends at Route 46 at a T @-@ intersection a few miles east of Sheridan . The highest traffic count is east of Sheridan , where 541 vehicles travel the road daily , on average . The lowest traffic count is along the four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of Route E , where 152 vehicles travel the road daily , on average .
= = History = =
Between 1918 and 1926 , Route 46 was extended to Sheridan . Soon after , in 1933 , it extended south , two miles east of Sheridan . The extension caused the road to Sheridan to become a spur route of Route 46 . The spur route was then extended west into Nodaway County around 1948 – 1949 , and was numbered supplemental route D. Four years later , the route was extended to Route 27 ( now Route 148 ) . In 1954 , Route 246 was designated , starting from Sheridan , and ending at Route 46 . The next year , Route 246 was extended to replace supplemental route D as the main connector from Hopkins to Route 46 . The whole route was surfaced in concrete by 1959 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Cyclone Gamede =
Cyclone Gamede was among the wettest tropical cyclones on record , dropping more than 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) of rain in a nine @-@ day period on Réunion island in the southwest Indian Ocean . The seventh named storm of the 2006 – 07 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Gamede formed on February 20 as a tropical depression to the south of Diego Garcia . It tracked generally westward and steadily intensified , passing northwest of Mauritius and Réunion as a broad but moderately intense tropical cyclone . For four days it remained within 400 km ( 250 mi ) of Réunion before accelerating southward , and on March 3 Gamede transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the south of Madagascar .
Gamede broke rainfall records set by Tropical Cyclone Hyacinthe 27 years earlier for the accumulated totals between three and nine days . The rainfall caused moderate damage in Réunion , and in the southern portion of the island a bridge collapsed due to the storm . Two people each were killed on Mauritius and Réunion . The name Gamede was submitted to the World Meteorological Organization by South Africa .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 19 , an area of convection persisted over a weak , but well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation about 1130 km ( 700 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . It quickly developed banding features , and organized into a tropical disturbance . Located beneath an anticyclone , the system experienced weak vertical wind shear and favorable outflow . With a subtropical ridge to its south , the disturbance tracked quickly westward . Early on February 20 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Ten , and later in the day the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as the convection improved significantly in organization . It strengthened further , attaining tropical storm status by 0000 UTC on February 21 , and six hours later the MFR named the system Gamede while it was about 785 km ( 490 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia , or about 995 km ( 620 mi ) northeast of Rodrigues .
After being named , Gamede quickly intensified , and the JTWC classified it with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) early on February 22 . As it turned west @-@ southwestward , an eye feature became evident on satellite imagery , and the JTWC upgraded Gamede to tropical cyclone status , or the equivalence of a minimal hurricane . Subsequently , its intensification rate slowed somewhat , due to restricted outflow . At 0000 UTC on February 23 the MFR upgraded the storm to Tropical Cyclone Gamede , and shortly thereafter it passed over St. Brandon island . Subsequently , outflow became better established , and the JTWC unofficially estimated the cyclone attained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) late on February 23 about 250 km ( 400 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Mauritius island . Initially it was forecast to strengthen further , though slight weakening occurred when a nearby upper @-@ level trough restricted outflow .
Cyclone Gamede remained a broad system , and by February 24 it produced winds of near gale force up to 670 km ( 415 mi ) southeast of its center ; later in the day , it passed about 300 km ( 190 mi ) north of Réunion , its closest point of approach to the island . For over 90 hours , the cyclone remained within 400 km ( 250 mi ) of the island , resulting in torrential rainfall in the island 's mountainous region . Radar imagery on the island indicated Gamede maintained an eye diameter of 60 – 70 km ( 37 – 43 mi ) . After tracking generally southwestward for several days , a building ridge to its south changed the motion of the cyclone to the west before it became quasi @-@ stationary . Initially , it was predicted to continue westward and strike Madagascar near Toamasina . The cyclone re @-@ intensified while executing a small loop , and late on February 25 Gamede officially attained peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) about halfway between Réunion island and the coast of Madagascar ; at the time , wind gusts in association with the storm reached 230 km / h ( 135 mph ) .
The cyclone weakened while remaining nearly stationary , losing most of its deep convection due to upwelling ; this is the process in which a stationary storm causes the water temperatures to decrease by bringing the cooler , deeper waters to the surface . It remained nearly stationary until beginning a steady south @-@ southwestward motion late on February 26 , a change due to an approaching mid @-@ level trough to its south . On February 28 , convection increased around a rebuilding eyewall as it accelerated southward , though on March 1 the cyclone again weakened as wind shear increased and as water temperatures gradually decreased . Gamede weakened to tropical storm status as its center became exposed from the deep convection , and late on March 1 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . After completing the transition , the storm became nearly stationary for about two days , during which its winds decreased to below gale force . The remnants of Gamede turned westward and persisted until dissipating on March 6 .
= = Preparations = =
In Mauritius , a total of 200 people evacuated to storm shelters due to the cyclone . The island was under a Cyclone Warning Class III for 36 hours , and for a few more hours it was under a Cyclone Warning Class IV , the latter meaning wind gusts of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) were reported or expected . Prior to the storm affecting the area , officials in Réunion closed schools and also issued a temporary driving ban . Due to the threat of the storm , several flights in and out of Mauritius , Réunion , and Rodrigues were canceled . Fishermen were banned from sailing out to sea .
= = Impact and records = =
On midday February 23 , Cyclone Gamede moved over St. Brandon island , where a pressure of 960 mbar was recorded .
The cyclone affected the country of Mauritius on February 25 . Power was knocked out to 70 % of the island 's population , and some light infrastructure damage was also reported . Food crops were also affected . Despite warnings to remain inside , several people ventured outside during the storm . Gamede killed two on Mauritius , including one who drowned in high waves .
The large size of the cyclone resulted in several days of very heavy , continuous rainfall in the mountainous region on Réunion island . The island is the location for several tropical cyclone rainfall records ; due to the orography of the island , tropical moisture will travel upward to the volcanic peaks , where it cools and codifies into rainfall . The heaviest totals occurred from February 24 through February 28 . Commerson 's Crater , located at an elevation of 2 @.@ 3 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) , reported 2463 mm ( 97 in ) in 48 hours , which is just short of the worldwide record set by an unnamed tropical cyclone in April 1958 . Gamede broke worldwide rainfall records between three and nine days , with its total precipitation amounting to 5512 mm ( 217 in ) in Commerson 's Crater ; Tropical Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980 remains the wettest tropical cyclone on record , having produced greater totals after ten days . Several locations on the island reported great totals . In a 24 ‑ hour period , Hell @-@ Bourg reported 1489 mm ( 58 @.@ 6 in ) , and in a 72 ‑ hour period , Cilaos reported 2321 mm ( 91 @.@ 4 in ) .
The passage of the cyclone left about 100 @,@ 000 homes without power or water on Réunion . The rainfall caused some flood damage , and the combination of precipitation and strong winds caused heavy crop damage , including to the sugar cane and banana crops . Several roads and bridges were damaged on the island . A 520 m ( 1700 ft ) bridge over the Saint Etienne River collapsed near Saint @-@ Louis , with the cost estimated at € 20 million ( 2007 EUR , $ 26 million 2007 USD ) . The bridge , which carried about 50 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , collapsed as river flow increased from the heavy rainfall ; two towns were left temporarily isolated due to the incident . Two people died on the island after attempting to cross rivers during the storm . Nine people were injured on the island , including two who were seriously injured . A peak wind gust of 205 km / h ( 127 mph ) was reported on the island . On June 13 , 2007 , the government of France provided a relief fund to Réunion of € 17 @.@ 6 million ( 2007 EUR ) in aid , including € 9 @.@ 6 million for farmers affected by the cyclone . The assistance provided € 7 @.@ 7 million for repairing roads and infrastructure , including rebuilding the destroyed bridge over the Saint Etienne River . In the immediate aftermath of the storm , officials deployed army resources to establish a temporary aerial bridge while a new bridge was built .
Rough waves and strong winds affected a cruise ship to the east of Madagascar ; several windows were broken , though no serious injuries were reported . Along Madagascar 's east coast , Gamede produced squally rain and winds . Gamede had followed shortly after Tropical Cyclones Bondo , Clovis , and Favio , being the fourth tropical cyclone to impact Madagascar in two months .
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= Sam Allardyce =
Samuel " Sam " Allardyce ( / ˈælərdaɪs / ) ( born 19 October 1954 ) , known as " Big Sam " , is an English football manager and former professional player who is manager of the English national team .
Allardyce made 578 league and cup appearances in a 21 @-@ year career spent mostly in the Football League , as well as brief spells in the North American Soccer League and League of Ireland . A strong central defender , he had good awareness , heading skills and anticipation . He was signed by Bolton Wanderers from Dudley Town in 1969 and spent nine years at Bolton , helping the club to win the Second Division title in 1977 – 78 . He spent the 1980s as a journeyman player , spending time with Sunderland , Millwall , Tampa Bay Rowdies , Coventry City , Huddersfield Town , Bolton Wanderers ( for a second spell ) , Preston North End , and West Bromwich Albion ( also working as assistant manager ) . During this time he helped Preston to win promotion out of the Fourth Division in 1986 – 87 .
Moving into management , he took charge of Irish club Limerick in 1991 , leading the club to the League of Ireland First Division title in 1991 – 92 . He returned to England to coach at Preston North End , also serving briefly as caretaker @-@ manager . He took up his first permanent management role in England at Blackpool in July 1994 , but was sacked after two years having narrowly failed to achieve promotion . He spent January 1997 to October 1999 in charge at Notts County , taking them to the Third Division title in 1997 – 98 . He then returned to Bolton Wanderers as manager , leading the club to promotion out of the First Division via the play @-@ offs in 2001 , as well as a League Cup final and UEFA Cup qualification . Following a spell at Newcastle United from May 2007 to January 2008 , Allardyce managed Blackburn Rovers for a two @-@ year spell from December 2008 . He was appointed West Ham United manager in June 2011 , leading the club to promotion out of the Championship via the play @-@ offs in 2012 , before leaving West Ham in May 2015 after criticism from fans over his playing style . He was appointed Sunderland manager in October 2015 and saved the club from relegation . He was appointed as manager of the English national team in July 2016 .
Allardyce has been labelled as a long ball manager by some analysts , though has disputed this perception as " totally and utterly wrong " . He takes a modern , technology and statistics centred approach to tactics and coaching , and has been praised for his organisational and man @-@ management skills . He has been married since June 1974 , and has two children . In September 2006 , Allardyce , and his son , Craig , were implicated in a BBC Panorama documentary for taking " bungs " ( bribes ) ; they strongly denied the allegations and have never been charged with any offences .
= = Early life = =
Samuel Allardyce was born in October 1954 in a council house on the Old Park Farm Estate , Dudley , the son of Robert Allardyce ( 1916 – 1989 ) and Mary Agnes Allardyce ( 1918 – 1991 ) . His father was a police sergeant . Both parents originated from Scotland . He has an older sister , Mary , born in Scotland in 1939 and an older brother , Robert junior , born in 1951 . Allardyce was educated at Sycamore Green Primary School and later at Mons Hill School , failing his Eleven plus exam . He discovered in later life that he suffers from dyslexia . As a child , he supported Wolverhampton Wanderers and dreamed that one day he would play at and manage the club .
= = Club career = =
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
Allardyce spent his youth with semi @-@ professional side Dudley Town , making his debut at the age of 14 he quickly learned how to play centre @-@ half in the highly physical West Midlands ( Regional ) League . He trained with local Football League clubs West Bromwich Albion and Wolverhampton Wanderers , and had an unsuccessful trial with Aston Villa . He was spotted by Bolton Wanderers just before leaving school at the age of 15 , and signed an apprenticeship with the club . To supplement his income before officially starting his apprenticeship he worked in a factory producing record decks . The Bolton under @-@ 18s were very successful , winning the Lancashire Youth Cup and reaching the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Youth Cup , and Allardyce quickly rose through the B @-@ team into the A @-@ team . He signed his first professional contract on his 17th birthday , receiving a £ 125 signing on fee and wages of £ 14 a week .
Manager Jimmy Armfield gave Allardyce his debut for the " Trotters " on 6 November 1973 , in a 2 – 1 defeat League Cup to Millwall at Burnden Park . He made his Second Division debut eleven days later , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Notts County . However he failed to establish himself in the first team under Armfield , and only got a run of games under new manager Ian Greaves , who played Allardyce in the last ten games of the 1974 – 75 season after he sold Don McAllister to Tottenham Hotspur . He impressed during this short run , winning himself the club 's Young Player of the Year award .
Bolton lost to Newcastle United after two replays in the FA Cup Fifth Round in the 1975 – 76 season , and went on to miss out on promotion out of the league by a single point . They suffered similar disappointment in the 1976 – 77 campaign , reaching the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup , and again finished just one point outside the promotion places . Promotion was finally achieved in the 1977 – 78 season , as Bolton returned to the First Division as champions of the Second Division . Bolton consolidated their top @-@ flight status with a 17th @-@ place finish in 1978 – 79 . However the 1979 – 80 season proved difficult , and manager Greaves was sacked as the club went seven months without a league victory , whilst his replacement Stan Anderson was unable to steer the club away from relegation and a last @-@ place finish . Allardyce decided to leave Bolton at the end of the season as he felt that he was underpaid at Bolton and did not get on with Anderson .
= = = Sunderland and Millwall = = =
Allardyce was offered a contract by Norwich City manager John Bond , but the offer was bettered by Colin Addison at Derby County , and he verbally agreed a three @-@ year contract with Derby . However , before signing the contract he received a late offer from Ken Knighton to play for Sunderland on a £ 300 a week contract with a £ 20 @,@ 000 signing on fee – which more than quadrupled his wage at Bolton . Knighton appointed him as club captain . However Allardyce soon wearied of the long @-@ distance travel from Sunderland to his home in Bolton , and put in a transfer request when chairman Tom Cowie refused to help finance the purchase of a home in Sunderland . Cowie sacked Knighton late in the 1980 – 81 season , leaving caretaker manager Mick Docherty in charge to steer the club out of the First Division relegation zone . New manager Alan Durban left Allardyce out of the team at the start of the 1981 – 82 campaign , leaving Allardyce 's departure from Roker Park inevitable .
He was offered the chance to return to Bolton Wanderers , but manager George Mulhall was only able to offer 50 % of Allardyce 's wages at Sunderland . Instead he made a surprise £ 95 @,@ 000 move to Third Division side Millwall , who were able to match Sunderland 's wages and also pay out a £ 30 @,@ 000 signing on fee and a £ 10 @,@ 000 loyalty bonus . Millwall player @-@ manager Peter Anderson had seen Allardyce as the successor to long @-@ serving central defender Barry Kitchener , and as Anderson was also a property developer he allowed Allardyce to live rent free in a six @-@ bedroom mansion . The " Lions " ended the 1981 – 82 season in mid @-@ table , and Anderson was sacked in November 1982 . Chairman Alan Thorne offered Allardyce the vacant management position , but Allardyce rejected the offer as he felt that at aged 28 he was far too young to enter management . Instead it was George Graham who took up his first management position , and Graham immediately froze Allardyce out of the first team on both matchdays and training after Allardyce insisted that he would not report teammates who broke Graham 's rules . He came close to joining Charlton Athletic on a free transfer in March 1983 , but Charlton boss Lennie Lawrence did not complete the move before the end of the transfer deadline . Graham agreed to pay Allardyce £ 15 @,@ 000 to cancel his contract , acting under the assumption that Allardyce would struggle to find a club willing to offer him £ 300 a week .
= = = Later career = = =
Allardyce wrote to every club in the top two divisions to inform them he was available on a free transfer , and privately lamented choosing his past clubs for financial rather than footballing reasons . Over the summer he played 11 games in the North American Soccer League for the Tampa Bay Rowdies , a club that shared facilities with the NFL 's Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Allardyce subsequently applied in his managerial career many modern practices of American football with regards to training , player management and tactics . He found playing difficult however , due to the heat and the all @-@ out attacking nature of his teammates , which led to him being frequently exposed at the back , though he found that the club 's masseurs managed to cure a long @-@ standing hamstring scar tissue problem .
Upon returning to the UK he joined Bobby Gould 's First Division Coventry City on a one @-@ year £ 300 a week contract . He was made captain , and though Coventry enjoyed a good first half to the 1983 – 84 season they faltered badly in the second half of the season and finished just one place and two points above the relegation zone after beating Norwich City on the final day of the season . Midway through the campaign Gould had promised him a new two @-@ year contract , but following the poor end to the season he instead opted to release Allardyce .
In July 1984 , he was signed by Mick Buxton at Second Division Huddersfield Town . The move reunited him with Paul Jones , his former centre @-@ half partner at Bolton . Huddersfield finished in 13th place in the 1984 – 85 season , and at the end of the campaign accepted an offer of £ 15 @,@ 000 from Bolton Wanderers , who offered Allardyce a three @-@ year contract . Bolton were then managed by Charlie Wright , who was the goalkeeper at Allardyce 's first spell with the club . However Wright was sacked in December 1985 , and his successor , Phil Neal , did not get along with Allardyce . Neal played himself at centre @-@ half and relegated Allardyce to the bench , despite Neal being a full @-@ back . Bolton reached the 1986 Football League Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , which ended in a 3 – 0 defeat to Bristol City , with Allardyce as an unused substitute .
Allardyce was offered the chance to join Tranmere Rovers , but instead joined Preston North End after being persuaded by manager John McGrath , who promised to make Allardyce the backbone of his team . Preston won promotion out of the Fourth Division in second @-@ place in 1986 – 87 ( Allardyce was also named on the PFA Team of the Year ) , and consolidated their Third Division status with a 16th @-@ place finish in 1987 – 88 . By this time Allardyce began considering his retirement as a player , and applied to management positions at York City and Notts County , and had an unsuccessful interview with Doncaster Rovers .
= = Style of play = =
Bolton fans gave him the nickname " Super Sam Bionic Man " due to his tough tackling approach and the way he quickly got up after heavy collisions whilst the opposition player would be left flat on the ground . Veteran manager Dave Bassett , a friend of Allardyce , once humorously remarked that " He was what I called a ball @-@ playing defender ... If he wasn 't playing with the ball he was playing with your balls . " He was uncomfortable in possession , and played simple balls to his nearest teammates when he found himself with the ball , whilst teammates would be reluctant to pass to him . He did however possess good awareness and heading skills , and his anticipation made up for his lack of pace .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Allardyce was hired as a player @-@ coach by Brian Talbot at West Bromwich Albion in February 1989 . He spent most of the rest of the 1988 – 89 season at The Hawthorns managing and playing for the reserve team , before being promoted to first team coach in the summer , in a move that saw former first team coach Stuart Pearson demoted to reserve team coaching . Allardyce and Talbot were sacked in January 1991 following a defeat to Isthmian League side Woking in the FA Cup . He later worked as a part @-@ time coach at Bury , but manager Mike Walsh could not afford to keep him on the staff for the 1989 – 90 season .
Allardyce then took up the role of player @-@ manager of Limerick , and guided the team to promotion into the top @-@ flight of the League of Ireland by finishing top of the First Division in 1991 – 92 . They achieved promotion despite tremendous financial pressures , with Allardyce coaching and playing for the first team whilst the club board signed players as Allardyce had no knowledge of the Irish football scene .
After his season in Ireland , Allardyce returned to England for the start of the 1992 – 93 season to coach at Preston North End under Les Chapman . Ten games into the season , however , Chapman was sacked and Allardyce was appointed caretaker manager . Despite a promising spell in charge , Allardyce did not get the job on a permanent basis , and in December 1992 Preston appointed John Beck as manager . Allardyce worked as youth team coach for 18 months , but later said the extreme long ball tactics Beck enforced upon the club were " indefensible " .
= = = Blackpool = = =
In July 1994 , Blackpool , West Lancashire derby rivals to Preston North End , appointed Allardyce as their new manager following the departure of Billy Ayre , agreeing a salary of £ 18 @,@ 000 a year . He signed defender Darren Bradshaw , midfielder Micky Mellon and spent a club record £ 245 @,@ 000 on Andy Morrison , who Allardyce described as a " horrible in @-@ your @-@ face " centre @-@ back and a " complete nutter " . He also changed the club 's backroom staff , hiring Bobby Saxton as his assistant , promoting player Phil Brown to a coaching role , and appointing Mark Taylor as physio , who would follow Allardyce to Blackburn and Newcastle . Blackpool finished the 1994 – 95 season in 12th place after falling out of the promotion race with just one win in their final 11 games .
He spent £ 200 @,@ 000 on striker Andy Preece , and also brought in young defender Jason Lydiate and goalkeeper Steve Banks for the 1995 – 96 campaign . Blackpool finished third , missing out on automatic promotion on the last day of the season , and were beaten in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals by Bradford City . They had won 2 – 0 away at Valley Parade , only to lose 3 – 0 in the return leg at Bloomfield Road . Chairman Owen Oyston , while he was in a prison cell , sacked Allardyce shortly after the play @-@ off defeat . Allardyce then had a brief spell on the coaching staff under Peter Reid at Sunderland , working as director of the academy .
" We had missed promotion to the First Division by a point . Yet it had all been done on next @-@ to @-@ nothing , and during the months leading towards the end of the season , I hardly ever saw Owen Oyston . But he always assured me that , no matter what , my job would be safe . I turned up for that meeting having been told it was to discuss new terms . Instead , I was told that I was being sacked . It was cold , calculated , pre @-@ planned , whatever . I walked out of there with ₤ 10 @,@ 000 , no job , and desperately worried that my reputation would be damaged forever . "
= = = Notts County = = =
In January 1997 , Allardyce made his return to football as manager of struggling Division Two club Notts County . He arrived too late to save them from relegation in 1996 – 97 , and in his autobiography described how the players " would not respond " to his coaching methods as they went 18 games without a win and pressure mounted on Allardyce . However he held on to his job , and led the club to promotion as champions of Division Three at the end of the 1997 – 98 season , built upon a three @-@ man defence and a mid @-@ season run of ten consecutive wins . County broke several club and national records , winning the title by a 19 @-@ point margin and becoming the first post @-@ war side to win promotion in March .
Despite the success , chairman Derek Pavis refused to spend money on transfers , and as a result fell out with Allardyce . Allardyce was eventually allowed to spend £ 50 @,@ 000 on striker Kevin Rapley , who helped the club to steer clear of relegation at the end of the 1998 – 99 campaign . In the summer he signed midfielder Craig Ramage and utility player Clayton Blackmore . Allardyce remained in charge at Meadow Lane until 14 October 1999 , when he resigned his post at Notts County to return to Bolton Wanderers .
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
= = = = Promotion out of Division One = = = =
Allardyce was appointed manager of Bolton Wanderers following Colin Todd 's departure , who had resigned in protest at the sale of Per Frandsen as the club attempted to raise funds for the new Reebok Stadium . He inherited a talented squad , which included Eiður Guðjohnsen , Jussi Jääskeläinen , Mark Fish , Claus Jensen , Dean Holdsworth , Bo Hansen , Michael Johansen , and Ricardo Gardner . However he was forced to sell Andy Todd , son of Colin Todd , after he broke assistant manager Phil Brown 's jaw in a team bonding session . Despite being in the bottom half of the table when he took over , Bolton reached the 1999 – 2000 Division One play @-@ offs , losing to Ipswich Town , and had an eventful run to the League Cup and FA Cup semi @-@ finals , only missing out on the 2000 FA Cup Final after a penalty shoot @-@ out defeat to Aston Villa . He blamed referee Barry Knight for the play @-@ off defeat , who he accused of being biased against Bolton . Allardyce was rewarded for turning the club around with a ten @-@ year contract , though the terms of the contract only entitled him to a one year 's compensation pay if he was sacked .
In summer 2000 , Guðjohnsen and Jensen were sold for £ 4 million each . Allardyce focused on spending money to improve the club 's facilities and backroom staff , believing that money spent in these areas would allow Bolton to compete with clubs who had bigger budgets and paid bigger wages than Bolton could afford . On the playing front he spent £ 400 @,@ 000 on striker Michael Ricketts and £ 1 @.@ 5 million to bring back Frendsen from Blackburn , and also signed utility player Ian Marshall and Bradford City loanee Isaiah Rankin . Teenager Kevin Nolan was also promoted from the youth team , whilst 35 @-@ year @-@ old defender Colin Hendry arrived on loan . Bolton reached the play @-@ off final at the Millennium Stadium in 2000 – 01 , where they beat Preston North End 3 – 0 to achieve promotion to the Premier League after a three @-@ year absence .
= = = = Premier League survival = = = =
Building for the 2001 – 02 Premier League campaign , Allardyce signed France international defender Bruno N 'Gotty from Marseille in a loan deal which was eventual made into a permanent one after N 'Gotty established himself as a key first team player . He also brought in Henrik Pedersen from Silkeborg IF for £ 650 @,@ 000 , though otherwise remained loyal to the players that had won promotion the previous campaign . They recorded a 5 – 0 win at Leicester City on the opening day , then beat Middlesbrough and Liverpool to secure nine points from their first three games . After six games without a win , Bolton then recorded a shock 2 – 1 victory over Manchester United on 20 October . However their form dropped , and so in the January transfer window Allardyce brought in Danish midfielder Stig Tøfting , German striker Fredi Bobic ( on loan ) , and World Cup @-@ winning attacker Youri Djorkaeff . Djorkaeff scored both goals in a 2 – 1 win over Charlton Athletic on 23 March and Bobic scored a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 1 win over Ipswich Town on 6 April ; the victory over Ipswich proved to be essential as Bolton ended the season in 16th place on 40 points , ahead of Ipswich who were relegated with 36 points .
Allardyce manage to sign another big name on a free transfer for the 2002 – 03 season , bringing in 28 @-@ year @-@ old Nigeria captain Jay @-@ Jay Okocha , who four years previously had been purchased by Paris Saint @-@ Germain for £ 14 million . He also brought in Spanish central defender Iván Campo on loan from Real Madrid . He sold 2001 – 02 top @-@ scorer Michael Ricketts to Middlesbrough for £ 3 @.@ 5 million , bringing in Pierre @-@ Yves André on loan as his replacement . Bolton struggled all season , but managed to avoid relegation with a final day win over Middlesbrough .
Looking to avoid another relegation battle , Allardyce made a number of signings in preparation for the 2003 – 04 season , the most significant of which were Brazilian defender Emerson Thome , Greece international Stelios Giannakopoulos , and target @-@ man striker Kevin Davies . Allardyce 's side finished eighth in the league and reached the League Cup final , in what was his first major domestic final appearance as a player or manager . Bolton lost 2 – 1 to Middlesbrough in the final , though Allardyce blamed referee Mike Riley for not giving a late penalty for an alleged handball by Ugo Ehiogu .
= = = = Venture in Europe = = = =
Now an established Premier League club , Bolton signed veteran internationals Gary Speed and Fernando Hierro , aged 35 and 36 respectively . Speed and Hierro went into midfield , while Tunisia international Radhi Jaïdi was played at centre @-@ back after arriving on a free transfer from Espérance ; he was played alongside another new arrival , Israel defender Tal Ben Haim , who was recommended by Allardyce 's son Craig . He also brought in Senegal striker El Hadji Diouf on a season @-@ long loan from Liverpool , who he would eventually sign permanently for £ 3 million . After a good start to the season , Allardyce was offered the Newcastle United job , but turned it down and instead signed a new five @-@ year contract with Bolton as he felt the Bolton squad to be more talented . Bolton went on to finish in sixth place in 2004 – 05 to win qualification to the UEFA Cup for the first time in the club 's history .
Bolton reached the Round of 32 in the UEFA Cup in 2005 – 06 , beating Lokomotiv Plovdiv ( Bulgaria ) in the First Round and successfully negotiating through the Group stage after beating Zenit Saint Petersburg ( Russia ) , and drawing with Sevilla ( Spain ) , Beşiktaş ( Turkey ) and Vitória Guimarães ( Portugal ) , before losing to Marseille ( France ) in the knock @-@ out stages . Allardyce 's success with Bolton resulted in the FA putting him on a short @-@ list of four people to succeed Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson as England manager after the 2006 FIFA World Cup , alongside Alan Curbishley , Steve McClaren and Martin O 'Neill . He was interviewed for the position and was told by FA Chief Executive Brian Barwick that the final choice would be between him and McClaren , however the FA eventually decided to give the job to McClaren . Allardyce was also again offered the Newcastle job and was this time to keen to take it , but Newcastle chairman Freddie Shepard broke off contract negotiations after electing to appoint caretaker @-@ manager Glenn Roeder on a full @-@ time basis . Allardyce 's team seemed unaffected by speculation on his future or by their European exploits , and ended the season in eighth position .
Keen to strengthen Bolton for a European push in the 2006 – 07 season , Allardyce signed France international striker Nicolas Anelka from Fenerbahçe for a club record £ 8 million . He also signed Ivory Coast defender Abdoulaye Méïté from Marseille , and in an unusual sequence of events made a £ 400 @,@ 000 profit on Dietmar Hamann , who changed his mind about joining Bolton and signed with Manchester City a day after signing a pre @-@ contract agreement with Bolton ; Manchester City agreed to pay Bolton £ 400 @,@ 000 in compensation . However Allardyce 's relationship with chairman Phil Gartside became increasingly strained as Gartside refused to sanction greater transfer spending to finance a push for UEFA Champions League qualification . On 29 April 2007 , Allardyce resigned with the club in fifth place with two games of the season left to play , and the following day his assistant Sammy Lee was announced as his replacement .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Allardyce was offered the Manchester City job , but the offer was withdrawn after Thaksin Shinawatra 's purchase offer of the club was accepted . On 15 May 2007 , Newcastle United announced that Allardyce had signed a three @-@ year contract to succeed Glenn Roeder as manager . Ironically Newcastle then also had a change of owners , as Mike Ashley completed his takeover of the club . The sales of Scott Parker and Kieron Dyer raised £ 13 million , allowing Allardyce to sign Australia international striker Mark Viduka ( free transfer ) , utility man Alan Smith ( £ 6 million ) , midfielder Geremi Njitap , controversial midfielder Joey Barton ( £ 5 @.@ 5 million ) , left @-@ back José Enrique ( £ 6 @.@ 3 million ) , right @-@ back Habib Beye ( £ 2 million ) , and defender Abdoulaye Faye . Newcastle enjoyed a good start to the season , beating Allardyce 's former club Bolton 3 – 1 on the opening day in a run of five wins and two draws from the opening nine league games . However they then had a series of disappointing results in the run @-@ up to Christmas , and after gaining only one point from a possible six from bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ table Wigan and Derby . Allardyce parted company with Newcastle United on 9 January 2008 . He had gone into the meeting with chairman Chris Mort expecting to be told Newcastle had signed a new player , not expecting that Ashley and Mort had decided to instead sign Kevin Keegan to return as manager .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
On 17 December 2008 , Allardyce was appointed as manager of Blackburn Rovers on a three @-@ year contract , succeeding Paul Ince who left the club in 19th place with just three wins from 17 games . Allardyce 's first game in charge was a 3 – 0 victory over Stoke City at Ewood Park three days later . This was the first game of a nine @-@ game unbeaten run . He strengthened the team by spending £ 2 million on Sunderland winger El Hadji Diouf and brought in defender Gaël Givet on loan from Marseille . Allardyce finished his first season in charge with a 0 – 0 draw with West Bromwich Albion and a final league position of 15th .
Blackburn were forced to sell talismanic Paraguay striker Roque Santa Cruz to Manchester City and defender Stephen Warnock to Aston Villa for a combined £ 21 @.@ 5 million to balance the books . Allardyce was permitted to bring in defensive midfielder Steven N 'Zonzi from Amiens for £ 500 @,@ 000 , Croatia international forward Nikola Kalinić from Hajduk Split for £ 6 million , and Pascal Chimbonda from Tottenham Hotspur for £ 2 @.@ 5 million . In the 2009 – 10 season , Blackburn reached the League Cup semi @-@ final against Aston Villa , but lost over two legs . Blackburn remained mid @-@ table for the duration of the season , and finished tenth with a final day victory away at Aston Villa .
The club was put up for sale in summer 2010 , and Allardyce was offered the job of managing Al @-@ Ahli Dubai , but could not secure permission to leave Blackburn without paying compensation to the club and so remained in charge at Ewood Park . Ironically , Allardyce was sacked by new owners the Venky 's on 13 December 2010 , with Rovers placed 13th in the league . He was replaced by one of his coaches , Steve Kean , whose agent Jerome Anderson was a highly influential figure with the Venky family .
= = = West Ham United = = =
Allardyce was appointed as manager of then @-@ recently relegated West Ham United on 1 June 2011 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He vowed to play " attractive football " in getting West Ham back to the Premier League , according to the " traditions of the club , " and rejected the claims that he played dull , long @-@ ball football at previous clubs . He signed Abdoulaye Faye , Kevin Nolan , Joey O 'Brien and Matt Taylor . Faye , Nolan and O 'Brien had all played under Allardyce at his former club Bolton Wanderers while Taylor was a Bolton player who had joined after Allardyce left the club . He made striker John Carew West Ham 's fifth signing of the season , on a free transfer , followed by defender George McCartney from Sunderland on a season @-@ long loan , strikers Sam Baldock from Milton Keynes Dons and midfielder Papa Bouba Diop on a free transfer . He concluded his summer transfer window signings on deadline day by bringing in midfielders David Bentley from Tottenham Hotspur and Henri Lansbury from Arsenal , both on season @-@ long loans , as well as utility man Guy Demel from Hamburg for an undisclosed fee . Nicky Maynard , Ricardo Vaz Tê and Ravel Morrison followed in the 2011 winter transfer window . Over the course of the 2011 – 12 season a total of 25 players left the club while 19 were signed . In March 2012 , despite standing in third place in the Championship , Allardyce 's style of football was again questioned . Fans called for more passing of the ball and football played on the pitch and not in the air . On 19 May 2012 , West Ham were promoted back to the Premier League after only one season in the Championship after beating Blackpool 2 – 1 the play @-@ off Final . Allardyce described this promotion as his best ever achievement .
A busy transfer window for the summer of 2012 saw Allardyce bring in eleven players , including his former Bolton goalkeeper Jussi Jääskeläinen , defender Mohamed Diamé , Mali international striker Modibo Maïga , Wales international centre @-@ back James Collins , defensive midfielder Alou Diarra , winger Matt Jarvis , England striker Andy Carroll ( on loan from Liverpool ) and Israel international midfielder Yossi Benayoun . West Ham finished the 2012 – 13 season in tenth place , and Allardyce renewed his contract at West Ham by signing a new two @-@ year deal .
Allardyce 's main signing of summer 2013 was Andy Carroll , for a £ 15 million fee from Liverpool , whilst he also spent an undisclosed fee on winger Stewart Downing , again from Liverpool , to provide crosses for Carroll to convert into goals . He also signed goalkeeper Adrián on a free transfer from Real Betis . However Allardyce 's plans were disrupted when Carroll picked up a long @-@ term injury , which left Allardyce regretting the transfer , especially as he had chosen Carroll instead of signing Swansea City 's Wilfried Bony , who went on to score 16 league goals in the 2013 – 14 campaign . Allardyce was awarded the Premier League Manager of the Month for February 2014 following a run of four wins and one draw in their five Premier League games . In April 2014 , during an away game against West Bromwich Albion , a section of West Ham fans expressed their distaste at the style of football played under Allardyce by displaying a banner which read " Fat Sam Out , killing WHU " . The following month some supporters hung a banner bearing the legend " Fat Sam Out " outside the mansion owned by club chairman , David Sullivan , in Theydon Bois , Essex . Despite protests , on 20 May 2014 , the club announced that Allardyce would be staying as manager and would be supported by new attacking coach Teddy Sheringham for the 2014 – 15 season to " ensure the team provides more entertainment " and to " improve the club 's goal tally " .
In summer 2014 Allardyce signed powerful midfielder Cheikhou Kouyaté , left @-@ back Aaron Cresswell , attacker Enner Valencia , right @-@ back ( on loan from Arsenal ) Carl Jenkinson , striker Diafra Sakho , defensive midfielder Alex Song ( on loan from Barcelona ) , midfielder Morgan Amalfitano , and forward Mauro Zárate . In October 2014 , pundits like BBC 's Robbie Savage were commenting about the team 's " more attractive and attacking playing style " or " the statistics [ that ] show the progress that West Ham have made in the last few months . " Allardyce was awarded the Premier League Manager of the Month for October 2014 after three wins for West Ham out of four games played that month . Allardyce left West Ham on 24 May 2015 , the final day of the season , after his contract was not renewed . Allardyce stated that " I didn 't want to stay . I suppose you could say it was mutual if they didn 't want me to stay either " . His West Ham side had finished 12th in the 2014 – 15 season , one place higher than in the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Sunderland = = =
On 9 October 2015 , Allardyce was named the new Sunderland manager , replacing Dick Advocaat . When Allardyce was appointed , Sunderland sat 19th in the Premier League table with three points from their first eight games of the season . Signing a two @-@ year contract , he became the first manager to have managed both Newcastle United and Sunderland . On 25 October , in his second game as manager , he guided Sunderland to a 3 – 0 win against rivals and his former club Newcastle United . However , after a run of 5 defeats in a row in December , Sunderland headed into the second half of the season in the relegation zone with only 12 points from 19 games .
In the January transfer window he signed centre @-@ backs Lamine Koné and Jan Kirchhoff and attacking midfielder Wahbi Khazri . On 6 February 2016 , Sunderland scored two late goals to draw 2 @-@ 2 with Liverpool at Anfield , having trailed 2 @-@ 0 with ten minutes remaining . Later that week winger Adam Johnson was sacked by the club after pleading guilty to one count of sexual activity with a child and one charge of grooming . Sunderland remained in the relegation zone for much of the remainder of the 2015 – 16 season , before they boosted their survival chances by beating Norwich City 3 – 0 at Carrow Road on 16 April , closing the gap on 17th @-@ place Norwich to just one point . Allardyce successfully led Sunderland to safety from relegation after beating Everton 3 – 0 on 11 May , a result which also ensured the relegation of rivals ( and one of his former clubs ) Newcastle United . Allardyce earned praise for his management of Sunderland from some pundits , particularly for his organized approach and emphasis on a strong defence .
= = = England = = =
On 22 July 2016 , Allardyce signed a two @-@ year contract to become manager of the England national team .
= = Managerial style = =
Allardyce is a keen proponent of sports science and using technology and innovative techniques in coaching his teams , such as prozone and yoga . Martin Hardy of The Independent described him as " one of the pioneers of sports science in English football " . Former players and pundits have cited his preparation as his main strength , which allows his teams to have better organisation and defensive stability . Former Bolton player Kevin Davies also highlighted Allardyce 's man @-@ management skills as a strength .
Allardyce also has a reputation for using long ball tactics , though has said that this reputation is a perception that is " totally and utterly wrong " . Former Newcastle player Lee Clark stated that " I 've heard all the stuff that gets thrown at Sam . The long ball merchant thing and what have you . But all I can say is , from working with him , never once did I hear him talk about long balls . He 's massive on set @-@ plays and massive on the organisation of the team but that 's only right , that 's football and that 's what happens . "
Criticism of his perceived long @-@ ball tactics became more intense as he managed West Ham United in the Premier League , including discontent from West Ham 's own supporters . In January 2014 , following a 0 – 0 draw at Stamford Bridge , Chelsea manager , José Mourinho criticised West Ham 's football , likening it to " football from the 19th century " . In October 2014 , Allardyce claimed his reputation for playing long ball football was " not founded in fact " and had been used as an excuse by opposing managers such as Arsène Wenger , David O 'Leary , Graeme Souness and Rafael Benítez following defeats by sides managed by Allardyce . Allardyce wrote in his autobiography that " when they hit a 50 @-@ yard ball it was a cultural pass ; when we did it , it was a hopeful hoof " .
= = Personal life = =
He met his future wife Lynne while still a youth team player at Bolton Wanderers , and the pair married on 1 June 1974 . They had a son , Craig ( 9 June 1975 ) , and daughter , Rachael ( 21 April 1979 ) . He was given an honorary doctorate by the University of Bolton in July 2010 . In addition to his football career , Allardyce has also run a number of businesses , including a motor spares firm , a fast @-@ food restaurant , a social club , a pub , a piano bar , and a pub restaurant . He published his autobiography , Big Sam , in October 2015 .
= = = Corruption allegations = = =
On 19 September 2006 , Allardyce , and his son , Craig , were implicated in a BBC Panorama documentary , Undercover : Football 's Dirty Secrets , which alleged that he had taken " bungs " ( bribes ) from agents for signing certain players . Two agents , Teni Yerima and Peter Harrison , were secretly filmed , each separately claiming that they had paid Allardyce through his son . Allardyce denies ever taking , or asking for , a " bung " . Others implicated of wrongdoing were Harry Redknapp , Kevin Bond , and Frank Arnesen . As a result of the allegation , Allardyce refused to speak to the BBC . While he also stated he was going to sue the broadcaster to clear his name , Allardyce failed to issue libel proceedings as he was advised that suing for damage to reputation was a costly and time @-@ consuming process . The final report of the Stevens inquiry published in June 2007 expressed concerns regarding the involvement of Craig Allardyce in a number of transactions , stating that : " The inquiry remains concerned at the conflict of interest that it believes existed between Craig Allardyce , his father Sam Allardyce — the then manager at Bolton — and the club itself . " Allardyce stated that the inquiry was a public relations exercise and that the conclusion of a " conflict of interest " was " innuendo , without any facts " .
In January 2013 , Allardyce received " substantial " , but undisclosed , damages from former Blackburn Rovers manager Steve Kean . In 2011 , Kean had been recorded in a bar in Hong Kong falsely alleging that Allardyce had been sacked from his post at Blackburn Rovers because he was a crook .
In February 2014 , Daniel Taylor , chief football writer for The Guardian and The Observer , wrote that West Ham player and England prospect Ravel Morrison felt he had come " under considerable pressure " from Allardyce to sign up with football agent Mark Curtis , who represents Allardyce himself and a number of other West Ham players , including Kevin Nolan , James Tomkins , Jack Collison , Matt Jarvis , Andy Carroll , and Jussi Jääskeläinen . Agent Curtis had been charged and eventually cleared by the Football Association during the 2008 investigation into Luton Town 's illegal transfer dealings . Curtis responded to the allegations by saying it is " nonsense " , while Allardyce talked of Morrison complaining about " a groin injury " while the club 's medical staff could find " no problem " , and made a reference to the player 's " disciplinary issues in the past . " Morrison was eventually loaned out to Championship side Queens Park Rangers for the remainder of the 2013 – 14 season .
= = Statistics = =
= = = As a player = = =
Sourced from The English National Football Archive
= = = As a manager = = =
As of match played 15 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = As a player = = =
Bolton Wanderers
Football League Second Division : 1977 – 78
Preston North End
Football League Fourth Division promotion : 1986 – 87
Individual
Football League Fourth Division PFA Team of the Year : 1986 – 87
= = = As a manager = = =
Limerick
League of Ireland First Division : 1991 – 92
Notts County
Football League Third Division : 1997 – 98
Bolton Wanderers
Football League First Division play @-@ offs : 2001
West Ham United
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2012
Individual
Football League First Division Manager of the Month : January 2001
Premier League Manager of the Month : August 2001 , November 2003 , January 2004 , December 2006 , February 2014 , October 2014
|
= Californium =
Californium is a radioactive metallic chemical element with symbol Cf and atomic number 98 . The element was first made in 1950 at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , by bombarding curium with alpha particles ( helium @-@ 4 ions ) . It is an actinide element , the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized , and has the second @-@ highest atomic mass of all the elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the unaided eye ( after einsteinium ) . The element was named after the university and the state of California .
Two crystalline forms exist for californium under normal pressure : one above and one below 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) . A third form exists at high pressure . Californium slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature . Compounds of californium are dominated by a chemical form of the element , designated californium ( III ) , that can participate in three chemical bonds . The most stable of californium 's twenty known isotopes is californium @-@ 251 , which has a half @-@ life of 898 years . This short half @-@ life means the element is not found in significant quantities in the Earth 's crust . Californium @-@ 252 , with a half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 64 years , is the most common isotope used and is produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States and the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Russia .
Californium is one of the few transuranium elements that have practical applications . Most of these applications exploit the property of certain isotopes of californium to emit neutrons . For example , californium can be used to help start up nuclear reactors , and it is employed as a source of neutrons when studying materials with neutron diffraction and neutron spectroscopy . Californium can also be used in nuclear synthesis of higher mass elements ; ununoctium ( element 118 ) was synthesized by bombarding californium @-@ 249 atoms with calcium @-@ 48 ions . Users of californium must take into account radiological concerns and the element 's ability to disrupt the formation of red blood cells by bioaccumulating in skeletal tissue .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Californium is a silvery white actinide metal with a melting point of 900 ± 30 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ± 50 ° F ) and an estimated boiling point of 1 @,@ 745 K ( 1 @,@ 470 ° C ; 2 @,@ 680 ° F ) . The pure metal is malleable and is easily cut with a razor blade . Californium metal starts to vaporize above 300 ° C ( 570 ° F ) when exposed to a vacuum . Below 51 K ( − 220 ° C ) californium metal is either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic ( it acts like a magnet ) , between 48 and 66 K it is antiferromagnetic ( an intermediate state ) , and above 160 K ( − 113 ° C ; − 172 ° F ) it is paramagnetic ( external magnetic fields can make it magnetic ) . It forms alloys with lanthanide metals but little is known about them .
The element has two crystalline forms under 1 standard atmosphere of pressure : A double @-@ hexagonal close @-@ packed form dubbed alpha ( α ) and a face @-@ centered cubic form designated beta ( β ) . The α form exists below 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) with a density of 15 @.@ 10 g / cm3 and the β form exists above 900 ° C with a density of 8 @.@ 74 g / cm3 . At 48 GPa of pressure the β form changes into an orthorhombic crystal system due to delocalization of the atom 's 5f electrons , which frees them to bond .
The bulk modulus of a material is a measure of its resistance to uniform pressure . Californium 's bulk modulus is 50 ± 5 GPa , which is similar to trivalent lanthanide metals but smaller than more familiar metals , such as aluminium ( 70 GPa ) .
= = = Chemical properties and compounds = = =
Californium exhibits valences of 4 , 3 , or 2 ; indicating the number of chemical bonds one atom of this element can form . Its chemical properties are predicted to be similar to other primarily 3 + valence actinide elements and the element dysprosium , which is the lanthanide above californium in the periodic table . The element slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature , with the rate increasing when moisture is added . Californium reacts when heated with hydrogen , nitrogen , or a chalcogen ( oxygen family element ) ; reactions with dry hydrogen and aqueous mineral acids are rapid .
Californium is only water @-@ soluble as the californium ( III ) cation . Attempts to reduce or oxidize the + 3 ion in solution have failed . The element forms a water @-@ soluble chloride , nitrate , perchlorate , and sulfate and is precipitated as a fluoride , oxalate , or hydroxide . Californium is the heaviest actinide to exhibit covalent properties , as is observed in the californium borate .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Twenty radioisotopes of californium have been characterized , the most stable being californium @-@ 251 with a half @-@ life of 898 years , californium @-@ 249 with a half @-@ life of 351 years , californium @-@ 250 with a half @-@ life of 13 @.@ 08 years , and californium @-@ 252 with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 645 years . All the remaining isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than a year , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives shorter than 20 minutes . The isotopes of californium range in mass number from 237 to 256 .
Californium @-@ 249 is formed from the beta decay of berkelium @-@ 249 , and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor . Although californium @-@ 251 has the longest half @-@ life , its production yield is only 10 % due to its tendency to collect neutrons ( high neutron capture ) and its tendency to interact with other particles ( high neutron cross @-@ section ) .
Californium @-@ 252 is a very strong neutron emitter , which makes it extremely radioactive and harmful . Californium @-@ 252 undergoes alpha decay ( the loss of two protons and two neutrons ) 96 @.@ 9 % of the time to form curium @-@ 248 while the remaining 3 @.@ 1 % of decays are spontaneous fission . One microgram ( µg ) of californium @-@ 252 emits 2 @.@ 3 million neutrons per second , an average of 3 @.@ 7 neutrons per spontaneous fission . Most of the other isotopes of californium decay to isotopes of curium ( atomic number 96 ) via alpha decay .
= = History = =
Californium was first synthesized at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , by the physics researchers Stanley G. Thompson , Kenneth Street , Jr . , Albert Ghiorso , and Glenn T. Seaborg on or about February 9 , 1950 . It was the sixth transuranium element to be discovered ; the team announced its discovery on March 17 , 1950 .
To produce californium , a microgram @-@ sized target of curium @-@ 242 ( 242
96Cm ) was bombarded with 35 MeV @-@ alpha particles ( 4
2He ) in the 60 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) cyclotron at Berkeley , which produced californium @-@ 245 ( 245
98Cf ) plus one free neutron ( n ) .
242
96Cm + 4
2He → 245
98Cf + 1
0n
Only about 5 @,@ 000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment , and these atoms had a half @-@ life of 44 minutes .
The discoverers named the new element after the university and the state . This was a break from the convention used for elements 95 to 97 , which drew inspiration from how the elements directly above them in the periodic table were named . However , the element directly above element 98 in the periodic table , dysprosium , has a name that simply means " hard to get at " so the researchers decided to set aside the informal naming convention . They added that " the best we can do is to point out [ that ] ... searchers a century ago found it difficult to get to California . "
Weighable quantities of californium were first produced by the irradiation of plutonium targets at the Materials Testing Reactor at the National Reactor Testing Station in eastern Idaho ; and these findings were reported in 1954 . The high spontaneous fission rate of californium @-@ 252 was observed in these samples . The first experiment with californium in concentrated form occurred in 1958 . The isotopes californium @-@ 249 to californium @-@ 252 were isolated that same year from a sample of plutonium @-@ 239 that had been irradiated with neutrons in a nuclear reactor for five years . Two years later , in 1960 , Burris Cunningham and James Wallman of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory of the University of California created the first californium compounds — californium trichloride , californium oxychloride , and californium oxide — by treating californium with steam and hydrochloric acid .
The High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( ORNL ) in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , started producing small batches of californium in the 1960s . By 1995 , the HFIR nominally produced 500 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 018 oz ) of californium annually . Plutonium supplied by the United Kingdom to the United States under the 1958 US @-@ UK Mutual Defence Agreement was used for californium production .
The Atomic Energy Commission sold californium @-@ 252 to industrial and academic customers in the early 1970s for $ 10 per microgram and an average of 150 mg ( 0 @.@ 0053 oz ) of californium @-@ 252 were shipped each year from 1970 to 1990 . Californium metal was first prepared in 1974 by Haire and Baybarz who reduced californium ( III ) oxide with lanthanum metal to obtain microgram amounts of sub @-@ micrometer thick films .
= = Occurrence = =
Traces of californium can be found near facilities that use the element in mineral prospecting and in medical treatments . The element is fairly insoluble in water , but it adheres well to ordinary soil ; and concentrations of it in the soil can be 500 times higher than in the water surrounding the soil particles .
Fallout from atmospheric nuclear testing prior to 1980 contributed a small amount of californium to the environment . Californium isotopes with mass numbers 249 , 252 , 253 , and 254 have been observed in the radioactive dust collected from the air after a nuclear explosion . Californium is not a major radionuclide at United States Department of Energy legacy sites since it was not produced in large quantities .
Californium was once believed to be produced in supernovas , as their decay matches the 60 day half @-@ life of 254Cf . However , subsequent studies failed to demonstrate any californium spectra , and supernova light curves are now thought to follow the decay of nickel @-@ 56 .
The transuranic elements from americium to fermium , including californium , occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
= = Production = =
Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators . Californium @-@ 250 is made by bombarding berkelium @-@ 249 ( 249
97Bk ) with neutrons , forming berkelium @-@ 250 ( 250
97Bk ) via neutron capture ( n , γ ) which , in turn , quickly beta decays ( β − ) to californium @-@ 250 ( 250
98Cf ) in the following reaction :
249
97Bk ( n , γ ) 250
97Bk → 250
98Cf + β −
Bombardment of californium @-@ 250 with neutrons produces californium @-@ 251 and californium @-@ 252 .
Prolonged irradiation of americium , curium , and plutonium with neutrons produces milligram amounts of californium @-@ 252 and microgram amounts of californium @-@ 249 . As of 2006 , curium isotopes 244 to 248 are irradiated by neutrons in special reactors to produce primarily californium @-@ 252 with lesser amounts of isotopes 249 to 255 .
Microgram quantities of californium @-@ 252 are available for commercial use through the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission . Only two sites produce californium @-@ 252 – the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States , and the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Dimitrovgrad , Russia . As of 2003 , the two sites produce 0 @.@ 25 grams and 0 @.@ 025 grams of californium @-@ 252 per year , respectively .
Three californium isotopes with significant half @-@ lives are produced , requiring a total of 15 neutron captures by uranium @-@ 238 without nuclear fission or alpha decay occurring during the process . Californium @-@ 253 is at the end of a production chain that starts with uranium @-@ 238 , includes several isotopes of plutonium , americium , curium , berkelium , and the californium isotopes 249 to 253 ( see diagram ) .
= = Applications = =
Californium @-@ 252 has a number of specialized applications as a strong neutron emitter , and each microgram of fresh californium produces 139 million neutrons per minute . This property makes californium useful as a neutron startup source for some nuclear reactors and as a portable ( non @-@ reactor based ) neutron source for neutron activation analysis to detect trace amounts of elements in samples . Neutrons from californium are employed as a treatment of certain cervical and brain cancers where other radiation therapy is ineffective . It has been used in educational applications since 1969 when the Georgia Institute of Technology received a loan of 119 µg of californium @-@ 252 from the Savannah River Plant . It is also used with online elemental coal analyzers and bulk material analyzers in the coal and cement industries .
Neutron penetration into materials makes californium useful in detection instruments such as fuel rod scanners ; neutron radiography of aircraft and weapons components to detect corrosion , bad welds , cracks and trapped moisture ; and in portable metal detectors . Neutron moisture gauges use californium @-@ 252 to find water and petroleum layers in oil wells , as a portable neutron source for gold and silver prospecting for on @-@ the @-@ spot analysis , and to detect ground water movement . The major uses of californium @-@ 252 in 1982 were , in order of use , reactor start @-@ up ( 48 @.@ 3 % ) , fuel rod scanning ( 25 @.@ 3 % ) , and activation analysis ( 19 @.@ 4 % ) . By 1994 most californium @-@ 252 was used in neutron radiography ( 77 @.@ 4 % ) , with fuel rod scanning ( 12 @.@ 1 % ) and reactor start @-@ up ( 6 @.@ 9 % ) as important but distant secondary uses .
Californium @-@ 251 has a very small calculated critical mass of about 5 kg ( 11 lb ) , high lethality , and a relatively short period of toxic environmental irradiation . The low critical mass of californium led to some exaggerated claims about possible uses for the element .
In October 2006 , researchers announced that three atoms of ununoctium ( element 118 ) had been identified at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna , Russia , as the product of bombardment of californium @-@ 249 with calcium @-@ 48 , making it the heaviest element ever synthesized . The target for this experiment contained about 10 mg of californium @-@ 249 deposited on a titanium foil of 32 cm2 area . Californium has also been used to produce other transuranium elements ; for example , element 103 ( later named lawrencium ) was first synthesized in 1961 by bombarding californium with boron nuclei .
= = Precautions = =
Californium that bioaccumulates in skeletal tissue releases radiation that disrupts the body 's ability to form red blood cells . The element plays no natural biological role in any organism due to its intense radioactivity and low concentration in the environment .
Californium can enter the body from ingesting contaminated food or drinks or by breathing air with suspended particles of the element . Once in the body , only 0 @.@ 05 % of the californium will reach the bloodstream . About 65 % of that californium will be deposited in the skeleton , 25 % in the liver , and the rest in other organs , or excreted , mainly in urine . Half of the californium deposited in the skeleton and liver are gone in 50 and 20 years , respectively . Californium in the skeleton adheres to bone surfaces before slowly migrating throughout the bone .
The element is most dangerous if taken into the body . In addition , californium @-@ 249 and californium @-@ 251 can cause tissue damage externally , through gamma ray emission . Ionizing radiation emitted by californium on bone and in the liver can cause cancer .
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= Transandinomys talamancae =
Transandinomys talamancae is a rodent in the genus Transandinomys that occurs from Costa Rica to southwestern Ecuador and northern Venezuela . Its habitat consists of lowland forests up to 1 @,@ 525 m ( 5 @,@ 003 ft ) above sea level . With a body mass of 38 to 74 g ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 6 oz ) , it is a medium @-@ sized rice rat . The fur is soft and is reddish to brownish on the upperparts and white to buff on the underparts . The tail is dark brown above and lighter below and the ears and feet are long . The vibrissae ( whiskers ) are very long . In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is long and the braincase is low . The number of chromosomes varies from 34 to 54 .
The species was first described in 1891 by Joel Asaph Allen and thereafter a variety of names , now considered synonyms , were applied to local populations . It was lumped into a widespread species " Oryzomys capito " ( now Hylaeamys megacephalus ) from the 1960s till the 1980s and the current allocation of synonyms dates only from 1998 . It was placed in the genus Oryzomys until 2006 , as Oryzomys talamancae , but is not closely related to the type species of that genus and was therefore moved to a separate genus Transandinomys in 2006 . It shares this genus with Transandinomys bolivaris , which has even longer vibrissae ; the two overlap broadly in distribution and are morphologically similar .
Active during the night , Transandinomys talamancae lives on the ground and eats plants and insects . Males move more and have larger home ranges than females . It breeds throughout the year , but few individuals survive for more than a year . After a gestation period of about 28 days , two to five young are born , which reach sexual maturity within two months . A variety of parasites occur on this species . Widespread and common , it is of no conservation concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1891 , Joel Asaph Allen was the first to scientifically describe Transandinomys talamancae , when he named Oryzomys talamancae from a specimen from Talamanca , Costa Rica . He placed it in the genus Oryzomys , then more broadly defined than it is now , and compared it to both the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) and to O. laticeps . Several other names that are now recognized as synonyms of Transandinomys talamancae were introduced in the following years . In 1899 , Allen described Oryzomys mollipilosus , O. magdalenae , and O. villosus from Magdalena Department , Colombia . Oldfield Thomas added O. sylvaticus from Santa Rosa , Ecuador in 1900 and O. panamensis from Panama City , Panama , in 1901 . In the same year , Wirt Robinson and Markus Lyon named Oryzomys medius from near La Guaira , Venezuela . Allen added O. carrikeri from Talamanca , Costa Rica , in 1908 .
Edward Alphonso Goldman revised North American Oryzomys in 1918 . He placed both panamensis and carrikeri as synonyms of Oryzomys talamancae and mentioned O. mollipilosus and O. medius as closely related species . O. talamancae was the only member of its own species group , which Goldman regarded as closest to Oryzomys bombycinus ( = Transandinomys bolivaris ) . In 1960 , Philip Hershkovitz listed talamancae , medius , magdalenae , sylvaticus , and mollipilosus among the many synonyms of " Oryzomys laticeps " , a name later replaced by " Oryzomys capito " . The species remained lumped under Oryzomys capito until 1983 , when Alfred Gardner again listed it as a valid species , an action more fully documented by Guy Musser and Marina Williams in 1985 . Musser and Williams also found that the holotype of Oryzomys villosus , the affinities of which had been disputed , in fact consisted of a skin of O. talamancae and a skull of the Oryzomys albigularis group ( equivalent to the current genus Nephelomys ) . They restricted the name to the skin , making villosus a synonym of O. talamancae . They also examined the holotypes of panamensis , carrikeri , mollipilosus , medius , and magdalenae and identified them as examples of Oryzomys talamancae . Additionally , they included sylvaticus and Oryzomys castaneus J.A. Allen , 1901 , from Ecuador as synonyms , but without examining the holotypes . Musser and colleagues reviewed the group again in 1998 and confirmed that sylvaticus represents Oryzomys talamancae ; however , they found that castaneus was in fact an example of Oryzomys bolivaris ( the current Transandinomys bolivaris ) .
In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler published a phylogenetic analysis of Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , the tribe to which Oryzomys is allocated , using morphological data and DNA sequences from the IRBP gene . His results showed species of Oryzomys dispersed across Oryzomyini and suggested that most species in the genus should be allocated to new genera . Oryzomys talamancae was also included ; it appeared within " clade B " , together with other species formerly associated with Oryzomys capito . Some analyses placed it closest to species now placed in Euryoryzomys or Nephelomys , but with low support . Later in the same year , he , together with Alexandre Percequillo and Robert Voss , named ten new genera for species previously placed in Oryzomys , including Transandinomys , which has Oryzomys talamancae ( now Transandinomys talamancae ) as its type species . They also included Oryzomys bolivaris , which was not included in Weksler 's phylogenetic study , in this new genus . The two species are morphologically similar , but Weksler and colleagues could identify only one synapomorphy ( shared @-@ derived trait ) for them : very long superciliary vibrissae ( vibrissae , or whiskers , above the eyes ) . Transandinomys is one of about 30 genera in Oryzomyini , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
Several common names have been proposed for Transandinomys talamancae , including " Talamanca Rice Rat " , " Transandean Oryzomys " , and " Talamancan Rice Rat " .
= = Description = =
Transandinomys talamancae is a medium @-@ sized , brightly colored rice rat . It is similar to T. bolivaris and the two are often confused . They are about as large , but in T. talamancae the tail is longer and the hindfeet shorter . Both species share uniquely long vibrissae , with both the mystacial ( above the mouth ) and superciliary vibrissae extending to or beyond the back margin of the ears when laid back against the head , but those in T. bolivaris are substantially longer . H. alfaroi , a widespread species ranging from Mexico to Ecuador , is also similar . It is smaller and darker , but young adult T. talamancae are similar in color to adult H. alfaroi and often misidentified . Hylaeamys megacephalus , with which T. talamancae was synonymized for some decades , is similar in body size , but is not known to overlap with T. talamancae in range .
The fur is short , dense and soft in Transandinomys talamancae ; in T. bolivaris , it is longer and even more soft and dense . The color of the upperparts varies from reddish to brownish , becoming lighter towards the sides and the cheeks . The underparts are white to buff , with the bases of the hairs plumbeous ( lead @-@ colored ) . The fur of T. bolivaris is darker : dark brown above and dark gray below . H. megacephalus also has darker fur . Juveniles have thin , gray fur , which is molted into the dark brown subadult fur when the animal is about 35 to 40 days old . This fur is replaced by the bright adult fur at age 49 to 56 days . Juveniles are never blackish as in T. bolivaris . The ears are dark brown , large , and densely covered with very small hairs .
The sparsely haired tail is about as long as the head and body . It is dark brown above and lighter below . In contrast , the tail of H. megacephalus has little to no difference in color between the upper and lower surface . In 2006 , Weksler and colleagues noted tail coloration as a difference between the two species of Transandinomys ( bicolored in T. talamancae and unicolored in T. bolivaris ) , but in their 1998 study , Musser and colleagues could not find differences in tail coloration between their Panamanian samples of the two species .
The hindfeet are long and have the three central digits longer than the two outer ones . They are white to pale yellow above , where the foot is covered with hairs , which are longer than in T. bolivaris . The digits of the hindfeet are surrounded by ungual tufts of silvery hair that are longer than the claws themselves . The claws are short and sharp . Parts of the sole are covered by indistinct scales ( squamae ) , which are usually entirely absent in T. bolivaris . The pads are moderately large .
The length of the head and body is 105 to 151 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) , tail length 105 to 152 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , hindfoot length 26 to 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) , ear length 17 to 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 0 @.@ 94 in ) , and body mass 38 to 74 g ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 6 oz ) . As in most oryzomyines , females have eight mammae . There are 12 thoracic vertebra with associated ribs , 7 lumbars , and 29 caudals ; a pair of supernumerary ( additional ) ribs is occasionally present .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
The skull has a long rostrum ( front part ) , broad interorbital region ( between the eyes ) , and low braincase . It differs from that of T. bolivaris in various proportions , which are more apparent in adults than in juveniles . The skull of H. megacephalus is distinctly larger . The zygomatic plate is broad and includes a well @-@ developed zygomatic notch at its front . Its back margin is level with the front of the first upper molar . The zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) is heavy . The nasal and premaxillary bones extend about as far backward . The interorbital region is narrowest toward the front and shows weak beading at its margins ; T. bolivaris is similar , but has stronger beading and H. megacephalus entirely lacks the beading . The parietal bone is usually limited to the roof of the braincase and does not extend to its side , as it does in most T. bolivaris . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , is large .
The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are short and do not reach between the first molars ; they are longer in H. alfaroi . The bony palate is long and extends beyond the end of the molar row and the back margin of the maxillary bones . The posterolateral palatal pits , which perforate the palate near the third molars , are small , and may or may not be recessed into a fossa . The sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings in the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , behind the palate ) are also small , as are the auditory bullae . As in most oryzomyines , the subsquamosal fenestra , an opening at the back of the skull , is present . The pattern of grooves and foramina ( openings ) in the skull indicates that the circulation of the arteries of the head in T. talamancae follows the primitive pattern , as in most similar species but unlike in Hylaeamys .
The mandible ( lower jaw ) is less robust than in T. bolivaris . The coronoid process ( a process in the back part of the bone ) is small and the capsular process , which houses the root of the lower incisor , are small . The mental foramen , located in the diastema between the lower incisor and the first molar , opens towards the side , as usual in oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , do not join into a single crest and extend forward to below the first molar .
The upper incisor is opisthodont , with the cutting edge oriented backward . As usual in oryzomyines , the molars are brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) and bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) . The first upper molar is narrower than in T. bolivaris . As in this species , but unlike in many other rice rats , including H. alfaroi and E. nitidus , the mesoflexus on the second upper molar , which separates the paracone ( one of the main cusps ) from the mesoloph ( an accessory crest ) , is not divided in two by an enamel bridge . The hypoflexid on the second lower molar , the main valley between the cusps , is very long , extending more than halfway across the tooth ; in this trait , the species is again similar to T. bolivaris but unlike H. alfaroi . Each of the upper molars has three roots ( two at the labial , or outer , side and one at the lingual , or inner , side ) and each of the lowers has two ( one at the front and one at the back ) ; T. talamancae lacks the additional small roots that are present in various other oryzomyines , including species of Euryoryzomys , Nephelomys , and Handleyomys .
= = = Male reproductive anatomy = = =
As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , Transandinomys talamancae has a complex penis , with the distal ( far ) end of the baculum ( penis bone ) ending in a structure consisting of three digits . As in most oryzomyines , the central digit is larger than the two at the sides . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue .
Some features of the accessory glands in the male genital region vary among oryzomyines . In Transandinomys talamancae , a single pair of preputial glands is present at the penis . As is usual for sigmodontines , there are two pairs of ventral prostate glands and a single pair of anterior and dorsal prostate glands . Part of the end of the vesicular gland is irregularly folded , not smooth as in most oryzomyines .
= = = Karyotype = = =
The karyotype in T. talamancae is variable . Samples from two different localities in Venezuela have 34 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 64 chromosomal arms ( 2n |
= 34 , FN =
64 ) . Four specimens from another Venezuelan locality each have a different karyotype , with the number of chromosomes ranging from 40 to 42 and the fundamental number from 66 to perhaps 67 . The autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) of the 2n |
= 34 karyotype all have two major arms , but the 2n =
40 – 42 karyotypes include several acrocentric autosomes , which only have one major arm . The 2n |
= 34 karyotype includes two large submetacentric pairs , which have two long arms but one distinctly longer than the other , and one pair of subtelocentric chromosomes , with a long and a much shorter arm , but the 2n =
40 – 42 karyotypes lack the submetacentrics and have another pair of subtelocentrics . Both Robertsonian translocations ( fusions of the long arm of one chromosome with the long arm of another and the short arm of the one with the short arm of the other ) and pericentric inversions ( reversals of part of a chromosome that includes the centromere ) are needed to explain the difference between the two groups . Musser and colleagues , in discussing these karyotypes , assumed that the 2n
= 40 – 42 sample was from within a hybrid zone between two karyotypic morphs .
The karyotype of an Ecuadorean sample from north of the Gulf of Guayaquil is similar to that of Venezuelan animals at 2n =
36 , FN |
= 60 ; it includes four acrocentric and two subtelocentric pairs and no submetacentrics . In contrast , a sample from south of the Gulf had 2n =
54 , FN |
= 60 , including 23 pairs of acrocentrics and four pairs of metacentrics ( with two equally long arms ) . Musser and colleagues termed the difference between the two Ecuadorian forms " impressive " and noted that further research was needed to understand the karyotypic differentiation within the species more fully . Both T. bolivaris and H. alfaroi have more chromosomes and arms , at 2n =
58 , FN |
= 80 and 2n =
60 – 62 , FN |
= 100 – 104 respectively . Hylaeamys megacephalus has 2n =
54 , FN |
= 58 – 62 and the similar Hylaeamys perenensis has 2n =
52 , FN = 62 ; these karyotypes resemble that of southern Ecuadorean T. talamancae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of Transandinomys talamancae extends from northwestern Costa Rica south and east to northern Venezuela and southwestern Ecuador , up to 1 @,@ 525 m ( 5 @,@ 003 ft ) above sea level . It is a forest species and occurs in both evergreen and deciduous forest . Although its distribution broadly overlaps that of T. bolivaris , it is more widely distributed in South America because of its greater tolerance of dry forest habitats .
Transandinomys talamancae reaches the northern limit of its range in Costa Rica , but except for one record from the far northwest ( in Guanacaste Province near the southern margin of Lake Nicaragua ) , it is known only from the southeastern third of the country . In contrast , T. bolivaris and H. alfaroi occur further north , into Honduras and Mexico respectively . It occurs throughout Panama at low elevations . Along the Pacific coast in Colombia and Ecuador , it is found on the coastal plain and the adjacent foothills of the Andes . The southernmost known record is in far southwestern Ecuador , but the species may well range into nearby Peru .
It also occurs throughout northern Colombia at low elevations and into western Venezuela west of Lake Maracaibo and at the foot of the western part of the Venezuelan Coastal Range east to Guatopo National Park . Hylaeamys megacephalus occurs further to the east in the eastern portion of the coastal range , separated by the coastal Eastern Caribbean Dry Zone . There is a record from the Orinoco Delta of northeastern Venezuela , well within the range of Hylaeamys megacephalus , but Musser and colleagues suggest that this is based on mislabeled specimens . The species has also been found on the narrow strip between the Llanos and the Andes ( Cordillera Oriental and Cordillera de Mérida ) in eastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela . The unforested Llanos separate these areas from Hylaeamys populations . Hylaeamys perenensis does , however , occur further south along the eastern foothills of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia and it is possible that the two overlap in this area .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Transandinomys talamancae is a common , even abundant species . Its ecology was studied by Theodore Fleming in the Panama Canal Zone . It lives on the ground and is active during the night . The animal uses nests that are located above the ground and occasionally enters burrows also used by the pocket mouse Liomys adspersus . Its diet is omnivorous , including both plant material such as seeds and fruits and adult and larval insects .
Males tend to move over longer distances than females . The average home range size in Fleming 's study was 1 @.@ 33 hectares ( 3 @.@ 3 acres ) ; males had larger home ranges on average . Specimens that were once captured tended to be captured more frequently than those that had never been captured . Fleming estimated that population densities reached peaks of up to 4 @.@ 3 per ha ( 1 @.@ 7 per acre ) late in the rainy season ( October – November ) , but dropped to near zero around June ; however , these figures may well be underestimates . In central Venezuela , population densities vary from 5 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 6 per ha ( 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 8 per acre ) .
In Panama , it breeds year @-@ round without apparent seasonal variability . According to Omar Linares 's Mamíferos de Venezuela ( Mammals of Venezuela ) , reproductive activity is highest in June – July and December . In the laboratory , the gestation period is 28 days ; Linares reports that it is 20 to 30 days in the wild . Females produce an average of six litters per year and there are two to five ( average 3 @.@ 92 ) young per litter , so that a single female may produce about 24 young per year ; this is likely an overestimate because most females would not live for a full year . Larger females may have larger litters . Animals become sexually mature when less than two months old ; in Fleming 's study , some females in juvenile fur , probably less than 50 days old , were already pregnant . The oldest specimen Fleming observed was nine months old ; he estimated that animals were unlikely to live for more than a year in the wild and that the mean age at death was 2 @.@ 9 months .
Ten species of mites ( Gigantolaelaps aitkeni , Gigantolaelaps gilmorei , Gigantolaelaps oudemansi , Gigantolaelaps wolffsohni , Haemolaelaps glasgowi , Laelaps dearmasi , Laelaps pilifer , Laelaps thori , Mysolaelaps parvispinosus , and Paraspeleognathopsis cricetidarum ) , thirteen chiggers ( Aitkenius cunctatus , Ascoschoengastia dyscrita , Eutrombicula alfreddugesi , Eutrombicula goeldii , Intercutestrix tryssa , Leptotrombidium panamensis , Myxacarus oscillatus , Pseudoschoengastia abditiva , Pseudoschoengastia bulbifera , Trombicula dunni , and Trombicula keenani ) , and four fleas ( Jellisonia sp . , Polygenis roberti , Polygenis klagesi , and Polygenis dunni ) have been found on T. talamancae in Panama . G. aitkeni has also been found on this species in Colombia . In addition , the sucking lice Hoplopleura nesoryzomydis and Hoplopleura oryzomydis occur on T. talamancae .
= = Conservation status = =
A widespread and common species , Transandinomys talamancae is listed as " Least Concern " by the IUCN Red List . It occurs in numerous protected areas and tolerates disturbed habitats well , and no important threats are known .
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= Flight ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Flight " is the twenty @-@ fourth and final episode of the eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 172nd episode overall . It was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes , and directed by Rob Corn . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on May 17 , 2012 . In the episode , six doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital who are victims of an aviation accident fight to stay alive , but Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) ultimately dies . Other storylines occur in Seattle where Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) plans his annual dinner for the departing residents , Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) fires Dr. Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , and Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) gets engaged .
The episode marked Leigh 's and Raver 's final appearance to the series . Exterior filming of the accident took place at Big Bear Lake , California . Jason George reprised his role as a guest star , whereas James LeGros made his first appearance . The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics , with some criticizing the death of Lexie , but praising Leigh 's performance , in addition to Ellen Pompeo ( Dr. Meredith Grey ) ' s and Eric Dane ( Dr. Mark Sloan ) ' s . " Flight " earned Rhimes an NAACP Image Award nomination and it was also nominated under several categories of Entertainment Weekly 's finale awards . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 11 @.@ 44 million Americans , garnered a 4 @.@ 1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fourth for the night in terms of viewership , and registering as Thursday 's highest @-@ rated drama .
= = Plot = =
After their plane crashes in the woods , Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , and Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) desperately fight to stay alive . Meredith is relatively unscathed , while the rest have serious injuries : the pilot , Jerry ( James LeGros ) , has a major spine injury , and Yang dislocates her arm . Robbins ' femur is broken and sticking through the skin , Sloan has serious internal injuries ; though initially adrenaline keeps him on his feet . Shepherd is sucked out the side of the plane and awakens alone in the wood ; his mangled hand having been pushed through the door of the plane . However , none are in as bad shape as Lexie , who is crushed under a piece of the plane . While Meredith searches for Shepherd , Yang and Sloan try to move the debris off Lexie . Eventually , the two realize that they cannot save her , so Sloan holds her hand while she dies , telling her that he loves her . As Sloan tells her of the life the two were meant to have together , Lexie dies with a smile on her face just as Meredith and Yang are approaching .
Lexie 's death devastates Meredith , who is still desperately trying to find her husband . Eventually , she and Shepherd reunite and they fix his hand as best as they can . Meanwhile , back at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , no one is aware of what has happened to the other doctors . Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) prepares the annual dinner for the departing residents , which Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) , Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) , and Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) are dreading . Avery makes the choice to take a job offer at Tulane Medical Center , and he and Kepner share a moment . Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) and Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) decide to get married , even though Warren is going to start his surgical internship in Los Angeles . After realizing Dr. Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) was offered a chief position at United States Army Medical Command ( MEDCOM ) and is refusing to leave Seattle out of loyalty , Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) , the chief of surgery , fires her to free her from the hospital where her husband died . As the episode ends , Hunt picks up his messages to discover the surgical team never made it to Boise . The residents , finally excited to celebrate at Webber 's dinner , are left waiting for their stranded friends . The remaining crash survivors are left struggling to stay awake as their last match goes out . In the closing monologue , Meredith repeats the opening to the speech that Webber gave in the pilot episode of the series .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Shonda Rhimes , and directed by Rob Corn . Featured music included The Paper Kites ' " Featherstone " and Feist 's ' Graveyard " . Filming took place in Big Bear Lake , California , a location previously used in the seventh season for Yang and Shepherd 's fishing trip . Commenting on the filming conditions , Leigh said : " It would rain and be sunny and hot . I never died before [ on camera ] . That sounds funny saying that . I think everyone has an emotional wellspring and that happened to be a moment where I was sprung . Everybody was very accommodating — the crew , cast . And I opted to stay underneath [ the wreckage ] for the most part over two days rather than trying to get in and out . "
In regard to the episode , Rhimes commented before it originally aired that it was difficult to write , largely because of the death of a main character . She compared it to writing the season six finale , by explaining that the former was " more painful " to write . After the episode aired , Rhimes repeated in a tweet that it was hard for her to write the finale , adding : " I did not enjoy it . It made me sick and it made me sad . " Rhimes also explained the departure of Leigh , whose character died after the plane crash , by saying that the two came to an agreement on the decision to kill Lexie , after extensive discussion . Speaking of Raver 's departure whose character left Seattle Grace for MEDCOM , Rhimes elaborated that Raver was offered a contract renewal , but declined .
= = Reception = =
The episode received mixed reviews among television critics , and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of both viewership and ratings . " Flight " was originally broadcast on May 17 , 2012 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was watched by a total of 11 @.@ 44 million Americans , a 16 @.@ 5 % ( 1 @.@ 62 million ) increase from the previous episode " Migration " , which garnered 9 @.@ 82 million viewers . In terms of viewership , " Flight " ranked fourth for the night , behind the season finales of Fox 's American Idol , and CBS 's Person of Interest and The Mentalist . In terms of Grey 's Anatomy 's other season finales , the episode was the show 's second least @-@ viewed finale , just behind the seventh season 's , which garnered 9 @.@ 89 million viewers . The episode did not rank in the top three for viewership , but its 4 @.@ 1 / 11 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot and second for the night , registering the show as Thursday 's No. 1 drama , for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 – 49 demographic . Its rating lost to American Idol , but beat out CBS 's The Big Bang Theory , Person of Interest , and The Mentalist . In addition to its rating being in the top rankings for the night , it was an increase from the previous episode , which netted a 3 @.@ 5 / 10 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode also showed an increase in ratings in comparison to the previous year 's finale , which attained a 3 @.@ 6 / 9 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Poptimal 's Tanya Lane wrote , " Wow … just wow . Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale . " While she appreciated the " realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for " , she found the episode was " almost too much " as it was " extremely gory and difficult to watch , initially because of the grisly wounds " but later because of the " heavy and emotional things that transpired " . She thought Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead . Digital Spy 's Ben Lee found Leigh 's and Dane 's performances " phenomenal " and added that he had probably never seen a better performance from Dane . He described the moment the two actors shared as " truly poignant " . To him , Lexie 's death felt like a finale , which was thus too early . As for what was happening in Seattle Grace , he thought it was " a bit pointless " and " uninteresting " except Altman 's departure , which he deemed " the most significant moment at the hospital " . Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky commented of Lexie 's death : " It was an intense death . I mean , how awful was it to watch one of Grey ’ s longest @-@ running characters pass away so quickly -- and rather unceremoniously ? I get that Ms. Rhimes had to do what she had to do -- and every show needs to be shaken up once in a while -- but I don 't love that Lexie was the one to die . Could it have been someone less important somehow ? I guess it would have been too obvious to do Kepner . And you probably just don 't kill off a hottie like Mark Sloan , right ? " Stransky also complained about Robbins ' screams at the beginning of the episode , but enjoyed Bailey 's story .
In an Entertainment Weekly poll that judged all the television season finales of the year , Lexie 's death was voted the " Top Tissue Moment " , while Robbins ' injured leg and Shepherd 's mangled hand were voted the " Most Disturbing Image " . The ending of the episode was also considered as the " Best Ending to an Otherwise So @-@ So Season " . Lexie 's death was also nominated under the " Best ( Presumed ) Death " category , while the plane crash 's aftermath was nominated as the " Best Non @-@ romantic Cliffhanger " , and the episode in entirety was nominated for the special award for " Biggest Regret That I Didn 't See It , I Just Heard or Read About It " . Entertainment Weekly later named the scene where Meredith is crying one of the best crying scenes of 2012 . In TVLine 's review of 2012 , Lexie 's death was runner @-@ up for " Biggest Tearjerker " . The episode is nominated at the NAACP Image Awards under the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category for Rhimes .
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= Final Fantasy XI =
Final Fantasy XI ( ファイナルファンタジーXI , Fainaru Fantajī Irebun ) , also known as Final Fantasy XI Online , is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) , developed and published by Square ( later Square Enix ) as part of the Final Fantasy series . Designed and produced by Hiromichi Tanaka , it was released in Japan on May 16 , 2002 , for PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows @-@ based personal computers in November of that year . The game was the first MMORPG to offer cross @-@ platform play , connecting PlayStation 2 and personal computer , and the Xbox 360 's first MMORPG . All versions of the game require a monthly subscription to play .
The story is set in the fantasy world of Vana 'diel , where player @-@ created avatars can both compete and cooperate in a variety of objectives to develop an assortment of jobs , skills , and earn in @-@ game item rewards . Players can undertake an array of quests and progress through the in @-@ game hierarchy and through the major plot of the game . Since its debut in 2002 , five expansion packs have been released along with six add @-@ on scenarios . Each expansion pack and add @-@ on brings a new major storyline to the Final Fantasy XI world , along with numerous areas , quests , events and item rewards .
In March 2015 , Square Enix announced that Final Fantasy XI would receive one more final main scenario ( spread out over three parts in 2015 ) . Final Fantasy XI became the final active server on the PlayStation 2 online service . The servers for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions were ultimately shut down on March 31 , 2016 . A mobile client for the game is under development by Square Enix in collaboration with Korean developer Nexon . A spinoff mobile game , Final Fantasy Grandmasters was released on September 30 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Final Fantasy XI is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) , and differs from previous titles in the series in several ways . Unlike the predefined main characters of previous Final Fantasy titles , players are able to customize their characters in limited ways , including selecting from one of five races and choosing their gender , facial style , hair color , body size , job , and nation allegiance . Also diverging from previous games in the series , the game takes place in a fully three @-@ dimensional landscape with enemies freely roaming in it , allowing battles to occur in real time as opposed to the random encounters used in previous games - a trend continued in every numbered Final Fantasy title since .
There are currently 16 public game worlds available for play , down from 32 at the game 's height , with approximately 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 players in each . A private Test Server was opened to eligible players to aid in feedback of updates in development for the game in mid @-@ 2011 . The servers are named after summoned monsters from previous Final Fantasy titles , such as Ifrit and Diabolos . Players have the ability to move between servers , though Square @-@ Enix charges a " world transfer " fee to do so . There are no region @-@ specific or system @-@ specific servers , and unlike most online games , players of different languages play in the same world and can interact through automatic language translation from a library of translated phrases . The game servers are run by Square @-@ Enix as part of their PlayOnline network .
= = = Interface = = =
Players have the option of using any combination of a keyboard , mouse , and controller to play Final Fantasy XI . While by default , a player using a PlayStation 2 or an Xbox 360 uses a virtual / in @-@ game keyboard option , the player is able to use an external keyboard that is USB compatible for communication within the game . The heads @-@ up display in Final Fantasy XI consists of a log window , menus , and several game information elements . The log window at the bottom of the screen displays system messages , battle messages , and text input by other players . Players may choose to filter what appears in the log window . " Menus " allow the player to access different commands , status windows , and configuration options . The " action command menu " appears just above the log window and gives the player several options to interact with the game world . Several menu options are available through the use of keyboard shortcuts , as well .
= = = Basic gameplay = = =
Story related gameplay in Final Fantasy XI consists of two major components : missions , through which the main storyline of the game is told , and quests , which do not advance the main storyline , but fill out the game 's fantasy world . Completing missions allows a player to advance in rank , which grants access to new areas , several privileges , and various other storylines . At first , a player may only complete missions for his home nation , though they are able to change allegiances later on , allowing access to other nations ' storylines . Quests may be undertaken for their various rewards , or to acquire " fame , " which allows a character to become well @-@ known and respected by NPCs ; a higher fame rating will open up new interactions and quests with NPCs . At release , over one hundred quests were available to play and each expansion pack has added its own set of missions and quests . Players obtain in @-@ game money known as gil by completing missions , quests and defeating Beastmen , though unlike previous Final Fantasy games , these monsters drop only small amounts . Gil can then be exchanged amongst players for goods through the Auction House , or be used to purchase items and rewards from NPCs .
Unlike some MMORPGs , there is very little focus on player versus player ( PvP ) combat , instead the game revolves around player versus environment ( PvE ) . There are numerous PvE activities and events for players to partake in , including instanced activities and shared spaces activities . Some instanced events include Dynamis , Salvage , Assault and Nyzul Isle , which involve anywhere between 6 and 64 players . These battle grounds give players a series of objectives to overcome or complete and enemies to defeat , generally within a certain time frame . Popular shared spaces activities include hunting Notorious Monsters , fiends that rarely appear and drop precious loot .
The only way to attack other players in PvP is to enter one of two competition activities known as " Conflict " . The first form of competition , called Ballista , involves players competing to score points by throwing petras into a castle @-@ like structure known as a Rook . The second form is known as " Brenner " , and features a capture the flag type system .
From time to time special seasonal festivals and events are held . They last only for a set period of time and offer a variety of fun or useful rewards . Many events have changed over time , adding new features and eliminating old ones . These events are geared towards any level , often restricting players to level 1 , so that veterans and novice players alike can join in together . Events celebrated are often thematically based on real life equivalents , for example : Valentione 's Day in place of Valentine 's Day , the Egg Hunt Egg @-@ stravaganza in place of Easter , and the Starlight Celebration in place of Christmas .
= = = Battle and party system = = =
Battles in Final Fantasy XI take place in the world in which players move around , a first in the series , where battle had previously taken place in a separate screen via random encounters . The surprise of the random encounter system is achieved via aggressive monsters , who will attack players based on different factors such as sight and sound . This format would continue in future Final Fantasy games . Monsters within the game operate under a system of " claim " and " enmity " . A monster is claimed the moment a player performs any offensive action upon it , whether physical , magical or ability related . With some exceptions , once a monster is claimed it can only be attacked by players in the party or alliance of the player that claimed it . A monster will focus its attention on whoever has built up the most enmity . Players have several means at their disposal , including spells , abilities and items , to build up enmity or shed it to their advantage in battle - a factor that features heavily in group , or " party " play .
To defeat more powerful monsters and gain experience points efficiently , players can join a party . A regular party has room for six members . Like in many other games , a well @-@ balanced party will consist of several archetypes- namely a healer , a tank ( the party member with high defense that will be the main target of the monster ) , and the damage dealer . The enmity system comes into play heavily in parties , as players try to keep the monsters attention off fragile jobs and on the tanks . A well @-@ balanced team working together is the only way to defeat many of the game 's enemies .
A party can expand into an alliance , with up to three parties combined , with a total of 18 players . Alliances are necessary to complete more difficult challenges : including missions , quests , nation or territory driven events , and defeating notorious monsters . Much of end @-@ game play consists of alliance forces overcoming these higher level challenges and can even allow several alliances to enter into specific instances owned by a group of players ( e.g. Dynamis instances entry is controlled by an hourglass item ) .
Final Fantasy XI 's incarnation of Limit Breaks are " Weapon Skills " . Physical damage given and received fills a Tactical Points ( TP ) bar , to a maximum of 3000 . Any amount above 1000 is able to be used up by being channelled into a weapon skill . These skills vary in effect depending on job class , what weapon is equipped , how full the TP bar is , and how proficient the player is with the weapon . If partying with other players , one may use these weapon skills in succession in order to create a " Skillchain " . A skillchain creates additional damage after a series of weapon skills are used . Building on this even further , magic used on a skillchain at the right time will receive a boost to its damage ; this is called a " Magic Burst " . In order to create the best possible skillchains and magic bursts , players must work together , focusing on each other 's actions and timing .
= = = Job system = = =
Final Fantasy XI uses the concept of changing Jobs in a similar fashion to Final Fantasy III , and currently has twenty @-@ two Jobs as of the latest expansion pack in 2013 . There are six " standard Jobs " available to choose from at the start of the game . After one standard Job has reached Level 30 , the " extra Jobs " are accessible upon completing certain quests . Players are able to change their jobs any time from inside their house or by speaking with a Nomad Moogle . In June 2010 , the long @-@ standing level limit of 75 was incrementally increased to the higher level cap of 99 , finishing in the December 2011 version update .
Jobs have a combination of unique " job traits " , " job abilities " , and magic spells , giving them a specific role within group play due to their area of expertise . Job traits are passive abilities that are always in effect , while job abilities must be activated by the player in order to come into effect . They last a limited time and have a " cooldown " period before they can be used again . Magic spells are available to certain jobs , and in addition to a cooldown period , they often consume MP or some form of item in order to be cast , while at the same time requiring the user to stand still . Additionally , each job has a special one @-@ hour ability that performs an extraordinary function .
The unique system of Final Fantasy XI 's job system is the " Support Job " . This system allows a player to augment their character with abilities , traits , and spells from another chosen job , at half the level of their current job . For instance , a Level 20 Warrior setting Ninja as their support job would allow them to use all Ninja abilities , traits , and spells up to that of a level 10 Ninja , while still primarily being a Level 20 Warrior . The support job system allows for job @-@ merges never before seen in the Final Fantasy series . However , there are some exceptions to the system . One @-@ hour abilities and other abilities deemed signature to a particular job ( such as Call Wyvern for Dragoons ) are restricted to being used only on the main job .
= = = Crafting and hobbies = = =
In addition to completing quests and missions , players can participate in several side @-@ minigames and other activities . One such minigame is fishing , where players can measure their strength against the fish they attempt to catch . Another is clamming , where players collect as many fish or sea creatures as possible without going over their bucket 's size limit . Gardening allows players to raise plants in their residence , or " Mog House " as it is known in the game . The raising and breeding of Chocobos was a long @-@ requested activity enabled in the summer 2006 update . Chocobo racing began in March 2007 , which allowed for the racing of player @-@ raised Chocobos against non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . Winning racers can earn " Chocobucks " , which can be used to buy , for example , items that assist Chocobo breeding .
An important part of the game is the accumulation of items , especially rare ones , which allow players to create powerful weapons , armour and food . There are many ways to obtain items , such as harvesting , excavating , logging , mining , defeating monsters , and digging by using Chocobos . Square Enix attempted to increase the opportunity for players to find rare items in order to equalize the game and stop the practice of " gil selling " , or exchanging real money for in @-@ game items . The item auction system was shut down temporarily once due to some players exploiting the system . Items can be created by consuming elemental crystals ( obtained by fighting monsters ) with other ingredients in a process called " synthesis " . Recipe results can vary widely based on the player 's skill , the quality of the player 's equipment worn , and the ingredients used . There is large speculation ( though nothing evidently documented yet ) about the moon phase , direction the player is facing , in @-@ game day ( every day of the week is assigned an element ) , and even time of day the synthesis is performed to either increase or reduce the results of the recipe .
= = = Game economy = = =
Final Fantasy XI has a largely player @-@ based economy , with a heavy reliance on auction houses in each of the major cities of Vana 'diel . There are certain economic controls in place mainly in the form of fees for putting items up for auction . Transportation , auction house , item storage , and fees do not go to players ; these gil sinks effectively remove money from the economy to prevent inflation . The city of Jeuno used to levy a tax on bazaar purchases inside the city , but it was removed in a patch in the December 2008 version update .
Square Enix has stated that the trade of items for real currency is officially a violation of the Terms of Service for Final Fantasy XI . In early 2006 , Square Enix discovered that a group of players had found a way to generate game currency and exchange it for real currency , which , in turn , drove up prices for all items across the game . In response , 700 accounts were permanently banned and 300 billion gil was removed from circulation . In July 2006 , Square Enix banned or suspended over 8 @,@ 000 other accounts for similar manipulation and commerce . Since 2006 , Square Enix has regularly banned accounts found to be in violation of the terms , some of them using third @-@ party tools , effectively removing billions of gil from the in @-@ game economy .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The setting of Final Fantasy XI is the world of Vana 'diel , a rich world with diverse climates , ranging from northern glaciers and southern deserts , to ethereal realms and sky landmasses . Vana 'diel is divided into a number of regions , which are subdivided into areas known as " zones " . These zones are available for exploration and consist of outdoor areas , dungeons , cities , and towns . Players are able to explore a portion of Vana 'diel , including the Middle Lands , Near East , and with the release of Seekers of Adoulin , the near west . Six city states exist in the available lands , The Republic of Bastok , The Kingdom of San d 'Oria , The Federation of Windurst , The Grand Duchy of Jeuno , The Empire of Aht Urhgan and the Sacred City of Adoulin . While most areas are accessible by walking , various modes of transportation , ranging from the classic Final Fantasy Chocobo and airships to special spells , facilitate movement across the game world .
Ancient lore states that Vana 'diel was created as a playground for the Gods and their children , who themselves were spawned from an enormous and sentient Crystal . Eventually wishing to be one with the Gods , the children constructed a pathway to paradise . They were smote down for their insolence , however , and their cities cast to the bottom of the sea . After seeing the destruction of her children and filled with sadness , the Goddess Altana wept five tears that gave life to the five Enlightened Races of Vana 'diel . The God of Twilight , Promathia , condemned her weakness , however , and the life that arose from it . Promathia cursed the five races with eternal conflict amongst themselves by bringing forth their darkest attributes : the apathy of the Humes , the arrogance of the Elvaan , the rage of the Galka , the cowardice of the Tarutaru , and the envy of the Mithra . He created the Beastmen , commanding them to forever fight the people of Vana 'diel and occupy their minds , so these children would never have time to group together and construct a pathway like the ones before them . The creation lore 's sentient Crystal , Gods , Children , and the truths behind them feature as major plot points in several Final Fantasy XI expansion packs , while the Beastmen are some of the game 's main antagonists .
The events of the game are set 20 years after the Crystal War , a devastating war where the Middle Land nations of Bastok , San d 'Oria and Windurst fought and defeated the Shadow Lord and his army of Beastmen . Players deal with the aftermath of this conflict in the original story , and may travel back in time to aid in the war effort with the expansion pack Wings of the Goddess . Several parallel worlds are available , such as Dynamis and Abyssea , in which the beastmen won the Crystal War and conquered the land .
= = = Characters = = =
Final Fantasy XI features five playable races known as the " Enlightened Races " :
Elvaan
A race of proud warriors , the Elvaan 's home city is the Kingdom of San d 'Oria . Elvaan have an unshakable pride and faith in their beliefs , and many eschew the business world , preferring an austere lifestyle as skilled sword fighters . The Elvaan race possess high strength and mind , but low MP and intelligence . Elvaan are said to be cursed with the sin of arrogance .
Hume
Originating from the city of Bastok , Humes are the most common race in Vana 'diel and are known for their intelligence and high level of skill in numerous areas . Humes have equally balanced abilities , and are said to be cursed with the sin of apathy . They serve as the game 's human race .
Galka
A hulking race of powerful warriors , the Galka 's capital city was destroyed by war 600 years ago . Many of the surviving Galka settled in Bastok , and are currently used by the city as cheap underclass labour . The Galka do not have a female counterpart , but reproduce through reincarnation . They possess the highest HP and vitality in the game , but also the lowest MP . The Galka are cursed with rage .
Mithra
The Mithra are a race of hunters who live alongside the Tarutaru in Windurst . They are known for their energy , curiosity , and their penchant for causing playful mischief . Due to a gender imbalance in their race males are a rarity , and so only female mithra leave the home , making females the only playable gender . Mithra possess high dexterity and agility , but lower HP and charisma . Mithra are cursed with envy .
Tarutaru
A race of skilled magic from the Federation of Windurst , the Tarutaru physically resemble children , however their size does not reflect their age . Tarutaru are playful yet cunning . They possess the highest MP and intelligence of all the races , but the lowest HP and strength . Tarutaru are said to be cursed with cowardice
In addition to the playable races , there are two other non @-@ playable Enlightened Races , known as the Zilart and the Kuluu . These ancient races were thought extinct , and are the focus of the first two @-@ game expansions . There is also a large supporting cast of NPCs involved in quests , missions and the game 's storylines . The game features several typical Final Fantasy fiends , including Goblins , Sahagins and Tonberries . Several of these races are known as Beastmen , a distinction made between fiends who possess higher than average intelligence , exhibiting self @-@ awareness , emotions , culture , and religion . The complex relationship , bigoted views , and reasons of conflict between the Enlightened Races and Beastmen is a plot point throughout the game .
Final Fantasy XI is represented in the Dissidia game series by Shantotto , a female Tarutaru Black Mage from the Windurst storyline , voiced by famed voice actress Megumi Hayashibara in the Japanese version and Candi Milo in English version . The games prequel adds Prishe , a female Elvaan from Tavnazia , who is the main character in the Chains of Promathia expansion pack .
= = = Plot = = =
The storyline is primarily followed with missions through the governing nations that exist in the base game as well as each expansion that the player is affiliated with . Nation or governing body affiliation is relatively simple , sometimes requiring prerequisite quests being completed and have several stages of progression to achieve higher recognition and reward throughout each story . Some missions are even required to be completed to further progress into the start of the additional storylines of each expansion or specific areas .
Players begin the game as residents of one of the three main countries : San d 'Oria , Bastok , and Windurst , and must help band the nations together against the resurrected Shadow Lord .
The expansion Rise of the Zilart reveals that the Crystal War and the resurrection of the Shadow Lord had been masterminded by the Zilart princes Eald 'Narche and Kam 'lanaut , who survived the extinction of their race . The two Zilarts plan to become Gods by opening the path to paradise , and the player is charged with thwarting their plans .
Chains of Promathia revolves around an Elvaan girl named Prishe and the dead Twilight God Promathia , who had originally cursed the Zilart race , and the attempts of various factions to either complete or stop his resurrection . The wyrmking Bahamut is involved in these events , and intends to destroy Vana 'diel to prevent Promathia from absorbing the life of the world .
Treasures of Aht Urhgan concerns the Empire of Aht Urhgan which opens up to the nations of midlands after years of self @-@ imposed isolation . As a new and powerful nation , it is of concern to the nation of the player , who is sent as a representative . The player then becomes embroiled in the intrigues of the Empress 's court and the growing fears of war and darkness coming to Aht Urhgan .
Wings of the Goddess primarily occurs in the era of the Crystal War , 20 years in the past from the main Final Fantasy XI setting . The player discovers and crosses mysterious time portals alongside the Hume / Elvaan mix Lilisette , and are led to help the Regal Feline Cait Sith reduce the suffering of the era . However , Lilisette and her partner encounter Lilith , an alternate timeline version of herself who wishes to keep the war going to maintain her time while negating Lilisette 's .
Seekers of Adoulin concerns the western continent archipelago of Adoulin , and the Sacred City of Adoulin . The city was a focal point for colonization 200 years before the present game , but when colonization efforts failed in the main continent of Ulbuka , the nation fell in population and shifted to trade as a focus . Now colonization has begun once again , and players are free to explore the region .
= = Development = =
The idea to develop Final Fantasy XI as an online game was conceived by Hironobu Sakaguchi when establishing Square Pictures headquarters in Hawaii . Impressed by western MMORPGs that he discovered there , such as EverQuest , Sakaguchi convinced Square to begin the development of their own MMORPG and suggested that it be based on the Final Fantasy series . The team responsible for Chrono Cross was assigned to the development of Final Fantasy XI after the English localization of the former title . Development began in November 1999 . The game was the first developed under Square 's new philosophy to develop for " all platforms and media " . Hiromichi Tanaka , the producer of the game , has stated Final Fantasy XI is heavily influenced by Final Fantasy III , especially in its battle and magic systems . According to Tanaka , Square put in Final Fantasy XI what they could not put in the first Final Fantasy titles due to technical limitations , thus making Final Fantasy XI the " most [ representative ] Final Fantasy of all the episodes " . The game was developed and ran on the Nvidia GeForce 4 Ti GPU , which the President of Square Yoichi Wada described as the most powerful graphics processor available at the time . The game cost two to three billion yen ( ~ $ 17 – 25 million ) to create along with the PlayOnline Network Service and was assumed to become profitable over a five @-@ year timespan . By creating a unified game world instead of different ones balkanized by language , development costs were cut 66 % . Since recurring monsters of the series are known by different names in the Japanese and English versions of the other installments , it was decided for Final Fantasy XI to use both Japanese and English names for different varieties of the same monsters .
It was originally announced that there would be a simultaneous release on the PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows as well as concurrent Japanese and American release , but this was later changed . There was also discussion of an Xbox release , but it was abandoned mainly because of its small 8 GB hard drive . Originally announced in January 2000 at the Yokohama Millennium Conference , there was a great deal of negative press . There were questions raised about naming the game the eleventh in the series , since it was not clear whether the game would have a structured story , which it ended up having , and the title of Final Fantasy Online was suggested . Following an August 2001 beta test in Japan , a public Japanese beta test was done in December 2001 .
Following its PC release , Final Fantasy XI was listed as one of IGN 's most anticipated PlayStation 2 games of 2004 . Sony launched a multimillion @-@ dollar ad campaign to promote Final Fantasy XI along with the PlayStation 2 hard drive add @-@ on which the game required . Having been released on the PlayStation 2 as well as the personal computer , it became the first cross @-@ platform MMORPG ever created . On June 14 , 2002 , the game server was down for four hours for maintenance to the database servers , bug fixes on the text interface , and a new patch for the game client . This is thought to be the first patch ever released for a console game . Other early issues included complaints by American players that experienced Japanese players had already completed all the quests . Square Enix responded by adding new servers in order to have game worlds with fewer expert players .
Final Fantasy XI is one of the first cross @-@ console video games , and has continued to update its software to allow the game to run on new consoles . Square Enix noted that Nintendo 's use of " friend codes " was the primary reason Final Fantasy XI was not brought to the Wii . In December 2006 , the PlayStation 2 versions of PlayOnline and Final Fantasy XI were able to install and run on the PlayStation 3 . The Vana 'diel Collection 2008 discs for the PlayStation 2 had installation issues on the PlayStation 3 , causing them to be unusable at first since they weren 't on Sony 's list of HDD compatible titles in the firmware the PlayStation 3 had at the time . This problem was fixed on December 18 , 2007 when Sony released firmware update 2 @.@ 10 for the PlayStation 3 . This allowed all backwards compatible models — 20GB model # CECHB01 , 60GB model # CECHA01 and 80GB model # CECHE01 — to play FFXI . After working with Microsoft to resolve Final Fantasy XI 's incompatibility issues with Windows Vista , Square Enix released a downloadable version of the PlayOnline client which is compatible with the operating system , although small bugs have appeared .
On September 1 , 2010 , Akihiko Matsui became the director of Final Fantasy XI . Only three months later , on December 10 , 2010 , Matsui left the Final Fantasy XI team to work as " Lead Combat System Designer " on Square Enix 's new MMO , Final Fantasy XIV . His replacement as director of Final Fantasy XI is Mizuki Ito . On July 13 , 2011 , information from a Famitsu interview with former Final Fantasy XI producer Hiromichi Tanaka revealed that Square Enix is looking into the possibility of porting Final Fantasy XI to Sony PlayStation Vita . On June 24 , 2012 , at the end of VanaFest 2012 , a festival in Yokohama , Japan to celebrate 2012 's tenth anniversary of the Japanese launch of Final Fantasy XI , Hiromichi Tanaka announced that , due to health reasons , he was stepping down as producer of the game and leaving Square @-@ Enix . Akihiko Matsui has been selected to replace him .
In 2006 , between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 active players logged in per day , with 500 @,@ 000 total active players and around 150 @,@ 000 online at any one time . In April 2009 , Square Enix announced that the total number of active characters exceeded 2 million for the first time . In June 2012 , Square Enix president Yoichi Wada announced that Final Fantasy XI had become the most profitable title in the Final Fantasy series .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Final Fantasy XI was scored by Naoshi Mizuta , Kumi Tanioka , and Nobuo Uematsu . Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was also asked to contribute , but at the time he was unable to do so , as he was scoring the music for Xenosaga . The game 's five expansion packs since were scored by Mizuta alone , after Tanioka left to pursue other projects and Uematsu left Square Enix . The opening of the game features choral music with lyrics in Esperanto . According to Uematsu , the choice of language was meant to symbolize the developers ' hope that their online game could contribute to cross @-@ cultural communication and cooperation . He also noted the increased difficulty of scoring a game for which there was no linear plotline , a major change from the previous Final Fantasy games . It was the first game in the series for which he composed while he was no longer a Square Enix employee . New music has been employed for special events , such as a holiday score titled " Jeuno -Starlight Celebration- " which can be heard in the city of Jeuno each mid @-@ to @-@ late December since 2004 .
The game 's music has been released in CD form several times and has been featured in Final Fantasy concerts . Some of the game 's music has been released on iTunes , such as the vocal " Distant Worlds " , which was released on the Japanese iTunes store on September 13 , 2005 , having been put in the game in a July 2005 patch . A compilation CD box was released on March 28 , 2007 , titled Final Fantasy XI Original Soundtrack Premium Box , which included the four original soundtracks from Final Fantasy XI and its three expansion sets , as well as the previously unreleased tracks from the game and the unreleased Final Fantasy XI Piano Collections . Dear Friends -Music from Final Fantasy- , a 2004 – 2005 concert series , featured " Ronfaure " from Final Fantasy XI . A ten @-@ track album of music inspired by Final Fantasy XI entitled Music from the Other Side of Vana 'diel was released by The Star Onions on August 24 , 2005 .
= = Expansions and add @-@ ons = =
Final Fantasy XI has additions released every few years . Expansion packs add new story , jobs , zones , quests , and content to the game , while add @-@ ons are smaller in scale , adding a smaller selection of the aforementioned items . All of the expansions and add @-@ ons have been released on PlayStation 2 , Microsoft Windows , and Xbox 360 , with the exception of Seekers of Adoulin , which did not see a PlayStation 2 release outside Japan .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Final Fantasy XI received positive reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 2 version 85 @.@ 04 % based on 57 reviews and 85 / 100 based on 49 reviews , the PC version 82 @.@ 11 % based on 44 reviews and 85 / 100 based on 25 reviews the Xbox 360 version 69 @.@ 33 % based on 32 reviews and 66 / 100 based on 25 reviews . Famitsu rated the game 38 out of 40 . Computer and Video Games Magazine noted that it was one of the most welcoming MMORPGs despite the cumbersome initial registration and setup . IGN called it a well done but unoriginal game and also noted that North American players were forced to play with already much more experienced Japanese players who had already completed the game 's various quests . GameSpot criticized it at release for having an unconventional control system , a lengthy installation , and having no player versus player ( PvP ) aspects . Other elements receiving criticism include the EXP grind , which involves constant battles to access different parts of the game , and overcrowded camp sites . The expansions have been mostly positively received , with praise for the amount of content added , but increasing signs that the graphics of the game are becoming outdated . IGN review of the Xbox 360 release was similar , noting that it was a large amount of game content , but had a protracted setup process and elements of the game design that require a large time investment . It has also been noted that this game is the first to move in a wildly different direction while remaining in the main numbering line , as opposed to the Tactics and Crystal Chronicles games which became their own side series .
= = = Sales and subscriptions = = =
The user base for the PlayStation 2 version was truncated initially because of limited sales of the PlayStation 2 's hard drive and network adapters that were needed for the game . The Japanese release of Rise of the Zilart was the number one selling game when it debuted in 2003 with 90 @,@ 000 copies sold in the first week . The Treasures of Aht Urhgan , released three years later , sold over 103 @,@ 000 copies for the PlayStation 2 in Japan during 2006 . The Final Fantasy XI All @-@ in @-@ One Pack was number 36 and Wings of the Goddess was number 40 on the top 50 best @-@ selling Xbox 360 games in Japan as of December 2007 . For the April – September 2004 financial period , Square Enix saw online gaming , particularly Final Fantasy XI , sales increase by 101 percent and operating profit increase by 230 @.@ 9 percent . Revenues held steady from subscription services in the summer of 2006 ; in the fall , however , Square acknowledged that online subscription revenues were " unsatisfactory " , despite the steady performance of Final Fantasy XI . In December 2003 , Square Enix president Yoichi Wada announced that there were over 200 @,@ 000 subscribers to Final Fantasy XI , allowing the company to break even and start making a profit . There were between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 active players daily in 2006 . As of August 14 , 2006 the Xbox 360 version was the sixth most played game on Xbox Live . In June 2012 , Square Enix president Yoichi Wada announced that Final Fantasy XI had become the most profitable title in the Final Fantasy series .
= = = Awards and legacy = = =
Final Fantasy XI was awarded the grand prize from the Japan 's Consumer Entertainment Software Association ( CESA ) for 2002 – 2003 along with Taiko no Tatsujin . It has also received GameSpy 's 2003 PC MMORPG Game of the Year Award and IGN 's Game of the Month for March 2004 , citing the game 's huge customization and its successful cross @-@ platform and cross @-@ language game world . Final Fantasy XI was referenced in the online game Minna no Golf Online in the form of a Final Fantasy XI @-@ themed lobby . At 2009 's Electronic Entertainment Expo , Square Enix revealed Final Fantasy XIV Online , which was Square Enix 's next MMORPG .
The game has spawned several written adaptations and related merchandise . Starting in 2003 , a series of Final Fantasy XI novels was written by Miyabi Hasegawa and released in Japanese , German , and French . Additionally , in 2004 , Adventure Log , a webcomic by Scott Ramsoomair , was commissioned by Square Enix starting in 2007 . Final Fantasy XI PlayOnline Visa and MasterCard credit cards were available in Japan , with features including no annual fees as long as cardholders remain PlayOnline subscribers and various other rewards . There have also been posters with limited edition phone cards and keychains released , also exclusively in Japan . Several T @-@ shirts have been made available for order in North America , and various stuffed animals and gashapon figurines have also been made available to order of different races from the series . A Vana 'diel clock which displayed the in @-@ game time was also marketed , as well as CDs of the game 's music .
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= What Is Life =
" What Is Life " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . In many countries , it was issued as the second single from the album , in February 1971 , becoming a top @-@ ten hit in the United States , Canada and elsewhere , and topping singles charts in Australia and Switzerland . In the United Kingdom , " What Is Life " appeared as the B @-@ side to " My Sweet Lord " , which was the best @-@ selling single there of 1971 . Harrison 's backing musicians on the song include Eric Clapton and the entire Delaney & Bonnie Friends band , with whom he had toured during the final months of the Beatles . Harrison co @-@ produced the recording with Phil Spector , whose Wall of Sound production also employed a prominent string arrangement by John Barham and multiple acoustic rhythm guitars , played by Harrison 's fellow Apple Records signings Badfinger .
An uptempo composition in the soul genre , " What Is Life " is one of several Harrison love songs that appear to be directed at both a woman and a deity . Harrison wrote the song in 1969 and originally intended it as a track for his friend and Apple protégé Billy Preston to record . Built around a descending guitar riff , it is one of Harrison 's most popular compositions and was a regular inclusion in his live performances . Rolling Stone magazine has variously described it as a " classic " and an " exultant song of surrender " .
" What Is Life " has appeared in the soundtrack for feature films such as Goodfellas ( 1990 ) , Patch Adams ( 1998 ) , Big Daddy ( 1999 ) and This Is 40 ( 2012 ) . Harrison 's original recording was included on the compilations The Best of George Harrison and Let It Roll , and live versions appear on his album Live in Japan ( 1992 ) and in Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World . In 1972 , Olivia Newton @-@ John had a UK hit with her version of the song . Ronnie Aldrich , the Ventures , the Four Freshmen and Shawn Mullins are among the other artists who have covered the track .
= = Background and composition = =
Even before his temporary departure from the Beatles in January 1969 ( documented in the song " Wah @-@ Wah " ) , their Apple Records label was an " emancipating force " for Harrison from the creative restrictions imposed on him within the band , according to his musical biographer , Simon Leng . In his " definitive " article on All Things Must Pass for Mojo magazine , John Harris has written of Harrison 's " journey " as a solo artist beginning in November 1968 – when he spent time in Woodstock with Bob Dylan and the Band – and incorporating a series of other collaborations through the following eighteen months , including various Apple projects and a support role on Delaney & Bonnie and Friends ' brief European tour . One of these projects , carried out intermittently from April to July 1969 , was his production of That 's the Way God Planned It , an album by Billy Preston , whom Harrison had met during the Beatles ' Hamburg years and had recently recruited to guest on the band 's troubled Get Back sessions . It was while driving up to a Preston session in London from his home in Esher , Surrey , that Harrison came up with the song " What Is Life " .
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison describes it as having been written " very quickly " and recalls that he thought it would be a perfect , " catchy pop song " for Preston to record . His lyrics , while simple , were similarly uplifting and universal :
What I feel , I can 't say
But my love is there for you any time of day
But if it 's not love that you need
Then I 'll try my best to make everything succeed .
Tell me , what is my life without your love ?
And tell me , who am I without you , by my side ?
These lyrics have caused some debate among biographers and music critics , as to whether " What Is Life " should be viewed as a straightforward love song – perhaps a " lovingly crafted paen " to Harrison 's wife Pattie , as Alan Clayson puts it – or a devotional song like many of Harrison 's compositions . Ian Inglis writes that the song title suggests a " philosophical debate about the meaning of life " , yet its rendering as " what is my life " in the choruses " reshapes [ the meaning ] completely " . Theologian Dale Allison finds no religious content in " What Is Life " but notes the " failure of words to express feelings " implied in the opening line ( " What I feel , I can 't say " ) , a recurring theme of Harrison 's spiritual songs such as " That Is All " , " Mystical One " and " Pisces Fish " . Joshua Greene , another religious academic , identifies the song as part of its parent album 's " intimately detailed account of a spiritual journey " : where " Awaiting on You All " shows Harrison " convinced of his union with God " , " What Is Life " reveals him to be " uncertain that he deserved such divine favor " .
The song 's second verse repeats what Inglis refers to as the " somewhat confusing promise " from Harrison ( in lines 3 and 4 ) should his love be " rejected " :
What I know , I can 't do
If I give my love out to everyone like you
But if it 's not love that you need
Then I 'll try my best to make everything succeed .
Musically , Simon Leng describes " What Is Life " as " Motown @-@ spiced " and a comparatively rare example of its composer 's willingness to embrace the role of " entertainer " in his songwriting .
In I Me Mine , Harrison recalls that he changed his mind about offering " What Is Life " to Preston once he 'd arrived at Olympic Studios and found the singer busy working on more typical material – or " playing his funky stuff " as Harrison puts it . Rather than attempt it with the Beatles during the band 's concurrent Abbey Road sessions , he stockpiled the track with his many other unused songs from the period – " All Things Must Pass " , " Let It Down " , " I 'd Have You Anytime " and " Run of the Mill " among them – and revisited it a year later , after completing work on Preston 's second Apple album , Encouraging Words .
= = Recording = =
By May 1970 , having recently collaborated with " genuine R & B heavy @-@ weights " such as Doris Troy and Preston , as well as participating in the " blue @-@ eyed soul " Delaney & Bonnie European tour , along with Eric Clapton , the previous December , Harrison was well placed to record " What Is Life " , Leng observes . With Phil Spector as co @-@ producer and all the Friends team on hand , the song was among the first tracks taped for Harrison 's debut post @-@ Beatles solo album ; recording took place at Abbey Road Studios in London , during late May or early June . The same core of musicians – Bobby Whitlock , Carl Radle , Jim Gordon , Bobby Keys and Jim Price – would similarly elevate other All Things Must Pass tracks such as " Awaiting on You All " , " Art of Dying " and " Hear Me Lord " .
The recording is defined by Harrison 's descending , fuzztone guitar riff , which also serves as the motif for the chorus . The track opens with this riff , which is then joined by Radle 's bass and " churning " rhythm guitar from Clapton , before Gordon 's drums bring the full band in . During the verses , Gordon moves to a square , Motown @-@ style beat – or " rock @-@ steady Northern soul backbeat " in Leng 's words – before returning to the " galloping rhythm " of the more open , " knockout " choruses , and the song is driven equally by Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins ' powerful tambourine work .
On " What Is Life " , Spector provided what music critic David Fricke terms " echo @-@ drenched theater " , in the form of reverb @-@ heavy brass , soaring strings ( arranged by John Barham ) and " a choir of multitracked Harrisons " . The vocals and Barham 's contribution , along with a brief slide @-@ guitar commentary from Harrison over the final verse , were overdubbed at Trident Studios , most likely during late August through September . Dated 19 August , Spector 's written comments on Harrison 's early mix of the song had suggested a " proper background voice " was still needed ; like sound engineer Ken Scott , Spector would be impressed with the result , saying , " He was a great harmoniser ... he could do all the [ vocal ] parts himself " and rating Harrison " one of the most commercial musicians and songwriters and quintessential players I 've ever known in my entire career " .
= = Release = =
" What Is Life " was released in late November 1970 as the first track on side two of All Things Must Pass , in its original , triple LP format . Along with " My Sweet Lord " and " Isn 't It a Pity " , the song had already been identified as a potential hit single by Allan Steckler , manager of Apple 's US operation . Backed by another album track , " Apple Scruffs " , " What Is Life " was issued as a single in America on 15 February 1971 ( as Apple 1828 ) , just as the " My Sweet Lord " / " Isn 't It a Pity " double A @-@ side was finally slipping out of the top ten .
The front of the single 's US picture sleeve consisted of a photo of Harrison playing guitar inside the central tower of his recently purchased home , Friar Park , in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . The tower 's sole , octagonal @-@ shaped room was an area that Harrison had adopted as his personal temple and meditation space . This picture was taken by photographer Barry Feinstein , whose Camouflage Productions partner , Tom Wilkes , originally used it as part of an elaborate poster intended as an insert in the album package . The poster featured a painting of the Hindu deity Krishna watching a group of naked maidens beside a bathing pond . Harrison apparently felt uncomfortable with the symbolism in Wilkes 's design – the Friar Park tower image filled the top half of the poster , floating among clouds above the Krishna scene – so Wilkes abandoned the concept and instead used a darkened photo of Harrison inside the house as the album poster . The more common picture sleeve internationally was a close @-@ up of Feinstein 's All Things Must Pass front @-@ cover image , taken on the main lawn of Friar Park . In Denmark , the sleeve featured four shots of Harrison , again with guitar , taken on stage during the Delaney & Bonnie tour .
At the end of March , " What Is Life " peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 7 on Cash Box 's Top 100 chart , making Harrison the first ex @-@ Beatle to have two top @-@ ten hits in the United States . The single was a success internationally , climbing to number 1 in Switzerland and on Australia 's Go @-@ Set National Top 60 , and reaching the top three elsewhere in Europe and in Canada . In Britain , where Harrison had resisted issuing a single from All Things Must Pass until midway through January , " What Is Life " appeared on the B @-@ side to " My Sweet Lord " – a combination that became the top @-@ selling single of 1971 in that country .
= = Reception = =
" What Is Life " is one of Harrison 's most commercial and popular songs – a " spiritual guitar quest " that " became [ a ] classic " , according to Rolling Stone magazine . On release , Billboard magazine 's reviewer wrote of " What Is Life " and " Apple Scruffs " as " intriguing rhythm follows @-@ ups " to Harrison 's previous single , which were " sure to repeat that success " and " should prove big juke box items " . In their Solo Beatles Compendium , authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter refer to it as an " intensely catchy track " and view its pairing with " My Sweet Lord " in the UK as perhaps the strongest of all of Harrison 's singles . Writing in 1981 , NME critic Bob Woffinden grouped " What Is LIfe " with " My Sweet Lord " , " Isn 't It a Pity " and " Awaiting on You All " as " all excellent songs " .
Reviewing the 2001 reissue of All Things Must Pass , for Rolling Stone , James Hunter wrote of how the album 's music " exults in breezy rhythms " , among which " the colorful revolutions of ' What Is Life ' ... [ move ] like a Ferris wheel " . The following year , in Rolling Stone Press 's Harrison tribute book , David Fricke included " What Is Life " among his selection of " essential Harrison performances " ( just three of which date from the ex @-@ Beatle 's solo years ) and described the track as an " exultant song of surrender " , abetted by Harrison 's " pumping fuzz guitar " and the song 's " singalong magnetism " . AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger similarly praises " What Is Life " for its " anthemic " qualities , " particularly snazzy horn lines " , and a guitar riff that is " one more entry in the catalog of George Harrison 's book of arresting , low , descending guitar lines " .
Writing in the book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die , author Tom Moon refers to " the upbeat single ' What Is Life ' " as an example of how Harrison " grabs what he needs from his old band – that insinuating hook sense – and uses it to frame an utterly comfortable metaphysical discourse " . Alan Clayson describes " What Is Life " as a seemingly " lovey @-@ dovey pop song " that " craftily renewed the simplistic tonic @-@ to @-@ dominant riff cliché " , while Simon Leng credits Harrison 's " innate ability to write very fine pop @-@ rock songs " and deems the result " as innovative an exercise in rock @-@ soul as The Temptations ' ' Cloud Nine ' " . Among Harrison biographers , only Ian Inglis is less than enthusiastic , acknowledging that Barham 's orchestration and the other musicians give the track " undoubted excitement and energy " , but lamenting that the song offers " little overall coherence between words and music " .
In a 2010 poll to find the " 10 Best George Harrison Songs " , AOL Radio listeners voted " What Is Life " third behind " My Sweet Lord " and " Blow Away " . A similar list by Michael Galluci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed it second ( behind " My Sweet Lord " ) , as Galluci wrote of the track having " a giant pop hook as its guide " as well as " the catchiest chorus Harrison ever penned " . In 2009 , Matt Melis of Consequence of Sound listed it sixth among his " Top Ten Songs by Ex @-@ Beatles " , writing : " it 's arguable that Harrison 's All Things Must Pass is the best solo album put out by a Beatle . ' What is Life ' … with its riff @-@ driven bounce , soaring harmonies on the choruses , and perfectly placed sax and trumpet , [ is ] probably Harrison 's catchiest pop song . " In the 2005 publication NME Originals : Beatles – The Solo Years 1970 – 1980 , Adrian Thrills rated it first among Harrison 's " ten solo gems " , adding : " One of Harrison 's greatest guitar riffs – brilliant pop . " The song is said to be a favourite of Foo Fighters singer Dave Grohl . In a Rolling Stone readers ' poll , titled " 10 Greatest Solo Beatle Songs " , the song placed fourth , with the editor commenting : " The track is deceptively simple , and more layers become apparent the more often you play it . " " What Is Life " has featured in Bruce Pollock 's book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 , Treble website 's " The Top 200 Songs of the 1970s " ( ranked at number 101 ) and Dave Thompson 's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World ( at number 247 ) .
= = Subsequent releases and appearances in films = =
" What Is Life " was included on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison as well as 2009 's Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison . The song has also been featured in a number of popular movies : Martin Scorsese 's Goodfellas ( 1990 ) , during the " May 11 , 1980 " sequence ; Tom Shadyac 's Patch Adams ( 1998 ) ; and , more recently , Sam Mendes ' Away We Go ( 2009 ) . In late 2012 , " What Is Life " was used in advance promotion for the film This Is 40 , directed by Judd Apatow , although it was omitted from the accompanying soundtrack album . According to Rolling Stone : " Today , many people know it merely as a song from all those soundtracks : it 's in This Is 40 , Patch Adams , Goodfellas and many more . It 's almost as ubiquitous as ' Let My Love Open the Door ' or ' Solsbury Hill . ' " In Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , " What Is Life " plays over a sequence of 1969 photos of Harrison – with , variously , Preston , Jackie Lomax , the Plastic Ono Band , Clapton and Ravi Shankar – immediately before which , archive footage shows him discussing the restrictions he felt within the Beatles and how the band " had to implode " .
An alternative studio version of " What Is Life " – in fact , a rough mix of the original backing track with different orchestration ( in this case , piccolo trumpet and oboe ) – was issued as one of five bonus tracks on the 2001 remaster of All Things Must Pass . In the accompanying booklet , Harrison writes that this orchestral arrangement was discarded because he " didn 't like the feel " . Speaking to Billboard editor @-@ in @-@ chief Timothy White in December 2000 , Harrison explained the reason for the lack of a guide vocal on this version : " I 'm playing the fuzz guitar part that goes all through the song . So all I could do on the [ initial ] take was to give the band the cue line – the first line of each verse – and then go back to playing that riff . So that rough mix without the vocal – I 'd forgot all about it … " The track also appears on the 2014 Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of All Things Must Pass .
= = Live performance = =
A live version of the song , recorded with Eric Clapton and his band in December 1991 , is available on Harrison 's 1992 album Live in Japan album . The performance was recorded at Tokyo Dome on 17 December , during the final show of the tour .
Part of a concert performance of " What Is Life " from Harrison 's 1974 North American tour with Shankar is included in Scorsese 's George Harrison : Living in the Material World . While challenging the commonly held view that this controversial 1974 tour was a " disaster " , Simon Leng writes of a Fort Worth performance of " What Is Life " that was " greeted with a reception that matched anything the New York audience at the Bangla Desh concerts expressed " .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Olivia Newton @-@ John = = =
Australian pop singer Olivia Newton @-@ John recorded " What Is Life " , along with a version of Harrison 's All Things Must Pass track " Behind That Locked Door " , for her 1972 album Olivia . The song was arranged and produced by Bruce Welch of the Shadows and John Farrar , who was Newton @-@ John 's regular producer and collaborator during the 1970s .
Released as a single in some countries , this version reached the UK top 20 in March 1972 , peaking at number 16 . It has since appeared on Newton @-@ John compilation albums such as Back to Basics : The Essential Collection 1971 – 1992 ( 1992 ) and The Definitive Collection ( 2002 ) .
= = = Other artists = = =
In 1971 , British easy listening pianist Ronnie Aldrich covered " What Is Life " ( as well as " My Sweet Lord " ) on his album Love Story . That same year , a version by the Ventures appeared on their New Testament album . Also in 1971 , a Finnish @-@ language version of the song , titled " Mikä Saa Ihmisen Elämään " , was released as a single by local singer Oliver – better known as Veikko Laiho , of the Laiho Trio .
The Four Freshmen recorded " What Is Life " for their album Fresh ! in 1986 , six years after which Nicola Sirkis covered the song on the album Dans La Lune ... A version by Shawn Mullins was released as a single in 1999 and plays over the closing credits of the Adam Sandler movie Big Daddy ( 1999 ) .
Following Harrison 's death , Japanese band the Collectors contributed a recording of " What Is Life " to the Gentle Guitar Dreams tribute album , released in May 2002 . Classical guitarist Joseph Breznikar recorded a version of the song for his 2003 tribute album George Harrison Remembered : A Touch of Class . In November 2004 , Neal Morse released his recording of " What Is Life " on the special @-@ edition version of his album One . Les Fradkin included a cover of " What Is Life " on his 2005 tribute CD Something for George .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on " What Is Life " :
George Harrison – vocals , lead guitar , acoustic guitar , slide guitar , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – rhythm guitar
Bobby Whitlock – organ
Carl Radle – bass
Jim Gordon – drums
Jim Price – trumpet , horn arrangement
Bobby Keys – saxophone
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
John Barham – string arrangement
= = Chart performance = =
= = = George Harrison version = = =
= = = Olivia Newton @-@ John version = = =
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= Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester =
Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester KG ( 24 June 1532 or 1533 – 4 September 1588 ) was an English nobleman and the favourite and close friend of Elizabeth I 's , from her first year on the throne until his death . The Queen gave him reason to hope , and he was a suitor for her hand for many years .
Dudley 's youth was overshadowed by the downfall of his family in 1553 after his father , the Duke of Northumberland , had unsuccessfully tried to establish Lady Jane Grey on the English throne . Robert Dudley was condemned to death but was released in 1554 and took part in the Battle of St. Quentin under Philip II of Spain , which led to his full rehabilitation . On Elizabeth I 's accession in November 1558 , Dudley was appointed Master of the Horse . In October 1562 , he became a Privy Councillor and , in 1587 , was appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household . In 1564 , Dudley became Earl of Leicester and , from 1563 , one of the greatest landowners in North Wales and the English West Midlands by royal grants .
Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , was one of Elizabeth 's leading statesmen , involved in domestic as well as foreign politics alongside William Cecil and Francis Walsingham . Although he refused to be married to Mary , Queen of Scots , Dudley was for a long time relatively sympathetic to her until , from the mid @-@ 1580s , he strongly advocated for her execution . As patron of the Puritan movement , he supported non @-@ conforming preachers but tried to mediate between them and the Bishops of the Church of England . A champion also of the international Protestant cause , he led the English campaign in support of the Dutch Revolt ( 1585 – 87 ) . His acceptance of the post of Governor @-@ General of the United Provinces infuriated Queen Elizabeth . The expedition was a military and political failure , and it ruined the Earl financially . Leicester was engaged in many large @-@ scale business ventures and was a main backer of Francis Drake and other explorers and privateers . During the Spanish Armada , the Earl was in over @-@ all command of the English land forces . In this function , he invited Queen Elizabeth to visit her troops at Tilbury . This was the last of many events he had organised over the years , the most spectacular being the festival at his seat Kenilworth Castle in 1575 on occasion of a three @-@ week visit by the Queen . Dudley was a principal patron of the arts , literature , and the Elizabethan theatre .
Robert Dudley 's private life interfered with his court career and vice versa . When his first wife , Amy Robsart , fell down a flight of stairs and died in 1560 , he was free to marry the Queen . However , the resulting scandal very much reduced his chances in this respect . Popular rumours that he had arranged for his wife 's death continued throughout his life , despite the coroner 's jury 's verdict of accident . For 18 years he did not remarry for Queen Elizabeth 's sake and when he finally did , his new wife , Lettice Knollys , was permanently banished from court . This and the death of his only legitimate son and heir were heavy blows . Shortly after the child 's death in 1584 , a virulent libel known as Leicester 's Commonwealth was circulated in England . It laid the foundation of a literary and historiographical tradition that often depicted the Earl as the Machiavellian " master courtier " and as a deplorable figure around Elizabeth I. More recent research has led to a reassessment of his place in Elizabethan government and society .
= = Youth = =
= = = Education and marriage = = =
Robert Dudley was the fifth son of John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland , and his wife Jane , daughter of Sir Edward Guildford . John and Jane Dudley had 13 children in all and were known for their happy family life . Among the siblings ' tutors figured John Dee , Thomas Wilson , and Roger Ascham . Roger Ascham believed that Robert Dudley possessed a rare talent for languages and writing , regretting that his pupil had done himself harm by preferring mathematics . The craft of the courtier Robert learnt at the courts of Henry VIII , and especially Edward VI , among whose companions he served .
In 1549 Robert Dudley participated in crushing Kett 's Rebellion and probably first met Amy Robsart , whom he was to wed on 4 June 1550 in the presence of the young King Edward . She was of the same age as the bridegroom and the daughter and heiress of Sir John Robsart , a gentleman @-@ farmer of Norfolk . It was a love @-@ match , the young couple depending heavily on both their fathers ' gifts , especially Robert 's . John Dudley , who since early 1550 effectively ruled England , was pleased to strengthen his influence in Norfolk by his son 's marriage . Lord Robert , as he was styled as a duke 's son , became an important local gentleman and a Member of Parliament . His court career went on in parallel .
= = = Condemned and pardoned = = =
On 6 July 1553 King Edward VI died and the Duke of Northumberland attempted to transfer the English Crown to Lady Jane Grey , his daughter @-@ in @-@ law who was married to his second youngest son , Guildford Dudley . Robert Dudley led a force of 300 into Norfolk where Mary Tudor was assembling her followers . After some ten days in the county and securing several towns for Jane , he took King 's Lynn and proclaimed her on the market @-@ place . The next day , 19 July , Jane 's reign was over in London . Soon , the townsmen of King 's Lynn seized Robert Dudley and the rest of his small troop and sent him to Framlingham Castle before Mary I.
He was imprisoned in the Tower of London , attainted , and condemned to death , as were his father and four brothers . His father went to the scaffold . In the Tower , Dudley 's stay coincided with the imprisonment of his childhood friend , Mary 's half @-@ sister Elizabeth , who was sent there on suspicion of involvement in Wyatt 's Rebellion . Guildford Dudley was executed in February 1554 . The surviving brothers were released in the autumn ; working for their release , their mother ( who died in January 1555 ) and their brother @-@ in @-@ law , Henry Sidney , had befriended the incoming Spanish nobles around Philip of Spain , Mary 's husband .
In December 1554 , Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in a tournament held to celebrate Anglo @-@ Spanish friendship . Yet , the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there , otherwise they were even suspected of associating with people who conspired against Mary 's regime . In January 1557 Robert and Amy Dudley were allowed to repossess some of their former lands , and in March of the same year Dudley was at Calais where he was chosen to deliver personally to Queen Mary the happy news of Philip 's return to England . Ambrose , Robert , and Henry Dudley , the youngest brother , fought for Philip II at the Battle of St. Quentin in August 1557 . Henry Dudley was killed in the following siege by a cannonball — according to Robert , before his own eyes . All surviving Dudley children — Ambrose and Robert with their sisters Mary and Katherine — were restored in blood by Mary I 's next parliament in 1558 .
= = Royal favourite = =
Robert Dudley was counted among Elizabeth 's special friends by Philip II 's envoy to the English court a week before Queen Mary 's death . On 18 November 1558 , the morning after Elizabeth 's accession , he witnessed the surrender of the Great Seal to her at Hatfield . He became Master of the Horse on the same day . This was an important court position entailing close attendance on the sovereign . It suited him , as he was an excellent horseman and showed great professional interest in royal transport and accommodation , horse breeding , and the supply of horses for all occasions . Dudley was also entrusted with organising and overseeing a large part of the Queen 's coronation festivities .
In April 1559 Dudley was elected a Knight of the Garter . Shortly before , Philip II had been informed :
Lord Robert has come so much into favour that he does whatever he likes with affairs and it is even said that her majesty visits him in his chamber day and night . People talk of this so freely that they go so far as to say that his wife has a malady in one of her breasts and the Queen is only waiting for her to die to marry Lord Robert ... Matters have reached such a pass ... that ... it would ... be well to approach Lord Robert on your Majesty 's behalf ... Your Majesty would do well to attract and confirm him in his friendship .
Within a month the Spanish ambassador , Count de Feria , counted Robert Dudley among three persons who ran the country . Visiting foreigners of princely rank were bidding for his goodwill . He acted as official host on state occasions and was himself a frequent guest at ambassadorial dinners . By the autumn of 1559 several foreign princes were vying for the Queen 's hand ; their impatient envoys came under the impression that Elizabeth was fooling them , " keeping Lord Robert 's enemies and the country engaged with words until this wicked deed of killing his wife is consummated . " " Lord Robert " , the new Spanish ambassador de Quadra was convinced , was the man " in whom it is easy to recognise the king that is to be ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert . " Many of the nobility would not brook Dudley 's new prominence , as they could not " put up with his being King . " Plans to kill the favourite abounded , and Dudley took to wearing a light coat of mail under his clothes . Among all classes , in England and abroad , gossip got under way that the Queen had children by Dudley — such rumours never quite ended for the rest of her life .
= = = Amy Dudley 's death = = =
Already in April 1559 court observers noted that Elizabeth never let Dudley from her side ; but her favour did not extend to his wife . Lady Amy Dudley lived in different parts of the country since her ancestral manor house was uninhabitable . Her husband visited her for four days at Easter 1559 and she spent a month around London in the early summer of the same year . They never saw each other again ; Dudley was with the Queen at Windsor Castle and possibly planning a visit to her , when his wife was found dead at her residence Cumnor Place near Oxford on 8 September 1560 :
There came to me Bowes , by whom I do understand that my wife is dead and as he sayeth by a fall from a pair of stairs . Little other understanding can I have of him . The greatness and the suddenness of the misfortune doth so perplex me , until I do hear from you how the matter standeth , or how this evil should light upon me , considering what the malicious world will bruit , as I can take no rest .
Retiring to his house at Kew , away from court as from the putative crime scene , he pressed for an impartial inquiry which had already begun in the form of an inquest . The jury found that it was an accident : Lady Dudley , staying alone " in a certain chamber " , had fallen down the adjoining stairs , sustaining two head injuries and breaking her neck . It was widely suspected that Dudley had arranged his wife 's death to be able to marry the Queen . The scandal played into the hands of nobles and politicians who desperately tried to prevent Elizabeth from marrying him . Some of these , like William Cecil and Nicholas Throckmorton , made use of it , but did not themselves believe Dudley to be involved in the tragedy which affected the rest of his life .
Most historians have considered murder to be unlikely . The coroner 's report came to light in The National Archives in 2008 and is compatible with an accidental fall as well as suicide or other violence . In the absence of the forensic findings of 1560 , it was often assumed that a simple accident could not be the explanation — on the basis of near @-@ contemporary tales that Amy Dudley was found at the bottom of a short flight of stairs with a broken neck , her headdress still standing undisturbed " upon her head " , a detail that first appeared as a satirical remark in the libel Leicester 's Commonwealth of 1584 and has ever since been repeated for a fact . To account for such oddities and evidence that she was ill , it was suggested in 1956 by Ian Aird , a professor of medicine , that Amy Dudley might have suffered from breast cancer , which through metastatic cancerous deposits in the spine , could have caused her neck to break under only limited strain , such as a short fall or even just coming down the stairs . This explanation has been widely accepted . Suicide has also often been considered an option , motives being Amy Dudley 's depression or mortal illness .
= = = Marriage hopes and proposals = = =
Elizabeth remained close with Dudley and he , with her blessing and on her prompting , pursued his suit for her hand in an atmosphere of diplomatic intrigue . His wife 's and his father 's shadows haunted his prospects . Pope Pius IV explained to one of his cardinals :
the greater part of the nobility of that island take ill the marriage which the said queen designs to enter with the Lord Robert Dudley ... they fear that if he becomes king , he will want to avenge the death of his father , and extirpate the nobility of that kingdom .
Elizabeth countered such notions , saying that Lord Robert " was of a very good disposition and nature , not given by any means to seek revenge of former matters past " . His efforts leading nowhere , in the spring of 1561 Dudley offered to leave England to seek military adventures abroad ; Elizabeth would have none of that and everything remained as it was .
In October 1562 the Queen fell ill with smallpox and , believing her life to be in danger , she asked the Privy Council to make Robert Dudley Protector of the Realm and to give him a suitable title together with twenty thousand pounds a year . There was universal relief when she recovered her health ; Dudley was made a privy councillor . He was already deeply involved in foreign politics , including Scotland . In 1563 Elizabeth suggested Dudley as a consort to the widowed Mary , Queen of Scots , the idea being to achieve firm amity between England and Scotland and diminish the influence of foreign powers . Elizabeth 's preferred solution was that they should all live together at the English court , so that she would not have to forgo her favourite 's company . Mary of Scotland at first enquired if Elizabeth was serious , wanting above all to know her chances of inheriting the English crown . Elizabeth repeatedly declared that she was only prepared to acknowledge Mary as her heir on condition that she marry Robert Dudley . Mary 's Protestant advisors warmed to the prospect of having Dudley as their prince , and in September 1564 he was created Earl of Leicester , a move designed to make him more acceptable to Mary . In January 1565 Thomas Randolph , the English ambassador to Scotland , was told by the Scottish queen that she would accept the proposal . To his amazement , Dudley was not to be moved to comply :
But a man of that nature I never found any ... he whom I go about to make as happy as ever was any , to put him in possession of a kingdom , to lay in his naked arms a most fair ... lady ... nothing regardeth the good that shall ensue unto him thereby ... but so uncertainly dealeth that I know not where to find him .
Dudley indeed had made it clear to the Scots at the beginning that he was not a candidate for Mary 's hand and forthwith had behaved with passive resistance . He also worked in the interest of Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , Mary 's eventual choice of husband . Elizabeth herself wavered as to declaring Mary her heir , until in March 1565 she decided she could not bring herself to it . Still , she finally told the Spanish ambassador that the proposal fell through because the Earl of Leicester refused to cooperate .
By 1564 Dudley had realised that his chances of becoming Elizabeth 's consort were small . At the same time he could not " consider ... without great repugnance " , as he said , that she chose another husband . Confronted with other marriage projects , Elizabeth continued to say that she still would very much like to marry him . Dudley was seen as a serious candidate until the mid @-@ 1560s and later . To remove this threat to Habsburg and Valois suitors , between 1565 and 1578 , four German and French princesses were mooted as brides for Leicester , as a consolation for giving up Elizabeth and his resistance to her foreign marriage projects . These he had and would continue to sabotage . In 1566 Dudley formed the opinion that Elizabeth would never marry , recalling that she had always said so since she was eight years old ; but he still was hopeful — she had also assured him he would be her choice in case she changed her mind ( and married an Englishman ) .
= = = Life at court = = =
As " a male favourite to a virgin queen " , Robert Dudley found himself in an unprecedented situation . His apartments at court were next to hers , and — perceived as knowing " the Queen and her nature best of any man " — his influence was matched by few . Another side of such privileges was Elizabeth 's possessiveness and jealousy . His company was essential for her well @-@ being and for many years he was hardly allowed to leave . Sir Christopher Hatton reported a growing emergency when the Earl was away for a few weeks in 1578 : " This court wanteth your presence . Her majesty is unaccompanied and , I assure you , the chambers are almost empty . "
On ceremonial occasions Dudley often acted as an unofficial consort , sometimes in the Queen 's stead . In a personal letter to the Earl of Shrewsbury , an old friend of Leicester 's , Elizabeth said she considered Leicester as " another ourself " . He largely assumed charge of court ceremonial and organised hundreds of small and large festivities . From 1587 he was Lord Steward , being responsible for the royal household 's supply with food and other commodities . He displayed a strong sense for economising and reform in this function , which he had de facto occupied long before his official appointment . The sanitary situation in the palaces was a perennial problem , and a talk with Leicester about these issues inspired John Harington to construct a water closet . Leicester was a lifelong sportsman , hunting and jousting in the tiltyard , and an indefatigable tennis @-@ player . He was also the Queen 's regular dancing partner .
= = Ancestral and territorial ambition = =
After the Duke of Northumberland 's attainder the entire Dudley inheritance had disappeared . His sons had to start from scratch in rebuilding the family fortunes , as they had renounced any rights to their father 's former possessions or titles when their own attainders had been lifted in January 1558 . Robert Dudley financed the lifestyle expected of a royal favourite by large loans from City of London merchants until in April 1560 Elizabeth granted him his first export licence , worth £ 6 @,@ 000 p.a. He also received some of his father 's lands , but since he was not the family heir it was a matter of some difficulty to find a suitable estate for his intended peerage . In June 1563 the Queen granted him Kenilworth Manor , Castle , and Park , together with the lordships of Denbigh and Chirk in North Wales . Other grants were to follow . All in all , Leicester and his elder brother Ambrose , Earl of Warwick , came to preside over the greatest aristocratic interest in the West Midlands and North Wales .
= = = Denbighshire = = =
At the time Robert Dudley entered his new Welsh possessions there had existed a tenurial chaos for more than half a century . Some leading local families benefited from this to the detriment of the Crown 's revenue . To remedy this situation , and to increase his own income , Dudley effected compositions with the tenants in what Simon Adams has called an " ambitious resolution of a long @-@ standing problem ... without parallel in Elizabeth 's reign " . All tenants that had so far only been copyholders were raised to the status of freeholders in exchange for newly agreed rents . Likewise , all tenants ' rights of common were secured as were the boundaries of the commons , thus striking a balance between property rights and protection against enclosure .
Though an absentee landlord , Leicester , who was also Baron of Denbigh , regarded the lordship as an integral part of a territorial base for a revived House of Dudley . He set about developing the town of Denbigh with large building projects ; the church he planned , though , was never finished , being too ambitious . It would not only have been the largest , but also the first post @-@ Reformation church in England and Wales built according to a plan where the preacher was to take the centre instead of the altar , thus stressing the importance of preaching in the Protestant Church . In vain Leicester tried to have the nearby episcopal see of St. Asaph transferred to Denbigh . He also encouraged and supported the translation of the Bible and the Common Prayer Book into Welsh .
= = = Warwick and Kenilworth = = =
Ambrose and Robert Dudley were very close , in matters of business and personally . Through their paternal grandmother they descended from the Hundred Years War heroes , John Talbot , 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and Richard Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick . Robert Dudley was especially fascinated by the Beauchamp descent and , with his brother , adopted the ancient heraldic device of the earls of Warwick , the bear and ragged staff . Due to such genealogical aspects the West Midlands held a special significance for him . The town of Warwick felt this during a magnificent visit by the Earl in 1571 to celebrate the feast of the Order of Saint Michael , with which Leicester had been invested by the French king in 1566 . He shortly afterwards founded Lord Leycester 's Hospital , a charity for aged and injured soldiers still functioning today .
Kenilworth Castle was the centre of Leicester 's ambitions to " plant " himself in the region , and he substantially transformed the site 's appearance through comprehensive alterations . He added a 15th @-@ century style gatehouse to the castle 's medieval structures , as well as a formal garden and a residential wing which featured the " brittle , thin walls and grids of windows " that were to become the hallmark of Elizabethan architecture in later decades . His works completed , the Earl staged a spectacular 19 @-@ day @-@ festival in July 1575 as a final , allegorical bid for the Queen 's hand ; it was as much a request to give him leave to marry someone else . There were a Lady of the Lake , a swimming papier @-@ mâché dolphin with a little orchestra in its belly , fireworks , masques , hunts , and popular entertainments like bear baiting . The whole scenery of landscape , artificial lake , castle , and Renaissance garden was ingeniously used for the entertainment .
= = Love affairs and remarriage = =
Confronted by a Puritan friend with rumours about his " ungodly life " , Dudley defended himself in 1576 :
I stand on the top of the hill , where ... the smallest slip seemeth a fall ... I may fall many ways and have more witnesses thereof than many others who perhaps be no saints neither ... for my faults ... they lie before Him who I have no doubt but will cancel them as I have been and shall be most heartily sorry for them .
With Douglas Sheffield , a young widow of the Howard family , he had a serious relationship from about 1569 . He explained to her that he could not marry , not even in order to beget a Dudley heir , without his " utter overthrow " :
You must think it is some marvellous cause ... that forceth me thus to be cause almost of the ruin of mine own house ... my brother you see long married and not like to have children , it resteth so now in myself ; and yet such occasions is there ... as if I should marry I am sure never to have [ the Queen 's ] favour " .
Although in this letter Leicester said he still loved her as he did at the beginning , he offered her his help to find another husband for reasons of respectability if she so wished . The affair continued and in 1574 Douglas gave birth to a son , also called Robert Dudley .
Lettice Knollys was the wife of Walter Devereux , 1st Earl of Essex , and first cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth on her mother 's side . Leicester had flirted with her in the summer of 1565 , causing an outbreak of jealousy in the Queen . After Lord Essex went to Ireland in 1573 , they possibly became lovers . There was much talk , and on Essex ' homecoming in December 1575 , " great enmity between the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex " was expected . In July 1576 Essex returned to Ireland , where he died of dysentery in September . Rumours of poison , administered by the Earl of Leicester 's means , were soon abroad . The Lord Deputy of Ireland , Sir Henry Sidney , conducted an official investigation which did not find any indications of foul play but " a disease appropriate to this country ... whereof ... died many " . The rumours continued .
The prospect of marriage to the Countess of Essex on the horizon , Leicester finally drew a line under his relationship with Douglas Sheffield . Contrary to what she later claimed , they came to an amicable agreement over their son 's custody . Young Robert grew up in Dudley 's and his friends ' houses , but had " leave to see " his mother until she left England in 1583 . Leicester was very fond of his son and gave him an excellent education . In his will he left him the bulk of his estate ( after his brother Ambrose 's death ) , including Kenilworth Castle . Douglas Sheffield remarried in 1579 . After the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 , the younger Robert Dudley tried unsuccessfully to prove that his parents had married 30 years earlier in a secret ceremony . In that case he would have been able to claim the earldoms of Leicester and Warwick . His mother supported him , but maintained that she had been strongly against raising the issue and was possibly pressured by her son . Leicester himself had throughout considered the boy as illegitimate .
On 21 September 1578 Leicester secretly married Lady Essex at his country house at Wanstead , with only a handful of relatives and friends present . He did not dare to tell the Queen of his marriage ; nine months later Leicester 's enemies at court acquainted her with the situation , causing a furious outburst . She already had been aware of his marriage plans a year earlier , though . Leicester 's hope of an heir was fulfilled in 1581 when another Robert Dudley , styled Lord Denbigh , was born . The child died aged three in 1584 , leaving behind disconsolate parents . Leicester found comfort in God since , as he wrote , " princes ... seldom do pity according to the rules of charity . " The Earl turned out to be a devoted husband : In 1583 the French ambassador , Michel de Castelnau , wrote of " the Earl of Leicester and his lady to whom he is much attached " , and " who has much influence over him " . Leicester was a concerned parent to his four stepchildren , and in every respect worked for the advancement of Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex , whom he regarded as his political heir .
The marriage of her favourite hurt the Queen deeply . She never accepted it , humiliating Leicester in public : " my open and great disgraces delivered from her Majesty 's mouth " . Then again , she would be as fond of him as ever . In 1583 she informed ambassadors that Lettice Dudley was " a she @-@ wolf " and her husband a " traitor " and " a cuckold " . Lady Leicester 's social life was much curtailed . Even her movements could pose a political problem , as Francis Walsingham explained : " I see not her Majesty disposed to use the services of my Lord of Leicester . There is great offence taken at the conveying down of his lady . " The Earl stood by his wife , asking his colleagues to intercede for her ; there was no hope : " She [ the Queen ] doth take every occasion by my marriage to withdraw any good from me " , Leicester wrote still after seven years of marriage .
= = Colleagues and politics = =
For the first 30 years of Elizabeth 's reign , until Leicester 's death , he and Lord Burghley were the most powerful and important political figures , working intimately with the Queen . Robert Dudley was a conscientious privy councillor , and one of the most frequently attending .
In 1560 the diplomat Nicholas Throckmorton advocated vehemently against Dudley marrying the Queen , but Dudley won him over in 1562 . Throckmorton henceforth became his political advisor and intimate . After Throckmorton 's death in 1571 there quickly evolved a political alliance between the Earl of Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham , soon to be Secretary of State . Together they worked for a militant Protestant foreign policy . There also existed a family relationship between them after Walsingham 's daughter had married Philip Sidney , Leicester 's favourite nephew . Leicester , after some initial jealousy , also became a good friend of Sir Christopher Hatton , himself one of Elizabeth 's favourites .
Robert Dudley 's relationship with William Cecil , Lord Burghley , was complicated . Traditionally they have been seen as enemies , and Cecil behind the scenes sabotaged Dudley 's endeavours to obtain the Queen 's hand . On the other hand , they were on friendly terms and had an efficient working relationship which never broke down . In 1572 the vacant post of Lord High Treasurer was offered to Leicester , who declined and proposed Burghley , stating that the latter was the much more suitable candidate . In later years , being at odds , Dudley felt like reminding Cecil of their " thirty years friendship " .
On the whole , Cecil and Dudley were in concord about policies while disagreeing fundamentally about some issues , such as the Queen 's marriage and some areas of foreign policy . Cecil favoured the suit of Francois , Duke of Anjou , in 1578 – 1581 for Elizabeth 's hand , while Leicester was among its strongest opponents , even contemplating exile in letters to Burghley . The Anjou courtship , at the end of which Leicester and several dozen noblemen and gentlemen escorted the French prince to Antwerp , also touched the question of English intervention in the Netherlands to help the rebellious provinces . This debate stretched over a decade until 1585 , with the Earl of Leicester as the foremost interventionist . Burghley was more cautious of military engagement while in a dilemma over his Protestant predilections .
Until about 1571 / 1572 Dudley supported Mary Stuart 's succession rights to the English throne . He was also , from the early 1560s , on the best terms with the Protestant lords in Scotland , thereby supporting the English or , as he saw it , the Protestant interest . After Mary Stuart 's flight into England ( 1568 ) Leicester was , unlike Cecil , in favour of restoring her as Scottish queen under English control , preferably with a Protestant English husband , such as the Duke of Norfolk . In 1577 Leicester had a personal meeting with Mary and listened to her complaints of captivity . By the early 1580s Mary had come to fear Leicester 's influence with James VI , her son , in whose privy chamber the English Earl had placed a spy . She spread stories about his supposed lust for the English throne , and when the Catholic anti @-@ Leicester libel , Leicester 's Commonwealth , was published in 1584 Dudley believed that Mary was involved in its conception .
The Bond of Association , which the Privy Council gave out in October 1584 , may have originated in Dudley 's ideas . Circulated in the country , the document 's subscribers swore that , should Elizabeth be assassinated ( as William the Silent had been a few months earlier ) , not only the killer but also the royal person who would benefit from this should be executed . Leicester 's relations with James of Scotland grew closer when he gained the confidence of the King 's favourite , Patrick , Master of Gray , in 1584 – 1585 . His negotiations with the Master were the basis for the Treaty of Berwick , a defensive alliance between the two British states against European powers . In 1586 Walsingham uncovered the Babington Plot ; after the Ridolfi Plot ( 1571 ) and the Throckmorton Plot ( 1583 ) , this was a further scheme to assassinate Elizabeth in which Mary Stuart was involved . Following her conviction , Leicester , then in the Netherlands , vehemently urged her execution in his letters ; he despaired of Elizabeth 's security after so many plots .
Leicester having returned to England , in February 1587 Elizabeth signed Mary 's death warrant with the proviso that it be not carried out until she gave green light . As there was no sign of her doing so , Burghley , Leicester , and a handful of other privy councillors decided to proceed with Mary 's execution in the interest of the state . The Queen 's wrath at the news of Mary 's death was terrifying . Leicester went to Bath and Bristol for his health , yet unlike the other culprits escaped Elizabeth 's personal wrath .
= = Patronage = =
= = = Exploration and business = = =
Robert Dudley was a pioneer of new industries ; interested in many things from tapestries to mining , he was engaged in the first joint stock companies in English history . The Earl also concerned himself with relieving unemployment among the poor . On a personal level , he gave to poor people , petitioners , and prisons on a daily basis . Due to his interests in trade and exploration , as well as his debts , his contacts with the London city fathers were intense . He was an enthusiastic investor in the Muscovy Company and the Merchant Adventurers . English relations with Morocco were also handled by Leicester . This he did in the manner of his private business affairs , underpinned by a patriotic and missionary zeal ( commercially , these relations were a losing business ) . He took much interest in the careers of John Hawkins and Francis Drake from early on , and was a principal backer of Drake 's circumnavigation of the world . Robert and Ambrose Dudley were also the principal patrons of Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage . Later Leicester acquired his own ship , the Galleon Leicester , which he employed in a luckless expedition under Edward Fenton , but also under Drake . As much as profit , English seapower was on his mind , and accordingly Leicester became a friend and leading supporter of Dom António , the exiled claimant to the Portuguese throne after 1580 .
= = = Learning , theatre , the arts , and literature = = =
Apart from their legal function the Inns of Court were the Tudor equivalents of gentlemen 's clubs . In 1561 , grateful for favours he had done them , the Inner Temple admitted Dudley as their most privileged member , their " Lord and Governor " . He was allowed to build his own apartments on the premises and organised grand festivities and performances in the Temple . As Chancellor of Oxford University Dudley was highly committed . He enforced the Thirty @-@ nine Articles and the oath of royal supremacy at Oxford , and obtained from the Queen an incorporation by Act of Parliament for the university . Leicester was also instrumental in founding the official Oxford University Press , and installed the pioneer of international law , Alberico Gentili , and the exotic theologian , Antonio del Corro , at Oxford . Over del Corro 's controversial case he even sacked the university 's Vice @-@ Chancellor .
Around 100 books were dedicated to Robert Dudley during Elizabeth 's reign . In 1564 / 1567 Arthur Golding dedicated his popular translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses to the Earl . Dudley took a special interest in translations , which were seen as a means to popularise learning among " all who could read . " He was also a history enthusiast , and in 1559 suggested to the tailor John Stow to become a chronicler ( as Stow recalled in 1604 ) . Robert Dudley 's interest in the theatre was manifold , from academic plays at Oxford to the protection of the Children of St. Paul 's and of the Royal Chapel , and their respective masters , against hostile bishops and landlords . From at least 1559 he had his own company of players , and in 1574 he obtained for them the first royal patent that was ever issued to actors so that they could tour the country unmolested by local authorities . The Earl also kept a separate company of musicians who in 1586 played before the King of Denmark ; with them travelled William Kempe , " the Lord Leicester 's jesting player " .
Leicester possessed one of the largest collections of paintings in Elizabethan England , being the first great private collector . He was a principal patron of Nicholas Hilliard , as well as interested in all aspects of Italian culture . The Earl 's circle of scholars and men of letters included , among others , his nephew Philip Sidney , the astrologer and Hermeticist John Dee , his secretaries Edward Dyer and Jean Hotman , as well as John Florio and Gabriel Harvey . Through Harvey , Edmund Spenser found employment at Leicester House on the Strand , the Earl 's palatial town house , where he wrote his first works of poetry . Many years after Leicester 's death Spenser wistfully recalled this time in his Prothalamion , and in 1591 he remembered the late Earl with his poem The Ruins of Time .
= = = Religion = = =
From infancy Robert Dudley grew up as a Protestant . Presumably conforming in public under Mary Tudor , he was counted among the " heretics " by Philip II 's agent before Elizabeth 's accession . He immediately became a major patron to former Edwardian clerics and returning exiles . Meanwhile , he also helped some of Mary 's former servants and maintained Catholic contacts . From 1561 he advocated and supported the Huguenot cause , and the French ambassador described him as " totally of the Calvinist religion " in 1568 . After the St. Bartholomew 's Day Massacre in 1572 this trait in him became the more pronounced , and he continued as the chief patron of English Puritans and a champion of international Calvinism . On the other hand , in his household , Leicester employed Catholics like Sir Christopher Blount , who held a position of trust and of whom he was personally fond . The Earl 's patronage of and reliance on individuals was as much a matter of old family loyalties or personal relationships as of religious allegiances .
Leicester was especially interested in the furtherance of preaching , which was the main concern of moderate Puritanism . He went to great lengths to support non @-@ conforming preachers , while warning them against too radical positions which , he argued , would only endanger what reforms had been hitherto achieved . He would not condone the overthrow of the existing church model because of " trifles " , he said . " I am not , I thank God , fantastically persuaded in religion but ... do find it soundly and godly set forth in this universal Church of England . " Accordingly , he tried to smooth things out and , among other moves , initiated several disputations between the more radical elements of the Church and the episcopal side so that they " might make reconcilement " . His influence in ecclesiastical matters was considerable until it declined in the 1580s under Archbishop John Whitgift .
= = Governor @-@ General of the United Provinces = =
During the 1570s Leicester built a special relationship with Prince William of Orange , who held him in high esteem . The Earl became generally popular in the Netherlands . Since 1577 he pressed for an English military expedition , led by himself ( as the Dutch strongly wished ) to succour the rebels . In 1584 the Prince of Orange was murdered , political chaos ensued , and in August 1585 Antwerp fell to the Duke of Parma . An English intervention became inevitable ; it was decided that Leicester would go to the Netherlands and " be their chief as heretofore was treated of " , as he phrased it in August 1585 . He was alluding to the recently signed Treaty of Nonsuch in which his position and authority as " governor @-@ general " of the Netherlands had only been vaguely defined . The Earl prepared himself for " God 's cause and her Majesty 's " by recruiting the expedition 's cavalry from his retainers and friends , and by mortgaging his estate to the sum of £ 25 @,@ 000 .
At the end of December 1585 Leicester was received in the Netherlands , according to one correspondent , in the manner of a second Charles V ; a Dutch town official already noted in his minute @-@ book that the Earl was going to have " absolute power and authority " . After a progress through several cities and so many festivals he arrived in The Hague , where on 1 January 1586 he was urged to accept the title governor @-@ general by the States General of the United Provinces . Leicester wrote to Burghley and Walsingham , explaining why he believed the Dutch importunities should be answered favourably . He accepted his elevation on 25 January , having not yet received any communications from England due to constant adverse winds .
The Earl had now " the rule and government general " with a Council of State to support him ( the members of which he nominated himself ) . He remained a subject of Elizabeth , making it possible to contend that she was now sovereign over the Netherlands . According to Leicester , this was what the Dutch desired . From the start such a position for him had been implied in the Dutch propositions to the English , and in their instructions to Leicester ; and it was consistent with the Dutch understanding of the Treaty of Nonsuch . The English queen , however , in her instructions to Leicester , had expressly declined to accept offers of sovereignty from the United Provinces while still demanding of the States to follow the " advice " of her lieutenant @-@ general in matters of government . Her ministers on both sides of the Channel hoped she would accept the situation as a fait accompli and could even be persuaded to add the rebellious provinces to her possessions . Instead her fury knew no bounds and Elizabeth sent Sir Thomas Heneage to read out her letters of disapproval before the States General , Leicester having to stand nearby . Elizabeth 's " commandment " was that the Governor @-@ General immediately resign his post in a formal ceremony in the same place where he had taken it . After much pleading with her and protestations by the Dutch , it was postulated that the governor @-@ generalship had been bestowed not by any sovereign , but by the States General and thereby by the people . The damage was done , however : " My credit hath been cracked ever since her Majesty sent Sir Thomas Heneage hither " , Leicester recapitulated in October 1586 .
Elizabeth demanded of her Lieutenant @-@ General to refrain at all cost from any decisive action with Parma , which was the opposite of what Leicester wished and what the Dutch expected of him . After some initial successes , the unexpected surrender of the strategically important town of Grave was a serious blow to English morale . Leicester 's fury turned on the town 's governor , Baron Hemart , whom he had executed despite all pleadings . The Dutch nobility were astonished : even the Prince of Orange would not have dared such an outrage , Leicester was warned ; but , he wrote , he would not be intimidated by the fact that Hemart " was of a good house " .
Leicester 's forces , small and seriously underfinanced from the outset , faced the most formidable army in Europe . Unity among their ranks was at risk by Leicester 's and the other officers ' quarrels with Sir John Norris , who had commanded previous English contingents in the Netherlands and was now the Earl 's deputy . Elizabeth was angry that the war cost more than anticipated and for many months delayed sending money and troops . This not only forced Dudley to raise further funds on his own account , but much aggravated the soldiers ' lot . " They cannot get a penny ; their credit is spent ; they perish for want of victuals and clothing in great numbers ... I assure you it will fret me to death ere long to see my soldiers in this case and cannot help them " , Leicester wrote home .
Many Dutch statesmen were essentially politiques ; they soon became disenchanted with the Earl 's enthusiastic fostering of what he called " the religion " . His most loyal friends were the Calvinists at Utrecht and Friesland , provinces in constant opposition to Holland and Zeeland . Those rich provinces engaged in a lucrative trade with Spain which was very helpful to either side 's war effort . On Elizabeth 's orders Leicester enforced a ban on this trade with the enemy , thus alienating the wealthy Dutch merchants . He also effected a fiscal reform . In order to centralise finances and to replace the highly corrupt tax farming with direct taxation , a new Council of Finances was established which was not under supervision of the Council of State . The Dutch members of the Council of State were outraged at these bold steps . English peace talks with Spain behind Leicester 's back , which had started within days after he had left England , undermined his position further .
In September 1586 there was a skirmish at Zutphen , in which Philip Sidney was wounded . He died a few weeks later . His uncle 's grief was great . In December Leicester returned to England . In his absence , William Stanley and Rowland York , two Catholic officers whom Leicester had placed in command of Deventer and the fort of Zutphen , respectively , went over to Parma , along with their key fortresses — a disaster for the Anglo @-@ Dutch coalition in every respect . His Dutch friends , as his English critics , pressed for Leicester 's return to the Netherlands . Shortly after his arrival in June 1587 the English @-@ held port of Sluis was lost to Parma , Leicester being unable to assert his authority over the Dutch allies , who refused to cooperate in relieving the town . After this blow Elizabeth , who ascribed it to " the malice or other foul error of the States " , was happy to enter into peace negotiations with the Duke of Parma . By December 1587 the differences between Elizabeth and the Dutch politicians , with Leicester in between , had become insurmountable ; he asked to be recalled by the Queen and gave up his post . He was irredeemably in debt because of his personal financing of the war .
= = Armada and death = =
In July 1588 , as the Spanish Armada came nearer , the Earl of Leicester was appointed " Lieutenant and Captain @-@ General of the Queen 's Armies and Companies " . At Tilbury on the Thames he erected a camp for the defence of London , should the Spaniards land . Leicester vigorously counteracted the disorganisation he found everywhere , having few illusions about " all sudden hurley @-@ burleys " , as he wrote to Walsingham . When the Privy Council was already considering disbanding the camp to save money , Leicester held against it , setting about to plan with the Queen a visit to her troops . On the day she gave her famous speech he walked beside her horse , bare @-@ headed .
After the Armada the Earl was seen riding in splendour through London " as if he were a king " , and for the past few weeks he had usually dined with the Queen , a unique favour . On his way to Buxton in Derbyshire to take the baths , he died at Cornbury Park near Oxford , on 4 September 1588 . Leicester 's health had not been good for some time , and historians have considered both malaria and stomach cancer as death causes . His death came unexpectedly , and only a week earlier he had said farewell to his Queen . Elizabeth was deeply affected and locked herself in her apartment for a few days until Lord Burghley had the door broken . Her nickname for Dudley had been " Eyes " , which was symbolised by the sign of ôô in their letters to each other . Elizabeth kept the letter he had sent her six days before his death in her bedside treasure box , endorsing it with " his last letter " on the outside . It was still there when she died 15 years later .
Leicester was buried , as he had requested , in the Beauchamp Chapel of the Collegiate Church of St Mary , Warwick — in the same chapel as Richard Beauchamp , his ancestor , and the " noble Impe " , his little son . Countess Lettice was also buried there when she died in 1634 , alongside the " best and dearest of husbands " , as the epitaph , which she commissioned , says .
= = Historiographical treatment = =
The book which later became known as Leicester 's Commonwealth was written by Catholic exiles in Paris and printed anonymously in 1584 . It was published shortly after the death of Leicester 's son , which is alluded to in a stop @-@ press marginal note : " The children of adulterers shall be consumed , and the seed of a wicked bed shall be rooted out . " Smuggled into England , the libel became a best @-@ seller with underground booksellers and the next year was translated into French . Its underlying political agenda is the succession of Mary Queen of Scots to the English throne , but its most outstanding feature is an allround attack on the Earl of Leicester . He is presented as an atheistic , hypocritical coward , a " perpetuall Dictator " , terrorising the Queen and ruining the whole country . He is engaged in a long @-@ term conspiracy to snatch the Crown from Elizabeth in order to settle it first on his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Earl of Huntingdon , and ultimately on himself . Spicy details of his monstrous private life are revealed , and he appears as an expert poisoner of many high @-@ profile personalities . This influential classic is the origin of many aspects of Leicester 's historical reputation .
In the early 17th century , William Camden saw " some secret constellation " of the stars at work between Elizabeth and her favourite ; he firmly established the legend of the perfect courtier with the sinister influence . Some of the most often @-@ quoted characterisations of Leicester , such as that he " was wont to put up all his passions in his pocket " , his nickname of " the Gypsy " , and Elizabeth 's " I will have here but one mistress and no master " -reprimand to him , were contributed by Sir Henry Wotton and Sir Robert Naunton almost half a century after the Earl 's death . The Victorian historian James Anthony Froude saw Robert Dudley as Elizabeth 's soft plaything , combining " in himself the worst qualities of both sexes . Without courage , without talent , without virtue " . The habit of comparing him unfavourably to William Cecil was continued by Conyers Read in 1925 : " Leicester was a selfish , unscrupulous courtier and Burghley a wise and patriotic statesman " . Geoffrey Elton , in his widely read England under the Tudors ( 1955 ) , saw Dudley as " a handsome , vigorous man with very little sense . "
Since the 1950s , academic assessment of the Earl of Leicester has undergone considerable changes . Leicester 's importance in literary patronage was established by Eleanor Rosenberg in 1955 . Elizabethan Puritanism has been thoroughly reassessed since the 1960s , and Patrick Collinson has outlined the Earl 's place in it . Dudley 's religion could thus be better understood , rather than simply to brand him as a hypocrite . His importance as a privy councillor and statesman has often been overlooked , one reason being that many of his letters are scattered among private collections and not easily accessible in print , as are those of his colleagues Walsingham and Cecil . Alan Haynes describes him as " one of the most strangely underrated of Elizabeth 's circle of close advisers " , while Simon Adams , who since the early 1970s has researched many aspects of Leicester 's life and career , concludes : " Leicester was as central a figure to the ' first reign ' [ of Elizabeth ] as Burghley . "
= = Ancestry = =
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= Kings and Queens ( Thirty Seconds to Mars song ) =
" Kings and Queens " is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , featured on their third studio album This Is War ( 2009 ) . Written by lead vocalist Jared Leto across the United States and South Africa , the track was produced by Flood , Steve Lillywhite and Thirty Seconds to Mars . According to Leto , the lyrics of " Kings and Queens " explore the triumphant feeling of human possibilities . The melody of the song contains several qualities similar to that of 1980s adult contemporary musical works and is imbued with elements of progressive rock . The song was released as the lead single from This Is War on October 13 , 2009 .
" Kings and Queens " received critical acclaim , with critics deeming it as an album highlight . Much of the praise went to the song 's lyrics and the musical production ; reviewers also complimented Leto 's vocals . The song became the band 's second number one single on the US Alternative Songs and attained success in international markets . The accompanying music video , directed by Jared Leto , features Thirty Seconds to Mars and a group of followers on a critical mass movement through Los Angeles at night . Critics lauded the simplicity of the video , which was nominated for numerous accolades , including four awards at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards .
Thirty Seconds to Mars performed the song on The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien featuring the Street Drum Corps , and included it on the setlist of the Into the Wild Tour . The song was also performed on the band 's Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour , as well as the Carnivores Tour .
= = Background = =
" Kings and Queens " was written by Jared Leto and produced by Flood , Steve Lillywhite and Thirty Seconds to Mars . The song was recorded by Ryan Williams and Matt Radosevich at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound in Los Angeles , California . It premiered on Kevin and Bean 's radio show of KROQ in Los Angeles on October 6 , 2009 . Leto constructed the lyrics of " Kings and Queens " across two different continents ; the idea was conceived on a flight from the United States and realised upon touchdown in South Africa . He further elaborated on the writing process in an interview with MusicRadar :
In early 2009 , Leto told Billboard that he was excited by the song as soon as he wrote it . He said , " I had written a verse right as we were going to the airport — I literally almost missed the flight because I picked up the guitar and this song came out . You have that moment of discovery that 's exciting . "
= = Composition = =
" Kings and Queens " is an alternative rock song with influences and elements from progressive rock and arena rock . It opens with a wild hawk scream recorded live over the band 's work space , then transitioning into an ambient introduction . The song includes a heavy contribution from the band 's fans , captured singing a chorus created from layers of the band 's Summit recordings . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Kings and Queens " is written in the time signature of common time , with a moderate metronome of 82 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E ♭ major and the melody spans the tonal range of B ♭ 3 to B ♭ 5 .
Jared Leto explained that the title and theme of the track were inspired by a book found at the band 's South African work space , but that it " ended up being a good metaphor " for world events from the past year . He further said that the lyrics feature " a triumphant feeling of the possibilities that we all have . " Kelly Staskel of Billboard felt that " stately drums and dramatic strings " are paired with lyrics that take on a " stark , apocalyptic tone " , referring to the last verse of the song , which says " The age of man is over / A darkness comes and all / These lessons that we learned here / Have only just begun " . Ryan Jones of Alternative Addiction noticed the 1980s influences that resonated throughout the track and compared its melody to the sound of U2 .
Alex Useman of The Husky Herald described the song saying , " ' Kings and Queens ' starts out with a soft piano melody and instantly picks up as the drum kicks in . The intensity of the song subsides as Jared Leto 's voice enters sings the verse and once the chorus hits , the entire band explodes into a beautiful assortment of instrumentation , choric background vocals , and Leto 's soaring voice . When the bridge begins , the storm of the song seems to subside and what is left is Leto 's voice ringing out " The age of man is over [ ... ] Have only just begun " and through the bridge , there is an intense build up which leads into the final chorus . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Kings and Queens " was met with general acclaim from music critics . Kelly Staskel from Billboard commented , " Grounded by Leto 's convincing vocals , ' Kings and Queens ' is epic rock at its most affecting . " She praised the song saying , " a chorus chants behind singer Jared Leto 's smooth , powerful voice , evoking the collective thrill of a live show . " Victoria Durham from Rock Sound acknowledged the influences of U2 and called the song " epic and euphoric " . Andrew Ellis from Melodic magazine felt that the song features all the elements of the band 's previous single " From Yesterday " mixed with higher vocal patterns and a " great sing along chorus " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic praised the track as one of the album 's highlights . Tim Grierson from About.com was impressed with the song and opined that Thirty Seconds to Mars wants to inspire the listener with " arena @-@ ready anthems " like " Kings and Queens " , which he called a " grand sing @-@ along song " that has a " populist feel " .
Jon Bye , writing for Gigwise , felt that the track is " full on epic space rock , almost certainly designed with stadium in mind " . He called it " highly affirming and uplifting " , while pointing out the influences of U2 . Alex Lai from Contactmusic gave the song a positive review , noticing that it opens up with a " tidal wave of ' woah ' vocals , galloping strings " and features a chorus to " shake the foundations of the arenas " . He also felt that Jared Leto is as " impassioned " in his vocal delivery as ever . At the end of 2009 , Rock Sound listed " Kings and Queens " as the best song of the year . AOL Radio placed the track at number one on the Top Alternative Songs of 2010 , with critic Sara Anderson saying , " if ever there were an arena @-@ ready song , this would be it . " Furthermore , Alternative Addiction ranked the song at number 30 on its list of the 50 Best Songs of 2009 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " Kings and Queens " was directed by Jared Leto under the pseudonym of Bartholomew Cubbins . It was shot the weekend of October 11 – 13 , 2009 in Los Angeles over the course of several nights , filming some of the city 's most iconic landmarks . Leto explained , " I think this city is a beautiful place at night , and we have these empty streets , and it 's kind of a haunting , forgotten landscape ... very serene . " The crew recruited scores of extras and all manner of surrealist street performers to appear in the video . On October 11 , 2009 , Thirty Seconds to Mars shut down Santa Monica Pier and filmed a segment of the short film along with a group of cyclists . Leto got the inspiration behind the video after some of his friends did Critical Mass and Crank Mob , " groups of riders that get together and kind of reclaim public spaces and take over the streets in several cities around America , " and he thought that it would be the perfect backdrop for the music video of " Kings and Queens " .
During the shooting , the crew had some problems in filming some scenes . Leto told MTV News , " It 's been an incredible adventure , but it 's also been really difficult , because there are so many people , and we 're shutting down streets of Los Angeles . " He further said that they were really worried about a scene regarding a lone horse running down a Los Angeles street : " We only had three takes that we had time to do . The first take it went sideways , second take it went the other way . Third take ? Perfect . " Leto described the experience of filming the music video saying , " It 's a lyrical and slightly metaphorical surreal journey through the city of Angels , from downtown Los Angeles to Santa Monica Pier . We like to create an adventure and this has been an adventure . [ ... ] This is what we were supposed to do . And I doubted the idea up until the very last minute , but the process has been phenomenal . " The music video premiered on November 9 , 2009 at the Montalban Theater in Los Angeles .
= = = Concept = = =
The music video features a critical mass crank mob movement , founded with forward @-@ thinking and eco @-@ conscious intentions , on a night time journey from downtown Los Angeles to Santa Monica Pier . A different theme of the video simply features the band playing on a cliff edge in Griffith Park overlooking the city . These two themes alternate between each other during the course of the video . " Kings and Queens " begins with a framed silhouette shot of dozens of cyclists moving in slow motion , backed by a sunset . From the scenic view of the city 's skyline , the cast , crew and other members wrapped up and headed to downtown Los Angeles for scenes involving a horse and a fire thrower , among others .
" Kings and Queens " is filled with references to other art forms . Some of the cyclists are dressed as the Baseball Furies gang from the 1979 film The Warriors , and at one point a frame meticulously recreates underground artist Banksy 's Flower Chucker graffiti . In the video also appears a horse running down a deserted city street in slow motion , which was described as a surreal and fantastic vision of downtown Los Angeles . As " Kings and Queens " comes to a close , the group of cyclists make their way onto Santa Monica Pier as the sun rises . The band 's song " Stranger in a Strange Land " is played during the credits for the full music video .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the video received universal acclaim from contemporary music critics . James Montgomery from MTV felt that the video " is most definitely a massive thing , but it 's a spiritual endeavor , too : a celebration of a band , their fans and an unyielding sense of purpose " . He further commented , " the message , it seems , is clear : There is might in masses , a freedom in unity and strength in conviction . And all it takes to harness any of it is will . " Montgomery also noticed that although the band 's previous videos were more elaborate , " Kings and Queens " was " no less of an epic undertaking " . Joe Bosso of MusicRadar was impressed by the video and felt that " the beautifully shot clip " is a " reverent nod " to directors Akira Kurosawa and Walter Hill . He noted that its production values " haven 't been seen in music videos for quite some time " . August Brown from the Los Angeles Times opined that with " raging wildfires and white stallion " that joins them , Thirty Seconds to Mars " hasn 't lost its taste for the epic " . Tim Grierson from About.com felt that Los Angeles is featured in all its glory in the music video for " Kings and Queens " . Kyle Anderson from MTV believed that although the premise and approach of the music video is " relatively simple " and does not feature special effects , it is " actually an incredibly cinematic , wholly satisfying experience " . In 2013 , Kerrang ! magazine included " Kings and Queens " among the best music videos by Thirty Seconds to Mars , noting that " the band never shy away from a challenge , making full use of frontman Jared Leto 's Hollywood experience and delivering huge , concept @-@ based short films . "
In December 2009 , " Kings and Queens " was voted the best video of the year by readers of Rock Sound . On August 3 , 2010 , the video received four nominations at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Art Direction , Best Direction , Best Rock Video , and Video of the Year . It went on to win Best Rock Video . At the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards , it was nominated for Best Video . It also received nominations at the Fuse Awards and the Kerrang ! Awards , winning Best Video at the 2009 Rock on Request Awards .
= = Live performances = =
On December 10 , 2009 , Thirty Seconds to Mars performed " Kings and Queens " on The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien featuring the Street Drum Corps , a string quartet and ten @-@ person choir . " Kings and Queens " was performed as the last song of band 's Into the Wild Tour . Throughout the tour , Jared Leto used to choose audience members to join Thirty Seconds to Mars on stage for the song . " Kings and Queens " was played during the Tribus Centum Numerarae , the 300th show of the tour , which garnered the band the Guinness World Record for most live shows during a single album cycle . The show took place on December 7 , 2011 at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City and was broadcast worldwide on the internet . At the 2012 O Music Awards in June , it was awarded Best Online Concert Experience .
On May 13 , 2011 , Thirty Seconds to Mars recorded a performance for the television program MTV Unplugged during which they played an acoustic version of " Kings and Queens " featuring musicians from the Vitamin String Quartet . The song was included on the set list of the band 's Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and was performed both in the original and acoustic version . It was also performed on the Carnivores Tour , a tour on which Thirty Seconds to Mars co @-@ headlined with Linkin Park .
= = Cover versions and media usage = =
The Tufts Beelzebubs covered an a cappella version of " Kings and Queens " during their Spring Show on March 5 , 2010 , which was later released on their 2011 album , Battle . At the 2012 Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards on April 5 , the cover version won Best Male Collegiate Song and received a nomination for Best Male Collegiate Arrangement for Alexander Koutzoukis . " Kings and Queens " was featured in films such as Skyline ( 2010 ) , Two Rabbits ( 2012 ) and John Carter ( 2012 ) . It can also be heard in the trailers for Legend of the Guardians : The Owls of Ga 'Hoole , Hugo and How to Train Your Dragon 2 . In 2013 , the song was used in the episode " The Savage Edge " of the television series North America . " Kings and Queens " is available as downloadable content for the music video game series Guitar Hero and Rock Band . On June 24 , 2014 , the London Philharmonic Orchestra premiered a cover version of the song on Vimeo . In March 2015 , British band You Me at Six covered " Kings and Queens " for Rock Sound magazine . The cover version appeared on the compilation Worship and Tributes ( 2015 ) , released for the 200th issue of the magazine .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Performed by Thirty Seconds to Mars
Written by Jared Leto
Produced by Flood , Steve Lillywhite , and Thirty Seconds to Mars
Recorded by Ryan Williams and Matt Radosevich at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound , Los Angeles , California
Audio engineering by Ryan Williams
Additional engineering by Tom Biller , Rob Kirwan , Jamie Schefman , and Sonny Diperri
Mixed by Ryan Williams at Pulse Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California
Additional strings orchestrated and recorded by Michael Einziger at Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts
Mastered by Stephen Marcussen at Marcussen Mastering , Hollywood , California
Credits adapted from This Is War album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Recopa Sudamericana =
The Recopa Santander Sudamericana ( Portuguese : Recopa Santander Sul @-@ Americana ) , known also as the Recopa Sudamericana and simply as the Recopa ( Spanish : [ reˈkopa ] , Portuguese : [ ʁɛˈkɔpɐ ] ; " Winner 's Cup " ) , is an annual international club football competition organized by CONMEBOL since 1988 . It is a match @-@ up between the champions of the previous year 's Copa Libertadores and the Copa Sudamericana , South America 's premier club competitions .
The competition has had several different formats over its lifetime . Initially , the champions of the Copa Libertadores and Supercopa Libertadores contested it . In 1998 , the Supercopa Libertadores was discontinued and the Recopa went into a hiatus . The competition has been disputed with either a presently @-@ used two @-@ legged series or a single match @-@ up at a neutral venue . Together with the aforementioned tournaments , a club has the chance to win the CONMEBOL Treble all in one year or season . ( Brazilian teams , however , play either Libertadores or Sudamericana each year , with an exception only when a Brazilian team wins Sudamericana and qualifies for both competitions in the next year . )
The most recent champion of the competition is Argentine club River Plate , after beating San Lorenzo 2 – 0 on aggregate in the 2015 edition . Argentine club Boca Juniors is the most successful club in the cup history , having won the tournament four times . Brazilian clubs have accumulated the most victories with nine wins while Brazil has the most different winning teams , with seven clubs having won the title . The cup has been won by 16 different clubs and won consecutively by three clubs : Brazil 's São Paulo , Boca Juniors , and Ecuador 's LDU Quito successfully defended the title in 1994 , 2006 , and 2010 , respectively .
= = History = =
When the Supercopa Sudamericana was created in 1988 , a new continental Super Cup competition in South America became viable . CONMEBOL named the new competition Recopa Sudamericana after the defunct Recopa Sudamericana de Clubes played in 1970 and 1971 . The Recopa Sudamericana , disputed between the winners of South America 's two premier club competitions , is not related chronologically to the Recopa Sudamericana , created in 1968 which was contested between former South American winners of the Intercontinental Cup , Recopa Sudamericana de Clubes , disputed among Cup winners of South America . The first edition was played in 1989 and pitted Uruguayan club Nacional and Argentinian side Racing . Played on two legs , Nacional managed to win the trophy after winning 4 – 1 on points . Due to schedule dilemmas and political issues , the 1990 edition was played in Miami between Atlético Nacional and Boca Juniors with the latter winning 0 – 1 . Olimpia of Paraguay would win the Recopa Sudamericana without the need to dispute a match as the Decano won both the Copa Libertadores and Supercopa Sudamericana . CONMEBOL declared Olimpia the automatic winners of the 1991 competition .
In 1992 , and from 1994 to 1997 , the competition was played in Japan . Colo @-@ Colo of Chile defeated Cruzeiro 5 – 4 on penalties after a 0 – 0 tie in the 1992 final . Staying true to the winning ways of the Paulista 's golden generation , São Paulo won the 1993 and 1994 finals to become the first team to retain the title . Due to schedule congestion , the 1993 finals were played as part of the Campeonato Brasileiro and it also became the first Recopa to feature two teams from the same nation . In a second , consecutive all @-@ Brazilian final , São Paulo successfully defended the trophy against Botafogo . Since São Paulo won both the Copa Libertadores and Supercopa Sudamericana , CONMEBOL had Copa CONMEBOL winners Botafogo dispute the Recopa Sudamericana only to lose 3 – 1 to the defending champions .
Argentina managed to emulate their northern neighbors with the 1995 edition being an all @-@ Argentinian affair . Independiente , led by Jorge Burruchaga , managed to consecrate themselves winners after defeating Carlos Bianchi 's legendary Vélez Sársfield 1 – 0 in Tokyo . Independiente participated in a second , consecutive final only to lose the title to Grêmio after being defeated 4 – 1 . The 1997 edition was won by a Vélez Sársfield team that bowed out from the international limelight with their last title . Having failed to win the trophy in 1992 and 1993 , Cruzeiro comfortably won the 1998 edition that was played as part of the Copa Mercosur . This final series was played two years after the participating teams won their corresponding qualifying tournaments .
At the end of the 1998 season , CONMEBOL discontinued the Supercopa Sudamericana . As a result of not having an important , secondary tournament , the Recopa Sudamericana went into a hiatus from 1999 until 2002 . However , the introduction of the new Copa Sudamericana revitalized the competition with Olimpia winning the 2003 final in Los Angeles . Played on a neutral venue for the second year in a row , Cienciano defeated Boca Juniors on penalties to win their second international title . From 2005 onwards , the Recopa Sudamericana would be played on a home @-@ and @-@ away basis .
In a rematch of the Copa Libertadores final of 2004 , Boca Juniors avenged that defeat as they beat Once Caldas 4 – 3 on aggregate . A year later , Boca Juniors faced São Paulo , both two @-@ time winners of the competition , in order to determine who would become the first tricampeon . The Xeneizes won 4 – 1 on points and successfully defended the title , becoming the first side since Telê Santana 's São Paulo to win consecutive Recopas . Internacional became the first Brazilian side to lift the trophy in nine years . The 2008 competition saw Boca Juniors win their fourth title to become joint leaders for most international titles won by a club in a last hurrah on the international scene . LDU Quito won their second international title as they thumped Internacional 6 – 0 on points and 4 – 0 on goal aggregate to win their first ever title . LDU Quito then successfully defended their title in 2010 against Estudiantes . They became the third team to successfully defend the title .
= = Format = =
Unlike most other competitions around the world , the Recopa Sudamericana do not use extra time , an additional period of play specified under the rules of a sport to bring a game to a decision and avoid declaring the match a tie or draw , or away goals , a method of breaking ties in football and other sports when teams play each other twice , once at each team 's home ground , to decide a tie that was level on aggregate .
From 1988 to 1995 , teams would be awarded 2 points for a win , 1 point for a draw and 0 points for a loss ) . From 1995 onwards , the " Three points for a win " standard , a system adopted by FIFA in 1995 that places additional value on wins , was adopted in CONMEBOL , with teams now earning 3 points for a win , 1 point for a draw and 0 points for a loss . If both teams are level on points after two legs , goal difference would come into play . An immediate winner a penalty shootout , a method used in football to decide which team progresses to the next stage of a tournament ( or wins the tournament ) following a tied game via kicking penalty kicks , was used to determine a winner if the match was tied on goal difference .
Since the competition takes place in the mid @-@ winter , it 's disputed between the champions of the previous year 's forementioned competitions . Because of this , some count the year of the championship by the qualification year rather than that of the competition itself . Thus , CONMEBOL states that Nacional from Uruguay won the first Recopa of 1989 , whereas the RSSSF refers to that championship as Recopa 1988 .
= = Trophy = =
The Recopa Sudamericana trophy is retained by CONMEBOL at all times . A full @-@ size replica trophy is awarded to the winning club . Thirty gold medals are presented to the winning club and thirty silver medals to the runners @-@ up .
The Recopa Sudamericana trophy has not undergone many changes in its history . The trophy consists of a gold @-@ coated body with a pedestal . The body consists of an Adidas Tango ball , a successful family and brand of association footballs . It was first introduced as the Tango Durlast in 1978 for the 1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina . The ball is hoisted by a golden , cylindrical body with four quadrilateral edges sticking out of the body at 45 degrees from each other . The pedestal is separated into two parts ; the top part of the pedestal consists of the CONMEBOL emblem . The bottom part of the pedestal contains a gold badge underneath the CONMEBOL emblem with the phrase , " RECOPA " , imprinted into it . To the left and right , badges of previous winners are placed .
A team which wins 3 times in a row , receives an original copy of the trophy and a special mark of recognition .
= = Match ball = =
The current match ball for the Recopa Sudamericana , manufactured by Nike , is named the Total 90 Omni CSF . It is one of the many balls produced by the American sports equipment maker for CONMEBOL , replacing the Mercurial Veloci Hi @-@ Vis in 2009 . The ball , approved by FIFA and weighing approximately 422 g , has a spherical shape that allows the ball to fly faster , farther , and more accurately . According to Nike , the ball 's geometric precision distributes pressure evenly across panels and around the ball . The compressed polyethylene layer stores energy from impact and releases it at launch , and the 6 @-@ wing carbon @-@ latex air chamber improves acceleration . Another feature of the ball is its rubber layer ; it was designed to allow a better response while retaining the impact energy and releases it in the coup . Its support material of cross @-@ linked nitrogen @-@ expanded foam improves its retention and durability of its shape . Polyester support fabric enhances structure and stability . The asymmetrical high @-@ contrast graphic around the ball creates an optimal flicker as the ball rotates for a more powerful visual signal , allowing the player to more easily identify and track the ball .
= = Sponsorship = =
Like the FIFA World Cup , the Recopa Sudamericana is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations . Unlike the premier football tournament forementioned , the competition uses a single , main sponsor ; it is currently primarily sponsored by Banco Santander , one of the largest banks in the world . The deal running for a period of three years began with the 2012 edition . As the main sponsor of the tournament , the competition will carry the name of the bank . Thus , the competition is known officially as the ' " Copa Santander Libertadores ' " . The first primary sponsor of the competition was Fox Sports Latinoamérica , a Latin American cable television network focusing on sports @-@ related programming including live and pre @-@ recorded event telecasts , sports talk shows , and other original programmings . The sponsorship was only for the 2005 edition of the competition , being known officially as ' " Fox Sports Recopa Sudamericana " ' . The second primary sponsor was Visa , an American multinational financial services corporation . The deal ran for a period of 3 years which began with the 2006 edition . As the main sponsor of the tournament , the competition carried the name of the corporation . Thus , the competition was known officially as ' " Recopa Visa Sudamericana " ' .
However , the competition has had many secondary sponsors that invest in the tournament as well . Many of these sponsors are nationally based but have expanded to other nations . Nike supplies the official match ball , as they do for all other CONMEBOL competitions . Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising , even if such sponsors conflict with those of the Recopa Sudamericana .
The tournament 's current secondary sponsors and brands advertised ( in italic ) are :
= = Records and statistics = =
Argentines Sebastián Battaglia , Neri Cardozo , Rodrigo Palacio , and Jesús Dátolo and Paraguayan Claudio Morel Rodríguez are the only players to have won three Recopa Sudamericana winners ' medals . The overall top goalscorer in Recopa Sudamericana history is Rodrigo Palacio , scorer of five goals . Leandro Damião is second with 3 goals . Rodrigo Palacio and Leandro Damião hold the record for the most goals scored in a single Recopa Sudamericana . Each of their three goals was scored in the 2006 and 2010 finals , respectively . Claudio Morel Rodríguez is the player with most appearances in the competition , 5 editions ( winning three finals ) , all of them in Boca Juniors with the exception of 2003 ( played for San Lorenzo ) . Paraguayan Julio César Cáceres , Argentine Jesús Dátolo and Brazilian André are the only players that won the Recopa Sudamericana with two different teams . Cáceres won in 2003 with Olimpia and 2008 with Boca Juniors , Dátolo won in 2006 and 2008 with Boca and in 2014 with Atlético Mineiro , and André won in 2012 with Santos and 2014 with Atlético Mineiro .
Brazilians Telê Santana and Levir Culpi , Uruguayan Luis Cubilla , and Argentine Alfio Basile are the only head coaches to ever win two Recopa Sudamericana . All Recopa Sudamericana winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory except for Cubilla , Mirko Jozić , Jorge Fossati and Edgardo Bauza . Croatian Jozić , who won the 1992 edition with Chile 's Colo @-@ Colo , has the distinction and honor of being the only non @-@ South American coach to win the tournament .
= = = Winners = = =
= = Broadcasters = =
Argentina : El Trece
Paraguay : Telefuturo
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= Vanilla Chocolat =
" Vanilla Chocolat " is a song recorded by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan for her second studio album , Unlocked ( 2014 ) . It features guest vocals provided by Romanian rapper Connect @-@ R. The track was made available for digital download on 24 December 2014 as the album 's fourth single . " Vanilla Chocolat " was written by Stan , Connect @-@ R , Sava Constantin , Alexandru Cotoi and Mika Moupondo , while production was handled by Cotoi . A selfie music video for the song was directed by Stan and The Architect , and debuted on Stan 's YouTube channel on 18 December 2014 . After its release , musical critics praised " Vanilla Chocolat " for Connect @-@ R 's " catchy rap " and French bits , while others pointed out the " easy @-@ to @-@ sing " , but at the same time " nonsense " lyrics of the track . The song was performed during Stan 's " Unlocked Tour " ( 2014 ) , and together with " Cherry Pop " at the Romanian show , Vocea României .
= = Background and recording = =
" Vanilla Chocolat " was written by Stan , Sava Constantin , Alexandru Cotoi , Stefan Mihalache and Mika Moupondo , while production was handled by Cotoi . The track was recorded at Fonogram Studios in Bucharest , Romania . The song features lyrics written in both English and French . " Vanilla Chocolat " was composed during the Fonocamp songwriting @-@ camp in Azuga , Romania , where she worked on new songs along with fellow Romanian and international artists . Particularly , Stan felt that she was very " pleased with the collaboration , because [ she ] really wanted to work with Romanian artists , not just with Romanian producers like on [ her ] second studio album . " She talked about the choosing of Connect @-@ R as the guest vocalist for " Vanilla Chocolat " :
" I chose Connect @-@ R because it seems that he can " deal " with every music genre , because he is flexible and he can continue even with every unexpected change or sound combination . Connect @-@ R can also sing in every language without any problems , because he believes in his own work . We met at the Fonogram Studios , and we started ' half seriously and jokingly ' to work on the song , along with Alex Cotoi . The result is ' sweet and fragrant ' .
= = Critical reception = =
The recording received generally positive reviews upon release . Pop Shock reviewed Stan 's second studio album , Unlocked , in late 2014 , where they commended that " Vanilla Chocolat " was one of the best songs of the album . They felt that " everything about this track is pure pop perfection – from the playful French bits , to the Bollywood @-@ inspired chorus . It also sounds completely different to everything else in the charts right now . " Pop Shock were initially disappointed by the video being " Selfie cam " , but they went on to say that " it holds up to multiple viewings and suits the joyous nature of the song " . German website Hitfire reported the video premiere of " Vanilla Chocolat " on 1 January 2015 , where they praised the catchy dance @-@ pop beat incorporated in the refrain of the song and the " easy @-@ to @-@ sing " , but at the same time " nonsense " lyrics " . It 's very unlikely to become a worldwide hit , because it is too mediocre . "
= = Music video = =
A selfie video , which also served as the official video for " Vanilla Chocolat " , premiered on 18 December 2014 on Alexandra Stan 's official YouTube channel . It was directed by Stan during one single week . She filmed herself on different TV shows , where she was invited to perform the track , including " Neata cu Razvan si Dani " and " La Maruță " . Stan additionally directed at the Fonogram Studios , Roton Studios , the rehearsal room of Emil Rengle and her own house , describing the video as being " full of energy " for featuring many public figures such as Mihai Morar , Răzvan și Dani or Adelina Pestrițu . Few scenes of the video were not filmed by Stan alone , for which The Architect is credited as being the cameraman . Particularly , Dinu and Deea Maxer compared the selfie video for " Vanilla Chocolat " with their clip for " Selfie en Paris " .
= = Live performances = =
Stan 's first live performance of " Vanilla Chocolat " was on 1 December 2014 on Neatza cu Razvan si Dani , which was followed by her lip @-@ synced performance of the song on Wowbiz , in order to film some scenes for the single 's accompanying selfie video . Following the release of the clip , Stan performed a stripped @-@ down version of " Vanilla Chocolat " on the Romanian radio station Pro FM on 2 December 2014 , where she also sang Romania 's national anthem backed with instruments played by Andrei Gheorghe , Greeg and Alexandru Cotoi . Alexandra Stan was invited to perform on the Romanian version of The Voice on 12 December 2014 . There , she lip @-@ synced both " Cherry Pop " and " Vanilla Chocolat " . Shortly after the act , juror Tudor Chirila expressed how he was very " dissaponted " of Stan 's act , as Stan didn 't provide live vocals . In an interview with Cancan , Stan confessed that " [ her ] conditions of appearance on Vocea României were already discussed with the show 's producers , so no one should have been surprised about [ her ] playback @-@ performance " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked and The Collection
= = Track listings = =
= = Release history = =
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= St Mary 's Church , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn =
St Mary 's Church , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn is a medieval church near Aberffraw in Anglesey , north Wales . It was originally a chapel of ease for the parish church of St Peulan 's , Llanbeulan , but the township that it once served , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn , no longer exists . It was declared a redundant church in the early 1990s , and has been in the care of the Friends of Friendless Churches since 1999 . Services are held once per month during part of the year .
The date of the church is unknown , but the oldest parts could be from the 12th century . The chancel was rebuilt in the 16th century , and a side chapel added in the 17th century . The church furnishings , such as pews , pulpit and communion rails , were added in the 18th century , although some of the pews are modern replacements after vandalism . It is a Grade I listed building , a national designation given to buildings of " exceptional , usually national , interest " , because it is " a very rare example of a virtually unrestored Medieval church of simple , rustic character . "
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is in a rural and thinly populated part of Anglesey , about 4 @.@ 25 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) northeast of Aberffraw and about 3 @.@ 75 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) southwest of Gwalchmai . It stands on a low mound with a circumference of approximately 120 yards ( 110 m ) ; the wall around the churchyard , which contains no gravestones , follows the shape of the mound to some extent . Its original purpose was to serve as one of five chapels of ease for the local parish church , St Peulan 's , Llanbeulan , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the north ; St Peulan 's itself has now closed . The township that St Mary 's served , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn , has now disappeared , although before the time of the Black Death there were 22 houses here .
The date of foundation of the church is unknown . The nave is the oldest part of the church , possibly built in the 12th century . Later changes saw the rebuilding of the chancel ( in the late 16th century ) and the addition of a chapel on the south side of the building ( in the 17th century ) . It was used for services until the early 1990s , and was then made a redundant church in about 1992 . It was placed in the care of the Friends of Friendless Churches in 1999 , who hold a 999 year lease effective from 19 November 1999 . Services are held in the church on one Sunday afternoon per month between May and October .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church was constructed using rubble masonry with boulder quoins . The floor is laid with flagstones throughout , and the roof has modern slates . The nave measures 25 by 13 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 0 m ) , the chancel measures 16 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ( 5 @.@ 03 by 3 @.@ 47 m ) , and the chapel adjoining the chancel on the south side is 9 by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 4 m ) . Between the nave and chancel is a pointed arch , with some 13th @-@ century elements but probably reconstructed in the 16th century . The side chapel has rectangular windows in the east and west walls from the 17th century ; a narrow stone bench runs along the west and south walls of the chapel . The roof trusses , which date from the 15th and 17th centuries , are visible inside the building and the undersides are chamfered . There are two rectangular windows in the north wall of the nave ( 20th century additions ) , matching the window in the north wall of the chancel . The east window , in the chancel , has three rounded lights set in a square frame ; it dates from the latter part of the 16th century . The windows still have their clear leaded glass but are now boarded up . There are no windows on the south side , which is the most exposed side . There is an empty bellcote on the roof at the west end of the nave . The entrance is also at the west end , where there is a rounded arch doorway set deep into the thick wall , possibly dating from the 14th century .
The 12th @-@ century font was removed when the church was made redundant ; it is now in the nearby church of St Maelog , Llanfaelog . The church now houses a 15th @-@ century octagonal font made of gritstone , positioned on an octagonal stem . The communion rails are dated 1764 and is of a simple design ; the pulpit , also 18th @-@ century , has recessed panels .
There are stone benches along the north and south walls of the nave . Many of the pews , which dated from the 18th century , were vandalised or stolen after the church was made redundant . Replacements were made by a local craftsman as part of the restoration project carried out in 1999 and 2000 by the Friends of Friendless Churches .
= = Assessment = =
St Mary 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade I listed building – the highest grade of listing , designating buildings of " exceptional , usually national , interest " . Fewer than 2 % of the listed buildings in Wales are in this category . It was given this status on 5 April 1971 , because it is " a very rare example of a virtually unrestored Medieval church of simple , rustic character . " Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also note as a reason for listing " the retention of a complete set of 18th century fittings , including simple benches " , although this comment predates the 1990s vandalism . One modern guide to the buildings of the region comments that it has " the vernacular character of Anglesey 's country buildings , which survives scarcely at all in the churches . " The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis , however , took a different view of the building , calling it " a small edifice of no interest " .
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= 2008 – 11 Icelandic financial crisis =
The Icelandic financial crisis was a major economic and political event in Iceland that involved the default of all three of the country 's major privately owned commercial banks in late 2008 , following their difficulties in refinancing their short @-@ term debt and a run on deposits in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Relative to the size of its economy , Iceland 's systemic banking collapse was the largest experienced by any country in economic history . The crisis led to a severe economic depression in 2008 – 2010 and significant political unrest .
In the years preceding the crisis , three Icelandic banks , Kaupthing , Landsbanki and Glitnir , multiplied in size . This expansion was driven by ready access to credit in international financial markets , in particular short @-@ term financing . As the international financial crisis unfolded in 2007 – 2008 , investors perceived the Icelandic banks to be increasingly risky . Trust in the banks gradually faded , leading to a sharp depreciation of the Icelandic króna in 2008 and increased difficulties for the banks in rolling over their short @-@ term debt . At the end of the second quarter of 2008 , Iceland 's external debt was 9 @.@ 553 trillion Icelandic krónur ( € 50 billion ) , more than 7 times the GDP of Iceland in 2007 . The assets of the three banks totaled 14 @.@ 437 trillion krónur at the end of the second quarter 2008 , equal to more than 11 times the national GDP . Due to the huge size of the Icelandic financial system in comparison with the Icelandic economy , the Central Bank of Iceland found itself unable to act as a lender of last resort during the crisis , further aggravating the mistrust in the banking system .
On 29 September 2008 , it was announced that Glitnir would be nationalised . However , subsequent efforts to restore faith in the banking system failed . On 6 October , the Icelandic legislature instituted an emergency law which enabled the Financial Supervisory Authority ( FME ) to take control over financial institutions and made domestic deposits in the banks priority claims . In the following days , new banks were founded to take over the domestic operations of Kaupthing , Landsbanki and Glitnir . The old banks were put into receivership and liquidation , resulting in losses for their shareholders and foreign creditors . Outside Iceland , more than half a million depositors lost access to their accounts in foreign branches of Icelandic banks . This led to the 2008 – 2013 Icesave dispute , that ended with a ESA ruling that Iceland was not obliged to repay Dutch and British depositors minimum deposit guarantees .
In an effort to stabilize the situation , the Icelandic government stated that all domestic deposits in Icelandic banks would be guaranteed , imposed strict capital controls to stabilize the value of the Icelandic króna , and secured a US $ 5.1bn sovereign debt package from the IMF and the Nordic countries in order to finance a budget deficit and the restoration of the banking system . The international bailout support programme led by IMF officially ended on 31 August 2011 , while the capital controls which were imposed in November 2008 are still in place .
The financial crisis had a serious negative impact on the Icelandic economy . The national currency fell sharply in value , foreign currency transactions were virtually suspended for weeks , and the market capitalisation of the Icelandic stock exchange fell by more than 90 % . As a result of the crisis , Iceland underwent a severe economic depression ; the country 's gross domestic product dropped by 10 % in real terms between the third quarter of 2007 and the third quarter of 2010 . A new era with positive GDP growth started in 2011 , and has helped foster a gradually declining trend for the unemployment rate . The government budget deficit has declined from 9 @.@ 7 % of GDP in 2009 and 2010 to 0 @.@ 2 % of GDP in 2014 ; the central government gross debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio is expected to decline to less than 60 % in 2018 from a maximum of 85 % in 2011 .
= = Development = =
= = = Currency = = =
The Icelandic króna had declined more than 35 % against the euro from January to September 2008 . Inflation of consumer prices was running at 14 % , and Iceland 's interest rates had been raised to 15 @.@ 5 % to deal with the high inflation .
On the night of Wednesday , 8 October 2008 , the Central Bank of Iceland abandoned its attempt to peg the Icelandic króna at 131 krónur to the euro after trying to set this peg on 6 October . By 9 October , the Icelandic króna was trading at 340 to the euro when trading in the currency collapsed due to the FME 's takeover of the last major Icelandic bank , and thus the loss of all króna trade ' clearing houses ' . The next day , the central bank introduced restrictions on the purchase of foreign currency within Iceland . From 9 October to 5 November , the European Central Bank quoted a reference rate of 305 krónur to the euro .
The Central Bank of Iceland set up a temporary system of daily currency auctions on 15 October to facilitate international trade . The value of the króna is determined by supply and demand in these auctions . The first auction sold € 25 million at a rate of 150 krónur to the euro . Commercial króna trading outside Iceland restarted on 28 October , at an exchange rate of 240 krónur to the euro , after Icelandic interest rates had been raised to 18 % . The foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank of Iceland fell by US $ 289 million during October 2008 .
During November , the real exchange rate ( discounting inflation ) of the Icelandic króna , as quoted by the Central Bank of Iceland , was roughly one @-@ third lower than the average rate from 1980 – 2008 , and 20 % lower than the historical lows during the same period . The external rate as quoted by the European Central Bank was lower still . On the last trading day of the month , 28 November , the Central Bank of Iceland was quoting 182 @.@ 5 krónur to the euro , while the European Central Bank was quoting 280 krónur to the euro .
On 28 November , the Central Bank of Iceland and the Minister for Business Affairs agreed on a new set of currency regulations , replacing the central bank 's restrictions imposed early on in the crisis . Movements of capital to and from Iceland were banned without a license from central bank . It is estimated that foreign investors hold some € 2 @.@ 9 billion in króna @-@ denominated securities , popularly known as " glacier bonds " .
The foreign exchange rules also oblige Icelandic residents to deposit any new foreign currency they receive with an Icelandic bank . There is anecdotal evidence that some Icelandic exporters had been operating an informal offshore foreign exchange market , trading pounds and euros for krónur outside the control of any regulator and starving the onshore market of foreign currency . Hence the Central Bank had to sell € 124 million of currency reserves in November 2008 to make up the difference , compared with an estimated trade surplus of € 13 @.@ 9 million .
The last currency auction was held on 3 December . The domestic interbank foreign exchange market reopened the following day with three market makers , all of them government @-@ owned . On the first two days of domestic trading , the króna climbed to 153 @.@ 3 to the euro , up 22 % against the last currency auction rate .
In January 2009 , the exchange rate of Icelandic króna against Euro seemed to be more stabilized compared with the situation in October 2008 , with the lowest rate at 177 @.@ 5 krónur per EUR on 1 , 3 and 4 January 2009 , and the highest at 146 @.@ 8 on 30 January 2009 . In the meantime , however , Iceland 's 12 @-@ month inflation in January 2009 climbed to a record high of 18 @.@ 6 % .
= = = Banks = = =
In September 2008 , internal documents from Kaupthing , the largest bank in Iceland , were leaked to WikiLeaks . On 29 September 2008 , a plan was announced for the bank Glitnir to be nationalised by the Icelandic government with the purchase of a 75 % stake for € 600 million . The government stated that it did not intend to hold ownership of the bank for a long period , and that the bank was expected to carry on operating as normal . According to the government , the bank " would have ceased to exist " within a few weeks if there had not been intervention . It later turned out that Glitnir had US $ 750 million of debt due to mature on 15 October . However , the nationalization of Glitnir never went through , as it was placed in receivership by the FME before the initial plan of the Icelandic government to purchase a 75 % stake had been approved by shareholders .
The announced nationalisation of Glitnir came just as the United Kingdom government was forced to nationalise Bradford & Bingley and to sell its retail operations and branch network to Grupo Santander . Over the weekend of 4 – 5 October , British newspapers carried many articles detailing the nationalisation of Glitnir and the high leverage of Iceland 's other banks . Influential BBC business editor Robert Peston published an opinion piece on the banks , stating that debt insurance for Kaupthing required a premium of £ 625 @,@ 000 to guarantee the return of £ 1 million : " the worst case of financial BO I 've encountered in some time " was his graphic description . The Guardian said " Iceland is on the brink of collapse . Inflation and interest rates are raging upwards . The krona , Iceland 's currency , is in freefall . " These articles spooked investors discussing Icesave ( the brand name of Landsbanki in the UK and the Netherlands ) in online forums and many started moving their savings out of the Internet bank . Problems with access to the site hinted at a run on savings .
On 6 October , a number of private interbank credit facilities to Icelandic banks were shut down . Prime Minister Geir Haarde addressed the nation , and announced a package of new regulatory measures which were to be put to the Althing , Iceland 's parliament , immediately , with the cooperation of the opposition parties . These included the power of the FME to take over the running of Icelandic banks without nationalising them , and preferential treatment for depositors in the event that a bank had to be liquidated . In a separate measure , retail deposits in Icelandic branches of Icelandic banks were guaranteed in full . The emergency measures had been deemed unnecessary by the Icelandic government less than 24 hours earlier .
That evening , the Guernsey subsidiary of Landsbanki went into voluntary administration with the approval of the Guernsey Financial Services Commission . The administrators would later say that " The main reason for the Bank 's difficulties has been the placing of funds with its UK fellow subsidiary , Heritable Bank . " Guernsey 's Chief Minister stated " the directors of Landsbanki Guernsey took appropriate steps by putting the bank into administration . "
The FME placed Landsbanki in receivership early on 7 October . A press release from the FME stated that all of Landsbanki 's domestic branches , call centres , ATMs and internet operations will be open for business as usual , and that all " domestic deposits " were fully guaranteed . The UK government used the Banking ( Special Provisions ) Act 2008 first to transfer retail deposits from Heritable Bank to a Treasury holding company , then to sell them to Dutch bank ING Direct for £ 1 million . The same day , the FME placed also Glitnir into receivership .
That afternoon , there was a telephone conversation between Icelandic Finance Minister Árni Mathiesen and UK Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling . That evening , one of the governors of the Central Bank of Iceland , Davíð Oddsson , was interviewed on Icelandic public service broadcaster RÚV and stated that " we [ the Icelandic State ] do not intend to pay the debts of the banks that have been a little heedless " . He compared the government 's measures to the U.S. intervention at Washington Mutual , and suggested that foreign creditors would " unfortunately only get 5 – 10 – 15 % of their claims " .
Darling announced that he was taking steps to freeze the assets of Landsbanki in the UK . The Landsbanki Freezing Order 2008 was passed at 10 am on 8 October 2008 and came into force ten minutes later . Under the order the UK Treasury froze the assets of Landsbanki within the UK , and introduced provisions to prevent the sale or movement of Landsbanki assets within the UK , even if held by the Central Bank of Iceland or the Government of Iceland . The freezing order took advantage of provisions in sections 4 and 14 and Schedule 3 of the Anti @-@ terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 , and was made " because the Treasury believed that action to the detriment of the UK 's economy ( or part of it ) had been or was likely to be taken by certain persons who are the government of or resident of a country or territory outside the UK . "
The UK Prime Minister , Gordon Brown , announced that the UK government would launch legal action against Iceland over concerns with compensation for the estimated 300 @,@ 000 UK savers . Geir Haarde said at a press conference on the following day that the Icelandic government was outraged that the UK government applied provisions of anti @-@ terrorism legislation to it in a move they dubbed an " unfriendly act " . The Chancellor of the Exchequer also said that the UK government would foot the entire bill to compensate UK retail depositors , estimated at £ 4 billion . It is reported that more than £ 4 billion in Icelandic assets in the UK have been frozen by the UK government . The UK Financial Services Authority ( FSA ) also declared Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander , the UK subsidiary of Kaupthing Bank , in default on its obligations , sold Kaupthing Edge , its Internet bank , to ING Direct , and put Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander into administration . Over £ 2 @.@ 5 billion of deposits for 160 @,@ 000 customers were sold to ING Direct . The scale of the run on Kaupthing Edge deposits had been such that many transactions were not completed until 17 October . Although Geir Haarde has described the UK government 's actions over Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander as an " abuse of power " and " unprecedented " , they were the third such actions taken under the Banking ( Special Provisions ) Act 2008 in less than ten days , after interventions in Bradford & Bingley and Heritable Bank .
On the same day , the Sveriges Riksbank , Sweden 's central bank , made a credit facility of 5 billion Swedish krona ( € 520 million ) available to Kaupthing Bank Sverige AB , the Swedish subsidiary of Kaupthing . The loan was to pay " depositors and other creditors " .
On 9 October , Kaupthing was placed into receivership by the FME , following the resignation of the entire board of directors . The bank said that it was in technical default on its loan agreements after its UK subsidiary had been placed into administration . Kaupthing 's Luxembourg subsidiary asked for , and obtained , a suspension of payments ( similar to chapter 11 protection ) in the Luxembourg District Court . Kaupthing 's Geneva office , which was a branch of its Luxembourg subsidiary , was prevented from making any payments of more than 5000 Swiss francs by the Swiss Federal Banking Commission . The directors of Kaupthing 's subsidiary on the Isle of Man decided to wind up the company after consultation with the Manx authorities . The Finnish Financial Supervision Authority , Rahoitustarkastus , announced having taken control of Kaupthing 's Helsinki branch already on 6th , to prevent money from being sent back to Iceland .
On the same day , the UK Treasury issued a licence under the Landsbanki Freezing Order 2008 to allow the London branch of Landsbanki to continue some business . A second licence was issued on 13 October , when the Bank of England provided a £ 100 million secured loan to Landsbanki " to help maximise the returns to UK creditors . "
On 12 October the Norwegian government took control of Kaupthing 's Norwegian operations , including " all of the bank 's assets and liabilities in Norway . "
On 21 October , the Central Bank of Iceland asked the remaining independent financial institutions for new collateral against their loans . This was to replace the shares in Glitnir , Landsbanki and Kaupthing which had been pledged as collateral previously and which were now of much lower value , if not worthless . The value of the collateral was estimated at 300 billion krónur ( € 2 billion ) . One of the banks , Sparisjóðabanki ( SPB , also known as Icebank ) , stated the next day that it could not provide new collateral for its 68 billion krónur ( € 451 million ) loan , and would have to turn to the government for help . " This problem won 't be solved in any other way , " said CEO Agnar Hansson .
On 24 October , it emerged that a Norwegian export credit company ( Eksportfinans ) had made a complaint to Norwegian police concerning the alleged embezzlement of 415 million Norwegian kroner ( € 47 million ) by Glitnir since 2006 . The Icelandic bank had acted as an agent for Eksportfinans , administering loans to several companies : however Eksportfinans alleges that , when the loans were paid off early by borrowers , Glitnir kept the cash and merely continued with the regular payments to Eksportfinans , effectively taking an unauthorized loan itself .
= = = Stock market = = =
Trading in shares of six financial companies on the OMX Nordic Iceland Exchange was suspended on 6 October by order of the FME . On Thursday 9 October , all trading on the exchange was frozen for two days by the government " in an attempt to prevent further panic spreading throughout the country 's financial markets " . The decision was made to do so due to " unusual market conditions " , with share prices having fallen 30 % since the start of the month . The closure was extended through Monday 13 October due to continuing " unusual market conditions " .
The market reopened on 14 October with the main index , the OMX Iceland 15 , at 678 @.@ 4 , which corresponds to a plunge of about 77 % compared with 3 @,@ 004 @.@ 6 before the closure . This reflects the fact that the value of the three big banks , which form 73 @.@ 2 % of the value of the OMX Iceland 15 , had been set to zero . The values of other equities varied from + 8 % to − 15 % . Trading in shares of Exista , SPRON and Straumur @-@ Burðarás ( 13 @.@ 66 % of the OMX Iceland 15 ) remains suspended . After a week of very thin trading , the OMX Iceland 15 closed on 17 October at 643 @.@ 1 , down 93 % in króna terms and 96 % in euro terms from its historic high of 9016 ( 18 July 2007 ) .
Trading in the shares of two financial services companies , Straumur – Burðarás and Exista , resumed on 9 December : together the companies account for 12 @.@ 04 % of the OMX Iceland 15 . The values of the shares in both companies dropped sharply , and the index closed at 394 @.@ 88 , down by 40 @.@ 17 % on the day . Trading in shares in SPRON and Kaupthing remains suspended , at prices of 1 @.@ 90 krónur and 694 @.@ 00 krónur respectively .
= = = Sovereign debt = = =
The four credit rating agencies which monitor Iceland 's sovereign debt all lowered their ratings during the crisis , and their outlook for future ratings changes became negative . The Icelandic government had a relatively healthy balance , with sovereign debt of 28 % of GDP and a budget surplus of 6 % of GDP ( 2007 ) . More recently , the estimated 2011 debt was 130 % of GDP with a budget deficit of 6 % of GDP .
In addition , the value of foreign currency bonds which matured in the remainder of 2008 was only $ 600 million , and foreign currency debt service in 2009 was only $ 215 million , well within the government 's ability to pay . However the agencies believed that the government would have to issue more foreign currency bonds , both to cover losses as the banks ' overseas operations are liquidated and also to stimulate demand in the domestic economy as Iceland goes into recession .
A team of experts from the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) arrived in Iceland at the start of October 2008 for talks with the government . Industry Minister Össur Skarphéðinsson was said to be " favourable " to help from the IMF to stabilise the króna and to allow interest rates to be lowered .
On 7 October , the central bank of Iceland announced that they had been in talks with the Russian ambassador to Iceland , Victor I. Tatarintsev , over a € 4 billion loan from Russia . The loan would be given across three or four years , with an interest rate of 30 to 50 basis points ( 0 @.@ 3 % to 0 @.@ 5 % ) above LIBOR . Central Bank of Iceland governor Davíð Oddsson later clarified that the loan was still being negotiated . According to RÚV , prime minister Geir Haarde had been investigating the possibility of a Russian loan since the mid @-@ summer . When questioned on the matter in a press conference , Geir Haarde said : " We have not received the kind of support that we were requesting from our friends . So in a situation like that one has to look for new friends . "
A team of Icelandic negotiators arrived in Moscow on 14 October to discuss the possible loan . Russian deputy finance minister Dmitri Pankin said that " The meeting took place in a friendly atmosphere .... We are working thoroughly on the issue to take a final decision " . On the same day , the Central Bank of Iceland drew on its swap facilities with the central banks of Denmark and Norway for € 200 million each . Iceland has swap facilities with the other Nordic countries for a total of € 1 @.@ 5 billion . Iceland is also seeking assistance from the European Central Bank ( ECB ) : there is some precedent for the move , as the ECB already has currency swap arrangements with Switzerland , another non @-@ member of the European Union .
On 24 October , the IMF tentatively agreed to lend € 1 @.@ 58 billion . However the loan had still not been approved by the Executive Board of the IMF on 13 November . Due to the delay Iceland found itself caught in a classic catch @-@ 22 situation , loans from other countries could not be secured until the IMF program had been approved . The Icelandic government spoke of a $ 500M ( € 376M ) gap in the funding plans . Dutch finance minister Wouter Bos stated that the Netherlands would oppose the loan unless agreement was reached over deposit insurance for Landsbanki customers in the Netherlands .
The IMF @-@ led package of $ 4.6bn was finally agreed on 19 November , with the IMF loaning $ 2.1bn and another $ 2.5bn of loans and currency swaps from Norway , Sweden , Finland and Denmark . In addition , Poland has offered to lend $ 200M and the Faroe Islands have offered $ 50M , about 3 % of Faroese GDP . The Icelandic government reported that Russia offered to lend $ 500M , and Poland , $ 200M . The next day , Germany , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom announced a joint loan of $ 6.3bn ( € 5bn ) , related to the deposit insurance dispute .
= = Causes = =
In 2001 , banks were deregulated in Iceland . This set the stage for banks to upload debts when foreign companies were accumulated . The crisis unfolded when banks became unable to refinance their debts . It is estimated that the three major banks held foreign debt in excess of € 50 billion , or about € 160 @,@ 000 per Icelandic resident , compared with Iceland 's gross domestic product of € 8 @.@ 5 billion . As early as March 2008 , the cost of private deposit insurance for deposits in Landsbanki and Kaupthing was already far higher ( 6 – 8 ½ % of the sum deposited ) than for other European banks . The króna , which was ranked by The Economist in early 2007 as the most overvalued currency in the world ( based on the Big Mac Index ) , has further suffered from the effects of carry trading .
Coming from a small domestic market , Iceland 's banks have financed their expansion with loans on the interbank lending market and , more recently , by deposits from outside Iceland ( which are also a form of external debt ) . Households also took on a large amount of debt , equivalent to 213 % of disposable income , which led to inflation . This inflation was exacerbated by the practice of the Central Bank of Iceland issuing liquidity loans to banks on the basis of newly issued , uncovered bonds – effectively , printing money on demand .
In response to the rise in prices – 14 % in the twelve months to September 2008 , compared with a target of 2 @.@ 5 % – the Central Bank of Iceland held interest rates high ( 15 @.@ 5 % ) . Such high interest rates , compared with 5 @.@ 5 % in the United Kingdom or 4 % in the eurozone for example , encouraged overseas investors to hold deposits in Icelandic krónur , leading to monetary inflation : the Icelandic money supply ( M3 ) grew 56 @.@ 5 % in the twelve months to September 2008 , compared with 5 @.@ 0 % GDP growth . The situation was effectively an economic bubble , with investors overestimating the true value of the króna .
As with many banks around the world , the Icelandic banks found it increasingly difficult or impossible to roll over their loans in the interbank market , their creditors insisting on payment while no other banks were willing to make fresh loans . In such a situation , a bank would normally have to ask for a loan from the central bank as the lender of last resort . However , in Iceland the banks were so much larger than the national economy that the Central Bank of Iceland and the Icelandic government could not guarantee the payment of the banks ' debts , leading to the collapse of the banks . The official reserves of the Central Bank of Iceland stood at 374 @.@ 8 billion krónur at the end of September 2008 , compared with 350 @.@ 3 billion krónur of short @-@ term international debt in the Icelandic banking sector , and at least £ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( 1 @,@ 250 billion krónur ) of retail deposits in the UK .
The situation was made worse by the fact that Icesave was operating as a branch of Landsbanki , rather than as a legally independent subsidiary . As such , it was completely dependent on the Central Bank of Iceland for emergency loans of liquidity , and could not turn to the Bank of England for help . The UK Financial Services Authority ( FSA ) was aware of the risk , and was considering imposing special liquidity requirements on Icelandic deposit @-@ taking banks in the weeks before the crisis . However the plan – which was never implemented – would have forced the Icelandic banks to cut interest rates or stop taking new deposits , and might even have sparked the sort of bank run it was designed to prevent . The Guernsey authorities were also planning on bringing in restrictions on foreign banks operating as branches and on transfers of funds between Guernsey subsidiaries and parent banks ( " parental upstreaming " ) . Landsbanki operated in Guernsey through a legally independent subsidiary .
The existence of a bank run on Landsbanki accounts in the UK in the period up to 7 October seems confirmed by a statement from the bank on 10 October , which said " Landsbanki Íslands hf. transferred substantial funds to its UK branch during this time to fulfil its Icesave commitments . " The transfer of funds from Landsbanki Guernsey to Heritable Bank , a Landsbanki subsidiary in the UK , also suggests a bank run in the UK . A transfer of " substantial funds " from Iceland to the UK would have been a significant downward push on the value of the króna , even before the effects of any speculation .
= = Bank restructuring = =
Wholesale funding disappeared in September 2008 leading to the collapse of Glitnir , Kaupthing and Landsbanki . Due to the size of the combined balance sheet of those banks the government of Iceland did not have the means to save those banks . They were put into receivership instead with their boards replaced . Nevertheless , the failed banks were restructured by dividing them into a new and an old bank in order to avoid a credit crunch .
The new state @-@ owned banks took over the domestic activities and have been recapitalised by government with a capital ratio of 16 % of all assets . The Financial Supervisory Authority ( FME ) has acted to " ring @-@ fence " the Icelandic operations of Landsbanki and Glitnir , stating its aim of " continued banking operations for Icelandic families and businesses . " NBI ( originally known as Nýi Landsbanki ) was set up on 9 October with 200 billion krónur in equity and 2 @,@ 300 billion krónur of assets . Nýi Glitnir was set up on 15 October with 110 billion krónur in equity and 1 @,@ 200 billion krónur of assets . Nýja Kaupþing was set up on 22 October with 75 billion krónur in equity and 700 billion krónur of assets . The equity in all three new banks was supplied by the Icelandic government , and amounted to 30 % of Iceland 's GDP . The new banks will also have to reimburse their predecessors for the net value of the transferred assets , as determined by " recognised appraisers " . As of 14 November 2008 , these net values were estimated as : NBI ISK558.1bn ( € 3.87bn ) , Nýi Glitnir ISK442.4bn ( € 2.95bn ) ; Nýja Kaupþing ISK172.3bn ( € 1.14bn ) . The total debt of 1173 billion krónur is more than 90 % of Iceland 's 2007 gross domestic product .
The international businesses remained with the old banks for winding up . Glitnir and Kaupthing , shorn of their Icelandic operations , obtained moratoria on payments to creditors ( similar to Chapter 11 protection ) from the District Court of Reykjavík on 24 November .
The rescue operations of the central bank along with the restructuring and recapitalization of the banks increased the public debt ratio by about 20 percentage points of GDP .
= = Effects = =
= = = Within Iceland = = =
The current economic climate in the country has affected many Icelandic businesses and citizens . With the creation of Nýi Landsbanki , the new organisation which replaces the old Landsbanki , around 300 employees will lose their jobs due to a radical restructuring of the organisation which is intended to minimise the bank 's international operations . Similar job losses are expected at Glitnir and Kaupthing The job losses can be compared with the 2 @,@ 136 registered unemployed and 495 advertised vacancies in Iceland at the end of August 2008 .
Other companies have also been affected . For example , the private Sterling Airlines declared bankruptcy on 29 October 2008 . The national airline Icelandair has noticed a significant slump in domestic demand for flights . However , the airline states that year @-@ on @-@ year international demand is up from last year . Guðjón Arngrímsson , a spokesman for the airline , said " we 're getting decent traffic from other markets ... we are trying to let the weak [ króna ] help us . " He has also stated that it is impossible to predict whether the company will be profitable this year . Morgunblaðið , an Icelandic newspaper , is cutting some jobs and merging parts of its operations with the media corporation 365 . The newspaper 24 stundir has ceased publication due to the crisis , resulting in the loss of 20 jobs .
Importers are particularly hard hit , with the government restricting foreign currency to essential products such as food , medicines and oil . The € 400 million loan from the central banks of Denmark and Norway is sufficient to pay for a month 's imports , although on 15 October there was still a " temporary delay " which affected " all payments to and from the country " .
The assets of Icelandic pension funds are , according to one expert , expected to shrink by 15 – 25 % . The Icelandic Pension Funds Association has announced that benefits will in all likelihood have to be cut in 2009 . Iceland 's GDP is expected by economists to shrink by as much as 10 % as a result of the crisis , putting Iceland by some measures in an economic depression . Inflation may climb as high as 75 % by the end of the year .
Unemployment had more than tripled by late November 2008 , with over 7000 registered jobseekers ( about 4 % of the workforce ) compared to just 2136 at the end of August 2008 . As 80 % of household debt is indexed and another 13 % denominated in foreign currencies , debt payment is going to be more costly . Since October 2008 , 14 % of the workforce have experienced reductions in pay , and around 7 % have had their working hours reduced . According to the president of the Icelandic Federation of Labour ( ASÍ ) , Gylfi Arnbjörnsson , these figures are lower than expected . 85 % of those registered as unemployed in Iceland stated that they lost their job in October , after the economic collapse .
On 17 July 2009 , lawmakers voted 33 – 28 ( with two abstentions ) to approve a government plan for Iceland to apply for full European Union membership . Although Iceland ( as a member of EFTA ) already had a free trade arrangement with the EU , it had always rejected full membership due to concerns that its independence could be compromised . However , Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir , who was elected in April , had promised to bring Iceland into the EU to help stabilize its economy . EU enlargement Commissioner Olli Rehn expressed support for Iceland 's membership , stating that as " a country with deep democratic traditions " , Iceland will be welcome in the EU 's expansion plans . ( However , on 13 September 2013 the Government of Iceland dissolved its accession team and suspended its application to join the EU . On 12 March 2015 , Foreign Minister of Iceland Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson stated that he had sent a letter to the EU withdrawing the application for membership , without the approval of the Althing , though the European Union stated that Iceland had not formally withdrawn the application . )
= = = Outside Iceland = = =
Over £ 840 million in cash from more than 100 UK local authorities was invested in Icelandic banks . Representatives from each council met to try to persuade the Treasury to secure the money in the same way that customers ' money in Icesave was fully guaranteed . Of all the local authorities , Kent County Council has the most money invested in Icelandic banks , currently £ 50 million . Transport for London , the organisation that operates and coordinates transport services within London , also has a large investment at £ 40 million . Local authorities were working under government advice to invest their money across many national and international banks as a way of spreading risk . Other UK organisations said to have invested heavily include police services and fire authorities , and even the Audit Commission . It is hoped that about one @-@ third of the deposited money will be available fairly rapidly , corresponding to the liquid assets of the UK subsidiaries : liquidation of other assets , such as loans and offices , will take longer .
In an emergency sitting of Tynwald on 9 October , the Isle of Man government raised compensation from 75 % of the first £ 15 @,@ 000 per depositor to 100 % of £ 50 @,@ 000 per depositor . The Chief Minister of the Isle of Man , Tony Brown , confirmed that Kaupthing had guaranteed the operations and liabilities of its Manx subsidiary in September 2007 , and that the Manx government was pressing Iceland to honour this guarantee . Depositors with Landsbanki on Guernsey found themselves without any depositor protection .
On 11 October , an agreement was reached between the Icelandic and Dutch governments on the savings of about 120 @,@ 000 Dutch citizens . The Icelandic government will cover the first € 20 @,@ 887 on savings accounts of Dutch citizens held by Landsbanki subsidiary Icesave , using money lent by the Dutch government . The total value of Icesave deposits in the Netherlands is € 1 @.@ 7 billion . At the same time , Iceland and Britain reached an agreement on the general contours of a solution : Icesave deposits in the UK total £ 4 billion ( € 5 billion ) in 300 @,@ 000 accounts . The figure of € 20 @,@ 887 is the amount covered by the Icelandic Depositors ' and Investors ' Guarantee Fund ( DIGF ; Tryggingarsjóður in Icelandic ) : however , the DIGF had equity of only 8 @.@ 3 billion krónur at the end of 2007 , € 90 million at the exchange rates of the time and far from sufficient to cover the Dutch and British claims .
The cost of deposit insurance in the UK is not completely clear as of November 2008 . The Financial Services Compensation Scheme ( FSCS ) paid around £ 3 billion to transfer deposits from Heritable Bank and Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander to ING Direct , while the UK Treasury paid an additional £ 600 million to guarantee retail deposits that were higher than the FSCS limit . The Treasury also paid out £ 800 million to guarantee Icesave deposits that were higher than the limit . A loan of £ 2 @.@ 2 billion to the Icelandic government is expected to cover the claims against the Icelandic DIGF relating to Icesave , while the exposure of the UK FSCS is expected to be £ 1 – 2 billion .
The crisis also prompted the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to reduce its foreign aid to developing nations , from 0 @.@ 31 % to 0 @.@ 27 % of GNP . The effect of the aid cut was greatly amplified by the falling value of the króna : the budget of the Icelandic International Development Agency ( ICEIDA ) was reduced from US $ 22 million to $ 13 million . Since Iceland 's foreign aid is targeted in sectors for which the country has particular expertise ( e.g. , fisheries , geothermal power ) , the cutbacks will have a substantial impact in countries which receive Icelandic aid – most noticeably in Sri Lanka , where ICEIDA is pulling out altogether .
On 27 February 2009 , the Wall Street Journal reported that Iceland 's new government was trying to raise $ 25 million by selling its ambassadorial residences in Washington , New York , London and Oslo .
On 28 August 2009 , Iceland 's parliament voted 34 – 15 ( with 14 abstentions ) to approve a bill ( commonly referred to as the Icesave bill ) to pay the United Kingdom and the Netherlands more than $ 5 billion lost in Icelandic deposit accounts . Initially opposed in June , the bill was passed after amendments were added which set a ceiling on the payment based on the country 's gross domestic product . Opponents of the bill argued that Icelanders , already reeling from the crisis , should not have to pay for mistakes made by private banks under the watch of other governments . However , the government argued that if the bill failed to pass , the UK and the Netherlands might retaliate by blocking a planned aid package for Iceland from the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) . Under the deal , up to 4 % of Iceland 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) will be paid to the UK , in sterling terms , from 2017 – 2023 while the Netherlands will receive up to 2 % of Iceland 's GDP , in euro terms , for the same period . Talks between Icelandic , Dutch and UK ministers in January 2010 dubbed as " Icesave " did not result in any specific actions being agreed upon .
= = Official investigations = =
= = = Special Investigation Commission = = =
On 12 December 2008 , the Icelandic parliament established a Special Investigation Commission ( SIC ) , which came to consist of Supreme Court Justice Páll Hreinsson who served as chairman , Parliamentary Ombudsman Tryggvi Gunnarsson and Sigríður Benediktsdóttir associate chair at Yale University , to investigate the causes and lessons of the crisis . The commission released its report on 12 April 2010 .
= = = Icelandic criminal investigations = = =
The Office of the Special Prosecutor was founded with the passage of a bill in the Icelandic parliament 10 December 2008 . The aim was to investigate suspected criminal conduct leading up to , in connection with or in the wake of the banking crisis , whether these relate to the activities of financial undertakings , other legal entities or individuals , and , as appropriate , to follow up these investigations by bringing charges in court against those concerned .
In April 2009 , Iceland 's state prosecutor hired Eva Joly , the Norwegian @-@ French investigator who led Europe 's biggest ever fraud investigations into bribery and corruption at oil group Elf Aquitaine , as special consultant to a 20 @-@ member " economic crime team " to " investigate suspicions of criminal actions in the period preceding the collapse of the Icelandic banks " which may involve several Iceland 's business and banking leaders . Joly stated that the investigation will require a minimum of 2 – 3 years to build up enough evidence to secure prosecutions .
In February 2009 , Ólafur Hauksson ( b . Reykjavík 1964 ) was appointed ; it was the Icelandic government 's second attempt to appoint to the role , and Ólafur was one of only two applicants . He had previously been the police chief in Akranes . At the time the unit had four staff members ; by September 2013 it had 109 , with 140 cases under investigation . By that time , the top managers of all three Icelandic banks which collapsed during the financial crisis had been charged , though the cases progressed slowly .
The investigation has been focusing on a number of questionable financial practices engaged in by Icelandic banks :
Almost half of all the loans made by Icelandic banks were to holdings companies , many of which are connected to those same Icelandic banks .
Money was allegedly lent by the banks to their employees and associates so they could buy shares in those same banks while simply using those same shares as collateral for the loans . Borrowers were then allowed to defer paying interest on the loan until the end of the period , when the whole amount plus interest accrued was due . These same loans were then allegedly written off days before the banks collapsed .
Kaupthing allowed a Qatari investor to purchase 5 % of its shares . It was later revealed that the Qatari investor " bought " the stake using a loan from Kaupthing itself and a holding company associated with one of its employees ( i.e. , the bank was , in effect , buying its own shares ) .
= = = = Judgments = = = =
Aron Karlsson , businessman
Aron was sentenced to 2 years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavík for committing fraud in real estate dealings . Aron was made to pay a total of 160 – 162 million ISK with interest to Arion Bank , Glitnir 's winding @-@ up board and Íslandsbanki in addition to all legal costs . The 96 – 97 million ISK profit of the fraud held by Aron 's real estate company , AK fasteignafélag , was confiscated . The Supreme Court of Iceland increased his sentence to 2 and a half years in prison .
Baldur Guðlaugsson , Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Finance
Baldur was sentenced to mandatory 2 years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavík for insider trading . The proceeds of the trade , 192 million ISK ( including capital gains tax ) , were confiscated . The case was remitted to the Supreme Court of Iceland which upheld the ruling . It was the first time a conviction was handed down by a court for insider trading in Iceland .
Bjarnfreður Ólafsson , Supreme Court Attorney
Bjarnfreður was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the illegal increase in share capitalisation of Exista by 50 billion ISK . The Supreme Court of Iceland suspended his license to practise as attorney for 1 year and sentenced him to 6 months in prison . Out of the 6 months , 3 were suspended for 2 years .
Bjarni Ármannsson , President of Glitnir
Bjarni was sentenced to 6 months in prison by the District Court of Reykjavik for major tax noncompliance . His sentence was suspended and he was additionally ordered to repay nearly 36 million ISK of unpaid tax . The Supreme Court of Iceland increased his suspended sentence to 8 months .
Elín Sigfúsdóttir , Managing Director of Corporate Banking of Landsbanki
Elín was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for her involvement in the Imon case . The Supreme Court of Iceland overturned the ruling and sentenced Elín to 18 months in prison for her involvement in the Imon case .
Friðfinnur Ragnar Sigurðsson , Managing Director of Markets of Glitnir
Friðfinnur was sentenced to a mandatory 1 year in prison by the District Court of Reykjanes for insider trading . The ruling also subjected him to a 19 @.@ 2 million ISK asset confiscation The Supreme Court of Iceland decreased his sentence to 9 months in prison and 7 @.@ 1 million ISK in asset confiscation on the ground that Friðfinnur was a first @-@ time offender . Out of the 9 months , 6 were suspended for 2 years .
Guðmundur Hjaltason , Managing Director of Corporate Banking of Glitnir
Guðmundur was sentenced to 9 months in prison by the District Court of Reykjavík for a major breach of trust . Out of the 9 months , 6 were suspended for 2 years . The Supreme Court of Iceland acquitted Guðmundur .
Hannes Þór Smárason , Chairman and President of FL Group
Hannes was compelled by the District Court of Reykjavik to pay 2 billion ISK to Landsbanki because of a contract of suretyship he signed in 2007 .
Hannes was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for the alleged embezzlement of 3 billion ISK when he transferred money from FL Group 's account to the holding company Fons . The Special Prosecutor appealed to the Supreme Court of Iceland .
Hreiðar Már Sigurðsson , President of Kaupthing Bank
Hreiðar was sentenced to mandatory 5 and a half years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Al @-@ Thani case . Following an appeal , the sentence was upheld on 12 February 2015 by Iceland 's supreme court .
Jón Þorsteinn Jónsson , Chairman of Byr Savings Bank
Jón was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Exeter case . The Supreme Court of Iceland overturned the ruling and sentenced Jón to 4 and a half years in prison for breach of trust in the Exeter case .
Lárus Welding , CEO of Glitnir
Lárus was sentenced to 9 months in prison by the District Court of Reykjavík for a major breach of trust . Out of the 9 months , 6 were suspended for 2 years . The Supreme Court of Iceland acquitted Lárus .
Lýður Guðmundsson , Chairman of Exista
Lýður was fined 2 million ISK by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the illegal increase in share capitalisation of Exista by 50 billion ISK . The Special Prosecutor appealed to the Supreme Court of Iceland which sentenced him to 8 months in prison . Out of the 8 months , 5 are suspended for 2 years .
Magnús Guðmundsson , President of Kaupthing Bank in Luxembourg
Magnús was sentenced to mandatory 3 years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Al @-@ Thani case ; following an appeal , the sentence increased to four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years on 12 February 2015 by Iceland 's supreme court .
Ólafur Ólafsson , Shareholder of Kaupthing Bank
Ólafur was sentenced to mandatory 3 and a half years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Al @-@ Thani case ; following an appeal , the sentence increased to four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years on 12 February 2015 by Iceland 's supreme court .
Ragnar Zophonías Guðjónsson , President of Byr Savings Bank
Ragnar was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Exeter case . The Supreme Court of Iceland overturned the ruling and sentenced Ragnar to 4 and a half years in prison for breach of trust in the Exeter case .
Sigurður Einarsson , Chairman of Kaupthing Bank
Sigurður was sentenced to mandatory 5 years in prison by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Al @-@ Thani case ; following an appeal , he was sentenced to four years on 12 February 2015 by Iceland 's supreme court .
Sigurjón Þ . Árnason , President of Landsbanki
Sigurjón was acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Imon case . The Supreme Court of Iceland overturned the ruling and sentenced Sigurjón to 3 and a half years in prison for his involvement in the Imon case .
Steinþór Gunnarsson , Managing Director of Brokerage of Landsbanki
Steinþór was sentenced to 9 months in prison by the District Court of Reykjavík for market manipulation in the Imon case . Out of the 9 months , 6 were suspended .
Styrmir Þór Bragason , President of MP Bank
Styrmir was twice acquitted by the District Court of Reykjavik for his involvement in the Exeter case . The Supreme Court of Iceland overturned the ruling and sentenced Styrmir to 1 year in prison for breach of trust in the Exeter case .
= = = Arrests by UK Serious Fraud Office = = =
On 9 March 2011 , Robert and Vincent Tchenguiz were arrested in London by the UK 's Serious Fraud Office as part of their ongoing investigation in conjunction with Iceland 's Special Prosecutor 's Office into the collapse of Icelandic Bank Kaupthing . Neither was , however , indicted , and in fact they sued the Serious Fraud Office for wrongful arrest , receiving large sums in compensation .
= = Scrutiny of Icelandic business leaders = =
Since the crisis began , many of Iceland 's business leaders , who had previously been considered financial gurus who greatly developed Iceland 's economy , are now under intense public scrutiny for their roles in causing the financial crisis :
Jón Ásgeir Jóhannesson and Jóhannes Jónsson , the owners of the Baugur Group retail empire , which includes Hamleys , House of Fraser , The Oasis Centre and a large portion of Iceland 's media . Jón Ásgeir , who had been known as the " popstar businessman " due to his shaggy golden mullet , has become the subject of a satirical video on YouTube set to the theme of the movie The Godfather . In addition , a former mistress later revealed details of his " playboy lifestyle " during a trial that found him guilty of false accounting ( which prompted the Baugur Group to relocate to the United Kingdom ) .
Lýður Guðmundsson and Águst Guðmundsson , the frozen food entrepreneurs who were in charge of Kaupthing .
Björgólfur Thor Björgólfsson and Björgólfur Guðmundsson , the shipping and brewing moguls who owned Landsbanki .
Reportedly , all of those under scrutiny are now rarely seen in public and some have apparently left the country . They are also reportedly the subjects of an ongoing investigation to determine if any of their business practices warrant criminal prosecution .
= = Statements from former politicians = =
Former Prime Minister Davíð Oddsson has claimed that Iceland needs to investigate " unusual and unconventional loans " given by the banks to senior politicians during the years before the crisis .
Björn Bjarnson , the former Minister for Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs , has started a blog detailing the problems with the business sector and the efforts to cover them up . This was cited as an example of how politicians and businessmen , who traditionally held a tight grip over the Icelandic media , have lost this control and that dozens of similar blogs have been created . Björn stated that :
“ I have written a lot about problems in the business sector over the last 14 years , and I can only compare some parts of it to Enron . Here companies have been playing a game , using the media and publishing to make themselves look good . We only hope that the foreign media will soon begin to understand what has been going on . ”
= = Political aftermath = =
Parts of the Icelandic public have arranged protests against the Central Bank , the Parliament and the government 's alleged lack of responsibility before and after the crisis , attracting between 3000 and 6000 people ( 1 – 2 % of Iceland 's population ) on Saturdays .
In early November , the President of Iceland , Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson , at an informal lunch with foreign diplomats , criticized Iceland 's traditional friends ( particularly Britain , Sweden and Denmark ) as well as the International Monetary Fund . According to a memo from the Norwegian embassy , he suggested that the Russians might want to use the Keflavík Air Base , the Russian ambassador replied that they had no need for it . The President is quoted to have said that Iceland would soon recover , even if they had to fight alone . The President does not necessarily agree with the government on these issues .
In October 2008 , the UK PM Gordon Brown used provisions in part 2 of the Anti @-@ Terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 to freeze Landsbanki holdings in the United Kingdom . Iceland 's prime minister Geir Haarde protested against what he described as " a terrorist law being applied against us " , calling it " a completely unfriendly act " . Angered by the British decision , Iceland decided to submit a formal complaint to NATO about their move , and it also provoked more than 80 @,@ 000 Icelandics ( equal to 25 % of its entire population ) to sign an online petition set up under the heading " Icelanders are not terrorists " . The relationship got even tenser when UK replied a month later by cancelling its scheduled patrol of the Icelandic airspace in December 2008 . Iceland has no standing army of its own , and relies on a long @-@ term standing agreement with NATO where a group of member states have committed in turns to defend the Icelandic airspace , and the UK Royal Air Force had now cancelled this after mutual agreement with NATO ( presumably with another member state having accepted to overtake the liability ) .
According to a poll from late November 2008 , 64 % were in favour of early elections , with only 29 @.@ 3 % opposed . In a poll from 22 November 2008 , the Social Democratic Alliance led with 33 @.@ 6 % , followed by the Left @-@ Green Alliance at 27 @.@ 8 % and the Independence Party at 24 @.@ 8 % ; the Progressive Party and the Liberal Party were far behind , with only 6 @.@ 3 % and 4 @.@ 3 % , respectively .
As the Parliament met again on 20 January 2009 , there were protests with reinvigorated force and escalation of conflict between protesters and the police . On 22 January , police used tear gas to disperse people on Austurvöllur ( the square in front of the Alþing ) , the first such use since the 1949 anti @-@ NATO protest .
= = = Government resignation = = =
Prime Minister Geir H. Haarde announced on 23 January 2009 that he would be stepping down as leader of the Independence Party for health reasons : he has been diagnosed as having a malignant oesophageal tumour . He said he would travel to the Netherlands around the end of January for treatment . Education Minister and Independence Party vice @-@ chairman Þorgerður Katrín Gunnarsdóttir was to serve as Prime Minister in his absence . The leader of the Social Democratic Alliance , Foreign Minister Ingibjörg Sólrún Gísladóttir , was also unwell , undergoing treatment for a benign brain tumour since September 2008 . The government recommended that elections be held on 9 May 2009 .
Björgvin G. Sigurðsson , Iceland 's Commerce Minister , resigned on 25 January , citing the pressures of the nation 's economic collapse , as the country 's political leaders failed to agree on how to lead country out of its financial crisis . One of his last acts as minister was to dismiss the director of the Financial Supervisory Authority ( FSA ) . Björgvin acknowledged that Icelanders have lost faith in their government and political system . " I want to shoulder my part of the responsibility for that , " he said .
Negotiations on continuing the coalition broke down the next day , apparently over demands from the Social Democratic Alliance to take over the leadership of the government , and Geir Haarde tendered the government 's resignation to the President of Iceland , Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson . The President asked the present government to continue until a new government can be formed , and held talks with the five political parties represented in the Althing .
After these discussions , Ingibjörg Sólrún Gísladóttir of the Social Democratic Alliance and Steingrímur J. Sigfússon of the Left @-@ Green Movement were asked by the President to negotiate the formation of a new coalition government . Such a coalition would be five seats short of an overall majority in the Althing , but the Progressive Party ( seven seats ) was expected to support the coalition without actually joining the government . Neither party leader became Prime Minister : instead , the position went to Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir of the Social Democratic Alliance , then the Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security , who became the new chairwoman of her party on 28 March 2009 .
On 8 April 2009 , former Prime Minister Geir H. Haarde stated that he was solely responsible for accepting controversial donations to the Icelandic Independence Party in 2006 , ISK 30 million from the investment group FL Group , and ISK 25 million from Landsbanki .
Geir was strongly criticized in the April 2010 report of the Special Investigative Commission into the financial collapse , being accused of " negligence " along with three other ministers of his government . Iceland 's parliament voted 33 – 30 to indict Geir , but not the other ministers , on charges of negligence in office at a session on 28 September 2010 . He will stand trial before the Landsdómur , a special court to hear cases alleging misconduct in government office : it will be the first time the Landsdómur has convened since it was established in the 1905 Constitution . The trial began in Reykjavik on 5 March 2012 . Geir Haarde was found guilty on one of four charges on 23 April 2012 , for not holding cabinet meetings on important state matters . Landsdómur said Mr. Haarde would face no punishment , as this was a minor offence .
= = Crisis resolution = =
= = = Recovery starting in 2011 = = =
Iceland 's financial position has steadily improved since the crash . The economic contraction and rise in unemployment appear to have been arrested by late 2010 and with growth under way in mid @-@ 2011 . Three main factors have been important in this regard . First is the emergency legislation passed by the Icelandic parliament in October 2008 . It served to minimise the impact of the financial crisis on the country . The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks . The much larger foreign operations of the banks , however , went into receivership .
A second important factor is the success of the IMF Stand @-@ By @-@ Arrangement in the country since November 2008 . The SBA includes three pillars . The first pillar is a program of medium term fiscal consolidation , involving painful austerity measures and significant tax hikes . The result has been that central government debts have been stabilised at around 80 – 90 percent of GDP . A second pillar is the resurrection of a viable but sharply downsized domestic banking system on the ruins of its gargantuan international banking system which the government was unable to bail out . A third pillar is the enactment of capital controls and the work to gradually lift these to restore normal financial linkages with the outside world . An important result of the emergency legislation and the SBA is that the country has not been seriously affected by the European sovereign debt crisis from 2010 . Despite a contentious debate with Britain and the Netherlands over the question of a state guarantee on the Icesave deposits of Landsbanki in these countries , credit default swaps on Icelandic sovereign debt have steadily declined from over 1000 points prior to the crash in 2008 to around 200 points in June 2011 . The fact that the assets of the failed Landsbanki branches are now estimated to cover most of the depositor claims has had an influence to ease concerns over the situation .
Finally , the third major factor behind the resolution of the financial crisis was the decision by the government of Iceland to apply for membership in the EU in July 2009 . While views on the feasibility of EU membership are quite mixed in Iceland , this action has served to enhance the credibility of the country on international financial markets . One sign of the success of the above efforts is the fact that the Icelandic government was successfully able to raise $ 1 billion with a bond issue on 9 June 2011 . This development indicates that international investors have given the government and the new banking system , with two of the three biggest banks now in foreign hands , a clean bill of health . The first two major measures were implemented by the government of Geir H. Haarde but also carried out by the government of Johanna Sigurdardottir , which then took the step to apply for EU membership .
Iceland has undertaken recapitalization of lenders such as injection of ISK 33 billion ( 2 @.@ 1 % of 2010 GDP ) into Housing Financing Fund at the end of 2010 , under a restructuing plan approved by the EFTSA .
= = = Aftermath ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
By mid @-@ 2012 Iceland was regarded as one of Europe 's recovery success stories . It has had two years of economic growth . Unemployment was down to 6 @.@ 3 % and Iceland was attracting immigrants to fill jobs . Currency devaluation effectively reduced wages by 50 % making exports more competitive and imports more expensive . Ten @-@ year government bonds were issued below 6 % , lower than some of the PIIGS nations in the EU ( Portugal , Italy , Ireland , Greece , and Spain ) . Tryggvi Thor Herbertsson , a member of parliament , noted that adjustments via currency devaluations are less painful than government labor policies and negotiations . Nevertheless , while EU fervor has cooled the government continued to pursue membership .
Iceland elected a new government in April 2013 , which as one of their top priorities wanted to negotiate a debt haircut towards foreign creditors of the three failed Icelandic banks now in receivership , as part of a deal to lift the long enforced ( since November 2008 ) capital controls . The current capital controls ban a swap / exchange of ISK denominated assets to foreign currency , and so by effect has trapped repayment of ISK denominated assets to the creditors – which in theory mean they should be interested to accept a haircut in return for getting the capital controls lifted . The Icelandic government intent somehow to route the saved money from the negotiated debt haircut for creditors into a national household debt relief fund , enabling a 20 % debt relief for all household mortgages . In July 2013 , Standard & Poors recommended Iceland to drop the debt relief initiative , as it would only result in increased debt for the government – making it even more difficult to lend at credit markets , and it was forecasted also to ignite high inflation along with an economic recession equal to a GDP detraction of 10 % . The government has nevertheless appointed a taskforce to present proposals on how best to achieve the government 's goal about implementing a combined capital control abolition and debt relief for households , with a reporting deadline in October 2013 .
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= Glam metal =
Glam metal ( also known as hair metal and often used synonymously with pop metal ) is a subgenre of heavy metal and hard rock . It often combines elements of those genres with pop music , adding catchy hooks and guitar riffs , while sometimes borrowing from the fashion of 1970s glam rock .
Glam metal can be traced back to acts like Aerosmith , Alice Cooper , Boston , Cheap Trick , Kiss , The New York Dolls , and Van Halen . It arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the United States , particularly on the Los Angeles Sunset Strip music scene , pioneered by bands such as Mötley Crüe , Poison , Guns N ' Roses , and Bon Jovi . It was popular throughout the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s , bringing to prominence bands including Skid Row , Cinderella , and Warrant . Glam metal was also associated with flashy clothing and makeup . Poison , for example , had long shaggy or backcombed hair , accessories , metal studs , leather and make @-@ up during their live performances .
Glam metal lost mainstream interest in the early 1990s as the perceived excesses of glam metal created a backlash against the genre . A factor in the decline of glam metal was the rise of grunge in the early 1990s , which had a stripped @-@ down aesthetic and a complete rejection of the glam metal visual style . Glam metal has enjoyed a revival since the beginning of the new millennium with reunions of many popular acts from the genre 's 1980s heyday , as well as the retro styling of newer bands including The Darkness from United Kingdom and Steel Panther from Los Angeles .
= = Characteristics and terminology = =
Musically , glam metal uses traditional heavy metal songs , incorporating elements of hard rock and punk rock , while adding pop @-@ influenced catchy hooks and guitar riffs . Like other heavy metal songs of the 1980s , they often feature shred guitar solos . They also include extensive use of harmonies , particularly in the characteristic power ballads — slow , emotional songs that gradually build to a strong finale . These were among the most commercially successful singles in the genre and opened it up to a wider audience that would not have been attracted to traditional heavy metal . Lyrical themes often deal with love and lust , with songs often directed at a particular woman .
Aesthetically glam metal draws heavily on the glam rock or glitter rock of the 1970s , often with very long backcombed hair , use of make @-@ up , gaudy clothing and accessories ( chiefly consisting of tight denim or leather jeans , spandex , and headbands ) . The visual aspects of glam metal appealed to music television producers , particularly MTV , whose establishment coincided with the rise of the genre . Glam metal performers became infamous for their debauched lifestyles of drugs , strippers and late @-@ night parties , which were widely covered in the tabloid press .
Sociologist Deena Weinstein points to the large number of terms used to describe more commercial forms of heavy metal , which she groups together as lite metal . These include , beside glam metal : melodic metal , false metal , poodle bands , nerf metal , pop metal or metal pop , the last of which was coined by critic Philip Bashe in 1983 to describe bands such as Van Halen and Def Leppard . AllMusic distinguishes pop metal , which refers to the whole pop @-@ tinted hard rock and heavy metal scene of the 1980s ( including Def Leppard , Bon Jovi , Europe ) , from hair metal , the characteristics of which are flashy clothing and heavy makeup ( as embodied by Poison , and Mötley Crüe ) . Use of the derogatory term hair metal started in the early 1990s , as grunge gained popularity at the expense of 1980s metal . In the " definitive metal family tree " of his documentary Metal : A Headbanger 's Journey , anthropologist Sam Dunn differentiates pop metal , which includes bands like Def Leppard , Europe , and Whitesnake , from glam metal bands that include Mötley Crüe and Poison .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Music journalist Stephen Davis claims the influences of the style can be traced back to acts like Aerosmith , Kiss , Boston , Cheap Trick , and The New York Dolls . Kiss and to a lesser extent Alice Cooper , were major influences on the genre . Finnish band Hanoi Rocks , heavily influenced themselves by the New York Dolls , have been credited with setting a blueprint for the look of hair metal .
Van Halen has been seen as highly influential on the movement , emerging in 1978 from the Los Angeles music scene on Sunset Strip , with a sound based around the lead guitar skills of Eddie Van Halen . He popularized a playing technique of two ‐ handed hammer ‐ ons and pull ‐ offs called tapping , showcased on the song " Eruption " from the album Van Halen . This sound , and lead singer David Lee Roth 's stage antics , would be highly influential on glam metal , although Van Halen would never fully adopt a glam aesthetic .
Def Leppard , often categorized with the new wave of British heavy metal , released their second album High ' n ' Dry in 1981 , mixing glam @-@ rock with heavy metal , and helping to define the sound of hard rock for the decade . Their follow @-@ up album Pyromania ( 1983 ) , certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( over 10 million copies sold in the US ) , reached number two on the Billboard 200 . The singles " Foolin ' " , " Photograph " , and " Rock of Ages " , helped by the emergence of MTV , reached the Top 40 . Def Leppard 's Pyromania style was widely emulated , particularly by the emerging Californian scene .
= = = First wave ( 1981 – 85 ) = = =
In the early 1980s , a number of bands from across the United States began to move towards what would become the glam metal sound . Starting in 1981 , Mötley Crüe ( from Los Angeles ) released their first album Too Fast for Love , Dokken ( also from Los Angeles ) released their first Breaking the Chains , and Kix ( from western Maryland ) released their first album the self @-@ titled Kix . In 1982 , Night Ranger ( from San Francisco ) released their initial album Dawn Patrol which reached the top 40 ranking in the United States . 1983 was the breakout year for glam metal music ; Quiet Riot 's 1983 debut Metal Health was the first glam metal album , and arguably the first heavy metal album , to reach number one in the Billboard music charts and to help open the doors for additional mainstream success by subsequent metal music bands . Additionally , Night Ranger 's second album in 1983 Midnight Madness was also a breakthrough album that included the top five single " Sister Christian " . Also , in 1983 , a larger wave of glam metal albums began appearing ; Mötley Crüe released its second album Shout at the Devil , Def Leppard released its third album Pyromania , Killer Dwarfs ( from Canada ) released their self @-@ titled album Killer Dwarfs , Kix released its second album Cool Kids , Lita Ford released her initial album Out for Blood , and the band Kiss released its glam @-@ sounding Lick It Up .
The most active glam metal music scene was starting to appear in clubs on the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles , including The Trip , the Whisky a Go Go , and the Starwood . These clubs began to avoid booking punk rock bands because of fears of violence and began booking many area metal bands , usually on a " pay to play " basis , thus creating a vibrant scene for hard rock music . An increasing numbers of metal bands were able to produce debut albums in 1984 , including Ratt ( from Los Angeles ) with its breakthrough album Out of the Cellar Bon Jovi ( from New Jersey ) with its initial self @-@ titled album Bon Jovi , Great White with its self @-@ titled Great White , Black ' n Blue ( from Portland Oregon ) with its self @-@ titled album Black ' n Blue , Autograph with its first album Sign In Please , and W.A.S.P. with its self @-@ titled debut album W.A.S.P .. Also , in 1984 , Lita Ford put out her second album called Dancin ' on the Edge , Quiet Riot released its follow @-@ up album to Metal Health called Condition Critical , Dokken released its second album called Tooth and Nail , and Kiss released its very glam @-@ sounding album called Animalize .
All of these bands played a part in the developing the overall look and sound of glam metal during the early 1980s . In 1985 , many more commercially successful glam metal albums began to appear . Mötley Crüe released Theatre of Pain , Ratt 's second album Invasion of Your Privacy , Dokken 's third album Under Lock and Key , Styper 's first release Soldiers Under Command , Bon Jovi 's second release 7800 ° Fahrenheit , and Autograph 's second album That 's The Stuff . Los Angeles continued to foster the most important scene around the Sunset Strip , with groups like London , which had originally formed as a glam rock band in the 1970s , and had seen future members of Mötley Crüe , Cinderella and Guns N ' Roses pass through its ranks , finally releasing their début album Non Stop Rock in 1985 as well .
= = = Second wave ( 1986 – 91 ) = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , glam metal had begun to become a major mainstream success in America with many of these band 's music videos appearing on heavy rotation on MTV often at the top of MTV 's daily dial countdown , and some of the bands appeared on the channel 's shows such as Headbanger 's Ball , which became one of the most popular programs with over 1 @.@ 3 million views a week . The groups also received heavy rotation on radio stations such as KNAC in Los Angeles .
1986 was a significant year for glam metal music as one of the most commercially significant releases of the era was put out by Bon Jovi with Slippery When Wet which mixed hard rock with a pop sensitivity , and spent a total of eight weeks at the top of the Billboard 200 album chart , selling over 12 million copies in the United States . It became the first hard rock album to spawn three top ten singles , two of which reached number one . The album has been credited with widening the audience for the genre , particularly by appealing to women as well as the traditional male dominated audience , and opening the door to MTV and commercial success for other bands at the end of the decade . The Swedish band Europe released the anthemic album The Final Countdown which reached the top ten in several countries , including the U.S. and while the title single reached number one in 26 countries . Stryper made their mainstream breakthrough in 1986 with the release of their platinum album To Hell with the Devil and brought Christian lyrics to their hard rock music style and glam metal looks . Two Pennsylvania bands , with Harrisburg 's Poison and Philadelphia 's Cinderella released multi @-@ platinum début albums , respectively Look What the Cat Dragged In and Night Songs in 1986 . Van Halen released 5150 their first album with Sammy Hagar on lead vocals , which was number one in the U.S. for three weeks and sold over six million copies . Additionally , some established hard rock bands of the era such as the Scorpions , Whitesnake , Aerosmith , Kiss , Alice Cooper , and Judas Priest began incorporating glam metal elements into their sounds and images , as the genre 's popularity skyrocketed in 1985 @-@ 86 .
Glam metal bands continued their run of commercial success in 1987 with Mötley Crüe releasing Girls , Girls , Girls and Def Leppard releasing Hysteria producing a hard rock record of seven hit singles . Another of the greatest successes of the era was Guns N ' Roses , originally formed from a fusion of bands L.A. Guns and Hollywood Rose , who released the best @-@ selling début of all time , Appetite for Destruction . With a " grittier " and " rawer " sound than most glam metal it produced three top 10 hits , including the number one " Sweet Child O ' Mine " . Such was the dominance of the style that Californian hardcore punk band T.S.O.L. moved towards a glam metal sound in this period . Also in 1987 , L.A. band Faster Pussycat released their debut self @-@ titled album eponymous début and Dokken released the successful Back for the Attack .
In the last years of the decade the most notable successes were New Jersey ( 1988 ) by Bon Jovi , OU812 ( 1988 ) by Van Halen , while Open Up and Say ... Ahh ! ( 1988 ) by Poison , spawned number one hit single " Every Rose Has Its Thorn " , and eventually sold eight million copies worldwide . Britny Fox from Philadelphia and Winger from New York released their eponymous débuts in 1988 . In 1989 Mötley Crüe produced their most commercially successful album , the multi @-@ platinum number one Dr. Feelgood . In the same year eponymous débuts included Danger Danger from New York , Dangerous Toys from Austin , Texas , who provided more of a Southern rock tone to the genre , and Enuff Z 'Nuff from Chicago who provided an element of psychedelia to their sound and visual style . L.A. débuts included Warrant with Dirty Rotten Filthy Stinking Rich ( 1989 ) , and Skid Row with their eponymous album ( 1989 ) , which reached number six in the Billboard 200 , but they were to be one of the last major bands that emerged in the glam metal era . Glam metal entered the 1990s as one of the major commercial genres of popular music . In 1990 débuts for Slaughter , from Las Vegas with Stick It to Ya and FireHouse , from North Carolina , with their eponymous album reached number 18 and number 21 on the Billboard 200 respectively , but it would be the peak of their commercial achievement . Guns N ' Roses ' Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II ( both in 1991 ) and Van Halen 's For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge ( 1991 ) showcased the genre 's popularity .
= = = Decline ( 1992 – 96 ) = = =
The 1988 film The Decline of Western Civilization Part II : The Metal Years captured the Los Angeles scene of successful and aspiring bands . It also highlighted the excesses of glam metal , particularly the scene in which W.A.S.P. guitarist Chris Holmes was interviewed while drinking vodka on a floating chair in a swimming pool as his mother watched . As a result , it has been seen as helping to create a backlash against the genre . In the early 1990s glam metal 's popularity rapidly declined after nearly a decade of success . Successful bands lost members that were key to their songwriting and / or live performances , such as Mötley Crue 's frontman Vince Neil , Poison guitarist C.C. DeVille , Def Leppard guitarist Steve Clark and Guns N ' Roses guitarist Izzy Stradlin . Several music writers and musicians began to deride glam metal acts as " hair farmers , " hinting at the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ popularized term " hair metal " . Another reason for the decline in popularity of the style may have been the declining popularity of the power ballad . While its use , especially after a hard @-@ rocking anthem , was initially a successful formula , in the late 1980s and early 1990s audiences lost interest in this approach .
One significant factor in the decline was the rise of grunge music from Seattle , with bands including Alice in Chains , Pearl Jam and Soundgarden . This was particularly obvious after the success of Nirvana 's Nevermind ( 1991 ) , which combined elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal into a dirty sound that made use of heavy guitar distortion , fuzz and feedback , along with darker lyrical themes , a stripped @-@ down aesthetic and a complete rejection of the glam metal visual style and performance . Many major labels felt they had been caught off @-@ guard by the surprise success of grunge and began turning over their personnel in favor of younger staffers more versed in the new scene . As MTV shifted its attention to the new style , glam metal bands found themselves relegated increasingly to late night airplay , and Headbanger 's Ball was cancelled at the end of 1994 , while KNAC went over to Spanish programming . Given glam metal 's lack of a major format presence on radio , bands were left without a clear way to reach their audience . Other ( earlier Hollywood ) alternative rock bands like the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Jane 's Addiction also helped supplant the popularity of the genre .
Some artists tried to alter their sound , while others struggled on with their original format . In 1995 , Van Halen released Balance , a multi @-@ platinum seller that would be the band 's last with Sammy Hagar on vocals . In 1996 , David Lee Roth returned briefly and his replacement , former Extreme singer Gary Cherone , left the band soon after the release of the commercially unsuccessful 1998 album Van Halen III . Van Halen would not tour or record again until 2004 . Warrant released Ultraphobic in 1995 , an album with more of an alternative / grunge approach , which had little commercial success .
Meanwhile , Guns N ' Roses ' classic @-@ lineup was whittled away throughout the decade . Drummer Steven Adler was fired in 1990 , guitarist Izzy Stradlin left in late 1991 after recording Use Your Illusion I and II with the band . Tensions between the other band members and lead singer Axl Rose continued after the release of the 1993 punk rock covers album " The Spaghetti Incident ? " . Guitarist Slash left in 1996 , followed by bassist Duff McKagan in 1998 . Axl Rose , the only remaining original member at that point , worked with a constantly changing lineup in recording Chinese Democracy- an album that would take over ten years to complete and see the band incorporate electronic rock , industrial rock and nu metal styles .
= = = Revivals and nostalgia festivals ( 1997 – present ) = = =
During both the late 1990s and the 2000s , glam metal began to have something of a revival . Some established acts who had managed to weather the storm enjoyed renewed popularity , others reformed and new bands emerged to emulate the glam metal style . Bon Jovi were still able to achieve a commercial hit with " It 's My Life " ( 2000 ) . They branched into country music with a version of their 2005 song " Who Says You Can 't Go Home " , which reached number one on the Hot Country Singles chart in 2006 and the rock / country album Lost Highway which reached number one in 2007 . In 2009 , Bon Jovi released The Circle , which marked a return to their hard rock sound and reached number one on the Billboard 200 . Mötley Crüe reunited with Vince Neil to record the 1997 album Generation Swine and Poison reunited with guitarist C.C. DeVille in 1999 , producing the mostly live Power to the People ( 2000 ) ; both bands began to tour extensively . There were reunions and subsequent tours from Van Halen ( with Hagar in 2004 and then Roth in 2007 ) . The long awaited Guns N ' Roses album Chinese Democracy was finally released in 2008 , but only went platinum in the US , produced no hit singles , and failed to come close to the success of the band 's late 1980s and early 1990s material . Europe 's " Final Countdown " enjoyed a new lease of popularity as the millennium drew to a close and the band reformed . Other acts to reform included Ratt , Britny Fox , Stryper ( annually ) , and Skid Row .
Beginning in 1999 , Monster Ballads , a series of compilation albums that feature popular power ballads , usually from the glam metal genre , capitalized on the nostalgia , with the first volume going platinum . The VH1 sponsored Rock Never Stops Tour , beginning in 1998 , has seen many glam metal bands take to the stage again , including on the inaugural tour : Warrant , Slaughter , Quiet Riot , FireHouse , and L.A. Guns . Slaughter also took part in the 1999 version with Ted Nugent , Night Ranger , and Quiet Riot . Poison and Cinderella toured together in 2000 and 2002 , and in 2005 Cinderella headlined the Rock Never Stops Tour , with support from Ratt , Quiet Riot , and FireHouse . In 2007 the four @-@ day @-@ long Rocklahoma festival held in Oklahoma included glam metal bands Poison , Ratt and Twisted Sister . Warrant and Cinderella co @-@ headlined the festival in 2008 . Nostalgia for the genre was evidenced in the production of the glam metal themed musical Rock of Ages , which ran in Los Angeles in 2006 and in New York in 2008 . It was made into a film released in 2012 .
Glam metal experienced a partial resurgence around the turn of the century , due in part to increased interest on the Internet , with the successful ' Glam Slam Metal Jam ' music festival taking place in the summer of 2000 . By the early 2000s , a handful of new bands began to revive glam metal in one form or another . The Darkness 's Permission to Land ( 2003 ) , described as an " eerily realistic simulation of ' 80s metal and ' 70s glam " , topped the UK charts , going quintuple platinum . One Way Ticket to Hell ... and Back ( 2005 ) reached number 11 . The band broke up in 2006 , but reunited in 2011 , releasing the album Hot Cakes the following year . Los Angeles band Steel Panther managed to gain a following by playing 1980s style glam metal . In Sweden the sleaze rock movement attempted to revive the genre , with bands including Vains of Jenna , Crashdïet and H.E.A.T Other new acts included Beautiful Creatures and Buckcherry . The latter 's breakthrough album 15 ( 2006 ) went platinum in the U.S. and spawned the single " Sorry " ( 2007 ) , which made the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 . Bands known for their metalcore background such as Black Veil Brides and Blessed by a Broken Heart have changed their style to be glam metal inspired , both musically and visually , with Black Veil Brides adding a gothic spin to the traditional glam image .
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= Priestley Riots =
The Priestley Riots ( also known as the Birmingham Riots of 1791 ) took place from 14 July to 17 July 1791 in Birmingham , England ; the rioters ' main targets were religious Dissenters , most notably the politically and theologically controversial Joseph Priestley . Both local and national issues stirred the passions of the rioters , from disagreements over public library book purchases , to controversies over Dissenters ' attempts to gain full civil rights and their support of the French Revolution .
The riots started with an attack on Birmingham 's Royal Hotel – the site of a banquet organized in sympathy with the French Revolution . Then , beginning with Priestley 's church and home , the rioters attacked or burned four Dissenting chapels , twenty @-@ seven houses , and several businesses . Many of them became intoxicated by liquor that they found while looting , or with which they were bribed to stop burning homes . A small core could not be bribed , however , and remained sober . The rioters burned not only the homes and chapels of Dissenters , but also the homes of people they associated with Dissenters , such as members of the scientific Lunar Society .
While the riots were not initiated by Prime Minister William Pitt 's administration , the national government was slow to respond to the Dissenters ' pleas for help . Local Birmingham officials seem to have been involved in the planning of the riots , and they were later reluctant to prosecute any ringleaders . Industrialist James Watt wrote that the riots " divided [ Birmingham ] into two parties who hate one another mortally " . Those who had been attacked gradually left , leaving Birmingham a more conservative city than it had been throughout the eighteenth century .
= = Historical context = =
= = = Birmingham = = =
Over the course of the eighteenth century , Birmingham became notorious for its riots , which were sparked by a number of causes . In 1714 and 1715 , the townspeople , as part of a " Church @-@ and @-@ King " mob , attacked Dissenters ( Protestants who did not adhere to the Church of England or follow its practices ) in the Sacheverell riots during the London trial of Henry Sacheverell , and in 1751 and 1759 Quakers and Methodists were assaulted . During the anti @-@ Catholic Gordon Riots in 1780 , large crowds assembled in Birmingham . In 1766 , 1782 , 1795 , and 1800 mobs protested high food prices . One contemporary described Birmingham rioters as the " bunting , beggarly , brass @-@ making , brazen @-@ faced , brazen @-@ hearted , blackguard , bustling , booby Birmingham mob " .
Up until the late 1780s , religious divisions did not affect Birmingham 's elite . Dissenter and Anglican lived side by side harmoniously : they were on the same town promotional committees ; they pursued joint scientific interests in the Lunar Society ; and they worked together in local government . They stood united against what they viewed as the threat posed by unruly plebeians . After the riots , however , scientist and clergyman Joseph Priestley argued in his An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Birmingham Riots ( 1791 ) that this cooperation had not in fact been as amicable as generally believed . Priestley revealed that disputes over the local library , Sunday Schools , and church attendance had divided Dissenters from Anglicans . In his Narrative of the Riots in Birmingham ( 1816 ) , stationer and Birmingham historian William Hutton agreed , arguing that five events stoked the fires of religious friction : disagreements over inclusion of Priestley 's books in the local public library ; concerns over Dissenters ' attempts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts ; religious controversy ( particularly involving Priestley ) ; an " inflammatory hand @-@ bill " ; and a dinner celebrating the outbreak of the French Revolution .
Once Birmingham Dissenters started to agitate for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts , which restricted Dissenters ' civil rights ( preventing them , for instance , from attending the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge , or from holding public office ) , the semblance of unity among the town 's elite disappeared . Unitarians such as Priestley were at the forefront of the repeal campaign , and orthodox Anglicans grew nervous and angry . After 1787 , the emergence of Dissenting groups formed for the sole purpose of overturning these laws began to divide the community ; however , the repeal efforts failed in 1787 , 1789 , and 1790 . Priestley 's support of the repeal and his heterodox religious views , which were widely published , inflamed the populace . In February 1790 , a group of activists came together not only to oppose the interests of the Dissenters but also to counteract what they saw as the undesirable importation of French Revolutionary ideals . Dissenters by and large supported the French Revolution and its efforts to question the role monarchy should play in government . One month before the riots , Priestley attempted to found a reform society , the Warwickshire Constitutional Society , which would have supported universal suffrage and short Parliaments . Although this effort failed , the efforts to establish such a society increased tensions in Birmingham .
In addition to these religious and political differences , both the lower @-@ class rioters and their upper @-@ class Anglican leaders had economic complaints against the middle @-@ class Dissenters . They envied the ever @-@ increasing prosperity of these industrialists as well as the power that came with that economic success . Historian R. B. Rose refers to these industrialists as belonging to " an inner elite of magnates " . Priestley himself had written a pamphlet , An Account of a Society for Encouraging the Industrious Poor ( 1787 ) , on how best to extract the most work for the smallest amount of money from the poor . Its emphasis on debt collection did not endear him to the poverty @-@ stricken .
= = = British reaction to the French Revolution = = =
The British public debate over the French Revolution , or the Revolution Controversy , lasted from 1789 through 1795 . Initially many on both sides of the Channel thought the French would follow the pattern of the English Glorious Revolution of a century before , and the Revolution was viewed positively by a large portion of the British public . Most Britons celebrated the storming of the Bastille in 1789 , believing that France 's absolute monarchy should be replaced by a more democratic form of government . In these early , heady days , supporters of the Revolution also believed that Britain 's own system would be reformed as well : voting rights would be broadened and redistribution of Parliamentary constituency boundaries would eliminate so @-@ called " rotten boroughs " .
After the publication of statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , in which he surprisingly broke ranks with his liberal Whig colleagues to support the French aristocracy , a pamphlet war discussing the Revolution began in earnest . Because Burke had supported the American colonists in their rebellion against England , his views sent a shockwave through the country . While Burke supported aristocracy , monarchy , and the Established Church , liberals such as Charles James Fox supported the Revolution , and a programme of individual liberties , civic virtue and religious toleration , while radicals such as Priestley , William Godwin , Thomas Paine , and Mary Wollstonecraft , argued for a further programme of republicanism , agrarian socialism , and abolition of the " landed interest " . Alfred Cobban calls the debate that erupted " perhaps the last real discussion of the fundamentals of politics in [ Britain ] " . However , by December 1795 , after the Reign of Terror and war with France , there were few who still supported the French cause or believed that reform would extend to Britain , and those suspected of remaining radicals became the subject of official and popular suspicion .
The events which precipitated the Priestley Riots came less than a month after the attempted flight and arrest of the French Royal family , and at a point when much of the early promise of the Revolution had already dissipated . However the spiralling violence of the later Revolution was still to begin .
= = Hints of trouble = =
On 11 July 1791 , a Birmingham newspaper announced that on 14 July , the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille , there would be a dinner at the local Royal Hotel to commemorate the outbreak of the French Revolution ; the invitation encouraged " any Friend to Freedom " to attend :
A number of gentlemen intend dining together on the 14th instant , to commemorate the auspicious day which witnessed the emancipation of twenty @-@ six millions of people from the yoke of despotism , and restored the blessings of equal government to a truly great and enlightened nation ; with whom it is our interest , as a commercial people , and our duty , as friends to the general rights of mankind , to promote a free intercourse , as subservient to a permanent friendship .
Any Friend to Freedom , disposed to join the intended temperate festivity , is desired to leave his name at the bar of the Hotel , where tickets may be had at Five Shillings each , including a bottle of wine ; but no person will be admitted without one .
Dinner will be on table at three o 'clock precisely .
Alongside this notice was a threat : " an authentic list " of the participants would be published after the dinner . On the same day , " an ultra @-@ revolutionary " handbill , written by James Hobson ( although his authorship was not known at the time ) , entered circulation . Town officials offered 100 guineas ( approximately US $ 34 @,@ 000 ) for information regarding the publication of the handbill and its author , to no avail . The Dissenters found themselves forced to plead ignorance and decry the " radical " ideas promoted by the handbill . It was becoming clear by 12 July that there would be trouble at the dinner . On the morning of 14 July graffiti such as " destruction to the Presbyterians " and " Church and King for ever " were scrawled across the town . At this point , Priestley 's friends , fearing for his safety , dissuaded him from attending the dinner .
= = 14 July = =
About 90 resolute sympathizers of the French Revolution came to celebrate on the 14th ; the banquet was led by James Keir , an Anglican industrialist who was a member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham . When the guests arrived at the hotel at 2 or 3 p.m. , they were greeted by 60 or 70 protesters who temporarily dispersed while yelling , rather bizarrely and confusingly , " no popery " . By the time the celebrants ended their dinner , around 7 or 8 p.m. , a crowd of hundreds had gathered . The rioters , who " were recruited predominantly from the industrial artisans and labourers of Birmingham " , threw stones at the departing guests and sacked the hotel . The crowd then moved on to the Quaker meeting @-@ house , until someone yelled that the Quakers " never trouble themselves with anything , neither on one side nor the other " and convinced them instead to attack the New Meeting chapel , where Priestley presided as minister . The New Meeting chapel was burned to the ground , quickly followed by the Old Meeting , another Dissenting chapel .
The rioters proceeded to Priestley 's home , Fairhill at Sparkbrook . Priestley barely had time to evacuate and he and his wife fled from Dissenting friend to friend during the riots . Writing shortly after the event , Priestley described the first part of the attack , which he witnessed from a distance :
It being remarkably calm , and clear moon @-@ light , we could see to a considerable distance , and being upon a rising ground , we distinctly heard all that passed at the house , every shout of the mob , and almost every stroke of the instruments they had provided for breaking the doors and the furniture . For they could not get any fire , though one of them was heard to offer two guineas for a lighted candle ; my son , whom we left behind us , having taken the precaution to put out all the fires in the house , and others of my friends got all the neighbours to do the same . I afterwards heard that much pains was taken , but without effect , to get fire from my large electrical machine , which stood in the library .
His son , William , stayed behind with others to protect the family home , but they were overcome and the property was eventually looted and razed to the ground . Priestley 's valuable library , scientific laboratory , and manuscripts were largely lost in the flames .
= = 15 , 16 and 17 July = =
The Earl of Aylesford attempted to stem the mounting violence on the night of the 14th , but despite having the help of other magistrates , he was unable to control the crowd . On the 15th , the mob liberated prisoners from the local gaol . Thomas Woodbridge , the Keeper of the Prison , deputized several hundred people to help him quell the mob , but many of these joined in with the rioters themselves . The crowd destroyed John Ryland 's home , Baskerville House , and drank the supplies of liquor which they found in the cellar . When the newly appointed constables arrived on the scene , the mob attacked and disarmed them . One man was killed . The local magistrates and law enforcement , such as it was , did nothing further to restrain the mob and did not read the Riot Act until the military arrived on 17 July . Other rioters burned down banker John Taylor 's home at Bordesley Park .
On the 16th , the homes of Joseph Jukes , John Coates , John Hobson , Thomas Hawkes , and John Harwood ( the latter a blind Baptist minister ) were all ransacked or burned . The Baptist Meeting at Kings Heath , another Dissenting chapel , was also destroyed . William Russell and William Hutton , tried to defend their homes , but to no avail — the men they hired refused to fight the mob . Hutton later wrote a narrative of the events :
I was avoided as a pestilence ; the waves of sorrow rolled over me , and beat me down with multiplied force ; every one came heavier than the last . My children were distressed . My wife , through long affliction , ready to quit my own arms for those of death ; and I myself reduced to the sad necessity of humbly begging a draught of water at a cottage ! ... In the morning of the 15th I was a rich man ; in the evening I was ruined .
When the rioters arrived at John Taylor 's other house at Moseley , Moseley Hall , they carefully moved all of the furniture and belongings of its current occupant , the frail Dowager Lady Carhampton , a relative of George III , out of the house before they burned it : they were specifically targeting those who disagreed with the king 's policies and who , in not conforming to the Church of England , resisted state control . The homes of George Russell , a Justice of the Peace , Samuel Blyth , one of the ministers of New Meeting , Thomas Lee , and a Mr. Westley all came under attack on the 15th and 16th . The manufacturer , Quaker , and member of the Lunar Society Samuel Galton only saved his own home by bribing the rioters with ale and money .
By 2 p.m. on 16 July , the rioters had left Birmingham and were heading towards Kings Norton and the Kingswood Chapel ; it was estimated that one group of the rioters totalled 250 to 300 people . They burned Cox 's farm at Warstock and looted and attacked the home of a Mr. Taverner . When they reached Kingswood , Warwickshire , they burned the Dissenting chapel and its manse . By this time , Birmingham had shut down — no business was being conducted .
Contemporary accounts record that the mob 's last sustained assault was around 8 p.m. on the 17th . About 30 " hard core " rioters attacked the home of William Withering , an Anglican who attended the Lunar Society with Priestley and Keir . But Withering , aided by a group of hired men , managed to fend them off . When the military finally arrived to restore order on the 17th and 18th , most of the rioters had disbanded , although there were rumours that mobs were destroying property in Alcester and Bromsgrove .
All in all , four Dissenting churches had been severely damaged or burned down and twenty @-@ seven homes had been attacked , many looted and burned . Having begun by attacking those who attended the Bastille celebration on the 14th , the " Church @-@ and @-@ King " mob had finished up by extending their targets to include Dissenters of all kinds as well as members of the Lunar Society .
= = Aftermath and trials = =
Priestley and other Dissenters blamed the government for the riots , believing that William Pitt and his supporters had instigated them ; however , it seems from the evidence that the riots were actually organized by local Birmingham officials . Some of the rioters acted in a co @-@ ordinated fashion and seemed to be led by local officials during the attacks , prompting accusations of premeditation . Some Dissenters discovered that their homes were to be attacked several days before the rioters arrived , leading them to believe that there was a prepared list of victims . The " disciplined nucleus of rioters " , which numbered only thirty or so , directed the mob and stayed sober throughout the three to four days of rioting . Unlike the hundreds of others who joined in , they could not be bribed to stop their destructions .
If a concerted effort had been made by Birmingham 's Anglican elite to attack the Dissenters , it was more than likely the work of Benjamin Spencer , a local minister , Joseph Carles , a Justice of the Peace and landowner , and John Brooke ( 1755 @-@ 1802 ) , an attorney , coroner , and under @-@ sheriff . Although present at the riot 's outbreak , Carles and Spencer made no attempt to stop the rioters , and Brooke seems to have led them to the New Meeting chapel . Witnesses agreed " that the magistrates promised the rioters protection so long as they restricted their attacks to the meeting @-@ houses and left persons and property alone " . The magistrates also refused to arrest any of the rioters and released those that had been arrested . Instructed by the national government to prosecute the riot 's instigators , these local officials dragged their heels . When finally forced to try the ringleaders , they intimidated witnesses and made a mockery of the trial proceedings . Only seventeen of the fifty rioters who had been charged were ever brought to trial ; four were convicted , of whom one was pardoned , two were hanged , and the fourth was transported to Botany Bay . But Priestley and others believed that these men were found guilty not because they were rioters but because " they were infamous characters in other respects " .
Although he had been forced to send troops to Birmingham to quell the disturbances , King George III commented , " I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled , and that the people see them in their true light . " The national government forced the local residents to pay restitution to those whose property had been damaged : the total eventually amounted to £ 23 @,@ 000 . However , the process took many years , and most residents received much less than the value of their property .
After the riots , Birmingham was , according to industrialist James Watt , " divided into two parties who hate one another mortally " . Initially Priestley wanted to return and deliver a sermon on the Bible verse " Father , forgive them , for they know not what they do , " but he was dissuaded by friends convinced that it was too dangerous . Instead , he wrote his Appeal :
I was born an Englishman as well [ as ] any of you . Though labouring under civil disabilities , as a Dissenter , I have long contributed my share to the support of government , and supposed I had the protection of its constitution and laws for my inheritance . But I have found myself greatly deceived ; and so may any of you , if , like me , you should , with or without cause , be so unfortunate as to incur popular odium . For then , as you have seen in my case , without any form of trial whatever , without any intimation of your crime , or of your danger , your houses and all your property may be destroyed , and you may not have the good fortune to escape with life , as I have done .... What are the old French Lettres de Cachet , or the horrors of the late demolished Bastile , compared to this ?
The riots revealed that the Anglican gentry of Birmingham were not averse to using violence against Dissenters whom they viewed as potential revolutionaries . They had no qualms , either , about raising a potentially uncontrollable mob . Many of those attacked left Birmingham ; as a result , the town became noticeably more conservative after the riots . The remaining supporters of the French Revolution decided not to hold a dinner celebrating the storming of the Bastille the next year .
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= Muhammad ibn Tughj al @-@ Ikhshid =
Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Ṭughj ibn Juff ibn Yiltakīn ibn Fūrān ibn Fūrī ibn Khāqān ( 8 February 882 – 24 June 946 ) , better known by the title al @-@ Ikhshīd ( Arabic : الإخشيد ) after 939 , was an Abbasid commander and governor who became the autonomous ruler of Egypt and parts of Syria ( or Levant ) from 935 until his death in 946 . He was the founder of the Ikhshidid dynasty , which ruled the region until the Fatimid conquest of 969 .
The son of Tughj ibn Juff , a general of Transoxianian origin who served both the Abbasids and the autonomous Tulunid rulers of Egypt and Syria , Muhammad ibn Tughj was born in Baghdad but grew up in Syria and acquired his first military and administrative experiences at his father 's side . He had a turbulent early career : he was imprisoned along with his father by the Abbasids in 905 , was released in 906 , participated in the murder of the vizier al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Hasan al @-@ Jarjara 'i in 908 , and fled Iraq to enter the service of the governor of Egypt , Takin al @-@ Khazari . Eventually he acquired the patronage of several influential Abbasid magnates , chiefly the powerful commander @-@ in @-@ chief Mu 'nis al @-@ Muzaffar . These ties led him to being named governor first of Palestine and then of Damascus . In 933 , he was briefly named governor of Egypt , but this order was revoked after the death of Mu 'nis , and Ibn Tughj had to fight to preserve even his governorship of Damascus . In 935 , he was re @-@ appointed to Egypt , where he quickly defeated a Fatimid invasion and stabilized the turbulent country . His reign marks a rare period of domestic peace , stability and good government in the annals of early Islamic Egypt . In 938 Caliph al @-@ Radi granted his request for the title of al @-@ Ikhshid , which had been borne by the rulers of his ancestral Farghana Valley . It is by this title that he was known thereafter .
Throughout his governorship , al @-@ Ikhshid was engaged in conflicts with other regional strongmen for control over Syria , without which Egypt was vulnerable to invasion from the east , but unlike many other Egyptian leaders , notably the Tulunids themselves , he was prepared to bide his time and compromise with his rivals . Although he was initially in control of the entirety of Syria , he was forced to cede the northern half to Ibn Ra 'iq between 939 and 942 . Following Ibn Ra 'iq 's murder , al @-@ Ikhshid reimposed his control over northern Syria , only to have it challenged by the Hamdanids . In 944 al @-@ Ikhshid met Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi at ar @-@ Raqqa ; the caliph had fled there from the various strongmen vying to kidnap him and control the caliphal government in Baghdad . Although unsuccessful in persuading the Caliph to come to Egypt , he received recognition of hereditary rule over Egypt , Syria and the Hejaz for thirty years . Following his departure , the ambitious Hamdanid prince Sayf al @-@ Dawla seized Aleppo and northern Syria in the autumn of 944 , and although defeated and driven out of Syria by Ibn Tughj himself in the next year , a treaty dividing the region along the lines of the agreement with Ibn Ra 'iq was concluded in October . Ibn Tughj died nine months later , leaving his son Unujur as ruler of his domains , under the tutelage of the powerful black eunuch Abu al @-@ Misk Kafur .
= = Origin and early life = =
According to the biographical dictionary compiled by Ibn Khallikan , Muhammad ibn Tughj was born in Baghdad on 8 February 882 , on the street leading to the Kufa Gate . His family came from the Farghana Valley in Transoxiana , and claimed royal descent ; the name of his ancestor , " Khaqan " , is a Turkish royal title . His grandfather Juff left Farghana to enter military service in the Abbasid court at Samarra , as did the father of Ibn Tulun , the founder of the Tulunid dynasty . Juff and his son , Muhammad 's father Tughj , both served the Abbasids , but Tughj later entered the service of the Tulunids , who since 868 had become autonomous rulers of Egypt and Syria . Tughj served the Tulunids as governor of Tiberias ( capital of the district of Jordan , Aleppo ( the capital of the district of Qinnasrin ) and Damascus ( capital of the homonymous district ) . He played a major role in repelling the Qarmatian attack on Damascus in 903 ; although defeated in battle , he held the city itself against the Qarmatians for seven months until , with the arrival of reinforcements from Egypt , the Qarmatians were driven away . Thus Muhammad ibn Tughj spent a great part of his youth in the Tulunid Levant at his father 's side , gaining his first experiences in administration — he served as his father 's sub @-@ governor of Tiberias — and war .
After the death of Ibn Tulun 's son Khumarawayh in 896 , the Tulunid state quickly began crumbling from within , and failed to put up any serious resistance when the Abbasids moved to re @-@ establish direct control over Syria and Egypt in 905 . Tughj defected to the invading Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al @-@ Katib , and was named governor of Aleppo in return ; Muhammad al @-@ Katib himself fell victim to court intrigues soon after , and Tughj along with his sons Muhammad and Ubayd Allah were imprisoned in Baghdad . Tughj died in prison in 906 , and the brothers were freed shortly after . The sons of Tughj participated in the palace coup that tried to depose the new Caliph , al @-@ Muqtadir ( reigned 908 – 932 ) , in favour of the older Ibn al @-@ Mu 'tazz in December 908 . Although the attempt failed , Muhammad ibn Tughj and his brother were able to avenge themselves for their imprisonment on the vizier al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Hasan al @-@ Jarjara 'i , whom they struck down with the aid of Husayn ibn Hamdan . After the coup 's failure , the three fled : Ibn Hamdan returned to his native Upper Mesopotamia and Ubayd Allah fled east to Yusuf ibn Abi 'l @-@ Saj , while Muhammad fled to Syria .
In Syria , Muhammad ibn Tughj joined the service of the tax supervisor of the local provinces , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas al @-@ Bistam . He soon followed his new master to Egypt , and after al @-@ Bistam 's death in June 910 he continued serving the latter 's son . Eventually , he gained the attention of the local governor , Takin al @-@ Khazari , who sent him to govern the lands beyond the Jordan River , with his seat at Amman . In 918 , he rescued a hajj caravan , among which was one of the ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting of al @-@ Muqtadir 's mother , from Bedouin raiders , thereby improving his standing at the Abbasid court . Two years later , Ibn Tughj gained an influential patron when he briefly served under the powerful Abbasid commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Mu 'nis al @-@ Muzaffar , when he came to help defend Egypt from a Fatimid invasion . During the campaign , Ibn Tughj commanded the finest troops of the Egyptian army . The two men evidently established a rapport , and remained in contact thereafter .
When Takin returned to Egypt as governor in 923 , Ibn Tughj joined him there , but the two men fell out in 928 over Takin 's refusal to give Ibn Tughj the post of governor of Alexandria . Ibn Tughj escaped the capital Fustat by a ruse , and managed to obtain for himself an appointment as governor of Palestine from Baghdad ; the incumbent , al @-@ Rashidi , fled the governor 's seat at Ramla for Damascus , whose governorship he assumed . His flight , according to historian Jere L. Bacharach , may indicate that Ibn Tughj commanded a significant military force . Three years later , in July 931 , Muhammad ibn Tughj was promoted to governor of Damascus , while al @-@ Rashidi returned to Ramla . Both these appointments were likely the result of Ibn Tughj 's relation with Mu 'nis al @-@ Muzaffar , who at this time was at the zenith of his power and influence .
= = Takeover of Egypt = =
Takin died in March 933 , and his son and nominated successor , Muhammad , failed to establish his authority in Egypt . Ibn Tughj was named as the new governor in August but the appointment was revoked a month later , before he could reach Egypt , and Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh was appointed in his place . The timing of Ibn Tughj 's recall coincides with the arrest ( and subsequent murder ) of Mu 'nis by Caliph al @-@ Qahir ( r . 932 – 934 ) on 22 September , suggesting that Ibn Tughj 's nomination was in all likelihood also due to Mu 'nis . The fact that al @-@ Qahir sent a eunuch called Bushri to replace Ibn Tughj in Damascus after the fall of Mu 'nis reinforces this view . Bushri was able to take over the governorship of Aleppo ( to which he also had been appointed ) , but Ibn Tughj resisted his replacement , and defeated and took him prisoner . The Caliph then charged Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh with forcing Ibn Tughj to surrender , but although Ahmad marched against Ibn Tughj , both avoided a direct confrontation . Instead the two men met and reached an agreement of mutual support , upholding the status quo .
Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh soon proved incapable of restoring order to the increasingly turbulent province . By 935 , the troops were rioting over lack of pay , and Bedouin raids had recommenced . At the same time , Takin 's son Muhammad and the fiscal administrator Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali al @-@ Madhara 'i — the heir of a dynasty of bureaucrats that had handled the province 's finances since the time of Ibn Tulun and amassed enormous wealth — undermined Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh and coveted his position . Infighting broke out among the troops between the Easterners ( Mashariqa ) , chiefly Turkish soldiers , who supported Muhammad ibn Takin , and the Westerners ( Maghariba ) , probably Berbers and Black Africans , who backed Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh . With the support this time of the former vizier and inspector @-@ general of the western provinces al @-@ Fadl ibn Ja 'far ibn al @-@ Furat , whose son was married to one of Ibn Tughj 's daughters , Ibn Tughj was once more named governor of Egypt . Taking no chances , Ibn Tughj organized an invasion of the country by land and sea . Although Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh was able to delay the advance of the army , Ibn Tughj 's fleet took Tinnis and the Nile Delta and moved on to the capital Fustat . Outmanoeuvred and defeated in battle , Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh fled to the Fatimids . The victorious Muhammad ibn Tughj entered Fustat on 26 August 935 .
With the capital under his control , Ibn Tughj now had to confront the Fatimids . The Maghariba who refused to submit to Ibn Tughj had fled to Alexandria and then to Barqa under the leadership of Habashi ibn Ahmad , and invited the Fatimid ruler al @-@ Qa 'im ( r . 934 – 946 ) to invade Egypt with their assistance . The Fatimid invasion met with initial success : the Fatimid army 's Kutama Berbers captured the island of al @-@ Rawda on the Nile and burned its arsenal . Ibn Tughj 's admirals Ali ibn Badr and Bajkam defected to the Fatimids , and Alexandria itself was captured in March 936 . Nevertheless , on 31 March , Ibn Tughj 's brother al @-@ Hasan defeated the Fatimid forces near Alexandria , driving them out of the city and forcing the Fatimids to once again retreat from Egypt to their base at Barqa . During the campaign , Ibn Tughj notably prohibited his troops from looting , which , according to J. L. Bacharach , was indicative of his " long @-@ term view towards his stay in Egypt " .
= = Government of Egypt = =
Writing to Caliph al @-@ Radi ( r . 934 – 940 ) in 936 , Muhammad ibn Tughj could present a commendable record : the Fatimid invasion was defeated and first measures for improving the financial situation in the province had been undertaken . The Caliph confirmed him in his post and sent robes of honour . As Hugh N. Kennedy writes , " in some ways the Fatimid threat actually helped Ibn Tughj " since , as long as he supported the Abbasids , " the caliphs were prepared to give their approval to his rule in return " . His standing in the Abbasid court was sufficient for him to ask in 938 for the honorific title ( laqab ) of al @-@ Ikhshid , originally held by the kings of his ancestral homeland Farghana . Caliph al @-@ Radi granted the request , although formal approval was delayed until July 939 . After receiving official confirmation , Ibn Tughj required that he be henceforth addressed solely by his new title .
Very little is known about al @-@ Ikhshid 's domestic policies . Nevertheless , the silence of the sources about domestic troubles during his reign — apart from a minor Shi 'ite revolt in 942 , which was swiftly suppressed — stands in stark contrast to the usual narrative of Bedouin raids , urban riots over high prices , or military and dynastic revolts and intrigues , and indicates that he was successful in restoring internal tranquillity and orderly government in Egypt . According to the biographical dictionary of Ibn Khallikan , he was " a resolute prince , displaying great foresight in war , and a close attention to the prosperity of his empire ; he treated the military class with honour , and governed with ability and justice " . His potential rivals Muhammad ibn Takin and al @-@ Madhara 'i were quickly won over and incorporated in the new administration . The latter had tried to resist al @-@ Ikhshid 's takeover in vain , as his troops had immediately defected , and was initially imprisoned by al @-@ Ikhshid , only to be released in 939 . He soon recovered his status and influence , and briefly served as regent of al @-@ Ikhshid 's son and heir , Unujur in 946 , before being overthrown and imprisoned for a year . Thereafter , and until his death in 957 , he retired into private life . Like the Tulunids before him , al @-@ Ikhshid also took particular care to build up a considerable military force of his own , including Turkic and Black African slave soldiers .
= = Foreign policy and the struggle for Syria = =
As commander and ruler in Egypt , al @-@ Ikhshid was a patient and cautious man . He achieved his goals as much by diplomacy and ties to powerful personages in the Baghdad regime as by force , and even then he tended to avoid direct military confrontation whenever possible . His conflict with Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh was indicative of his approach : instead of a direct clash , the truce between the two gave al @-@ Ikhshid the time to reconnoitre the situation in Egypt before acting . Although following in the footsteps of Ibn Tulun , his ambitions were more modest and his objectives more practical , as became particularly evident in his policies towards Syria and the rest of the Caliphate . Historically , possession of Syria , and particularly Palestine , was a foreign policy objective for many rulers of Egypt , to foreclose the most likely invasion route into the country . Ibn Tulun before and Saladin after al @-@ Ikhshid were two typical examples of Egyptian rulers who spent much of their reigns securing control of Syria , and indeed used Egypt mostly as a source of revenue and resources to accomplish this goal . Al @-@ Ikhshid differed from them ; Bacharach describes him as a " cautious , conservative realist " . His goals were limited but clear : his main concern was Egypt proper and the establishment of his family as a hereditary dynasty over it , while Syria remained a secondary objective . Unlike other military strongmen of the time , he had no intention of entering the contest for control of Baghdad and the caliphal government through the all @-@ powerful office of amir al @-@ umara ; indeed , when Caliph al @-@ Mustakfi ( r . 944 – 946 ) offered him the post , he turned it down .
= = = Conflict with Ibn Ra 'iq = = =
Following the expulsion of the Fatimids from Egypt , al @-@ Ikhshid had his troops occupy all of Syria up to Aleppo , allying himself , as Ibn Tulun had done , with the local tribe of Banu Kilab to strengthen his hold over northern Syria . As governor of Syria , his remit extended to the borderlands ( thughur ) with the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia . Thus in 936 / 7 or 937 / 8 ( most likely in autumn 937 ) he received an embassy from the Byzantine emperor , Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) , to organize a prisoner exchange . Although carried out in the name of Caliph al @-@ Radi , it was a special honour and an implicit recognition of al @-@ Ikhshid 's autonomy , since correspondence and negotiations for such events were normally directed to the Caliph rather than provincial governors . The exchange took place in autumn 938 , resulting in the release of 6 @,@ 300 Muslims for an equivalent number of Byzantine captives . As the Byzantines held 800 more prisoners than the Muslims , these had to be ransomed and were gradually released over the next six months .
While the amir al @-@ umara Ibn Ra 'iq was in power in Baghdad ( 936 – 938 ) with al @-@ Ikhshid 's old friend al @-@ Fadl ibn Ja 'far ibn al @-@ Furat as vizier , relations with Baghdad were good . Following Ibn Ra 'iq 's replacement by the Turk Bajkam , however , Ibn Ra 'iq received a nomination by the Caliph to the governorship of Syria and in 939 marched west to claim it from al @-@ Ikhshid 's forces . Ibn Ra 'iq 's appointment enraged al @-@ Ikhshid , who sent an envoy to Baghdad to clarify the situation . There Bajkam informed him that the Caliph might appoint whomever he chose , but that it ultimately did not matter : it was military strength that would determine who was governor of Syria and even of Egypt , not any appointment by a figurehead caliph . If either Ibn Ra 'iq or al @-@ Ikhshid emerged victorious from the conflict , caliphal confirmation would soon follow . Al @-@ Ikhshid was even more infuriated by the reply , and reportedly for a time even threatened to give one of his daughters to the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Qa 'im and to have coins minted and the Friday prayer read in his name rather than the Abbasid caliph , until the Abbasids formally reconfirmed his position . The Fatimids themselves were preoccupied with the revolt of Abu Yazid .
From ar @-@ Raqqa , Ibn Ra 'iq 's troops swiftly took over the districts of northern Syria , where al @-@ Ikhshid 's brother Ubayd Allah was governor , while the Egyptian forces retreated south . By October or November , Ibn Ra 'iq 's men had reached Ramla and moved on into the Sinai . Al @-@ Ikhshid led his army against Ibn Ra 'iq , but after a short clash at al @-@ Farama , the two men came to an understanding , dividing Syria between them : the areas from Ramla to the south would be under al @-@ Ikhshid , and the areas to the north under Ibn Ra 'iq . In May or June 940 , however , al @-@ Ikhshid learned that Ibn Ra 'iq had once again moved against Ramla . Once more , the Egyptian ruler led his army to battle . Although defeated at al @-@ Arish , al @-@ Ikhshid was able to quickly rally his troops and ambush Ibn Ra 'iq , preventing him from entering Egypt proper and forcing him to retreat back to Damascus . Al @-@ Ikhshid sent his brother , Abu Nasr al @-@ Husayn , with another army against Ibn Ra 'iq , but he was defeated and killed at Lajjun . Despite his victory , Ibn Ra 'iq opted for peace : he gave Abu Nasr an honourable burial and sent his son , Muzahim , as envoy to Egypt . True to his political strategy , al @-@ Ikhshid accepted . The agreement saw the restoration of the territorial status quo of the previous year , but with al @-@ Ikhshid paying an annual tribute of 140 @,@ 000 gold dinars . The deal was cemented by the marriage of Muzahim with al @-@ Ikhshid 's daughter Fatima .
= = = Conflict with the Hamdanids = = =
Peace did not last for long , as the political turmoil in Baghdad continued . In September 941 , Ibn Ra 'iq assumed once more the post of amir al @-@ umara at the invitation of Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi ( r . 940 – 944 ) , but he was not as powerful as before . Unable to stop the advance of another strongman , Abu 'l @-@ Husayn al @-@ Baridi of Basra , both Ibn Ra 'iq and the Caliph were forced to abandon Baghdad and seek the help of the Hamdanid ruler of Mosul . The latter soon had Ibn Ra 'iq assassinated ( April 942 ) and succeeded him as amir al @-@ umara with the laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla . Al @-@ Ikhshid used the opportunity to reoccupy Syria for himself , joining his forces in person in June 942 , and venturing as far as Damascus , before returning to Egypt in January 943 . The Hamdanids also staked claim on Syria at the same time , but the sources do not record details of their expeditions there . Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's position as amir al @-@ umara also proved to be weak , and in June 943 he was ousted by the Turkish general Tuzun . In October , Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi , fearing that Tuzun intended to replace him , fled the capital and sought refuge with the Hamdanids . Although Nasir al @-@ Dawla and his brother Sayf al @-@ Dawla sheltered the Caliph , they also did not confront Tuzun 's troops , and in May 944 they reached an agreement that gave Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria to the Hamdanids in exchange for recognizing Tuzun 's possession of Iraq . Nasir al @-@ Dawla sent his cousin al @-@ Husayn ibn Sa 'id to take over the Syrian provinces allotted to him in this agreement . The Ikhshidid forces either defected or retreated , and al @-@ Husayn swiftly took over the districts of Qinnasrin and Hims .
In the meantime , al @-@ Muttaqi with Sayf al @-@ Dawla had fled to ar @-@ Raqqa before Tuzun 's advance , but the Caliph grew increasingly suspicious of the Hamdanids , and wrote to al @-@ Ikhshid ( perhaps as early as the winter of 943 ) , asking for aid . The latter immediately responded by leading an army into Syria . The Hamdanid garrisons withdrew before him , and in September 944 , al @-@ Ikhshid reached ar @-@ Raqqa . Distrusting the Hamdanids given their treatment of Ibn Ra 'iq , he waited until Sayf al @-@ Dawla had left the city before entering it to meet the Caliph . Al @-@ Ikhshid tried without success to persuade al @-@ Muttaqi to come with him to Egypt , or at least to stay in ar @-@ Raqqa , while the Caliph tried to get al @-@ Ikhshid to march against Tuzun , which the latter refused . The meeting was not entirely fruitless , as al @-@ Ikhshid secured an agreement that virtually repeated the terms of a similar treaty between the Tulunid Khumarawayh and Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid in 886 . The Caliph recognized the authority of al @-@ Ikhshid over Egypt , Syria ( with the thughur ) , and the Hejaz ( carrying with it the prestigious guardianship of the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina ) , for a period of thirty years , with the right of hereditary succession for al @-@ Ikhshid 's sons . This development had already been anticipated by al @-@ Ikhshid the previous year , when he named his son Unujur as his regent during his absences from Egypt , although Unujur had not yet come of age , and had required an oath of allegiance ( bay 'a ) to be sworn to him . Nevertheless , as Michael Brett comments , the territories conferred were " mixed blessings " , as the holy cities were exposed to Qarmatian raids , while the marches of the thughur were increasingly menaced by the Byzantines , and Aleppo ( with northern Syria ) was coveted by the Hamdanids .
As it happened , al @-@ Muttaqi was persuaded by the emissaries of Tuzun , who protested his loyalty , to return to Iraq , only to be seized , blinded and deposed on 12 October and replaced by al @-@ Mustakfi . Al @-@ Mustakfi reconfirmed al @-@ Ikhshid 's governorship , but by this point it was an empty gesture . According to J. L. Bacharach , although the 13th @-@ century historian Ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Maghribi reports that al @-@ Ikhshid immediately took the bay 'a and read the Friday prayer in the new caliph 's name , based on the available numismatic evidence , he appears to have delayed recognition of both al @-@ Mustakfi and his Buyid @-@ installed successor al @-@ Muti ( r . 946 – 974 ) for several months by refraining from including them in his coinage , in an act that was a deliberate and clear statement of his de facto independence from Baghdad . This independence was also acknowledged by others ; the contemporary De Ceremoniis records that in the correspondence of the Byzantine court , the " Emir of Egypt " was accorded a golden seal worth four solidi , the same as the Caliph in Baghdad .
Following his meeting with al @-@ Muttaqi , al @-@ Ikhshid returned to Egypt , leaving the field open for the ambitious Sayf al @-@ Dawla . The Ikhshidid forces left behind in Syria were relatively weak , and the Hamdanid leader , having gained the support of the Banu Kilab , had little difficulty in capturing Aleppo on 29 October 944 . He then began extending his control over the provinces of northern Syria down to Hims . Al @-@ Ikhshid sent an army under the eunuchs Abu al @-@ Misk Kafur and Fatik against the Hamdanid , but it was defeated near Hama and retreated back to Egypt , abandoning Damascus and Palestine to the Hamdanids . Al @-@ Ikhshid was then forced to once again campaign in person in April 945 , but at the same time he sent envoys proposing to Sayf al @-@ Dawla an agreement along the lines of the one with Ibn Ra 'iq : the Hamdanid prince would get to keep northern Syria , while al @-@ Ikhshid would pay him an annual tribute for the possession of Palestine and Damascus . Sayf al @-@ Dawla refused and reportedly even boasted that he would conquer Egypt itself , but al @-@ Ikhshid held the upper hand : his agents managed to bribe several Hamdanid leaders , and he won over the citizens of Damascus , who barred their gates before the Hamdanid and opened them for al @-@ Ikhshid . The two armies met near Qinnasrin in May , where the Hamdanids were defeated . Sayf al @-@ Dawla fled to ar @-@ Raqqa , leaving his capital Aleppo to be captured by al @-@ Ikhshid .
Nevertheless , in October the two sides came to an agreement , broadly on the lines of the earlier Ikhshidid proposal : al @-@ Ikhshid acknowledged Hamdanid control over northern Syria , and even consented to sending an annual tribute in exchange for Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's renunciation of all claims on Damascus . The Hamdanid ruler was also to marry one of al @-@ Ikhshid 's daughters or nieces . For al @-@ Ikhshid , the maintenance of Aleppo was less important than southern Syria with Damascus , which was Egypt 's eastern bulwark . Provided that these remained under his control , he was more than willing to allow the existence of a Hamdanid state in the north . The Egyptian ruler knew that he would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia , which had traditionally been influenced more by Upper Mesopotamia and Iraq . By abandoning its claims on these distant provinces , not only would Egypt be spared the cost of maintaining a large army there , but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a buffer state against incursions from both Iraq and a resurgent Byzantine Empire . Indeed , throughout al @-@ Ikhshid 's rule , and that of his successors , relations with the Byzantines were quite friendly , as the lack of a common border and the common hostility to the Fatimids guaranteed that the interests of the two states did not clash . Despite Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's attempt to push again into southern Syria soon after al @-@ Ikhshid 's death , the border agreed in 945 held , and even outlived both dynasties , forming the dividing line between Mesopotamian @-@ influenced northern Syria and the Egyptian @-@ controlled southern part of the country until the Mamluks seized the entire region in 1260 .
= = Death and legacy = =
In mid @-@ spring 946 , al @-@ Ikhshid sent emissaries to the Byzantines for yet another prisoner exchange ( which eventually would take place under Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's auspices in October ) . Emperor Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) sent an embassy under John Mystikos in response , which arrived at Damascus on 11 July . On 24 July 946 , al @-@ Ikhshid died in Damascus . The succession of his son Unujur was peaceful and undisputed , due to the influence of the powerful and talented commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Kafur . One of the many Black African slaves recruited by al @-@ Ikhshid , he remained the paramount minister and virtual ruler of Egypt over the next 22 years , assuming power in his own right in 966 until his death two years later . Encouraged by his death , in 969 the Fatimids invaded and conquered Egypt , beginning a new era in the country 's history .
Medieval historians noted the many parallels between al @-@ Ikhshid and his Tulunid predecessors , especially Khumarawayh . Ibn Sa 'id even reported that according to Egyptian astrologers , the two men had entered Egypt on the same day of the year and with the same star in the same ascendant . There were important differences , however : al @-@ Ikhshid lacked the " flamboyance " ( Hugh Kennedy ) of the Tulunids . Al @-@ Ikhshid 's caution and self @-@ imposed restraint in his foreign policy objectives also stood in stark contrast with his contemporaries and other rulers of Egypt who preceded and followed him , earning him a reputation of extreme caution , often misinterpreted as timidity by contemporaries . He was also described as less cultivated than his predecessor Ibn Tulun . Unlike Ibn Tulun , who built an entire new capital at al @-@ Qatta 'i and a famous mosque , al @-@ Ikhshid was neither a patron of artists and poets nor a major builder . According to historian Thierry Bianquis , he was described by medieval chroniclers as " a choleric and gluttonous man , yet shrewd and inclined toward avarice " , but with a fondness for luxuries imported from the east , and especially perfumes . His love of eastern luxuries soon spread among the upper classes of Fustat as well and influenced the style and fashion of local Egyptian products in turn , which began to imitate them .
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= Sleaford Navigation =
The Sleaford Navigation was a 12 @.@ 5 mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) canalisation of the River Slea in Lincolnshire , England , which opened in 1794 . It ran from a junction with the River Witham , near Chapel Hill to the town of Sleaford through seven locks , most of which were adjacent to mills . Lack of finance meant that it stopped short of its intended terminus , but it gradually grew to be successful financially . The coming of the railways in 1857 led to a rapid decline , and it was officially abandoned by an act of Parliament in 1878 , but remained open for a further three years . The lower part of it remained navigable until the 1940s , when it was blocked by a sluice .
Interest in restoring the canal began in 1972 , and navigation was restored to the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) with the re @-@ opening of Lower Kyme lock in 1986 . The Sleaford Navigation Trust has been working towards restoring the whole waterway , and succeeded in purchasing the Sleaford end of the river bed in 2004 . A short section at Sleaford was opened in 2010 , following the installation of a lift bridge .
Nearby , Navigation House , which served as the clerk 's office , has been restored as a visitor centre about the canal , and the adjacent seed warehouse has been turned into The National Centre for Craft & Design .
= = History = =
The River Slea rises to the west of Sleaford , near Ancaster , and flows in an easterly direction , passing through Sleaford on its way to South Kyme , beyond which it is called the Kyme Eau , joining the River Witham at Chapel Hill . Kyme Eau had been navigable since at least the reign of Edward III , for in 1375 Gilbert d 'Umframville was accused of illegally collecting tolls on boats carrying food products to the people of Kesteven . He had been doing so for 12 years , and he defended his case before the king , explaining that the river was navigable from Dog Dyke to Brent Fen , but that it suffered from silting and the banks were in a poor state of repair . Having agreed to carry out repairs , he was granted the right to levy tolls by letters patent .
With influential local landowners such as Sir Jenison Gordon of Haverholme Priory and Sir Christopher Whitchcote of Aswarby wanting to improve communications to the area , a proposal to link Sleaford by canal to Grantham was considered in 1774 , but was replaced by a scheme to provide a navigable link along the Slea and the Kyme Eau to the Witham in 1783 . Following a public meeting in Sleaford on 16 January , a committee was formed to promote the scheme , and in order for it to be profitable , negotiations began with the Commissioners of the River Witham , to reduce the tolls on that river for traffic to and from the Slea . Although initially rebuffed , the committee persisted , and the Commissioners eventually agreed to terms .
At the time , the River Slea was not navigable beyond Kyme , as the channel was inadequate , and there were fish weirs and water mills on its course . Three attempts were made to obtain an Act of Parliament to authorise improvements , but all were defeated . In 1791 , William Jessop and John Hudson were commissioned to prepare a new survey and plans . Jessop was a canal engineer of some repute , with experience of several navigations , including the River Trent at Newark , while Hudson was less well known , but had experience of canal building in eastern England and Yorkshire . Their report was published on 25 November 1791 , and estimated that the improvements would cost £ 9 @,@ 979 . The plans obtained the support of Sir Joseph Banks , a baronet who was a patron of the natural sciences , and had been the President of the Royal Society since 1778 . The fourth attempt to obtain an act of Parliament was successful , probably due to his influence .
The Act was passed on 11 June 1792 , creating The Company of Proprietors of the Sleaford Navigation , which was empowered to make and maintain a Navigation from Sleaford Castle Causeway , through the town of Sleaford , along the course of Sleaford Mill Stream and Kyme Eau , to the River Witham , at or near Chappel Hill . It had authority to raise £ 13 @,@ 000 in capital for the project , with an additional £ 6 @,@ 500 if necessary . Most of the money was raised within Lincolnshire , with half of the shares being bought by people living in Sleaford . Six proprietors were elected to serve on a committee , which expressed its thanks to Joseph Banks at its first meeting . By the end of 1793 , £ 16 @,@ 000 had been raised to fund construction .
The Horncastle Canal was being constructed at the same time , and the two companies negotiated to find an engineer who would oversee both projects . They approached Henry Eastburn , but he did not accept , and so William Cawley from Mickle Trafford in Cheshire was appointed . Five locks were required to negotiate the mills , and there were additional locks at Lower Kyme and near Flax Dyke , in the parish of Ewerley . They were built as broad locks , 60 by 15 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , and the total fall from Sleaford was 42 feet ( 13 m ) . Six contracts with a total value of £ 4 @,@ 000 , for the construction of locks and bridges , were awarded to John Dyson Sr. , who worked with Peter Tyler and John Langwith . Defects were reported with the lock at Haverholme in 1794 , and when the opening of the canal was announced , Dyson produced advertisements which stated that the canal would not open unless he was paid for the work he had carried out . The company responded that the only place to sort out such disagreements was in a law court , and the opening went ahead on 6 May 1794 . The enabling act specified that the terminus would be at Castle Causeway , from where it would follow the southern mill stream to pass through the south bridge , and then along the Sleaford millstream through Old Sleaford and New Sleaford . Financial difficulties meant that it stopped short of its intended terminus , and instead the company built a wharf to the east of what is now Carre Street in Sleaford .
= = = Operation = = =
Trade on the navigation was adequate , but the company was hampered by the overrun in the cost of construction . Dividends were paid to shareholders in 1795 , 1817 , 1818 and 1824 , but profits had improved by 1826 , and regular dividends were then paid . Between 1836 and 1856 , they ranged from five per cent to eight per cent . Rather than the proprietors collecting the tolls , they were let to toll collectors . In 1816 , John Keyworth paid £ 1 @,@ 010 for the privilege , while by 1839 , Joshua Bower had to pay £ 1 @,@ 590 . This practice ceased in 1851 , as receipts fell .
While the navigation prospered , there were plans to extend it . The first plan was for an extension to the west to Wilsford , suggested on 1827 . Six years later J. Rofe and his son revived the idea , first proposed in 1774 , for a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) link from Sleaford to Grantham . In the same year , a Sleaford trader attempted to get the navigation extended to its authorised terminus at Castle Causeway , but the company stated that at the time of construction , only £ 700 had been left for the final 500 yards ( 460 m ) to the causeway , and as that would not have been enough , they had provided a suitable wharf at the present terminus . While none of these extensions were pursued , plans for the installation of a weighing machine on the wharf in 1837 escalated , and resulted in a residence for the clerk of the canal and a weighing office being built . A crane was installed in 1841 , but success was soon threatened by the coming of the railways .
= = = Decline = = =
A railway from Grantham to Sleaford opened in 1857 . This was extended to Boston in 1859 , and so offered direct competition to the navigation . The decline was rapid . Income fell from £ 981 in 1858 to £ 168 in 1868 , and the share price dropped from £ 40 to £ 10 between 1860 and 1863 . The company was trading at a loss by 1871 , and although an Act of Abandonment was obtained on 17 June 1878 , the navigation did not actually close until 14 May 1881 , which was also the date of the final meeting of the proprietors . The Act required the company to fill in the three locks nearest to Sleaford , but there were special provisions for the remaining structures . The next three were on a stretch of river bordered by land belonging to Haverholme Priory , and were to be put into good order and handed over to Murray Finch Hatton , earl of Winchilsea & Nottingham , who owned the Priory . He could then maintain or abandon them , but was required to construct sluices if he chose to abandon them . The final lock was to be handed over to the commissioners of the River Witham , once it was in good order , and they could remove the gates and fill in the lock if they chose to do so .
Although officially closed , both Finch Hatton and the Witham Commissioners chose to retain the locks , and the lower 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) of the navigation from Ewerby Waithe Common to the River Witham remained navigable until the 1940s . Lower Kyme lock was then replaced by a sluice , which prevented navigation until a lock was reinstated in 1986 .
= = Restoration = =
In 1972 , Ronald Russell produced the book Lost Canals of England and Wales , in which he had compiled details of 78 canals then considered to be derelict . This acted as a catalyst for several restoration schemes , including one for the Sleaford Navigation . This plan initially centred on the canal head in Sleaford , and promoted by the Sleaford Civic Society . On 4 November 1977 , the Sleaford Navigation Society was formed , with the wider aim of restoring navigation to the whole canal , and publishing research into other Lincolnshire navigations . The society managed to gain the support of the Anglian Water Authority for their plans in 1980 , which resulted in the restoration of the Kyme Eau lock , re @-@ opened in November 1986 . With the raising of a low footbridge and the construction of a winding hole at South Kyme , the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the waterway were returned to navigation . In 1991 , work commenced on Cobblers lock , and was completed by 1994 , although it has not been fitted with gates as the banks of the section above it need strengthening before the water levels can be raised .
Funded by a Derelict Land Grant , the engineering consultants Binnies carried out a feasibility study in 1994 , which concluded that full restoration was possible . A new administrative structure for the project was created in 1997 , when the Sleaford Navigation Trust was formed , and the Navigation Society was disbanded . The Trust has continued to work on restoring the structures of the canal , campaigning successfully to prevent the Navigation Warehouse from being demolished in 1998 . The local council organised funding for the restoration of the warehouse and the former offices of the canal company in 2002 , and Lincolnshire County Council funded a further study which looked at how to provide an adequate water supply for a re @-@ opened canal . The former seed warehouse now forms part of The Hub , housing the National Centre for Craft and Design , which is supported by the Arts Council and is one of the leading centres for the promotion and exhibition of international craft and design in the UK .
In 2004 , the Navigation Trust was able to buy the bed of the river between Carre Street in Sleaford and Bone Mill , which included the lock and its island at Cogglesford Mill . Lower Kyme lock was refurbished in the winter of 2008 . The upper gate is a vertical guillotine gate , and the mechanism required 350 turns of a handle to raise the gate , and another 350 to lower it again . New lock gates were fitted , and a new geared mechanism requiring fewer turns made the lock easier to operate . Around 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) of the waterway from Sleaford to Cogglesford Mill lock were reopened , following the construction of a lifting bridge in the town centre . This was installed in late December 2008 , although the hydraulic operating gear was not fitted until January 2010 . Work was also carried out to construct a new slipway on Eastgate Green , to allow trailed boats to be launched onto the town section . This involved careful planning to avoid damage to 27 mature trees , and the widening of 92 feet ( 28 m ) of the bank to create a mooring point . Funding was provided by Lincolnshire County Council , the Inland Waterways Association , and Waste Recycling Environmental Ltd ( WREN ) , which administers the Landfill Communities Fund . An official opening of the new bridge and facilities took place on 3 July 2010 , when three boats were launched from the slipway . Members from canoe clubs at Boston and Sleaford attended .
= = Course = =
The upper terminus of the canal was at Navigation Yard , near Sleaford town centre . Navigation House , the former residence of the clerk , is now a Grade II listed building , and has been refurbished . It houses an interpretation centre where visitors can learn of the history of the canal . The River Slea between Navigation Yard and Bone Mill lock is owned by the Canal Trust . A short distance below the terminus , a new steel lift bridge crosses the canal , after which a stream leaves the east bank . This is the old course of the river , which rejoins the canal below Cobblers lock . The first lock is 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) from Sleaford , and allowed boats to pass Coggesford Mill , an 18th @-@ century watermill which has been restored , and is still used to grind flour . It is managed by North Kesteven District Council . The railway line from Lincoln to Spalding crosses next , after which Dyers Mill or Bone Mill lock is reached , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from Sleaford and overshadowed by the A17 Sleaford bypass bridge .
Corn Mill lock is situated 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) from Sleaford , and the buildings of Holdingham Mill are Grade II listed . They include a small hexagonal toll house , which was used by the lock keeper . Next is Paper Mill lock , after which the canal follows a more easterly direction , to reach Haverholme lock after 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) . Nearby was Haverholme Priory , founded by Gilbertine priors in 1139 . The Grade II listed ruins are of a much later date , being part of a Tudor style country house built in 1835 by H. E. Kendall . The bridge over the canal , built in 1893 , is also Grade II listed . At 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) , Cobblers lock is reached , which has been the limit of navigation since 1986 . Just beyond it , there is a pumping station on the south bank and the canal make a right @-@ angle bend , to skirt Ewerby Waithe Common , after which there is another right angle bend by Ferry Farm , where Ferry Bridge now carries Ferry Lane over the canal . After a short distance , there is a bend called Heckington Tunnel , where a section of the Car Dyke , a Roman waterway which ran for 85 miles ( 137 km ) , heads off in a southerly direction , with the Midfodder Drain running parallel to it .
Somewhere here , the name of the river changes from the Slea to the Kyme Eau . The village of South Kyme follows , with its four @-@ storey fortified tower , built in the 14th century for Sir Gilbert d 'Umframville . It is 77 feet ( 23 m ) high , and was surrounded by a moat . Two road bridges and a footbridge cross the navigation in the village . Damford Grounds , a low @-@ lying area of fenland , lies to the north of the village , and Damford Drain , the main drainage ditch , is pumped into the river by a pumping station on the west bank . After passing Terry Booth Farm on the east bank , the 18th century buildings of which are Grade II listed , and a farm with the same name on the west bank , Lower Kyme lock is reached , 10 @.@ 6 miles ( 17 @.@ 1 km ) from Sleaford . The Twenty Foot Drain and its pumping station join the river as it makes another sharp turn to the east , to reach a set of flood doors and Chapel Hill bridge , beyond which is the River Witham , flowing south @-@ east to Boston .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Thunderbirds Are Go =
Thunderbirds Are Go is a 1966 British science @-@ fiction film based on Thunderbirds , a 1960s television series starring marionette puppets and featuring scale model effects in a filming process dubbed " Supermarionation " . Written by Thunderbirds creators Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , directed by David Lane and produced by AP Films , Thunderbirds Are Go develops the franchise with a plot focusing on the futuristic spacecraft Zero @-@ X and its manned mission to Mars . When Zero @-@ X suffers a mechanical failure during re @-@ entry , it is up to International Rescue , with the aid of the Thunderbird machines , to save the astronauts on board before the spacecraft is obliterated in a crash landing .
Filmed from March to June 1966 and premiering in December , Thunderbirds Are Go includes , in a first for an AP Films production , cameo appearances from puppets of real @-@ life celebrities Cliff Richard and The Shadows , who also contributed to the musical score . It is also the first motion picture to have been filmed with an early form of video assist technology known as " Add @-@ a @-@ Vision " , and incorporated landscape footage that was shot on location in Portugal . Special effects pieces , produced under the supervision of Derek Meddings and including rocket launch sequences , space shots and a miniature representation of the Martian surface , required six months to complete .
Despite positive initial reviews , which praised the film as a well @-@ made cinematic transfer of the Thunderbirds television series , Thunderbirds Are Go soon proved to be a box office failure for the Andersons . The disappointment of this outcome was intensified by the knowledge that Series Two of Thunderbirds would be cut down to six episodes and that AP Films ' upcoming television project would be a brand @-@ new series , which would later be titled Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and screened from 1967 . To add to the lukewarm public response , negative critical reception of Thunderbirds Are Go has targeted , besides other aspects , the characterisation of the puppet cast , the running time dedicated to model and effects shots , and the fantasy dream sequence starring Cliff Richard and The Shadows , which has been described as a poor scriptwriting idea on the part of the Andersons .
Surprised by the underperformance of Thunderbirds Are Go , the United Artists distributors authorised the production of a sequel . However , Thunderbird 6 received a similarly unenthusiastic response on its release in 1968 , and the Thunderbirds franchise was abandoned until the appearance of a reboot , starring live actors , in 2004 . Meanwhile , the Zero @-@ X astronauts were featured in their own strip in the Anderson @-@ related TV Century 21 comic until 1969 .
= = Plot = =
In 2065 , the Zero @-@ X spacecraft launches from Glenn Field as the first attempt at a manned mission to Mars . Unknown to Captain Paul Travers and his crew of two astronauts and two scientists , criminal mastermind the Hood has infiltrated the ship to photograph Zero @-@ X 's wing mechanism . When his foot becomes trapped in the hydraulics , the Hood causes a systems failure and Zero @-@ X loses control . While the villain manages to extract his bloodied foot and parachute from the undercarriage , Travers and his crew eject in an escape pod and Zero @-@ X crashes into the ocean before leaving Earth 's atmosphere .
In 2067 , at the conclusion of an investigation into the loss of Zero @-@ X , the Inquiry Board of the Space Exploration Center reaches a verdict of sabotage . In the meantime , a second Mars mission has been planned . Days before the launch of the new Zero @-@ X , International Rescue agrees to a request to organise security in view of the possibility of another sabotage threat . Jeff Tracy dispatches Scott to Glenn Field in Thunderbird 1 , while Virgil in Thunderbird 2 and Alan in Thunderbird 3 are assigned to escort Zero @-@ X as it leaves the atmosphere . Posing as a reporter at the pre @-@ launch press conference , Lady Penelope ensures that Travers and the other four crewmembers are delivered St. Christopher brooches . Ostensibly for luck , these are in fact homing devices ( a plot device previously used in the episode " The Duchess Assignment " ) . The next day , a search for Dr Grant 's brooch checks negative . Scott unmasks the man waiting for lift @-@ off on board Zero @-@ X as the Hood in another of his disguises . The saboteur flees Glenn Field in a car , which Penelope and Parker pursue in FAB1 . The Hood transfers to a speedboat , and then a helicopter piloted by an accomplice ; Parker shoots the aircraft down with the Rolls @-@ Royce 's built @-@ in machine gun and the Hood is seemingly killed . Meanwhile , the real Grant is returned to Zero @-@ X and the spacecraft launches without further incident .
Mission accomplished , Penelope invites Scott and Virgil to join her at " The Swinging Star " , a fashionable nightclub . Landing back on Tracy Island after escorting Zero @-@ X , Alan feels unappreciated when Jeff insists that he remain on standby at base while his brothers spend the night partying . In bed , Alan experiences a surreal dream in which Parker " flies " him and Penelope in FAB1 to a version of The Swinging Star located in space . Present at the interstellar nightclub are Cliff Richard Jr and The Shadows , who perform a song titled " Shooting Star " and an instrumental , " Lady Penelope " . The dream sequence ends abruptly when Alan plummets from The Swinging Star back to Earth and awakes to discover he has fallen out of bed .
After a six @-@ week flight , the Zero @-@ X Martian Exploration Vehicle lands on Mars on 22 July . While investigating the barren surface , the crew are puzzled to encounter strange rock formations arranged into coils . Space Captain Greg Martin blasts one of the structures with the MEV gun and Dr Pierce prepares to leave the vehicle to collect samples . However , the other formations stir into motion and reveal themselves to be one @-@ eyed " Rock Snakes " . Under attack from the extraterrestrials , which are able to shoot fireballs from their " mouths " , the Zero @-@ X explorers are forced to effect a premature departure from the Martian surface . Docking with the orbiting command module piloted by Space Navigator Brad Newman , the astronauts start the flight back to Earth .
As Zero @-@ X re @-@ enters Earth 's atmosphere on 2 September , a lifting body launched to assist the controlled descent fails to interface , damaging the escape unit circuit ( EUC ) . With Zero @-@ X locked in descent and set to impact Craigsville , Florida , Jeff sends out Scott and Brains in Thunderbird 1 and Virgil , Alan and Gordon in Thunderbird 2 . Winched into Zero @-@ X 's undercarriage , Alan must risk being trapped on board the spacecraft as Brains advises him on re @-@ routing the damaged escape circuit . With Craigsville evacuated , Alan is left seconds to detach his cable . Travers and the others eject just in time , before Zero @-@ X crashes spectacularly into Craigsville . Collected by Penelope and Parker in FAB1 , Alan is driven to the real Swinging Star and Penelope , joined by the Tracy family , Brains and Tin @-@ Tin , all disguised to conceal their identities , propose a toast to Alan as the " hero of the day " .
= = Production = =
When shooting on Series One of Thunderbirds wrapped in late 1965 , Gerry Anderson and his ITC financier , Lew Grade , agreed that a feature film adaptation , to be shot at the same time as the prospective Series Two , would be the next logical step in the expansion of the AP Films Thunderbirds franchise . With United Artists contracted to distribute the film and the Rank Organisation to exhibit , a budget of £ 250 @,@ 000 was set and Anderson and his wife , Sylvia , commenced work on the script at a Portuguese villa rented to them by Grade . The couple decided to base the plot on the American @-@ Soviet " Space Race " , in particular the 1960s contest to land astronauts on the Moon , but adapt this story for the futuristic Thunderbirds universe by changing the destination of the mission to Mars .
In the pre @-@ production stages of their next puppet series , Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , the Andersons would opt to script a second appearance of the Zero @-@ X spacecraft to link the continuities of Thunderbirds and its sequel , which is supposed to be set in the same fictional universe . Captain Scarlet would also prove to be a progression from Thunderbirds Are Go in terms of its depiction of extraterrestrial life on Mars , although the Mysteron antagonists of this series would be more ambitious than the Rock Snakes of the film by actively seeking to attack Earth . The final rescue of the crippled Zero @-@ X emulates that of the airliner Fireflash in the Thunderbirds episode " Operation Crash @-@ Dive " .
The role of director fell to David Lane , who had filled this position for several of the Series One episodes and also had editing and special effects experience at AP Films . Aged 24 , with this appointment Lane became the youngest film director in Britain at the time . Frustrated with the creative limitations of puppets and concerned that the television series would not adapt well to a film , Alan Pattillo , the Andersons ' initial choice , declined the role .
The insertion of Alan 's dream sequence set at interstellar nightclub The Swinging Star was spearheaded by Sylvia , who expanded these scenes with a proposed musical interlude to be performed by puppet versions of Cliff Richard and The Shadows , Richard 's backup band in the 1960s . Richard and Bruce Welch owned homes in Portugal near to the Andersons , and it was there that the two agreed to " appear " in the film as Supermarionation puppets . Also signed on to contribute to the film 's score , Richard and the band recorded a song titled " Shooting Star " , with Richard providing the vocals , and an instrumental piece , " Lady Penelope " . Anderson concedes that the sequence does not progress the plot , stating in her autobiography that it was " sheer indulgence that would not have been possible on our television budget . " Stephen La Rivière , documenting the making of Thunderbirds Are Go in his book Supermarionation : A History of the Future , considers the sequence the strangest ever created by AP Films .
= = = Casting = = =
The returning characters of the Tracy family , the other inhabitants of Tracy Island , Lady Penelope , Parker and the Hood are voiced , with one exception , by the Series One cast of Thunderbirds . Voice actors introduced in Thunderbirds Are Go are :
Jeremy Wilkin as Virgil Tracy . The only character whose voice actor was changed between Series One and Thunderbirds Are Go , since David Holliday had returned to the United States in the interim , the film and Series Two version of Virgil was voiced by Wilkin , an English @-@ born Canadian actor who emigrated back to London in the 1960s . Wilkin would maintain a professional relationship with the Andersons for seven years after the film , voicing the character of Captain Ochre in Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , supporting roles in Joe 90 and also the character of The Bishop for The Secret Service , before minor appearances in two of the live @-@ action Anderson productions of the 1970s , UFO and The Protectors .
Paul Maxwell as Zero @-@ X Captain Paul Travers . Maxwell , a Canadian actor who often played American characters in 1960s British television , also provided voices for Thunderbirds Series Two and voiced the character of Captain Grey for several episodes of Captain Scarlet . His previous acting for the Andersons had come in 1963 with Fireball XL5 , as the star character Colonel Steve Zodiac .
Alexander Davion as Space Captain Greg Martin . A French @-@ born actor with experience on The Saint and Gideon 's Way ( in the role of Chief Inspector David Keen ) , Davion made one guest appearance on UFO in the 1970s .
Bob Monkhouse as Space Navigator Brad Newman . Monkhouse , an actor in such films as Carry On Sergeant ( 1958 ) , would later host the British game show The Golden Shot between 1967 and 1972 . He first approached Gerry Anderson for permission to film a comedy sketch based on Stingray , but ended up agreeing to replace Alfred Marks , who had withdrawn from the film due to a fee dispute , as Newman . Monkhouse recalled the conversation : " [ Anderson ] said , ' How much would you charge for the job ? ' I said , ' Gerry , I 'd do it for nothing . ' And that was the first time I ever heard the phrase , ' The price is right ' . " He affected an American accent for his parts in the film .
Neil McCallum as Dr Ray Pierce . With a role in the 1956 children 's series Space School , after Thunderbirds Are Go Canadian actor McCallum made contributions to Captain Scarlet , UFO , The Protectors and ( beyond the Anderson productions ) Department S and Randall and Hopkirk ( Deceased ) .
Charles Tingwell as Dr Tony Grant . Appearing in the medical drama Emergency – Ward 10 in the 1960s , Tingwell 's work for the Andersons included Thunderbirds Series Two , Captain Scarlet ( for which he was the voice of Dr Fawn ) and one episode of UFO , after which he returned to his native Australia .
Cliff Richard as Cliff Richard Jr . Contracted in Portugal , where he owned a house " next @-@ door @-@ but @-@ one " to Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , after negotiations with his agent , Peter Gormley , singer Richard says of his casting that he was " thrilled " to be part of the well @-@ known and popular Thunderbirds franchise . Richard has fond memories of the making of his Supermarionation lookalike puppet : " It was quite a hoot ... I was never really sure if I looked like my puppet or it looked like me . "
The Shadows ( consisting of band members Brian Bennett , Hank Marvin , John Rostill and Bruce Welch ) as Themselves , complementing Cliff Richard Jr in Alan Tracy 's dream sequence set at The Swinging Star . Bennett remembers the puppet that was based on his likeness : " The first thing I did was to ask if I could keep him when filming was finished , but apparently he was to be turned into another character after the film had been finished . "
= = = Filming = = =
Pre @-@ production for Thunderbirds Are Go lasted three months , and a shooting schedule of sixteen weeks was allotted to coincide with the filming of episodes for Series Two . Principal photography commenced on 3 March 1966 and ended nearly four months later in late June . The AP Films staff were split into an " A " and a " B " Unit , " A " to concentrate on the film and " B " the television episodes . As a result of the division , henceforth the television shooting would be completed at the rate of one episode per month , whereas Series One had been filmed at a faster rate with the completion of two episodes in the same time .
While director of photography Paddy Seale and special effects supervisor Derek Meddings handled Thunderbirds Are Go , camera and effects roles for Series Two were delegated to their assistants , Julien Lugrin and Jimmy Elliott . Two unused buildings on the Slough Trading Estate were purchased to address the increased demands on the production team , combining with the pre @-@ existing puppet workshop and art department and publicity centres to form an AP Films production base of five buildings . Converted by January 1966 , one of these former factory units contained new puppet stages , while the other was dedicated to one large sound stage on which all model and effects work would be completed .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Thunderbirds Are Go was filmed in widescreen Techniscope , a subset of Technicolor , with an aspect ratio of 2 @.@ 35 : 1 . This represented a significant departure from the 4 : 3 picture used for the television episodes . The anamorphic lenses of Panavision , a popular system for Hollywood productions during the 1960s , proved to be unsuitable for special effects shots due to the depth of field of the cameras . Techniscope , on the other hand , could be used in conjunction with spherical lenses while attaining the " letterbox " image of mainstream films that were shot on 35 mm film . All AP Films productions had up to this point been filmed on Arriflex Cameras , but for the film these were replaced with the Mitchell brand .
Thunderbirds Are Go is also the first film to have been shot with the " Livingston Electronic Viewfinder Unit " . Also known as " Add @-@ a @-@ Vision " , this system consisted of a viewfinder , connected to video monitors , that was used to capture an image directly from the shooting camera . This enabled production personnel to inspect filmed footage on the set with a higher definition than had been possible with a more basic system used for AP Films television series . Add @-@ a @-@ Vision also benefited the puppeteers , who were stationed several metres above the set on gantries and had until this point not been permitted a useful view of the marionette movements below them . Based on German video assist devices , Add @-@ A @-@ Vision was developed by John Read , director of photography for Thunderbirds , in collaboration with Prowest Electronics , and also incorporated a form of playback function to aid staff while viewing rushes .
To enhance the illusion of the puppets , David Lane ensured that camera shots frequently omitted the tops of the heads and the visible control wires , and also incorporated low @-@ angle shots for dramatic effect . Location shooting in Portugal was arranged for Lane , Derek Meddings and camera operator Alan Perry to film overhead landscape shots for the climax in which Alan rescues the Zero @-@ X astronauts during re @-@ entry . However , when the footage was deemed unsatisfactory , it was replaced with a painted backdrop made by associate producer Reg Hill .
Shots were also recorded for the end of Alan 's dream , when the character tumbles from The Swinging Star back to Earth to discover that he has only fallen out of bed . To achieve this " spiralling shot " , the team was carried by helicopter to an altitude of approximately 5 @,@ 000 feet above an island off the coast of Portugal . The aircraft was then left to " autogyro " downwards as Perry recorded the view of the island looming up from below . Once again , however , the shot was declared inadequate and a model version was made at the AP Films Studios in Slough .
= = = = Puppets = = = =
Promising Television Mail that AP Films ' latest venture would be " bigger and better than anything we have ever done before " , Gerry Anderson realised that design defects would not be as quickly forgiven in a film adaptation as on the smaller screen . Puppets from the Thunderbirds television series were therefore expertly revamped , with new paint , wigs and costumes , while models and sets such as the Thunderbird machines were re @-@ built from scratch with greater attention to detail . During production , the AP Films puppet wardrobe had a stock of over 700 costumes , with 150 extra costumes made mainly as spares in case of damage or loss .
Some of the main puppet cast to feature in the film , such as Scott Tracy , were re @-@ made from the original marionettes , while previously unseen characters such as the Zero @-@ X astronauts , Cliff Richard and the bandmembers of The Shadows were sculpted especially . Whereas guest star puppets for Series One had been recycled for each appearance and moulded in Plasticine , since this was the first occasion when puppets in an AP Films production were intended to represent real @-@ life celebrities , most of the supporting puppets were made from fibreglass to the same standards of workmanship as the main puppets .
From facial measurements and still photographs of the human templates , sculpting supervisor John Brown constructed Cliff Richard , while Brian Bennett was entrusted to Christine Glanville , Hank Marvin to Terry Curtis , John Rostill to Mary Turner and Bruce Welch to Tim Cooksey . Curtis went on to sculpt Zero @-@ X crewmembers Captain Paul Travers and Co @-@ Pilot Greg Martin , modelling the first on 1960s James Bond actor , Sean Connery and the latter partly on himself , in addition to the Glenn Field Controller , Commander Casey .
The puppets of Thunderbirds Are Go are of identical proportions to the television puppets . However , while production of the film continued , AP Films developed a prototype with a latex mouth to result in more realistic movement of the lips and jaws . However , this animatronic technology proved to be insufficiently advanced and the idea was abandoned . For the later television series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , a brand @-@ new puppet design of realistic anatomical proportions made its debut appearance when the solenoid of the lip @-@ synch mechanism was relocated from the puppet head to the torso area .
Thunderbird 6 , a sequel film shot simultaneously with Captain Scarlet , stars puppets intended to compromise between the first and second generations . Although the heads and hands remained large in relation to the torso and legs , the sculptors reduced the explicit caricature evident in the Thunderbirds television episodes and Thunderbirds Are Go to leave puppets sized in intermediate proportions .
= = = = Set design = = = =
The heads of the art department , Bob Bell and Keith Wilson , divided their efforts so that Bell contributed mostly to the film and Wilson to the Series Two episodes . Sets constructed by Bell especially for Thunderbirds Are Go included the Glenn Field Control Tower and Press Conference Room , the interiors of The Swinging Star , and re @-@ designed versions of various locations on Tracy Island .
The appearance of the Space Exploration Center 's Inquiry Room was influenced by Sylvia Anderson , who in her role as producer supervised design aspects and wanted the light @-@ blue uniforms of the SEC officials to be vividly contrasted with a tangerine and black duotone backdrop . Director David Lane recalls that the Inquiry Room scene depicted a panel made up of 20 puppets , an achievement which would not have been possible in one of the Thunderbirds television episodes due to the smaller budget .
Of his approach to directing the film , Lane explains , " Thunderbirds Are Go was done like an episode but on a bigger scale . Whereas we would think that it might be nice to do a particular shot on the series but couldn 't afford to , with Thunderbirds Are Go we just did it because we had the money . " For the Swinging Star hall sequence , all the visual elements except Alan and Lady Penelope are displayed in black and white , with background characters appearing in the form of enlarged still photographs . On the surrealism of the Swinging Star scenes , aspects of which include pink space clouds made of dry ice and a giant guitar on which Cliff Richard and The Shadows perform part of " Shooting Star " , Anderson explains that the production team " recreated a Busby Berkeley sequence " , and that the appearance of puppet versions of real @-@ life celebrities boosted the publicity value of the film .
= = = = Special effects = = = =
Derek Meddings and a team of 28 technicians completed the special effects shots for the film in six months . Their main assignments included the Zero @-@ X launches , re @-@ shot , widescreen launch sequences for the Thunderbird machines , the car chase between Lady Penelope and Parker in FAB1 and the Hood , scenes at The Swinging Star , the Mars shots involving the MEV and the mysterious Rock Snakes , and the ultimate destruction of Zero @-@ X in the climax . Over 300 effects shot were completed with scale models . The team made use of the extra space afforded to them by the new special effects building to experiment with floor @-@ level shots and other more creative camera angles .
The requirement to re @-@ create the various Thunderbird machines was particularly problematic in the case of Thunderbird 2 , as Meddings explains : " Unfortunately , its replacement was not only the wrong colour , it was a completely different shape . Although we had several more built in different scales , I never felt our model makers managed to re @-@ capture the look of the original . " Meddings was also responsible for the design of the Zero @-@ X spacecraft , for the representation of which a fibreglass model , 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) long , weighing 50 lb ( 23 kg ) and costing £ 2 @,@ 500 , was built . The appearance of the Zero @-@ X interior was based on then unfinished aircraft Concorde , a prototype of which was under construction at Filton Airfield in Bristol .
A long shot of a Zero @-@ X lifting body falling through the atmosphere and exploding was the only special effects sequence filmed outside the building . Instead , it was mounted on a gantry at a nearby power station against a real sky backdrop and the team used Cordtex explosive strips , gunpowder , naphtha , magnesium and petroleum gel to create a " fireball " effect . Although it took months to construct , the studio 's destruction of the Zero @-@ X model was complete in two days . The effects shots for Thunderbirds Are Go later became so well known in the film industry that the work of Meddings and his team was consulted during pre @-@ production on the 1986 James Cameron film , Aliens .
= = = Editing = = =
The film went through post @-@ production in the autumn to be finished in time for a Christmas release . Len Walter , who had edited episodes for Series One , reprised his role for Thunderbirds Are Go . The workprint of the film ran more than 15 minutes over the maximum runtime permitted by United Artists , forcing Walter to cut several minor scenes that were not essential to the plot .
One set of deleted scenes charted the Space Exploration Center 's attempts to enlist International Rescue to escort the second Zero @-@ X. Meanwhile , the Hood telepathically contacts his half @-@ brother Kyrano , coercing him to relay the Tracy family 's actions . With the removal of the one scene in which he appears , Kyrano , another character voiced by David Graham , was completely cut from the film . A second deleted scene featured Lady Penelope and Parker en route to Glenn Field via New York , flying on board the aircraft Fireflash which made its first appearance in the pilot episode of Thunderbirds . Another deleted scene saw Jeff Tracy give a speech , broadcast worldwide over the Trans American TV Network .
No copies of the deleted scenes are known to survive . However , some still images remain . One photograph , in which Brains and Alan are seen standing behind a camera , is from the scene in which Jeff prepares for the broadcast of his speech , and appeared as the cover of issue 35 of FAB magazine . Another photograph , this one of the Hood in his temple with a film clapperboard in the foreground , has also survived . The only remaining film footage was edited into the 1968 Joe 90 episode " International Concerto " , which includes a few seconds of video from the Trans American TV Network sequence .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
With Walter 's editing complete , composer Barry Gray recorded the score in six sessions between 9 and 11 October at Anvil Studios near Denham in Buckinghamshire . To achieve proper symphonic sound , an orchestra of 70 musicians , aided by Gray 's own electronic effects , was organised . The Band of the Royal Marines ' rendition of the " Thunderbirds March " which accompanies the end credits of the film was recorded in one morning under the supervision of Gray and conductor Lieutenant Colonel Vivian Dunn at the Royal Marines School of Music in Deal , Kent . Three weeks were then allotted for visual wrap @-@ up work , the insertion of the opening titles and minor animation , sound editing and dubbing . On its submission to the British Board of Film Classification in November , the film was awarded a U certificate .
An animated introduction to the film presents the main puppet cast , and is accompanied by the re @-@ recorded version of the " Thunderbirds March " . The end credits note the musical contributions of " Shooting Star " and " Lady Penelope " by Cliff Richard and The Shadows and the " Thunderbirds March " performed by the Band of the Royal Marines . Other credits are self @-@ referential " acknowledgements " to individuals and companies who apparently assisted in the production of the film : these include the characters of Space Colonel Harris ( the chairman of the Space Exploration Center committee ) and Commander Casey , and the Century 21 " Space Location Unit " . A humorous disclaimer then reads : " None of the characters appearing in this photoplay intentionally resemble any persons living or dead ... since they do not yet exist ! "
= = Release = =
When filming for Thunderbirds Are Go concluded in June 1966 , four episodes of Series Two had been completed on the monthly shooting schedule . Two additional episodes of Series Two , " Ricochet " and " Give or Take a Million " , were filmed by " A " and " B " Units respectively . By December , Lew Grade had failed to sell the TV series to American broadcasters , recommending to Gerry Anderson that AP Films cancel production on Thunderbirds after the completion of six episodes for Series Two and start preparation for a new series , which would become Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons . For the development of this series , the staff of AP Films , on the advice of Merchandising Executive Keith Shackleton , agreed to change the name of the company to " Century 21 Productions " , a name first carried by Thunderbirds Are Go to associate the film more closely with the related Anderson comic TV Century 21 . Thunderbirds Are Go became the first Anderson project to be publicised , in full , as " A Gerry Anderson Century 21 Production " .
Thunderbirds Are Go was screened for United Artists executives to a positive response before receiving its premiere at the London Pavilion in Piccadilly on 12 December 1966 . Opening at a gala for the Barnardo 's Charity , several crew and actors were in attendance , including Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , Grade , Cliff Richard and his sister Donella and The Shadows . The exterior of the Pavilion , adorned with neon and representations of the Thunderbird machines , led into the foyer in which puppets and models from the film had been put on display , with publicity posters promising audiences " The Most Advanced Spacecraft Ever Created " and stipulating that " Adults Should Be Accompanied By Children " . The Band of the Royal Marines provided a rendition of the " Thunderbirds March " both before and after the screening .
= = Reception = =
The release of Thunderbirds Are Go in December 1966 was one element of that year 's " Thunderbirds Christmas " which witnessed a merchandising scramble to market tie @-@ in media such as toys , games and novels . An initial review in Kine Weekly praised the film as a " colourful extension of Gerry Anderson 's very popular television series " , while the News of the World described it as " breath @-@ taking entertainment " . On 18 December , the Sunday Express published a similarly glowing review , in which the concept of the Zero @-@ X mission to Mars was described as " awesome " and visuals commended : " Of course , the cast are all puppets , the sets , models , and the story unabashed nonsense . But it 's great all the same . Your kids will take you , of course . " In the Daily Mail , the transfer of the puppets from television to film was well received : " So who needs people ? These handsome , stiff @-@ necked , shiny @-@ faced Thunderbirds puppets have broken spectacularly out of black @-@ and @-@ white TV and on to the cinema screen . "
However , after the splendour of the premiere and the praise of some reviewers , when the Andersons departed on a tour of Britain to promote the film it was revealed that public interest was mediocre and box office revenue poor , as Gerry Anderson explains : " When we got off the plane at the first destination we were told that the film was in trouble . Cinemas were apparently half @-@ full . When we got to the next big city we got more news that made us even more depressed – box office figures were inexplicably low wherever we went . " Anderson proposes that the presence of Thunderbirds on television damaged the chances of its big @-@ screen transfer , asserting , " The only thing we could think was that at that time the audience was not used to seeing a feature film version of a television show . So people would see Thunderbirds and think , ' We 've seen it on television . ' " Sylvia Anderson offers a similar explanation : " Although we still had our loyal television fans , they remained just that – firmly seated in front of their television screens and not in the cinema . "
Supermarionation historian Stephen La Rivière suggests that the film also faced competition on its release in 1966 from other new family films such as Leslie H. Martinson 's Batman and James Hill 's Born Free . Reviews were , in general , turning less positive : although the Slough Observer described the film as " basically a Technicolor large @-@ screen extension " of its television original , The Times was critical , asserting that the plotting and characterisation handed down from the television episodes were too thin to sustain a film and that the various air- and spacecraft launch sequences were intended less for visual appeal than padding to maintain feature length .
In his 1993 programme guide to the Anderson productions , John Peel comments that Thunderbirds Are Go is " well @-@ made " and that it fulfils its promise to deliver visual spectacle , coming off as the more favourable of the two Thunderbirds films , although the plot is partly recycled from the television episodes , and the dream sequence is " painfully silly " and " embarrassingly awful " . La Rivière agrees with Peel 's view that the Thunderbird machines are underused , and that the extended model shots and infrequent appearances from the Tracy family may have been a disappointment to the intended audience of children .
Revisiting Thunderbirds Are Go from more recent perspectives has led to different interpretations : Jeff Stafford of Turner Classic Movies regards the film in its entirety as a " pop culture novelty as fascinating and endearing as a toy from one 's childhood . " He agrees , however , that the model sequences are protracted : " You 'll feel yourself growing older as cranes and hydraulic lifts slowly – very slowly – prepare for a missile launch . " Meanwhile , William Gallagher of BBC Online offers a positive review , asserting that Thunderbirds Are Go is " every bit as good " as the television series . However , he also suggests that its status as a film adaptation faithful to its original is an inherent weakness , and that Thunderbirds functions better as a television series , writing of the film 's content : " Certainly there 's no greater profundity or universal theme to the film , it is just an extended episode . " Gallagher rates Thunderbirds Are Go three stars out of five , as does a review on the Film4 website .
= = = Sequel = = =
Despite the underperformance of Thunderbirds Are Go , Gerry Anderson received two awards for Thunderbirds in 1966 , first with the presentation of a Silver Medal for Outstanding Artistic Achievement by the Royal Television Society , and then an appointment as an Honorary Fellow of the British Kinematograph , Sound and Television Society . Dismissing the box office failure of Thunderbirds Are Go as a one @-@ off misfortune , United Artists advised Anderson to produce a second film , which would be titled Thunderbird 6 . Anderson remembers the period of transition : " None of us ... could understand why the film hadn 't succeeded , so it was decided we would make another one . "
Budgeted at £ 300 @,@ 000 – an increase of one fifth over Thunderbirds Are Go – in their approach to writing the sequel the Andersons decided to script a more light @-@ hearted adventure to counter the seriousness of the original . However , Thunderbird 6 would also receive a less @-@ than @-@ enthusiastic public reception , spelling the end of Thunderbirds as a film and television franchise until the arrival of the live @-@ action adaptation , Thunderbirds , almost four decades later in 2004 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Books and comics = = =
Thunderbirds Are Go was novelised by writer Angus P. Allan and published by Armada Books in 1966 . The events of the film from the perspective of the Zero @-@ X mission were also adapted for a four @-@ part " photographic picturisation " in the comic TV Century 21 ( launched in 1965 and renamed TV21 in 1968 ) . After this re @-@ telling of the events of Thunderbirds Are Go , comic strips published until 1969 charted the continuing adventures of the astronauts , led as ever by Captain Paul Travers , in missions to the other planets in the Solar System , and then beyond , on board the " Mark III " model of Zero @-@ X.
The connection between Thunderbirds and its successor series , Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , also featured prominently in issues published between June and September 1967 , leading up to the television debut of Captain Scarlet . In these issues , Captain Black of the Spectrum Organisation commands another Mars mission in Zero @-@ X and ( as depicted in the pilot of Captain Scarlet ) falls under the manipulation of another native extraterrestrial race besides the Rock Snakes , " The Mysterons " . The involvement of Zero @-@ X reaches a climax when the spacecraft , occupied by the possessed Black , lands back at Glenn Field and the Mysteron agent escapes capture by the authorities .
= = = Home video = = =
A re @-@ recorded version of Barry Gray 's score received vinyl releases from United Artists in 1967 and Silva Screen Records in 1987 . The collection was later converted for CD in 1990 and re @-@ released by EMI in 1992 . Also comprising four tracks of incidental music from the Thunderbirds television episodes , the 1992 release consists of items titled " Alan 's Dream " , " Martian Mystery " , " Astronauts in Trouble " and " Swinging Star " ( composed by Gray ) , " Shooting Star " ( performed by Cliff Richard and The Shadows ) and " Lady Penelope " ( performed by The Shadows ) , and two versions of both the " Thunderbirds Theme " and " Zero @-@ X Theme " ( as composed by Gray or performed by The Shadows ) . The original recordings of the film soundtrack of Thunderbirds are Go and Thunderbird 6 were released by La @-@ La Land Records on a limited edition CD in 2014 .
In Regions 2 and 4 , Thunderbirds Are Go was first released on DVD by MGM in 2001 , with special features including an audio commentary with director David Lane and producer Sylvia Anderson , the theatrical trailer , stills and production galleries . A 2004 " International Rescue Edition " , including Region 1 and marketed both separately and as part of a box set with the sequel film , Thunderbird 6 , boasts remixed Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound and expands on the original extra material with three documentaries detailing the production of the film . A limited edition high definition Blu @-@ ray Disc release of Thunderbirds are Go and Thunderbird 6 was released on 13 May 2014 .
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= Algo Centre Mall =
The Algo Centre Mall ( legally Eastwood Mall since 2005 but almost never referred to as such ) was a mall and hotel located in the middle of Elliot Lake , Ontario 's commercial district on Highway 108 . It is the largest commercial complex in the area . When the community was hit by uranium mine closures in the 1990s , the complex gradually refocused , hosting multiple services , such as a library , constituency offices , and public health offices . In recent years , many businesses located in the mall either closed or moved to outside locations . Still , the mall was a community hub , with most of the area 's clothing stores and its largest grocery store , employing upwards of 250 local residents . It accounted for 10 % of community 's retail space and 6 % of the total wages .
The mall was plagued by structural problems and leaks throughout its history . It underwent a partial structural failure on June 23 , 2012 , when a 12m x 24m ( 39 ' -by @-@ 79 ' ) segment of the rooftop parking deck collapsed into the building , crashing through the upper level lottery kiosk adjacent to the food court and escalators to the ground floor below . More than 20 people received non @-@ life @-@ threatening injuries and two people died in the collapse . An investigation and class action lawsuits into the collapse are ongoing and the mall has been demolished .
= = History = =
Algocen Realty Holdings Ltd . , the real estate branch on the Algoma Central Railway first commissioned The Algo Centre Mall project . The project was subsequently approved by the Ontario Municipal Board in 1978 , with an estimated cost of $ 10 million . Construction then began in 1979 with the project being finished the next year . The 80 @-@ room Algo Inn , the town 's largest hotel and retirement residence , was also built into the mall . In its first year , 1980 , the mall featured Woolco , Dominion , and Shoppers Drug Mart , and a total of 35 units . A distinct architectural feature of the building was rooftop parking .
After the closure of the uranium mines in Elliot Lake , in 1990 , the revenue prospects of the mall dropped sharply , with no recovery in sight . This prompted the Algoma Central Company to write off over $ 5 million in lost property value , despite 98 % occupancy .
In 1996 , a report commissioned by the Town , Downtown Core and Industrial Area Improvements , presented a less @-@ than @-@ favourable assessment of the structure 's exterior :
A very significant building within the downtown core is formed by the Algo Mall / Algo Inn . Situated above Ontario Avenue and fronted by parking lots , this large building is clad mostly in brown prefinished metal siding . The entrances are remote and do not address the street . The scale of the building , its introverted nature and the lack of tactile materials , detail , and transparency at the pedestrian level , do little to contribute to the urban environment . The Mall and the Hotel are a terrific amenities and likely contribute greatly to the attraction of shoppers and visitors to the downtown core , but the design is less than sensitive to its urban environment .
The current owners , Eastwood Incorporated , acquired the company in August 2005 for the price of $ 6 @.@ 2 million . Owned by Bob Nazarian , his firm was registered in 1994 as a numbered company . At various points , the company has owned strip malls in Kitchener and London , Ontario . Algo had retained Marino Locations Limited to redevelop the property " to accommodate new specialty retailers and possible new anchor / big @-@ box retailers that are not yet in the market . The possibility for exterior pads also exists on the surrounding lands . " ( Read Jones Christoffersen Ltd. also performed a redevelopment feasibility study on the mall in late 2010 , early 2011 ; part of the cost was not repaid . ) Between August 2005 and June 2012 , the mall had a series of five managers .
Along with the Algo Inn and numerous independent stores and services , the mall includes :
At some point in the summer of 2008 , a location of SAAN , a department store , closed . The Bargain ! Shop purchased the brand in August of that year , taking over some leaseholds . In September that year , Mayor Rick Hamilton located his campaign office at the mall . In January 2009 , the Elliot Lake Model Railroad Club opened at the local civic centre , moving from the mall . In 2010 , a new Shoppers Drug Mart opened away from the mall , more than doubling the 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) unit it had at Algo . The mall was offered for sale in 2010 , for $ 9 @.@ 9 million , an increase of $ 3 @.@ 7 million from the purchase price five years prior . In 2011 , the hotel office was victim of a break @-@ and @-@ enter , with an attempt to do the same at Zellers .
The mall hosted car shows , charity head shavings , antique appraisals , promotions for community events , an annual rocking chair marathon for charity , amongst other community events .
Despite the centre 's issues , it remained a community hub ; the mayor notes that it was both the social centre of the community , and residents would visit weekly , and in some cases daily .
= = Structural problems = =
By 1990 , the mall was already regularly plagued with leaks and water damage .
The Elliot Lake Standard reported in 2008 on " greater than normal " leaks causing damages to multiple units . Starlight Cafe closed permanently , despite being profitable soon after opening , as customers would occasionally need umbrellas to stand at the take @-@ out counter . Drip @-@ tarps installed by the mall in the kitchen of the restaurant were ineffective . The cafe owner was not made aware of the leaks before starting her lease in 2007 , and was successful in a lawsuit against the owner . Scotiabank had closed for a few weeks in 2008 as a precaution . ( Scotiabank began construction on a new location in July 2011 , to replace their mall location . ) Some businesses suggested that additional leaks started after the new owner started repairs to the roof . Tenants noticed a reduced amount of traffic after leaks started , and buckets were scattered throughout the mall .
In 2009 , leaks in the mall roof and mold caused Elliot Lake city councilors to consider moving the Elliot Lake Public Library out of the mall and back to the Solomon Building , where it had been before 1992 . Many books were damaged , despite library staff using tarps to cover shelves . At some points , entire sections were blocked for public health reasons . Much of the leaking was said to be corrected , before council considered the issue , and an environmental study was completed . Some library board members and councilors worried that liability insurance wouldn 't cover them in the mall , despite reassurances by library management and the city 's insurance broker . With a multi @-@ use complex in the works , some of the library board was concerned with a five @-@ year lease that mall management was pursuing , despite the library 's preference for a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ year lease . In the end , the library remained at the mall .
Some tenants suggest that mall business owners were said to not be vocal about their disappointments , unless " water is dripping right on their head ( or ) if the water is destroying their business " ; conversely , one previous mall manager suggests he was called daily by tenants about the issue , before 2008 repairs started . The owner was aware of the mall 's roof problems when purchasing the facility , and suggested there would be renovations to the mall , but would not commit to a date for completing roof repairs or interior upgrades . Ultimately , over $ 1 million was spent in an attempt to repair the roof . Architect John Clinckett of Kitchener was hired to oversee the project ; Canadian Construction Controls of Breslau declined to bid to install a membrane created by Carlisle Syntec Systems . Taking issue with the $ 1 million cost , Nazarian cancelled the project , hiring Peak Restoration ; only a fraction of Peak 's $ 823 @,@ 657 worth of work was paid for , and the lien expired in 2010 . The mall manager left soon after , in summer 2008 , suggesting that he believes mall maintenance staff were set to repair the roof . In spite of the issues , the mall would use the roof for events . In 2011 and 2012 , it served as the site for the Heart and Stroke Foundation 's Big Bike ride .
In summer 2011 , a piece of concrete fell through the ceiling at a mall restaurant , Hungry Jack 's . Reports were filed with the mall manager and the city , with an inspector scheduled to visit two weeks following the incident . The inspector did not show , and mall management did not reply . Hungry Jack 's is near to the eventual mall roof collapse . Mall owners continued repair and maintenance work in 2012 , spending $ 120 @,@ 000 into repairs within the 12 @-@ month period leading up to June 2012 . An engineering and structural study " turned up nothing " , according to the mall manager . Even after the repair , there were photos of serious interior damage to the mall 's roof . A local plumber that had done work for the mall suggested there was obvious signs of water damage , eight months before the collapse . In March 2012 , the mall management pleaded guilty in provincial court , after their fire alarms and sprinklers did not meet code . The mall spent $ 50 @,@ 000 to upgrade the infrastructure to avoid further fines . The process included adding a new roof to the hotel , gutting the second and third floors , including the hotel lounge .
The problem was very obvious to residents of the town . During the press conference announcing the class @-@ action lawsuit , a resident suggested that some residents had placed " bets " on when the building would collapse . Ontario 's Ministry of Labour visited the mall six times in the three years before the collapse .
At the 2013 inquest into the roof collapse ( see # Government reaction below ) , testimony has revealed that many unpublicized structural problems at the mall dated all the way back to its initial construction in the late 1970s . In particular , the expansion joint above the escalators , the failure of which appears to have caused the roof deck collapse , was already not properly binding to the concrete , in turn allowing water to seep into the building 's seams , as early as 1981 — barely a year after the mall 's original opening . The expansion joint was fixed many times , and fully replaced twice , during the building 's lifetime , yet always began tearing away from the concrete again shortly after the repairs were complete .
= = 2012 roof collapse = =
At approximately 2 : 20 pm EDT ( 1820 GMT ) on Saturday , June 23 , 2012 , part of a 12m x 24m ( 39 ' -by @-@ 79 ' ) segment of the parking deck / roof collapsed at the Algo Centre Mall , sending metal and concrete debris crashing down through two floors of the shopping centre , injuring more than 20 people and resulting in the deaths of two people .
Soon after the collapse , the owners arrived at the mall . A representative spoke on behalf of the owner , stating " I 'd rather not [ comment ] , because we have talked to our lawyers and we ’ re going to be in the City Hall to represent ourselves . But nevertheless , we are very much concerned [ about ] this accident . "
By approximately 4 : 00 pm , local authorities alerted the Commissioner of Community Safety , Dan Hefkey . Hefkey called the Toronto @-@ based Heavy Urban Search and Rescue ( HUSAR ) at 4 : 25 pm . The HUSAR crew , after assembling their equipment and travelling the 540 kilometers from Toronto , arrived by 2 : 00 am Sunday , June 24 , and immediately began work .
After initial assessments , the HUSAR team felt they had the proper equipment for the mission . In the early hours of Monday morning , June 25 – and despite discovering signs of life – rescue work was suspended due to the danger of additional concrete falling on the potential survivors and the HUSAR rescuers .
Following the announcement , numerous residents of the town began to sign a list volunteering to enter the structure themselves to continue the search ; the owners also announced their intention to seek a court injunction ordering the resumption of search and rescue efforts . After an appeal from local MPP Michael Mantha , whose constituency office was in the mall , Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty urged rescue workers to resume their search for survivors .
HUSAR later stated that the rescue teams were continuing to strategize alternate methods during the work suspension , and that the local residents and the Premier 's call did not influence their actions . Shortly after 10 p.m. on June 25 , approximately 19 hours after the initial search was suspended , HUSAR confirmed that it would resume its efforts , including a willingness to employ " drastic measures " , including the use of heavy equipment to pull down the unstable escalator structure and part of an external wall from the outside . Prime Minister Stephen Harper also offered the assistance of the Canadian Forces on June 26 .
Two bodies were recovered from the debris on Wednesday , June 27 — four days after the collapse .
The area which collapsed included two kiosks . The deceased had been a lottery kiosk employee and her customer . Lucie Aylwin , 37 , worked just once a week at the lottery booth , earning extra money for her wedding . Aylwin held a full @-@ time job with Collège Boréal , a French language college , as an employment consultant and recruiter in the college 's ' Employment Options Emploi ' office , located elsewhere in the Algo Centre Mall . Doloris Perizzolo , 74 , was a widow and mother believed to be opening pull @-@ tab lottery tickets , which must be opened in view of the booth operator . After the bodies of the two victims were retrieved , and HUSAR confirmed no other victims were trapped in the rubble , efforts shifted to official investigations .
= = Investigation = =
On March 8 , 2013 , the engineering firm NORR , commissioned by the Ontario Provincial Police , released the results of their forensic engineering investigation to the Elliot Lake Inquiry . The investigation found that the collapse was caused by a two @-@ stage failure of the welding on a connection , due to extensive corrosion . The corrosion was caused by improper waterproofing and the placement of a parking lot on the roof , which allowed water , contaminated with road salt ( which accelerated the corrosion ) to corrode the structure .
= = = Oversights and cost @-@ cutting during planning stages = = =
The report states that there were two critical errors made during the planning stages . Firstly , the parking lot for the mall was located on the roof of the building without there being sound waterproofing , and secondly the structural inefficiency of the hollow concrete slabs which prevented the installation of effective waterproofing later on .
John Kadlec of Beta Engineering originally planned the use of 8 @-@ inch HCS , which he specified could withstand 120 pounds per square foot , a load which exceeded specifications on all 8 @-@ inch HCS . During the bidding process , the owners were advised by a bidder , Precon , that the specified load could not be handled by the HCS without reinforcements from a composite concrete topping . However , Kadlec advised the owners that the plans called for 8 @-@ inch HCS which could withstand the load without reinforcement from topping . The contract was thus awarded to Coreslab , despite Coreslab 's design tables indicating that the specified project loads were 38 % higher than the maximum load . In 1992 , over a decade after the mall 's construction , Coreslab retracted the claim to be able to support the load without the use of a composite topping .
Two different waterproofing systems were proposed to the owner by Harry S. Peterson Co . The first system called for a rubberized asphalt membrane to be applied over the non @-@ composite concrete topping , while the second , one called for no membrane , and simply controlling leaks with a polyurethane sealant . The second system reduced initial building costs by $ 136 @,@ 000 . HSP argued strongly for the second option , and convinced the owner to install the second system . The report called this system " intrinsically flawed " , and leaks were noticed immediately after construction .
= = = Leaking = = =
Leaks were noticed immediately after the installation of the topping . Harry S. Peterson Co. attempted many times to fix the leaks . In 1991 , the owners contracted Trow to investigate the chronic leaking and find a solution . Two options were provided , but upon consulting with Coreslab , it was determined that neither plans could go forward due to the HCS not being able to support additional loads .
These leaks allowed water to seep through the topping and access the iron frame of the building . This corroded much of the building 's frame during the mall 's three decades in operation . The corrosion was eventually so severe that the weld on a connection failed , resulting in the collapse .
= = = Inquiry = = =
John Kadlec , a consulting engineer on the original construction , has testified that he raised concerns at the time about sloppy workmanship and inadequate construction materials at the site , including structural columns that were already crooked , steel beams that were already rusting despite being new , and the ultimately fateful decision to place the complex 's parking area on the roof . According to Kadlec , the construction company opted to resolve the structural issues not by redoing the construction , but by anchoring the building 's back wall to the rock outcropping behind it . James Keywan , the building 's original architect , testified that he also strongly objected to the rooftop parking , but had little choice once Algocen made their decision to proceed with that plan .
The son of the mall 's owner , admitted that the company had pressured engineers to remove information on leaks and corrosion from a report and that fictional repair invoices from a shell company , Empire Roofing and Restoration , were used to mislead mortgage holder Royal Bank of Canada about the building 's condition .
Speakers at the inquiry have also testified that a significant volume of city traffic regularly cut across the roof deck as a bypass of the traffic lights at the corner of Hillside Drive and Ontario Avenue , resulting in more stress on the structure than it had been designed to handle . The NORR report speculated that a heavy vehicle might have contributed to a previously undetected partial failure of the support structure a few months prior to the final collapse .
= = Aftermath = =
The province has ordered a review of both HUSAR and Emergency Management Ontario .
The collapse focused attention on the Harper government 's cancellation of the Joint Emergency Preparedness Program , which provides funds to Canada 's five HUSAR teams . The province and the National Fire Protection Association denounced the cuts . The Canadian Centre for Emergency Preparedness suggested that such cuts would necessitate Canada asking for assistance from the United States in similar situations . Also cancelled by the Conservative federal government was the Canadian Emergency Management College , established in 1954 to train first responders . A spokesperson for Public Safety Minister Vic Toews deflected criticism of the cuts , noting that 90 per cent of emergencies are managed municipally or provincially .
As of the end of June , the economic impact of Algo Centre 's closure was unknown , but described by Mayor Rick Hamilton as " huge " . Estimates suggest 250 people worked at the mall or hotel . The nearest significant cities to Elliot Lake are Sudbury and Sault Ste . Marie , both over 100 kilometres away by road ; residents were said to be fielding requests from others for essentials like clothing , not readily available without the mall . Apart from the mall 's Foodland store , there is only one other grocery store , a No Frills , in the city ; that store and a nearby video store quickly made efforts to expand their merchandise selections to include some clothing items .
The Elliot Lake & District Chamber of Commerce has established a committee to help retailers from the building ; at one meeting , Premier McGuinty assured that they 'd remove rigid program requirements for assistance programs . The East Algoma Community Futures Development Corporation approved interest free " transitional loans " of up to $ 25 @,@ 000 for affected businesses . TD Bank 's local branch contributed $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Elliot Lake Food Bank . Foodland announced it will rebuild , and pay employees up to six months wages during the process .
Mall owner Nazarian received death threats , which pushed him into hiding , and a class action lawsuit had already been launched by June 28 , according to his lawyer .
John Pomerleau , owner of Alternative Funeral Service which is located in the Algo Centre Mall said in July that more than 30 cremation urns were still trapped in the mall and it was unknown if or when they could be recovered .
The Algo Centre Mall may contain asbestos which may have been released during the collapse and rescue demolition of the mall .
Foodland leased the city 's Collins Hall recreational facility for conversion into a temporary grocery store , which opened in October 2012 . Foodland 's permanent new store opened at Pearson Plaza on April 1 , 2016 ; the Collins Hall facility will now be converted back to recreational use , with several of the chain 's structural improvements to the building — including upgrades to the lighting system and improvements to the building 's accessibility for people with disabilities — remaining in place as a donation to the city .
The public library branch , as well as some government offices which had been located at the mall , were temporarily relocated to the former White Mountain Academy of the Arts .
= = = Government reaction = = =
The Ontario Provincial Police ( OPP ) is assisting the coroner 's office in investigating the two deaths . Once completed , the OPP could launch a criminal investigation , if warranted . The Ministry of Labour will have an engineer examine for further structural problems , and thus whether the mall needs to be torn down . Investigating the cause of the collapse is the city 's responsibility .
Global News reporter Jennifer Tryon attempted to file a Freedom of Information request for documents on June 29 , but was refused ; an employee came out from the back of the offices , and turned the City Clerk 's chair around , so that they couldn 't respond . City officials then called the OPP . After the request , the city issued a two line statement that documents are now part of investigations . OPP noted that the documents are still available through Freedom of Information requests , and that the situation likely didn 't warrant an emergency call to police . The reporter was provided a FOI application on police arrival , and told to ignore instructions from their superiors on calling police . Tryon , producer Kieron O 'Dea and cameraman Trevor Owens would later receive a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Breaking National News Reportage at the 1st Canadian Screen Awards .
A public inquiry was established on July 19 , 2012 by the Government of Ontario . The inquiry itself started March 4 , 2013 . As part of the inquiry , portions of a 700 @-@ page engineering report ( Norr report ) into the collapse were made public .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
On June 28 , four days after the collapse , the mall owner 's lawyer stated that a class action lawsuit had already been launched .
A class action lawsuit was launched by Elaine Quinte and Jack Quinte , who owned Hungry Jack 's in the mall . The lawsuit lists Algo Centre Mall , Eastwood Mall Inc . , Robert Nazarian , the City of Elliot Lake , the Province of Ontario , and the unnamed engineer " who approved the structure of the mall a short time prior to this incident . "
= = = Demolition = = =
Local area MPP Michael Mantha raised concerns that confidential records must be extracted , such as those from the public health department . He expressed concern that the information might end up in the local landfill . Documents were never extracted from Algo Mall .
Many health , social assistance and Service Canada files were found at the city landfill . Documents found among the rubble by a private source said to be photocopies of clients drivers licenses , social insurance numbers , health cards and birth certificates . The private source never removed any documents from the landfill site , although it is unknown if anyone else entered the landfill site after hours while the demolition was progressing .
= = New mall = =
A new shopping mall , given the tentative / construction name Pearson Plaza , is being built less than a kilometre south of Algo Centre Mall , on the site of the former Nordic Hotel ( later Huron Lodge ) at Hillside Drive South and Ontario Avenue . The first store in the new mall officially opened on April 1 , 2016 .
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= Cyclone Akash =
Cyclone Akash ( JTWC designation : 01B , also known as Cyclonic Storm Akash ) was the first named tropical cyclone of the 2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . Warned by both India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) and Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , it formed from an area of disturbed weather on the Bay of Bengal on May 12 , and gradually organized as it drifted northward . An eye began to develop as it approached land , and after reaching peak 3 @-@ min sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) it struck about 115 km ( 70 mi ) south of Chittagong in Bangladesh . Akash rapidly weakened over land , and advisories were discontinued on May 15 .
The storm initially brought heavy rainfall to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Upon striking Bangladesh , Cyclonic Storm Akash produced a moderate storm tide , along with strong winds and heavy rains . The storm left dozens of boats missing , with three fisherman confirmed killed and another 50 missing . Near the coast , thousands of houses were damaged from the flooding caused by the storm . In Burma , its storm tide caused some coastal flooding . In all , 14 people were killed and damages amounted to US $ 982 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
During the second week of May , low pressures persisted across the Bay of Bengal . An area of convection developed on May 11 , and the next day the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified it as a depression . The system drifted northward , and initially moderate wind shear kept the deep convection on the periphery of the consolidating low @-@ level circulation center . Gradually , banding features developed along the eastern semicircle , and with decreasing amounts of wind shear the system organized further . By May 13 , the pressure had dropped to 1000 mbar as wind shear levels dropped significantly . An anticyclone developed over the system , while a mid @-@ latitude trough over northeastern India provided favorable outflow . Convection continued to consolidate around the low @-@ level circulation , and with well @-@ defined banding features and a central dense overcast over the center of circulation , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) upgraded it to Tropical Cyclone 01B at 1121 UTC on May 13 while located about 545 km ( 340 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Yangon , Burma .
Upon first being upgraded , the storm tracked steadily northward due to a break in a mid @-@ level ridge . Early on May 14 , IMD upgraded the system to deep depression status , and six hours later classified it as Cyclonic Storm Akash after attaining 3 @-@ min sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Akash continued to organize , with deep convection wrapping fully around the low @-@ level circulation . An eye began to form as the storm approached land , and at 1800 UTC on May 14 JTWC estimated 1 @-@ min sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Officially , Akash attained peak 3 @-@ min sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and a minimum central pressure of 988 hPa . Additionally , meteorologists in Burma estimated Akash peaked with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . As it interacted with the mid @-@ latitude westerlies , it began to become extratropical . Shortly after reaching peak winds , Akash made landfall about 115 km ( 70 mi ) south of Chittagong . The storm weakened rapidly as it continued inland , and early on May 15 IMD issued its final advisory on the system ; shortly thereafter , JTWC discontinued advisories . The name was contributed by India , Akash means Sky in Hindi language .
= = Preparations = =
In its daily tropical weather outlook , the India Meteorological Department warned fishermen on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to not go into the ocean due to the anticipated rough seas . Upon approaching the coast of Bangladesh , officials canceled all flights to and from the Shah Amanat International Airport . Additionally , authorities at the port of Chittagong worked to protect cargo ships from the storm , and it was ultimately closed for a period of 19 hours . In preparation for Akash , officials advised coastal residents to evacuate further inland ; about 80 @,@ 000 total residents left for emergency shelters . About 40 @,@ 000 Red Cross volunteers were prepared to aid those potentially affected .
= = Impact = =
The India Meteorological Department estimated winds of 45 – 55 km / h ( 28 – 34 mph ) affected the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , though no land reports were received . In Sittwe in Burma , the storm produced a storm tide of 3 m ( 10 ft ) , which flooded coastal areas .
In Chittagong , about 115 km ( 70 mi ) north of where Akash moved ashore , surface stations reported peak winds of 37 km / h ( 23 mph ) and a pressure of 996.8vhPa. Near its landfall location , Akash produced high tides that flooded coastal areas with up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) of water , destroying at least 30 businesses . The cyclone destroyed 205 houses and left an additional 845 damaged . Akash caused moderate crop damage near the coast , including 2 ha ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) of destroyed lands of shrimp farms . Heavy precipitation was reported , with one station reporting a total of 53 mm ( 2 @.@ 12 in ) ; the rainfall caused flooding in inland areas . The heavy rains , caused by outer bands of the cyclone before it made landfall , limited play in Chittagong in the third One Day International cricket match between India and Bangladesh , before the match was abandoned . Strong winds caused power outages throughout Cox 's Bazar District , and downed about 200 trees on St. Martin 's Island . The cyclone left a total of 10 boats unaccounted for , with about 50 fishermen missing . In total , three fisherman were confirmed killed , all on St. Martin 's Island , with two people left hospitalized . The passage of Cyclone Akash left many people homeless . Initially there was no response from the government . In all , 14 people were killed by Akash and damages amounted to US $ 982 million .
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= Francis Nicholson =
Francis Nicholson ( 12 November 1655 – March 16 , 1728 [ O.S. March 5 , 1727 ] ) was a British military officer and colonial administrator . His military service included time in Africa and Europe , after which he was sent as leader of the troops supporting Sir Edmund Andros in the Dominion of New England . There he distinguished himself , and was appointed lieutenant governor of the dominion in 1688 . After news of the Glorious Revolution reached the colonies in 1689 , Andros was overthrown in the Boston Revolt . Nicholson himself was soon caught up in unrest in New York , and fled to England .
He next served as lieutenant governor or governor of Virginia and Maryland . He supported the founding of the College of William and Mary , and quarreled with Andros after Andros was selected over him as governor of Virginia . In 1709 he became involved in colonial military actions during Queen Anne 's War , leading an aborted expedition against Canada . He then led the expedition that successfully captured Port Royal , Acadia on 2 October 1710 . Afterward he served as governor of Nova Scotia and Placentia , and was the first royal governor of South Carolina following a rebellion against its proprietors . He rose to the rank of Lieutenant @-@ General , and died a bachelor in London in 1728 .
He supported public education in the colonies , and was a member of both the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts and the Royal Society . He also influenced American architecture , being responsible for the layout and design of Annapolis , Maryland and Williamsburg , Virginia . He was one of the earliest advocates of colonial union , principally for reasons of defense against common enemies .
= = Early life and military service = =
Nicholson was born in the village of Downholme , Yorkshire , England , on 12 November 1655 . Little is known of his ancestry or early life , although he apparently received some education . He served as a page in the household of Charles Paulet ( later the Marquess of Winchester and the Duke of Bolton ) , under whose patronage his career would be advanced . He waited on Paulet 's daughter Jane , who married John Egerton , Earl of Bridgewater , another patron who promoted his career .
His military career began in January 1678 when Paulet purchased for him an ensign 's commission in the Holland Regiment , in which he saw service against the French in Flanders . The regiment saw no combat , and was disbanded at the end of the year . In July 1680 he purchased a staff lieutenant 's commission in the newly formed 2nd Tangier Regiment , which was sent to English Tangier to reinforce the garrison holding the city . Tangier 's council was then headed by the Duke of York ( later King James II ) , and its governor was Colonel Percy Kirke . Nicholson distinguished himself in the service , carrying dispatches between the enemy Moroccan camp , Tangier , and London . In addition to favorable notice from Kirke , this brought Nicholson to the attention of the powerful colonial secretary , William Blathwayt . Tangier was abandoned in 1683 , and his regiment returned to England . During the service in Tangier he met a number of people who would figure prominently North American colonial history , including Thomas Dongan and Alexander Spotswood .
Nicholson was probably with the regiment when it put down Monmouth 's Rebellion in 1685 , but his role in some of the more unsavory behaviour on the part of Kirke 's troops is unknown . Kirke , who had been selected by Charles II as the governor of the prospective Dominion of New England , was strongly criticized for his role in the quashing of the rebellion , and James withdrew his nomination . The dominion 's governorship instead went to Sir Edmund Andros , and Nicholson , now a captain , accompanied Andros as commander of a company of infantry to Boston in October 1686 . Andros sent Nicholson on what was essentially a reconnaissance mission to French Acadia . Under the cover of delivering a letter protesting a variety of issues to the Acadian governor , Nicholson made careful observations of Port Royal 's defenses . Nicholson impressed Andros in this service , and was soon appointed to the dominion 's council .
= = Dominion lieutenant governor = =
In 1688 the Lords of Trade extended the dominion to include New York and East and West Jersey . Nicholson was commissioned the dominion 's lieutenant governor , and traveled with Andros to New York to take control of those colonies . Nicholson 's rule , in which he was assisted by a local council but no legislative assembly , was seen by many New Yorkers as the next in a line of royal governors who " had in a most arbitrary way subverted our ancient privileges " . Nicholson justified his rule by stating that the colonists were " a conquered people , and therefore ... could not could not so much [ as ] claim rights and priviledges as Englishmen " .
Nicholson was at first seen as an improvement over the Catholic Thomas Dongan , the outgoing governor . However , the province 's old guard was unhappy that Andros removed all of the provincial records to Boston , and then Nicholson alarmed the sometimes hardline Protestant population by preserving the trappings of the chapel in Fort James that Dongan and the handful of New York 's Catholics had used for worship . In response to a rumored Dutch invasion of England ( a rumor that turned out to be true ) , Nicholson in January 1689 ordered the provincial militias to be on alert to protect the province for the king . Unknown to Nicholson , events in England had already changed things .
= = = Rebellion in Boston = = =
After James was deposed by William and Mary in the Glorious Revolution in late 1688 , Massachusetts rose up in rebellion against Andros , arresting him and other dominion leaders in Boston . The revolt rapidly spread through the dominion , and the New England colonies quickly restored their pre @-@ dominion governments . When news of the Boston revolt reached New York a week later , Nicholson took no steps to announce news of it , or of the revolution in England , for fear of raising prospects of rebellion in New York . When word of the Boston revolt reached Long Island , politicians and militia leaders became more assertive , and by mid @-@ May dominion officials had been ousted from a number of communities . At the same time , Nicholson learned that France had declared war on England , bringing the threat of French and Indian attacks on New York 's northern frontier . In an attempt to mollify panicked citizenry over rumored Indian raids , Nicholson invited the militia to join the army garrison at Fort James .
Because New York 's defenses were in poor condition , Nicholson 's council voted to impose import duties to improve them . This move was met with immediate resistance , with a number of merchants refusing to pay the duty . One in particular was Jacob Leisler , a well @-@ born German Calvinist immigrant merchant and militia captain . Leisler was a vocal opponent of the dominion regime , which he saw as an attempt to impose " popery " on the province , and may have played a role in subverting Nicholson 's regulars . On 22 May Nicholson 's council was petitioned by the militia , who , in addition to seeking more rapid improvement to the city 's defenses , also wanted access to the powder magazine in the fort . This latter request was denied , heightening concerns that the city had inadequate powder supplies . This concern was further exacerbated when city leaders began hunting through the city for additional supplies .
= = = Rebellion in New York = = =
A minor incident on 30 May 1689 in which Nicholson made an intemperate remark to a militia officer then flared into open rebellion . Nicholson , who was well known for his temper , told the officer " I rather would see the Towne on fire than to be commanded by you " . Rumors flew around the town that Nicholson was in fact prepared to burn it down . The next day Nicholson summoned the officer , and demanded he surrender his commission . Abraham de Peyster , the officer 's commander and one of the wealthiest men in the city , then engaged in a heated argument with Nicholson , after which de Peyster and his brother Johannis , also a militia captain , stormed out of the council chamber .
The militia was called out , and descended en masse to Fort James , which they occupied . An officer was sent to the council to demand the keys to the powder magazine , which Nicholson eventually surrendered , to " hinder and prevent bloodshed and further mischiefe " . The following day , a council of militia officers called on Jacob Leisler to take command of the city militia . He did so , and the rebels issued a declaration that they would hold the fort on behalf of the new monarchs until they sent a properly accredited governor .
At this point the militia controlled the fort , which gave them control over the harbor . When ships arrived in the harbor , they brought passengers and captains directly to the fort , cutting off outside communications to Nicholson and his council . On 6 June , Nicholson decided to leave for England , and began gathering depositions for use in proceedings there . He left the city on 10 June for the Jersey shore , where he hoped to join Thomas Dongan , who was expected to sail for England soon thereafter . However , it was not until 24 June that he actually managed to sail ; he was denied passage on a number of ships , and eventually purchased a share of Dongan 's brigantine in order to get away . In the meantime , Leisler proclaimed the rule of William and Mary on 22 June , and on the 28th a provincial committee of safety , acting in the absence of legitimate authority , chose Leisler to be the province 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief .
Upon Nicholson 's arrival in London in August , he outlined the situation in New York to the king and the Lords of Trade , urging the appointment of a new governor of New York , preferably himself . Despite the efforts of Charles Paulet ( now Duke of Bolton ) and other patrons , William in November instead chose Colonel Henry Sloughter to be the next governor of New York . The king did , however , acknowledge Nicholson 's efforts with the lieutenant governorship of Virginia .
= = Virginia and Maryland = =
Nicholson was lieutenant governor of Virginia until 1692 , serving under the absentee Governor Lord Howard of Effingham . During this tenure , he was instrumental in the creation of the College of William and Mary and named as one of its original trustees . He worked to improve the provincial militia , and approved the establishment of additional ports of trade in the province . The latter was not without some opposition from some of the larger merchants in the province , who saw the additional ports as a competitive threat . During this time Nicholson was one of the only high @-@ level representatives of Crown Rule in the colonies : most Crown Rule had been eliminated in the northern colonies , and the other southern colonies were governed by proprietary governors . Nicholson recommended to the King that , in order to better establish a common social order and a coordinated defense , Crown Rule should be established over all of the colonies as quickly as possible , including the conversion of the proprietary colonies to crown colonies .
Lord Effingham resigned the Virginia governorship in February 1692 , beginning a contest between Nicholson and Andros for the Virginia governorship . Andros , who was in London and was a more senior figure , was awarded the post , much to Nicholson 's annoyance . The episode deepened a growing dislike between the two men . One contemporary chronicler wrote that Nicholson " especially [ resented ] Sir Edmund Andros , against whom he has a particular pique on account of some earlier dealings " , and Nicholson , placated with the lieutenant governorship of Maryland , worked from then on to unseat Andros . When Andros arrived in September 1692 , Nicholson graciously received him before sailing for London .
Nicholson was still in England in 1693 when Maryland Governor , Sir Lionel Copley died . Under provisions of his commission , and at the request of the Maryland governor 's council , Andros went to Maryland in September 1693 to organize affairs , and again in May 1694 to preside over the provincial court . For these services he was paid £ 500 . When Nicholson , now appointed governor of Maryland , arrived in July , he found the provincial treasury empty , and testily demanded that Andros return the payment . Andros refused , and Nicholson appealed to the Lords of Trade . They ruled in October 1696 that Andros had to return £ 300 .
Nicholson , a committed Anglican as a member of the Church of England , sought to reduce Roman Catholic influence in the Maryland government , and moved the old colonial capital from the Catholic stronghold of St. Mary 's City in southern Maryland 's St. Mary 's County along the Potomac River to what was then called " Anne Arundel 's Town " ( also known briefly as " Providence " ) , which was later renamed " Annapolis " in honour of the future monarch , Princess Anne . He chose its site and laid out the plan for the town , placing the Anglican ( later Episcopal church and the state house in well @-@ designed public spaces ( known later as " State Circle " and " Church Circle " ) and the use of diagonal avenues to connect various parts of the town ( foreseeing details of Pierre L 'Enfant 's , ( 1754 @-@ 1825 ) , plan for the National Capital or " Federal City " in Washington and the District of Columbia , a century later . Architectural historian Mark Childs describes Annapolis , along with Williamsburg , Virginia , which Nicholson also laid out during his later tenure there , as some of the best @-@ designed towns in the British Empire .
Nicholson was a supporter of public education , promoting laws to support it , and funded the construction of " King William 's School " ( predecessor / ancestor to today 's St. John 's College , a noted academic humanities , liberal arts school , emphasing a " classical education " and " The Great Books " ) . He became embroiled in a dispute with William Penn from the Middle Atlantic colony to the north , over how to deal with the issue of piracy . In Maryland , Nicholson vigorously cracked down on the practices of some colonists to tolerate pirates , who brought goods and hard currency into the provinces . Aware that Penn 's governor was similarly tolerant ( he was said to be taking bribes to allow pirates to trade in Pennsylvania ) , Nicholson ordered that ships destined for Pennsylvania be stopped and searched in Maryland waters , and collected duties if they were carrying European finished goods . Penn protested to the Board of Trade , and the dispute subsided when Nicholson moderated his tactics . During Nicholson 's rule in Maryland , he specifically denied that the colonists had the Rights of Englishmen , writing that " if I had not hampered them [ colonial interests ] in Maryland , and kept them under , I should never have been able to govern them . "
Nicholson 's feud with Andros persisted , and Nicholson acquired a powerful ally in James Blair , the founder of the College of William and Mary . The two were able to gain the support of the Anglican establishment in England against Andros , and filed a long list of complaints with the Lords of Trade . These efforts were successful in convincing Andros to request permission to resign , and in December 1698 , Nicholson was given the governorship of Virginia . Andros angrily refused to give Nicholson his records . During his term , which lasted until 1705 , Nicholson was largely at the mercy of his council , which was dominated by a small group of powerful Virginia families . The Andros rule had been so unpopular in Virginia that Nicholson 's instructions gave him little leeway in acting without their consent . At one point Nicholson characterized the Virginia council as " mere brutes who understand not manners " . Nicholson made a number of unsuccessful attempts to alter the balance of power , including moving the provincial capital from Jamestown to Middle Plantation , which was renamed Williamsburg . Although he was opposed by the upper house , the colonial legislature was generally supportive of him , and he continued to be favored by the London government .
Nicholson was exposed to French activities on the Mississippi River while governor of Maryland . He warned the Board of Trade in 1695 that the French were working to complete the designs of explorer Robert La Salle to gain control of the river and dominate the Indian relations in the interior , which " may be of fatal consequence " to the English colonies . He reiterated the warning in a 1698 report , and suggested that the Board of Trade issue instructions to all of the governors encouraging the development of trade with Indians across the Appalachian Mountains . " I am afraid " , he wrote , " that now please God , there is a peace , the French will be able to doe more dammage to these Countrys , than they were able to doe in the [ King William 's ] War . " These observations were among the earliest anyone made concerning the threat French expansion posed to the English , and some of his suggestions were ultimately adopted as policy . He actively promoted the idea of expansionist trade on the frontier with other colonial governors , including Bellomont of New York , and Blake of South Carolina .
Following a political crisis in England and the accession of Queen Anne to the throne in 1702 , a Tory ministry emerged that sidelined most of Nicholson 's Whig patrons . Despite his best efforts to retain his post , he was recalled and replaced in 1705 by Edward Nott . He returned to London , where he was active in the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts , and was awarded membership in the Royal Society for his scientific observations of North America . He also acted as a consultant to the Board of Trade , and thus maintained an awareness of colonial issues .
= = Queen Anne 's War = =
During King William 's War in the 1690s Nicholson asked the House of Burgesses to appropriate money for New York 's defense , since it was threatened from New France and acted as a buffer to protect Virginia . The Burgesses refused , even after Nicholson appealed to London . When Queen Anne 's War broke out in 1702 , Nicholson lent New York £ 900 of his own money , with the expectation that it would be repaid from Virginia 's quit rents ( it was not ) . The publicity of this scheme increased dislike of him in Virginia , and may have played a role in his recall . Virginia was not militarily affected by the war . These efforts by Nicholson to gain broader colonial support for the war were followed by larger proposals to London , suggesting , for example , that all of the colonies be joined under a single viceroy , who would have power of taxation and control of a standing army . According to historian John Fiske , Nicholson was one of the first people to propose uniting all of the North American colonies in this way .
In the course of the ten @-@ year conflict in North America now known as Queen Anne 's War , Samuel Vetch , a Scottish businessman with interests in New York and New England , came to London during the winter of 1708 – 9 and proposed to the Queen and the Board of Trade a major assault on New France . He recruited Nicholson to join the effort , which was to include a sea @-@ based attack on Quebec with Royal Navy support , and a land @-@ based expedition to ascend the Hudson River , descend Lake Champlain , and attack Montreal . Nicholson was given command of the land @-@ based effort while Vetch was to command the provincial militia of New England that were to accompany the fleet . Arriving in Boston in April 1709 Nicholson and Vetch immediately began raising the forces and supplies needed for these operations . Nicholson was able to draw on his earlier connections to New York 's aristocracy to recruit the needed forces from there , with additional units coming from New Jersey and Connecticut . He raised a force of about 1 @,@ 500 regulars and provincial militia and 600 Iroquois , and in June began the construction of three major encampments between Stillwater , just north of Albany , and the southern end of Lake Champlain , while awaiting word of the fleet 's arrival in Boston . The expedition turned out to be a disaster . Many men became sick and died from the poor conditions in the camps as the summer dragged on without any news of the fleet . Supplies ran short the men became mutinous and began deserting . Finally , in October Nicholson learned that , due to circumstances in Europe , the fleet 's participation had been canceled in July . By this time the men were deserting by whole units and destroyed all of the fortifications and stores .
In the aftermath of the debacle Nicholson returned to London , taking four Indian chiefs with him , and petitioned Queen Anne for permission to lead a more limited expedition against Port Royal , the capital of French Acadia . The Queen granted the petition , and Nicholson was in charge of the forces that captured Port Royal on 2 October 1710 . This battle marked the conquest of Acadia , and began permanent British control over the territory they called Nova Scotia . Nicholson published an account of the expedition in his 1711 Journal of an Expedition for the Reduction of Port Royal . The victorious Nicholson returned to England to petition Queen Anne for another expedition to capture the center of New France , Quebec . The resulting naval expedition was led by Admiral Hovenden Walker , and Nicholson led an associated land expedition that retraced the route he had taken in 1709 toward Lake Champlain . Many ships of Walker 's fleet foundered on rocks near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River , and the whole expedition was cancelled , much to Nicholson 's anger ; he was reported to tear off his wig and throw it to the ground when he heard the news .
= = Nova Scotia and South Carolina = =
Nicholson returned to London after the failed expedition , and began working to acquire for himself the governorship of Nova Scotia . After the 1710 victory , Samuel Vetch had become its governor , but his rule over the colony ( where he only really controlled Port Royal itself ) was somewhat ineffective . Vetch and the Tory ministry then in power disagreed on how to handle affairs , especially with respect to the resident French Catholic population , and Nicholson capitalized on these complaints . In a dispute marked by bitterness and sometimes extreme accusations ( Vetch , for example , accused Nicholson of Jacobite sympathies ) , Nicholson was awarded the post in October 1712 . His commission also included the governorship of Placentia , and authority as auditor of all colonial accounts . He only spent a few weeks in Port Royal in 1714 , leaving most of the governance to lieutenant governor Thomas Caulfeild . These few weeks were marked by discord with the Acadians , who sought to capitalize on the change of governor to gain concessions Nicholson was not prepared to give . Nicholson also issued order restricting the interaction between the troops and the town , resulting in the further reduction of already @-@ poor morale in the Port Royal garrison . He also cracked down on open trade between British colonial merchants and the French , requiring the licensing of any British merchant wanting to trade at French ports .
Nicholson spent most of his time as Nova Scotia governor in Boston , where he devoted a significant amount of time investigating Vetch 's finances . Vetch interpreted Nicholson 's hostile and intrusive examination of his affairs as a largely partisan attempt to smear him . He called Nicholson a " malicious madman " who would do anything that " fury , malice , and madness could inspire . " Nicholson attempted to prevent Vetch from sailing for England where he might better defend himself , forcing Vetch to flee beyond Nicholson 's reach to New London , Connecticut , in order to get a ship for England . With the accession of George I to the throne and the change to a Whig ministry , Vetch succeeded in clearing his name and recovered his post from Nicholson , who was accused by Vetch and others of neglecting the province .
Nicholson next served as the first royal governor of South Carolina from 1721 to 1725 . The colonists had rebelled against the rule of the proprietors , and Nicholson was appointed in response to their request for crown governance . The rebellion had been prompted by inadequate response by the proprietors to Indian threats , so Nicholson brought with him some British troops . He established a council composed primarily of supporters of the rebellion , and gave it significant latitude to control colonial affairs . As he had in some of his other posts , he used enforcement of the Navigation Acts as a means to crack down on political opposition . He established local governments modeled on those he set up in Maryland and Virginia , including the 1722 incorporation of Charleston . He expended both public money and his own to further both education and the Church of England , and introduced ground @-@ breaking judicial administration into the colony . He negotiated agreements and territorial boundaries with the Cherokee , and promoted trade , pursuing policies similar to those he had advocated while in Maryland and Virginia . He introduced a commissioner of Indian affairs into the colonial government , a post that survived until the crown assumed the duties of managing Indian affairs in the 1750s .
Like other colonies , South Carolina suffered from chronic shortages of currency , and issued bills of credit to compensate . During Nicholson 's administration this was done several times , but the inflationary consequences did not reach crisis proportions until after he left the colony . It did , however , anger merchant interests enough to raise complaints against him with the Board of Trade . Combined with long @-@ running but false accusations by William Rhett and other supporters of the proprietors that Nicholson was improperly engaged in smuggling , he felt the need to return to England to defend himself against these charges . He returned to London in 1725 , carrying with him Cherokee baskets that became part of the earliest collections in the British Museum .
= = Later life = =
In England , Nicholson was promoted to lieutenant @-@ general . He never married , and died in London on 5 / 16 March 1728 / 9 . He was buried in the parish of St George Hanover Square . A claim cited in some 19th @-@ century biographies that he was knighted turned out to be false when his will was discovered early in the 20th century .
= = Personality = =
Nicholson was notorious for his temper . He was , according to historian George Waller , " subject to fits of passion " . In one story , an Indian said of Nicholson , " The general is drunk . " When informed that Nicholson did not partake of strong drink , the Indian replied , " I do not mean that he is drunk with rum , he was born drunk . " Waller also points out that his " hasty and overmastering temper led him into great excesses " .
= = Legacy = =
Nicholson Hall of the College of William and Mary is named in honor of Francis Nicholson .
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= Hepatitis C =
Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) that primarily affects the liver . During the initial infection people often have mild or no symptoms . Occasionally a fever , dark urine , abdominal pain , and yellow tinged skin occurs . The virus persists in the liver in about 75 % to 85 % of those initially infected . Early on chronic infection typically has no symptoms . Over many years however , it often leads to liver disease and occasionally cirrhosis . In some cases , those with cirrhosis will develop complications such as liver failure , liver cancer , or esophageal and gastric varices .
HCV is spread primarily by blood @-@ to @-@ blood contact associated with intravenous drug use , poorly sterilized medical equipment , needlestick injuries in healthcare , and transfusions . With blood screening the risk from a transfusion is less than one per two million . It may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth . It is not spread by superficial contact . It is one of five known hepatitis viruses : A , B , C , D , and E. Diagnosis is by blood testing to look for either antibodies to the virus or its RNA . Testing is recommended in all people who are at risk .
There is no vaccine against hepatitis C. Prevention includes harm reduction efforts among people who use intravenous drugs and testing donated blood . Chronic infection can be cured about 90 % of the time with treatments that include the medications sofosbuvir or simeprevir . Previous to this a combination of peginterferon and ribavirin was used which had a cure rate around 50 % and greater side effects . Getting access to the newer treatments however can be expensive . Those who develop cirrhosis or liver cancer may require a liver transplant . Hepatitis C is the leading reason for liver transplantation , though the virus usually recurs after transplantation .
An estimated 130 – 200 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis C. In 2013 about 11 million new cases occurred . It occurs most commonly in Africa and Central and East Asia . About 343 @,@ 000 deaths due to liver cancer and 358 @,@ 000 deaths due to cirrhosis occurred in 2013 due to hepatitis C. The existence of hepatitis C – originally identifiable only as a type of non @-@ A non @-@ B hepatitis – was suggested in the 1970s and proven in 1989 . Hepatitis C infects only humans and chimpanzees .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Acute infection = = =
Hepatitis C infection causes acute symptoms in 15 % of cases . Symptoms are generally mild and vague , including a decreased appetite , fatigue , nausea , muscle or joint pains , and weight loss and rarely does acute liver failure result . Most cases of acute infection are not associated with jaundice . The infection resolves spontaneously in 10 – 50 % of cases , which occurs more frequently in individuals who are young and female .
= = = Chronic infection = = =
About 80 % of those exposed to the virus develop a chronic infection . This is defined as the presence of detectable viral replication for at least six months . Most experience minimal or no symptoms during the initial few decades of the infection . Chronic hepatitis C can be associated with fatigue and mild cognitive problems . Chronic infection after several years may cause cirrhosis or liver cancer . The liver enzymes are normal in 7 – 53 % . Late relapses after apparent cure have been reported , but these can be difficult to distinguish from reinfection .
Fatty changes to the liver occur in about half of those infected and are usually present before cirrhosis develops . Usually ( 80 % of the time ) this change affects less than a third of the liver . Worldwide hepatitis C is the cause of 27 % of cirrhosis cases and 25 % of hepatocellular carcinoma . About 10 – 30 % of those infected develop cirrhosis over 30 years . Cirrhosis is more common in those also infected with hepatitis B , schistosoma , or HIV , in alcoholics and in those of male gender . In those with hepatitis C , excess alcohol increases the risk of developing cirrhosis 100 @-@ fold . Those who develop cirrhosis have a 20 @-@ fold greater risk of hepatocellular carcinoma . This transformation occurs at a rate of 1 – 3 % per year . Being infected with hepatitis B in addition to hepatitis C increases this risk further .
Liver cirrhosis may lead to portal hypertension , ascites ( accumulation of fluid in the abdomen ) , easy bruising or bleeding , varices ( enlarged veins , especially in the stomach and esophagus ) , jaundice , and a syndrome of cognitive impairment known as hepatic encephalopathy . Ascites occurs at some stage in more than half of those who have a chronic infection .
= = = Extrahepatic complications = = =
The most common problem due to hepatitis C but not involving the liver is mixed cryoglobulinemia ( usually the type II form ) — an inflammation of small and medium @-@ sized blood vessels . Hepatitis C is also associated with the autoimmune disorder Sjögren 's syndrome , a low platelet count , lichen planus , porphyria cutanea tarda , necrolytic acral erythema , insulin resistance , diabetes mellitus , diabetic nephropathy , autoimmune thyroiditis , and B @-@ cell lymphoproliferative disorders . 20 – 30 % of people infected have rheumatoid factor — a type of antibody . Possible associations include Hyde 's prurigo nodularis and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis . Cardiomyopathy with associated abnormal heart rhythms has also been reported . A variety of central nervous system disorders has been reported . Chronic infection seems to be associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer .
= = = Occult infection = = =
Persons who have been infected with hepatitis C may appear to clear the virus but remain infected . The virus is not detectable with conventional testing but can be found with ultra @-@ sensitive tests . The original method of detection was by demonstrating the viral genome within liver biopsies , but newer methods include an antibody test for the virus ' core protein and the detection of the viral genome after first concentrating the viral particles by ultracentrifugation . A form of infection with persistently moderately elevated serum liver enzymes but without antibodies to hepatitis C has also been reported . This form is known as cryptogenic occult infection .
Several clinical pictures have been associated with this type of infection . It may be found in people with anti @-@ hepatitis @-@ C antibodies but with normal serum levels of liver enzymes ; in antibody @-@ negative people with ongoing elevated liver enzymes of unknown cause ; in healthy populations without evidence of liver disease ; and in groups at risk for HCV infection including those on hemodialysis or family members of people with occult HCV . The clinical relevance of this form of infection is under investigation . The consequences of occult infection appear to be less severe than with chronic infection but can vary from minimal to hepatocellular carcinoma .
The rate of occult infection in those apparently cured is controversial but appears to be low . 40 % of those with hepatitis but with both negative hepatitis C serology and the absence of detectable viral genome in the serum have hepatitis C virus in the liver on biopsy . How commonly this occurs in children is unknown .
= = Virology = =
The hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) is a small , enveloped , single @-@ stranded , positive @-@ sense RNA virus . It is a member of the Hepacivirus genus in the family Flaviviridae . There are seven major genotypes of HCV , which are known as genotypes one to seven . The genotypes are divided into several subtypes with the number of subtypes depending on the genotype . In the United States , about 70 % of cases are caused by genotype 1 , 20 % by genotype 2 and about 1 % by each of the other genotypes . Genotype 1 is also the most common in South America and Europe .
The half life of the virus particles in the serum is around 3 hours and may be as short as 45 minutes . In an infected person , about 1012 virus particles are produced each day . In addition to replicating in the liver the virus can multiply in lymphocytes .
= = Transmission = =
The primary route of transmission in the developed world is intravenous drug use ( IDU ) , while in the developing world the main methods are blood transfusions and unsafe medical procedures . The cause of transmission remains unknown in 20 % of cases ; however , many of these are believed to be accounted for by IDU .
= = = Drug use = = =
Intravenous drug use ( IDU ) is a major risk factor for hepatitis C in many parts of the world . Of 77 countries reviewed , 25 ( including the United States ) were found to have prevalences of hepatitis C in the intravenous drug user population of between 60 % and 80 % . Twelve countries had rates greater than 80 % . It is believed that ten million intravenous drug users are infected with hepatitis C ; China ( 1 @.@ 6 million ) , the United States ( 1 @.@ 5 million ) , and Russia ( 1 @.@ 3 million ) have the highest absolute totals . Occurrence of hepatitis C among prison inmates in the United States is 10 to 20 times that of the occurrence observed in the general population ; this has been attributed to high @-@ risk behavior in prisons such as IDU and tattooing with nonsterile equipment . Shared intranasal drug use may also be a risk factor .
= = = Healthcare exposure = = =
Blood transfusion , transfusion of blood products , or organ transplants without HCV screening carry significant risks of infection . The United States instituted universal screening in 1992 and Canada instituted universal screening in 1990 . This decreased the risk from one in 200 units to between one in 10 @,@ 000 to one in 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 per unit of blood . This low risk remains as there is a period of about 11 – 70 days between the potential blood donor 's acquiring hepatitis C and the blood 's testing positive depending on the method . Some countries do not screen for hepatitis C due to the cost .
Those who have experienced a needle stick injury from someone who was HCV positive have about a 1 @.@ 8 % chance of subsequently contracting the disease themselves . The risk is greater if the needle in question is hollow and the puncture wound is deep . There is a risk from mucosal exposures to blood , but this risk is low , and there is no risk if blood exposure occurs on intact skin .
Hospital equipment has also been documented as a method of transmission of hepatitis C , including reuse of needles and syringes ; multiple @-@ use medication vials ; infusion bags ; and improperly sterilized surgical equipment , among others . Limitations in the implementation and enforcement of stringent standard precautions in public and private medical and dental facilities are known to be the primary cause of the spread of HCV in Egypt , the country with highest rate of infection in the world .
= = = Sexual intercourse = = =
Whether hepatitis C can be transmitted through sexual activity is controversial . While there is an association between high @-@ risk sexual activity and hepatitis C , and multiple sexual partners are a risk factor for hepatitis C , there is no conclusive evidence that hepatitis C can be transmitted by sexual activity , since people who report transmission with sex as their only risk factor may actually have used drugs but denied it . The majority of evidence supports there being no risk for heterosexual couples with only one sexual partner . Sexual practices that involve higher levels of trauma to the anogenital mucosa , such as anal penetrative sex , or that occur when there is a concurrent sexually transmitted infection , including HIV or genital ulceration , do present a risk . The United States Department of Veterans Affairs recommends condom use to prevent hepatitis C transmission in those with multiple partners , but not those in relationships that involve only a single partner .
= = = Body modification = = =
Tattooing is associated with two to threefold increased risk of hepatitis C. This can be due to either improperly sterilized equipment or contamination of the dyes being used . Tattoos or piercings performed either before the mid @-@ 1980s , " underground , " or nonprofessionally are of particular concern , since sterile techniques in such settings may be lacking . The risk also appears to be greater for larger tattoos . It is estimated that nearly half of prison inmates share unsterilized tattooing equipment . It is rare for tattoos in a licensed facility to be directly associated with HCV infection .
= = = Shared personal items = = =
Personal @-@ care items such as razors , toothbrushes , and manicuring or pedicuring equipment can be contaminated with blood . Sharing such items can potentially lead to exposure to HCV . Appropriate caution should be taken regarding any medical condition that results in bleeding , such as cuts and sores . HCV is not spread through casual contact , such as hugging , kissing , or sharing eating or cooking utensils . Neither is it transmitted through food or water .
= = = Mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission = = =
Mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission of hepatitis C occurs in less than 10 % of pregnancies . There are no measures that alter this risk . It is not clear when transmission occurs during pregnancy , but it may occur both during gestation and at delivery . A long labor is associated with a greater risk of transmission . There is no evidence that breast @-@ feeding spreads HCV ; however , to be cautious , an infected mother is advised to avoid breastfeeding if her nipples are cracked and bleeding , or if her viral loads are high .
= = Diagnosis = =
There are a number of diagnostic tests for hepatitis C , including HCV antibody enzyme immunoassay or ELISA , recombinant immunoblot assay , and quantitative HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) . HCV RNA can be detected by PCR typically one to two weeks after infection , while antibodies can take substantially longer to form and thus be detected .
Chronic hepatitis C is defined as infection with the hepatitis C virus persisting for more than six months based on the presence of its RNA . Chronic infections are typically asymptomatic during the first few decades , and thus are most commonly discovered following the investigation of elevated liver enzyme levels or during a routine screening of high @-@ risk individuals . Testing is not able to distinguish between acute and chronic infections . Diagnosis in the infant is difficult as maternal antibodies may persist for up to 18 months .
= = = Serology = = =
Hepatitis C testing typically begins with blood testing to detect the presence of antibodies to the HCV , using an enzyme immunoassay . If this test is positive , a confirmatory test is then performed to verify the immunoassay and to determine the viral load . A recombinant immunoblot assay is used to verify the immunoassay and the viral load is determined by an HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction . If there is no RNA and the immunoblot is positive , it means that the person tested had a previous infection but cleared it either with treatment or spontaneously ; if the immunoblot is negative , it means that the immunoassay was wrong . It takes about 6 – 8 weeks following infection before the immunoassay will test positive . A number of tests are available as point of care testing which means that results are available within 30 minutes .
Liver enzymes are variable during the initial part of the infection and on average begin to rise at seven weeks after infection . The elevation of liver enzymes does not closely follow disease severity .
= = = Biopsy = = =
Liver biopsies are used to determine the degree of liver damage present ; however , there are risks from the procedure . The typical changes seen are lymphocytes within the parenchyma , lymphoid follicles in portal triad , and changes to the bile ducts . There are a number of blood tests available that try to determine the degree of hepatic fibrosis and alleviate the need for biopsy .
= = = Screening = = =
It is believed that only 5 – 50 % of those infected in the United States and Canada are aware of their status . Testing is recommended for those at high risk , which includes injection drug users , those who have received blood transfusions before 1992 , those who have been in jail , those on long term hemodialysis , and those with tattoos . Screening is also recommended in those with elevated liver enzymes , as this is frequently the only sign of chronic hepatitis . Routine screening is not currently recommended in the United States . In 2012 , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) added a recommendation for a single screening test for those born between 1945 and 1965 .
= = Prevention = =
As of 2016 , no approved vaccine protects against contracting hepatitis C. However , there are a number of vaccines under development and some have shown encouraging results .
A combination of harm reduction strategies , such as the provision of new needles and syringes and treatment of substance use , decreases the risk of hepatitis C in intravenous drug users by about 75 % . The screening of blood donors is important at a national level , as is adhering to universal precautions within healthcare facilities . In countries where there is an insufficient supply of sterile syringes , medications should be given orally rather than via injection ( when possible ) .
= = Treatment = =
HCV induces chronic infection in 50 – 80 % of infected persons . Approximately 40 – 80 % of these clear with treatment . In rare cases , infection can clear without treatment . Those with chronic hepatitis C are advised to avoid alcohol and medications toxic to the liver , and to be vaccinated for hepatitis A and hepatitis B. Ultrasound surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma is recommended in those with accompanying cirrhosis .
= = = Medications = = =
Treatment with antiviral medication is recommended in all people with proven chronic hepatitis C who are not at high risk of dying from other causes . People with the highest complication risk should be treated first , with the risk of complications based on the degree of liver scarring . The initial recommended treatment depends on the type of hepatitis C virus with which a person is infected .
HCV genotype 1a : 12 weeks of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir OR 12 to 24 weeks of paritaprevir , ombitasvir , dasabuvir , and ribavirin
HCV genotype 1b : 12 weeks of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir OR 12 weeks of paritaprevir , ombitasvir , and dasabuvir
HCV genotype 2 : 12 to 16 weeks of sofosbuvir and ribavirin
HCV genotype 3 : 12 weeks of sofosbuvir , ribavirin , and pegylated interferon
HCV genotype 4 : 12 weeks of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir OR paritaprevir , ritonavir , ombitasvir , and ribavirin , OR 24 weeks of sofosbuvir and ribavirin
HCV genotype 5 or 6 : sofosbuvir and ledipasvir
Sofosbuvir with ribavirin and interferon appears to be around 90 % effective in those with genotype 1 , 4 , 5 , or 6 disease . Sofosbuvir with just ribavirin appears to be 70 to 95 % effective in type 2 and 3 disease but has a higher rate of adverse effects . Treatments that contain ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for genotype 1 has success rates of around 93 to 99 % but is very expensive . In genotype 6 infection , pegylated interferon and ribavirin is effective in 60 to 90 % of cases . There is some tentative data for simeprevir use in type 6 disease as well .
Prior to 2011 , treatments consisted of a combination of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin for a period of 24 or 48 weeks , depending on HCV genotype . This produces cure rates of between 70 and 80 % for genotype 2 and 3 , respectively , and 45 to 70 % for genotypes 1 and 4 . Adverse effects with these treatments were common , with half of people getting flu like symptoms and a third experiencing emotional problems . Treatment during the first six months is more effective than once hepatitis C has become chronic .
= = = Surgery = = =
Cirrhosis due to hepatitis C is a common reason for liver transplantation though the virus usually ( 80 – 90 % of cases ) recurs afterwards . Infection of the graft leads to 10 – 30 % of people developing cirrhosis within five years . Treatment with pegylated interferon and ribavirin post transplant decreases the risk of recurrence to 70 % .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Several alternative therapies are claimed by their proponents to be helpful for hepatitis C including milk thistle , ginseng , and colloidal silver . However , no alternative therapy has been shown to improve outcomes in hepatitis C , and no evidence exists that alternative therapies have any effect on the virus at all .
= = Prognosis = =
The responses to treatment is measured by sustained viral response ( SVR ) , defined as the absence of detectable RNA of the hepatitis C virus in blood serum for at least 24 weeks after discontinuing the treatment , and rapid virological response ( RVR ) defined as undetectable levels achieved within four weeks of treatment . Successful treatment decreases the future risk of hepatocellular carcinoma by 75 % .
Prior to 2012 sustained response occurs in about 40 – 50 % in people with HCV genotype 1 given 48 weeks of treatment . A sustained response is seen in 70 – 80 % of people with HCV genotypes 2 and 3 with 24 weeks of treatment . A sustained response occurs about 65 % in those with genotype 4 after 48 weeks of treatment . The evidence for treatment in genotype 6 disease is sparse and what evidence there is supports 48 weeks of treatment at the same doses used for genotype 1 disease .
= = Epidemiology = =
It is estimated that 150 – 200 million people , or ~ 3 % of the world 's population , are living with chronic hepatitis C. About 3 – 4 million people are infected per year , and more than 350 @,@ 000 people die yearly from hepatitis C @-@ related diseases . During 2010 it is estimated that 16 @,@ 000 people died from acute infections while 196 @,@ 000 deaths occurred from liver cancer secondary to the infection . Rates have increased substantially in the 20th century due to a combination of intravenous drug abuse and reused but poorly sterilized medical equipment .
Rates are high ( > 3 @.@ 5 % population infected ) in Central and East Asia , North Africa and the Middle East , they are intermediate ( 1 @.@ 5 % -3.5 % ) in South and Southeast Asia , sub @-@ Saharan Africa , Andean , Central and Southern Latin America , Caribbean , Oceania , Australasia and Central , Eastern and Western Europe ; and they are low ( < 1 @.@ 5 % ) in Asia @-@ Pacific , Tropical Latin America and North America .
Among those chronically infected , the risk of cirrhosis after 20 years varies between studies but has been estimated at ~ 10 – 15 % for men and ~ 1 – 5 % for women . The reason for this difference is not known . Once cirrhosis is established , the rate of developing hepatocellular carcinoma is ~ 1 – 4 % per year . Rates of new infections have decreased in the Western world since the 1990s due to improved screening of blood before transfusion .
In the United States , about 2 % of people have hepatitis C , with the number of new cases per year stabilized at 17 @,@ 000 since 2007 . The number of deaths from hepatitis C has increased to 15 @,@ 800 in 2008 and by 2007 had overtaken HIV / AIDS as a cause of death in the USA . This mortality rate is expected to increase , as those infected by transfusion before HCV testing become apparent . In Europe the percentage of people with chronic infections has been estimated to be between 0 @.@ 13 and 3 @.@ 26 % .
In England about 160 @,@ 000 people are chronically infected . Between 2006 and 2011 28 @,@ 000 about 3 % , received treatment .
The total number of people with this infection is higher in some countries in Africa and Asia . Countries with particularly high rates of infection include Egypt ( 22 % ) , Pakistan ( 4 @.@ 8 % ) and China ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) . It is believed that the high prevalence in Egypt is linked to a now @-@ discontinued mass @-@ treatment campaign for schistosomiasis , using improperly sterilized glass syringes .
= = History = =
In the mid @-@ 1970s , Harvey J. Alter , Chief of the Infectious Disease Section in the Department of Transfusion Medicine at the National Institutes of Health , and his research team demonstrated how most post @-@ transfusion hepatitis cases were not due to hepatitis A or B viruses . Despite this discovery , international research efforts to identify the virus , initially called non @-@ A , non @-@ B hepatitis ( NANBH ) , failed for the next decade . In 1987 , Michael Houghton , Qui @-@ Lim Choo , and George Kuo at Chiron Corporation , collaborating with Dr. D.W. Bradley at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , used a novel molecular cloning approach to identify the unknown organism and develop a diagnostic test . In 1988 , Alter confirmed the virus by verifying its presence in a panel of NANBH specimens . In April 1989 , the discovery of HCV was published in two articles in the journal Science . The discovery led to significant improvements in diagnosis and improved antiviral treatment . In 2000 , Drs. Alter and Houghton were honored with the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research for " pioneering work leading to the discovery of the virus that causes hepatitis C and the development of screening methods that reduced the risk of blood transfusion @-@ associated hepatitis in the U.S. from 30 % in 1970 to virtually zero in 2000 . "
Chiron filed for several patents on the virus and its diagnosis . A competing patent application by the CDC was dropped in 1990 after Chiron paid $ 1 @.@ 9 million to the CDC and $ 337 @,@ 500 to Bradley . In 1994 , Bradley sued Chiron , seeking to invalidate the patent , have himself included as a coinventor , and receive damages and royalty income . He dropped the suit in 1998 after losing before an appeals court .
= = Society and culture = =
World Hepatitis Day , held on July 28 , is coordinated by the World Hepatitis Alliance . The economic costs of hepatitis C are significant both to the individual and to society . In the United States the average lifetime cost of the disease was estimated at 33 @,@ 407 USD in 2003 with the cost of a liver transplant as of 2011 costing approximately 200 @,@ 000 USD . In Canada the cost of a course of antiviral treatment is as high as 30 @,@ 000 CAD in 2003 , while the United States costs are between 9 @,@ 200 and 17 @,@ 600 in 1998 USD . In many areas of the world , people are unable to afford treatment with antivirals as they either lack insurance coverage or the insurance they have will not pay for antivirals . In the English National Health Service treatment rates for hepatitis C are higher among wealthier groups per 2010 @-@ 2012 data . Spanish anaesthetist Juan Maeso infected 275 patients between 1988 and 1997 as he used the same needles to give both himself and the patients opioids . For this he was jailed .
= = Research = =
As of 2011 , there are about one hundred medications in development for hepatitis C. These include vaccines to treat hepatitis , immunomodulators , and cyclophilin inhibitors , among others . These potential new treatments have come about due to a better understanding of the hepatitis C virus .
The combination of sofosbuvir and velpatasvir in one trial ( reported in 2015 ) resulted in cure rates of 99 % .
= = = Animal models = = =
One barrier to finding treatments for hepatitis C is the lack of a suitable animal model . Despite moderate success , current research highlights the need for pre @-@ clinical testing in mammalian systems such as mouse , particularly for the development of vaccines in poorer communities . Currently , chimpanzees remain the available living system to study , yet their use has ethical concerns and regulatory restrictions . While scientists have made use of human cell culture systems such as hepatocytes , questions have been raised about their accuracy in reflecting the body 's response to infection .
One aspect of hepatitis research is to reproduce infections in mammalian models . A strategy is to introduce liver tissues from humans into mice , a technique known as xenotransplantation . This is done by generating chimeric mice , and exposing the mice HCV infection . This engineering process is known to create humanized mice , and provide opportunities to study hepatitis C within the 3D architectural design of the liver and evaluating antiviral compounds . Alternatively , generating inbred mice with susceptibility to HCV would simplify the process of studying mouse models .
= = Special populations = =
= = = Children and pregnancy = = =
Compared with adults , infection in children is much less well understood . Worldwide the prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1 – 8 % and 0 @.@ 05 – 5 % respectively . The vertical transmission rate has been estimated to be 3 – 5 % and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance ( 25 – 50 % ) in the children . Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission ( 18 % , 6 – 36 % and 41 % ) . and prevalence in children ( 15 % ) .
In developed countries transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection . In the absence of virus in the mother 's blood transmission seems to be rare . Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include membrane rupture of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood . Cesarean sections are not recommended . Breastfeeding is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged . Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy . All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission .
HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non @-@ A , non @-@ B hepatitis and cryptogenic liver disease . The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated liver function tests . While infection is commonly asymptomatic both cirrhosis with liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma may occur in childhood .
= = = Immunosuppressed = = =
The rate of hepatitis C in immunosuppressed people is higher than the normal population . This is particularly true in those with human immunodeficiency virus infection , recipients of organ transplants and those with hypogammaglobulinemia . Infection in these people is associated with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis .
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= Crustacean =
Crustaceans ( Crustacea / krʌˈsteɪʃə / ) form a very large group of arthropods , usually treated as a subphylum , which includes such familiar animals as crabs , lobsters , crayfish , shrimp , krill and barnacles . Thanks to recent molecular studies , it is now well accepted that the crustacean group comprises all animals in the Pancrustacea clade other than hexapods . In other words , some crustaceans are more closely related to insects and other hexapods than they are to certain other crustaceans .
The 67 @,@ 000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at 0 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 004 in ) , to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 @.@ 5 ft ) and a mass of 20 kg ( 44 lb ) . Like other arthropods , crustaceans have an exoskeleton , which they moult to grow . They are distinguished from other groups of arthropods , such as insects , myriapods and chelicerates , by the possession of biramous ( two @-@ parted ) limbs , and by their larval forms , such as the nauplius stage of branchiopods and copepods .
Most crustaceans are free @-@ living aquatic animals , but some are terrestrial ( e.g. woodlice ) , some are parasitic ( e.g. Rhizocephala , fish lice , tongue worms ) and some are sessile ( e.g. barnacles ) . The group has an extensive fossil record , reaching back to the Cambrian , and includes living fossils such as Triops cancriformis , which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period . More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption , the majority of it being shrimp and prawns . Krill and copepods are not as widely fished , but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet , and form a vital part of the food chain . The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology ( alternatively , malacostracology , crustaceology or crustalogy ) , and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist .
= = Structure = =
The body of a crustacean is composed of segments , which are grouped into three regions : the cephalon or head , the thorax , and the pleon or abdomen . The head and thorax may be fused together to form a cephalothorax , which may be covered by a single large carapace . The crustacean body is protected by the hard exoskeleton , which must be moulted for the animal to grow . The shell around each somite can be divided into a dorsal tergum , ventral sternum and a lateral pleuron . Various parts of the exoskeleton may be fused together .
Each somite , or body segment can bear a pair of appendages : on the segments of the head , these include two pairs of antennae , the mandibles and maxillae ; the thoracic segments bear legs , which may be specialised as pereiopods ( walking legs ) and maxillipeds ( feeding legs ) . The abdomen bears pleopods , and ends in a telson , which bears the anus , and is often flanked by uropods to form a tail fan . The number and variety of appendages in different crustaceans may be partly responsible for the group 's success .
Crustacean appendages are typically biramous , meaning they are divided into two parts ; this includes the second pair of antennae , but not the first , which is usually uniramous , the exception being in the Class Malacostraca where the antennules may be generally biramous or even triramous . It is unclear whether the biramous condition is a derived state which evolved in crustaceans , or whether the second branch of the limb has been lost in all other groups . Trilobites , for instance , also possessed biramous appendages .
The main body cavity is an open circulatory system , where blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart located near the dorsum . Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the oxygen @-@ carrying pigment , while copepods , ostracods , barnacles and branchiopods have haemoglobins . The alimentary canal consists of a straight tube that often has a gizzard @-@ like " gastric mill " for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food ; this structure goes in a spiral format . Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae . A brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae , and a collection of major ganglia is found below the gut .
In many decapods , the first ( and sometimes the second ) pair of pleopods are specialised in the male for sperm transfer . Many terrestrial crustaceans ( such as the Christmas Island red crab ) mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs . Others , such as woodlice , lay their eggs on land , albeit in damp conditions . In most decapods , the females retain the eggs until they hatch into free @-@ swimming larvae .
= = Ecology = =
The majority of crustaceans are aquatic , living in either marine or freshwater environments , but a few groups have adapted to life on land , such as terrestrial crabs , terrestrial hermit crabs , and woodlice . Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land . The majority of crustaceans are also motile , moving about independently , although a few taxonomic units are parasitic and live attached to their hosts ( including sea lice , fish lice , whale lice , tongue worms , and Cymothoa exigua , all of which may be referred to as " crustacean lice " ) , and adult barnacles live a sessile life – they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently . Some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non @-@ marine species . Krill are the bottom layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities . Some crustaceans are significant invasive species , such as the Chinese mitten crab , Eriocheir sinensis , and the Asian shore crab , Hemigrapsus sanguineus .
= = Life cycle = =
= = = Mating system = = =
The majority of crustaceans have separate sexes , and reproduce sexually . A small number are hermaphrodites , including barnacles , remipedes , and Cephalocarida . Some may even change sex during the course of their life . Parthenogenesis is also widespread among crustaceans , where viable eggs are produced by a female without needing fertilisation by a male . This occurs in many branchiopods , some ostracods , some isopods , and certain " higher " crustaceans , such as the Marmorkrebs crayfish .
= = = Eggs = = =
In many groups of crustaceans , the fertilised eggs are simply released into the water column , while others have developed a number of mechanisms for holding on to the eggs until they are ready to hatch . Most decapods carry the eggs attached to the pleopods , while peracarids , notostracans , anostracans , and many isopods form a brood pouch from the carapace and thoracic limbs . Female Branchiura do not carry eggs in external ovisacs but attach them in rows to rocks and other objects . Most leptostracans and krill carry the eggs between their thoracic limbs ; some copepods carry their eggs in special thin @-@ walled sacs , while others have them attached together in long , tangled strings .
= = = Larvae = = =
Crustaceans exhibit a number of larval forms , of which the earliest and most characteristic is the nauplius . This has three pairs of appendages , all emerging from the young animal 's head , and a single naupliar eye . In most groups , there are further larval stages , including the zoea ( pl. zoeæ or zoeas ) . This name was given to it when naturalists believed it to be a separate species . It follows the nauplius stage and precedes the post @-@ larva . Zoea larvae swim with their thoracic appendages , as opposed to nauplii , which use cephalic appendages , and megalopa , which use abdominal appendages for swimming . It often has spikes on its carapace , which may assist these small organisms in maintaining directional swimming . In many decapods , due to their accelerated development , the zoea is the first larval stage . In some cases , the zoea stage is followed by the mysis stage , and in others , by the megalopa stage , depending on the crustacean group involved .
= = Classification = =
The name " crustacean " dates from the earliest works to describe the animals , including those of Pierre Belon and Guillaume Rondelet , but the name was not used by some later authors , including Carl Linnaeus , who included crustaceans among the " Aptera " in his Systema Naturae . The earliest nomenclaturally valid work to use the name " Crustacea " was Morten Thrane Brünnich 's Zoologiæ Fundamenta in 1772 , although he also included chelicerates in the group .
The subphylum Crustacea comprises almost 67 @,@ 000 described species , which is thought to be just 1 ⁄ 10 to 1 ⁄ 100 of the total number as the majority of species remain as yet undiscovered . Although most crustaceans are small , their morphology varies greatly and includes both the largest arthropod in the world – the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of 3 @.@ 7 metres ( 12 ft ) – and the smallest , the 1 @-@ micrometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 00004 in ) Stygotantulus stocki . Despite their diversity of form , crustaceans are united by the special larval form known as the nauplius .
The exact relationships of the Crustacea to other taxa are not completely settled as of April 2012 . Studies based on morphology led to the Pancrustacea hypothesis , in which Crustacea and Hexapoda ( insects and allies ) are sister groups . More recent studies using DNA sequences suggest that Crustacea is paraphyletic , with the hexapods nested within a larger Pancrustacea clade .
Although the classification of crustaceans has been quite variable , the system used by Martin and Davis largely supersedes earlier works . Mystacocarida and Branchiura , here treated as part of Maxillopoda , are sometimes treated as their own classes . Six classes are usually recognised :
= = Fossil record = =
Crustaceans have a rich and extensive fossil record , which begins with animals such as Canadaspis and Perspicaris from the Middle Cambrian age Burgess Shale . Most of the major groups of crustaceans appear in the fossil record before the end of the Cambrian , namely the Branchiopoda , Maxillopoda ( including barnacles and tongue worms ) and Malacostraca ; there is some debate as to whether or not Cambrian animals assigned to Ostracoda are truly ostracods , which would otherwise start in the Ordovician . The only classes to appear later are the Cephalocarida , which have no fossil record , and the Remipedia , which were first described from the fossil Tesnusocaris goldichi , but do not appear until the Carboniferous . Most of the early crustaceans are rare , but fossil crustaceans become abundant from the Carboniferous period onwards .
Within the Malacostraca , no fossils are known for krill , while both Hoplocarida and Phyllopoda contain important groups that are now extinct as well as extant members ( Hoplocarida : mantis shrimp are extant , while Aeschronectida are extinct ; Phyllopoda : Canadaspidida are extinct , while Leptostraca are extant ) . Cumacea and Isopoda are both known from the Carboniferous , as are the first true mantis shrimp . In the Decapoda , prawns and polychelids appear in the Triassic , and shrimp and crabs appear in the Jurassic ; however , the great radiation of crustaceans occurred in the Cretaceous , particularly in crabs , and may have been driven by the adaptive radiation of their main predators , bony fish . The first true lobsters also appear in the Cretaceous .
= = Consumption by humans = =
Many crustaceans are consumed by humans , and nearly 10 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 tons were produced in 2007 ; the vast majority of this output is of decapod crustaceans : crabs , lobsters , shrimp , crawfish , and prawns . Over 60 % by weight of all crustaceans caught for consumption are shrimp and prawns , and nearly 80 % is produced in Asia , with China alone producing nearly half the world 's total . Non @-@ decapod crustaceans are not widely consumed , with only 118 @,@ 000 tons of krill being caught , despite krill having one of the greatest biomasses on the planet .
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= I Kissed a Girl ( Glee ) =
" I Kissed a Girl " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ first overall . Written by Matthew Hodgson and directed by Tate Donovan , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on November 29 , 2011 , and featured the election for a new senior class president at McKinley High . It also covered the special congressional election between Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) and Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , plus repercussions from the outing of Santana ( Naya Rivera ) during the congressional campaign .
The episode as a whole received mixed to negative reviews from critics , though several praised Santana 's scene with her grandmother . The music was viewed more favorably by reviewers , and earned mixed to positive reactions . Six songs are covered in the episode , including Katy Perry 's " I Kissed a Girl " . All six were released as downloadable singles , and five of them charted on the Billboard Hot 100 .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 9 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings were up from the previous episode , " Mash Off " , which had aired two weeks before .
= = Plot = =
Santana ( Naya Rivera ) is about to be suspended for hitting Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , but he claims it was merely a stage slap . He then blackmails Santana into having her glee club , the Troubletones , temporarily meet with her former club , New Directions , so he can show her how they all support her . Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) sing " Perfect " to her , which leaves her unimpressed , but Finn 's slow , stripped @-@ down rendition of " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " is better received .
Puck ( Mark Salling ) ostensibly sings " I 'm the Only One " for Santana , but delivers most of the song to an embarrassed Shelby ( Idina Menzel ) in front of a suspicious Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) . Quinn later tries to seduce him , but he refuses and calls her crazy . Shelby calls Puck for assistance when her daughter Beth has a minor medical emergency ; the two later have sex , but she regrets it and asks him to leave . Angered , Puck returns to Quinn , and she reveals her desire to have a second baby with him . Puck refuses , and tries to comfort her ; he offers to share an important secret if she promises not to tell anyone .
Kurt 's quest to become senior class president appears doomed and along with it his college prospects ; he confesses to Rachel ( Lea Michele ) that he is thinking about stuffing the ballot box to ensure that he wins . Sue 's ( Jane Lynch ) congressional campaign is also in trouble : to combat allegations that she is a lesbian , Sue decides to start an arbitrary relationship with a man , and chooses former bedmate Cooter Menkins ( Eric Bruskotter ) , who has been having difficulty connecting with Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) due to her emotional armor . A distraught Beiste sings " Jolene " , confesses her love for Cooter and tells Sue she won 't give him up without a fight . Sue loses the congressional election to Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) .
An arrogant jock tries to seduce Santana to " make her normal " . The female members of both glee clubs defend her , and together they sing " I Kissed a Girl " . Santana comes out to her parents , who are accepting , but when she tells her abuela ( grandmother ) , she tells Santana to leave and never return , saying it is a sin to speak of such things .
Kurt and his father Burt are called in to see Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , where it is revealed that although Kurt apparently won his election by 190 votes , more votes have been cast than there are students . Kurt admits that he contemplated cheating , but decided against doing so . Nevertheless , Kurt is disqualified and Brittany wins the election . Kurt tells Finn and Rachel that he is still under suspicion , and after he leaves , Rachel admits to Finn that she was the one who stuffed the ballot box because she wanted to help Kurt .
To end the week , Santana sings " Constant Craving " to the combined glee clubs , inter @-@ cut with Shelby and Kurt also singing . Rachel then arrives and confesses that she was the one who committed election fraud : the incident will go on her permanent record , she is suspended for a week and she is banned from participating in the impending show choir Sectionals competition .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Matthew Hodgson and directed by Tate Donovan . Filming began on October 13 , 2011 , while the fifth and sixth episodes , " The First Time " and " Mash Off " respectively , were still shooting , though the fifth episode finished the following day . The final day of filming was November 1 , 2011 .
Series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan revealed to TV Guide that the episode would have not one election in it , but two : both senior class president and the congressional special election would occur on the same day , and McKinley High will be a polling place for the latter . According to Brennan , " People are voting for both elections in the school , with signs pointing voters in different directions " , and there will be a " very surprising twist " in the final results .
Football recruiter Cooter Menkins ( Bruskotter ) returns in this episode , and becomes a bone of contention between Coach Beiste and Sue . Other recurring guest stars who appear in this episode include Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , teachers Shelby Corcoran ( Menzel ) and Mrs. Hagberg ( Mary Gillis ) , Kurt 's father and congressional candidate Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , Coach Beiste ( Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , Troubletones member Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) and New Directions member Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) .
Music in the episode includes the song from which it gets its title , Katy Perry 's " I Kissed a Girl " , which was previously sung by Tina for her glee club audition in the show 's pilot . Jones performs Dolly Parton 's " Jolene " during the episode , her second time singing on the show ; her first was a duet with Matthew Morrison in the second season episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " . All six songs from the episode have been released as singles including " I Kissed a Girl " and " Jolene " ; the other four are k.d. lang 's " Constant Craving " sung by Rivera , Menzel and Colfer , Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " in the Greg Laswell version sung by Monteith , Melissa Etheridge 's " I 'm the Only One " sung by Salling and a clean version of Pink 's " Fuckin ' Perfect " entitled " Perfect " , sung by Colfer and Criss .
On August 6 , 2012 , co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy uploaded a deleted scene in which Santana comes out to Sue and her fellow Cheerios to YouTube .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" I Kissed a Girl " was first broadcast on November 29 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 90 million American viewers during its initial airing , up from the 7 @.@ 08 million viewers and 3 @.@ 0 / 8 rating / share for the previous episode , " Mash Off " , which was broadcast on November 15 , 2011 .
Viewership was also up significantly in the United Kingdom and Canada . In the United Kingdom , " I Kissed a Girl " was watched on Sky1 by 1 @.@ 09 million viewers , an increase of over 21 % compared to " Mash Off " two weeks before , when 900 @,@ 000 viewers were watching . In Canada , 1 @.@ 79 million viewers watched the episode , which made it the eighth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up ten slots and 9 % from the 1 @.@ 64 million viewers who watched " Mash Off " two weeks prior .
In Australia , " I Kissed a Girl " was broadcast on January 27 , 2012 . It was the first new episode since " Mash Off " had aired on November 16 , 2012 , and was in a new Friday evening time slot as opposed to the previously scheduled Wednesday broadcasts . It was watched by 575 @,@ 000 viewers , down over 15 % from the previous new episode , which was watched by 683 @,@ 000 viewers . David Dale of the Sydney Morning Herald was scathing in his opinion of the show 's rescheduling : " Channel Ten must be insane to waste a new season of Glee on a night when the target audience are all out trying to get alcohol with fake IDs . Look at the pathetic numbers in the Friday chart . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode as a whole received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Rae Votta of Billboard wrote that it " stumbles as much as it shines , with two plot lines @-@ worth of structure that make sense , and two that fall completely flat " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman stated that " while there were undeniably significant plot moments , the emotional depth was lacking " , and Robert Canning of IGN said it was " kind of boring " and nothing happened to " make it better than bland " . AOLTV 's Crystal Bell found it frustrating , and said that the " worst part " was that it " made me stop caring about these characters " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that " a ton of it just didn 't work " . The Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson looked on the episode more favorably , however , and maintained that while it did not achieve the level of the previous two , it was a " pretty strong outing nonetheless " .
Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter said that the scene where Santana comes out to her grandmother only to be rejected was a " powerful moment and Rivera delivered in a way equal to Chris Colfer and Mike O 'Malley 's scenes during Kurt 's coming out " . Bell also complimented the sequence , though she criticized the next scene for showing " a happy , smiling Santana " with no further explanation , and Canning and Kubicek were also unhappy with her abrupt change in mood , as if nothing had happened . VanDerWerff , though he called the coming @-@ out scene " a moment that 's played with a sort of bracing honesty and moving empathy " for what Santana was going through , stated that the " Santana storyline has been one of the best things about the back half of season two and this front half of season three , and the scenes that should be its emotional crux are occurring in our imaginations " , such as when she comes out to her parents . Goldberg called the fact that Finn suffered no consequences for his outing of Santana " a missed opportunity " . Bell , however , thought that his telling Santana that " he cares about her and doesn 't want her to hold her feelings for women in anymore " was " one of the most touching scenes of the series " , though Kubicek characterized Finn 's statement that he cared for her because Santana " was his first " as creepy . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan deried the choice to perform " I Kissed a Girl " as " poor comprehension of song lyrics " , since Santana " is a lesbian and not just [ a ] drunk girl who kissed another girl after drinking " . VanDerWerff wondered why Santana was so happy during the song , since she had just experienced " the sort of outrageous bigotry she 'll have to put up with for the rest of her life " .
Quinn 's increasingly odd behavior was commented on by several reviewers . Chaney wrote that she was acting " in an irrational manner that has no connection with reality " , and Bell wondered if co @-@ creator Murphy was " trying to make her the most hated character on ' Glee ' ever " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times , though she noted that " Quinn 's character just gets weirder and weirder " , wrote that Puck gets it right : " Quinn 's the craziest , most self @-@ involved character on the show " , but " has a resilience that may take her far in life " and needs a " healthy dose of self @-@ esteem " . VanDerWerff was initially pleased that the show " acknowledged that all of her actions are driven by a deep , sucking need to be loved " and that " Puck gently told her that she was better than that , that she could put herself together again " , but not that it then " just turned into more pointless Puck / Shelby / Quinn drama . Ugh . " Critics such as Kubicek were even more scathing about Shelby and the storyline with Puck that led to the pair having sex during the episode : " The dumbest storyline Glee has ever done gets even dumber . " Sullivan called it " the most divisive plot line of the season " , and Bell asked , " Instead of these super creepy scenes between Puck and Shelby , can we please get more screen time for Shelby and Rachel ? "
Votta criticized the show for the " pointless adult love triangle " involving Coach Beiste , Sue , and Cooter Menkins . VanDerWerff described Jones as " one of the show 's greatest gifts " , and lamented that they had her " fighting with Sue Dynasty @-@ style over a recruiter for Ohio State " . Bell called the scene where Beiste " confesses her love for Cooter " a " simply sweet scene that 's only ruined by Sue 's grumpy presence " , and Sue 's decision to go after Cooter a " crazy plot " . Votta looked at Sue 's pursuit of Cooter through a different lens : " in an episode that should be about kids who are looking for approval and the various ways they do and don 't achieve that " , the show gives a " completely opposite message from Sue 's quest to prove her straightness " , which " muddles " the show 's messages . Chaney thought that Sue " was back in fine , vindictive catchphrase @-@ spewing form " , and noted that " all the election subplots were tied up remarkably quickly " . This last point did not sit well with Berk , who wrote that the show resolved " what was one of the more interesting subplots in one of the least interesting ways " , and Canning was disappointed that the episode did not have " more with Burt " . As for Burt 's son , Kurt , Votta wanted to " leap through the television and explain to him that student council elections mean absolutely nothing " to his future college prospects , and Kubicek declared himself " sick " of that plot thread , which he called " just plain moronic " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances received mixed to positive reviews . Hankinson wrote that it was a " strong night " . Chaney thought it was " decent but not as strong " as the previous episode , " Mash Off " ; Futterman had a similar take and called it a " hodge @-@ podge of songs that fit the bill but don 't necessarily stand out " , and " musically meh " . Bell wrote that " the music was awful " , and she was upset because she " really like [ s ] chick rock " , the musical focus of the episode .
Chaney was not very excited by Kurt and Blaine 's rendition of " Perfect " , while Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called it an " almost cloying duet " . Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West thought it was " sweetly " sung and " perfectly lovely " , and Michael Slezak of TVLine said it " really picked up steam " as it progressed . Votta said that " what we got " was " wonderfully done , and a perfect balance of Darren Criss and Chris Colfer 's musical strengths " , but she was perplexed that they " cut the verses most relevant to Santana " yet " kept the cheeky rap bridge " . In contrast , she thought Puck 's performance of " I 'm the Only One " was " the most awkward thing Glee has done in a while , and drags on forever " , though she added that Salling sounded " great " . Slezak expressed the wish that Puck would get to do " a mashup or an interesting arrangement " , and gave the song a " C + " , while Futterman said the song was " a strain on his voice " and the presentation " another cookie @-@ cutter classroom setting " . BuddyTV 's John Kubicek called it the " kind of song Puck should always do . "
Finn 's performance of " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " received the most commentary . Bell wrote that " his cover of Greg Laswell 's cover " of the Lauper song " may just be my favorite Finn solo ever " . Kubicek described the " slowed @-@ down , acoustic version " as " insanely good " , and Flandez called it " poignant " and " surprising and appealing " . West said it was " the best showcase for his voice in recent memory " . Slezak called it his " favorite performance by Finn in the last two seasons " , and added that Monteith " sounded terrific " . While Votta thought the rendition was " sweet " and " well sung " , she wrote that it " felt a little off @-@ center " ; Chaney described it as " not terribly compelling " . Sullivan called it a " horrifyingly creepy " performance .
Coach Beiste 's first solo number , " Jolene " , was called " haunting " by Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk , who gave it four stars out of five , and Slezak said it was a " killer use of Dolly Parton " even if " Beiste isn 't the strongest vocalist " . Both Futterman and Kubicek noted a lack of emotion in Beiste 's voice , but they also noted the emotion in her face , which Kubicek said " more than made up for it " . Chaney wrote that " the execution felt emotionally flat " and gave it a " C " , but West graded it a " B + " and said , " Coach Beiste 's pain ..... was clear in Dot Marie Jones ' sad @-@ hearted rendition " .
Chaney called " I Kissed a Girl " the " liveliest , most enjoyable number of the night " . Kubicek said that " the ladies rocked out " , but his " favorite parts " were " Rory 's reaction shots " , which West also mentioned favorably . Futterman declared it as " an OK rendition " . For " Constant Craving " , she noted some " nice harmonies " , but " in what seems to be a trend this episode , the song falls flat as a whole " . Kubicek stated that without Santana 's " pent @-@ up emotions " , there was " no subtext , just text " . Chaney wrote that the performance was " not stunning , but certainly strong " . Votta said that Santana " kills " on the song , Hankinson stated that " Shelby and Santana were awesome " and Slezak called it " gorgeous and totally relevant " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Five of the six cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Perfect " debuted at number fifty @-@ seven , " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " at number fifty @-@ nine , " I Kissed a Girl " at number sixty @-@ six , " I 'm the Only One " at number eighty @-@ six and " Constant Craving " at number eighty @-@ nine . The first three of those singles also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 : " Perfect " at number seventy @-@ one , " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " at number seventy @-@ five and " I Kissed a Girl " at number eighty @-@ seven . " Jolene " did not chart in either country .
Both " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " and " Constant Craving " were featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 7 . Three additional songs from the episode were included in the five bonus tracks available on the Target edition of the album : " Perfect " , " I 'm the Only One " and " I Kissed a Girl " .
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= Sex ( book ) =
Sex is a coffee table book written by American singer Madonna , with photographs taken by Steven Meisel Studio and film frames shot by Fabien Baron . The book was edited by Glenn O 'Brien and was released on October 21 , 1992 , by Warner Books , Maverick and Callaway Books . Approached with an idea for a book on erotic photographs , Madonna expanded on the idea and conceived the book and its content . Shot in early 1992 in New York City and Miami , the locations ranged from hotels and burlesque theaters , to the streets of Miami . The photographs were stolen before publishing , but were quickly recovered .
The book had a range of influences , from punk rock to earlier fashion iconoclasts such as Guy Bourdin and his surrealism , and Helmut Newton , in its stylized , sado @-@ masochistic look . Sex has photographs that feature adult content and softcore pornographic as well as simulations of sexual acts , including sadomasochism and analingus . Madonna wrote the book as a character named " Mistress Dita " , inspired by 1930s film actress Dita Parlo . It also includes cameos by actress Isabella Rossellini , rappers Big Daddy Kane and Vanilla Ice , model Naomi Campbell , gay porn star Joey Stefano , actor Udo Kier , socialite Tatiana von Fürstenberg , and nightclub owner Ingrid Casares .
The packaging for the book is made of aluminium , which was Madonna 's idea , and is spiral bound and enclosed in a Mylar sheet . Due to the scandalous nature of the photographs and the media mayhem surrounding it from the initial preview of the book , Madonna did not have to promote Sex , except for a pre @-@ release party and some television specials . Her publishers were extremely apprehensive about the release as well as its commercial potential . Sex was released alongside her fifth studio album Erotica , which was released a day earlier .
The book was an instant commercial success , managing to sell over 150 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release and topping the New York Times Best Seller list . It was received negatively by both critics and fans of the singer , who felt she had " gone too far . " Through the years , however , critical reception towards Sex has become more positive , with academics deeming it a defining phase in Madonna 's career . Sex is noted for its impact on society and culture as well as on Madonna herself , and is considered a bold , post @-@ feminist work of art . The book has since become one of the most sought @-@ after out @-@ of @-@ print books ever released and still remains the best and fastest @-@ selling coffee table book of all time .
= = Background and development = =
According to Giselle Benatar of Entertainment Weekly , there are two versions of how Madonna came up with the idea for the book . One was that she conceived the idea of an erotic photography book during the shooting of the film A League of Their Own in the summer of 1991 . The second one is that Judith Regan , vice @-@ president and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Simon & Schuster , flew to Los Angeles in March 1991 to meet with Madonna and her manager Freddy DeMann , armed with a proposal for a similar collection of photo @-@ erotica . The singer had initially verified whether Regan had approached any other celebrities with this concept , as Madonna would be interested to be a part of it only if it was a unique idea . By the end of the meeting Madonna had agreed " in principle " to do a book called Madonna 's Book of Erotica and Sexual Fantasies . She told Regan that DeMann would call her and work out the details regarding the book . However , Madonna never got back in touch with Regan , who assumed that the singer did not want to proceed with the idea . Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg never confirmed nor denied Regan 's claim , but according to Benatar , Madonna started working on Sex before wrapping up A League of Their Own . At first Warner Bros. Records and the executive directors at Time Warner were reluctant to allow Madonna to publish such a book , but finally gave in to the idea . Madonna , however , was forced to sign a contract that forbade her from showing child pornography , bestiality and religious imagery . Not long after signing this agreement Madonna founded Maverick , a multi @-@ media entertainment company . Since by contract she had total artistic control over any of the work released by Maverick , the agreement she signed with Time Warner concerning what not to do in Sex became obsolete .
Originally to be titled X , Madonna changed her mind when Spike Lee 's film Malcolm X began to be promoted . ( The film was released three weeks after the book . ) She would go on to tell Vogue magazine : " This is a really good symbol , and I thought of it first . " Warner Bros. commented that Sex was very difficult to produce , requiring contributions from many different printing and publishing companies . They also stated that in order to generate any profit , the book would have to sell at least 350 @,@ 000 copies . Madonna hired top @-@ notch talent for the development of the book ; she counted on the help of friends from the music , film and fashion industry . The singer hired Fabien Baron as the art director , fashion photographer Steven Meisel , editor Glenn O 'Brien , make @-@ up artist Francois Nars and hairstylist Paul Cavaco . The Sex book had a range of influences – from punk rock to earlier fashion iconoclasts like Guy Bourdin and his surrealism , and Helmut Newton , in its stylized , sado @-@ masochistic look . Madonna originally wanted the book to be of an oval shape in order to simulate a condom but the printing and manufacturing of such a book would have been too expensive . Meisel would later comment : " Madonna and I can keep up with each other " and that " I 'm doing things to make people think too . It 's not really to antagonize or to push people 's buttons . It 's really to present another way of seeing things . "
The pictures were taken almost entirely in Super 8 format , and most of the photo shoots took place in New York City and Miami . Locations in New York City included the Hotel Chelsea and Times Square 's all @-@ male burlesque Gaiety Theatre ( dancers from theatre participated in one of the book 's photo sessions ) , whereas in Miami the majority of the sessions were shot at a house Madonna had purchased just before starting the project , and in several beaches and streets . One morning during the four @-@ day Florida shoot Madonna was prancing around her 14 @-@ bedroom house in Miami completely naked , when someone jokingly suggested she go out on the street , then , according to Baron " the next thing we 're in the street " where allegedly " cars screeched to a halt , motorists whistled , and one entranced cyclist fell off his bike . " This was just one of the many crazy episodes that took place during the shooting of the book . According to Baron , during the photo shoots " [ Madonna ] ' d do something crazy and then we 'd come up with something even crazier " . One of the most shocking photographs made for the book , which featured two women in post @-@ punk attire flanking Madonna with one of them holding a knife to Madonna 's crotch , was dismissed as it was considered too violent . At some point , while the book was being produced , some of the photographs were stolen , but were quickly recovered by the FBI . According to New York magazine , there were approximately 80 @,@ 000 photographs taken for the book , but only a handful made the final cut . The printing of the book was extended for 15 days making the total production process last about eight months .
= = Design and content = =
Wrapped and sealed in a polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) Mylar bag , Sex contains 128 pages and is spiral bound with an aluminium cover that has the word " Sex " stamped in the middle and a warning label . The front page also shows Madonna against a sky blue backdrop . Three different types of paper were used for the printing of Sex and the design was overseen by Madonna and Baron & Baron Inc . ( consisting of Fabien Baron and the photographer Siung Fat Tjia ) who had previously collaborated with the singer designing the cover art of her fifth studio album , Erotica . As this was the first project for Maverick , the packaging was crucial ; however Madonna did not have faith in Warner Book 's " mass @-@ market " publication process . Hence Baron suggested to transfer the packaging job to Nicholas Callaway 's bespoke Callaway Editions . Charles Melcher , co @-@ publisher with Callaway for the book , said that they usually did " exquisite art books , $ 100 high end , beautiful things " . But it was a challenge for them to process Madonna 's ideas into reality . The artist wanted the packaging to be sealed , so that the reader had to tear it up and read . They considered various kinds of clasps before zeroing on the idea of the sealed bag as a reference to a condom package . The metal cover was Madonna 's idea , who took the inspiration from the 1979 album , Metal Box by the band Public Image Ltd . Melcher recollects , " We were talking about materials for the cover , and we went into her kitchen . [ Madonna ] pointed at the metal plate at the back of her stove and said , ' I want something like this ' . I was very impressed with the way she interacted with her world to source things . " The company bought about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 pounds ( 680 @,@ 000 kg ) of aluminium , a pound for each book . The designers had to do the front and the back covers , while rolling , stamping and ionizing the metal .
The book opens up with the introduction : " Everything you are about to see and read is a fantasy , a dream , pretend " . Throughout Sex , Madonna offers poems , stories , and essays . She also uses the pseudonym " Mistress Dita " as a homage to German actress Dita Parlo ; her friends in these stories are Bunny , Dex , Stella , Chiclet and Stranger . According to biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , a big part of the book is read as a letter to a pornographic magazine . As a thank you for recovering the stolen pictures during the making of the book , in the credits of the book Madonna mentioned the FBI for " ... rescuing photographs that would have made J. Edgar Hoover roll over . " Madonna also wanted to explore the notion of power in Sex . Melcher said that the artist wanted to talk about " gentle and hard , soft and violent [ in Sex ] . She was playing out all those elements in her book . That was reflected in the materials : uncoated , soft paper on the inside and hard metal coating on the outside . "
Just like the text — which was mostly written on top of photographs — the photographs on the book are highly sexual and depict nudity , simulations of sexual acts , bondage , homosexuality and analingus , with accessories such as knives , whips , masks and chains ; however , full intercourse is never shown . Aside from unknown models , featured in the book are actress Isabella Rossellini , rappers Big Daddy Kane and Madonna 's then boyfriend Vanilla Ice , model Naomi Campbell , gay porn star Joey Stefano , actor Udo Kier , socialite Tatiana von Fürstenberg , and nightclub owner Ingrid Casares ; however the heterosexual photos in the book involve only Madonna and Vanilla Ice . Madonna herself is featured partially or completely naked . One of the book 's most famous photographs shows Madonna hitchhiking completely naked in Miami . The book also reflects a great part on Dita 's perspective towards her own sexuality . Dita writes in Sex that her " pussy " is a temple of learning and that exposing it , is really a homage to it ( " It 's hard to describe it smells like a baby to me fresh and full of life . I love my pussy , it is the complete summation of my life " ) . Sex contains statements like " ass fucking is the most pleasurable way to get fucked and it hurts the most too " . Others include " [ t ] here is something comforting about being tied up . Like when you were a baby and your mother strapped you in the car seat . She wanted you to be safe . It was an act of love " and " I wouldn 't want a penis . It would be like having a third leg. it seems like a contraption that would get in the way . I think I have a dick in my brain " . In Sex , Dita also pointed out that " A lot of people are afraid to say what they want . That 's why they don 't get what they want " . The book includes Madonna 's perspective on pornography :
I don 't see how a guy looking at a naked girl in a magazine is degrading to women . Everyone has their sexuality . It 's how you treat people in everyday life that counts , not what turns you on in your fantasy . If all a person ever did was get off on porno movies I would say they are probably dysfunctional sexually , but I don 't think it 's unhealthy to be interested in that or get off on that . I 'm not interested in porno movies because everybody is ugly and faking it and it 's just silly . They make me laugh , they don 't turn me on . A movie like In the Realm of the Senses turns me on because it 's real . I 've been told there are some good Traci Lords movies but I 've never seen them . I wouldn 't want to watch a snuff movie . I wouldn 't want to watch anyone get really hurt , male or female . But generally I don 't think pornography degrades women . The women who are doing it want to do it . No one is holding a gun to their head . I don 't get that whole thing . I love looking at Playboy magazine because women look great naked .
= = Release and promotion = =
The initial preview of the book was met with a huge amount of controversy , as it showed a nude Madonna wearing a rabbit 's tail , shaving the pubic hair of a naked man , and cavorting outdoors with a dog , suggesting bestiality . The Vatican urged its people to boycott the release , saying that it was " morally intolerable " . Indian customs officials said that the book offended the country 's public morality . The Press Trust of India ( PTI ) , India 's domestic news agency , quoted a top customs official as saying the book would be seized under a section of the Customs Act prohibiting entry of indecent literature . Citizens of Alexandria , Louisiana filed a complaint with the city 's police department on behalf of a group called the Rapides Parish Chapter of American Family Association , claiming that it violated Louisiana 's anti @-@ obscenity laws . South US Baptists did not want their Bibles coming off the same printing presses as Madonna 's Sex and threatened to stop doing business with a Chicago printer . The Nashville @-@ based Baptist Sunday School Board , a division of the Southern Baptist Convention , reviewed their $ 2 @.@ 1 million ( $ 3 @,@ 541 @,@ 167 in 2016 dollars ) printing contract with R.R. Donnelley & Sons . Board President James Draper said he was infuriated that Donnelley also printed " such an obscene book " . Entertainment Tonight reported that Madonna herself had initiated the mayhem with the explicit content in the music video for " Erotica " , walking bare breasted at designer Jean Paul Gaultier 's fashion show and posing nude in Vanity Fair magazine . A writer for The Sacramento Bee said that since the press wanted " controversy " , Madonna was willing to provide them " fodder " with her " antiques " .
Madonna then said she was " doing this to liberate America — free us all of our hang @-@ ups " . She told Spin magazine " We live in a very repressed society , and I deal with erotic themes . The point I try to make is : Why should we feel ashamed of our sexuality ? " . Later she revealed that " [ This book ] does not condone unsafe sexual practices " . Nicholas Callaway from Callaway Arts & Entertainment said that the book was " inevitably going to be controversial . The book explores every aspect of sexual fantasy . It 's hard to calculate the effect , [ but ] , Sex should be considered ' art ' " . Originally it was rumored that Time Warner was nervous about the release of the book ; however , in an interview with Vanity Fair , William Sarnoff , president of Warner Books , said he felt that Madonna " should pursue all avenues of creativity as she defines it " . The Warner company had also previously assured that they would make sure Sex reached its main target audience and also reminded that the book was safely wrapped in a Mylar bag to prevent in @-@ store peeping and contained a warning label . Michael Kilian of the Chicago Tribune published an article on October 7 , 1992 , regarding the then upcoming release of Sex : " Prepare thyself , [ ... ] , The mega @-@ event of the millennium is to occur in precisely two weeks . It 's an event far more mega than the November election , the collapse of communism or even the crowning of Leanza Cornett as the new Miss America . " Kilian also described it as the " personal sexual fantasy picture book in all Christendom , then it goes far beyond all previous ' truly twisted ' personal sexual fantasy picture books — perhaps beyond all imagining what such a book could be " .
On October 15 , Madonna threw a pre @-@ release party at New York City 's Industria Superstudio , and signed all the invitations under her Sex alter ego " Dita " . During the party , Madonna showed up dressed as Little Bo Peep and even carried with her a stuffed toy lamb . Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg showed concern at first due to " what the parents of America 's impressionable teens will soon be thinking " but later said that it " all depends on your idea of lovemaking , which in Madonna 's case , should give new meaning to the word erotic " . Both Waldenbooks and Barnes & Noble prepared corporate statements that the managers could share with customers who are offended by Sex . ( Both statements defended the right of bookstores to provide " diversity and choice " to customers and say censorship is not the role of bookstores . ) Many book stores , too , stated that the book would not be sold to anyone under 18 and that it would be for display only behind the cash register . Bookstore owner David Epstein stated that " The feeling of most people who have ordered the book is that Madonna is something special , that this is cutting @-@ edge art , [ ... ] , they 're not the kind of people who are buying it because it 's smut and dirty pictures . People are interested in it as art . "
Sex was finally released on October 21 , 1992 , by editorials Callaway and Warner Books ; it was also the first work released by Madonna 's company Maverick . To accompany its release , a comic book as well as a promotional single containing a stripped @-@ down version of " Erotica " , titled " Erotic " , were made available . The book was released by Madonna as alongside her fifth studio album Erotica , which had been released a day earlier . With an initial print run of one million copies of the first edition in five continents and in five languages , the price of the book was $ 50 ( $ 84 in 2016 dollars ) at retail , making sex an " expensive visual book " . Nevertheless , the book managed to break records regarding the number of copies pre @-@ ordered before the release . Nicholas Callaway pointed out that the book was an unprecedented hit , because the print run of an average art book ranges between 5 and 10 @,@ 000 units . He described it as " the largest initial release of any illustrated book in publishing history " .
Due to the high scandal and controversy surrounding the book , there wasn 't really any need for Madonna to promote it ; however , one of the few promotions for the book Madonna did , was appearing on the cover of the October edition of Vogue , where she appeared dressed in " Hippie trip " fashion . These photographs were taken by Meisel . After the book was released , on October 22 , 1992 , MTV aired a special called The Day in Madonna , hosted by Kurt Loder ( the title of this special was a pun of the title of the channel 's daily show The Day in Rock ) , which profiled the release of Madonna 's Sex and her album Erotica , even taking the book to the streets to allow people , including a sex therapist and group of real @-@ life New York City dominatrices , to view it . MTV also interviewed many people who had viewed the book on the day of its release at the HMV music store in New York City . In celebration of the release of the book , the store held a Madonna look @-@ alike contest and set up a booth where people could view the book for one dollar a minute , with all of the proceeds going to Lifebeat , the music industry organization founded to help fund AIDS research .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
The book received negative reaction from critics , conservative and feminist " anti @-@ porn " groups , due to its sexually explicit photographs which many characterized as " hardcore pornography " . Taraborrelli opined that much of the book appears surprising and not shocking . He derided the whole concept as childish and impetuous rather than an adult book . According to him , though Madonna insisted that she was trying to demystify sexuality altogether , the author believed she just wanted to publish pornographic text and pictures and get away with it . " She was being a brat , not a revolutionary " , the author concluded . Author Lucy O 'Brien declared that the book was a bold , harrowing exercise in frustration , and despite Madonna 's attempt at invincibility , the book appeared as " a curious act of self @-@ destruction " . " The overwhelming effect of the book is numbing , " complained Rolling Stone . " The images are derivative , and Madonna herself seems far too eager to shock ; that , not even prurient arousal , seems the ideal response the book tirelessly seeks . The potency of Sex 's subject matter is dissipated by Madonna and Meisel 's self @-@ congratulatory – and silly – sense of their own ' bravery , ' as if their naughty games were somehow revolutionary . "
Roger Catlin from the Hartford Courant said that the passages from the book were " too dirty to quote here , even the funny ones " . The Daily Beast said that " the book is neither groundbreaking ( save that it features a major star ) nor particularly sexy [ ... ] Sex is convincing only when it 's playful , as when she appears nude in a Miami pizzeria , chewing a slice while a baffled customer looks on . Elsewhere , she 's simply undressed with no place to go " . Richard Harrington from The Washington Post gave the book a mixed review by saying : " Is Sex shocking ? not really . Mostly because it 's Madonna , and somehow we 've come to expect this from her . Is Sex boring ? surprisingly , yes " . During her review of the book , British author Zoë Heller from The Independent wrote that it was " the women who once saw Madonna as a witty feminist role model who have been most alarmist about her latest pornographic incarnation " and that " previously , they say , Madonna played with traditional images of feminine sexuality in a subversive , ' empowering ' way . But now , with sado @-@ masochism and rape fantasies , she has gone too far . " Calvin Tomkins , author and art critic for The New Yorker , wrote that " unfortunately , the book is going to be mistaken for pornography " . Vanity Fair deemed it " the dirtiest coffee table book to ever be published " . Caryn James from The New York Times was negative in her review stating that " There is plenty here to offend the meek ( whips and chains ) , the self @-@ righteous ( gay men and lesbians ) , not to mention the tasteful ( a tacky and cluttered art design ) " . Vicki Goldberg from the same newspaper was also dismissive of the photography of the book saying that " Unfortunately , not many of the images are very good photographically . Many are just pictures , or just porn " . Writing for Spin magazine , Bob Guccione , Jr. gave the book a particularly unfavorable review :
Madonna has overstayed her welcome . She 's becoming the human equivalent of the Energizer Bunny , flashing us her breasts in every magazine that 'll let her . [ ... ] Her book Sex , is a rip @-@ off . Because it 's not about sex , it 's more about a hatred of it . [ ... ] The book is not erotic . It 's all somehow , astonishingly , dead . As sexy as a body chart at the doctor 's office . Because it 's just as precise and soulless . [ Sex ] is a con job because instead of being flagrant pornography , it dresses itself up as Great Art . The text is pretentious and derives most , if not all , of its impact from the fact that it 's Madonna talking , quite a lot ... Any other model would sound no more or less coarse , just uninteresting .
Despite all the controversy and negative backlash , which included the book being banned in Japan shortly after its release , Sex proved to be a commercial success , selling 150 @,@ 000 copies on its release day in the United States alone . Hundreds of copies of the book were pre @-@ ordered , prompting book sellers to say that Sex was " shattering their sales records for advance purchases " . A week later , the book 's sales exceeded the 500 @,@ 000 units and eventually topped The New York Times Best Seller list . Giselle Benatar wrote in her article " Sex & Money " : " This isn 't the publishing event of the year , it 's the publishing event of the century . " A day earlier , Tyra Braden from The Morning Call wrote that she and some friends concluded that the book " might become a collector 's item a few years down the road " . In just three days , the book had managed to sell more than 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Social impact and aftermath = =
Dubbed at the time " The Queen of obscene " , Madonna and the Sex era is considered by many as the artist 's most controversial and transgressive period . The book , widely panned by the press , is regarded as one of the factors that shaped the social reaction and critique towards Madonna during the early 1990s . Her fifth studio album Erotica was affected by the negative press surrounding the book . In March 1993 , Spin magazine wrote an article praising the book , but months later in Mexico , social communicologist Nino Canún presented a television special called ¿ Y usted qué opina ? ( English : So what 's your opinion ? ) , where the audience , among them a priest , presented their arguments as to why " this morally clueless singer shouldn 't be allowed to perform in the country " , making reference to The Girlie Show World Tour , which was set to visit Mexico . Later , during her concert in Mexico , Madonna wore a charro sombrero and simulated an orgy with her dancers onstage , as a response to these comments . Continuing her provocative imagery , Madonna starred in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence , which featured the singer fully nude and in scenes engaged in simulated sexual acts . In March 1994 , Madonna appeared as a guest on the Late Show with David Letterman , using profanity that was required to be censored on television and handing Letterman a pair of her underwear and asking him to smell it . The releases of her sexually explicit film , album and book , and the aggressive appearance on Letterman all made critics regard Madonna as a sexual renegade . She faced strong negative publicity from critics and fans , who commented that " she had gone too far " and that her career was over . Later on the song " Human Nature " from her sixth studio album Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) , Madonna addressed the public backlash the book was still receiving , particularly with the lines " Did I say something wrong ? Oops , I didn 't know I couldn 't talk about sex . I must have been crazy , " as well as the line " What was I thinking ? " .
The perfect iconic goddess of True Blue had all gone . In the same way that sixties beauties like Nico , Marianne Faithfull and Brigitte Bardot set about destroying their beauty after they were famous , the very thing they felt limited them , Madonna annihilated hers . Within a few short years she moved from teasing flirtation to desperate sexual display . It is ironic that after the triumph of Like a Prayer , she hits this bathos . Being a blond again set her off in the wrong direction . It was as if with the Sex book she showed the underside of the Hollywood dream .
Madonna herself would later say : " I wouldn 't say I regret it . I 've made mistakes and learned from them . Most people want to hear me say that I regret publishing my Sex book . I don 't . What was the problem was releasing my Erotica album at the same time . I love that album and it got overlooked . " However , author Andy Koopmans in his book Madonna ( 2002 ) would comment that the singer regretted both publishing Sex and recording Erotica and that the book " had affected everything she did later " . It was not until 2003 that Madonna would once again declare that she regretted nothing ; " I 'm not apologising in any shape or form [ ... ] I was interested in pushing buttons and being rebellious and being mischievous and trying to bend the rules . There was a lot of irony in the Sex book and I am poking fun at a lot of things and I am being kind of silly and adolescent and I am being very f you , if a man can do it , I can do it . " A year earlier on 2002 , Naomi Campbell confessed to " have a lot of respect for Madonna being bold enough to come out and do a book on sex . I 've never reneged on that " . However , in 2009 , rapper Vanilla Ice , who was Madonna 's boyfriend at the time of the book 's creation , confessed to not being happy with the book once he saw it . " My friends were like , ' Dude , that 's cool man ' , but I was like , ' I 'm dating her , it 's not cool to see your girlfriend with all these other people ' [ ... ] It kinda ruined the whole thing . I wonder what her kids think of that book ? Here she is writing kids ' books now but they 're going to see it and go , ' Mommy , what were you thinking ? ' " Another of the book 's models , actress Isabella Rossellini , told Out magazine that she regretted her participation on the book ; " I don 't think the book worked , even though the photos were extraordinary , and some of them quite memorable . I think there was a little bit of a moralistic sort of ' I 'll teach you how to be free ! ' – and that bothered the hell out of me . "
Later reviews towards Sex have become more positive . The authors of The Porning of America : The Rise of Porn Culture , What It Means , and Where We Go from Here ( 2008 ) have commented that " the book is particularly interesting in the way that , like many of Madonna 's works , it portrays sex in terms of domination and power " , whereas Jane Raphaely , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Cosmopolitan praised Madonna 's " liberated behavior on Sex [ ... ] the fact that she takes all forms of pornography and systematically demystifies it by putting it under her control " , in an article in 1996 . Brian McNair , author of Striptease Culture : Sex , Media and the Democratisation of Desire ( 2002 ) praised this period of Madonna 's career , saying that she had " porno elegance " and that " Sex is a cultural phenomenon of global proportions and thanks to this Madonna established her iconic status and cultural influence " . Priya Elan from The Guardian , wrote : " That the Sex book came after a record @-@ breaking album and tour felt like a shrinkwrapped curve ball . But Madge was expressing something unique " . Elan felt that the book was part of a " slower reveal that began with confessional tracks such as ' Oh Father ' ( from 1989 's Like a Prayer ) and continued with the many scenes of narcissism captured in [ the documentary ] In Bed With Madonna " .
= = Legacy = =
Sex is now considered a bold , post @-@ feminist , work of art , besides being labeled a " cultural book " . Martin Amis from The Observer wrote an essay discussing the book 's cultural meaning . Critical theorist Douglas Kellner affirmed that with Sex " Madonna became herself , an artifact of pop culture " . French academic writer Georges Claude Guilbert ( author of three books about Madonna ) described Sex as one of the most successful publicity stunts in history whereas Russell W. Belk , author of Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing mentioned that the book is a quality product in marketing . In 1992 , Madonna had generated more than US $ 500 million ( $ 843 @,@ 134 @,@ 930 in 2016 dollars ) to Time Warner in sales of both albums and the Sex book , despite the negative feedback . However , Taraborrelli commented in his book , Madonna : An Intimate Biography , that those " who knew Madonna well at that time , knew what was really going on with her : the Sex book — and the outrageous antics that preceded it and would follow it — was really just something she used as a barrier between her and the rest of the world . " For years it had seemed to Madonna that both her personal and professional life was extremely scrutinized by the public and media , and although she had started this scrutinizing by her provocative works , she was tired of it . Being vexed at this interest in her personal life , Madonna fought back by creating the persona of a renegade , something so outrageous as to defy explanation , something found objectionable by most people . Taraborrelli said that in Madonna 's view , " she had no other way of fighting back " . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert analyzed the singer 's provocative attempt in an article published in the newspaper :
Madonna 's motive for baring her breasts to the public feels more like personal gratification , less like commitment to a cause . She 's not out to change the world . Let 's face it : Few people get erotic in front of millions of viewers for purely selfless political reasons . It 's hard to escape the view of Madonna as a difficult Catholic adolescent aiming the finger at everything repressive . And many of her songs are addressed to an authority figure of her youth – from God and Jesus Christ to her own father . The heart of Madonna 's outrageousness seems to lie beneath her liberal rationales , as if she 's acting out something private and the world is her couch , not to mention her bank . Her politics are largely Electral .
According to some writers , Sex also helped Madonna make a name in the porn industry , and earned her the title of S & M 's first cultural ambassador and was praised for recreating " porn @-@ chic " . Humberto Quiroga Lavié pointed out that it was the fact that Sex was considered pornographic that helped it become a bestseller . Steve Bachmann , on his book Simulating Sex : Aesthetic Representations of Erotic Activity pointed out that " perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of Madonna 's sexual phenomenon is the extent to which her book marked a new threshold in the pornographic franchise " . McNair wrote in his book that " Sex brought out the personal underground to the surface of pop culture " . London art critic Sarah Kent wrote in Time Out magazine that the timing of Sex was " impeccable . Obsessions about the human body was in vogue , with Madonna 's book as well as artist Andres Serrano 's " cumming shots " and Jeff Koons ' The Jeff Koons Handbook , the latter portrayed fairytale pictures of the artist having sex with his pornographic actor wife , Cicciolina .
Sex has also become an important book in the LGBT community . Ben Shapiro , author of Porn Generation : How Social Liberalism Is Corrupting Our Future wrote that due to its iconic status " Sex adorns the coffee tables of hundreds of gay men and sperm banks " . Mark Blankenship , from the LGBT @-@ oriented website New Now Next stated that " literature changed forever " with the publishing of Sex . Madonna 's portrayal of lesbian love scenes in the book sparked debates about her own sexual orientation . This was an adjunct to the singer 's public relationship with comedian Sandra Bernhard , with whom she cavorted around , visiting lesbian night @-@ clubs as well as partying . The LGBT community felt it was an important portrayal for them . They debated whether Madonna was " ripping " them off for publicity . As Carolin Grace from Diva magazine noted : " Madonna became meaningful in early nineties , when Sex came out , and at that point lesbian culture was really changing . " She noted how women were coming out about their sexuality and the book 's handling of the taboo issue were " a legacy , our contribution to the show . The lesbian sub @-@ cultural references borrowed by Madonna aren 't our only possessions . " O 'Brien argues in her book Madonna : Like an Icon , that the book had a confusing philosophy . According to the female critics , who pointed out the vacuousness of Madonna 's remarks about porn and abuse , the singer did not have a correct idea that behind these fantasies the " reality is too hard for her to endure " , referring to the daily hustles that women have to face at red light districts and brothels . The author felt that despite the courageous premise of genuine exploration of queer sex , the book crossed over into pornography and a wrong portrayal for the community , while being flippant and commercial . She drew an example of the death of pornographic actor Joey Stefano , one of the models of the book , from drug overdose . Stefano had been thrilled to be a part of the book , but was underpaid . Once Madonna and her team were done with the shoot , " they packed up and left the Gaiety ... They left behind the mundane reality and the boys who have to deal with it seven days a week . "
Sex has also become an object of modern culture references . American performance artist Ann Magnuson , who had worked with Madonna on the 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan , released a parody of the book 's photo sessions , where she simulated sex with a giant stuffed bear . In 2010 , writer @-@ performer Greg Scarnici released a book parody of Sex , titled Sex in Drag , which featured over 70 parodied images from the book . In a deleted scene from a 1993 episode ( Krusty Gets Kancelled ) of the animated sitcom The Simpsons , aired as part of The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular , Krusty the Clown attempts to market a book extremely similar to Sex as a means of resolving his financial woes . Krusty is seen in a suggestive pose on the front cover . Unlike Madonna , however , Krusty apparently never appeared fully nude , as he quickly claimed that he used a body double . In 2008 , Madonna 's look and attire she wore to the Sex pre @-@ release party was ranked by People magazine as one of Madonna 's " 50 Looks We Can 't Forget " . In April 2012 , a nude picture of Madonna taken by Meisel was put up for sale . The picture , an outtake from the book , features a naked Madonna lying on a bed , sporting bleach @-@ blonde hair and dark eye make @-@ up , smoking a cigarette and partially covered by a sheet . The picture was bought by an unnamed collector for almost US $ 24 @,@ 000 ( $ 24 @,@ 737 in 2016 dollars ) . In 2011 , according to the BookFinder.com , Sex was the most requested out @-@ of @-@ circulation publication and still remains the best @-@ selling coffee table book . In 2015 , the book was included on Rolling Stone 's list of " 20 Great Moments in Rock Star Nudity " . Author Keith Harris wrote : " No celebrity had ever commanded control over her own naked image so audaciously as Madonna in [ Sex ] " .
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= Troll Satellite Station =
Troll Satellite Station ( Norwegian : Troll satelittstasjon ) , commonly abbreviated TrollSat , is a satellite ground station located at Troll in Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . The earth station is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services ( KSAT ) , a joint venture between the Kongsberg Group and the Norwegian Space Center . The radomes are located on top of Jutulsessen , a nunatak area next to the research station at Troll . The research station is operated by the Norwegian Polar Institute , which also maintains the earth station . TrollSat started operations on 1 March 2007 and was officially opened on 20 January 2008 .
The earth station serves low Earth orbit satellites and consists of a 7 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 24 ft ) antenna capable of S band and X band reception . Information is relayed using a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 16 ft ) and a 7 @.@ 6 @-@ meter ( 25 ft ) C band uplink . Operations control is carried out by KSAT in Tromsø , Norway . Satellites using TrollSat include Radarsat , GeoEye , WorldView and Galileo . The system is coordinated with Svalbard Satellite Station ( SvalSat ) in Longyearbyen , Norway , which combined offer downloading twice per orbit .
= = History = =
Troll was established as a research station by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1990 . The station took its name from the surrounding jagged mountains , which resemble trolls of Norse mythology . Already at this time , there were proposals by the Norwegian Space Centre to establish an earth station at Troll , but the lack of all @-@ year activity stranded the plans . Instead , SvalSat was established to serve as an earth station for NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) . Longyearbyen was selected because of its high latitude , which allows all satellites with an orbit above 500 kilometers ( 300 mi ) to use only a single ground station — yet download from every orbit . The Svalbard facility opened on 15 April 1999 and was originally owned by the Norwegian Space Centre . Kongsberg Satellite Services was established in 2002 to jointly operate SvalSat and Tromsø Satellite Station ( TSS ) .
In 2003 , Norwegian authorities decided to extend its operations in Antarctica by establishing an all @-@ year research station . By then , Norway was the only country with a territorial claim to Antarctica to not have an all @-@ year research station on the continent . Construction was carried out from December 2004 through February 2005 . To ease logistics , Norway took the initiative to establish Dronning Maud Land Air Network ( DROMLAN ) , a cooperation between the countries with bases in Queen Maud Land to streamline transport costs . The permanent Troll Airfield was opened on 11 February 2005 .
The basis for TrollSat was an agreement signed in 2006 between the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Space Centre and Kongsberg Satellite Services . It specified that the Space Centre would install a Kongsberg @-@ built radome , while the Polar Institute would provide power and undertake maintenance . In exchange , they could freely use the earth station for their own transmission needs . The commercial activities would be carried out by Kongsberg Satellite Services . A concern was raised regarding if satellite downloading would violate the Antarctic Treaty , but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs negated . The station started operations on 1 March 2007 and was officially opened by Prime Minister of Norway , Jens Stoltenberg .
= = Operation = =
SvalSat is owned and operated by Kongsberg Satellite Services ( KSAT ) , which is again equally owned by Kongsberg Defence and Aerospace and the Norwegian Space Centre , the latter which is again owned by the Ministry of Trade and Industry . KSAT is not tied to a particular operator of satellites and the antennas communicate with multiple satellites , thus reducing costs compared to dedicated ground stations . For a typical satellite , data is delivered to the end customer no more than thirty minutes after downloading .
KSAT operates two polar ground stations optimized for low Earth orbit ( LEO ) satellites , the other being SvalSat at Longyearbyen in Svalbard , Norway . These are the only two ground stations able to communicate with all orbits of LEO satellites . By using both stations , customers can download data twice per orbit , twenty @-@ six times per day , with only a forty @-@ minute maximum delay .
The ground station is connected to KSAT 's Tromsø Network Operation Center , which is also connected to the TSS and SvalSat . This allows for redundancy as also TSS and TrollSat can be used to communicate with the satellites . The operation center is responsible for backup , scheduling and conflict resolution . The facility uses interoperability and shared ground services , such as a common protocol for communication and similar design of the antennas , to increase flexibility and reduce costs and risk .
TrollSat sees only a fraction of the business of SvalSat . Troll is used for downloading from the Canadian Space Agency 's Radarsat @-@ 1 and Radarsat @-@ 2 , and the private GeoEye @-@ 1 , WorldView @-@ 1 and WorldView @-@ 2 . It will also be one of thirty ground stations for the European Space Agency ( ESA ) ' s satellite navigation system Galileo , and is Norway 's main contribution to the project . It further serves ESA 's Envisat and several National Aeronautics and Space Administration satellites .
= = Facilities = =
Troll is located in the eastern part of Princess Martha Coast in Queen Maud Land , on the nunatak bare ground area Jutulsessen , at 1 @,@ 270 meters ( 4 @,@ 170 ft ) above mean sea level . Troll is completely surrounded by the Antarctic ice sheet and is 235 kilometers ( 146 mi ) from the coast . The research station facilities are owned by the Government of Norway through the Norwegian Directorate of Public Construction and Property . Operation of the facility carried by another government agency , the Norwegian Polar Institute . The station has a cold and dry climate , being located in a desert . The annual mean temperature is − 25 ° C ( − 13 ° F ) , with the summer temperature able to reach about 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) , and the lowest during the winter at − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) . Storms , which can occur throughout the year , can occasionally make outdoor activity impossible .
TrollSat targets satellites in a polar orbit and consists of a single radome with an 7 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 24 ft ) low Earth orbit antenna capable of S band and X band reception . To relay the information , TrollSat has a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 16 ft ) and a 7 @.@ 6 @-@ meter ( 25 ft ) C band uplink to provide 45 megabit per second broadband connection to Europe and North America .
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= Carolina Panthers =
The Carolina Panthers are a professional American football team based in Charlotte , North Carolina . The Panthers compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) , as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) South division . The club is worth approximately US $ 1 @.@ 56 billion , according to Forbes , and is controlled by founder Jerry Richardson and his family , who have a 48 percent stake ; the remainder of the team is held by a group of 14 limited partners . The team president is Danny Morrison , and the head coach is Ron Rivera .
The Panthers were announced as the league 's 29th franchise in 1993 , and began play in 1995 . The Panthers played well in their first two years , finishing 7 – 9 in 1995 ( an all @-@ time best for an NFL expansion team 's first season ) and 12 – 4 the following year , winning the NFC West before ultimately losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game . They did not have another winning season until 2003 , when they won the NFC Championship Game and reached Super Bowl XXXVIII , losing 32 – 29 to the New England Patriots . After recording playoff appearances in 2005 and 2008 , the team failed to record another playoff appearance until 2013 , the first of three consecutive NFC South titles . After losing in the divisional round to the San Francisco 49ers in 2013 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2014 , the Panthers finally returned to the Super Bowl in 2016 , but lost to the Denver Broncos . The Panthers have reached the playoffs seven times , advancing to four NFC Championship Games and two Super Bowls . They have won six division titles , one in the NFC West and five in the NFC South .
The Carolina Panthers are legally registered as Panther Football , LLC . The team is headquartered in Bank of America Stadium in uptown Charlotte ; also the team 's home field . They are one of the few NFL teams to own the stadium they play in , which is legally registered as Panthers Stadium , LLC . The Panthers are supported throughout the Carolinas ; although the team has played its home games in Charlotte since 1996 , it played home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson , South Carolina during its first season . The team hosts its annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg , South Carolina . The Panthers ' uniform is a black , white , and blue jersey , typically worn with white and silver pants .
= = History = =
On December 15 , 1987 , entrepreneur Jerry Richardson announced his bid for an NFL expansion franchise in the Carolinas . A North Carolina native , Richardson was a former wide receiver on the Baltimore Colts who had used his 1959 league championship bonus to co @-@ found the Hardee 's restaurant chain , later becoming president and CEO of TW Services . Richardson drew his inspiration to pursue an NFL franchise from George Shinn , who had made a successful bid for an expansion National Basketball Association ( NBA ) team in Charlotte , the Charlotte Hornets . Richardson founded Richardson Sports , a partnership consisting of himself , his family , and a number of businessmen from North and South Carolina were also recruited to be limited partners . Richardson looked at four potential locations for a stadium , ultimately choosing uptown Charlotte . To highlight the demand for professional football in the Carolinas , Richardson Sports held preseason games around the area from 1989 to 1991 . The first two games were held at Carter – Finley Stadium in Raleigh , North Carolina , and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , while the third and final game was held at Williams @-@ Brice Stadium in Columbia , South Carolina . The matchups were between existing NFL teams . In 1991 , the group formally filed an application for the open expansion spot , and on October 26 , 1993 , the 28 NFL owners unanimously named the Carolina Panthers as the 29th member of the NFL .
The Panthers first competed in the 1995 NFL season ; they were one of two expansion teams to begin play that year , the other being the Jacksonville Jaguars . The Panthers were put in the NFC West to increase the size of that division to five teams ; there were already two other southeastern teams in the division , the Atlanta Falcons and the New Orleans Saints . Former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers was named the first head coach . The team finished its inaugural season 7 – 9 , the best performance ever from a first @-@ year expansion team . They performed even better in their second season , finishing with a 12 – 4 record and winning the NFC West division , as well as securing a first @-@ round bye . The Panthers beat the Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round before losing the NFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl champions , the Green Bay Packers . The team managed only a 7 – 9 finish in 1997 and slipped to 4 – 12 in 1998 , leading to Capers ' dismissal as head coach .
The Panthers hired former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert to replace Capers , and he led the team to an 8 – 8 record in 1999 . The team finished 7 – 9 in 2000 and fell to 1 – 15 in 2001 , winning their first game but losing their last 15 . This performance tied the NFL record for most losses in a single season and it broke the record held by the winless 1976 Buccaneers for most consecutive losses in a single season ( both records have since been broken by the 2008 Lions ) , leading the Panthers to fire Seifert .
After the NFL 's expansion to 32 teams in 2002 , the Panthers were relocated from the NFC West to the newly created NFC South division ; The Panthers ' rivalries with the Falcons and Saints were maintained , and they would be joined by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox was hired to replace Seifert and led the team to a 7 – 9 finish in 2002 . Although the team 's defense gave up very few yards , ranking the second @-@ best in the NFL in terms of yards conceded , they were hindered by an offense that gained very few yards , ranking as the second @-@ worst in the league in terms of yards gained . The Panthers improved to 11 – 5 in the 2003 regular season , winning the NFC South and making it to Super Bowl XXXVIII before losing to the New England Patriots 32 – 29 in what was immediately hailed by sportswriter Peter King as the " Greatest Super Bowl of all time " . King felt the game " was a wonderful championship battle , full of everything that makes football dramatic , draining , enervating , maddening , fantastic , exciting " and praised , among other things , the unpredictability , coaching , and conclusion . The game is still viewed as one of the best Super Bowls of all time , and in the opinion of Charlotte @-@ based NPR reporter Scott Jagow , the Panthers ' Super Bowl appearance represented the arrival of Charlotte onto the national scene .
Following a rocky 1 – 7 start in 2004 , the Panthers rebounded to win six of their last seven games despite losing 14 players for the season due to injury . They lost their last game to New Orleans , finishing the 2004 season at 7 – 9 . Had they won the game , the Panthers would have made the playoffs . The team improved to 11 – 5 in 2005 , finishing second in the division behind Tampa Bay and clinching a playoff berth as a wild @-@ card . In the first round of the playoffs , the Panthers went on the road to face the New York Giants , beating them 23 – 0 for the NFL 's first playoff shutout against a home team since 1980 . The following week , they beat Chicago 29 – 21 on the road , but lost key players Julius Peppers , a defensive end , and DeShaun Foster , a running back , who were both injured during the game . The Panthers were then defeated 34 – 14 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Championship Game , ending their season . Although the Panthers went into the 2006 season as favorites to win the NFC South , they finished with a disappointing 8 – 8 record . The team finished the 2007 season with a 7 – 9 record after losing quarterback Jake Delhomme early in the season due to an elbow injury . In 2008 , the Panthers rebounded with a 12 – 4 regular season record , winning the NFC South and securing a first @-@ round bye . They were eliminated in the divisional round of the playoffs , losing 33 – 13 to the Arizona Cardinals after Delhomme turned the ball over six times . Delhomme 's struggles carried over into the 2009 season , where he threw 18 interceptions in the first 11 games before breaking a finger in his throwing hand . The Panthers were at a 4 – 7 record before Delhomme 's season @-@ ending injury , and his backup , Matt Moore , led the team to a 4 – 1 finish to the season for an 8 – 8 overall record .
In 2010 , after releasing Delhomme in the offseason , the Panthers finished with a league @-@ worst ( 2 – 14 ) ; their offense was the worst in the league . John Fox 's contract expired after the season ended , and the team did not retain him or his staff . They hired Ron Rivera to replace Fox as head coach and drafted Auburn 's Heisman Trophy @-@ winning quarterback Cam Newton with the first overall pick in the 2011 NFL Draft . The Panthers opened the 2011 season 2 – 6 , but finished with a 6 – 10 record , and Newton was awarded the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award after setting the NFL record for most rushing touchdowns from a quarterback ( 14 ) in a single season and becoming the first rookie NFL quarterback to throw for over 4 @,@ 000 yards in a single season . He also was the first rookie quarterback to rush for over 500 yards in a single season . In 2012 , the Panthers again opened the season poorly , losing five out of their first six games , leading longtime general manager Marty Hurney to be fired in response . The team slid to a 2 – 8 record before winning five of their last six games , resulting in a 7 – 9 record . This strong finish helped save Rivera 's job . The Panthers would have a winning season the following year , finishing with a 12 – 4 record and winning their third NFC South title and another playoff bye , but they were beaten by the 49ers in the Divisional Round . In 2014 , the Panthers opened the season with two wins , but after 12 games sat at only 3 – 8 – 1 due in part to a seven @-@ game winless streak . A four @-@ game winning streak to end the season secured the team their second consecutive NFC South championship and playoff berth , despite a losing record of 7 – 8 – 1 . The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals 27 – 16 in the wild card round to advance to the divisional playoffs , where they lost to eventual NFC champion Seattle 31 @-@ 17 . The 2015 season saw the Panthers start the season 14 – 0 and finish the season 15 – 1 , which tied for the best regular season record in NFC history . The Panthers also secured their third consecutive NFC South championship , as well as their first overall top seeded playoff berth . In the 2015 – 16 playoffs , the Panthers defeated the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Divisional playoffs 31 – 24 , after shutting them out in the first half 31 @-@ 0 and the Arizona Cardinals 49 – 15 ( highest score in NFC Championship history ) in the NFC Championship Game to advance to Super Bowl 50 , their first Super Bowl appearance since the 2003 season . The Panthers lost a defensive struggle to the AFC Champion Denver Broncos 24 @-@ 10 .
= = Logo and uniforms = =
In choosing the team name , the Richardsons did not run focus groups with potential fans . Their intention had always been the ' Panthers ' ; Jerry Richardson began driving a car with the license plate ' PNTHRS ' near the end of 1989 . By the time they had been announced as the 29th NFL team in October 1993 , the Panthers ' logo and helmet design had already been finalized , but the uniform design was still under creation . After discussion , the Panthers organization decided on jerseys colored white , black , and blue , and pants colored white and silver . The exact tone of blue , which they decided would be " process blue " ( a shade lighter than Duke 's and darker than North Carolina 's ) , was the most difficult color to choose .
The team 's uniform has remained largely the same since its creation , with only minor alterations such as changing the sock color of the team 's black uniforms from blue to black and changing the team 's shoes from white to black . Richardson , a self @-@ described traditionalist , said that no major uniform changes would be made in his lifetime , but the Panthers changed their logo and logotype in 2012 , the first such change in team history . According to the team , the changes were designed to give their logo an " aggressive , contemporary look " as well to give it a more three @-@ dimensional feel .
The Panthers have three main jersey colors : black , white , and blue . Their blue jerseys , designated their alternate uniforms , are the newest and were introduced in 2002 . NFL regulations allow the team to use the blue jersey up to two times in any given season . In all other games , the team must wear either their white or black jerseys ; in NFL games , the home team decides whether to wear a dark or white jersey , while the away team wears the opposite . The Panthers typically pair their white jerseys with white pants , while the black and blue jerseys are paired with silver pants ; there have only been a few exceptions to these combinations . The first such instance was in 1998 , when the team paired their white jerseys with silver pants in a game against the Indianapolis Colts . The second instance was in 2012 during a game against the Denver Broncos , when they paired their black jerseys with new black pants ; this created an all @-@ black uniform , with the exception of blue socks and silver helmets . The decision to wear blue socks was made by team captain Steve Smith , who felt the blue socks gave the uniforms a more distinct appearance compared with other teams that have all @-@ black uniforms . The all @-@ black uniforms won the " Greatest Uniform in NFL History " contest , a fan @-@ voted contest run by NFL.com in July 2013 . In July 2013 , the team 's equipment manager , Jackie Miles , said the Panthers intended to use the all @-@ black uniform more in the future . The Panthers wore the all @-@ black uniform three times the following season , once each in the preseason and regular season , and the third time during the home divisional round playoff game vs the 49ers . During the Panthers ' 2015 Thanksgiving Day game against the Dallas Cowboys , they debuted an all @-@ blue uniform as part of Nike 's " Color Rush " series .
The team 's uniform did not change significantly after Nike became the NFL 's jersey supplier in 2012 , but the collar was altered to honor former Panthers player and coach Sam Mills by featuring the phrase " Keep Pounding " . Nike had conceived the idea , and the team supported the concept as a way to expose newer fans to the legacy of Mills , who died of cancer in 2005 . Mills had introduced the phrase , which has since become a team slogan , in a speech that he gave to the players and coaches prior to their 2003 playoff game against Dallas ; in the speech , Mills compared his fight against cancer with the team 's on @-@ field battle , saying " When I found out I had cancer , there were two things I could do – quit or keep pounding . I 'm a fighter . I kept pounding . You 're fighters , too . Keep pounding ! "
= = Stadium and practice facilities = =
The Panthers played their first season at Memorial Stadium in Clemson , South Carolina , as their facility in uptown Charlotte was still under construction . Ericsson Stadium , called Bank of America Stadium since 2004 , opened in the summer of 1996 . Bank of America Stadium is owned entirely by the Panthers , making them one of the few teams in the NFL to own the facility they play in . The stadium was specially designed by HOK Sports Facilities Group for football . It also serves as the headquarters and administrative office of the Panthers . On some days of the week , the stadium offers public tours for a fee . Private tours for groups are offered for a fee seven days a week , though there are some exceptions , and such tours must be arranged in advance . Two bronze panther statues flank each of the stadium 's three main entrances ; they are the largest sculptures ever commissioned in the United States . The names of the team 's original PSL owners are engraved on the base of each statue . The two people in the Panthers Hall of Honor , team executive Mike McCormack and linebacker Sam Mills , are honored with life @-@ sized bronze statues outside the stadium . Mills , in addition to being the only player in the Hall of Honor , is the only player to have had his jersey number ( # 51 ) retired by the Panthers as of 2016 .
The Panthers have three open @-@ air fields next to Bank of America Stadium where they currently hold their practices ; during the 1995 season , when the team played their home games in South Carolina , the team held their practices at Winthrop University in Rock Hill , South Carolina . Because the practice fields , along with the stadium , are located in uptown Charlotte , the fields are directly visible from skyscrapers as well as from a four @-@ story condominium located across the street . According to Mike Cranston , a running joke said that the Panthers ' division rivals had pooled their resources to purchase a room on the building 's top floor , and that a fire at the condominium was caused by the Panthers organization . In order to prevent people from seeing inside the field while the team is practicing , the team has added " strategically planted trees and a tarp over the ... fence surrounding the fields " . Additionally , they employ a security team to watch for and chase away any people who stop alongside the fence surrounding the field . In the event of bad weather , the team moves their practices to an indoor sports facility about 10 miles from the stadium . The team does not own this facility . The Panthers have hosted their annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg , South Carolina , since 1995 .
= = Culture = =
Pat Yasinskas of ESPN.com observed that while there is " a bit of a wine @-@ and @-@ cheese atmosphere at Panthers games ... there is a strong core of diehard fans who bring energy to Bank of America Stadium . Charlotte lives and dies with the Panthers because there aren 't a lot of other options in the sports world " . The Panthers are also supported in South Carolina ; Nikki Haley , the state 's Governor , declared July 30 , 2012 , " Carolina Panthers Day " in her state , saying that " when it comes to professional teams , the Carolina Panthers are the team that South Carolina calls their own " . Sports Illustrated graded the Panthers as having the 10th highest " NFL Fan Value Experience " in 2007 , attributing much of the fan atmosphere to the team 's newness when compared to the established basketball fanbase . They also observed that the stadium has scattered parking lots , each of which has a different tailgating style . Some have fried chicken , pork , or Carolina @-@ style barbecue , while others have live bands and televisions . Pickup football games in the parking lots are common , but fans tend to " behave themselves " , in part due to blue laws that prevent the sale of alcohol before noon on Sundays .
The Carolina Panthers have sold out all home games since December 2002 , and their home attendance has ranked in the NFL 's top ten since 2006 .
= = = Mascot , cheerleaders , and drumline = = =
Sir Purr , an anthropomorphic black cat who wears a jersey numbered ' 00 ' , has been the Panthers ' mascot since their first season . During games , Sir Purr provides sideline entertainment through skits and " silly antics " . The mascot participates in a number of community events year @-@ round , including a monthly visit to the patients at Levine Children 's Hospital . Sir Purr also hosts the annual Mascot Bowl , an event which pits pro and college mascots against each other during halftime at a selected Panthers home game .
The team 's cheerleaders are the Carolina Topcats , a group of 24 women who lead cheers and entertain fans at home games . The TopCats participate in both corporate and charity events . The team 's drumline is PurrCussion , an ensemble of snare , tenor , and bass drummers as well as cymbal players . PurrCussion performs for fans outside the stadium and introduces players prior to home games ; it consists of drummers from across the Carolinas .
= = = Keep Pounding Drum = = =
Starting with the 2012 season , the Panthers introduced the Keep Pounding Drum , inspired by the aforementioned motivational speech by Sam Mills before the team 's 2004 playoff game against the Cowboys . Prior to each home game , an honorary drummer hits the six @-@ foot tall drum four times to signify the four quarters of an American football game . According to the team , the drummers " come from a variety of backgrounds and occupations , but all have overcome a great trial or adversity that has not only made them strong but also pushes them to make others around them stronger " . Drummers have included current and former Panthers players , military veterans , Make @-@ A @-@ Wish children , and athletes from other sports , including NBA MVP and Charlotte native Stephen Curry , US women 's national soccer team players Whitney Engen and Heather O 'Reilly , and 6 @-@ time NASCAR Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson .
= = = Songs and Traditions = = =
During the inaugural season of the Panthers , the team had an official fight song , which the team played before each home game . The song , " Stand and Cheer " , remains the team 's official fight song , but the team does not typically play it before home games . Due to negative fan reaction " Stand and Cheer " was pulled in 1999 . Since 2006 , the song has returned . In recent seasons the team has played Neil Diamond 's " Sweet Caroline " and Chairmen of the Board 's " I 'd Rather Be In Carolina " immediately after home victories . A " keep pounding " chant was introduced during the 2015 season which starts before the opening kickoff of each home game . As prompted by the video boards , one side of the stadium shouts " keep " and the other side replies with " pounding " . The chant is similar to ones that take place at college football games .
= = = Charity and community work = = =
The Carolina Panthers support a variety of non @-@ profits in North and South Carolina through the Carolina Panthers Charities . Four annual scholarships are awarded to student athletes through the Carolina Panthers Graduate Scholarship and the Carolina Panthers Players Sam Mills Memorial Scholarship programs . Carolina Panthers Charities also offers grants to non @-@ profits that support education , athletics , and human services in the community . The Panthers and Fisher Athletic has provided six equipment grants to high school football teams in the Carolinas each year since 2010 . Carolina Panthers Charities raises funds at three annual benefits : the Countdown to Kickoff Luncheon , the team 's first public event each season ; Football 101 , an educational workshop for fans ; and the Weekend Warrior Flag Football Tournament , a two @-@ day non @-@ contact flag football tournament . Another annual benefit is Taste of the Panthers , a gourmet food tasting which raises funds for Second Harvest Food Bank of Metrolina .
In 2003 the Panthers and Carolinas HealthCare Foundation established the Keep Pounding Fund , a fundraising initiative to support cancer research and patient support programs . The Panthers community has raised more than $ 1 @.@ 4 million for the fund through direct donations , charity auctions , blood drives , and an annual 5k stadium run . The Panthers and Levine Children 's Hospital coordinate monthly hospital visits and VIP game @-@ day experiences for terminally ill or hospitalized children .
In addition to these team @-@ specific efforts , the Panthers participate in a number of regular initiatives promoted by the NFL and USA Football , the league 's youth football development partner . These include USA Football Month , held throughout August to encourage and promote youth football ; A Crucial Catch , the league 's Breast Cancer Awareness Month program ; Salute to Service , held throughout November to support military families and personnel ; and PLAY 60 , which encourages young NFL fans to be active for at least 60 minutes each day .
= = = Radio and television = = =
Radio coverage is provided by flagship station WBT ( 1110 AM ) and through the Carolina Panthers Radio Network , with affiliates throughout the Carolinas , Georgia , and Virginia . The Panthers ' radio broadcasting team is led by Mick Mixon , Eugene Robinson , and Jim Szoke . The radio network broadcasts pre @-@ game coverage , games with commentary , and post @-@ game wrap @-@ ups . It also live @-@ broadcasts Panther Talk , a weekly event at Bank of America Stadium which offers fans a chance to meet a player and ask questions of the staff .
National broadcasting and cable television networks cover regular season games , as well as some preseason games . Locally , Fox owned and operated station WJZY airs most regular @-@ season games , while any home games against an AFC team air on CBS affiliate WBTV . Any appearances on Monday Night Football are simulcast on ABC affiliate WSOC @-@ TV , while any late @-@ season appearances on Thursday Night Football are simulcast on WBTV . Sunday night and some Thursday night games are aired on NBC affiliate WCNC @-@ TV .
All preseason games and team specials are televised by the Carolina Panthers Television Network on flagship station WCCB in Charlotte and fourteen affiliate stations throughout the Carolinas , Georgia , Virginia , and Tennessee . The television broadcasting team consists of play @-@ by @-@ play commentator Mike Morgan , color analyst and former Panthers player Mike Rucker , and sideline reporter Pete Yanity . The network also hosts The Panthers Huddle , a weekly show focusing on the Panthers ' upcoming opponent . Panthers Gameday , the Panthers ' postgame show , is hosted by sports anchor Russ Owens and former Panthers lineman Kevin Donnalley on WCNC @-@ TV .
The Panthers also offer game broadcasts in Spanish on an eight @-@ station network fronted by WGSP @-@ FM in Pageland , South Carolina , as well as additional radio affiliates in Mexico . Jaime Moreno provides the play @-@ by @-@ play while his nephew , Luis Moreno , Jr . , is the color commentator . They have become popular even among English @-@ speaking Panther fans for their high @-@ energy , colorful announcing style .
= = Rivalries = =
The Panthers have developed heated rivalries with the three fellow members of the NFC South ( the Atlanta Falcons , Tampa Bay Buccaneers , and New Orleans Saints ) . The team 's fiercest rivals are the Falcons and Buccaneers .
The Falcons are a natural geographic rival for the Panthers , as Atlanta is only 230 miles ( 370 kilometers ) south on I @-@ 85 . The two teams have played each other twice a year since the Panthers ' inception , and games between the two teams feature large contingents of Panthers fans at Atlanta 's Georgia Dome .
The Panthers ' rivalry with Tampa Bay has been described as the most intense in the NFC South . The rivalry originated in 2002 with the formation of the NFC South , but became particularly heated before the 2003 season with verbal bouts between players on the two teams . It escalated further when the Panthers went to Tampa Bay and beat them in what ESPN.com writer Pat Yasinskas described as " one of the most physical contests in recent memory " . The rivalry has resulted in a number of severe injuries for players on both teams , some of which have been caused by foul play . One of these plays , an illegal hit on Tampa Bay punt returner Clifton Smith , sparked a brief melee between both teams in 2009 .
During their time in the NFC West , the Panthers began developing a rivalry with the San Francisco 49ers . This rivalry faded after the NFL moved the Panthers out of the NFC West .
The Panthers also have a new rivalry with the Seattle Seahawks after playing them six times since the 2012 season , including twice in the playoffs . Carolina is 2 – 4 against Seattle during this stretch and 1 – 1 in the NFL playoffs .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Hall of Honor = = =
The Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor was established in 1997 to honor individuals for their contributions to the Carolina Panthers organization . Each inductee is honored with a life @-@ sized bronze statue outside of Bank of America Stadium 's North Entrance , while the names of each original PSL owner are written on the black granite base at each of the six panther statues . A rule added in the mid @-@ 2000s by the Panthers organization requires all potential inductees to be retired for at least five years before they are eligible for induction .
= = = Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees = = =
Nominees for the Pro Football Hall of Fame , which " honor [ s ] individuals who have made outstanding contributions to professional football " , are determined by a 46 @-@ member selection committee . At least 80 % of voters must approve the nominee for him to be inducted .
= = Ownership and administration = =
Jerry Richardson is the owner and founder of the Carolina Panthers . Richardson and his family own about 48 % of the team , with the remaining 52 % owned by a group of 14 limited partners . Richardson paid $ 206 million for the rights to start the team in 1993 ; according to Forbes , the Panthers are worth approximately $ 1 billion as of 2012 . They ranked the Carolina Panthers as the 16th @-@ most valuable NFL team and the 23rd most valuable sports team in the world .
Mike McCormack , a Hall of Fame lineman for the Cleveland Browns and former coach and executive for the Seattle Seahawks , was the Panthers ' first team president , presiding in that role from 1994 until his retirement in 1997 ; McCormack was inducted as the first person in the Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor later that year . Jerry Richardson 's son , Mark , was appointed as the team 's second president in 1997 and served in that role until he stepped down in 2009 . His brother Jon , who had been president of Bank of America Stadium , stepped down at the same time . The resignations of Mark and Jon Richardson were unexpected , as it was thought that the two would eventually take over the team from their father . Mark Richardson was replaced by Danny Morrison , who had previously served as the athletic director of both Texas Christian University and Wofford College , Richardson 's alma mater .
= = = Coaches = = =
The Carolina Panthers have had four head coaches . Dom Capers was the head coach from 1995 to 1998 and led the team to one playoff appearance . Counting playoff games , he finished with a record of 31 – 35 ( .470 ) . George Seifert coached the team from 1999 to 2001 , recording 16 wins and 32 losses ( .333 ) ; he is the only head coach in team history not to have led the team to a playoff appearance . John Fox , the team 's longest @-@ tenured head coach , led the team from 2002 to 2010 and coached the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl XXXVIII which the Panthers lost . Including playoff games , Fox ended his tenure with a 78 – 74 ( .513 ) record , making him the only Panthers coach to finish his tenure with the team with a winning record . Ron Rivera , the team 's current head coach , has held the position since 2011 and has led the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl 50 which the Panthers also lost . Counting playoff games , he has a career record of 50 – 35 – 1 ( .587 ) . Statistically , Rivera has the highest winning percentage of any Panthers head coach .
= = = Current staff = = =
= = Team records = =
Since they began playing football in 1995 , the Panthers have been to four NFC Championship Games ; they lost two ( 1996 and 2005 ) and won two ( 2003 and 2015 ) . The Panthers have won six division championships : the NFC West championship in 1996 and the NFC South championship in 2003 , 2008 , 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 . They are the first and only team to win the NFC South back to back and have won the NFC South more times than any other team in the division . They have finished as runners @-@ up in their division six times , finishing second @-@ place in the NFC West in 1997 and 1999 and finishing second @-@ place in the NFC South in 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , and 2012 . They have qualified for the playoffs 7 times , most recently in 2015 .
Kicker John Kasay is the team 's career points leader . Kasay scored 1 @,@ 482 points during his 16 seasons ( 1995 – 2010 ) with the Panthers . Quarterback Jake Delhomme , who played with the team from 2003 to 2009 , is the career passing leader , having thrown for 19 @,@ 258 yards over his seven seasons with the team . Running back DeAngelo Williams is the career rushing leader for the Carolina Panthers . Williams , during his tenure with the team ( 2006 – 2014 ) , rushed for 6 @,@ 846 yards with the Panthers . Wide receiver Steve Smith , the team 's leading receiver , recorded 12 @,@ 197 receiving yards during his 13 @-@ year ( 2001 – 2013 ) tenure with the team .
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= Unearthed Arcana =
Unearthed Arcana ( abbreviated UA ) is the title shared by two hardback books published for different editions of the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Both were designed as supplements to the core rulebooks , containing material that expanded upon other rules .
The original Unearthed Arcana was written primarily by Gary Gygax , and published by game publisher TSR in 1985 for use with the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons first edition rules . The book consisted mostly of material previously published in magazines , and included new races , classes , and other material to expand the rules in the Dungeon Masters Guide and Players Handbook . The book was notorious for its considerable number of errors , and was received negatively by the gaming press whose criticisms targeted the over @-@ powered races and classes , among other issues . Gygax intended to use the book 's content for a planned second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ; however , much of the book 's content was not reused in the second edition , which went into development shortly after Gygax 's departure from TSR .
A second book using the Unearthed Arcana title was produced by Wizards of the Coast for Dungeons & Dragons third edition in 2004 . The designers did not reproduce material from the original book , but instead attempted to emulate its purpose by providing variant rules and options to change the game itself .
= = Advanced Dungeons & Dragons = =
= = = Development history = = =
The original Unearthed Arcana was written by Gary Gygax with design and editing contributions by Jeff Grubb and Kim Mohan , respectively , and published by TSR in 1985 . Gygax reportedly produced the book to raise money as TSR was deeply in debt at the time . He announced in the March 1985 issue of Dragon magazine that Unearthed Arcana would be released in the summer of that year . He proposed the book as " an interim volume to expand the Dungeon Masters Guide and Players Handbook " , as the information was spread out in several places and difficult to keep track of . Unearthed Arcana was to include material previously published in Dragon , written by Gygax and updated and revised for the book . The book would also contain previously unpublished material , some of it written by other contributors to Dragon . According to British writer Paul Cockburn , some of the material in Unearthed Arcana had been previously published in Imagine magazine .
The original Unearthed Arcana contains errors in its text , which readers discovered and reported to Dragon magazine . Even some positive reviews of the book pointed out the considerable number of mistakes . Dragon editor Kim Mohan , with ideas from Gygax , Frank Mentzer , and Jeff Grubb , addressed the many errors found in the book . In the November 1985 issue of Dragon magazine , Mohan printed four pages of rules corrections as well as new supplementary material intended to be inserted into the book , and some explanations and justifications for items which were not actually errors , and compiled a two @-@ page list of type corrections meant to be pasted into further revisions of Unearthed Arcana . Dragon also devoted the entirety of its " Sage Advice " column in the January 1987 issue to answering readers ' questions about Unearthed Arcana , as a follow @-@ up to Mohan 's prior column . However , the errata were not incorporated into later printings of the manual .
The original Unearthed Arcana was reproduced in a premium edition with gilded pages , released on February 19 , 2013 , after the premium reprints of the 1st Edition Player 's Handbook , Dungeon Masters Guide , and Monster Manual . This reprint is the first printing of the book to be modified with the errata previously published in Dragon magazine incorporated into the corrected text .
= = = Contents = = =
The 128 @-@ page Unearthed Arcana was written for use with the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons first edition rules and was divided into two sections : one for players and one for the Dungeon Master ( or " DM " , the game organizer ) . The book provided new races , classes , and other expansion material . The book gives details on using " subraces " of the standard races , such as dark elves ( drow ) , and deep gnomes ( svirfneblin ) , for use as player characters and non @-@ player characters .
Unearthed Arcana includes the barbarian ( found in Dragon # 63 ) , cavalier ( found in Dragon # 72 ) , and thief @-@ acrobat ( found in Dragon # 69 ) character classes , and also includes expansions and revisions of the druid and ranger classes . The book presents a large addition to the range of character races , including the drow and svirfneblin . The book includes new weapons , and revised information on character level maximums for non @-@ human player characters . Unearthed Arcana details the weapon specialization rules , in which a fighter or ranger " can adopt a weapon as a special arm , and receive bonuses in its use " . The book also describes the comeliness attribute , and contains new spells . The DM 's section covers suggestions for handling player characters , social class and rank tables , many new magic items , weaponless combat rules , and nonhuman deities .
= = = Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition = = =
By 1985 Gygax was planning a second edition for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rules , and intended beginning work on this in 1986 . He intended to incorporate material from Unearthed Arcana , Oriental Adventures , and the original Players Handbook into the new edition 's Players Handbook . Gygax used the book to explore some ideas he had for the new edition , such as changing the mechanics for hit dice ( the measurement of a character 's " health " in the game ) , and altering the game 's mechanics to allow the game system to work other genres , and to allow characters to have skills that complement the character classes . Shortly after announcing his intentions for second edition , Gygax was removed as TSR 's President and Chairman of the Board . In 1986 he resigned all positions with TSR , leaving the shape and direction of the Dungeons & Dragons game to other designers .
The designers of second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons removed material from the original Players Handbook in the new edition , as well as much of the new material that had appeared in Unearthed Arcana , which they considered to be " unbalanced " . The book had five printings after the release of AD & D 2nd edition with the last printing published two years after the new edition was released .
= = Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition = =
The second book to use the name Unearthed Arcana was written by Andy Collins , Jesse Decker , David Noonan , and Rich Redman , and published in February 2004 by Wizards of the Coast , for use with the Dungeons & Dragons third edition rules . Cover art was by Matt Cavotta , with interior art by Steven Belledin , Ed Cox , Wayne England , Emily Fiegenschuh , David Hudnut , Jeremy Jarvis , Doug Kovacs , John and Laura Lakey , David Martin , Dennis Crabapple McClain , Mark Nelson , James Pavelec , Steve Prescott , David Roach , Richard Sardinha , Ron Spencer , Stephen Tappin , Joel Thomas , and Ben Thompson . The designers aimed the book at experienced players and DMs looking for something new , encouraging them to customize the game 's rules . The designers did not want the third edition book to be like the original Unearthed Arcana mechanically , because according to Andy Collins : " Every book on the market looks like the original Unearthed Arcana . New classes , new spells , new magic items - that 's the default " recipe " for a d20 product these days . We saw no need to do that with this book . " Where the original Unearthed Arcana had simply expanded the rules and options of the core game , this 224 @-@ page supplement was aimed at providing an extensive list of variant rules and options to change the standard game itself . The volume of options added was intentionally excessive ; according to the designers , a Dungeon Master who reads the book must be prepared to " Drink from the fire hose " and to think before using options that may radically imbalance the game . The book ends with a checklist of the included variants , preceded by a short chapter discussing ways of transitioning among multiple games using different rulesets ( one of which explicitly emulates the " Eternal Champion " stories of Michael Moorcock ) .
= = Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition = =
After no appearance in 4th edition , Unearthed Arcana made a return for 5th edition in February 2015 . But instead of being a retail book like the previous volumes , 5th edition Unearthed Arcana is so far a digital @-@ only article released every month . Explicitly said to be " written in pencil , not ink " , the Unearthed Arcana articles showcase new work @-@ in @-@ progress content consisting of options for players and Dungeon Masters alike such as class archetypes , playable races , and rule variants .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to Unearthed Arcana was often critical . According to Lawrence Schick , in his 1991 book Heroic Worlds , " Many players regard the new character classes introduced in this volume as overly powerful and out of line with those in the Player 's Handbook . "
Paul Cockburn reviewed the original Unearthed Arcana in issue 73 of White Dwarf magazine ( January 1986 ) , rating it 4 out of 10 overall . He summed up the book 's contents by calling them " A rules extension package of reprints , most of which add very little of interest or value to anybody 's game . " Cockburn predicted that the book would be a huge commercial success due to the seemingly never @-@ filled appetite some people have for new material . However , he felt that as a rules companion book it would not be used universally by gaming tournaments or by other publishers , or even players moving from one group to another , and that the book would wind up causing problems and confusion for gamers . Cockburn criticized the weapons specialization rules and the new character generating method , called the barbarian class " a farce " after losing their prohibition from magic , and considered the extended number of character races " virtually ridiculous " , as it added several over @-@ powerful races to the list . Cockburn noted that the bulk of the book was taken up by the new spells ; while he felt these spells were OK , he said they " add nothing very scintillating to the game " . Cockburn compared the cavalier class to the paladin , calling the cavalier " everything the paladin should have been in the first place " , and felt that when compared to the thief class the acrobat " offers possibilities that should have been attached to the thief from the beginning " .
Following Cockburn 's review , UA was subjected to further criticism by Allan Miles in two articles published in the magazine . In White Dwarf 85 ( January 1987 ) , " More Than Skin Deep " , a general discussion of the subject of PC race in AD & D , touched upon the subject in the context of Unearthed Arcana . " Arcana or Errata ? " in White Dwarf 89 ( May 1987 ) covered the volume specifically , opening with the observation that the material published in the book was now " definitely affecting the way the game is played , " despite the fact that the bulk of its reception had been negative . Miles began by mentioning the aspects of the book that he considered predominantly unproblematic , such as the addition of new spells , magic items , weapons , and the introduction of minimum starting values for hit points . He then went on to discuss the areas he considered disruptive of game balance at length , including the new methods for character generation , malleable limits to demi @-@ human class levels and characteristics themselves , the rules regarding the new Comeliness attribute , aspects of the Cavalier and Barbarian classes , changes to Thief alignment requirements , and the results of UA 's version of weapon specialization .
William B. Haddon 's review of the third edition Unearthed Arcana on RPGnet lauded the book 's content while criticizing the interest level of the content as " very flat " . He found the power level unbalanced for each of the new sub @-@ systems introduced , and found little in the suggested rules that he wanted to use . He did note that the book was " jam packed " with pages of variants , ideas and suggestions , and found that the " Behind the Curtain " explanations from the designers gave him insight into their thought process behind the book 's contents . Haddon called the book 's art " terrible , " explaining that " It looks cartoony and has little of the flavor or strength found in the art of so many other WotC products . "
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= USS Hawaii ( CB @-@ 3 ) =
Hawaii ( CB @-@ 3 ) was originally intended to be the third member of the Alaska class of large cruisers . She was the first United States Navy ship to be named after the Territory of Hawaii . Because her construction was delayed by higher @-@ priority ships such as aircraft carriers , her keel was not laid until December 1943 , about two years after her sister ship Guam .
After her launch on 3 November 1945 , Hawaii began fitting out , but post @-@ war budget cutbacks necessitated the cancellation of the ship on 17 February 1947 . For a time it was planned that she would be converted to be the U.S. ' first guided missile cruiser , but this did not come to fruition . A conversion to a large command ship was later contemplated ; planning went far enough that money was allocated in the 1952 budget for this purpose , but with one ( Northampton ) complete and a second ( Wright ) already chosen , no work was started upon Hawaii . Having been laid up for twelve years , the ship was towed to breakers to be scrapped on 20 June 1959 .
= = Design and description = =
The initial impetus for the design of the Alaska class came from the commerce @-@ raiding abilities of German and Japanese ships ; the three Deutschland @-@ class cruisers , also known as " pocket battleships " , the two Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships , and Japan 's large force of both heavy and light cruisers . By the time that they were built , their role had expanded to protect carrier groups . It was thought that the class 's bigger guns , greater size and higher speed would give them a marked advantage in this role over heavy cruisers , and they would also provide insurance against reports that Japan was building " super cruisers " more powerful than American cruisers limited by the London Naval Treaty .
Hawaii was 808 feet 6 inches ( 246 @.@ 43 m ) long overall and had a beam of 91 feet 1 inch ( 27 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 31 feet 10 inches ( 9 @.@ 7 m ) . She displaced 29 @,@ 779 long tons ( 30 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 34 @,@ 253 long tons ( 34 @,@ 803 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four General Electric geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller , and eight oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried four floatplanes , housed in two hangars , with a pair of aircraft catapults mounted amidships .
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 12 inch L / 50 Mark 8 guns in three triple gun turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 5 @-@ inch L / 38 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin turrets . Two were placed on the centerline superfiring over the main battery turrets , fore and aft , and the remaining four turrets were placed on the corners of the superstructure . The light anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of 56 quad @-@ mounted 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors guns and 34 single @-@ mounted 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon guns . A pair of Mk 34 gun directors aided gunlaying for the main battery , while two Mk 37 directors controlled the 5 @-@ inch guns and a Mk 57 director aided the 40 mm guns . The main armored belt was 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick , while the gun turrets had 12 @.@ 8 in ( 325 mm ) thick faces . The main armored deck was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick .
= = Construction , conversion proposals and eventual fate = =
Along with the five Montana @-@ class battleships and the final three Alaska @-@ class cruisers , the construction of Hawaii was suspended in May 1942 before work began . This freed materials and facilities so that they could be used to build additional ships which could be completed faster and were needed in the war zones , like anti @-@ submarine escorts . Over 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of steel plates and shapes which had been destined for Hawaii was redirected to other ships in July 1942 . However , Hawaii was added back onto the construction queue on 25 May 1943 , unlike CB @-@ 4 through CB @-@ 6 , which were canceled on 24 June 1943 . Her keel was laid on 20 December 1943 , and she was finally launched on 3 November 1945 , about two years after Guam . The ship was sponsored by Mary P. Farrington , the wife of the delegate from the Territory of Hawaii to the United States House of Representatives , Joseph Farrington . After her launch , little , if any , work was done before construction was halted in either February or April 1947 due to the reduction in defense expenditures after World War II ; the ship was 82 @.@ 4 % complete when work was halted . The turrets for the main battery had been fitted and the superstructure was mostly finished , although the former were removed when the ship was moved into the reserve fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard .
= = = Guided @-@ missile cruiser designs = = =
Similar to the incomplete battleship Kentucky , Hawaii was considered for a conversion to be a test platform for the development of guided missiles in September 1946 . Designated CB ( SW ) , the cruisers ' gun armament would have consisted of sixteen 3 @-@ inch / 70 caliber guns in eight dual mounts . Most missiles would have been mounted toward the bow , while two " missile launching pits " would be located near the stern . For this task , no armor would have been needed , and previously installed armor was to be taken off the ship when required . These plans never came to fruition , so Hawaii remained in the Reserve Fleet , still incomplete .
Two years later , in 1948 , a similar conversion plan was put forth . This plan , designated Project SCB 26A , proposed that Hawaii be converted into a Ballistic Guided Missile Ship . This plan called for Hawaii to be completed with 12 vertical launchers for U.S.-made V @-@ 2 short @-@ range ballistic missiles and 6 launchers for the SSM @-@ N @-@ 2 Triton surface @-@ to @-@ surface cruise missile . Triton was an attempt to give the Navy a reliable cruise missile that it could launch off of its ships . The design process began with an approval from the U.S. Navy in September 1946 . After " formulating performance objectives and possible design baselines " , the designers settled on attempting to fit a 36 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 16 @,@ 000 kg ) ramjet @-@ powered cruiser missile onto solid @-@ fuel rocket boosters that could carry the missile 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at Mach 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 5 in 1950 . After lowering the ambitious goals to more realistic levels in 1955 , a fully operational version was expected by 1965 , but with tests for the SSM @-@ N @-@ 9 / RGM @-@ 15 Regulus II planned for that year and the up @-@ and @-@ coming UGM @-@ 27 Polaris submarine @-@ launched cruise missile , the project was terminated in 1957 . One source has a variation of this scheme , with the developmental XPM ( Experimental Prototype Missile ) from Operation Bumblebee replacing the Triton launchers . XPM eventually led to the RIM @-@ 8 Talos surface @-@ to @-@ air missile .
Hawaii would have also been able to launch the JB @-@ 2 " Loon " cruise missile from a hydraulic catapult installed on her forward flight deck ; lastly , an aircraft crane and twin aircraft catapults were to be added on the stern of the ship . Interestingly the conversion , as envisioned , would have looked similar to a completed Graf Zeppelin @-@ class aircraft carrier . The conversion was authorized in the same year ( 1948 ) and was scheduled to be completed in 1950 ; the ship 's classification was changed to CBG @-@ 3 to reflect the planned overhaul . However , the conversion was canceled in 1949 , along with any other plans for surface ships equipped with ballistic missiles , due to the volatility of the rocket fuels and the shortcomings with guidance systems that were available .
= = = Large command ship = = =
Yet another conversion of Hawaii , this time to a " large command ship " , was contemplated from August 1951 . In this role , she would have been similar to Northampton , but larger . This conversion would have boasted expansive flag facilities and fully capable radar and communication systems for commanding carrier task forces , though there would have been no facilities for amphibious operations . Armament would have consisted of sixteen 5 " / 54 caliber guns in single mounts ; this gun size was specified because 3 " / 50 caliber guns were believed to be too light . Two radars would have been mounted : an AN / SPS @-@ 2 on top of a forward tower , and an AN / SPS @-@ 8 on the aft superstructure . In addition , an SC @-@ 2 was to be mounted on top of a short tower aft of the stack ( though forward of the SPS @-@ 8 ) ; this would have been used for " troposphere scatter communications " .
Two Mk37 / 25 fire @-@ control directors were planned , both fore and aft of the superstructure . The conversion plans were authorized , and her classification was changed to CBC @-@ 1 to reflect this on 26 February 1952 . Money to begin the project was included in the 1952 budget , but the only work done on the ship was the removal of the 12 " turrets , as it was intended that experience from Northampton should be analyzed before a full conversion . However , when it was seen that a smaller and cheaper ship — like the light carrier Wright — could do the same duty , the Hawaii project was canceled in 1953 . She reverted to her original designation of CB @-@ 3 on 9 September 1954 .
= = = Polaris study = = =
In February 1957 , a study entitled " Polaris Study – CB @-@ 3 " was published , proposing that Hawaii be stripped of all her guns in favor of twenty Polaris missiles , mounted in the hull vertically in roughly the same location as the third main turret would have been located , two Talos surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) launchers , one each fore and aft , two Tartar SAMs mounted on either side of the superstructure , and a single ASROC anti @-@ submarine weapon mounted where the second main turret would have been placed . Nothing further was done with the study .
= = = Disposal = = =
On 9 June 1958 , Hawaii was struck from the Naval Vessel Register and the ship was sold to the Boston Metals Company of Baltimore on 15 April 1959 . The still @-@ incomplete Hawaii was towed to Baltimore , arriving there on 6 January 1960 , and was subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Maddison Elliott =
Maddison Gae Elliott OAM ( born 3 November 1998 in Newcastle , New South Wales ) is an Australian swimmer . At the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , she became the youngest Australian Paralympic medallist by winning bronze medals in the women 's 400 m and 100 m freestyle S8 events . She then became the youngest Australian gold medallist when she was a member of the women 's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 34 points team . She has been selected to represent Australia at the 2016 Rio Paralympics .
= = Personal = =
Maddison Gae Elliott was born on 3 November 1998 . She has right side cerebral palsy as a result of a neonatal stroke , and was diagnosed with the condition when she was four years old . In addition to swimming , she participated in athletics , and by 2010 held six Australian age group classification records . In 2016 , she was living in Gillieston Heights , New South Wales , and a year 12 student at Bishop Tyrrell Anglican College . She has an older sister Dimity Elliott .
= = Swimming = =
Elliott is an S8 classified swimmer who was ranked first in the world in the S8 50 m backstroke in 2012 . She is a member of Nuswim Swimming Club , started swimming when she was six months old , and commenced competitive swimming in 2009 . She made her national team debut that same year at the Youth Paralympic Games , where she won five gold medals .
By 2010 , she held three Australian age group classification records , and the 2010 New South Wales Multi @-@ Class Long Course Swimming Championships , she had five first @-@ place finishes . She represented Australia at the 2011 Oceania Paralympic Championships , and later that year competed in the Canberra hosted Australian Multi @-@ Class Age Swimming Championships . At that event , she won a bronze , five silver and three gold medals . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London in swimming .
On 31 August 2012 at the London Aquatics Centre , Elliott slashed 23 seconds off her personal best time to win a bronze medal in the S8 400 m freestyle . She became , at age 13 , the youngest ever Australian to win a Paralympic medal , a record formerly held by Elizabeth Edmondson . She went on to win silver in S8 50 m freestyle , bronze in the S8 100 m Freestyle , and gold in the Women 's 4x100 m Freestyle Relay – 34 Points . Afterwards , she met with Prince Harry and gave him a Lizzie the Frill Neck Lizard , the mascot of the Australian Paralympic Committee and Australia 's Paralympic Teams . This resulted in the Australian Chef de Mission , Jason Hellwig , officially presenting Lizzie to the Chairman of the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) , Lord Coe , who gave him a Mandeville in return .
In November 2012 , Elliott and Rheed McCracken , the youngest members of the 2012 Paralympic Team , were together named the Paralympic Junior Athlete of the Year . She won gold medals in the Women 's 50 m and 100 m Freestyle S8 events and a silver medal in the Women 's 400 m Freestyle S8 at the August 2013 IPC Swimming World Championships in Montreal , Canada , and was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in the 2014 Australia Day Honours " for service to sport as a Gold Medallist at the London 2012 Paralympic Games . "
Elliott won a gold medal at the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow in the women 's 100 m S8 freestyle in a world record time of 1 : 05 @.@ 32 , breaking the record set by Jessica Long in 2012 . At the 2015 IPC Swimming World Championships , she won the gold medals in the women 's 50 m freestyle S8 , women 's 100 m freestyle S8 in a world record time of 1 @.@ 04 @.@ 71 , women ’ s 100 m backstroke S8 and women 's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 34 points , silver medals in the women 's 400 m freestyle S8 and women 's 4 × 100 m medley relay 34 points and a bronze medal in the women 's 100 m butterfly S8 . Her success at the IPC World Championships led to her being awarded Swimming Australia 's 2015 Paralympic Swimmer of the Year . In November 2015 , she was awarded the New South Wales Institute of Sport Regional Athlete of the Year .
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= Arden Valley Road =
Arden Valley Road is a scenic road located in Southfields , New York , in the United States , that travels through Harriman State Park and is owned by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission . At 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long , it begins at New York State Route 17 ( NY 17 ) in Southfields and ends at Seven Lakes Drive in Harriman State Park . Arden Valley Road also serves a trout stocking area for the Ramapo River . The road is located entirely in Orange County and is home to the Elk 's Pen Trailhead in Harriman State Park . In 1921 , plans arose by the commission to construct the road , which was completed the same year and stretched along the borderline with the Harriman estate . Major William A. Welch ordered 75 elk from Yellowstone National Park to be placed in a wired cage between Arden and Southfields in 1919 . The elk eventually disappeared from the pen by 1942 , and the area became the current Elk 's Pen trailhead for trails within Harriman State Park .
= = Route description = =
Arden Valley Road begins at an intersection with NY 17 in the hamlet of Southfields ( within the town of Tuxedo ) . The road immediately becomes a part of the right @-@ of @-@ way for the Appalachian Trail , a roughly 2 @,@ 100 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 400 km ) trail spanning the eastern United States . The road heads into Harriman State Park and crosses a pain of train tracks before passing over the New York State Thruway . The highway continues along the border of Harriman State Park ; at the Elk 's Pen Trailhead , the Appalachian Trail leaves Arden Valley Road and heads into the park .
The road intersects with Island Pond Road , a dirt path in Harriman , as it heads along the border . Arden Valley Road intersects with Crooked Road thereafter . Harris Mine is visible to the left as the road proceeds around the base of Echo Mountain . To the southeast of Lindley Mountain , Arden Valley Road turns east and into the park . Arden Valley Road passes Lake Cohasset and Upper Lake Cohasset as it heads eastward . The road intersects with the Long Path and Ramapo – Dunderberg – Appalachian Trails soon afterward . Bradley Mine is visible to the left , and Arden Valley Road comes to an end at Tiorati Circle . , where the road continues eastward as Tiorati Brook Road .
= = History = =
Construction of the Arden Brook Valley Road , which intended to connect Lake Cohasset and the brand new Upper Cohasset Lake started around 1922 , with money given by the New York State Legislature in 1921 Construction of the new road was completed in 1922 , extending along the borderline with the Harriman estate . Originally , people to cross the Erie Railroad tracks and the Ramapo River to continue along Arden Valley Road . This was remedied by building an underpass under the Erie Railroad and a ford over the Ramapo River . When the New York State Thruway was constructed through the Hudson Valley in 1953 , engineers included the ford in construction , and as of 1999 , the structure still stands .
In 1919 , Major William A. Welch ordered 75 elk from Yellowstone National Park ; however , some had died en route . The remaining elk were kept in a wired cage between Arden and Southfields . By 1935 , some of the animals were still alive . However , by 1942 , all of the elk had died . The remaining area is now known as the Elk 's Pen Trailhead , which serves the Appalachian and Arden – Surebridge Trails . The remains of the pen still currently stand .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
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= 52nd ( Oxfordshire ) Regiment of Foot =
For other units with the same regimental number , see 52nd Regiment of Foot ( disambiguation )
The 52nd ( Oxfordshire ) Regiment of Foot was a light infantry regiment of the British Army throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries . The regiment first saw active service during the American War of Independence , and were posted to India during the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars . During the Napoleonic Wars , the 52nd were part of the Light Division , and were present at most of the major battles of the Peninsula campaign , becoming one of the most celebrated regiments , described by Sir William Napier as " a regiment never surpassed in arms since arms were first borne by men " . They had the largest British battalion at Waterloo , 1815 , where they formed part of the final charge against Napoleon 's Imperial Guard . They were also involved in various campaigns in India .
The regiment was raised as a line regiment in 1755 and numbered as the " 54th Foot " ; they were renumbered as the " 52nd Regiment of Foot " in 1757 . In 1781 , the regional designation " 52nd ( Oxfordshire ) Regiment of Foot " was given , and in 1803 the regiment was the first regular British Army regiment to be designated " Light Infantry " . In 1881 the regiment was merged with the 43rd ( Monmouthshire ) Regiment of Foot to become the regiment later known as the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry .
= = Regimental structure = =
Throughout the period of the 52nd 's existence , the British Army comprised both infantry and cavalry line regiments , as well as the Household Divisions . The regiments of the line were numbered and , from 1781 , were given territorial designations – " Oxfordshire " in the 52nd 's case – which roughly represented the area from which troops were drawn . This was not rigid , and most English regiments had a significant proportion of Irish and Scots . Regiments comprised at least one battalion , often two – as the 52nd did intermittently – and occasionally more . Commanded by a lieutenant colonel , an infantry battalion was composed of ten companies , of which eight were " centre " companies , and two flank companies : one a grenadier and one ( in regular line regiments ) a specialist light company . Companies were commanded by captains , with lieutenants and ensigns ( or subalterns ) beneath him . Ideally , a battalion comprised 1000 men ( excluding NCOs , musicians and officers ) ; the 1st ( or senior ) battalion of a regiment would frequently draw fit recruits from the 2nd battalion to maintain its strength . If also sent on active service , the 2nd battalion would consequently be weaker . In periods of long service , battalions were generally operating under strength . Seriously under @-@ strength battalions might be dissolved , or temporarily drafted into other regiments , as happened to the 52nd on several occasions .
The 52nd was initially a one @-@ battalion regiment , but increased recruiting resulted in the creation of a second battalion in 1798 . While the 1st Battalion saw some action in Spain and Portugal in 1800 – 1801 , the 2nd remained stationed in England . In 1803 the regiment 's fittest officers and men were concentrated in the 1st battalion , for training as light infantry , and the 2nd battalion was transferred to the 96th Foot . A new second battalion was raised in 1804 . Both battalions saw extensive action during the Napoleonic Wars , and they were brigaded together for a time during the Peninsula Campaign , but heavy losses at Badajoz in 1812 resulted in the reduction of the 2nd battalion to a cadre ( skeleton staff ) . The 2nd was eventually reformed with new recruits and saw service in Holland in 1813 – 14 . Following the conclusion of the war in 1814 , both battalions were billeted in England , where the 2nd 's effectives were transferred to the 1st battalion , in preparation for further service . The 2 / 52nd remained in England during the Waterloo Campaign , and were disbanded in 1815 . Subsequently , the 52nd remained a one @-@ battalion regiment until their merger with the 43rd .
= = Light infantry = =
Initially raised as a regular line regiment , the 52nd fought in the line during the American wars and the early Indian campaigns , and did not become a light regiment until 1803 . However , they were the first regular British regiment to be so designated . Prior to this , the British Army had relied on irregulars and mercenaries to provide most of its light infantry or , when conditions demanded it , temporarily seconded regular line companies . While regular regiments were required to include one company of light infantry from 1758 , the training of such light troops was inconsistent , and frequently inadequate . Consequently , when beginning a restructure of the British Army in the late 18th century , the Duke of York recognised a need for dedicated light troops , especially coming into a war against Napoleon and his experienced light infantry , the chasseurs . During the early war against the French , the British Army was bolstered by light infantry mercenaries from Germany and the Low Countries , but the British light infantry companies proved inadequate against the more effective French tirailleurs during the Flanders campaign , and in the Netherlands in 1799 , and infantry reform became urgent .
In 1801 , the " Experimental Corps of Riflemen " was raised ( later designated the 95th Rifles ) , and a decision was made to train some line regiments in light infantry techniques , so they might operate as both light and line infantry . Sir John Moore , a proponent of the light infantry model , suggested that his own regiment of line infantry , the 52nd , be first to undergo this training , at Shorncliffe Camp . They were followed shortly afterwards by the 43rd Foot , by whose side they would fight many campaigns as part of the Light Division . Several other line regiments were designated " light infantry " in 1808 .
Moore wrote of the 52nd in his diary that " it is evident that not only the officers , but that each individual soldier , knows perfectly what he has to do ; the discipline is carried on without severity , the officers are attached to the men and the men to the officers . " This had much to do with the method of training ; unlike other regiments , light infantry officers drilled with the men and were expected to be familiar with drill routines , including weapons training . The ranks also received additional training , and were encouraged to develop initiative and self @-@ direction ; while skirmishing in the field they would need to react without direct orders . While most regiments of the time fought in tight formation , allowing easy administration of orders , light infantry worked in small groups , in advance of the main line , so complicated bugle calls were developed to pass orders . Consequently , the bugle became the emblem of the light infantry regiments .
When skirmishing , light infantry fought in pairs , so that one soldier could cover the other while loading . Line regiments fired in volleys , but skirmishers fired at will , taking careful aim at targets . While some consideration was given to equipping light infantry with rifles , due to their improved accuracy , the expected difficulty and expense in obtaining sufficient rifled weapons resulted in the standard infantry musket being issued to most troops . The accuracy of the musket decreased at long range and , since the French chasseurs and voltigeurs also used muskets , it is likely that skirmishers ' firefights took place at ranges of only 50 yards ( or less ) . 10 yards provided the accuracy of point @-@ blank range . Although the French infantry ( and , earlier , the Americans ) frequently used multi @-@ shot and grapeshot in their muskets , the British light infantry used only standard ball ammunition .
Light infantry were equipped more lightly than regular line regiments , and marched at 140 paces per minute . Tasks of the light infantry included advance and rear guard action , flanking protection for armies and forward skirmishing . They were also called upon to take regular line formations during battles , or to act as part of fortification storming parties . During the Peninsular War , they were regarded as the army 's elite corps .
= = Regimental history = =
= = = Early history = = =
The 52nd began as a standard infantry line regiment in 1755 , when Colonel Hedworth Lambton received papers to raise a new regiment , to be numbered as the 54th Foot . It was renumbered as the " 52nd Regiment of Foot " in 1757 , and was stationed in England and Ireland . ( At the same time , the previous 52nd Foot was renamed the 50th Foot . ) In 1765 , the Regiment was posted to Canada . The regiment , under the command of Colonel John Clavering , departed Cork , Ireland aboard the transport Pitt , for Quebec . En route , the ship ran aground in dense fog in the Gulf of St Lawrence , near the coast of Nova Scotia ; the wreck remained intact enough for all on board , including the soldiers ' wives , to disembark safely , transferring their effects and regimental provisions to shore . General Murray , Governor of Quebec , sent a schooner to retrieve the personnel and belongings , and carry them to Quebec .
= = = American War of Independence = = =
Twenty years after its founding , the regiment saw active service in the American War of Independence , from 1774 to 1778 . The 52nd was shipped to America from Canada , arriving in Boston , and fought in the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill in 1775 . Major @-@ General William Howe led the main assault at Bunker Hill with Brigadier Robert Pigot leading the 52nd and 43rd Foot in support . This was the first occasion that the 52nd fought alongside the 43rd . They suffered heavy casualties at Bunker Hill , and in their grenadier company , only 8 men were left unwounded . In August , 1778 , the men were drafted into other regiments and the officers returned to England . The regiment obtained new recruits and in 1782 the introduction of county titles for regiments resulted in the 52nd adding " Oxfordshire " to their name .
= = = Indian Wars = = =
In 1783 , the 52nd arrived in Madras , for nine years of war spanning the Second and Third Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars . The Second War had begun in 1778 , when the British responded to news of war against France by moving against French @-@ held bases in India . Hyder Ali , then ruler of Mysore , sided with the French and marched against the British . Hyder died in 1782 , and was succeeded by his son , Tippu Sultan , who continued the war through some minor campaigns until a peace treaty was signed in 1784 . Shortly afterwards , a detachment from the 52nd took part in the 1785 siege of Cannanore . The 52nd stormed the breach at Cannanore , under command of Sir Martin Hunter .
In 1786 , Lord Cornwallis was appointed Governor @-@ general , and the war against Tippu Sultan was resumed after Tippu attacked British allies in 1789 . ( This was known as the Third Mysore war ) . Initially , military actions were fairly minor . In 1790 , the 52nd were involved at Pollighautcherry and in a battle near Seringapatam . In 1791 , the regiment fought at Bangalore in March , and Arakere ( near Seringapatam ) in May . In December that year , the flank companies from the 52nd and 76th Foot , with sepoy grenadiers , formed the storming party during the assault on Savandroog ; the defenders abandoned the fortress , and it was successfully taken at the cost of just one British soldier wounded . Throughout the assault , the band of the 52nd played to spur on the attackers . The 52nd were also present at the February 1792 siege of Seringapatam , where the battalion 's grenadier company received heavy casualties while crossing the Kaveri River . During that battle , the 52nd came to the aid of Lord Cornwallis , whose companies were exposed and in danger of capture . Tippu Sultan sued for peace during the siege , and a treaty was signed in 1792 , ending the war . However , in August 1793 the regiment took part in an assault on Pondicherry .
= = = French Revolutionary Wars = = =
In 1793 war broke out with Revolutionary France . Following the French occupation of the Netherlands in January 1795 and the creation of the Batavian Republic , an assault was planned on the Dutch colony at Ceylon . A force commanded by Colonel James Stuart , of the 72nd Foot , and including the 52nd , left India for Ceylon , laying siege to Trincomalee ; by February 1796 the island was in British hands . The 52nd returned to Britain in 1798 where , bolstered by new recruits , a second battalion was created . In 1800 the 1 / 52nd took part in the Qiberon Bay , Vigo , Cadiz and Ferrol expeditions and , after short stations in Gibraltar and Lisbon , returned to England in 1801 . In January 1803 , the regiment 's 2nd battalion was transferred into the 96th Foot ; prior to the transfer , the fittest men and officers were seconded by the 1st battalion , which was converted into " a corps of light infantry " , and began training under Major @-@ General Moore ( who was also Colonel of the 52nd ) at Shorncliffe Camp . They formed a brigade with the 95th Rifles , and three line regiments . Much of the training was undertaken by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kenneth MacKenzie , who devised many of the tactics of light infantry training . A new second battalion was raised in 1804 .
= = = Napoleonic Wars = = =
Both battalions of the 52nd experienced active service throughout the Napoleonic Wars , their paths occasionally overlapping . In 1806 – 7 , the 1st battalion were stationed in Sicily , where they helped train local soldiers ; later , they accompanied Moore to Sweden . In August 1806 , the 2nd battalion accompanied the expedition to Copenhagen , taking part in the 1807 assault against Copenhagen , which was led by General Wellesley . The 2 / 52nd landed in Portugal in August 1808 and , with the 2 / 43rd , were positioned in the village of Vimeiro to provide cover for the army landings at the nearby Maceira Bay . Three companies of the 2 / 52nd were posted with the advance guard , and were the first to encounter the enemy during the Battle of Vimeiro . Following the battle , the British commander Wellesley was superseded in turn by two superiors , Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Dalrymple respectively , who signed the Convention of Sintra . The three commanders were recalled to England to explain their actions , and the command of the British troops devolved on Sir John Moore , the 52nd 's colonel .
In October , Sir John Moore led the army into Spain , reaching as far as Salamanca . In December , they were reinforced by 10 @,@ 000 troops from England , including the ' 1st Flank Brigade ' , which consisted of 1 / 52nd , 1 / 43rd and 1 / 95th and led by Robert Craufurd . Moore 's army now totalled 25 @,@ 000 , but his advance was cut short by the news that Napoleon had defeated the Spanish , held Madrid , and was approaching with an army of 200 @,@ 000 . Moore turned his men , and retreated to Corunna , over mountain roads and through bitter winter weather . French cavalry pursued the British Army the length of the journey , and a Reserve Division was set up to provide rearguard protection for the British troops . The core of this Reserve , commanded by Edward Paget , consisted of the 1 / 52nd and 1 / 95th battalions , who displayed none of the ill @-@ discipline which plagued other regiments during the retreat , but " made a stand at every defile and riverline , buying time for the rest of the army to get away . " Following the secondment of the 1 / 52nd and 1 / 95th to the Reserve , Craufurd 's 1st Flank Brigade was reformed , and comprised the 1 / 43rd , 2 / 52nd and 2 / 95th . The 1st Flank Brigade deployed with the Reserve for a time , protecting the crossing of the river Esla near Benavente , before it separated from the Reserve and the main army and marched to Vigo , with over 4 @,@ 000 other troops , for eventual transportation to England . The 1 / 52nd remained with the main army , which was caught by the French at Corunna . During the ensuing battle , in January 1809 , Moore was killed ; the army , including the 1 / 52nd , were evacuated to England .
= = = Wellesley 's Peninsular Campaign = = =
The 1 / 52nd , along with 1 / 43rd and 1 / 95th , returned to the Peninsula in June 1809 , where they were designated the " Light Brigade " , under the command of General Craufurd . Alighting in Lisbon and hearing of the army 's engagement with the French , they undertook a forced march to Talavera , arriving mere hours after the battle . The march was an extraordinary achievement , covering 42 miles in 26 hours , at a time when an infantry march of 15 miles a day was standard . Henceforth , the 1 / 52nd generally remained in advance of the army , as a forward party , a role which was to be theirs throughout much of the war . In February 1810 , Portuguese Cazadores were added to Craufurd 's brigade , creating the Light Division , the 1 / 52nd forming a brigade with 1st Cazadores and four companies from the 95th , under Lt @-@ Col Barclay . While holding a forward outpost , the Light Division was involved in the Battle of the Côa , in July 1810 , and took part in the Battle of Bussaco , where the Light Division held the left against the main French charge , which they successfully repulsed , inflicting high casualties ; 1200 Frenchmen were killed , wounded or captured , while the Light Division suffered only 120 casualties . When Wellington 's army retreated back to the Lines of Torres Vedras , late 1810 , the Light Division acted as rearguard . The French were unable to broach the Torres Vedras defences , but engaged the British army in a number of small skirmishes , such as those fought by the Light Division , under the temporary command of Sir William Erskine , at Casal Novo – where they unwittingly came upon 11 French divisions in the fog – and Sabugal ( April 1811 ) , an engagement of which Wellington later wrote : " I consider that the action that was fought by the Light Division [ ... ] with the whole of the [ French ] 2nd Corps , to be the most glorious that British troops were ever engaged in . "
After returning to England in 1809 , the 52nd 's 2nd battalion had joined the unsuccessful Walcheren Campaign in the Netherlands . Walcheren was surrounded by marshes , and many of the officers and men came down with " Walcheren Fever " ( malaria ) , which was to recur for years afterwards , and deplete the strength of the battalion . They eventually returned to the Peninsula in 1811 and were brigaded with their first battalion , who were manning outposts near Almeida . In early May , battle was engaged at Fuentes d 'Onoro ; initially set in the reserve , the Light Division came to the aid of the struggling British 7th Division , and provided a fighting retreat , as Wellington retired his army . For the rest of the year , both battalions of the 52nd , with the Light Division , manned outposts , which were constantly moved to mark the changing French positions .
January 1812 saw the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo . Companies from the Light Division , under the 52nd 's Colonel Colborne , captured the Francisco redoubt on 9 January , and thereafter built trenches for the main assault , under enemy fire . Once the army 's artillery had breached the walls , a 4 @-@ column assault was planned for 19 January , the Light Division forming the column which assaulted the breach near the Convent of San Francisco . Lt John Gurwood of the 52nd led the Forlorn Hope , followed by 300 " stormers " under the command of the 52nd 's Major George Napier . The breach was carried and the fortress was taken within half an hour , at high cost . Amongst the 1300 British and Portuguese casualties was Craufurd , who died several days later . The army turned its attention to Badajoz , another strong fortress , which the British had failed to carry on an earlier occasion . The Light Division dug trenches near Fort Picurina , which was stormed , and established batteries . On 6 April , the breaches were deemed practicable , and the Light Division were ordered to storm the breach at Santa Maria . As the Light Division 's Forlorn Hope reached the ditch , the French exploded a mine . Various other barricades and gunpowder defences were in place , and the toll at the breaches was heavy . Wellington ordered a withdrawal . Elsewhere , the fortress walls were achieved by escalade , encouraging an attack on the breaches again . The fortress was taken , at great cost ( over 5000 British casualties ) , and for three days the army sacked and pillaged the town in undisciplined revenge . The 52nd and the 43rd together lost 39 officers and 700 men , resulting in a reduction of the 2 / 52nd , who saw no more action in the Peninsula .
Soon after the assault on Badajoz , Wellington marched his men to confront the French near Salamanca . For a month the armies marched and counter @-@ marched against each other , seeking advantage , and on 22 July Wellington attacked in the Battle of Salamanca , achieving a comprehensive victory . The Light Division were in the reserve during the battle , and afterwards pursued and harried the retreating French . August saw the army in Madrid , where the 1 / 52nd remained while Wellington led a force on to Burgos , which he attempted to take . The siege was unsuccessful , and it was lifted by Wellington in October ; the 1 / 52nd , with the Light Division , covered the army 's retreat back into Portugal . This " Winter Retreat " bore similarities with the earlier retreat to Corunna , as it suffered from poor supplies , bitter weather and rearguard action , including one skirmish near the River Huebra , where the 43rd and 1 / 52nd lost 95 men . Ciudad Rodrigo was reached on 19 November , where the 1 / 52nd were billeted and resupplied with both men and clothing . Diversions were set up , including the " Light Division Theatre " , in which the 52nd were described as " highly gentlemanly men , of steady aspect ; they mixed little with other corps , but attended the theatricals of the 43rd with circumspect good humour , and now and then relaxed . "
In spring , 1813 , the army returned to the offensive , leaving Portugal and marching northwards through Spain to Vitoria where the French stood in preparation for battle , which took place on 21 June . The Light Division held the centre of the Allied line , and took the bridges of Villodas and Tres Puentes . The battle proved an overwhelming victory for the British , and the following day the 1 / 52nd , with the Light Division , were sent in pursuit of the retreating French , skirmishing with the enemy rearguard . In August , volunteers from the 1 / 52nd were involved in the storming of San Sebastian . The 1 / 52nd crossed into France on 7 October , when they stormed redoubts above Vera . The 1 / 52nd also fought in the battles at Nivelle ( November 1813 ) , Nive ( December 1813 ) and Orthes ( February 1814 ) . During the battle of Orthes , the 52nd led an assault up the ridge under heavy fire , an advance which was later described by Sir Harry Smith as the most majestic he had ever seen .
= = = The Hundred Days and end for Napoleon = = =
Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814 , but the news arrived in Wellington 's camp too late to prevent the Battle of Toulouse , on 10 April , during which battle the 1 / 52nd 's Lieutenant Whichcote was first into the city .
Over this later period , the 2 / 52nd , who had left the Peninsula , were bolstered with new recruits and were sent to Holland in 1813 – 14 , as part of Sir Thomas Graham 's force which made an unsuccessful attack on Bergen op Zoom in March 1814 . Afterwards they spent some time in Belgium before returning home to England .
Once peace agreements had finally been settled – the French Governor of Bayonne being the last , on 26 April – the army left the Peninsula ; the infantry marched to Bordeaux for transportation to their new postings . The 1 / 52nd were returned to England and , on 6 June 1814 , stood on the quayside at Dover with their Light Division comrades from the 43rd and 95th as part of the official welcome for the Allied sovereigns visit to England .
They were later billeted in Hythe and Chatham , where they were joined by the 2 / 52nd , returned from Belgium , who transferred their effectives to the 1st battalion .
= = = Waterloo Campaign = = =
In January , 1815 , the 1 / 52nd departed Portsmouth for Cork , where they were due to embark for America , where fighting in the War of 1812 continued . Gales prevented sailing , and by the time conditions had improved , news had arrived of Napoleon 's escape from Elba . The 1 / 52nd were sent to Belgium , at the start of the Hundred Days . Napoleon marched swiftly through France to meet the Allies , who had formed two armies , with the Duke of Wellington commanding the Anglo @-@ Allies , and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding the Prussians .
The 52nd were assigned to Lt @-@ Gen Hill 's II Corps , as part of the 2nd Division 's 3rd Brigade , under General Adam . As a response to Napoleon 's movements , on 15 June , II Corps were posted west and southwest of Brussels , with a cavalry screen . Wellington 's forward army engaged the French at Quatre Bras on 16 June , but he later fell back to remain in contact with his Prussian allies , who had retreated following the Battle of Ligny , and took position near the village of Waterloo .
The field at Waterloo was 5 @.@ 5 km wide , with two parallel ridges running west to east , creating a shallow valley 1 @.@ 4 km across . The Allies took position on the northern ridge . As the army prepared for battle on 18 June , the 2nd Division were initially held in reserve , placed in the centre left , behind Major @-@ General Cooke 's 1st Division . Following the French cavalry 's battering of the British squares over the afternoon , Adam 's brigade was brought up to reinforce the right . In this position the 52nd endured a heavy bombardment , of which Ensign Leeke of the 52nd reported afterwards " the old officers , who had served during the whole of the Peninsular War , stated that they were never exposed to such a cannonade as the 52nd squares had to undergo on this occasion for 2 ½ hours from French artillery ½ mile to the front " . While the 52nd 's squares stood waiting , British artillery fired over their heads .
Activity was happening elsewhere on the field , however , and as the battle drew to a close , Napoleon 's Middle Guard launched an assault on the British line , to the 52nd 's left , and were met by a number of regiments including the 1st Foot Guards , who repulsed the 3rd Chasseurs , but had to themselves retreat when the 4th Chasseurs moved forward to threaten their left . The 52nd , under Sir John Colborne , wheeled to the left , deploying parallel to the French column , and fired volleys against their left flank . William Hay , a Light Dragoon watching from the right , later recalled that " so well @-@ directed a fire was poured in , that down the bank the Frenchmen fell and , I may say , the battle of Waterloo was gained . " Seeing the 52nd begin an advance , Wellington reputedly ordered " Go on , Colborne , they won 't stand ! " ; the battalion then advanced diagonally across the field . When this was later followed by a bayonet charge by all of General Adam 's 3rd Brigade , the Guard broke , forced into full retreat . Having pursued the French down the escarpment of Mont St Jean , the 52nd crossed the valley floor ( that at the start of the battle had separated the armies ) and on the other side attacked a square of Old Guard ( part of the personal body guard of Napoleon , ) that had formed up to the British right of the inn La Belle Alliance and forced it to retreat .
The 1 / 52nd were the largest battalion at Waterloo , and one of the few British battalions operating at full strength . Of the 1 @,@ 130 men and officers present , 168 were wounded , and 38 killed .
= = = Later history = = =
The 1st battalion were sent to Paris after Waterloo , and remained stationed in France until 1818 . In 1816 , the 2nd battalion were disbanded , in line with the other reductions in the army which occurred following the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars .
Returning to England in 1818 , the 52nd were stationed in the Midlands , where they were responsible for domestic peacekeeping and policing under the command of Lt. Col. Charles Rowan , experience which fitted Rowan for his 1829 posting to establish a military @-@ style metropolitan police service under Sir Robert Peel .
In 1821 , the regiment were posted to Dublin . Over the following years the 52nd received a number of overseas postings . Between 1823 and 1831 , the regiment was stationed at , in turn , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Newfoundland , and Prince Edward Island . In early 1842 , the 52nd performed garrison duty in Barbados , where British units frequently supplemented the local forces . In 1842 , the regiment returned to Canada , and were posted to New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec ; they left Canada in 1845 .
The 52nd later returned to India , arriving in Allahabad in 1853 . The regiment found the heat and dust of India gruelling , and Major Bayley , of the 52nd , described the great clouds of dust which rose over their columns in the march from Allahabad to Umballa in 1853 – 4 ; " it was worse in the rear than in the front ; so , in order that everyone should have a fair chance , the order of march was changed daily . " They were in India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , where they took part in the Siege of Delhi . Once breaches had been made by the artillery by a bombardment of the walls , an attempt was made on the city on 14 September . The Kashmir Gate was blown by a party of engineers , accompanied by Bugler Robert Hawthorne of the 52nd , who won the Victoria Cross for his bravery . The 52nd led the assault on the blown gate ; amidst the action , Lance Corporal Henry Smith also won the Victoria Cross . After six days of heavy fighting , the city was won .
The 52nd remained in India until 1865 , when they returned to England . Over the next sixteen years they received postings in Ireland , England , Malta and Gibraltar . In 1881 , due to the Childers Reforms , they were merged with the 43rd ( Monmouthshire ) Regiment of Foot , a regiment they had fought alongside as part of the Light Division during many campaigns . The newly combined unit was named the " Oxfordshire Light Infantry " – the 52nd becoming the 2nd Battalion – and in 1908 the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry . In 1958 , the Ox & Bucks became the 1st Green Jackets ( 43rd and 52nd ) , and in 1966 were merged into the Royal Green Jackets . In 2007 , the Royal Green Jackets became part of The Rifles .
= = Colours and honours = =
Like most British regiments , the 52nd carried flags known as " colours " : the First , or " King 's Colour " , and the Second , or " Regimental Colour " . The First had the Union Flag with the Regiment 's number in the centre , surrounded by a wreath . Following the presentation of their colours in 1799 , the 52nd 's King 's Colour included the Royal Cipher in the centre , a non @-@ standard addition . The Second was in the colour of the regimental facings ( buff , in the 52nd 's case ) with a small Union Flag in the corner ; the regimental number took the centre . The colours were carried into battle for identification , and as a rallying point , in the care of sergeants or ensigns . Attending the colours in battle was dangerous , since they were a target for enemy artillery and assault ; due to the symbolic significance of the colours , their loss was a grave issue , and extreme measures were often taken to prevent such dishonour occurring . The skirmishing and forward positions maintained by light infantry frequently made the bearing of colours inconvenient . For this reason , the newly raised 95th Rifles received no colours , but the converted line regiments , such as the 52nd , retained their existing colours . While some light infantry regiments opted not to carry them in the Peninsula , the 52nd and 43rd did .
Battle honours are awarded to a regiment for their performance in certain battles and campaigns , and are displayed on their colours . The 52nd received the following honours : Hindoostan , Vimeiro , Corunna , Bussaco , Fuentes d 'Onor , Ciudad Rodrigo , Badajoz , Salamanca , Vitoria , Nivelle , Nive , Orthes , Toulouse , Peninsula , Waterloo and Delhi 1857 .
= = Badges and decorations = =
= = = Regimental badge = = =
The Regimental Badge of the 52nd showed a bugle horn , suspended by cords from a knot , with the number " 52 " below the tassels .
The bugle horn had been the badge of light infantry regiments since 1770 , adapted from the Hanoverian Jaegar regiments , and became standard for the newly formed Light Infantry regiments , since it represented the bugle calls used for skirmishing orders instead of the standard line infantry drum . The regimental badge was worn on much of the equipment , including the shakos and belts , and also frequently on turnbacks and officers ' shoulder wings .
= = = Valiant Stormers = = =
During the Peninsular War , the 52nd fulfilled their dual role as line and light infantry by contributing to fortress assault parties . The companies that led the breach assaults were known as the " Forlorn Hope " , ( from the Dutch " verloren hoop " ( lost troop ) ) . It was deemed an act of high honour , since the lead troops faced the greatest danger . The 52nd contributed to the Forlorn Hope at the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo , Badajoz ( 1812 ) and San Sebastian . Officers and sergeants who survived would be very likely be put up for battlefield promotions ( although it was not assured ) while other ranks would receive laurels from their commander also with the chance of promotion being greatly increased . The 52nd , however , offered its own recognition : those who survived the Forlorn Hope at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz were entitled to wear on their right arm a badge displaying a laurel wreath and the letters " V.S. " for " Valiant Stormer " . This honour was awarded by the 52nd 's commanding officer , and was restricted to the 52nd .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
The Victoria Cross ( VC ) was instituted in 1856 as the British Empire 's highest decoration for valour . From that date , until the 52nd merged with 43rd in 1881 , two soldiers from the 52nd were awarded the Victoria Cross , both at Delhi in 1857 : Bugler Robert Hawthorne and Lance Corporal Henry Smith .
Bugler Hawthorne accompanied a party of engineers , led by Lieutenants Home and Salkeld of the Bengal Engineers , who had been ordered to lay a charge and blow the Kashmir Gate , so that entry to the city might be obtained . Once the charges had been detonated , Hawthorne sounded the advance , and then attended to a wounded officer from the explosion party , all the while enduring intense fire from the city 's defenders . Three others from the explosion party were awarded VCs : Sgt Smith , Lt. Home and Lt. Salkeld , who was the first recipient of the VC .
Lance Corporal Smith 's medal was won during the following assault on the blown gate , when he " most gallantly carried away a wounded comrade under a heavy fire of grape and musketry , in the Chandnee Chouk of the city of Delhi , on the morning of the assault " .
Both VC medals are on display at the Royal Green Jackets Museum in Winchester .
= = Colonels = =
Colonels of the regiment were :
= = = = The 54th Regiment of Foot - ( 1755 ) = = = =
1755 – 1758 : Maj @-@ Gen. Hedworth Lambton
= = = = The 52nd Regiment of Foot - ( 1756 ) = = = =
1758 – 1760 : Lt @-@ Gen Edward Sandford
1760 – 1762 : Gen Sir John Sebright , 6th Baronet
1762 – 1777 : Lt @-@ Gen Sir John Clavering
1778 – 1801 : Gen Cyrus Trapaud
= = = = The 52nd ( Oxfordshire ) Regiment of Foot - ( 1782 ) = = = =
1801 – 1809 : Lt @-@ Gen Sir John Moore KB
= = = = The 52nd ( Oxfordshire ) Regiment of Foot , Light Infantry - ( 1803 ) = = = =
1809 – 1822 : Lt @-@ Gen Sir Hildebrand Oakes , 1st Baronet GCB
1822 – 1839 : Gen Sir George Walker , 1st Baronet
1839 – 1844 : Lt @-@ Gen Sir Thomas Arbuthnot
1844 – 1847 : Lt @-@ Gen Sir Edward Gibbs
1847 – 1861 : Gen Sir Archibald Maclaine
1861 – 1879 : F.M. Sir William Rowan , GCB
1879 – 1881 : Gen John Leslie Dennis , CB
= = Uniform and equipment = =
Throughout most of the regiment 's life , the 52nd Foot wore traditional British Army red coats , with buff facings . During the American wars , the coat was long tailed , with buff facings , buff waistcoat and breeches . The grenadier company wore a bearskin hat with the King 's Crest and the regimental number . Officers wore crimson sash , gorget and silver epaulettes .
When becoming a light infantry regiment in 1803 , the uniform accordingly changed . Light infantry dress has its origins in the American War of Independence , when uniforms were altered to allow ease in the field . " Wings " , similar to those worn by grenadiers , were added to the shoulders and lacing was dispensed with , to make the quick removal of coats possible . At that time , the irregular light infantry also sought less conspicuous dress than the traditional red coat . However , conservatism returned with the new regular light infantry ; while the 95th Rifles were permitted to retain the green clothing used by the German regiments , the seconded line regiments were required to retain the red coat , which remained an impediment to their skirmishing duties .
Thus , throughout the Napoleonic wars , the 52nd foot continued to wear red uniforms with buff facings . The officers had silver lace , while the other ranks ' lace was worn in pairs , red with orange stripes ( according to 1802 regulations ) ; in 1812 a commentator described the lace as red with two blue stripes . Light infantry officers wore short jackets , rather than the tailed coats of the other line regiments , with white piping , silver buttons , and silver and scarlet shoulder wings . The uniform was completed with a crimson sash ; to match the buff facings and turn @-@ backs , the officers generally wore buff breeches , or grey overalls . Field officers of the 52nd wore silver epaulettes , with regimental badge , overtop the light infantry wings , to designate rank . An 1810 order stipulated these be badged with a star ( for majors ) , a crown ( lieutenant colonels ) or star and crown ( colonels ) . Light infantry also commonly wore a narrow waist belt instead of the customary shoulder belt . The 52nd did not adopt the " Belgic cap " but retained the stovepipe shako throughout the Napoleonic period ; it was adorned with the brass bugle badge and green plumes of the light infantry . In the 52nd , officers ' plumes were made from horsehair . Officers generally carried a stirrup @-@ hilted sabre .
Officers were responsible for providing ( and paying for ) their own uniforms ; consequently , variable style and decoration was present , according to the officer 's private means . Equipment could consume a significant portion of an officer 's pay ; during the Napoleonic era , the 52nd 's plain regimental sabre , for example , cost 4 guineas , approximately 16 days ' pay for an ensign .
The red coat remained standard uniform for the British Army until khaki was introduced as standard in 1885 , although some allowances were made for colonial conditions , with the use of lighter materials , and slight change of design . However , the uniform and equipment remained quite restrictive , particularly in colonial warfare . In 1841 , the light bob 's situation was compared unfavourably with his enemy 's light marching order : " Buckle him up in a tight red jacket , when the thermometer is about 80 ° ; place across his breast two buff @-@ leather belts , about a quarter of an inch in thickness , and each what the milliners call a nail in breadth ; hang to one of them a cartouche @-@ box containing sixty rounds of ball cartridges , each of these about above an ounce in weight ; strap across his shoulders a square well @-@ packed wallet , containing four shirts , with or without frills , and other notions ; plant a cap on his head which in point of weight is equal to an iron pot ; then place over his shoulder a musket and bayonet weighing a stone ; with three days ' provisions in his haversack , and a couple of quarts of liquid in a canteen . "
While no official service uniform was developed for the tropics , during the Mutiny in India in 1857 , many of the regiments fought in their undress uniform ( white drill ) , rather than the standard uniform . The 52nd were the first regiment to dye their white uniforms khaki for use in the field . This early khaki was a grey colour . For most purposes , they discarded their coats and , adopting the Indian traditions , wore their shirts out , rather than tucked in ; shirts were also dyed . The 52nd also developed turbans to wear over their standard @-@ issue forage caps . Following the mutiny , regiments returned to the standard red clothing .
= = Legacy = =
Despite its continual merging with other units from 1881 , the legacy of the 52nd remains . Many of the 52nd 's battle honours are represented on the Belt Badge of The Rifles ( being a rifle regiment , The Rifles do not carry colours ) . Various museums record the actions of the 52nd and hold collections of artifacts and memorabilia , including the Royal Green Jackets Museum , and the Soldiers of Oxfordshire Trust , whose archives are managed by the Oxfordshire County Council .
Some officers of the 52nd recorded their experiences in the regiment . One of the most notable was the Reverend William Leeke who , as a young ensign , carried the Regimental Colours at Waterloo . He believed that the actions taken by Sir John Colborne ( Lord Seaton ) and the 52nd to defeat the Imperial Guard at the close of the battle had been unjustly overlooked in official dispatches and histories , and wrote his memoirs so that " the truth , with regard to what we knew the 52nd had achieved at Waterloo , [ should ] see the light " . In 1866 , his two @-@ volume work The History of Lord Seaton 's Regiment , ( the 52nd Light Infantry ) at the Battle of Waterloo was published , and has served as a primary source for most Waterloo historians since . Also to publish memoirs , although less successfully , was Reginald Wilberforce , grandson of slavery abolitionist William Wilberforce , who wrote , in 1894 , An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny ; on publication , the book was criticised by his fellow officers of the 52nd for its inaccuracy .
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= Skin & Bone ( film ) =
Skin & Bone is a 1996 American drama film . It is the story of three Los Angeles @-@ area hustlers , or male prostitutes , and their female pimp . The three men are at different stages of their hustling careers : Dean is just beginning ; Billy is somewhat more experienced but still naive ; and Harry actively wants to get out , and is looking to break into film acting . Ghislane , the pimp , sends each of the three young men into increasingly dangerous scenarios with clients , until both Billy and Harry are killed . The film stars B. Wyatt as Harry , Alan Boyce as Dean , Garret Scullin as Billy and Nicole Dillenberg as Ghislaine .
Director Everett Lewis financed the film almost entirely , using money earned working on other films . Skin & Bone was originally intended to be entirely improvised , but after a year of filming Lewis decided to script some of it to add shape to the story . The film alternates between black and white and color , marking shifts between depictions of a character 's fantasy and reality .
Critical responses to the film were mixed . Some reviewers thought it little more than pretentious titillation , while others praised the performances and direction and congratulated Lewis for raising some difficult questions .
= = Plot summary = =
Skin & Bone is an episodic account of three Los Angeles @-@ area hustlers , Harry , Billy and Dean , and Ghislaine , their pimp . Ghislaine ( Nicole Dillenberg ) constantly drives the streets of Los Angeles arranging client appointments . She relies on Harry ( B. Wyatt ) , the most experienced member of her stable , to train new recruits , including Billy ( Garett Scullin ) and Dean ( Alan Boyce ) .
Harry services both male and female clients and always acts as a top ; many male clients hire him to beat them . He fantasizes about a woman ( " Lovely Girl " [ Susannah Melvoin ] ) he once knew . He has convinced himself that he is not a prostitute but an " actor " providing " fantasies . " In his unsuccessful pursuit of an acting career , Harry goes on a casting call for a cop movie . The casting director asks if he will do nudity , implying a casting couch scenario . Harry says he 's an artist and loses the role .
Billy , though experienced , is still somewhat goofy and absent @-@ minded . He sometimes helps Harry with scenes and Harry tries to convince him too that he is an actor and not a prostitute . On several occasions , Billy picks up men only to discover that the man is not actually his client . In one case he and the man fall in love and they plan to get Billy out of the business and start a life together . Shortly thereafter , Billy mistakes a man ( Michael Haynes ) for a client in a public restroom and that man stabs him to death .
Dean is Ghislaine 's most recent recruit . While training him , Harry again tries to impart the notion that their job is just acting . Following his training and first successful trick ( with a woman ) , Dean is humiliated when two women force him to start and stop masturbating seemingly at random . Dean then performs as a " nude cleaner " for a client . He learns that the client is an ex @-@ Marine who was paralyzed in combat and still longs for the boy with whom he fell in love , who was killed . The client is still able to achieve an erection and Dean has sex with him .
Harry is at an appointment with a regular , a uniform fetishist called " The General " ( Wynston A. Jones ) . Usually Harry beats him , but unknown to Harry , the client has arranged for something different with Ghislaine . After showing Harry a picture of himself in which he closely resembles Harry , the General orders Harry to strip . When Harry hesitates , the General attacks him from behind , binds his hands with tape and rapes him .
Harry asks his acting agent to set up an " interview " with another casting director . He lets the man fuck him . Later at Dean 's place , Harry finds Dean sitting alone burning himself with a cigarette . Dean tells Harry he ran away from home after his father had him arrested at age 14 for stealing a candy bar . Dean was put in a cell with several men who took turns raping him .
After allowing himself to be used by the casting director , Harry gets a small role as a cop in the film for which he had previously been rejected . On @-@ set he impresses the producers and they offer him a part in a TV series .
Ghislaine sends Harry to the local morgue with $ 2 @,@ 500 to bribe an attendant ( James Michael White ) . Harry sees Billy 's body and realizes that Ghislaine is acquiring it for a client . He confronts Ghislaine , accusing her of arranging Billy 's murder , and tells her he wants to quit and take Dean with him . Ghislaine agrees , if Harry and Dean perform one final scene .
The scene is a cop / prisoner scenario which begins with the cop beating the prisoner then the prisoner overpowering the cop , binding and beating and finally shooting him . Harry plays the cop and Dean the prisoner . Bound and gagged , Harry sees Ghislaine switching his gun ( loaded with blanks ) for another gun , but fails to convey the danger to Dean . As Ghislaine and the client watch and the client tapes the scene , Dean pulls the trigger and kills Harry . Harry meets " Lovely Girl , " who asks him how he feels being dead .
Six months later , Dean is living on the streets . Ghislaine finds him and convinces him to return to work .
= = Themes = =
Reviewers agree that Skin & Bone is as much about Los Angeles and the film industry as it is about prostitution or even homosexuality . Writing in Bright Lights Film Journal , critic Gary Morris suggests that the film is " inevitably set in Los Angeles , amid that city 's arid strip malls , newsstands , and endless dusty streets " and he points to the significance of Ghislaine 's constant movement through the city , " looking glamorous and inscrutable in her opaque sunglasses " .
For Anita Gates in the New York Times , " the film 's strongest message " is " a questioning of the actor 's trade . " For Gates , the film comes to sympathize with Harry 's notion that prostitutes are in fact actors , or perhaps vice versa : " Mr. Lewis 's point seems to be that it 's all the same . What 's the big difference , he asks , between acting out the fantasies of one rich old man or those of a few million ticket buyers ? "
Lewis himself seems to give some weight to these interpretations when he describes Skin & Bone as being about " giving your soul away and rationalizing the loss as a bonus , " and as a metaphor " for the experiences I suffered attempting to make a film at an evil film company . "
= = Production and style = =
Lewis became interested in making a film about hustlers because ( despite there being films about hustlers dating back more than three decades ) he had never seen such a film . In Lewis 's own words , " When I started , there were no hustler movies and now there 's a whole genre . " His original concept for Skin & Bone was that it would be a series of 70 one @-@ minute shots . Lewis changed his mind about the concept following some improvisation with actor B. Wyatt in creating the Harry character . Much of the film was improvised . After a year of filming improvisation sessions , Lewis wrote some scripted material to provide some story structure . Shooting took several years to complete because the film was almost entirely self @-@ financed .
The film alternates between color and black and white sequences . Black and white usually denotes that the scene involves one or more of the hustlers engaged with a client , and indicates that one or more of the characters ( not necessarily the client ) is fantasizing . But the scheme is not always consistent : for example , when Dean has sex with the paralyzed client the scene is in color ; and Harry also has an S / M scene that 's all in color ( although his client never appears on @-@ screen ) . Equally , Harry 's fantasies about " Lovely Girl " ( who is apparently dead ) are occasionally in color . In their final scene , Harry and Dean are in black and white , but when the client and Ghislaine are shown watching they 're in color , raising the question of exactly who is having the fantasy . According to Lewis , the convention grew out of the fact that the initial improvised sequences were shot in black and white ; he acknowledges that by the end the distinction had become " very confused . "
The film features a number of songs by the queercore band Pansy Division . David Arquette has a cameo appearance as " Buzz Head , " one of Ghislaine 's regular clients . Arquette himself played a hustler in the film johns , also released in 1996 .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for Skin & Bone were decidedly mixed . The New York Times called it a " bleak , disjointed movie " that " often comes across as if it had been planned like a pornographic feature . " Director Lewis is praised , however , for " effectively mix [ ing ] us up as to what 's real and what isn 't . " Bright Lights Film Journal had stronger words of praise for the film , calling it " intense [ and ] sometimes unsettling " with a " conceptual richness and mocking wit , " while also noting the " element of genuine pathos [ that ] runs beneath the sardonic wit and brutal , sometimes lethal sex . "
The Village Voice was much more dismissive , panning the film as " fitfully comic , pitifully pretentious soap opera [ that ] runs out of promise so quickly that only the most tenacious ( or desperate ) viewers will hang on till the sorry end . " Echoing the Voice , TV Guide , while praising Lewis 's " icy style , " nonetheless suggests that the film is a half @-@ hour too long and " doesn 't really offer much to justify its existence beyond the obvious titillation . "
One near @-@ unanimous critical note concerns Nicole Dillenberg 's performance as Ghislaine . While the actors playing the three hustlers are variously described as " really quite competent " and " game , gesturally hip and highly empathic , " Dillenberg is judged " too callow for Ghislaine " and " stiffly plying monotonous attitude in lieu of creating a real character , rather like a female impersonation of female impersonator Jackie Beat . "
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= Baker Street and Waterloo Railway =
The Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) , also known as the Bakerloo tube , was a railway company established in 1893 that built a deep @-@ level underground " tube " railway in London . The company struggled to fund the work , and construction did not begin until 1898 . In 1900 , work was hit by the financial collapse of its parent company , the London & Globe Finance Corporation , through the fraud of Whitaker Wright , its main shareholder . In 1902 , the BS & WR became a subsidiary of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) controlled by American financier Charles Yerkes . The UERL quickly raised the funds , mainly from foreign investors .
When opened in 1906 , the BS & WR 's line served nine stations and ran completely underground in a pair of tunnels for 5 @.@ 81 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 61 mi ) between its northern terminus at Baker Street and its southern terminus at Elephant and Castle with a depot on a short spur nearby at London Road . Extensions between 1907 and 1913 took the northern end of the line to the terminus of the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) at Paddington . Between 1915 and 1917 , it was further extended to Queen 's Park , where it came to the surface and connected with the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) , and to Watford ; a total distance of 33 @.@ 34 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 72 mi ) .
Within the first year of opening it became apparent to the management and investors that the estimated passenger numbers for the BS & WR and the other UERL lines were over @-@ optimistic . Despite improved integration and cooperation with the other tube railways and the later extensions , the BS & WR struggled financially . In 1933 , the BS & WR was taken into public ownership along with the UERL . Today , the BS & WR 's tunnels and stations operate as the London Underground 's Bakerloo line .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Origin , 1891 – 93 = = =
The idea of building an underground railway along the approximate route of the BS & WR had been put forward well before it came to fruition at the turn of the century . As early as 1865 , a proposal was put forward for a Waterloo & Whitehall Railway , powered by pneumatic propulsion . Carriages would have been sucked or blown a distance of three @-@ quarters of a mile ( about 1 km ) from Great Scotland Yard to Waterloo Station , travelling through wrought @-@ iron tubes laid in a trench at the bottom of the Thames . The scheme was abandoned three years later after a financial panic caused its collapse . Carl Wilhelm Siemens of the eponymous German engineering company served as electrical engineer for a later abortive scheme , the Charing Cross & Waterloo Railway . It was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1882 and got as far as constructing a 60 feet ( 18 m ) stretch of tunnel under the Victoria Embankment before running out of money .
According to a pamphlet published by the BS & WR in 1906 , the idea of constructing the line " originally arose from the desire of a few business men in Westminster to get to and from Lord 's Cricket Ground as quickly as possible , " to enable them to see the last hour 's play without having to leave their offices too early . They realised that an underground railway line connecting the north and south of central London would provide " a long @-@ felt want of transport facilities " and " would therefore prove a great financial success . " They were inspired by the recent success of the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , the world 's first deep @-@ tube railway , which proved the feasibility of such an endeavour . This opened in November 1890 and carried large numbers of passengers in its first year of operation .
In November 1891 , notice was given of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the construction of the BS & WR . The railway was planned to run entirely underground from the junction of New Street ( now Melcombe Street ) and Dorset Square west of Baker Street to James Street ( now Spur Road ) on the south side of Waterloo station . From Baker Street , the route was to run eastwards beneath Marylebone Road , then curve to the south under Park Crescent and follow Portland Place , Langham Place and Regent Street to Piccadilly Circus . It was then to run under Haymarket , Trafalgar Square and Northumberland Avenue before passing under the River Thames to Waterloo station . A decision had not been made between the use of cable haulage or electric traction as the means of pulling the trains .
Bills for three similarly inspired new underground railways were also submitted to Parliament for the 1892 parliamentary session , and , to ensure a consistent approach , a Joint Select Committee was established to review the proposals . The committee took evidence on various matters regarding the construction and operation of deep @-@ tube railways , and made recommendations on the diameter of tube tunnels , method of traction , and the granting of wayleaves . After rejecting the construction of stations on land owned by the Crown Estate and the Duke of Portland between Oxford Circus and Baker Street , the Committee allowed the BS & WR bill to proceed for normal parliamentary consideration . The route was approved and the bill received royal assent on 28 March 1893 as the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1893 . Stations were permitted at Baker Street , Oxford Circus , Piccadilly Circus , Trafalgar Square , Embankment and Waterloo . The depot would have been at the south end of the line at James Street and Lower Marsh .
= = = Search for finance , 1893 – 1903 = = =
Although the company had permission to construct the railway , it still had to raise the capital for the construction works . The BS & WR was not alone ; four other new tube railway companies were looking for investors – the Waterloo and City Railway ( W & CR ) , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) and the Great Northern and City Railway ( GN & CR ) ( the three other companies that were put forward in bills in 1892 ) and the Central London Railway ( CLR , which received royal assent in 1891 ) . The original tube railway , the C & SLR , was also raising funds to construct extensions to its existing line . Only the W & CR , which was the shortest line and was backed by the London and South Western Railway with a guaranteed dividend , was able to raise its funds without difficulty . For the BS & WR and the rest , and others that came later , much of the remainder of the decade saw a struggle to find finance in an uninterested market .
Like most legislation of its kind , the act of 1893 imposed a time limit for the compulsory purchase of land and the raising of capital . To keep the powers alive , the BS & WR announced a new bill in November 1895 , which included an application for an extension of time . The additional time and permission to raise an extra £ 100 @,@ 000 of capital was granted when the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1896 received royal assent on 7 August 1896 .
In November 1897 , the BS & WR did a deal with the London & Globe Finance Corporation ( L & GFC ) , a mining finance company operated by mining speculator Whitaker Wright and chaired by Lord Dufferin . The L & GFC was to fund and manage the construction , taking any profit from the process . The cost of construction was estimated to be £ 1 @,@ 615 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to approximately £ 164 million today ) . The L & GFC replaced the BS & WR 's directors with its own and let construction contracts . Wright made fortunes in America and Britain by promoting gold and silver mines and saw the BS & WR as a way of diversifying the L & GFC 's holdings .
In 1899 , Wright fraudulently concealed large losses by one of the corporation 's mines by manipulating the accounts of various L & GFC subsidiary companies . Expenditure for the BS & WR was also high , with the L & GFC having paid out approximately £ 650 @,@ 000 ( £ 63 @.@ 4 million today ) by November 1900 . In its prospectus of November 1900 , the company forecast that it would realise £ 260 @,@ 000 a year from passenger traffic , with working expenses of £ 100 @,@ 000 , leaving £ 138 @,@ 240 for dividends after the deduction of interest payments . Only a month later , however , Wright 's fraud was discovered and the L & GFC and many of its subsidiaries collapsed . Wright himself subsequently committed suicide by taking cyanide during his trial at the Royal Courts of Justice .
The BS & WR struggled on for a time , funding the construction work by making calls on the unpaid portion of its shares , but activity eventually came to a stop and the partly built tunnels were left derelict . Before its collapse , the L & GFC attempted to sell its interests in the BS & WR for £ 500 @,@ 000 to an American consortium headed by Albert L. Johnson , but was unsuccessful . However , it attracted the interest of another American consortium headed by financier Charles Yerkes . After some months of negotiations with the L & GFC 's liquidator , Yerkes purchased the company for £ 360 @,@ 000 plus interest ( £ 35 @.@ 3 million today ) . He was involved in the development of Chicago 's tramway system in the 1880s and 1890s . He came to London in 1900 and purchased a number of the struggling underground railway companies , The BS & WR became a subsidiary of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) which Yerkes formed to raise funds to build the tube railways and to electrify the District Railway . The UERL was capitalised at £ 5 million with the majority of shares sold to overseas investors . Further share issues followed , which raised a total of £ 18 million by 1903 ( equivalent to approximately £ 1 @.@ 74 billion today ) for use across all of the UERL 's projects .
= = = Planning the route , 1893 – 1904 = = =
= = = = BS & WR bill , 1896 = = = =
While the BS & WR raised money , it continued to develop the plans for its route . The November 1895 bill sought powers to modify the planned route of the tunnels at the Baker Street end of the line and extend them approximately 200 metres ( 660 ft ) beyond their previous end point at the south @-@ eastern corner of Dorset Square to the south @-@ eastern corner of Harewood Square . This area was to be the site of Marylebone station , the new London terminus of the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway 's extension from the Midlands then under construction.Approval for the extension and a new station at Marylebone were included in the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1896 .
= = = = New Cross & Waterloo Railway bill , 1898 = = = =
On 26 November 1897 , details of a bill proposed for the 1898 parliamentary session were published by the New Cross and Waterloo Railway ( NC & WR ) , an independent company promoted by James Heath MP , which planned two separate sections of tube line that would connect directly to the BS & WR , extending the line south @-@ east from Waterloo and east from around Marylebone Road .
The southern of the NC & WR 's two extensions was planned to connect with the BS & WR tunnels under Belvedere Road to the west of Waterloo station and head east under the mainline station to its own station under Sandell Street adjacent to Waterloo East station . The route was then planned to run under Waterloo Road , St George 's Circus and London Road to Elephant and Castle . The route then followed New Kent Road and Old Kent Road as far as the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's Old Kent Road station ( closed in 1917 ) . Intermediate stations were to be constructed at St George 's Circus , Elephant and Castle ( where the NC & WR station would interchange with the C & SLR 's station below ground and link to the London , Chatham and Dover Railway 's station above ground ) , in New Kent Road at Munton Road , at the junction of New Kent Road and Old Kent Road , and on Old Kent Road at the junctions with Mina Road , Bowles Road and Commercial Road ( now Commercial Way ) . A power station was planned on the south side of Old Kent Road where it crossed the Grand Surrey Canal ( now filled @-@ in ) at the junction with St James 's Road . This would have provided a delivery route for fuel and a source of water . Tunnels were also planned to connect the BS & WR 's proposed depot at Waterloo to the NC & WR 's route enabling trains to enter and exit in two directions .
The NC & WR 's other planned extension was to branch from the BS & WR 's curve under Park Crescent . It was then to curve eastwards under Regent 's Park and then run under Longford Street and Drummond Street to end at a station on the west side of Seymour Street ( now Eversholt Street ) under Euston station . An intermediate station was planned for the junction of Drummond Street and Hampstead Road .
The bill was deposited in Parliament , but no progress was made in the 1898 session and it disappeared afterwards , although the BS & WR presented a modified version of the Euston branch in a bill for the 1899 session .
= = = = BS & WR bill , 1899 = = = =
Construction work began in August 1898 , although the BS & WR was continuing to develop new route plans . The bill for 1899 , published on 22 November 1898 , requested more time for the construction works and proposed two extensions to the railway and a modification to part of the previously approved route . The first extension , like the NC & WR 's plan from the year before , was to branch from the already @-@ approved route under Park Crescent , but then followed a more northerly route than the NC & WR , running under Regent 's Park to cross the park 's Outer Circle between Chester Road and Cumberland Gate where a station was to be constructed . The route then followed Cumberland Street West ( now Nash Street ) , Cumberland Market , Cumberland Street East and Edward Street ( both now Varndell Street ) , before ending at a station under Cardington Street on the west side of Euston station .
The second extension was to continue the line west from Marylebone , running under Great James Street and Bell Street ( now both Bell Street ) to Corlett Street , then turning south to reach the Grand Junction Canal 's Paddington Basin to the east of the GWR 's Paddington station . A station was to be located directly under the east @-@ west arm of the basin before the line turned north @-@ west , running between the mainline station and the basin , before the two tunnels merged into one . The single tunnel was then to turn north @-@ east , passing under the Regent 's Canal to the east of Little Venice , before coming to the surface where a depot was to be built on the north side of Blomfield Road . The BS & WR also planned a power station at Paddington . The final change to the route was a modification at Waterloo to move the last section of the line southwards to end under Addington Street . The aim of these plans was , as the company put it in 1906 , " to tap the large traffic of the South London Tramways , and to link up by a direct Line several of the most important Railway termini . "
The Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , London 's first underground railway , which operated between Paddington and Euston over the northern section of the Inner Circle since 1863 , saw the BS & WR 's two northern extensions as competition for its own service and strongly objected . Parliament accepted the objections ; when the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1899 received royal assent on 1 August 1899 , only the extension of time and the route change at Waterloo were approved
= = = = BS & WR bill , 1900 = = = =
In November 1899 , the BS & WR announced a bill for the 1900 session . Again , an extension was proposed from Marylebone to Paddington , this time terminating to the east of the mainline station at the junction of Bishop 's Road ( now Bishop 's Bridge Road ) and Gloucester Terrace . A station was planned under Bishop 's Road , linked to the mainline station by a subway under Eastbourne Terrace . From Waterloo , an extension was planned to run under Westminster Bridge Road and St George 's Road to terminate at Elephant and Castle . The BS & WR would connect there with the C & SLR 's station as the NC & WR planned two years earlier . A spur was to be provided to a depot and power station that were to be constructed on the site of the School for the Indigent Blind south of St George 's Circus .
The Paddington extension was aligned to allow a westward extension to continue to Royal Oak or Willesden , areas already served by the MR , which again opposed the plans . This time , the BS & WR was successful and royal assent for the extensions was granted in the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1900 on 6 August 1900 .
= = = = Minor changes , 1902 – 04 = = = =
To make up for the time lost following the collapse of the L & GFC and to restore the BS & WR 's finances , the company published a bill in November 1901 , which sought another extension of time and permission to change its funding arrangements . The bill was approved as the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1902 on 18 November 1902 .
For the 1903 parliamentary session , the UERL announced bills for the BS & WR and its other tube railways , seeking permission to merge the three companies by transferring the BS & WR 's and CCE & HR 's powers to the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) . The BS & WR bill also included requests for a further extension of time and for powers to compulsorily purchase land for an electrical sub @-@ station at Lambeth . The merger was rejected by Parliament , but the land purchase and extension of time were permitted separately in the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1903 and the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( Extension of Time ) Act , 1903 , both given royal assent on 11 August 1903 .
For the 1904 Parliamentary session , the BS & WR bill sought permission to add new stations at Lambeth , Regent 's Park and Edgware Road . The new stations were permitted by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1904 given royal assent on 22 July 1904 .
= = = Construction , 1898 – 1906 = = =
Construction commenced in the summer of 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker ( who co @-@ designed the Forth Bridge ) , W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church . The works were carried out by Perry & Company of Tregedar Works , Bow .
The main construction site was located at a substantial temporary staging pier erected in the River Thames a short distance south of the Hungerford Bridge . It was described at the time as " a small village of workshops and offices and an electrical generating station to provide the power for driving the machinery and for lighting purposes during construction . " The 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide stage was located 370 feet ( 110 m ) from the Hungerford Bridge 's first pier , 150 feet ( 46 m ) from the north bank of the Thames . It was originally intended that the work should begin close to the south bank , with a bridge connecting the stage to College Street – a now @-@ vanished road on the site of the present @-@ day Jubilee Gardens . However , test borings showed that there was a deep depression in the gravel beneath the Thames , which it was speculated was the result of dredging carried out for the abortive Charing Cross & Waterloo Railway project . This led to the work site being relocated to the north side of the river .
Two caissons were sunk into the river bed below the stage . From there , the tunnels were constructed in each direction using Barlow @-@ Greathead tunnelling shields of a similar design to those used to construct the C & SLR . The north tunnel was constructed first , commencing in February 1899 , followed by the south tunnel from March 1900 . This was technically the most difficult stage of the project , as it necessitated tunnelling under the river . The tunnellers worked in an atmosphere of compressed air at up to 35 psi ( 240 kPa ) to prevent water leaking into the excavations . On several occasions , however , the tunnel was breached and escaping air caused " blowouts " , producing water spouts up to 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) high above the surface of the river . One such blowout disrupted Doggett 's Coat and Badge race . By using the river as the centre of tunnelling operations , the company was able to remove excavated soil onto barges and bring in required material the same way , thus avoiding having to transport large amounts of material through the streets . Tunnelling also took place from station sites , notably at Piccadilly Circus . The tunnellers worked with a remarkable degree of accuracy given the technology of the time ; the tunnel being driven north from the Thames eventually reached the one being dug south from Piccadilly Circus , meeting under Haymarket , with a deviation of only three @-@ quarters of an inch ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) .
The tunnel linings were formed from cast iron segments 7 ⁄ 8 inch ( 2 @.@ 22 cm ) thick , which locked together to form a ring with an internal diameter of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 66 m ) . Once a ring was completed , grout was injected through holes in the segments to fill any voids between the outside edge of the ring and the excavated ground beyond , reducing subsidence . By November 1899 the northbound tunnel reached Trafalgar Square and work on some of the station sites was started , but the collapse of the L & GFC in 1900 led to works gradually coming to a halt . When the UERL was constituted in April 1902 , 50 per cent of the tunnelling and 25 per cent of the station work was completed . With funds in place , work restarted and proceeded at a rate of 73 feet ( 22 @.@ 25 m ) per week , so that by February 1904 virtually all of the tunnels and underground parts of the stations between Elephant & Castle and Marylebone were complete and works on the station buildings were under way . The additional stations were incorporated as work continued elsewhere and Oxford Circus station was altered below ground following a Board of Trade inspection ; at the end of 1905 , the first test trains began running . Although the BS & WR had permission to continue to Paddington , no work was undertaken beyond Edgware Road .
The BS & WR used a Westinghouse automatic signalling system operated through electric track circuits . This controlled signals based on the presence or absence of a train on the track ahead . Signals incorporated an arm that was raised when the signal was red . If a train failed to stop at a red signal , the arm activated a " tripcock " on the train , applying the brakes automatically .
Stations were provided with surface buildings designed by architect Leslie Green in the UERL house @-@ style . This consisted of two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed buildings faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . They were designed with flat roofs to enable additional storeys to be constructed for commercial occupants , maximising the air rights of the property . Except for Embankment , which had a sloping passageway down to the platforms , each station was provided with between two and four lifts and an emergency spiral staircase in a separate shaft . At platform level , the wall tiling featured the station name and an individual geometric pattern and colour scheme designed by Green .
It was originally intended that the electrical supply to the line and stations would be provided by a dedicated generating station at St George 's Road , Southwark . This idea was abandoned in 1902 and electricity was instead provided by Lots Road Power Station , operated by the UERL . Six ventilation fans were installed along the line to draw 18 @,@ 500 cubic feet per minute through the tunnels and out through exhausts placed on the roof of the stations . Fresh air was drawn back down from the surface via the lift and staircase shafts , thus replenishing the air in the tunnels . To reduce the risk of fire , the station platforms were built of concrete and iron and the sleepers were made from the fireproof Australian wood Eucalyptus marginata or jarrah .
The design of the permanent way was a departure from that of London 's previous tube railways , which used track laid on timber baulks across the tunnel with the bottom of the tube left open . This approach caused what the BS & WR 's management regarded as an unacceptable level of vibrations . They resolved this by mounting the sleepers on supports made of sand and cement grout , with the sleeper ends resting on comparatively soft broken stone ballast underneath the running rails . A drain ran parallel with the rails underneath the middle of the track . The rails themselves were unusually short – only 35 feet ( 11 m ) long – as this was the maximum length that could be brought in through the shafts and then turned horizontally to be carried into the tunnels . Power was supplied through third ( positive ) and fourth ( negative ) rails laid in the middle and outside of the track , as used on the District Railway .
= = Opening = =
The official opening of the BS & WR by Sir Edwin Cornwall , chairman of the London County Council , took place on 10 March 1906 . Shortly after the line 's opening , the London Evening News columnist " Quex " coined the abbreviated name " Baker @-@ loo " , which quickly caught on and began to be used officially from July 1906 , appearing on contemporary maps of the tube lines . The nickname was , however , deplored by The Railway Magazine , which complained : " Some latitude is allowable , perhaps , to halfpenny papers , in the use of nicknames , but for a railway itself to adopt its gutter title , is not what we expect from a railway company . English railway officers have more dignity than to act in this manner . "
The railway had stations at :
While construction was being finished , trains operated out of service beyond Baker Street , reversing at a crossover to the east of the station under construction at Marylebone .
= = = Rolling stock , fares and schedules = = =
The service was provided by a fleet of 108 carriages manufactured for the UERL in the United States by the American Car and Foundry Company and assembled in Manchester . They were transported to London by rail but because the BS & WR had no external railway connections , the carriages then had to be transported across the city on horse @-@ drawn wagons to their destination at London Road depot .
The carriages operated as electric multiple unit trains without separate locomotives . Passengers boarded and left the trains through folding lattice gates at each end of cars ; these gates were operated by gate @-@ men who rode on an outside platform and announced station names as trains arrived . The design was subsequently used for the GNP & BR and the CCE & HR , and became known on the Underground as the 1906 stock or Gate stock . Trains for the line were stabled at the London Road depot south of Kennington Road station .
The line operated from 5 : 30 am to 12 : 30 am on weekdays ( including Saturdays ) , and 7 : 30 am to 12 noon on Sundays . The standard one @-@ way fare following the line 's opening was 2d . ( " workmen 's tickets " at 2d. return were available up to 7 : 58 am ) and a book of 25 tickets was available at 4s . However , the original flat fares were abandoned in July 1906 and replaced with graded fares of between 1d. and 3d . In November 1906 , season tickets were introduced along with through tickets with the District Railway ( interchanging at Charing Cross ) . It was not until December 1907 that it was possible to buy a through ticket onto the Central London Railway ( via Oxford Circus ) . The BS & WR abolished its season tickets in October 1908 and replaced them with strip tickets , sold in sets of six , that could be used on the Bakerloo , Piccadilly and Hampstead tubes .
The service frequency as of mid @-@ 1906 was as follows :
Weekdays
From 5 : 30 am to 7 : 30 am : every 5 minutes
From 7 : 30 am to 11 : 30 pm : every 3 minutes
From 11 : 30 pm to 12 : 30 am : every 6 minutes
Sundays
From 7 : 30 am to 11 am : every 6 minutes
From 11 am to 12 noon : every 3 minutes
= = Co @-@ operation and consolidation , 1906 – 10 = =
Despite the UERL 's success in financing and constructing the railway , its opening did not bring the financial success that had been expected . In the Bakerloo Tube 's first twelve months of operation it carried 20 @.@ 5 million passengers , less than sixty per cent of the 35 million that had been predicted during the planning of the line . The UERL 's pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers for its other new lines proved to be similarly over @-@ optimistic , as did the projected figures for the newly electrified DR – in each case , numbers achieved only around fifty per cent of their targets . 37 @,@ 000 people used the line on the first day , but in the months following the line 's opening only about 20 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 passengers a day used the service . The number of carriages used by the BS & WR was cut back to three per train at peak times and only two during off @-@ peak hours . The Daily Mail reported in April 1906 that the rush @-@ hour trains were carrying fewer than 100 people at a time . To add to the line 's misfortunes , it suffered its first fatality only two weeks after opening when conductor John Creagh was crushed between a train and a tunnel wall at Kennington Road station on 26 March .
The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly due to competition between the tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies , but the introduction of electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , took a large number of passengers away from the trains . The Daily Mirror noted at the end of April 1906 that the BS & WR offered poor value for money compared to the equivalent motor bus service , which cost only 1d. per journey , and that passengers disliked the distances that they had to walk between the trains and the lifts . Such problems were not limited to the UERL ; all of London 's seven tube lines and the sub @-@ surface DR and Metropolitan Railway were affected to some degree . The reduced revenue generated from the lower passenger numbers made it difficult for the UERL and the other railways to pay back the capital borrowed , or to pay dividends to shareholders .
From 1907 , in an effort to improve their finances , the UERL , the C & SLR , the CLR and the GN & CR began to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . The W & CR was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement , as it was owned by the mainline L & SWR .
The UERL 's three tube railway companies were still legally separate entities , with their own management , shareholder and dividend structures . There was duplicated administration between the three companies and , to streamline the management and reduce expenditure , the UERL announced a bill in November 1909 that would merge the Bakerloo , the Hampstead and the Piccadilly Tubes into a single entity , the London Electric Railway ( LER ) , although the lines retained their own individual branding . The bill received Royal Assent on 26 July 1910 as the London Electric Railway Amalgamation Act , 1910 .
= = Extensions = =
= = = Paddington , 1906 – 13 = = =
Having planned a westward extension in 1900 to Willesden Junction , the company had been unable to decide on a route beyond Paddington and had postponed further construction while it considered options . In November 1905 , the BS & WR announced a bill for 1906 that replaced the route from Edgware Road to Paddington approved in 1900 with a new alignment . This had the tunnels crossing under the Paddington basin with the station under London Street . The tunnels were to continue south @-@ east beyond the station as sidings , to end under the junction of Grand Junction Road and Devonport Street ( now Sussex Gardens and Sussex Place ) . In a pamphlet published in 1906 to publicise the Paddington extension , the company proclaimed :
[ I ] t will thus be seen that the advantages which this line will afford for getting quickly and cheaply from one point of London to another are without parallel . It will link up many of the most important Railway termini , give a connection with twelve other Railway systems , and connect the vast tramway system of the South of London , thus bringing the Theatres and other places of amusement , as well as the chief shopping centres , within easy reach of outer London and the suburbs .
The changes were permitted by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway Act , 1906 on 4 August 1906 , but the south @-@ east alignment did not represent a suitable direction to continue the railway and no effort was made to construct the extension .
In 1908 , the Bakerloo Tube attempted to make the hoped @-@ for extension into north @-@ west London using the existing powers of the North West London Railway ( NWLR ) , an unbuilt tube railway with permission to build a line from Cricklewood to Victoria station . The NWLR announced a bill in November 1908 seeking to construct a 757 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 484 ft ) connection between its unbuilt route beneath the Edgware Road and the Bakerloo Tube 's Edgware Road station . The NWLR route to Victoria was to be abandoned south of the connection and the Bakerloo Tube 's planned route to Paddington was to be built as a shuttle line from Edgware Road , which was to be provided with two additional platforms for shuttle use . The Bakerloo Tube was to construct the extension and operate the service over the combined route , which was to have stations at St John 's Wood Road , Abercorn Place , Belsize Road ( close to the LNWR station ) , Brondesbury ( to interchange with the North London Railway 's station and close to the MR 's Kilburn station ) , Minster Road and Cricklewood . The Bakerloo Tube announced its own bill to make the necessary changes to its existing plans .
The GWR objected to the reduction of the Bakerloo Tube 's Paddington connection to a shuttle and the MR objected to the connection of the two lines , which would be in competition with its line through Kilburn . Parliament rejected the proposed connection and the changes to the NWLR 's route and the company 's permissions eventually expired without any construction work being carried out . The Bakerloo Tube bill was withdrawn .
In November 1910 , the LER ( of which the Bakerloo Tube was now part ) revived plans for the Paddington extension when it published a bill for the 1911 Parliamentary session . The new route ran 890 metres ( 2 @,@ 920 ft ) in a tight curve from Edgware Road station , initially heading south before turning to the north @-@ west , which provided a more practical direction for a future extension . The bill was supported by the GWR with funding of £ 18 @,@ 000 . The London Electric Railway Act , 1911 received royal assent on 2 June 1911 . Construction started in August 1911 , and was completed in a little over two years . The extension opened on 1 December 1913 , with the single new station at Paddington . Following their successful introduction at Earl 's Court in 1911 , the station was the first on the line to be designed to use escalators instead of lifts .
= = = Queen 's Park and Watford , 1911 – 17 = = =
In 1907 , the LNWR obtained parliamentary permission to improve its mainline services into London by the construction of a pair of new electrified tracks alongside its existing line between Watford Junction in Hertfordshire and Queen 's Park , Kilburn and a new tube section beneath its lines from there to its terminus at Euston . At Euston , the tube tunnel was to end with an underground station on a 1 @,@ 450 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 760 ft ) long loop beneath the mainline station .
The LNWR began construction work on the surface section of the new tracks in 1909 . By 1911 , it had modified the plans to omit the underground section and to split its proposed electrified services into three . The first section was to follow the existing surface route into Euston on newly electrified tracks , the second section was to connect with the North London Railway at Chalk Farm and continue on electrified tracks from there to Broad Street station in the City of London . The third section involved the extension of the Bakerloo Tube from Paddington to Queen 's Park .
With the extension to Paddington still under construction , the LER published a bill in November 1911 for the continuation to Queen 's Park . The extension was to continue north from Paddington , running past Little Venice to Maida Vale before curving north @-@ west to Kilburn and then west to parallel the LNWR main line , before coming to the surface a short distance to the east of Queen 's Park station . Three intermediate stations were to be provided : on Warwick Avenue at the junction with Warrington Avenue , Clifton Villas and Clifton Gardens ; at the junction of Elgin and Randolph Avenues ( named Maida Vale ) ; and on Cambridge Avenue ( named Kilburn Park ) . The LNWR gave a £ 1 million loan to the LER at 4 % interest in perpetuity to help finance the extension . The bill received royal assent on 7 August 1912 as the London Electric Railway Act , 1912 .
Progress on the section from Paddington to Queen 's Park was slowed by the start of World War I , so the line was not finished until early 1915 . As at Paddington , the three below @-@ ground stations were built to use escalators . Maida Vale and Kilburn Park were provided with buildings in the style of the earlier Leslie Green stations but without the upper storey , which was no longer required for housing lift gear . Warwick Avenue was accessed from a subway under the street . The LNWR rebuilt Queen 's Park station with additional platforms for the Bakerloo Tube 's and its own electric services and constructed two train sheds for rolling stock , one each side of the station .
Although the tracks were completed to Queen 's Park , delays to the completion of the stations caused the extension to open in stages :
Warwick Avenue , on 31 January 1915
Maida Vale , on 6 June 1915
Kilburn Park , on 31 January 1915
Queen 's Park , on 11 February 1915
North of Queen 's Park , the LNWR had opened its new lines between Willesden Junction and Watford during 1912 and 1913 , together with new stations at Harlesden , Stonebridge Park , North Wembley , Kenton and Headstone Lane . The new tracks between Queen 's Park and Willesden Junction opened on 10 May 1915 , when Bakerloo Tube services were extended there . On 16 April 1917 , the tube service was extended to Watford Junction . North of Queen 's Park , the Bakerloo Tube served the following stations :
Kensal Green
Willesden Junction
Harlesden
Stonebridge Park
Wembley for Sudbury ( now Wembley Central )
North Wembley
Kenton
Harrow & Wealdstone
Headstone Lane
Pinner & Hatch End ( later Hatch End for Pinner , now Hatch End )
Carpenders Park , opened 5 May 1919
Bushey & Oxhey ( now Bushey )
Watford High Street
Watford Junction
For the extension to Queen 's Park , the LER supplemented the existing rolling stock with 14 new carriages ordered from Brush Traction and Leeds Forge Company plus spare Gate stock carriages from the GNP & BR . These carriages , the 1914 stock , were the first to have doors in the sides of the carriages as well as the ends . For the longer extension to Watford , the LER and the LNWR ordered 72 new carriages from the Metropolitan Railway Carriage and Wagon Company . Manufacture of this rolling stock was delayed by the war , and , while it was waiting for delivery , the Bakerloo Tube used spare 1915 stock carriages ordered for an unfinished extension of the CLR to Ealing Broadway and more spare Gate stock carriages from the GNP & BR . Delivery of the carriages for the Watford service , known as the Watford Joint stock because ownership was shared with the LNWR , began in 1920 ; they were painted in the LNWR 's livery to distinguish them from trains operating only on the Bakerloo Tube 's tracks .
= = = Camberwell and south @-@ east London = = =
The southern termination of the line at Elephant & Castle presented the opportunity for the line to be extended further , to serve Camberwell and other destinations in south @-@ east London . In 1913 , the Lord Mayor of London announced a proposal for the Bakerloo Tube to be extended to the Crystal Palace via Camberwell Green , Dulwich and Sydenham Hill , but nothing was done to implement the plan . In 1921 , the LER costed an extension to Camberwell , Dulwich and Sydenham and in 1922 plans for an extension to Orpington via Loughborough Junction and Catford were considered . In 1928 , a route to Rushey Green via Dulwich was suggested . Again , no action was taken , although the London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee approved an extension to Camberwell in 1926 .
In 1931 , an extension to Camberwell was approved as part of the London Electric Metropolitan District and Central London Railway Companies ( Works ) Act , 1931 . The route was to follow Walworth Road and Camberwell Road south from Elephant and Castle , with stations at Albany Road and under Denmark Hill road at Camberwell . Elephant & Castle station was to be reconstructed with a third platform , a new ticket hall and escalators . However , financial constraints prevented any work from being started .
= = Improvements , 1914 – 28 = =
Overcrowding was a major problem at many stations where interchanges were made with other Underground lines and efforts were made in a number of places to improve passenger movements . In 1914 , work was carried out to provide larger ticket halls and install escalators at Oxford Circus , Embankment and Baker Street . In 1923 , further work at Oxford Circus provided a combined Bakerloo and CLR ticket hall and added more escalators serving the CLR platforms . In 1926 , Trafalgar Square and Waterloo received escalators , the latter in conjunction with expansion of the station as part of the CCE & HR 's extension to Kennington . Between 1925 and 1928 , Piccadilly Circus station saw the greatest reconstruction . A large circular ticket hall was excavated below the road junction with multiple subway connections from points around the Circus and two flights of escalators down to the Bakerloo and Piccadilly platforms were installed .
= = Move to public ownership , 1923 – 33 = =
Despite closer co @-@ operation and improvements made to the Bakerloo stations and to other parts of the network , the Underground railways continued to struggle financially . The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenue , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole UERL group .
To protect the UERL group 's income , its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , the LER and the other Underground companies were liquidated .
= = Legacy = =
The plan for the extension to Camberwell was kept alive throughout the 1930s and , in 1940 , the permission was used to construct sidings beyond Elephant & Castle . After the Second World War , the plans were revised again , with stations located under Walworth Road and Camberwell Green , and the extension appeared on tube maps in 1949 . Rising construction costs caused by difficult ground conditions and restricted funds in the post @-@ war austerity period led the scheme to be cancelled again in 1950 . Various proposals have been evaluated since , including an extension to Peckham considered in the early 1970s , but the costs have always out @-@ weighed the benefits .
One of the LPTB 's first acts in charge of the Bakerloo line was the opening of a new station at South Kenton on 3 July 1933 . As part of the LPTB 's New Works Programme announced in 1935 , new tube tunnels were constructed from Baker Street to the former MR station at Finchley Road and the Bakerloo line took over the stopping service to Wembley Park and the MR 's Stanmore branch . The service opened in November 1939 and remained part of the Bakerloo line until 1979 when it transferred to the Jubilee line .
The Bakerloo line 's Watford service frequency was gradually reduced and from 1965 ran only during rush hours . In 1982 , the service beyond Stonebridge Park was ended as part of the fall @-@ out of the cancellation of the Greater London Council 's Fares Fair subsidies policy . A peak hours service was restored to Harrow & Wealdstone in 1984 and a full service was restored in 1989 .
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= Osvetnik @-@ class submarine =
The Osvetnik @-@ class consisted of two submarines built by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire , Nantes , France for the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . Launched in 1928 – 29 , the vessels were named Osvetnik ( Nemesis ) and Smeli ( Daring ) . They were built to a partial double hull Simonot design similar to the French Circé @-@ class . The Osvetnik @-@ class was the second class of submarines to serve in the Royal Yugoslav Navy , and joined the two larger British @-@ made Hrabri @-@ class submarines to make up the pre @-@ war Yugoslav submarine force . They were armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun , and could dive to 80 metres ( 260 ft ) .
Prior to World War II both submarines participated in cruises to Mediterranean ports . Both submarines were captured by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . After refit , they saw service as experimental and training vessels with the Regia Marina as Francesco Rismondo and Antonio Bajamonti respectively . They were both scuttled in September 1943 following the Italian surrender , Francesco Rismondo by the Germans following her capture , and Antonio Bajamonti by the Italians themselves .
= = Description and construction = =
Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid @-@ 1920s , although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it . In 1926 , a modest ten @-@ year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines , coastal torpedo boats , torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role . The Osvetnik @-@ class submarines were one of the acquisitions aimed at developing a naval force capable of meeting this challenge .
The Osvetnik @-@ class was built for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) by the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire company at Nantes , France . Their design was based on a partial double hull Simonot design , similar to the French Circé class . Their Serbo @-@ Croatian names of Osvetnik and Smeli translate as " Avenger " and " Daring " respectively . They had an overall length of 66 @.@ 5 m ( 218 ft ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 4 m ( 18 ft ) , and a surfaced draught of 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) . Their surfaced displacement was 630 long tons ( 640 t ) , or 809 long tons ( 822 t ) submerged , and their crews consisted of 43 officers and enlisted men . They had an operational depth of 80 m ( 260 ft ) .
They had two shafts driven by two MAN ( Maschinenfabrik ) diesel engines ( when surfaced ) or two Nancy electric motors ( when submerged ) . The diesel engines were rated at 1 @,@ 480 bhp ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) and the electric motors at 1 @,@ 000 shp ( 750 kW ) , and they were designed to reach a top speed of 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ) under diesel power while surfaced , and 9 @.@ 2 knots ( 17 @.@ 0 km / h ) on their electric motors when submerged . They were armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes ( four bow @-@ mounted , two stern @-@ mounted ) , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . They had a surfaced radius action of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) , and 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) submerged .
= = Service history = =
Smeli was launched on 1 December 1928 , and Osvetnik on 14 January 1929 . They arrived in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast on 9 December 1929 . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships engaged in few exercises , maneuvers or gunnery training due to reduced budgets .
= = = Osvetnik = = =
First of the class , Osvetnik was involved in a series of visits to Mediterranean ports during the interwar period . She was captured in port by the Italians during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . She was refitted and modernised before being commissioned by the Italians as Francesco Rismondo , but was only used for training and experimentation . She was captured then scuttled by the Germans in September 1943 .
= = = Smeli = = =
Smeli was the second and last of her class . She participated in several cruises in the Mediterranean during the interwar period . After capture by the Italians , Smeli was refitted and modernised before being commissioned as Antonio Bajamonti , but was only used for training and experimentation . She was scuttled by the Italians in September 1943 after the Italian surrender .
= = = Books = = =
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= United States Numbered Highways =
The system of United States Numbered Highways ( often called U.S. Routes or U.S. Highways ) is an integrated network of roads and highways numbered within a nationwide grid in the contiguous United States . As the designation and numbering of these highways were coordinated among the states , they are sometimes called Federal Highways , but the roadways have always been maintained by state or local governments since their initial designation in 1926 .
The route numbers and locations are coordinated by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) . The only federal involvement in AASHTO is a nonvoting seat for the United States Department of Transportation . Generally , north @-@ to @-@ south highways are odd @-@ numbered , with lowest numbers in the east , the area of the founding thirteen states of the United States , and highest in the west . Similarly , east @-@ to @-@ west highways are typically even @-@ numbered , with the lowest numbers in the north , where roads were first improved most intensively , and highest in the south . Major north – south routes have numbers ending in " 1 " while major east – west routes have numbers ending in " 0 " . Three @-@ digit numbered highways are spur routes of parent highways but are not necessarily connected to their parents . Some divided routes exist to provide two alignments for one route , even though many splits have been eliminated . Special routes , usually posted with a banner , can provide various routes , such as an alternate , bypass or business route , for a U.S. Highway .
Before the U.S. Routes were designated , auto trails designated by auto trail associations were the main means of marking roads through the United States . In 1925 , the Joint Board on Interstate Highways , recommended by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , worked to form a national numbering system to rationalize the roads . After several meetings , a final report was approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in November 1925 . They received complaints from across the country about the assignment of routes , so the Board made several modifications ; the U.S. Highway System was approved in November 1926 . As a result of compromises made to get the U.S. Highway System approved , many routes were divided , with alignments to serve different towns . In subsequent years , AASHTO called for such splits in U.S. Routes to be eliminated .
Expansion of the system continued until 1956 , when the Interstate Highway System was formed . After construction was completed , many U.S. Routes were replaced by Interstate Highways for through traffic . Despite the Interstate system , U.S. Highways still form many important regional connections , and new routes are still being added .
= = System details = =
In general , U.S. Routes do not have a minimum design standard , unlike the later Interstate Highways , and are not usually built to freeway standards . Some stretches of U.S. Routes do meet those standards . Many are designated using the main streets of the cities and towns through which they run . New additions to the system , however , must " substantially meet the current AASHTO design standards " . As of 1989 , the United States Numbered Highways system has a total length of 157 @,@ 724 miles ( 253 @,@ 832 km ) .
Except for toll bridges and tunnels , very few U.S. Routes are toll roads . AASHTO policy says that a toll road may only be included as a special route , and that " a toll @-@ free routing between the same termini shall continue to be retained and marked as a part of the U.S. Numbered System . " U.S. Route 3 ( US 3 ) meets this obligation ; in New Hampshire , it does not follow tolled portions of the Everett Turnpike . But US Routes in the system do use parts of four toll roads :
US 51 uses part of the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway in Illinois ; the old road is Illinois Route 251 .
US 278 uses the tolled Cross Island Parkway in South Carolina ; the old road is US 278 Business .
US 412 uses the Cimarron Turnpike in Oklahoma ; the old road is US 64 .
US 412 also uses the Cherokee Turnpike in Oklahoma ; the old road is Alternate US 412 .
= = = Numbering = = =
The two @-@ digit U.S. Routes follow a simple grid in the contiguous United States , in which odd @-@ numbered routes run generally north to south and even @-@ numbered routes run generally east to west . ( US 101 is considered a two @-@ digit route , its " first digit " being 10 . ) The numbering pattern for U.S. Routes was established first : U.S. Routes proceed from low even numbers in the north to high even numbers in the south , and from low odd numbers in the east to high odd numbers in the west . Numbers ending in 0 or 1 ( and US 2 ) , and to a lesser extent in 5 , were considered main routes in the early numbering , but extensions and truncations have made this distinction largely meaningless . For example , US 6 was until 1964 the longest route ( that distinction now belongs to US 20 ) .
In the 1950s , the numbering grid for the new Interstate Highway System was established as intentionally opposite from the US grid insofar as the direction the route numbers increase . Interstate Highway numbers increase from west @-@ to @-@ east and south @-@ to @-@ north , to keep identically numbered routes geographically apart in order to keep them from being confused with one another . Both highway systems still number the routes ending in odd numbers north – south and the even @-@ numbered highways run east – west .
In the US Highway system , three @-@ digit numbers are assigned to spurs of one or two @-@ digit routes . US 201 , for example , splits from US 1 at Brunswick , Maine , and runs north to Canada . Not all spurs travel in the same direction as their " parents " ; some are connected to their parents only by other spurs , or not at all , instead only traveling near their parents . As originally assigned , the first digit of the spurs increased from north to south and east to west along the parent ; for example , US 60 had spurs , running from east to west , designated as US 160 in Missouri , US 260 in Oklahoma , US 360 in Texas , and US 460 and US 560 in New Mexico . As with the two @-@ digit routes , three @-@ digit routes have been added , removed , extended and shortened ; the " parent @-@ child " relationship is not always present . For example , several spurs of the decommissioned US 66 still exist . US 191 travels from border to border although its parent , US 91 , has been largely replaced by Interstate 15 ( I @-@ 15 ) .
In addition , US 163 , designated in 1970 , is nowhere near US 63 . The short US 57 , approved c . 1970 , connects to Federal Highway 57 in Mexico , and lies west of former US 81 .
Several routes approved since 1980 do not follow the numbering pattern :
US 400 , approved in 1994 , has no " parent " since there is no US 0 or US 100 .
US 412 , approved c . 1982 , is nowhere near US 12 .
US 425 , approved in 1989 , is nowhere near US 25 .
While AASHTO guidelines specifically prohibit Interstate Highways and U.S. Routes from sharing a number within the same state ( which is why there are no Interstates 50 or 60 ) , the initial Interstate numbering approved in 1958 violated this with I @-@ 24 and US 24 in Illinois and I @-@ 40 , I @-@ 80 , US 40 and US 80 in California ( US 40 and US 80 were removed from California in its 1964 renumbering ) .
Some recent and proposed Interstates , some of them out of place in the grid , also violate this : I @-@ 41 and US 41 in Wisconsin ( which will run concurrently ) , I @-@ 49 and US 49 in Arkansas , I @-@ 69 and US 69 in Texas , and I @-@ 74 and US 74 in North Carolina ( which run concurrently ) .
Some two @-@ digit numbers have never been applied to any U.S. Route , including 39 , 47 , 86 and 88 .
= = = Divided and special routes = = =
Since 1926 , some divided routes were designated to serve related areas , and designate roughly @-@ equivalent splits of routes . For instance , US 11 splits into US 11E ( east ) and US 11W ( west ) in Bristol , Virginia , and the routes rejoin in Knoxville , Tennessee . Occasionally only one of the two routes is suffixed ; US 6N in Pennsylvania does not rejoin US 6 at its west end . AASHTO has been trying to eliminate these since 1934 ; its current policy is to deny approval of new split routes and to eliminate existing ones " as rapidly as the State Highway Department and the Standing Committee on Highways can reach agreement with reference thereto " .
Special routes — those with a banner such as alternate or bypass — are also managed by AASHTO . These are sometimes designated with lettered suffixes , like A for alternate or B for business .
= = = Naming = = =
The official route log , last published by AASHTO in 1989 , has been named United States Numbered Highways since its initial publication in 1926 . Within the route log , " U.S. Route " is used in the table of contents , while " United States Highway " appears as the heading for each route . All reports of the Special Committee on Route Numbering since 1989 use " U.S. Route " , and federal laws relating to highways use " United States Route " or " U.S. Route " more often than the " Highway " variants . The use of U.S. Route or U.S. Highway on a local level depends on the state , with some states such as Delaware using " route " and others such as Colorado using " highway " .
= = History = =
= = = Early auto trails = = =
In 1903 , Horatio Nelson Jackson became the first documented person to drive an automobile from San Francisco to New York using only a connection of dirt roads , cow paths , and railroad beds . His journey , covered by the press , became a national sensation and called for a system of long distance roads .
In the early 1910s , auto trail organizations — most prominently the Lincoln Highway — began to spring up , marking and promoting routes for the new recreation of long @-@ distance automobile travel . While many of these organizations worked with towns and states along the route to improve the roadways , others simply chose a route based on towns that were willing to pay dues , put up signs , and did little else .
= = = Planning = = =
Wisconsin was the first state in the U.S. to number its highways , erecting signs in May 1918 . Other states soon followed . In 1922 the New England states got together to establish the six @-@ state New England Interstate Routes .
Behind the scenes , the federal aid program had begun with the passage of the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 , providing 50 % monetary support from the federal government for improvement of major roads . The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 limited the routes to 7 % of each state 's roads , while 3 in every 7 roads had to be " interstate in character " . Identification of these main roads was completed in 1923 .
The American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , formed in 1914 to help establish roadway standards , began to plan a system of marked and numbered " interstate highways " at its 1924 meeting . AASHO recommended that the Secretary of Agriculture work with the states to designate these routes .
Secretary Howard M. Gore appointed the Joint Board on Interstate Highways , as recommended by AASHO , on March 2 , 1925 . The Board was composed of 21 state highway officials and three federal Bureau of Public Roads officials . At the first meeting , on April 20 and 21 , the group chose the name " U.S. Highway " as the designation for the routes . They decided that the system would not be limited to the federal @-@ aid network ; if the best route did not receive federal funds , it would still be included . The tentative design for the U.S. Highway shield was also chosen , based on the shield found on the Great Seal of the United States .
The auto trail associations rejected the elimination of the highway names . Six regional meetings were held to hammer out the details — May 15 for the West , May 27 for the Mississippi Valley , June 3 for the Great Lakes , June 8 for the South , June 15 for the North Atlantic , and June 15 for New England . Representatives of the auto trail associations were not able to formally address the meetings . However , as a compromise , they talked with the Joint Board members . The associations finally settled on a general agreement with the numbering plans , as named trails would still be included . The tentative system added up to 81 @,@ 000 miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km ) , 2 @.@ 8 % of the public road mileage at the time .
The second full meeting was held August 3 and 4 , 1925 . At that meeting , discussion was held over the appropriate density of routes . William F. Williams of Massachusetts and Frederick S. Greene of New York favored a system of only major transcontinental highways , while many states recommended a large number of roads of only regional importance . Greene in particular intended New York 's system to have four major through routes as an example to the other states . Many states agreed in general with the scope of the system , but believed the Midwest to have added too many routes to the system . The group adopted the shield , with few modifications from the original sketch , at that meeting , as well as the decision to number rather than name the routes . A preliminary numbering system , with eight major east – west and ten major north – south routes , was deferred to a numbering committee " without instructions " .
After working with states to get their approval , the committee expanded the highway system to 75 @,@ 800 miles ( 122 @,@ 000 km ) , or 2 @.@ 6 % of total mileage , over 50 % more than the plan approved August 4 . The skeleton of the numbering plan was suggested on August 27 by Edwin Warley James of the BPR , who matched parity to direction , and laid out a rough grid . Major routes from the earlier map were assigned numbers ending in 0 , 1 or 5 ( 5 was soon relegated to less @-@ major status ) , and short connections received three @-@ digit numbers based on the main highway from which they spurred . The five @-@ man committee met September 25 , and submitted the final report to the Joint Board secretary on October 26 . The board sent the report to the Secretary of Agriculture of October 30 , and he approved it November 18 , 1925 .
= = = Disagreement and refinement , 1925 – 26 = = =
The new system was both praised and criticized by local newspapers , often depending on whether that city was connected to a major route . While the Lincoln Highway Association understood and supported the plan , partly because they were assured of getting the US 30 designation as much as possible , most other trail associations lamented their obsolescence . At their January 14 – 15 , 1926 meeting , AASHO was flooded with complaints .
In the Northeast , New York held out for fewer routes designated as US highways . The Pennsylvania representative , who had not attended the local meetings , convinced AASHO to add a dense network of routes , which had the effect of giving six routes termini along the state line . ( Only US 220 still ends near the state line , and now it ends at an intersection with future I @-@ 86 . ) Because US 20 seemed indirect , passing through Yellowstone National Park , Idaho and Oregon requested that US 30 be swapped with US 20 to the Pacific coast .
Many local disputes arose related to the committee 's choices between designation of two roughly equal parallel routes , which were often competing auto trails . At their January meeting , AASHO approved the first two of many split routes ( specifically US 40 between Manhattan , Kansas and Limon , Colorado and US 50 between Baldwin City , Kansas and Garden City , Kansas ) . In effect , each of the two routes received the same number , with a directional suffix indicating its relation to the other . These splits were initially shown in the log as — for instance — US 40 North and US 40 South , but were always posted as simply US 40N and US 40S .
The most heated argument , however , was the issue of US 60 . The Joint Board had assigned that number to the Chicago @-@ Los Angeles route , which ran more north – south than west – east in Illinois , and then angled sharply to the southwest to Oklahoma City , from where it ran west to Los Angeles . Kentucky strongly objected to this designated route , as it had been left off any of the major east @-@ west routes , instead receiving the US 62 designation . In January 1926 , the committee designated this , along with the part of US 52 east of Ashland , Kentucky , as US 60 . They assigned US 62 to the Chicago @-@ Los Angeles route , contingent on the approval of the states along the former US 60 . But Missouri and Oklahoma did object — Missouri had already printed maps , and Oklahoma had prepared signs . A compromise was proposed , in which US 60 would split at Springfield , Missouri , into US 60E and US 60N , but both sides objected . The final solution resulted in the assignment of US 66 to the Chicago @-@ Los Angeles portion of the US highway , which did not end in zero , but was still seen as a satisfyingly round number . Route 66 came to have a prominent place in popular culture , being featured in song and films .
With 32 states already marking their routes , the plan was approved by AASHO on November 11 , 1926 . This plan included a number of directionally split routes , several discontinuous routes ( including US 6 , US 19 and US 50 ) , and some termini at state lines . By the time the first route log was published in April 1927 , major numbering changes had been made in Pennsylvania in order to align the routes to the existing auto trails . In addition , U.S. Route 15 had been extended across Virginia .
Much of the early criticism of the U.S. Highway System focused on the choice of numbers to designate the highways , rather than names . Some thought a numbered highway system to be cold compared to the more colorful names and historic value of the auto trail systems . The New York Times wrote , " The traveler may shed tears as he drives the Lincoln Highway or dream dreams as he speeds over the Jefferson Highway , but how can he get a ' kick ' out of 46 , 55 or 33 or 21 ? " ( A popular song later promised , " Get your kicks on Route 66 ! " ) The writer Ernest McGaffey was quoted as saying , " Logarithms will take the place of legends , and ' hokum ' for history . "
= = = Expansion and adjustment , 1926 – 56 = = =
When the U.S. numbered system was started in 1925 , a few optional routings were established which were designated with a suffixed letter after the number indicating " north " , " south " , " east " , or " west " . While a few roads in the system are still numbered in this manner , AASHO believes that they should be eliminated wherever possible , by the absorption of one of the optional routes into another route .
In 1934 , AASHO tried to eliminate many of the split routes by removing them from the log , and designating one of each pair as a three @-@ digit or alternate route , or in one case US 37 . AASHO described its renumbering concept in the October 1934 issue of American Highways :
" Wherever an alternate route is not suitable for its own unique two @-@ digit designation , standard procedure assigns the unqualified number to the older or shorter route , while the other route uses the same number marked by a standard strip above its shield carrying the word ' Alternate ' . "
Most states adhere to this approach . However , some maintain legacy routes that violate the rules in various ways . Examples can be found in California , Mississippi , Nebraska , Oregon , and Tennessee . In 1952 , AASHO permanently recognized the splits in US 11 , US 19 , US 25 , US 31 , US 45 , US 49 , US 73 , and US 99 .
For the most part , the U.S. Routes were the primary means of inter @-@ city vehicle travel ; the main exceptions were toll roads such as the Pennsylvania Turnpike and parkway routes such as the Merritt Parkway . Many of the first high @-@ speed roads were U.S. Highways : the Gulf Freeway carried US 75 , the Pasadena Freeway carried US 66 , and the Pulaski Skyway carried US 1 and US 9 .
= = = Interstate era , 1956 – present = = =
The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 appropriated funding for the Interstate Highway System , to construct a vast network of freeways across the country . By 1957 , AASHO had decided to assign a new grid to the new routes , to be numbered in the opposite directions as the U.S. Highway grid . Though the Interstate numbers were to supplement , rather than replace , the U.S. Route numbers , in many cases ( especially in the west ) the US highways were rerouted along the new Interstates . Major decommissioning of former routes began with California 's highway renumbering in 1964 . The 1985 removal of US 66 is often seen as the end of an era of US highways .
A few major connections not served by Interstate Highways include US 6 from Hartford , Connecticut , to Providence , Rhode Island ; US 101 from Los Angeles to San Francisco ; and US 93 from Phoenix , Arizona to Las Vegas , Nevada . Three state capitals in the contiguous U.S. are served only by U.S. Routes : Dover , Delaware ; Jefferson City , Missouri ; and Pierre , South Dakota .
In 1995 the National Highway System was defined to include both the Interstate Highway System and other roads designated as important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
AASHTO is in the process of eliminating all intrastate U.S. Highways less than 300 miles ( 480 km ) in length " as rapidly as the State Highway Department and the Standing Committee on Highways of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials can reach agreement with reference thereto " . New additions to the system must serve more than one state and " substantially meet the current AASHTO design standards " . A version of this policy has been in place since 1937 .
= = The 1925 routes = =
The original major transcontinental routes in 1925 , along with the auto trails which they roughly replaced , were as follows :
US 10 , US 60 , and US 90 only ran about two thirds of the way across the country , while US 11 and US 60 ran significantly diagonally . US 60 's violation of two of the conventions would prove to be one of the major sticking points ; US 60 eventually was designated as US 66 in 1926 , and later it became popular in the culture . US 101 continues east and then south to end at Olympia , Washington . The western terminus of US 2 is now at Everett , Washington .
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= Polar bear =
The polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 – 700 kg ( 772 – 1 @,@ 543 lb ) , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice , and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means " maritime bear " , and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals .
Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large @-@ scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures .
= = Naming and etymology = =
Constantine John Phipps was the first to describe the polar bear as a distinct species in 1774 . He chose the scientific name Ursus maritimus , the Latin for ' maritime bear ' , due to the animal 's native habitat . The Inuit refer to the animal as nanook ( transliterated as nanuq in the Inupiat language ) . The Yupik also refer to the bear as nanuuk in Siberian Yupik . The bear is umka in the Chukchi language . In Russian , it is usually called бе ́ лый медве ́ дь ( bélyj medvédj , the white bear ) , though an older word still in use is ошку ́ й ( Oshkúj , which comes from the Komi oski , " bear " ) . In French , the polar bear is referred to as ours blanc ( " white bear " ) or ours polaire ( " polar bear " ) . In the Norwegian @-@ administered Svalbard archipelago , the polar bear is referred to as Isbjørn ( " ice bear " ) .
The polar bear was previously considered to be in its own genus , Thalarctos . However , evidence of hybrids between polar bears and brown bears , and of the recent evolutionary divergence of the two species , does not support the establishment of this separate genus , and the accepted scientific name is now therefore Ursus maritimus , as Phipps originally proposed .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The bear family , Ursidae , is thought to have split off from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago . The Ursinae subfamily originated approximately 4 @.@ 2 million years ago . The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130 @,@ 000 to 110 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old jaw bone , found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004 . Fossils show that between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago , the polar bear 's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear . Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene or from the eastern part of Siberia , ( from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula ) .
The evidence from DNA analysis is more complex . The mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) of the polar bear diverged from the brown bear , Ursus arctos , roughly 150 @,@ 000 years ago . Further , some clades of brown bear , as assessed by their mtDNA , are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears , meaning that the polar bear might not be considered a species under some species concepts . The mtDNA of extinct Irish brown bears is particularly close to polar bears . A comparison of the nuclear genome of polar bears with that of brown bears revealed a different pattern , the two forming genetically distinct clades that diverged approximately 603 @,@ 000 years ago , although the latest research is based on analysis of the complete genomes ( rather than just the mitochondria or partial nuclear genomes ) of polar and brown bears , and establishes the divergence of polar and brown bears at 400 @,@ 000 years ago .
However , the two species have mated intermittently for all that time , most likely coming into contact with each other during warming periods , when polar bears were driven onto land and brown bears migrated northward . Most brown bears have about 2 percent genetic material from polar bears , but one population , the ABC Islands bears has between 5 percent and 10 percent polar bear genes , indicating more frequent and recent mating . Polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzly – polar bear hybrids , rather than indicating that they have only recently diverged , the new evidence suggests more frequent mating has continued over a longer period of time , and thus the two bears remain genetically similar . However , because neither species can survive long in the other 's ecological niche , and because they have different morphology , metabolism , social and feeding behaviours , and other phenotypic characteristics , the two bears are generally classified as separate species .
When the polar bear was originally documented , two subspecies were identified : Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774 , and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776 . This distinction has since been invalidated . One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified : Ursus maritimus tyrannus became extinct during the Pleistocene . U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies . However , recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a type of brown bear .
= = Population and distribution = =
The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland . Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat , it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore . While they are rare north of 88 ° , there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic , and as far south as James Bay in Canada . Their southernmost range is near the boundary between the subarctic and humid continental climate zones . They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice , and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk . It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied ; however , biologists use a working estimate of about 20 – 25 @,@ 000 or 22 – 31 @,@ 000 polar bears worldwide .
There are 19 generally recognized , discrete subpopulations , though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin . The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas , but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated . The thirteen North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54 % of the global population . The Eurasian population is broken up into the eastern Greenland , Barents Sea , Kara Sea , Laptev Sea , and Chukchi Sea subpopulations , though there is considerable uncertainty about the structure of these populations due to limited mark and recapture data .
The range includes the territory of five nations : Denmark ( Greenland ) , Norway ( Svalbard ) , Russia , the United States ( Alaska ) and Canada . These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears , which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear 's range .
Modern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been implemented only since the mid @-@ 1980s , and are expensive to perform consistently over a large area . The most accurate counts require flying a helicopter in the Arctic climate to find polar bears , shooting a tranquilizer dart at the bear to sedate it , and then tagging the bear . In Nunavut , some Inuit have reported increases in bear sightings around human settlements in recent years , leading to a belief that populations are increasing . Scientists have responded by noting that hungry bears may be congregating around human settlements , leading to the illusion that populations are higher than they actually are . The Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission takes the position that " estimates of subpopulation size or sustainable harvest levels should not be made solely on the basis of traditional ecological knowledge without supporting scientific studies . "
Of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations , three are declining , six are stable , one is increasing , and nine have insufficient data , as of 2014 .
= = Habitat = =
The polar bear is a marine mammal because it spends many months of the year at sea . However , it is the only living marine mammal with powerful , large limbs and feet that allow them to cover miles on foot and run on land . Its preferred habitat is the annual sea ice covering the waters over the continental shelf and the Arctic inter @-@ island archipelagos . These areas , known as the " Arctic ring of life " , have high biological productivity in comparison to the deep waters of the high Arctic . The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water , such as polynyas and leads ( temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice ) , to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet . Freshwater is limited in these environments because it is either locked up in snow or saline . Polar bears are able to produce water through the metabolism of fats found in seal blubber . Polar bears are therefore found primarily along the perimeter of the polar ice pack , rather than in the Polar Basin close to the North Pole where the density of seals is low .
Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes . Seals migrate in response to these changes , and polar bears must follow their prey . In Hudson Bay , James Bay , and some other areas , the ice melts completely each summer ( an event often referred to as " ice @-@ floe breakup " ) , forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze @-@ up . In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas , polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year @-@ round .
= = Biology and behaviour = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
The only other bear of a similar size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear , which is a subspecies of brown bear . Adult male polar bears weigh 350 – 700 kg ( 772 – 1 @,@ 543 lb ) and measure 2 @.@ 4 – 3 metres ( 7 ft 10 in – 9 ft 10 in ) in total length . The Guinness Book of World Records listed the average male as having a body mass of 385 to 410 kg ( 849 to 904 lb ) and a shoulder height of 133 cm ( 4 ft 4 in ) , slightly smaller than the average male Kodiak bears . Around the Beaufort Sea , however , mature males reportedly average 450 kg ( 992 lb ) . Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 – 250 kg ( 331 – 551 lb ) , measuring 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 5 ft 11 in – 7 ft 10 in ) in length . Elsewhere , a slightly larger estimated average weight of 260 kg ( 573 lb ) was claimed for adult females . When pregnant , however , females can weigh as much as 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) . The polar bear is among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals , surpassed only by the pinnipeds such as elephant seals . The largest polar bear on record , reportedly weighing 1 @,@ 002 kg ( 2 @,@ 209 lb ) , was a male shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960 . This specimen , when mounted , stood 3 @.@ 39 m ( 11 ft 1 in ) tall on its hindlegs . The shoulder height of an adult polar bear is 122 to 160 cm ( 4 ft 0 in to 5 ft 3 in ) . While all bears are short @-@ tailed , the polar bear 's tail is relatively the shortest amongst living bears , ranging from 7 to 13 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) in length .
Compared with its closest relative , the brown bear , the polar bear has a more elongated body build and a longer skull and nose . As predicted by Allen 's rule for a northerly animal , the legs are stocky and the ears and tail are small . However , the feet are very large to distribute load when walking on snow or thin ice and to provide propulsion when swimming ; they may measure 30 cm ( 12 in ) across in an adult . The pads of the paws are covered with small , soft papillae ( dermal bumps ) , which provide traction on the ice . The polar bear 's claws are short and stocky compared to those of the brown bear , perhaps to serve the former 's need to grip heavy prey and ice . The claws are deeply scooped on the underside to assist in digging in the ice of the natural habitat . Research of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left , suggesting , perhaps , right @-@ handedness . Unlike the brown bear , polar bears in captivity are rarely overweight or particularly large , possibly as a reaction to the warm conditions of most zoos .
The 42 teeth of a polar bear reflect its highly carnivorous diet . The cheek teeth are smaller and more jagged than in the brown bear , and the canines are larger and sharper . The dental formula is 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 3
Polar bears are superbly insulated by up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) of adipose tissue , their hide and their fur ; they overheat at temperatures above 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) , and are nearly invisible under infrared photography . Polar bear fur consists of a layer of dense underfur and an outer layer of guard hairs , which appear white to tan but are actually transparent . The guard hair is 5 – 15 cm ( 2 – 6 in ) over most of the body . Polar bears gradually moult from May to August , but , unlike other Arctic mammals , they do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the summer conditions . The hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat were once thought to act as fiber @-@ optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin , where it could be absorbed ; however , this hypothesis was disproved by a study in 1998 .
The white coat usually yellows with age . When kept in captivity in warm , humid conditions , the fur may turn a pale shade of green due to algae growing inside the guard hairs . Males have significantly longer hairs on their forelegs , which increase in length until the bear reaches 14 years of age . The male 's ornamental foreleg hair is thought to attract females , serving a similar function to the lion 's mane .
The polar bear has an extremely well developed sense of smell , being able to detect seals nearly 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) away and buried under 1 m ( 3 ft ) of snow . Its hearing is about as acute as that of a human , and its vision is also good at long distances .
The polar bear is an excellent swimmer and often will swim for days . One bear swam continuously for 9 days in the frigid Bering Sea for 400 mi ( 687 km ) to reach ice far from land . She then travelled another 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) . During the swim , the bear lost 22 % of her body mass and her yearling cub died . With its body fat providing buoyancy , the bear swims in a dog paddle fashion using its large forepaws for propulsion . Polar bears can swim 10 km / h ( 6 mph ) . When walking , the polar bear tends to have a lumbering gait and maintains an average speed of around 5 @.@ 6 km / h ( 3 @.@ 5 mph ) . When sprinting , they can reach up to 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family , and throughout most of its range , its diet primarily consists of ringed ( Pusa hispida ) and bearded seals ( Erignathus barbatus ) . The Arctic is home to millions of seals , which become prey when they surface in holes in the ice in order to breathe , or when they haul out on the ice to rest . Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice , water , and air ; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water .
The polar bear 's most common hunting method is called still @-@ hunting : The bear uses its excellent sense of smell to locate a seal breathing hole , and crouches nearby in silence for a seal to appear . The bear may lay in wait for several hours . When the seal exhales , the bear smells its breath , reaches into the hole with a forepaw , and drags it out onto the ice . The polar bear kills the seal by biting its head to crush its skull . The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice : Upon spotting a seal , it walks to within 90 m ( 100 yd ) , and then crouches . If the seal does not notice , the bear creeps to within 9 to 12 m ( 30 to 40 ft ) of the seal and then suddenly rushes forth to attack . A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow .
A widespread legend tells that polar bears cover their black noses with their paws when hunting . This behaviour , if it happens , is rare – although the story exists in the oral history of northern peoples and in accounts by early Arctic explorers , there is no record of an eyewitness account of the behaviour in recent decades .
Mature bears tend to eat only the calorie @-@ rich skin and blubber of the seal , which are highly digestible , whereas younger bears consume the protein @-@ rich red meat . Studies have also photographed polar bears scaling near @-@ vertical cliffs , to eat birds ' chicks and eggs . For subadult bears , which are independent of their mother but have not yet gained enough experience and body size to successfully hunt seals , scavenging the carcasses from other bears ' kills is an important source of nutrition . Subadults may also be forced to accept a half @-@ eaten carcass if they kill a seal but cannot defend it from larger polar bears . After feeding , polar bears wash themselves with water or snow .
Although polar bears are extraordinarily powerful , its primary prey species , the ringed seal , is much smaller than itself , and many of the seals hunted are pups rather than adults . Ringed seals are born weighing 5 @.@ 4 kg ( 12 lb ) and grown to an estimated average weight of only 60 kg ( 130 lb ) . They also in places prey heavily upon the harp seal ( Pusa groenlandica ) or the harbor seal . The bearded seal , on the other hand , can be nearly the same size as the bear itself , averaging 270 kg ( 600 lb ) . Adult male bearded seals , at 350 to 500 kg ( 770 to 1 @,@ 100 lb ) are too large for a female bear to overtake , and so are potential prey only for mature male bears . Large males also occasionally attempt to hunt and kill even larger prey items . It can kill an adult walrus ( Odobenus rosmarus ) , although this is rarely attempted . At up to 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) and a typical adult mass range of 600 to 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 to 3 @,@ 300 lb ) , a walrus can be more than twice the bear 's weight , and has up to 1 @-@ metre ( 3 ft ) -long ivory tusks that can be used as formidable weapons . A polar bear may charge a group of walruses , with the goal of separating a young , infirm , or injured walrus from the pod . They will even attack adult walruses when their diving holes have frozen over or intercept them before they can get back to the diving hole in the ice . Yet , polar bears will very seldom attack full @-@ grown adult walruses , with the largest male walrus probably invulnerable unless otherwise injured or incapacitated . Since an attack on a walrus tends to be an extremely protracted and exhausting venture , bears have been known to back down from the attack after making the initial injury to the walrus . Polar bears have also been seen to prey on beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucas ) and narwhals ( Monodon monoceros ) , by swiping at them at breathing holes . The whales are of similar size to the walrus and nearly as difficult for the bear to subdue . Most terrestrial animals in the Arctic can outrun the polar bear on land as polar bears overheat quickly , and most marine animals the bear encounters can outswim it . In some areas , the polar bear 's diet is supplemented by walrus calves and by the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales , whose blubber is readily devoured even when rotten . Polar bears sometimes like to go fishing where they swim underwater to catch fish like the Arctic charr or the fourhorn sculpin .
With the exception of pregnant females , polar bears are active year @-@ round , although they have a vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood . Unlike brown and black bears , polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall , when they cannot hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen . When sea ice is unavailable during summer and early autumn , some populations live off fat reserves for months at a time , as polar bears do not ' hibernate ' any time of the year .
Being both curious animals and scavengers , polar bears investigate and consume garbage where they come into contact with humans . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find , including hazardous substances such as styrofoam , plastic , car batteries , ethylene glycol , hydraulic fluid , and motor oil . The dump in Churchill , Manitoba was closed in 2006 to protect bears , and waste is now recycled or transported to Thompson , Manitoba .
= = = Dietary flexibility = = =
Although seal predation is the primary and an indispensable way of life for most polar bears , when alternatives are present they are quite flexible . Polar bears will consume a wide variety of other wild foods , including muskox ( Ovibos moschatus ) , reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus ) , birds , eggs , rodents , crabs , other crustaceans and other polar bears . They may also eat plants , including berries , roots , and kelp ; however , none of these are a significant part of their diet , except that beachcast marine mammal carcasses are an exception . When stalking land animals , such as muskox , reindeer , and even willow ptarmigan ( Lagopus lagopus ) , polar bears appear to make use of vegetative cover and wind direction to bring them as close to their prey as possible before attacking . Polar bears have been observed to hunt the small Svalbard reindeer ( R. t. platyrhynchus ) , which weigh only 40 to 60 kg ( 90 to 130 lb ) as adults , as well as the barren @-@ ground caribou ( R. t. groenlandicus ) , which is about twice as heavy as that . Adult muskox , which can weigh 450 kg ( 1 @,@ 000 lb ) or more , are a more formidable quarry . Although ungulates are not typical prey , the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period . Like the brown bear , most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young , sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults . The polar bear 's biology is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals , and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food .
In their southern range , especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay , Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt from . Here , their food ecology shows their dietary flexibility . They still manage to consume some seals , but they are food @-@ deprived in summer as only marine mammal carcasses are an important alternative without sea ice , especially carcasses of the beluga whale . These alternatives may reduce the rate of weight loss of bears when on land . One scientist found that 71 % of the Hudson Bay bears had fed on seaweed ( marine algae ) and that about half were feeding on birds like sea ducks , especially the oldsquaw ( 53 % ) , common eider , long @-@ tailed duck or dovekie by swimming underwater to catch them . They were also diving to feed on blue mussels and other underwater food sources like the green sea urchin . 24 % had eaten moss recently , 19 % had consumed grass , 34 % had eaten black crowberry and about half had consumed willows . This study illustrates the polar bear 's dietary flexibility but it does not represent its life history elsewhere . Most polar bears elsewhere will never have access to these alternatives , except for the marine mammal carcasses that are important wherever they occur .
In Svalbard , polar bears were observed to kill white @-@ beaked dolphins during spring , when the dolphins were trapped in the sea ice . The bears then proceeded to cache the carcasses , which remained and were eaten during the ice @-@ free summer and autumn .
= = Behaviour = =
Unlike grizzly bears , polar bears are not territorial . Although stereotyped as being voraciously aggressive , they are normally cautious in confrontations , and often choose to escape rather than fight . Satiated polar bears rarely attack humans unless severely provoked . However , due to their lack of prior human interaction , hungry polar bears are extremely unpredictable , fearless towards people and are known to kill and sometimes eat humans . Many attacks by brown bears are the result of surprising the animal , which is not the case with the polar bear . Polar bears are stealth hunters , and the victim is often unaware of the bear 's presence until the attack is underway . Whereas brown bears often maul a person and then leave , polar bear attacks are more likely to be predatory and are almost always fatal . However , due to the very small human population around the Arctic , such attacks are rare . Michio Hoshino , a Japanese wildlife photographer , was once pursued briefly by a hungry male polar bear in northern Alaska . According to Hoshino , the bear started running but Hoshino made it to his truck . The bear was able to reach the truck and tore one of the doors off the truck before Hoshino was able to drive off .
In general , adult polar bears live solitary lives . Yet , they have often been seen playing together for hours at a time and even sleeping in an embrace , and polar bear zoologist Nikita Ovsianikov has described adult males as having " well @-@ developed friendships . " Cubs are especially playful as well . Among young males in particular , play @-@ fighting may be a means of practicing for serious competition during mating seasons later in life . Polar bears have a wide range of vocalisations , including bellows , roars , growls , chuffs and purrs .
In 1992 , a photographer near Churchill took a now widely circulated set of photographs of a polar bear playing with a Canadian Eskimo Dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) a tenth of its size . The pair wrestled harmlessly together each afternoon for ten days in a row for no apparent reason , although the bear may have been trying to demonstrate its friendliness in the hope of sharing the kennel 's food . This kind of social interaction is uncommon ; it is far more typical for polar bears to behave aggressively towards dogs .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Courtship and mating take place on the sea ice in April and May , when polar bears congregate in the best seal hunting areas . A male may follow the tracks of a breeding female for 100 km ( 60 mi ) or more , and after finding her engage in intense fighting with other males over mating rights , fights that often result in scars and broken teeth . Polar bears have a generally polygynous mating system ; recent genetic testing of mothers and cubs , however , has uncovered cases of litters in which cubs have different fathers . Partners stay together and mate repeatedly for an entire week ; the mating ritual induces ovulation in the female .
After mating , the fertilized egg remains in a suspended state until August or September . During these four months , the pregnant female eats prodigious amounts of food , gaining at least 200 kg ( 440 lb ) and often more than doubling her body weight .
= = = = Maternity denning and early life = = = =
When the ice floes break up in the fall , ending the possibility of hunting , each pregnant female digs a maternity den consisting of a narrow entrance tunnel leading to one to three chambers . Most maternity dens are in snowdrifts , but may also be made underground in permafrost if it is not sufficiently cold yet for snow . In most subpopulations , maternity dens are situated on land a few kilometers from the coast , and the individuals in a subpopulation tend to reuse the same denning areas each year . The polar bears that do not den on land make their dens on the sea ice . In the den , she enters a dormant state similar to hibernation . This hibernation @-@ like state does not consist of continuous sleeping ; however , the bear 's heart rate slows from 46 to 27 beats per minute . Her body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation .
Between November and February , cubs are born blind , covered with a light down fur , and weighing less than 0 @.@ 9 kg ( 2 @.@ 0 lb ) , but in captivity they might be delivered in the earlier months . The earliest recorded birth of polar bears in captivity was on 11 October 2011 in the Toronto Zoo . On average , each litter has two cubs . The family remains in the den until mid @-@ February to mid @-@ April , with the mother maintaining her fast while nursing her cubs on a fat @-@ rich milk . By the time the mother breaks open the entrance to the den , her cubs weigh about 10 to 15 kilograms ( 22 to 33 lb ) . For about 12 to 15 days , the family spends time outside the den while remaining in its vicinity , the mother grazing on vegetation while the cubs become used to walking and playing . Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice , where the mother can once again catch seals . Depending on the timing of ice @-@ floe breakup in the fall , she may have fasted for up to eight months . During this time , cubs playfully imitate the mother 's hunting methods in preparation for later life .
Female polar bears are noted for both their affection towards their offspring , and their valor in protecting them . Multiple cases of adoption of wild cubs have been confirmed by genetic testing . Adult male bears occasionally kill and eat polar bear cubs . As of 2006 , in Alaska , 42 % of cubs were reaching 12 months of age , down from 65 % in 1991 . In most areas , cubs are weaned at two and a half years of age , when the mother chases them away or abandons them . The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation is unusual in that its female polar bears sometimes wean their cubs at only one and a half years . This was the case for 40 % of cubs there in the early 1980s ; however by the 1990s , fewer than 20 % of cubs were weaned this young . After the mother leaves , sibling cubs sometimes travel and share food together for weeks or months .
= = = = Later life = = = =
Females begin to breed at the age of four years in most areas , and five years in the Beaufort Sea area . Males usually reach sexual maturity at six years ; however , as competition for females is fierce , many do not breed until the age of eight or ten . A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid @-@ teens .
Polar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals . Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella , a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism , although infections are usually not fatal . Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented , even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes , which often carry rabies . Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been recorded . Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites .
= = = = Life expectancy = = = =
Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years . The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32 , whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991 , age 43 . The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood , as carcasses are rarely found in the species 's frigid habitat . In the wild , old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food , and gradually starve to death . Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either die from their injuries or become unable to hunt effectively , leading to starvation .
= = = Ecological role = = =
The polar bear is the apex predator within its range , and is a keystone species for the Arctic . Several animal species , particularly Arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus ) and glaucous gulls ( Larus hyperboreus ) , routinely scavenge polar bear kills .
The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears , while polar bear predation in turn regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals . The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals . Compared to the Antarctic , where there is no major surface predator , Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual , appear more restless when hauled out on the ice , and rarely defecate on the ice . The baby fur of most Arctic seal species is white , presumably to provide camouflage from predators , whereas Antarctic seals all have dark fur at birth .
Brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses , and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens . Wolves are rarely encountered by polar bears , though there are two records of Arctic wolf ( Canis lupus arctos ) packs killing polar bear cubs . A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine ( Gulo gulo ) , anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict . Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus .
= = = Long @-@ distance swimming and diving = = =
Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern Beaufort Sea off Alaska with GPS system collars ; no boars were involved in the study due to males ' necks being too thick for the GPS @-@ equipped collars . Fifty long @-@ distance swims were recorded ; the longest at 354 kilometres ( 220 mi ) , with an average of 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) . The length of these swims ranged from most of a day to ten days . Ten of the sows had a cub swim with them and after a year , six cubs survived . The study did not determine if the others lost their cubs before , during , or some time after their long swims . Researchers do not know whether or not this is a new behaviour ; before polar ice shrinkage , they opined that there was probably neither the need nor opportunity to swim such long distances .
The polar bear may swim underwater for up to three minutes to approach seals on shore or on ice floes .
= = Hunting = =
= = = Indigenous people = = =
Polar bears have long provided important raw materials for Arctic peoples , including the Inuit , Yupik , Chukchi , Nenets , Russian Pomors and others . Hunters commonly used teams of dogs to distract the bear , allowing the hunter to spear the bear or shoot it with arrows at closer range . Almost all parts of captured animals had a use . The fur was used in particular to make trousers and , by the Nenets , to make galoshes @-@ like outer footwear called tobok ; the meat is edible , despite some risk of trichinosis ; the fat was used in food and as a fuel for lighting homes , alongside seal and whale blubber ; sinews were used as thread for sewing clothes ; the gallbladder and sometimes heart were dried and powdered for medicinal purposes ; the large canine teeth were highly valued as talismans . Only the liver was not used , as its high concentration of vitamin A is poisonous . Hunters make sure to either toss the liver into the sea or bury it in order to spare their dogs from potential poisoning . Traditional subsistence hunting was on a small enough scale to not significantly affect polar bear populations , mostly because of the sparseness of the human population in polar bear habitat .
= = = History of commercial harvest = = =
In Russia , polar bear furs were already being commercially traded in the 14th century , though it was of low value compared to Arctic fox or even reindeer fur . The growth of the human population in the Eurasian Arctic in the 16th and 17th century , together with the advent of firearms and increasing trade , dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears . However , since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role , data on the historical harvest is fragmentary . It is known , for example , that already in the winter of 1784 / 1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden . In the early 20th century , Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location . Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century , roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia , reaching a peak of 1 @,@ 300 to 1 @,@ 500 animals in the early 20th century , and falling off as the numbers began dwindling .
In the first half of the 20th century , mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well . Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles , icebreakers , and airplanes , the latter practice described in a 1965 New York Times editorial as being " about as sporting as machine gunning a cow . " Norwegians used " self @-@ killing guns " , comprising a loaded rifle in a baited box that was placed at the level of a bear 's head , and which fired when the string attached to the bait was pulled . The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s , peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1 @,@ 250 bears that year .
= = = Contemporary regulations = = =
Concerns over the future survival of the species led to the development of national regulations on polar bear hunting , beginning in the mid @-@ 1950s . The Soviet Union banned all hunting in 1956 . Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968 . Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973 , and has completely banned hunting since then . The United States began regulating hunting in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972 . In 1973 , the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears : Canada , Denmark , Norway , the Soviet Union , and the United States . Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting , ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers , and conduct further research . The treaty allows hunting " by local people using traditional methods " . Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned . The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War . Biologist Ian Stirling commented , " For many years , the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement . Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator , the only marine bear . "
Agreements have been made between countries to co @-@ manage their shared polar bear subpopulations . After several years of negotiations , Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka . The treaty was ratified in October 2007 . In September 2015 , the polar bear range states agreed upon a " circumpolar action plan " describing their conservation strategy for polar bears .
Although the United States government has proposed that polar bears be transferred to Appendix I of CITES , which would ban all international trade in polar bear parts , polar bears currently remain listed under Appendix II . This decision was approved of by members of the IUCN and TRAFFIC , who determined that such an uplisting was unlikely to confer a conservation benefit .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Polar bears were designated " Not at Risk " in April 1986 and uplisted to " Special Concern " in April 1991 . This status was re @-@ evaluated and confirmed in April 1999 , November 2002 , and April 2008 . Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice .
More than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada , a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas , notably Baffin Bay . Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog @-@ sled teams since 1970 , but the practice was not common until the 1980s . The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source of income for northern communities in which economic opportunities are few . Sport hunting can bring CDN $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 35 @,@ 000 per bear into northern communities , which until recently has been mostly from American hunters .
The territory of Nunavut accounts for the location 80 % of annual kills in Canada . In 2005 , the government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears , despite protests from the IUCN Polar Bear Specialist Group . In two areas where harvest levels have been increased based on increased sightings , science @-@ based studies have indicated declining populations , and a third area is considered data @-@ deficient . While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people , a growing share is sold to recreational hunters . ( 0 @.@ 8 % in the 1970s , 7 @.@ 1 % in the 1980s , and 14 @.@ 6 % in the 1990s ) Nunavut polar bear biologist , Mitchell Taylor , who was formerly responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory , has insisted that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits . In 2010 , the 2005 increase was partially reversed . Government of Nunavut officials announced that the polar bear quota for the Baffin Bay region would be gradually reduced from 105 per year to 65 by the year 2013 . The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 to 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters . Environment Canada also banned the export from Canada of fur , claws , skulls and other products from polar bears harvested in Baffin Bay as of 1 January 2010 .
Because of the way polar bear hunting quotas are managed in Canada , attempts to discourage sport hunting would actually increase the number of bears killed in the short term . Canada allocates a certain number of permits each year to sport and subsistence hunting , and those that are not used for sport hunting are re @-@ allocated to indigenous subsistence hunting . Whereas northern communities kill all the polar bears they are permitted to take each year , only half of sport hunters with permits actually manage to kill a polar bear . If a sport hunter does not kill a polar bear before his or her permit expires , the permit cannot be transferred to another hunter .
In August 2011 , Environment Canada published a national polar bear conservation strategy .
= = = = Greenland = = = =
In Greenland , hunting restrictions were first introduced in 1994 and expanded by executive order in 2005 . Until 2005 Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people . However , in 2006 it imposed a limit of 150 , while also allowed recreational hunting for the first time . Other provisions included year @-@ round protection of cubs and mothers , restrictions on weapons used , and various administrative requirements to catalogue kills .
= = = = Norway = = = =
= = = = Russia = = = =
The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956 ; however , poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population . In recent years , polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to the shrinking of the sea ice , endangering humans and raising concerns that illegal hunting would become even more prevalent . In 2007 , the Russian government made subsistence hunting legal for indigenous Chukotkan peoples only , a move supported by Russia 's most prominent bear researchers and the World Wide Fund for Nature as a means to curb poaching .
Polar bears are currently listed as " Rare " , of " Uncertain Status " , or " Rehabilitated and rehabilitating " in the Red Data Book of Russia , depending on population . In 2010 , the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment published a strategy for polar bear conservation in Russia .
= = = = United States = = = =
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States . It banned hunting ( except by indigenous subsistence hunters ) , banned importing of polar bear parts ( except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada ) , and banned the harassment of polar bears . On 15 May 2008 , the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act , citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear . It banned all importing of polar bear trophies . Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from 1972 to 1994 under the Marine Mammal Protection Act , and restricted between 1994 and 2008 . Under those restrictions , permits from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service were required to import sport @-@ hunted polar bear trophies taken in hunting expeditions in Canada . The permit process required that the bear be taken from an area with quotas based on sound management principles . Since 1994 , hundreds of sport @-@ hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. In 2015 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a draft conservation management plan for polar bears to improve their status under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammal Protection Act .
= = Conservation status , threats and controversies = =
Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities . Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers . As of 2015 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22 @,@ 000 to 31 @,@ 000 , and the current population trend is unknown . Nevertheless , polar bears are listed as " Vulnerable " under criterion A3c , which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥ 30 % over the next three generations ( ~ 34 @.@ 5 years ) due to " decline in area of occupancy , extent of occurrence and / or quality of habitat " . Risks to the polar bear include climate change , pollution in the form of toxic contaminants , conflicts with shipping , oil and gas exploration and development , and human @-@ bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar @-@ bear watching .
According to the World Wildlife Fund , the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health . Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic , because at @-@ risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem .
= = = Climate change = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature , Arctic Climate Impact Assessment , United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change , including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear .
The key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss . Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice . Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year , driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall . Reduction in sea @-@ ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances , which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning . Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily , which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals . Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears , in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages .
In addition to creating nutritional stress , a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life : Changes in sea ice affect the ability of pregnant females to build suitable maternity dens . As the distance increases between the pack ice and the coast , females must swim longer distances to reach favored denning areas on land . Thawing of permafrost would affect the bears who traditionally den underground , and warm winters could result in den roofs collapsing or having reduced insulative value . For the polar bears that currently den on multi @-@ year ice , increased ice mobility may result in longer distances for mothers and young cubs to walk when they return to seal @-@ hunting areas in the spring . Disease @-@ causing bacteria and parasites would flourish more readily in a warmer climate .
Problematic interactions between polar bears and humans , such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps , have historically been more prevalent in years when ice @-@ floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin . Increased human @-@ bear interactions , including fatal attacks on humans , are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land .
The effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear 's range , and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed . The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation , in a southern part of the range , also happens to be one of the best @-@ studied polar bear subpopulations . This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring , when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant . The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up , and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again .
Due to warming air temperatures , ice @-@ floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago , reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season . The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period ; the average weight of lone ( and likely pregnant ) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg ( 640 lb ) in 1980 and 230 kg ( 510 lb ) in 2004 . Between 1987 and 2004 , the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22 % , although the population is currently listed as " stable " .
In Alaska , the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs , and have led to changes in the denning locations of pregnant females . In recent years , polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey , possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005 .
A new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory . While not unheard of but still uncommon , polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore , staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months , particularly in North Canada , traveling farther inland . This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets , such as goose eggs , waterfowl and caribou , as well as increased human – bear conflict .
= = = Pollution = = =
Polar bears accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyl ( PCBs ) and chlorinated pesticides . Due to their position at the top of the ecological pyramid , with a diet heavy in blubber in which halocarbons concentrate , their bodies are among the most contaminated of Arctic mammals . Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals , because they mimic hormone chemistry , and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears . PCBs have received the most study , and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency .
Many chemicals , such as PCBs and DDT , have been internationally banned due to the recognition of their harm on the environment . Their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades after being banned as these chemicals spread through the food chain . Since then , the trend seems to have discontinued , with tissue concentrations of PCBs declining between studies performed from 1989 to 1993 and studies performed from 1996 to 2002 . During the same time periods , DDT was notably lower in the Western Hudson Bay population only .
= = = Oil and gas development = = =
Oil and gas development in polar bear habitat can affect the bears in a variety of ways . An oil spill in the Arctic would most likely concentrate in the areas where polar bears and their prey are also concentrated , such as sea ice leads . Because polar bears rely partly on their fur for insulation and soiling of the fur by oil reduces its insulative value , oil spills put bears at risk of dying from hypothermia . Polar bears exposed to oil spill conditions have been observed to lick the oil from their fur , leading to fatal kidney failure . Maternity dens , used by pregnant females and by females with infants , can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development . Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely , or abandon her litter altogether .
= = = Predictions = = =
Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two @-@ thirds of the world 's polar bears may disappear by 2050 , based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change , though the validity of this study has been debated . The bears could disappear from Europe , Asia , and Alaska , and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast . By 2080 , they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast , leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago . However , in the short term , some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate , as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice .
Polar bears diverged from brown bears 400 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation . It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice they use to hunt seals disappears . However , most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie @-@ rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods , and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche , ultimately leading to a population decline .
= = = Controversy over species protection = = =
Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today . Some estimates of the global population are around 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 in the early 1970s ; other estimates were 20 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 during the 1980s . Current estimates put the global population at between 20 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 or 22 @,@ 000 and 31 @,@ 000 .
There are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends : estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys . Second , controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover . Third , the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees .
Debate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation groups and Canada 's Inuit at opposing positions ; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act . Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing , and restrictions on commercial sport @-@ hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities .
= = In culture = =
= = = Indigenous folklore = = =
For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic , polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role . Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago and 1 @,@ 500 @-@ year @-@ old cave paintings of polar bears have been found in the Chukchi Peninsula . Indeed , it has been suggested that Arctic peoples ' skills in seal hunting and igloo construction has been in part acquired from the polar bears themselves .
The Inuit and Alaska Natives have many folk tales featuring the bears including legends in which bears are humans when inside their own houses and put on bear hides when going outside , and stories of how the constellation that is said to resemble a great bear surrounded by dogs came into being . These legends reveal a deep respect for the polar bear , which is portrayed as both spiritually powerful and closely akin to humans . The human @-@ like posture of bears when standing and sitting , and the resemblance of a skinned bear carcass to the human body , have probably contributed to the belief that the spirits of humans and bears were interchangeable . Eskimo legends tell of humans learning to hunt from the polar bear .
Among the Chukchi and Yupik of eastern Siberia , there was a longstanding shamanistic ritual of " thanksgiving " to the hunted polar bear . After killing the animal , its head and skin were removed and cleaned and brought into the home , a feast was held in the hunting camp in its honor . In order to appease the spirit of the bear , there were traditional song and drum music and the skull would be ceremonially fed and offered a pipe . Only once the spirit was appeased would the skull be separated from the skin , taken beyond the bounds of the homestead , and placed in the ground , facing north . Many of these traditions have faded somewhat in time , especially in light of the total hunting ban in the Soviet Union ( and now Russia ) since 1955 .
The Nenets of north @-@ central Siberia placed particular value on the talismanic power of the prominent canine teeth . They were traded in the villages of the lower Yenisei and Khatanga rivers to the forest @-@ dwelling peoples further south , who would sew them into their hats as protection against brown bears . It was believed that the " little nephew " ( the brown bear ) would not dare to attack a man wearing the tooth of its powerful " big uncle " ( the polar bear ) . The skulls of killed polar bears were buried at specific sacred sites and altars , called sedyangi , were constructed out of the skulls . Several such sites have been preserved on the Yamal Peninsula .
= = = Symbols and mascots = = =
Their distinctive appearance and their association with the Arctic have made polar bears popular icons , especially in those areas where they are native . The Canadian Toonie ( two @-@ dollar coin ) features the image of a polar bear and both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut license plates in Canada are in the shape of a polar bear . The polar bear is the mascot of Bowdoin College in Maine and the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( see also Alaska Nanooks ) and was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary . The Eisbären Berlin professional hockey team , playing in the DEL top @-@ level pro hockey league of Germany uses a roaring polar bear ( seen head @-@ on ) as their team logo .
Companies such as Coca @-@ Cola , Polar Beverages , Nelvana , Bundaberg Rum , and Good Humor @-@ Breyers have used images of the polar bear in advertising , while Fox 's Glacier Mints have featured a polar bear named Peppy as the brand mascot since 1922 . This has supported the popularity of the polar bear , and it has since become one of a collection of creatures who are associated with Christmas , including penguins , reindeer and the European robin .
= = = Fiction = = =
Polar bears are also popular in fiction , particularly in books aimed at children or teenagers . For example , The Polar Bear Son is adapted from a traditional Inuit tale . The animated television series Noah 's Island features a polar bear named Noah as the protagonist . Polar bears feature prominently in East ( also released as North Child ) by Edith Pattou , The Bear by Raymond Briggs ( adapted into an animated short in 1998 ) , and Chris d 'Lacey 's The Fire Within series . The panserbjørne of Philip Pullman 's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are sapient , dignified polar bears who exhibit anthropomorphic qualities , and feature prominently in the 2007 film adaptation of The Golden Compass . The television series Lost features polar bears living on the tropical island setting .
= = Cited sources = =
Aars , Jon , ed . ( June 2005 ) . 14th Working Meeting of the IUCN / SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group ( PDF ) 32 . Nicholas J. Lunn and Andrew E. Derocher . Seattle , Washington , United States : IUCN . ISBN 2 @-@ 8317 @-@ 0959 @-@ 8 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 19 April 2008 .
Bruemmer , Fred ( 1989 ) . World of the Polar Bear . Toronto , Ontario , Canada : Key Porter Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 55013 @-@ 107 @-@ 9 .
Hemstock , Annie ( 1999 ) . The Polar Bear . Manakato , MN : Capstone Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7368 @-@ 0031 @-@ X.
Lockwood , Sophie ( 2006 ) . Polar Bears . Chanhassen , MN : The Child 's World . ISBN 1 @-@ 59296 @-@ 501 @-@ 6 .
Matthews , Downs ( 1993 ) . Polar Bear . San Francisco , CA : Chronicle Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8118 @-@ 0204 @-@ 8 .
Rosing , Norbert ( 1996 ) . The World of the Polar Bear . Willowdale , ON : Firefly Books Ltd . ISBN 1 @-@ 55209 @-@ 068 @-@ X.
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= Huntington 's disease =
Huntington 's disease ( HD ) , also known as Huntington 's chorea , is an inherited disorder that results in death of brain cells . The earliest symptoms are often subtle problems with mood or mental abilities . A general lack of coordination and an unsteady gait often follow . As the disease advances , uncoordinated , jerky body movements become more apparent . Physical abilities gradually worsen until coordinated movement becomes difficult and the person is unable to talk . Mental abilities generally decline into dementia . The specific symptoms vary somewhat between people . Symptoms usually begin between 30 and 50 years of age , but can start at any age . The disease may develop earlier in life in each successive generation . About 8 % of cases start before the age of 20 years and typically present with symptoms more similar to Parkinson 's disease . People with HD often have a poor understanding of the degree of their problems .
HD is typically inherited from a person 's parents with 10 % of cases due to a new mutation . The disease is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in either of an individual 's two copies of a gene called Huntingtin . This means a child of an affected person typically has a 50 % chance of inheriting the disease . The Huntingtin gene provides the genetic information for a protein that is also called " huntingtin " . Expansion of CAG ( cytosine @-@ adenine @-@ guanine ) triplet repeats in the gene coding for the Huntingtin protein results in an abnormal protein , which gradually damages cells in the brain , through mechanisms that are not fully understood . Diagnosis is by genetic testing , which can occur at any point in time regardless of whether or not symptoms are present . This fact raises several ethical debates : the age at which an individual is considered mature enough to choose testing ; whether parents have the right to have their children tested ; and managing confidentiality and disclosure of test results .
There is no cure for HD . Full @-@ time care is required in the later stages of the disease . Treatments can relieve some symptoms and in some improving quality of life . The best evidence for treatment of the movement problems is with tetrabenazine . HD affects about 4 to 15 in 100 @,@ 000 people of European descent . It is rare among Japanese and occurs at an unknown rate in Africa . The disease affect men and women equally . Complications such as pneumonia , heart disease , and physical injury from falls reduce life expectancy . Suicide is the cause of death in about 9 % . Death typically occurs fifteen to twenty years from when the disease was first detected .
The first likely description of the disease was in 1841 by Charles Oscar Waters . The condition was described in further detail in 1872 by George Huntington after whom it is named . The genetic basis was discovered in 1993 by an international collaborative effort lead by the Hereditary Disease Foundation . Research and support organizations began forming in the late 1960s to increase public awareness , to provide support for individuals and their families , and to promote research . Current research directions include determining the exact mechanism of the disease , improving animal models to aid with research , testing of medications to treat symptoms or slow the progression of the disease , and studying procedures such as stem cell therapy with the goal of repairing damage caused by the disease .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms of Huntington 's disease most commonly become noticeable between the ages of 35 and 44 years , but they can begin at any age from infancy to old age . In the early stages , there are subtle changes in personality , cognition , and physical skills . The physical symptoms are usually the first to be noticed , as cognitive and behavioral symptoms are generally not severe enough to be recognized on their own at the earlier stages . Almost everyone with Huntington 's disease eventually exhibits similar physical symptoms , but the onset , progression and extent of cognitive and behavioral symptoms vary significantly between individuals .
The most characteristic initial physical symptoms are jerky , random , and uncontrollable movements called chorea . Chorea may be initially exhibited as general restlessness , small unintentionally initiated or uncompleted motions , lack of coordination , or slowed saccadic eye movements . These minor motor abnormalities usually precede more obvious signs of motor dysfunction by at least three years . The clear appearance of symptoms such as rigidity , writhing motions or abnormal posturing appear as the disorder progresses . These are signs that the system in the brain that is responsible for movement has been affected . Psychomotor functions become increasingly impaired , such that any action that requires muscle control is affected . Common consequences are physical instability , abnormal facial expression , and difficulties chewing , swallowing , and speaking . Eating difficulties commonly cause weight loss and may lead to malnutrition . Sleep disturbances are also associated symptoms . Juvenile HD differs from these symptoms in that it generally progresses faster and chorea is exhibited briefly , if at all , with rigidity being the dominant symptom . Seizures are also a common symptom of this form of HD .
Cognitive abilities are progressively impaired . Especially affected are executive functions which include planning , cognitive flexibility , abstract thinking , rule acquisition , initiation of appropriate actions , and inhibition of inappropriate actions . As the disease progresses , memory deficits tend to appear . Reported impairments range from short @-@ term memory deficits to long @-@ term memory difficulties , including deficits in episodic ( memory of one 's life ) , procedural ( memory of the body of how to perform an activity ) and working memory . Cognitive problems tend to worsen over time , ultimately leading to dementia . This pattern of deficits has been called a subcortical dementia syndrome to distinguish it from the typical effects of cortical dementias e.g. Alzheimer 's disease .
Reported neuropsychiatric manifestations are anxiety , depression , a reduced display of emotions ( blunted affect ) , egocentrism , aggression , and compulsive behavior , the latter of which can cause or worsen addictions , including alcoholism , gambling , and hypersexuality . Difficulties in recognizing other people 's negative expressions have also been observed . The prevalence of these symptoms is highly variable between studies , with estimated rates for lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders between 33 % and 76 % . For many sufferers and their families , these symptoms are among the most distressing aspects of the disease , often affecting daily functioning and constituting reason for institutionalization . Suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts are more common than in the general population . Often individuals have reduced awareness of chorea , cognitive and emotional impairments .
Mutant Huntingtin is expressed throughout the body and associated with abnormalities in peripheral tissues that are directly caused by such expression outside the brain . These abnormalities include muscle atrophy , cardiac failure , impaired glucose tolerance , weight loss , osteoporosis , and testicular atrophy .
= = Genetics = =
All humans have two copies of the Huntingtin gene ( HTT ) , which codes for the protein Huntingtin ( HTT ) . The gene is also called HD and IT15 , which stands for ' interesting transcript 15 ' . Part of this gene is a repeated section called a trinucleotide repeat , which varies in length between individuals and may change length between generations . If the repeat is present in a healthy gene , a dynamic mutation may increase the repeat count and result in a defective gene . When the length of this repeated section reaches a certain threshold , it produces an altered form of the protein , called mutant Huntingtin protein ( mHTT ) . The differing functions of these proteins are the cause of pathological changes which in turn cause the disease symptoms . The Huntington 's disease mutation is genetically dominant and almost fully penetrant : mutation of either of a person 's HTT alleles causes the disease . It is not inherited according to sex , but the length of the repeated section of the gene and hence its severity can be influenced by the sex of the affected parent .
= = = Genetic mutation = = =
HD is one of several trinucleotide repeat disorders which are caused by the length of a repeated section of a gene exceeding a normal range . The HTT gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 4 at 4p16.3. HTT contains a sequence of three DNA bases — cytosine @-@ adenine @-@ guanine ( CAG ) — repeated multiple times ( i.e. ... CAGCAGCAG ... ) , known as a trinucleotide repeat . CAG is the 3 @-@ letter genetic code ( codon ) for the amino acid glutamine , so a series of them results in the production of a chain of glutamine known as a polyglutamine tract ( or polyQ tract ) , and the repeated part of the gene , the PolyQ region .
Generally , people have fewer than 36 repeated glutamines in the polyQ region which results in production of the cytoplasmic protein Huntingtin . However , a sequence of 36 or more glutamines results in the production of a protein which has different characteristics . This altered form , called mutant huntingtin ( mHTT ) , increases the decay rate of certain types of neurons . Regions of the brain have differing amounts and reliance on these types of neurons , and are affected accordingly . Generally , the number of CAG repeats is related to how much this process is affected , and accounts for about 60 % of the variation of the age of the onset of symptoms . The remaining variation is attributed to environment and other genes that modify the mechanism of HD . 36 – 39 repeats result in a reduced @-@ penetrance form of the disease , with a much later onset and slower progression of symptoms . In some cases the onset may be so late that symptoms are never noticed . With very large repeat counts , HD has full penetrance and can occur under the age of 20 , when it is then referred to as juvenile HD , akinetic @-@ rigid , or Westphal variant HD . This accounts for about 7 % of HD carriers .
= = = Inheritance = = =
Huntington 's disease has autosomal dominant inheritance , meaning that an affected individual typically inherits one copy of the gene with an expanded trinucleotide repeat ( the mutant allele ) from an affected parent . Since penetrance of the mutation is very high , those who have a mutated copy of the gene will have the disease . In this type of inheritance pattern , each offspring of an affected individual has a 50 % risk of inheriting the mutant allele and therefore being affected with the disorder ( see figure ) . This probability is sex @-@ independent .
Trinucleotide CAG repeats over 28 are unstable during replication and this instability increases with the number of repeats present . This usually leads to new expansions as generations pass ( dynamic mutations ) instead of reproducing an exact copy of the trinucleotide repeat . This causes the number of repeats to change in successive generations , such that an unaffected parent with an " intermediate " number of repeats ( 28 – 35 ) , or " reduced penetrance " ( 36 – 40 ) , may pass on a copy of the gene with an increase in the number of repeats that produces fully penetrant HD . Such increases in the number of repeats ( and hence earlier age of onset and severity of disease ) in successive generations is known as genetic anticipation . Instability is greater in spermatogenesis than oogenesis ; maternally inherited alleles are usually of a similar repeat length , whereas paternally inherited ones have a higher chance of increasing in length . It is rare for Huntington 's disease to be caused by a new mutation , where neither parent has over 36 CAG repeats .
In the rare situations where both parents have an expanded HD gene , the risk increases to 75 % , and when either parent has two expanded copies , the risk is 100 % ( all children will be affected ) . Individuals with both genes affected are rare . For some time HD was thought to be the only disease for which possession of a second mutated gene did not affect symptoms and progression , but it has since been found that it can affect the phenotype and the rate of progression .
= = Mechanism = =
The huntingtin protein interacts with over 100 other proteins , and appears to have multiple biological functions . The behavior of this mutated protein is not completely understood , but it is toxic to certain cell types , particularly in the brain . Early damage is most evident in the striatum , but as the disease progresses , other areas of the brain are also more conspicuously affected . Early symptoms are attributable to functions of the striatum and its cortical connections — namely control over movement , mood and higher cognitive function .
= = = Huntingtin function = = =
HTT is expressed in all mammalian cells . The highest concentrations are found in the brain and testes , with moderate amounts in the liver , heart , and lungs . The function of HTT in humans is unclear . It interacts with proteins which are involved in transcription , cell signaling and intracellular transporting . In animals genetically modified to exhibit HD , several functions of HTT have been found . In these animals , HTT is important for embryonic development , as its absence is related to embryonic death . Caspase , an enzyme which plays a role in catalyzing apoptosis , is thought to be activated by the mutated gene through damaging the ubiquitin @-@ protease system . It also acts as an anti @-@ apoptotic agent preventing programmed cell death and controls the production of brain @-@ derived neurotrophic factor , a protein which protects neurons and regulates their creation during neurogenesis . HTT also facilitates vesicular transport and synaptic transmission and controls neuronal gene transcription . If the expression of HTT is increased and more HTT produced , brain cell survival is improved and the effects of mHTT are reduced , whereas when the expression of HTT is reduced , the resulting characteristics are more typical of the presence of mHTT . In humans the disruption of the normal gene does not cause the disease . It is thought that the disease is not caused by inadequate production of HTT , but by a gain of toxic function of mHTT .
= = = Cellular changes due to mHTT = = =
There are multiple cellular changes through which the toxic function of mHTT may manifest and produce the HD pathology . During the biological process of posttranslational modification of mHTT , cleavage of the protein can leave behind shorter fragments constituted of parts of the polyglutamine expansion . The polar nature of glutamine causes interactions with other proteins when it is overabundant in unmodified HTT proteins or the HTT fragments created from HTT cleavage . Thus , the mHTT molecule strands will form hydrogen bonds with one another , forming a protein aggregate rather than folding into functional proteins . Over time , the aggregates accumulate , ultimately interfering with neuron function because these fragments can then misfold and coalesce , in a process called protein aggregation , to form inclusion bodies within cells . Neuronal inclusions run indirect interference . Inclusion bodies have been found in both the cell nucleus and cytoplasm . Inclusion bodies in cells of the brain are one of the earliest pathological changes , and some experiments have found that they can be toxic for the cell , but other experiments have shown that they may form as part of the body 's defense mechanism and help protect cells .
Several pathways by which mHTT may cause cell death have been identified . These include : effects on chaperone proteins , which help fold proteins and remove misfolded ones ; interactions with caspases , which play a role in the process of removing cells ; the toxic effects of glutamine on nerve cells ; impairment of energy production within cells ; and effects on the expression of genes .
An additional theory that explains another way cell function may be disrupted by HD proposes that damage to mitochondria in striatal cells ( numerous accounts of mitochondrial metabolism deficiency have been found ) and the interactions of the altered huntingtin protein with numerous proteins in neurons leads to an increased vulnerability of glutamine , which , in large amounts , has been found to be an excitotoxin . Excitotoxins may cause damage to numerous cellular structures . Although glutamine is not found in excessively high amounts , it has been postulated that because of the increased vulnerability , even normal amounts glutamine can cause excitotoxins to be expressed .
= = = Macroscopic changes due to mHTT = = =
HD affects the whole brain , but certain areas are more vulnerable than others . The most prominent early effects are in a part of the basal ganglia called the neostriatum , which is composed of the caudate nucleus and putamen . Other areas affected include the substantia nigra , layers 3 , 5 and 6 of the cerebral cortex , the hippocampus , purkinje cells in the cerebellum , lateral tuberal nuclei of the hypothalamus and parts of the thalamus . These areas are affected according to their structure and the types of neurons they contain , reducing in size as they lose cells . Striatal spiny neurons are the most vulnerable , particularly ones with projections towards the external globus pallidus , with interneurons and spiny cells projecting to the internal pallidum being less affected . HD also causes an abnormal increase in astrocytes and activation of the brain 's immune cells , microglia .
The basal ganglia — the part of the brain most prominently affected in early HD — play a key role in movement and behavior control . Their functions are not fully understood , but current theories propose that they are part of the cognitive executive system and the motor circuit . The basal ganglia ordinarily inhibit a large number of circuits that generate specific movements . To initiate a particular movement , the cerebral cortex sends a signal to the basal ganglia that causes the inhibition to be released . Damage to the basal ganglia can cause the release or reinstatement of the inhibitions to be erratic and uncontrolled , which results in an awkward start to motion or motions to be unintentionally initiated , or a motion to be halted before , or beyond , its intended completion . The accumulating damage to this area causes the characteristic erratic movements associated with HD . The spontaneous and erratic physical movements associated with HD are classified as a type of hyperkinetic dysarthria . Because of the basal ganglia 's inability to inhibit movements , individuals affected by it will inevitably experience a reduced ability to produce speech and swallow foods and liquids ( dysphagia ) .
= = = Transcriptional dysregulation = = =
CREB @-@ binding protein ( CBP ) , a transcriptional coregulator , is essential for cell function because as a coactivator at a significant number of promoters , it activates the transcription of genes for survival pathways . Furthermore , the amino acids that form CBP include a strip of 18 glutamines . Thus , the glutamines on CBP interact directly with the increased numbers of glutamine on the HTT chain and CBP gets pulled away from its typical location next to the nucleus . Specifically , CBP contains an acetyltransferase domain to which HTT binds through its polyglutamine @-@ containing domain . Autopsied brains of those who had Huntington 's disease also have been found to have incredibly reduced amounts of CBP . In addition , when CBP is overexpressed , polyglutamine @-@ induced death is diminished , further demonstrating that CBP plays an important role in Huntington 's disease and neurons in general .
= = Diagnosis = =
Medical diagnosis of the onset of HD can be made following the appearance of physical symptoms specific to the disease . Genetic testing can be used to confirm a physical diagnosis if there is no family history of HD . Even before the onset of symptoms , genetic testing can confirm if an individual or embryo carries an expanded copy of the trinucleotide repeat in the HTT gene that causes the disease . Genetic counseling is available to provide advice and guidance throughout the testing procedure , and on the implications of a confirmed diagnosis . These implications include the impact on an individual 's psychology , career , family planning decisions , relatives and relationships . Despite the availability of pre @-@ symptomatic testing , only 5 % of those at risk of inheriting HD choose to do so .
= = = Clinical = = =
A physical examination , sometimes combined with a psychological examination , can determine whether the onset of the disease has begun . Excessive unintentional movements of any part of the body are often the reason for seeking medical consultation . If these are abrupt and have random timing and distribution , they suggest a diagnosis of HD . Cognitive or behavioral symptoms are rarely the first symptoms diagnosed ; they are usually only recognized in hindsight or when they develop further . How far the disease has progressed can be measured using the unified Huntington 's disease rating scale , which provides an overall rating system based on motor , behavioral , cognitive , and functional assessments . Medical imaging , such as computerized tomography ( CT ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , can show atrophy of the caudate nuclei early in the disease , as seen in the illustration to the right , but these changes are not , by themselves , diagnostic of HD . Cerebral atrophy can be seen in the advanced stages of the disease . Functional neuroimaging techniques , such as functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) and positron emission tomography ( PET ) , can show changes in brain activity before the onset of physical symptoms , but they are experimental tools , and are not used clinically .
= = = Predictive genetic testing = = =
Because HD follows an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance , there is a strong motivation for individuals who are at risk of inheriting it to seek a diagnosis . The genetic test for HD consists of a blood test which counts the numbers of CAG repeats in each of the HTT alleles . Cutoffs are given as follows :
40 or more CAG repeats : full penetrance allele ( FPA ) . A " positive test " or " positive result " generally refers to this case . A positive result is not considered a diagnosis , since it may be obtained decades before the symptoms begin . However , a negative test means that the individual does not carry the expanded copy of the gene and will not develop HD . The test will tell a person who originally had a 50 percent chance of inheriting the disease if their risk goes up to 100 percent or is eliminated . A person who tests positive for the disease will develop HD sometime within their lifetime , provided he or she lives long enough for the disease to appear .
36 to 39 repeats : incomplete or reduced penetrance allele ( RPA ) . It may cause symptoms , usually later in the adult life . There is a maximum risk of 60 % that a person with an RPA will be symptomatic at the age of 65 years , and a 70 % risk of being symptomatic at the age of 75 years .
27 to 35 repeats : intermediate allele ( IA ) , or large normal allele . It is not associated with symptomatic disease in the tested individual , but may expand upon further inheritance to give symptoms in offspring .
26 or fewer repeats : Not associated with HD .
A pre @-@ symptomatic test is a life @-@ changing event and a very personal decision . The main reason given for choosing testing for HD is to aid in career and family decisions . Before 1993 there was not an available test for individuals to learn if they carried the Huntington 's gene . At that time surveys indicated that 50 – 70 % of at @-@ risk individuals would have been interested in receiving testing , but since predictive testing has been offered far fewer choose to be tested . Over 95 % of individuals at risk of inheriting HD do not proceed with testing , mostly because there is no treatment . A key issue is the anxiety an individual experiences about not knowing whether they will eventually develop HD , compared to the impact of a positive result . Irrespective of the result , stress levels have been found to be lower two years after being tested , but the risk of suicide is increased after a positive test result . Individuals found to have not inherited the disorder may experience survivor guilt with regard to family members who are affected . Other factors taken into account when considering testing include the possibility of discrimination and the implications of a positive result , which usually means a parent has an affected gene and that the individual 's siblings will be at risk of inheriting it . In one study genetic discrimination was found in 46 % of individuals at risk for Huntington 's disease . It occurred at higher rates within personal relationships than health insurance or employment relations . Genetic counseling in HD can provide information , advice and support for initial decision @-@ making , and then , if chosen , throughout all stages of the testing process . Because of the implications of this test , patients who wish to undergo testing must complete three counseling sessions which provide information about Huntington 's .
Counseling and guidelines on the use of genetic testing for HD have become models for other genetic disorders , such as autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias . Presymptomatic testing for HD has also influenced testing for other illnesses with genetic variants such as polycystic kidney disease , familial Alzheimer 's disease and breast cancer . The European Molecular Genetics Quality Network have published yearly external quality assessment scheme for molecular genetic testing for this disease and have developed best practice guidelines for genetic testing for HD to assist in testing and reporting of results .
= = = Preimplantation genetic diagnosis = = =
Embryos produced using in vitro fertilization may be genetically tested for HD using preimplantation genetic diagnosis ( PGD ) . This technique , where one or two cells are extracted from a typically 4 to 8 cell embryo and then tested for the genetic abnormality , can then be used to ensure embryos affected with HD genes are not implanted , and therefore any offspring will not inherit the disease . Some forms of preimplantation genetic diagnosis — non @-@ disclosure or exclusion testing — allow at @-@ risk people to have HD @-@ free offspring without revealing their own parental genotype , giving no information about whether they themselves are destined to develop HD . In exclusion testing , the embryos ' DNA is compared with that of the parents and grandparents to avoid inheritance of the chromosomal region containing the HD gene from the affected grandparent . In non @-@ disclosure testing , only disease @-@ free embryos are replaced in the uterus while the parental genotype and hence parental risk for HD are never disclosed .
= = = Prenatal testing = = =
It is also possible to obtain a prenatal diagnosis for an embryo or fetus in the womb , using fetal genetic material acquired through chorionic villus sampling . An amniocentesis can be performed if the pregnancy is further along , within 14 – 18 weeks . This procedure looks at the amniotic fluid surrounding the baby for indicators of the HD mutation . This , too , can be paired with exclusion testing to avoid disclosure of parental genotype . Prenatal testing can be done when a parent has been diagnosed with HD , when they have had genetic testing showing the expansion of the HTT gene , or when they have a 50 % chance of inheriting the disease . The parents can be counseled on their options , which include termination of pregnancy , and on the difficulties of a child with the identified gene .
In addition , in at @-@ risk pregnancies due to an affected male partner , non @-@ invasive prenatal diagnosis can be performed by analyzing cell @-@ free fetal DNA in a blood sample taken from the mother ( via venipuncture ) between six and twelve weeks of pregnancy . It has no procedure @-@ related risk of miscarriage ( excepting via needle contamination ) .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
About 99 % of HD diagnoses based on the typical symptoms and a family history of the disease are confirmed by genetic testing to have the expanded trinucleotide repeat that causes HD . Most of the remaining are called HD @-@ like ( HDL ) syndromes . The cause of most HDL diseases is unknown , but those with known causes are due to mutations in the prion protein gene ( HDL1 ) , the junctophilin 3 gene ( HDL2 ) , a recessively inherited unknown gene ( HDL3 — only found in two families and poorly understood ) , and the gene encoding the TATA box @-@ binding protein ( SCA17 , sometimes called HDL4 ) . Other autosomal dominant diseases that can be misdiagnosed as HD are dentatorubral @-@ pallidoluysian atrophy and neuroferritinopathy . There are also autosomal recessive disorders that resemble sporadic cases of HD . These include chorea acanthocytosis and pantothenate kinase @-@ associated neurodegeneration . One X @-@ linked disorder of this type is McLeod syndrome .
= = Management = =
There is no cure for HD , but there are treatments available to reduce the severity of some of its symptoms . For many of these treatments , evidence to confirm their effectiveness in treating symptoms of HD specifically are incomplete . As the disease progresses the ability to care for oneself declines and carefully managed multidisciplinary caregiving becomes increasingly necessary . Although there have been relatively few studies of exercises and therapies that help rehabilitate cognitive symptoms of HD , there is some evidence for the usefulness of physical therapy , occupational therapy , and speech therapy . An association between caffeine intake and earlier age of onset in Huntington 's disease has been found but , since this finding was based on retrospective questionnaire data rather than a blinded , randomized trial or case @-@ control study , this work is a poor basis for guiding lifestyle decisions .
= = = Physical therapy = = =
Weight loss and eating difficulties due to dysphagia and other muscle discoordination are common , making nutrition management increasingly important as the disease advances . Thickening agents can be added to liquids as thicker fluids are easier and safer to swallow . Reminding the affected person to eat slowly and to take smaller pieces of food into the mouth may also be of use to prevent choking . If eating becomes too hazardous or uncomfortable , the option of using a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy is available . This is a feeding tube , permanently attached through the abdomen into the stomach , which reduces the risk of aspirating food and provides better nutritional management . Assessment and management by speech and language therapists with experience in Huntington 's disease is recommended .
People with Huntington 's disease may see a physical therapist for non @-@ invasive and non @-@ medication @-@ based ways of managing the physical symptoms . Physical therapists may implement fall risk assessment and prevention , as well as strengthening , stretching , and cardiovascular exercises . Walking aids may be prescribed as appropriate . Physical therapists also prescribe breathing exercises and airway clearance techniques with the development of respiratory problems . Consensus guidelines on physiotherapy in Huntington 's disease have been produced by the European HD Network . Goals of early rehabilitation interventions are prevention of loss of function . Participation in rehabilitation programs during early to middle stage of the disease may be beneficial as it translates into long term maintenance of motor and functional performance . Rehabilitation during the late stage aims to compensate for motor and functional losses . For long @-@ term independent management , the therapist may develop home exercise programs for appropriate people .
= = = Medications = = =
Tetrabenazine was approved in 2008 for treatment of chorea in Huntington 's disease in the US . Other drugs that help to reduce chorea include neuroleptics and benzodiazepines . Compounds such as amantadine or remacemide are still under investigation but have shown preliminary positive results . Hypokinesia and rigidity , especially in juvenile cases , can be treated with antiparkinsonian drugs , and myoclonic hyperkinesia can be treated with valproic acid .
Psychiatric symptoms can be treated with medications similar to those used in the general population . Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and mirtazapine have been recommended for depression , while atypical antipsychotic drugs are recommended for psychosis and behavioral problems . Specialist neuropsychiatric input is recommended as people may require long @-@ term treatment with multiple medications in combination .
= = = Education = = =
The families of individuals who have inherited or are at risk of inheriting HD , have generations of experience of HD which may be outdated and lack knowledge of recent breakthroughs and improvements in genetic testing , family planning choices , care management , and other considerations . Genetic counseling benefits these individuals by updating their knowledge , dispelling any myths they may have and helping them consider their future options and plans .
= = Prognosis = =
The length of the trinucleotide repeat accounts for 60 % of the variation in the age symptoms appear and the rate they progress . A longer repeat results in an earlier age of onset and a faster progression of symptoms . Individuals with more than sixty repeats often develop the disease before age 20 , while those with fewer than 40 repeats may not ever develop noticeable symptoms . The remaining variation is due to environmental factors and other genes that influence the mechanism of the disease .
Life expectancy in HD is generally around 20 years following the onset of visible symptoms . Most life @-@ threatening complications result from muscle coordination and , to a lesser extent , behavioral changes induced by declining cognitive function . The largest risk is pneumonia , which causes death in one third of those with HD . As the ability to synchronize movements deteriorates , difficulty clearing the lungs and an increased risk of aspirating food or drink both increase the risk of contracting pneumonia . The second greatest risk is heart disease , which causes almost a quarter of fatalities of those with HD . Suicide is the third greatest cause of fatalities , with 7 @.@ 3 % of those with HD taking their own lives and up to 27 % attempting to do so . It is unclear to what extent suicidal thoughts are influenced by behavioral symptoms , as they signify sufferers ' desires to avoid the later stages of the disease . Other associated risks include choking , physical injury from falls , and malnutrition .
= = Epidemiology = =
The late onset of Huntington 's disease means it does not usually affect reproduction . The worldwide prevalence of HD is 5 – 10 cases per 100 @,@ 000 persons , but varies greatly geographically as a result of ethnicity , local migration and past immigration patterns . Prevalence is similar for men and women . The rate of occurrence is highest in peoples of Western European descent , averaging around 7 per 100 @,@ 000 people , and is lower in the rest of the world ; e.g. , one per million people of Asian and African descent . A 2013 epidemiological study of the prevalence of Huntington 's disease in the U.K. between 1990 and 2010 found that the average prevalence for the U.K. was 12 @.@ 3 per 100 @,@ 000 . Additionally , some localized areas have a much higher prevalence than their regional average . One of the highest incidences is in the isolated populations of the Lake Maracaibo region of Venezuela , where HD affects up to 700 per 100 @,@ 000 persons . Other areas of high localization have been found in Tasmania and specific regions of Scotland , Wales and Sweden . Increased prevalence in some cases occurs due to a local founder effect , a historical migration of carriers into an area of geographic isolation . Some of these carriers have been traced back hundreds of years using genealogical studies . Genetic haplotypes can also give clues for the geographic variations of prevalence . Iceland , on the contrary , has a rather low prevalence of 1 per 100 @,@ 000 , despite the fact that Icelanders as a people are descended of the early Germanic tribes of Scandinavia which also gave rise to the Swedes ; all cases with the exception of one going back nearly two centuries having derived from the offspring of a couple living early in the 19th century . Finland , as well , has a low incidence of only 2 @.@ 2 per 100 @,@ 000 people .
Until the discovery of a genetic test , statistics could only include clinical diagnosis based on physical symptoms and a family history of HD , excluding those who died of other causes before diagnosis . These cases can now be included in statistics ; and , as the test becomes more widely available , estimates of the prevalence and incidence of the disorder are likely to increase .
= = History = =
Although Huntington 's has been recognized as a disorder since at least the Middle Ages , the cause has been unknown until fairly recently . Huntington 's was given different names throughout this history as understanding of the disease changed . Originally called simply ' chorea ' for the jerky dancelike movements associated with the disease , HD has also been called " hereditary chorea " and " chronic progressive chorea " . The first definite mention of HD was in a letter by Charles Oscar Waters , published in the first edition of Robley Dunglison 's Practice of Medicine in 1842 . Waters described " a form of chorea , vulgarly called magrums " , including accurate descriptions of the chorea , its progression , and the strong heredity of the disease . In 1846 Charles Gorman observed how higher prevalence seemed to occur in localized regions . Independently of Gorman and Waters , both students of Dunglison at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia , Johan Christian Lund also produced an early description in 1860 . He specifically noted that in Setesdalen , a secluded mountain valley in Norway , there was a high prevalence of dementia associated with a pattern of jerking movement disorders that ran in families .
The first thorough description of the disease was by George Huntington in 1872 . Examining the combined medical history of several generations of a family exhibiting similar symptoms , he realized their conditions must be linked ; he presented his detailed and accurate definition of the disease as his first paper . Huntington described the exact pattern of inheritance of autosomal dominant disease years before the rediscovery by scientists of Mendelian inheritance .
" Of its hereditary nature . When either or both the parents have shown manifestations of the disease ... , one or more of the offspring almost invariably suffer from the disease ... But if by any chance these children go through life without it , the thread is broken and the grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren of the original shakers may rest assured that they are free from the disease . " .
Sir William Osler was interested in the disorder and chorea in general , and was impressed with Huntington 's paper , stating that " In the history of medicine , there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately , more graphically or more briefly described . " Osler 's continued interest in HD , combined with his influence in the field of medicine , helped to rapidly spread awareness and knowledge of the disorder throughout the medical community . Great interest was shown by scientists in Europe , including Louis Théophile Joseph Landouzy , Désiré @-@ Magloire Bourneville , Camillo Golgi , and Joseph Jules Dejerine , and until the end of the century , much of the research into HD was European in origin . By the end of the 19th century , research and reports on HD had been published in many countries and the disease was recognized as a worldwide condition .
During the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance at the turn of the 20th century , HD was used tentatively as an example of autosomal dominant inheritance . The English biologist William Bateson used the pedigrees of affected families to establish that HD had an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern . The strong inheritance pattern prompted several researchers , including Smith Ely Jelliffe , to attempt to trace and connect family members of previous studies . Jelliffe collected information from across New York and published several articles regarding the genealogy of HD in New England . Jelliffe 's research roused the interest of his college friend , Charles Davenport , who commissioned Elizabeth Muncey to produce the first field study on the East Coast of the United States of families with HD and to construct their pedigrees . Davenport used this information to document the variable age of onset and range of symptoms of HD ; he claimed that most cases of HD in the USA could be traced back to a handful of individuals . This research was further embellished in 1932 by P. R. Vessie , who popularized the idea that three brothers who left England in 1630 bound for Boston were the progenitors of HD in the USA . The claim that the earliest progenitors had been established and eugenic bias of Muncey 's , Davenport 's , and Vessie 's work contributed to misunderstandings and prejudice about HD . Muncey and Davenport also popularized the idea that in the past some HD sufferers may have been thought to be possessed by spirits or victims of witchcraft , and were sometimes shunned or exiled by society . This idea has not been proven . Researchers have found contrary evidence ; for instance , the community of the family studied by George Huntington openly accommodated those who exhibited symptoms of HD .
The search for the cause of this condition was enhanced considerably in 1968 when the Hereditary Disease Foundation ( HDF ) was created by Milton Wexler , a psychoanalyst based in Los Angeles , California whose wife Leonore Sabin had been diagnosed earlier that year with Huntington 's disease . The three brothers of Wexler 's wife also suffered from this disease . The foundation was involved in the recruitment of over 100 scientists in the Huntington 's Disease Collaborative Research Project who over a 10 @-@ year period worked to locate the responsible gene .
Thanks to the HDF , the ongoing US @-@ Venezuela Huntington 's Disease Collaborative Research Project was started in 1979 , and reported a major breakthrough in 1983 with the discovery of the approximate location of a causal gene . This was the result of an extensive study focusing on the populations of two isolated Venezuelan villages , Barranquitas and Lagunetas , where there was an unusually high prevalence of the disease . It involved over 18 @,@ 000 people — mostly from a single extended family .
Among other innovations , the project developed DNA @-@ marking methods which were an important step in making the Human Genome Project possible . In 1993 , the research group isolated the precise causal gene at 4p16.3 , making this the first autosomal disease locus found using genetic linkage analysis .
In the same time frame , key discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the disorder were being made , including the findings by Anita Harding 's research group on the effects of the gene 's length .
Modelling the disease in various types of animals , such as the transgenic mouse developed in 1996 , enabled larger scale experiments . As these animals have faster metabolisms and much shorter lifespans than humans , results from experiments are received sooner , speeding research . The 1997 discovery that mHTT fragments misfold led to the discovery of the nuclear inclusions they cause . These advances have led to increasingly extensive research into the proteins involved with the disease , potential drug treatments , care methods , and the gene itself .
The condition was formerly called ' Huntington 's chorea ' but this term has been replaced by ' Huntington 's disease ' because not all patients develop chorea and due to the importance of cognitive and behavioral problems .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Ethics = = =
Huntington 's disease , particularly the application of the genetic test for the disease , has raised several ethical issues . The issues for genetic testing include defining how mature an individual should be before being considered eligible for testing , ensuring the confidentiality of results , and whether companies should be allowed to use test results for decisions on employment , life insurance or other financial matters . There was controversy when Charles Davenport proposed in 1910 that compulsory sterilization and immigration control be used for people with certain diseases , including HD , as part of the eugenics movement . In vitro fertilization has some issues regarding its use of embryos . Some HD research has ethical issues due to its use of animal testing and embryonic stem cells .
The development of an accurate diagnostic test for Huntington 's disease has caused social , legal , and ethical concerns over access to and use of a person 's results . Many guidelines and testing procedures have strict procedures for disclosure and confidentiality to allow individuals to decide when and how to receive their results and also to whom the results are made available . Financial institutions and businesses are faced with the question of whether to use genetic test results when assessing an individual , such as for life insurance or employment . The United Kingdom 's insurance companies have agreed that until 2017 they will not use genetic information when writing insurance policies under GB £ 500 @,@ 000 , but Huntington 's is explicitly excluded from this agreement . As with other untreatable genetic conditions with a later onset , it is ethically questionable to perform pre @-@ symptomatic testing on a child or adolescent , as there would be no medical benefit for that individual . There is consensus for testing only individuals who are considered cognitively mature , although there is a counter @-@ argument that parents have a right to make the decision on their child 's behalf . With the lack of an effective treatment , testing a person under legal age who is not judged to be competent is considered unethical in most cases .
There are ethical concerns related to prenatal genetic testing or preimplantation genetic diagnosis to ensure a child is not born with a given disease . For example , prenatal testing raises the issue of selective abortion , a choice considered unacceptable by some . As it is a dominant disease , there are difficulties in situations in which a parent does not want to know his or her own diagnosis . This would require parts of the process to be kept secret from the parent .
= = = Support organizations = = =
In 1968 , after experiencing HD in his wife 's family , Dr. Milton Wexler was inspired to start the Hereditary Disease Foundation ( HDF ) , with the aim of curing genetic illnesses by coordinating and supporting research . The foundation and Dr. Wexler 's daughter , Nancy Wexler , were key parts of the research team in Venezuela which discovered the HD gene .
At roughly the same time as the HDF formed , Marjorie Guthrie helped to found the Committee to Combat Huntington 's Disease ( now the Huntington 's Disease Society of America ) , after her husband Woody Guthrie died from complications of HD .
Since then , support and research organizations have formed in many countries around the world and have helped to increase public awareness of HD . A number of these collaborate in umbrella organizations , like the International Huntington Association and the European HD network . Many support organizations hold an annual HD awareness event , some of which have been endorsed by their respective governments . For example , 6 June is designated " National Huntington 's Disease Awareness Day " by the US Senate .
The largest funder of Huntington 's disease research globally , in terms of financial expenditure , is the CHDI Foundation , a US non @-@ profit biomedical foundation that aims to " rapidly discover and develop drugs that delay or slow Huntington 's disease " . CHDI was formerly known as the High Q Foundation . In 2006 , it spent $ 50 million on Huntington 's disease research . CHDI collaborates with many academic and commercial laboratories globally and engages in oversight and management of research projects as well as funding . Many organizations exist to support and inform those affected by HD .
= = Research directions = =
Research into the mechanism of HD has focused on identifying the functioning of HTT , how mHTT differs or interferes with it , and the brain pathology that the disease produces . Research is conducted using in vitro methods , animal models and human volunteers . Animal models are critical for understanding the fundamental mechanisms causing the disease and for supporting the early stages of drug development . Animals with chemically induced brain injury exhibit HD @-@ like symptoms and were initially used , but they did not mimic the progressive features of the disease . The identification of the causative gene has enabled the development of many transgenic animal models including nematode worms , Drosophila fruit flies , mice , rats , sheep , pigs and monkeys that express mutant huntingtin and develop progressive neurodegeneration and HD @-@ like symptoms .
Research is being conducted on many different approaches to prevent Huntington 's disease or slow its progression . Disease @-@ modifying strategies can be broadly grouped into three categories : reducing the level of the mutant huntingtin protein ( including gene silencing ) ; approaches aimed at improving neuronal survival by reducing the harm caused by the protein to specific cellular pathways and mechanisms ( including protein homeostasis and histone deacetylase inhibition ) ; and strategies to replace lost neurons . In addition , novel therapies to improve brain functioning are under development ; these seek to produce symptomatic rather than disease @-@ modifying therapies , and include phosphodiesterase inhibitors .
= = = Reducing huntingtin production = = =
Gene silencing aims to reduce the production of the mutant protein , since HD is caused by a single dominant gene encoding a toxic protein . Gene silencing experiments in mouse models have shown that when the expression of mHTT is reduced , symptoms improve . Safety of non @-@ allele specific RNAi and ASO gene silencing has now been demonstrated in mice and the large , human @-@ like brains of primates . Allele @-@ specific silencing attempts to silence mutant HTT while leaving wild @-@ type HTT untouched . One way of accomplishing this is to identify polymorphisms present on only one allele and produce gene silencing drugs that target polymorphisms in only the mutant allele . The first ' gene silencing ' trial involving human HD patients began in 2015 , testing the safety of IONIS @-@ HTTRx , produced by Ionis Pharmaceuticals and led by UCL Institute of Neurology . Mutant huntingtin was detected and quantified for the first time in cerebrospinal fluid from Huntington 's disease mutation @-@ carriers in 2015 using a novel ' single @-@ molecule counting ' immunoassay , providing a direct way to assess whether huntingtin @-@ lowering treatments are achieving the desired effect .
= = = Improving cell survival = = =
Among the approaches aimed at improving cell survival in the presence of mutant huntingtin are correction of transcriptional regulation using histone deacetylase inhibitors , modulating aggregation of huntingtin , improving metabolism and mitochondrial function and restoring function of synapses .
= = = Neuronal replacement = = =
Stem cell therapy is the replacement of damaged neurons by transplantation of stem cells into affected regions of the brain . Experiments have yielded mixed results using this technique in animal models and preliminary human clinical trials . Whatever their future therapeutic potential , stem cells are already a valuable tool for studying Huntington 's disease in the laboratory .
= = = Clinical trials = = =
Several clinical trials of new experimental treatments are underway and planned in Huntington 's disease .
Compounds that have failed to prevent or slow progression of Huntington 's disease in human trials include remacemide , coenzyme Q10 , riluzole , creatine , minocycline , ethyl @-@ EPA , phenylbutyrate and dimebon .
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= Coenred of Mercia =
Coenred ( also spelled Cenred or Cœnred fl . 675 – 709 ) was king of Mercia from 704 to 709 . Mercia was an Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom in the English Midlands . He was a son of the Mercian king Wulfhere , whose brother Æthelred succeeded to the throne in 675 on Wulfhere 's death . In 704 , Æthelred abdicated in favour of Coenred to become a monk .
Coenred 's reign is poorly documented , but a contemporary source records that he faced attacks from the Welsh . Coenred is not known to have married or had children , although later chronicles describe him as an ancestor of Wigstan , a 9th @-@ century Mercian king . In 709 , Coenred abdicated and went on pilgrimage to Rome , where he remained as a monk until his death . In the view of his contemporary , Bede , Coenred " who had ruled the kingdom of Mercia for some time and very nobly , with still greater nobility renounced the throne of his kingdom " . Æthelred 's son Ceolred succeeded Coenred as king of Mercia .
= = Mercia in the 7th century = =
By the 7th century , England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , who had come to Britain two hundred years earlier . The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English Midlands . Neighbouring kingdoms included Northumbria to the north , East Anglia to the east , and Wessex , the kingdom of the West Saxons , to the south . Essex , the kingdom of the East Saxons , included London and lay between East Anglia and the kingdom of Kent . The earliest Mercian king for whom there is definite historical information is Penda of Mercia , Coenred 's paternal grandfather .
The main source for this period is Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( Ecclesiastical History of the English People ) , completed in about 731 . Despite its focus on the history of the church , this work provides valuable information about the early Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . Charters , which recorded royal grants of land to individuals and to religious houses , provide further information on Coenred 's reign , as does the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , compiled in Wessex at the end of the 9th century . The Chronicle 's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods . Coenred is also mentioned in two 8th @-@ century hagiographies , those of Saint Wilfrid and Saint Guthlac .
= = Ancestry and reign = =
In 658 , Coenred 's father Wulfhere came to the throne of Mercia as the result of a coup , ending a three @-@ year period of Northumbrian control . Wulfhere was succeeded on his death ( in 675 ) by his brother Æthelred , Coenred 's uncle , possibly because Coenred was too young to rule . Coenred 's mother Ermenilda became a nun sometime after Wulfhere 's death . Æthelred 's decisive victory over the Northumbrians at the Battle of the Trent in 679 , followed by the Picts ' destruction of the Northumbrian army at the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 , reduced Northumbrian power and influence . There is evidence of Mercian activity in the south @-@ east as well . Æthelred invaded Kent in 676 , and charters survive in which he confirmed land grants made by Swæfheard and Oswine , kings of west and east Kent . Another charter of Æthelred 's , dated between 693 and 704 , grants land to Waldhere , the bishop of London . However , Æthelred does not appear to have sought expansion further south . The growing strength of the West Saxons under Cædwalla and Ine would have limited Mercian opportunities in that direction .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that in 702 Coenred succeeded to the kingdom of the Southumbrians and that in 704 he became king of Mercia . As the " Southumbrians " were those who lived south of the Humber , Mercia 's northern boundary , the two annals have proved difficult to interpret : Coenred and Æthelred may have ruled jointly for two years before Æthelred abdicated , or the chroniclers may have recorded the same event twice , once from a source that was two years in error . According to the 8th @-@ century life of St Guthlac , Æthelred appointed Coenred as his heir despite having at least one son of his own , Ceolred . Æthelred appears to have retained influence during his nephew 's reign : the Life of St Wilfrid relates how he summoned Coenred and made him swear to support Wilfrid in his conflict with the church hierarchy .
Coenred 's sparsely documented reign is mentioned in the Life of Guthlac . The author , Felix , reports conflicts with the Britons : " in the days of Coenred King of the Mercians , [ ... ] the Britons the implacable enemies of the Saxon race , were troubling the English with their attacks , their pillaging , and their devastations of the people [ ... ] " To counter such attacks , Æthelbald , who came to the throne in 716 , was once thought to have built Wat 's Dyke , an earthwork barrier in northern Wales ; but this now seems unlikely , since an excavation of the Dyke in 1997 found charcoal from a hearth which was radiocarbon @-@ dated to some time between 411 and 561 .
Some surviving charters from Coenred 's reign reveal him to have been the overlord of the East Saxon rulers . Offa , an East Saxon king , made a grant in the territory of the Hwicce ( to which he may have been connected by a marriage of his father , Sigeheard ) which was later confirmed by Coenred . In the charter , Coenred refers to Offa as his underking . Coenred and his successor also confirmed grants to Waldhere , the Bishop of London , evidence that London was firmly under Mercian overlordship . Later Mercian kings treated London as their direct possession , rather than as a province ruled by an underking , but Coenred did not go that far . A grant of land in Herefordshire to a nun named Feleburg has survived , as have forged charters in Coenred 's name granting privileges to St Paul 's Cathedral , and to the Abbey of Evesham .
Mercia 's influence in Kent was limited both before and during Coenred 's reign . In a surviving letter ( written in 704 or 705 ) , Waldhere , Bishop of London , tells Berhtwald , Archbishop of Canterbury , that Coenred had invited him to a council to be held " about the reconciliation of Ælfthryth " . Waldhere refused the invitation as he did not know Berhtwald 's opinion on the matter , which was evidently important , although no other reference to it has survived . The letter describes a council to be held at Brentford to mediate between the kings of the East and West Saxons . In the view of the historian Frank Stenton , the letter illuminates the " confused relations of the southern English at a moment when they had no common overlord " . The reduced prestige of both Coenred and his successor , Ceolred , may have stirred unrest among the Mercian nobility : Æthelbald was in exile during Ceolred 's reign , and the survival of a hostile account of Ceolred may indicate a more general dissatisfaction with the ruling line .
= = Abdication and succession = =
Coenred appears to have been a very religious king . Bede tells a story of a companion of Coenred 's whose sins led him to damnation despite Coenred 's pleas that he should repent and reform . In 709 Coenred abdicated in favour of his cousin Ceolred , son of Æthelred , in order to become a monk in Rome ; Bede 's story is cited by the medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury as the reason for Coenred 's decision , though this is probably guesswork . Coenred was accompanied by the East Saxon king Offa on his journey to Rome , and was made a monk there by Pope Constantine . The Liber Pontificalis , an early record of the lives of Popes , records the arrival of their party : " in his time , two kings of the Saxons came with many others to pray to the apostles ; just as they were hoping , their lives quickly came to an end . " A later source , the 11th @-@ century Vita Ecgwini , claims that Ecgwine accompanied Coenred and Offa to Rome , but historians have treated this with scepticism .
Historians have generally accepted Bede 's report of Coenred 's and Offa 's abdications , but Barbara Yorke has suggested that they may not have relinquished their thrones voluntarily . There are instances of kings being forcibly removed and placed in holy orders to make them ineligible for kingship ; one such was King Osred II of Northumbria , who was forced into a monastery . On the other hand , if Coenred went willingly , as Bede relates , then the apparently friendly relationship between Offa and Coenred , his overlord , makes it clear that the relationship between an overlord and his underking was not hostile in every case .
Coenred was tonsured in Rome , whence he was accompanied by Offa , son of Sighere , king of the East Saxons , and became a monk " at the threshold of the apostles " as Bede had it ; he stayed in Rome until his death , the date of which is unknown . He is not recorded as having a wife or children . The Evesham Chronicle kept at Evesham Abbey , however , claim that he was an ancestor of Wigstan . They do not say whether this was through Wigstan 's father , Wigmund , son of Wiglaf of Mercia , or through his mother , Ælfflæd , daughter of Ceolwulf I of Mercia .
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= Mochitsura Hashimoto =
Mochitsura Hashimoto ( 橋本 以行 , Hashimoto Mochitsura , 1909 – 25 October 2000 ) was an officer and a submarine commander in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II . He is best known as the captain of Japanese submarine I @-@ 58 , which sank the USS Indianapolis in 1945 .
Born in Kyoto and educated at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , Hashimoto volunteered for service in submarines and was later aboard submarine I @-@ 24 during the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 . Hashimoto commanded coastal patrol and training submarines off Japan for much of the war , and in 1944 took command of I @-@ 58 , a ship which was equipped to carry kaiten , or manned torpedoes . After a number of unsuccessful operations , I @-@ 58 sank the Indianapolis on 30 July while on a midnight patrol . Hashimoto 's submarine then returned to Japan , one of the few such ships to survive the war . Hashimoto was then called to testify at the court @-@ martial of Charles B. McVay III , the Indianapolis commander , a move which was controversial at the time . He was later part of an effort to exonerate McVay . Hashimoto later became a Shinto priest . He died in 2000 .
= = Biography = =
Mochitsura Hashimoto was born in 1909 in Kyoto , Japan , the eighth of nine children and fifth son of a kannushi ( Shinto priest ) . He attended Kyoto Third High School , a prestigious school , where he performed well . In his youth he was described as self @-@ possessed and respectful . At the behest of his father , he applied for the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . The family did not have a naval background , but Hashimoto 's father struggled financially on a priest 's government subsidy and he felt entering his son into the military would help to provide for them . One of Hashimoto 's older brothers subsequently attended the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and was commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Army . Hashimoto graduated from high school in 1927 and was accepted into the Naval Academy . Leaving home for the first time , Hashimoto then attended the naval academy at Eta Jima for four years , studying Japanese history , engineering , and naval tactics , as well as judo and other military athletics . He graduated and commissioned in 1931 .
In 1937 , Hashimoto married Nobuko Miki , the daughter of a successful Osaka businessman . The couple had three sons ; Mochihiro , born in 1940 , Nobutake , born in 1942 , and Tomoyuki , born in 1944.and Sonoe , a daughter born in 1947 .
= = = Military career = = =
In 1934 , Hashimoto volunteered for the submarine service , and in 1937 he served aboard destroyers and submarine chasers off the shores of the Republic of China . On 15 November , as a sub @-@ lieutenant , Hashimoto was assigned to the crew of the gunboat Hozu , and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 December . During that time , his brother was killed in action fighting on the Chinese mainland .
In 1938 he was assigned to the destroyer Okikaze on 15 December . Selected for submarine school the following year , Hashimoto was assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District on 20 May 1939 and enrolled in a six @-@ month torpedo course on 1 June , subsequently entering the naval submarine school as a Class B student on 1 December . Upon completion of this training , he was assigned to the submarine I @-@ 123 on 20 March 1940 as torpedo officer , transferring to the I @-@ 155 on 15 October in the same role .
On 15 July 1941 , he was assigned to the submarine I @-@ 24 , becoming its torpedo officer on 31 October , under Lieutenant Commander Hiroshi Hanabusa ; the ship was based out of Kure . Throughout the year , the submarine conducted training maneuvers with a group of midget submarines . On 18 November , I @-@ 24 and her group sailed from Kure with a midget submarine attached to her afterdeck . Steaming eastward , she surfaced 10 miles ( 16 km ) off Waikiki on 6 December . The sub was a part of a large group of submarines which would support the Attack on Pearl Harbor . Hashimoto witnessed the final ritual of Kazuo Sakamaki and Kyoji Inagaki , who would man the midget submarine , which cast off at 05 : 30 . I @-@ 24 remained at a rendezvous point to wait for the midget sub , which never came . On 9 December , I @-@ 24 steamed for Kure .
Upon the submarine 's return to Kure , Hashimoto was detached and assigned to the advanced course at Submarine School on 1 February 1942 , to prepare him for command of a submarine . Graduating from this course on 30 June , Hashimoto was given command of submarine Ro @-@ 31 , a coastal defense vessel . For the remainder of 1942 , Hashimoto operated his ship in home waters off Yokosuka training crews and trying new equipment and doing research for the development of Japanese submarine doctrine . He was promoted to lieutenant commander on 1 November . In 1943 , he was given command of submarine I @-@ 158 for coastal defense , and later in the year was given command of submarine Ro @-@ 44 for the same duties .
= = = Commanding I @-@ 58 = = =
In May 1944 , Lieutenant Commander Hashimoto was given command of submarine I @-@ 58 which was still under construction in Sasebo . Hashimoto oversaw much of the construction of I @-@ 58 . The submarine was later overhauled mid @-@ construction to carry Kaiten manned torpedoes , which was considered a great honor by Hashimoto 's crew . I @-@ 58 was commissioned on 13 September 1944 and Hashimoto commanded her during her shakedown cruises , commanding his men on repeated drills without shore leave . He completed training on the submarine in December 1944 . The ship traversed Shimonoseki Strait into the Inland Sea and to Kure for supplies . She then moved to Hirao where she loaded six kaitens .
On 29 December she left on her first war patrol , steaming for the Mariana Islands . She arrived off the coast of Guam at 03 : 00 on 11 January 1945 and Hashimoto ordered four kaitens launched . The kaitens tentatively claimed a tanker sunk , though it was unable to verify if the ship had actually been struck . The strike had been unsuccessful . She then sped back to Kure and arrived there on 20 January . She remained in port there until March , likely due to supply shortages . On 1 March , she was ordered to Iwo Jima to support the battle taking place there . Once there , I @-@ 58 was ordered to launch all of its kaitens without their pilots and immediately return home . She was ordered out again on 2 April sailing to support Japanese forces at the Battle of Okinawa . While there , she was attacked by aircraft 50 times . She never surfaced for more than a few hours . She limped to Kure on 29 April 1945 , the only Japanese submarine to withdraw from the operation . She remained in port because of continued mining conducted by U.S. Army Air Forces , and departed on 16 July on another war patrol . At the time , she was one of only four large submarines left in the Japanese Navy , and her mission was to harass Allied lines of communications .
Passing through the Inland Sea around minefields , I @-@ 58 headed for the east coast of The Philippines intending to attack ships there . Passing east of Okinawa and spotting no ships , she cruised south arriving at the Guam @-@ Leyte shipping lane on 27 July . She spotted a tanker escorted by a destroyer and Hashimoto ordered her to launch two kaitens at 14 : 31 and 14 : 43 . She heard explosions at 15 : 21 and 15 : 31 but her crew was unable to determine if the kaitens had struck their targets . Hashimoto reported a tanker assumed sunk .
= = = Sinking of the Indianapolis = = =
On 29 July he ordered the submarine to make for an area where he believed shipping lanes between Guam , Leyte , Peleliu and Okinawa intersected . At 23 : 35 that evening , Hashimoto spotted the heavy cruiser Indianapolis at 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) cruising for his position at medium speed . Believing the ship to be an Idaho @-@ class battleship , he ordered I @-@ 58 to dive and once Indianapolis closed to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) he ordered six regular torpedoes fired at 00 : 02 on 30 July . Spotting three explosions strike the Indianapolis , Hashimoto ordered the submarine on a deep dive fearing detection . After an hour at a deep dive to reload , she surfaced and did not spot Indianapolis . After searching unsuccessfully for flotsam or any sign of the ship , he ordered the I @-@ 58 to retire at 02 : 30 . He transmitted a short wave radio message to the 6th Fleet headquarters in Kure at about 03 : 00 noting the destruction of the ship . He later wrote of the incident :
We had the moon behind us and the enemy ship was now clearly visible . She had two turrets aft and a large tower mast . I took her to be an Idaho @-@ class battleship . The crew were all agog , awaiting the order to fire the torpedoes . All was dead quiet ... the favorable moment for firing was approaching . ... At last in a loud voice , I gave the order ' Stand by — fire ! ' The torpedo @-@ release switch pressed at intervals of two seconds and then the report came from the torpedo room , " All tubes fired and correct . " Six torpedoes were speeding , fanwise , toward the enemy ship . ... Bringing the boat on to a course parallel with the enemy , we waited anxiously . Every minute seemed an age . Then on the starboard side of the enemy by the forward turret , and then the after turret there rose columns of water to be followed immediately by flashes of bright red flame . Then another column of water arose from alongside the Number 2 turret and seemed to envelop the whole ship — " A hit , a hit ! " I shouted as each torpedo struck home , and the crew danced for joy .
Hashimoto ordered I @-@ 58 northward looking for additional ships to attack . She picked up reports of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in intercepted radio transmissions on 7 August but Hashimoto continued to hunt for Allied ships south of Bungo Strait . On 9 August she launched two kaitens against a convoy , and Hashimoto claimed a destroyer probably sunk . On 12 August he launched his remaining kaitens and claimed a merchant ship probably sunk . I @-@ 58 surfaced in Bungo Strait on 15 August , where Hashimoto learned of the Gyokuon @-@ hōsō signaling the Japanese surrender and end of the war . She traveled up the Inland Sea and arrived at Hirao where Hashimoto emotionally informed his crew of the end of the war . After the war , it was confirmed Indianapolis was the only ship I @-@ 58 had sunk . It was the last Japanese naval success of World War II .
= = = McVay court @-@ martial = = =
Three days after Japan 's formal surrender in Tokyo Bay , Hashimoto was promoted to his final rank of commander . On 20 November , he was given command of the destroyer Yukikaze , among the few Imperial Navy ships to survive the war , and assigned to repatriation duties , returning troops to Japan from overseas . Before Hashimoto could begin his new duties , however , he was summoned by the United States military to be a witness for the prosecution in the court @-@ martial against Indianapolis commander Captain Charles B. McVay III , who was on trial on charges of negligence leading to the ship 's sinking . On 9 December 1945 he was transported from Tokyo to Oakland , California aboard an aircraft of the Naval Air Transport Service . Hashimoto was assured he would be treated as a naval officer instead of a prisoner of war or war criminal , but he remained under guard during his time in the United States and was not allowed to leave his hotel , as his appearance had been front page news that day in the New York Times and in other newspapers . The next day he arrived in Washington , D.C. where hearings were taking place . For the duration of his time in the United States , he spoke through translator Francis Earl Eastlake from the Office of Naval Intelligence .
Hashimoto spoke first with judge advocate Captain Thomas J. Ryan for four hours on 11 December . He spoke the next day with Captain John P. Cady , McVay 's chief defense counsel , for several hours , as both officers sought to determine his credibility and competence to take the stand in the trial . He told them the visibility was good on the night of the attack and he had been able to easily spot the Indianapolis . Hashimoto testified in the court on 13 December in a crowded courtroom . It was the first time that an officer of a nation at war with the United States had testified against an officer of the U.S. Navy in a court martial . At the behest of Cady , Hashimoto took both a Japanese civil oath and an U.S. Navy oath so he could be charged for perjury in both nations if he lied . Hashimoto 's 50 minutes of testimony focused on whether or not Indianapolis was " zigzaging " and he noted the ship did not deviate from its course . However , he also noted that , due to his position , such evasive maneuvers would not have diminished his ability to attack the ship . Still , his testimony is considered integral in McVay 's eventual conviction that he had been negligent . Charles Butler McVay III was exonerated in 2001 . Following his appearance at the trial , Hashimoto remained in U.S. custody under guard until early 1946 , when he was returned to Japan aboard USS Effingham .
With the Nuremberg Trials underway and Japanese war crimes during the war coming to light , the announcement of Hashimoto 's appearance in testimony against an American officer caused considerable controversy in the American news media . Though Hashimoto was himself known to be innocent of any war crimes and was generally treated well by his guards , he spoke little English and was subject to derision in the press . Among the public responses , socialite Evalyn Walsh McLean sent an angry telegram to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal to complain , and U.S. Representative Robert L. Doughton publicly stated , " It is the most contemptible thing I ever heard of to summon a Jap officer to testify against one of our own officers . I made my living practicing law before Navy courts and boards for 25 years , and this reaches an all @-@ time low in courts , board or congressional investigation . " Columnist Robert Ruark accused the Navy of using Hashimoto to " hype up " the court martial . Even after his departure his testimony remained controversial , and the Chicago Sun criticized his trip , which it estimated to have cost $ 1 @,@ 820 .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After his return to Japan , Hashimoto worked as a demobilization officer with the naval section of the Ministry of Demobilization , responsible for demobilizing veterans and dismantling what remained of the Japanese Navy . He completed his final assignment in June 1946 , after which he became a civilian , opting to retire from the military . Towards the end of his life , he became a Shinto priest at a shrine in Kyoto . He was later interviewed by author Dan Kurzman for his 1990 book Fatal Voyage , in which Kurzman stated , " Commander Hashimoto was amazed by the Americans . While penned up in his dormitory during the trial , he was treated more like an honored guest than an enemy officer who had caused the deaths of so many American boys . " Hashimoto later authored a book Sunk : The Story of the Japanese Submarine Fleet , 1941 – 1945 in which he detailed Japanese submarine operations in the war , including an account of the sinking of Indianapolis .
In December 1990 , Hashimoto met with some of the survivors of the Indianapolis at Pearl Harbor where he stated ( through a translator ) : " I came here to pray with you for your shipmates whose deaths I caused , " to which survivor Giles McCoy simply responded : " I forgive you . "
In 1999 , he assisted the surviving crew of the Indianapolis in attempting to exonerate McVay of blame for the ship 's sinking , writing a letter to the Senate Armed Services Committee in which he stated , just as he had more than five decades earlier , that even if the Indianapolis had been zigzaging , it would have made no difference : " I would have been able to launch a successful torpedo attack against his ship whether it had been zigzagging or not . " Regarding McVay 's conviction , Hashimoto wrote :
Our peoples have forgiven each other for that terrible war and its consequences . Perhaps it is time your peoples forgave Captain McVay for the humiliation of his unjust conviction .
Hashimoto died at age 91 on 25 October 2000 . Five days after his death , the reputation of Captain McVay was restored .
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= Hard suction hose =
Hard suction hose ( alternatively , suction hose ) is a specific type of fire hose used in drafting operations , when a fire engine uses a vacuum to draw water from a portable water tank , pool , or other static water source . It is built to withstand vacuum , rather than pressure , abrasion , and heat . In the United States , it is standard equipment according to the National Fire Protection Association standards for fire engines . It is used in both structural and wildland firefighting throughout the world , and is made in various diameters and connection types .
= = Usage = =
Hard suction hose , also known as a suction hose , is a specific type of rigid fire hose used in drafting operations . When using this technique , the fire engine draws water for fire fighting from an unpressurized supply , such as a portable water tank , pool , or other static water source , instead of drawing water from a pressurized water supply , such as a fire hydrant . Under complete vacuum conditions , a pump would lift water 33 @.@ 9 feet ( 10 @.@ 3 m ) , however pumps on fire apparatus are not capable of producing a high vacuum . Due to this limitation and friction loss , fire services do not recommend attempting to lift water more than 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) .
Hard suction hose may also be used to connect a fire engine to a hydrant . This practice is common in Australia , but woven jacket fire hose is normally used for this purpose in the United States . Using hard suction hose in this manner requires that the fire engine be positioned carefully for the limited flexibility of the hose , and may require multiple firefighters due to the weight and bulk of the hose section . In certain circumstances , it may be possible to use hard suction hose to draft from a hydrant with adequate water supply but a low flow rate .
These hoses are built to withstand vacuum , rather than water pressure , abrasion , and heat . They are , therefore , constructed differently from the standard fire hose and have different end fittings . In the United States , they are standard equipment according to the National Fire Protection Association standards for fire engines . Since hard suction hose cannot be folded , it is typically mounted on the side of a fire engine , often opposite ground ladders . Such hose is used in both structural and wildland firefighting throughout the world .
Hard suction hose can also be used to extend the range of a water tender 's dumping capability , if the fittings of the hard suction hose match those of the tender dumping water . This could be used to fill a portable dump tank not immediately adjacent to the water tender , from which another fire engine can draft . Since water movement during dumping relies on gravity , rather than mechanical pressurization , hard suction hose is useful for this task .
= = Characteristics and construction = =
Hard suction hose differs from standard fire hose in both its construction and usage :
It is rigid and generally scalloped . Often , such hose is manufactured using molded synthetic material ( such as PVC ) shaped into a series of rings . This shape allows the hose to be somewhat flexible , without allowing it to collapse in on itself under suction , as a normal , woven @-@ jacket fire hose would .
It uses suction gaskets . Gaskets in standard fire hose ( " pressure gaskets " ) are designed to minimize the water leaking out between couplings . The gaskets connecting hard suction hose sections , pump , and strainer must instead prevent air from entering at the coupling , since that would spoil the vacuum and allow air into the pump intake . Large diameter ( 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) or greater ) hard suction hose will typically use Storz fittings , which are genderless . 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) or smaller hard suction hose will typically use threaded fittings . In each case , the hard suction hose connection will match the fittings of the pump intake and supply hose , so that hard suction hose can be used in place of supply hose as appropriate .
It is short . Typically , hard suction hose comes in 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) lengths , while fire hose comes in 50 and 100 feet ( 15 and 30 m ) lengths . Since a fire engine 's pump only produces a partial vacuum , it is only recommended for lifting water 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) or less . For this reason , and because each junction is an opportunity for a crack or imperfect seal to spoil the vacuum , it is rare to see many sections of hard suction hose connected together .
It is not designed for use in fire streams . The airtight nature of hard suction hose , necessary for drafting , renders the hose unsuitable for the high pressure water flow needed to spray a pressurized stream of water on a fire . Thus , hard suction hose is tested for the ability to " prevent collapse under vacuum conditions " rather than its ability to function as an attack hoseline .
Hard suction hose predates steam or gas powered fire engines and has been available since at least 1888 , sometimes referred to as " spiral suction hose " .
= = Diameter = =
Hard suction hose comes in multiple sizes , from 2 to 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 2 cm ) in diameter . Large diameter hose are carried on full @-@ size fire engines , but smaller diameters of hard suction hose can be carried on apparatus with smaller fire pump ratings , such as wildland fire engines . In the United States , NFPA 1901 requires engines to have hard suction hose that matches the engine 's pump rating . For example , an engine with a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 3 @,@ 800 l ) per minute pump is required to carry 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) or larger hose , while a wildland fire engine will typically carry 2 @-@ to @-@ 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 4 cm ) hard suction hose .
The United Kingdom , has a standardised range of metric hose diameters : 7 , 9 , 12 @.@ 5 and 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 , 3 @.@ 5 , 4 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) , with the two smallest diameters sometimes used twined to provide adequate flow rates . Within this range , the 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) hoses are fitted with " Instantaneous Couplings " ; the 12 @.@ 5 and 15 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) hoses have Storz couplings ; and the 9 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) hose comes in two types , one with " Instantaneous Couplings " and one with Storz fittings . Fire Service Manuals provide tables of maximum volumetric flow rates for a given pump pressure , hose diameter and total hose length . The use of these tables , is to facilitate the selection of suitable hoses , taking into account the frictional losses caused by transporting water through the strainer , hoses , pump and fire fighting nozzles , to draft water from source to the fireground .
= = Strainers = =
When being used in a drafting operation from a pool , portable water tank , or other uncovered water source , the length of hard suction hose farthest from the pump is usually attached to a strainer , to keep foreign objects in the water from being pulled into and damaging the pump . If used in a pond , stream , or other body of water , an appropriate flotation device must be used to keep the strainer below the surface and above the bottom , so that neither mud nor air are sucked into the fire engine 's pump . When drafting from a solid @-@ bottomed tank or pool , a strainer can safely rest on the bottom without suctioning mud into the fire engine 's pump .
The United Kingdom official guidance is to :
use ropes to take to the weight of the hose and the strainer , in order to avoid putting sideways loadings on the couplings ;
ensure that the strainer is a minimum of three strainer @-@ diameters below the water surface to prevent air cavitation ;
to support the hose with packing , where necessary , when it crosses a wall or other obstruction to prevent an air pocket being formed .
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= HMS Adamant ( 1780 ) =
HMS Adamant was a 50 @-@ gun Portland @-@ class fourth rate warship of the British Royal Navy . She served during the American War of Independence , the French Revolutionary Wars , and the Napoleonic Wars in a career that spanned thirty years .
Built during the American War of Independence she spent the last three years of the war off the American coast , and saw action at the Battle of Cape Henry and at the Battle of the Chesapeake . The years of peace were spent either in the Caribbean or off Nova Scotia , before the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars saw her commissioned for service in the Leeward Islands and off the British coast . It was while serving in British waters that she became caught up in the mutiny at the Nore . As one of only two two @-@ decker ships to remain in action during the mutiny she had to maintain the Dutch blockade by creating the illusion of being part of a larger fleet , which she managed successfully . Adamant then went on to fight at the Battle of Camperdown , after which she moved to the English Channel , and then the Indian Ocean via the Cape of Good Hope . Here she took part in the destruction of the French commerce raider Preneuse , and in her later years captured a number of privateers . She became a receiving ship and flagship of a port admiral during the last years of the Napoleonic Wars , until being broken up in June 1814 .
= = Design and construction = =
Adamant was one of eleven ships built to a 1767 design by John Williams , and one of five ordered between 1775 @-@ 6 . She was ordered from Peter Baker , of Liverpool , on 13 November 1776 , and laid down on 6 September 1777 . The ship was launched on 24 January 1780 , and completed between 13 June and 12 August 1780 at Plymouth . Her initial cost was £ 16,313.13.10d , rising to £ 27,497.3.0d when the cost of fitting her out was included .
= = Career = =
= = = North America = = =
Adamant was commissioned in November 1779 under the command of Captain Gideon Johnstone , and sailed for North America on 13 August 1780 . She was with Vice @-@ Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot 's squadron at the Battle of Cape Henry on 16 March 1781 , and then at the Battle of the Chesapeake on 5 September 1781 . Johnstone was succeeded by Captain David Graves in February 1782 , while Adamant was still in North America , after which she returned to Britain as a convoy escort in December 1782 . The ship was then paid off in April 1783 and refitted for foreign service between May and September that year . Adamant recommissioned in June 1783 under Captain William Kelly , and on the completion of her refit , sailed to the Leeward Islands in November , where she spent the next three years as the flagship of Admiral Sir Richard Hughes . She was paid off again in September 1786 and underwent a great repair , followed by being fitted out as the flagship at Sheerness from August 1787 to May 1789 . Adamant was recommissioned in February 1789 by Captain David Knox , after which Admiral Hughes again hoisted his flag in her and sailed her to Nova Scotia in June . From January 1792 the ship was under Captain Charles Hope , until returning to Britain in June that year and being paid off .
= = = French Revolutionary Wars = = =
Adamant was at first fitted for reserve duty in July 1792 , but with the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France in April 1793 she was hurriedly recommissioned , at first under Captain William Bentinck and at some point in 1794 William Mitchell was her acting @-@ captain . From June 1794 she was under Captain Henry D 'Esterre Darby . Darby took Adamant back to the Leeward Islands in September 1794 , and by April 1796 Adamant was serving with George Vandeput 's squadron . Captain Henry Warre took command in November 1796 , and was succeeded by Captain William Hotham on 11 January 1797 .
= = = Mutiny at the Nore , and Camperdown = = =
Adamant was based at the Nore , operating in the North Sea and blockading the Dutch fleet at the Texel with Admiral Adam Duncan 's fleet . In May 1797 mutiny broke out among the ships at the Nore , following on from one at Spithead earlier in the year . Of the two @-@ decker ships of the fleet , only the crews of Duncan 's flagship HMS Venerable , and Hotham 's crew aboard Adamant remained loyal . With only two ships available to blockade the Dutch , Duncan and Hotham took their ships out to sea , remaining in sight of the Dutch coast and for several weeks implied by false signals and manoeuvres , that the rest of the fleet was just over the horizon . Convinced by the impersonation that the blockade was still in force , the Dutch remained in port . Duncan and Hotham were later reinforced by the Russian squadron based at Harwich , and then by ships deserting the mutiny one by one .
Adamant then fought as part of Duncan 's fleet at the Battle of Camperdown on 11 October 1797 . The battle was a decisive victory for the British over the Dutch , led by Admiral Jan Willem de Winter , with Adamant escaping sustaining any casualties . Adamant was then attached to Sir Richard Strachan 's squadron patrolling off Le Havre , after which she and Hotham were sent with a convoy to the Cape of Good Hope in October 1798 . While operating in the Indian Ocean Adamant and the 74 @-@ gun HMS Tremendous , under Captain John Osborn , encountered the French commerce raider Preneuse , under Captain Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien l 'Hermite off Port Louis , Île de France on 11 December 1799 . In the ensuing Battle of Port Louis they chased her , forcing her to run ashore three miles from Port Louis , under the cover of French shore batteries . Hotham took Adamant in close , and tried to work up to the grounded frigate , coming under heavy fire from the batteries and the Preneuse as he did so . After a period of exchanging fire , the Adamant forced the French frigate to strike , and that evening three boats carrying men from Adamant and Tremendous approached with orders to destroy the French vessel . Despite coming under heavy fire from the batteries , they boarded the ship , captured the remaining French crew , including Captain l 'Hermite , and removed as much of their captives ' private property as they could . They then set fire to the Preneuse and returned to their ships without the loss of a single man .
In July 1800 , Curtis sent Adamant , Lancaster , Rattlesnake , and Euphrosyne to blockade Isle de France and Bourbon . They remained until October and during this period shared in the proceeds of several captures .
Spanish ship Edouard ( August ) . This vessel may actually have been a French ship of 300 tons ( bm ) , carrying naval stores , wine , brandy , and the like from Bordeaux to Isle de France .
French brig Paquebot ( August ) . She had been sailing from Isle de France to Bourbon with a cargo of wine and goods from India .
Spanish brig Numero Sete ( August ) . Numero Septo had been sailing from Montevideo to Isle de France with a cargo of soap , tallow , candles , and provisions .
French brig Mouche and part of the cargo and materials from the wreck of the brig Uranie ( September ) .
Hotham remained off South Africa and in the Indian Ocean until being recalled to Britain . Adamant escorted a convoy in September 1801 , arriving in Britain on 14 December 1801 .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
Adamant spent between May 1803 and August 1804 under repair at Chatham Dockyard , before recommissioning in June under Captain George Burlton . On 13 April 1805 Adamant and HMS Inflexible captured the 4 @-@ gun privateer Alert , and in October 1805 command passed to Captain John Stiles . Stiles escorted a convoy of East Indiamen in 1806 , and on 6 May captured the Spanish 26 @-@ gun privateer Nuestra Señora de los Dolores off the Cape of Good Hope . On 17 June 1807 he added another prize to his total , capturing the 1 @-@ gun privateer Bueno Union while serving on the Jamaica station . Stiles was succeeded by Captain Micaiah Macbon in October 1807 , and Adamant returned to the Jamaica station the following year . By early 1809 she was back in Britain , and spent the period between April and July 1809 being fitted at Chatham for service as a receiving ship at Leith . She was recommissioned in May 1809 under Captain John Sykes and in August took part in the Scheldt operations . Captain Matthew Buckle took command in August 1810 , and remained Adamant 's captain for the next three years , which she spent as flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Otway , and as a receiving ship at Leith . As the Napoleonic Wars drew to a close the ship was laid up in ordinary at Sheerness in 1814 , and then broken up there in June 1814 .
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= The Boy Who Knew Too Much ( The Simpsons ) =
" The Boy Who Knew Too Much " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 5 , 1994 . In the episode , Bart runs away from a pursuing Principal Skinner after attempting to skip school . During part of his escape , he witnesses an event in which Freddy Quimby , the spoiled nephew of Mayor Quimby , is accused of beating up a French waiter . Though the entire town believes that Freddy is guilty , Bart witnessed something else . At the trial , Bart testifies for Freddy , claiming that the waiter simply hurt himself because he was clumsy . Though attempting to deny the allegations , the waiter proves the truth in Bart 's words by falling out the window .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . The new character Freddy , voiced by Dan Castellaneta , was given the same type of cheekbones and nose as Quimby to make them resemble each other . The episode features cultural references to films such as Westworld , Last Action Hero , and Free Willy , and the fictional characters Huckleberry Finn , Eddie , and Darwin . Actor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife Maria Shriver are also referenced in the episode . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , and was the fifth @-@ highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
On a sunny day in Springfield , Bart is not excited about going to school ; in part because he has to travel there on a prison bus , sit in new chairs that are very uncomfortable ; and even more so when Ms. Krabappel informs the class that they will spend two hours longer than usual at school that day ( due to Bart tampering with the clock ) . When arriving at school , Bart forges a note claiming a dentist appointment so that he can skip school , but Principal Skinner is not convinced . Skinner chases Bart through Springfield , and as he finally corners him , Bart jumps into a passing car . The car is driven by Freddy Quimby , nephew of Mayor Quimby , who is going to his birthday party at the Quimby Compound , which Bart crashes , claiming to be Mayor Quimbys nephew " Bart @-@ Bart " . At lunch , Freddy is served chowder , but he ridicules the waiter for mispronouncing it in a French accent , even though Freddy himself mispronounces it with a Boston accent . He then follows the waiter into the kitchen , and apparently roughs him up . Bart , hiding under a table , secretly witnesses the true turn of events . Freddy is charged with the crime , presumably assault and battery , and is put on trial .
During the trial , despite Quimby 's attempts to rig the trial , the whole town seems to believe that Freddy is guilty due to his demeaning behavior and intolerance of how every person around him says " chowder " ; he even threatens to kill his own lawyer and the jury for it . Only Bart knows otherwise , and he confesses to Lisa that he 's the only one who knows that Freddy didn 't actually assault the waiter . He doesn 't want to testify , however , because the only way Bart can confirm that Freddy is innocent is by admitting that he skipped school , and thus would face punishment from Skinner . At the trial , the jury consists of Homer , Skinner , Hans Moleman , Ned Flanders , Helen Lovejoy , Jasper , Patty , Apu , and Akira .
Homer votes against the others because he wants to create a deadlock so that the jury is sequestered at a hotel with free room service and cable television . In court , Lisa convinces Bart to testify , and Bart tells everyone that Freddy did not assault the waiter ( he insulted him but after the waiter snarled back at him , Freddy seized an expensive bottle of champagne and left the kitchen without any violence ) but that the waiter injured himself in a series of clumsy actions . The offended waiter attempts to deny that he is clumsy , but in the process , he trips over a chair which causes him to fall out of the window into an open @-@ roof truck filled with rat traps , thus proving the point . Freddy is cleared of all charges , and Skinner , although praising Bart for being honest and coming forward , reminds him that this does not change the fact that he skipped school .
Despite Bart 's logical argument that his act of selflessness nullifies his misbehavior and that leaving him in peace would be the fairest thing to do , Skinner decides to follow through on his main instinct of being rule @-@ bound and inflexible , and gives Bart three months ' detention after school . At night Marge tries to talk to Homer about the things he missed at home but he continuously tries to fool her with his fake eyeglasses . However , Marge sees past this and Homer finally admits to missing being at home with her .
= = Production = =
" The Boy Who Knew Too Much " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Executive producer David Mirkin " loved " that the whole situation of Bart seeing the waiter injure himself and not telling the truth ties together with the Homer plot in that it causes Homer to get jury duty and then only caring about going to the hotel . Mirkin thought it " worked really well " . The new character Freddy was voiced by The Simpsons cast member Dan Castellaneta , who also provides the voice of Mayor Quimby . Freddy was given the same type of cheekbones and nose as Quimby to make them resemble each other . When Bart is fleeing from Skinner , a shot of Bart running down a hill from the season four episode " Kamp Krusty " was re @-@ used . At the release of season five on DVD , a review described the image as possibly the " best the series has ever looked on DVD " . However , " The Boy Who Knew Too Much " was one of the few episodes in which technical issues still remained ; for example , Bart and Lisa 's image was fuzzy toward the beginning , and the episode featured for the last time " some of the hand drawn dimensions that would be eliminated once the show switched over to digital compositing and desktop cartoon creation " .
= = Cultural references = =
While riding on the prison bus , Bart looks out the window and has a dream that features him , Huckleberry Finn , and Abraham Lincoln on a raft going down a river in Springfield . Mirkin said Swartzwelder had always enjoyed putting presidents into his jokes , and this was only one of his many references to Lincoln . The scene of Skinner chasing Bart borrows heavily from the film Westworld , especially the scene with Skinner walking across the river . The Simpsons director David Silverman said Lynch and his fellow director Brad Bird took " a long , hard look " at Westworld to make sure the animation in the scenes resembled the film as much as possible . Mirkin said of the Westworld parody : " Again , to show you what a collaboration this is , we had the animators looking at Westworld and making sure of the animation , and then we made sure that [ The Simpsons composer ] Alf Clausen got the brilliant soundtrack from the film . He put in a lot of touches that really made the soundtracks identical . " Bart 's claim to film star and recurring character on The Simpsons Rainier Wolfcastle ( a parody of Arnold Schwarzenegger ) that his " last movie really sucked " and Chief Wiggum 's subsequent claim of " magic ticket , my ass " are in reference to Last Action Hero , a Schwarzenegger film featuring magic tickets that was panned by critics . Additionally , Wolfcastle 's wife is named Maria ; Schwarzenegger 's wife at the time was Maria Shriver .
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening appears in a cameo as the court illustrator in the Quimby trial . He can be seen signing his name on his sketch . During the trial , Bart quips " the system works . Just ask Claus von Bulow " . This is a reference to the British socialite who was accused of attempted murder , but was acquitted after two trials . Of the twelve jury members , Homer is the only one to vote " innocent " , angering the other eleven jurors ; the trial ends with Freddy being found innocent . This is a reference to the film 12 Angry Men . During the trial , Homer sings the jingle of the cat food company Meow Mix in his head . Jasper , a member of the jury , wants the trial to be over so that he can go home and watch television . He says that tonight on the science fiction series seaQuest DSV , Eddie , pet dog of Martin Crane on Frasier , will ride Darwin , the talking dolphin character from seaQuest DSV . Both series aired on NBC , which was the highest @-@ rated network in the United States for most of the 1990s . The new " director 's cut " of the 1993 film Free Willy that Homer watches at the deadlock hotel features Jesse being crushed by the whale Willy . Homer is later saddened by this , and says , " Oh , I don 't like this new director 's cut ! " Homer stays with Skinner at the hotel , and in a reference to the television series The Odd Couple , Skinner picks up a cigar butt from the floor with his umbrella while cleaning the room , just as Tony Randall does in the opening credits of that series .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Boy Who Knew Too Much " finished fiftieth in the ratings for the week of May 2 – 8 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children , Living Single , Melrose Place and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , praised the episode for containing " a memorable guest character in the French waiter Monsieur Lacosse , two great slapstick sequences involving the same , and displays Principal Skinner — pursuing Bart across the mountains like ' a non @-@ giving @-@ up school guy ' , and confessing that in some ways he 's " a small man ; a petty , small man " — in particularly fine form . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought Freddy Quimby " may well be the most unpleasant character to grace the series — in an amusing way , though Freddy ’ s edginess makes him less amusing than his uncle . It ’ s rather startling to see Skinner so rapidly resume his dislike of Bart after the last episode , though . It ’ s fun to see his superhuman powers in the pursuit of Bart , and the mystery aspects of the show help make it a very good one . Add to that Homer on jury duty for even more entertainment . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A for its " excellent bits thrown together to make this one , joke for joke , one of the season 's funniest " . In 2007 , Patrick Enright of MSNBC called it his tenth favorite episode of the show . He said it was a perfect example of the show 's " hilarious randomness " because of jokes such as Homer singing the Meow Mix cat food jingle , and the scene in which Homer discovers that if the jury ’ s deadlocked , they will be sequestered in a luxury hotel . Homer justifies his decision to be the lone dissenting voice by saying , " I ’ m only doing what I think is right . I believe Freddy Quimby should walk out of here a free hotel ( when he should have said a ' free man ' ) . "
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= The Music Machine =
The Music Machine was an American garage rock band formed in Los Angeles , California in 1966 . Fronted by chief songwriter and lead vocalist Sean Bonniwell , the band cultivated a characteristically dark and rebellious image reflected in an untamed musical approach . Sometimes it made use of distorted guitar lines and hallucinogenic organ parts , punctuated by Bonniwell 's distinctively throaty vocals . Although they only briefly managed to attain national chart success with two singles , the Music Machine is today considered by many critics to be a one of the groundbreaking acts of the 1960s . Their style is now recognized as a pioneering force in proto @-@ punk ; yet within a relatively short period of time , they began to employ more complex lyrical and instrumental arrangements that went beyond the typical garage band format .
In 1965 , the band came together as a folk rock trio known as the Raggamuffins , before expanding to the quintet that was later rechristened the Music Machine . The group was known for their style of dress , clothing themselves in all @-@ black attire . In 1966 , the Music Machine was signed to Original Sound , and released its first single " Talk Talk " in the latter half of the year , with it reaching the Top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100 . Their debut album ( Turn On ) The Music Machine and the moderate hit " The People In Me " followed . The band 's original lineup fragmented in late 1967 after managerial and financial disputes . Bonniwell reassembled the group under the name The Bonniwell Music Machine . In 1968 , a second album , The Bonniwell Music Machine appeared , but the group disbanded in early 1969 .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings ( 1965 – 1966 ) = = =
The nucleus of the band was formed when Sean Bonniwell ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) took part in a jam session with Keith Olsen ( bass guitar ) and Ron Edgar ( drums ) – both of whom he met in the folk music circuit . Bonniwell , already a practiced " folky , " possessed prior experience as a vocalist with the Wayfarers . The traditional folk combo had already enjoyed some regional success : releasing three albums , and building on the experience of Bonniwell who insisted on the importance of rehearsal . As Bonniwell traveled and recorded with the group , he began penning some material that would later surface with the Music Machine . However , still influenced by acts now considered passé , the Wayfarers ' musical conservatism became stifling to Bonniwell who wanted to explore the type of harder , cutting @-@ edge stylistic possibilities that he eventually would find in rock . Prior to meeting , Olsen had previously performed in Gale Garnett 's backing band , and Edgar was a member of a bohemian folk quintet called the GoldeBriars . With the GoldeBriars , Edgar contributed to their unreleased third album that was originally intended for distribution on Epic Records , but the group disbanded before it could be released .
In 1965 , the three formed their own folk rock group , the Raggamuffins , and began performing in Los Angeles with a repertoire that saw the band embrace a more unorthodox style , and depart from their traditional roots . The group also recorded four songs that went unreleased until the 2000 album , Ignition , which represented the transitional phase before the band developed into the Music Machine . Bonniwell and Olsen were enthusiastically experimenting with musical textures while the band arranged strict rehearsal regimens in Bonniwell 's garage . The Raggamuffins purchased hardware for a homemade fuzz @-@ tone switch . From the onset Bonniwell ensured the group resonated like no other by instructing his bandmates to lower their instruments from the standard E note to D @-@ flat . As a result of the adjustment , the Raggamuffins were given a bottom @-@ heavy and ominous sound . In addition , the group began dressing noire , while sporting dyed @-@ black hair , and the trademark single leather glove that presented an eye @-@ catching and unified band image , which would later become influential with certain 1970s punk acts .
Auditions were held in early 1966 to expand the group , resulting in the recruitment of Mark Landon ( lead guitar ) and Doug Rhodes ( organ ) , previously a session musician for the Association . To reflect on the revamped line @-@ up , Bonniwell changed the band 's name to the Music Machine . Another purpose for coining the name , Bonniwell explained , was " I seguewayed [ sic ] all the original material with musical segueways [ sic ] . So we would be on stage for like an hour and ten minutes , wall @-@ to @-@ wall music just nonstop , which is why I called us the Music Machine " . The band built a name for itself with its performances in local clubs in Los Angeles . With Bonniwell as the de facto leader and creative force of the band , the Music Machine began to develop a blend of gritty 60s punk and psychedelia , and a repertoire encompassing Bonniwell 's self @-@ penned material along with some cover songs . The band 's sound was highlighted by the authoritative and versatile vocals provided by Bonniwell , with an energized technique that juxtaposed the styles of Mick Jagger and Sky Saxon . Unlike these two contemporaries , Bonniwell possessed unusually good intonation in long @-@ sustained passages , and the ability to breakdown phrases into a series of slow pulsations . The Music Machine 's artistic stance was also highlighted by Landon 's wiry guitar playing , Olsen 's reverberant bass , and Edgar 's cymbal @-@ punctuated drumming , which gave the band a harder @-@ edged sound than many of their contemporaries .
= = = Commercial success ( 1966 – 1967 ) = = =
Record producer Brian Ross just happened upon the Music Machine at Hollywood Legion Lanes , a bowling alley that was an early stomping ground for the group , and signed them to a recording contract with Original Sound . On July 30 , 1966 , the band entered RCA Studios in Los Angeles to record the Bonniwell originals " Talk Talk " and " Come on In " , which was initially going to be the A @-@ side for the group 's debut single . Bonniwell had composed " Talk Talk " a year prior to forming the band , and the studio time was marked by the Music Machine 's collective input aimed toward tightening the structure of its arrangements , including the two @-@ note fuzz guitar riffs and Edgar 's precise drumming technique . By virtue of the group 's dedication to rehearsal , recording sessions concluded with the Music Machine requiring only three takes to complete the two songs . Though the band was satisfied with the acetate to " Come on In " , the members were convinced " Talk Talk " would propel them into the national charts .
" Talk Talk " was released on September 10 , 1966 on Original Sound , and propelled to number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at number 21 on Cashbox and number 18 on Record World . The song 's relatively short time @-@ length — a mere one minute and 56 seconds — made " Talk Talk " a favorable stable on Top 40 radio and its competing underground FM stations . The Music Machine 's hit was arguably the most radical single to appear on mainstream broadcasting in 1966 , the phenomenon described by music historian Richie Unterberger as a " rally cry to social alienation with a mixture of sarcasm , rebellion , self @-@ pity , and paranoia " . Indeed , Bonniwell 's progressive lyrics and arrangements have been attributed to influencing the Doors and Iron Butterfly , as well as future punk bands . After the single 's release , the Music Machine embarked on a grueling three @-@ month tour across the U.S. , packaged with the Beach Boys , Question Mark and the Mysterians , and Clyde McPhatter . It concluded with the group receiving a poor response from the more conservative southern crowds , who criticized the band 's black outfits . Nonetheless , for the most part , their unified image served well for the Music Machine 's national recognition , especially as the group made numerous appearances on the television programs Where the Action Is , American Bandstand , and Shindig ! .
After their long national tour , the Music Machine returned to the studio to record their debut album ( Turn On ) The Music Machine . Much to the disapproval of Bonniwell , his original material had to compete with dispensable cover versions of " Cherry , Cherry " , " Taxman " , " See See Rider " , and " 96 Tears " , all chosen by their record label with an expectation that the well @-@ known songs would increase record sales . One interpretation voluntarily selected by the band was a slow , moody , fuzz @-@ laden arrangement of " Hey Joe " which bears a strong resemblance to Jimi Hendrix 's later version . Bonniwell first heard the folk standard in 1962 at a club in Hermosa Beach , and was convinced the tune 's tempo was too fast , as he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Wayfarers to record a slower version . He revisited the concept with altered lyrics after hearing Tim Rose 's regionally successful rendition in early 1966 . The throaty vocals , most evidently on " Hey Joe " , Bonniwell blames on recording " the Turn On album after a 30 @-@ day tour . Mark 's fingers were literally bleeding . I could hardly even speak , much less sing " . Despite the album 's shortcomings , ( Turn On ) The Music Machine managed to reach number 75 on the Billboard 200 . On January 21 , 1967 , a song taken from the album , " The People In Me " , was issued as the group 's second single but stalled at number 66 nationally after the band 's management angered radio executives for initially making the song exclusively available to a rival station .
= = = The Bonniwell Music Machine ( 1967 – 1969 ) = = =
Immediately after ( Turn On ) The Music Machine was released , the band left for another U.S. tour , despite pleas by the group to arrange an appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival . In the small off @-@ periods in their hard @-@ pressed schedule , the Music Machine demoed a new batch of Bonniwell originals at RCA Studios in New York City and Cosimo Matassa 's facility in New Orleans , before polishing the tunes back in Los Angeles . From the sessions emerged the group 's third single " Double Yellow Line " , which was released in April 1967 , and bubbled under the Billboard Hot 100 at number 111 . The subsequent release , " Eagle Never Hunts the Fly " failed to chart , but is often described as Bonniwell 's tour de force — a tune Ross praised as " sonically compelling works and a lot to listen to , for the time . It was the kind of thing you just didn ’ t hear , you almost worried about getting those sounds onto a 45 " .
In May 1967 , the original lineup recorded together for the final time , completing " Astrologically Incompatible " , " Talk Me Down " , and " The Day Today " . One problem that lead to the band 's first breakup was the Music Machine name was actually owned by Ross , as a part of their production deal , awarding the group with little to no royalties . Leaving Bonniwell to carry on the project , Olsen , Edgar , and Rhodes went on to join the Millennium , a sunshine pop group conceived by singer @-@ songwriter Curt Boettcher and Olsen . The Millennium recorded the album Begin in 1968 before disbanding . The three former members also took part in Boettcher 's next production , the studio group Sagittarius , releasing Present Tense , coupled with the moderately successful single " My World Fell Down " , before Edgar and Rhodes departed . Olsen stayed on board to record Sagittarius ' second album , The Blue Marble , and subsequently forged a successful career as a record producer in the 1970s .
Undeterred , Bonniwell successfully negotiated his recording contract with Original Sound be transferred to Warner Bros. Records , in hopes of finding a greater degree of independence . The Music Machine 's spell with Original Sound was drawing to a conclusion , though the company did release " Hey Joe " as a single in 1968 in an attempt to cash @-@ in on Hendrix 's success with the song . There was also the Bonniwell solo project in association with producer Paul Buff that resulted in the rare " Nothing Is Too Good for My Car " single being put out under the name the Friendly Torpedoes . Writer Greg Russo , who composed the liner notes for the single 's remastered release , explains the side @-@ project was initiated during a confusing transitional phase for Bonniwell that also generated the tune " Citizen Fear " , which did not receive distribution until the Ignition album in 2000 . Free from company pressure , Bonniwell formed a new band , rechristened The Bonniwell Music Machine , with session musicians Ed Jones on bass guitar , Harry Garfield on organ , Alan Wisdom on lead guitar , and Jerry Harris on drums .
In March 1967 , Bonniwell and Ross ushered in the new lineup at United Western Recorders to record the second album The Bonniwell Music Machine . The recording and mixing process was painstakingly masterminded almost solely by Bonniwell , who was appreciative of his new bandmates ' efforts to develop the album 's concept , but disillusioned by the project 's lack of cohesion . He further explains that the " Warner Brothers album has such an eclectic approach ; each track is ( was ) a singular , studio invention . Not only was my songwriting divergent , but my approach to recording was exploratory as well " . Six of the album 's tracks were holdovers from the first lineup 's sessions at Cosimo Matassa 's studio and RCA Studios . This resulted in a hodgepodge of musical styles , including exploratory approaches toward psychedelia and soft rock . On February 10 , 1968 , The Bonniwell Music Machine was released with little commercial success . Conseqently , the Bonniwell Music Machine was largely forgotten by the general public and the second lineup fragmented in July 1968 .
= = = Disbandment and aftermath = = =
One final version of the Bonniwell Music Machine was assembled with a revolving door of musicians . Two more singles were released on the Warner Bros. label with little notice , before " Advice and Consent " , the group 's final single , was distributed on Bell Records in March 1969 . Disenchanted by the music industry and having to tour against imitation Music Machine groups , Bonniwell gave up the rights to the band 's name and signed on to Capitol Records as a solo artist . Under the name T.S. Bonniwell , he recorded the album Close , which saw a poetically @-@ inclined Bonniwell explore string and orchestral arrangements . Following the album 's release , Bonniwell departed on what he called his " westernized guru era " — studying eastern mysticism and practicing meditation and vegetarianism .
The band was all but forgotten after their dissolution , but the Music Machine and their music experienced a revival of interest in the late @-@ 1980s . It began with Rhino Records featuring tracks on the Nuggets compilation albums Nuggets Volume 1 : The Hits and Nuggets , Volume 2 : Punk , before releasing the album The Best of the Music Machine in 1984 . Other compilations such as Beyond the Garage , The Very Best of the Music Machine , and Ignition have added to the Music Machine 's return to the public 's interest . In addition , " Talk Talk " and " Double Yellow Line " appear on the 1998 expanded box @-@ set of Nuggets : Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era , 1965 – 1968 .
In 2000 , Bonniwell published his autobiography Beyond the Garage , which recalled his experiences with the Music Machine and his life after the group 's disbandment . Aside from a few live performances with the Larksmen and a guest appearance on their 2006 album , Bonniwell never returned to an active music career , though he claimed to have penned over 300 songs after his tenure with the Music Machine . On December 20 , 2011 , Bonniwell died of lung cancer at a medical center in Visalia , California ; he was 71 years @-@ old . Drummer Ronald " Ron " Edgar died on February 23 , 2015 at the age of 68 .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
( Turn On ) The Music Machine ( 1966 )
The Bonniwell Music Machine ( 1968 )
Extended plays
Talk Talk ( 1967 )
Compilation albums
The Best of the Music Machine ( 1984 )
The Music Machine ( 1994 )
Beyond the Garage ( 1995 )
Rock ' N ' Roll Hits ( 1997 )
Turn On : The Best of the Music Machine ( 1999 )
Ignition ( 2000 )
The Ultimate Turn On ( 2006 )
Rarities , Vol . 1 : Last Singles & Demos ( 2014 )
Rarities , Vol . 2 : Early Mixes & Rehearsals ( 2014 )
Re @-@ Ignition ( 2015 )
Singles
" Talk Talk " b / w " Come on In " ( 1966 )
" The People In Me " b / w " Masculine Intuition " ( 1967 )
" Double Yellow Line " b / w " Absolutely Positively " ( 1967 )
" The Eagle Never Hunts the Fly " b / w " I 've Loved You " ( 1967 )
" Hey Joe " b / w " Taxman " ( 1967 )
" Advise and Consent " b / w " Mother Nature , Father Earth " ( 1969 )
As The Bonniwell Music Machine
" Bottom of the Soul " b / w " Astrologically Incompatible " ( 1967 )
" Me , Myself and I " b / w " Soul Love " ( 1968 )
" Tin Can Beach " b / w " Time Out for a Daydream " ( 1968 )
" You 'll Love Me Again " b / w " To the Light " ( 1968 )
" Point of No Return " b / w " King Mixer " ( 1997 )
Other
" Nothing 's Too Good for My Car " b / w " So Long Ago " ( 1968 , as the Friendly Torpedos )
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= CSS Missouri =
CSS Missouri was a Confederate States Navy casemate ironclad paddle steamer deployed on the Red River during the American Civil War . For most of the war she was trapped in the Shreveport , Louisiana area by low water on the Red River . The ship was surrendered in June 1865 to the United States Navy and sold in November .
= = Description = =
Missouri was 183 feet ( 55 @.@ 8 m ) long overall , had a beam of 53 feet 8 inches ( 16 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) . Her casemate extended for most of the length of the ship and was 130 feet 6 inches ( 39 @.@ 8 m ) long . It partially enclosed her 22 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 9 m ) diameter center paddle wheel in a recess at the aft end of the casemate ; the upper 8 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) of the paddle wheel protruded above the casemate and was totally unprotected . The stern wheel was powered by two steam engines taken from the steamboat Grand Era ; four boilers provided steam to the engines and were connected to a single funnel . The ship had a maximum speed of 6 miles per hour ( 5 @.@ 2 kn ) .
Missouri 's armor consisted of railroad " T @-@ rails " , laid alternately with the crowns up and down . They were spiked to the backing of 23 @-@ inch ( 580 mm ) of yellow pine , but not closely together enough to give them a solid surface . On the sides of the ship , they were laid diagonally , but were vertical on the bow and stern faces of the casemate . The armor extended approximately 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . The casemate was sloped at an angle of 30 ° . The deck fore and aft of the casemate was also protected by " T @-@ rails " . At the forward end of the casemate was a pilothouse that was raised 19 inches ( 480 mm ) above the deck . She was built of green timber , caulked with cotton and leaked like a sieve . Despite her three rudders , her stern wheel made her difficult to steer .
The casemate had eight gun ports , two in the bow face and three on each side , although only three guns were mounted in the ship . A smoothbore 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren pivot gun was mounted in the starboard forward position . It could fire out of the starboard bow port or the forward starboard broadside port . It weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of 15 ° . An old 32 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) siege gun was in the equivalent position on the port side of the ship . The characteristics of this gun cannot be reliably determined because the United States produced a multitude of 32 @-@ pounder guns before the Civil War , but none of them were designated as siege guns . The third gun was a smoothbore 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) Dahlgren pivot gun that could fire out of either of the two aft broadside gun ports . It weighed approximately 9 @,@ 200 pounds ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) and could fire a 72 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 32 @.@ 9 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 357 yards ( 3 @,@ 070 m ) at an elevation of 15 ° .
= = Construction and service = =
The Confederate Navy Department authorized the construction of one or more ironclad warships at Shreveport on 3 October 1862 and Lieutenant Jonathan H. Carter signed a contract for two ships on 1 November . The keel of the first ship was laid the following month and she was launched on 14 April 1863 . The ship was commissioned on 12 September 1863 with the name of Missouri , after the high water season on the Red River had ended . Lieutenant Commander Charles Fauntleroy was appointed as her captain , although he told Lieutenant Carter that " he hoped the damned boat would sink " and that he " never intended to serve on her if he could help it " . The low water prevented Missouri from playing any part in the Red River Campaign of early 1864 . In September , Lieutenant Carter commanded an unsuccessful attempt to seize the gunboat USS Rattler using men from the crews of Missouri and CSS Webb .
In March 1865 , the river began to rise and Missouri was able to leave the Shreveport area for the first time . She reached Alexandria , Louisiana on 8 April and anchored where she could defend the town . Lieutenant Carter surrendered the ship to Union forces on 3 June , the last Confederate ironclad to surrender . After her armor was removed , Missouri was sold at public auction on 29 November .
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= Letters of Transit =
" Letters of Transit " is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the Fox science @-@ fiction drama television series , Fringe , and the series ' 84th episode overall . It is set in the future , where the Observers have taken control of human society . In 2036 , two FBI agents fight to free their world of the Observers by finding the amber @-@ encased bodies of the original Fringe team . The episode 's premise is subsequently built upon as the key setting of the show 's fifth and final season .
The episode was co @-@ written by showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director . While some critics wondered how the episode related to the overall series , actor John Noble has explained that " Letters of Transit " established the template for the fifth season . It featured guest appearances by actress Georgina Haig and Lost veteran Henry Ian Cusick .
The episode first aired on April 20 , 2012 in the United States , and was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 03 million viewers . Television critics praised the riskiness of the episode premise and the actors ' performances while also expressing doubt about its place during the season . The episode has been nominated for the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form )
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with on @-@ screen text describing how , in 2015 , the Observers , no longer content with observing history , took over human society . They killed many in an event called " The Purge " , and transformed the remaining into a totalitarian culture ; though members of the Fringe division attempted to fight the takeover , they were easily defeated , and the remaining Fringe division were allowed to remain to police the human " Natives " . The Observers are aided by the ability to read most human minds , able to sense motives before they can be acted on .
In 2036 , FBI Agents Simon Foster ( Henry Ian Cusick ) and Henrietta ' Etta ' Bishop ( Georgina Haig ) recover the body of Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , Walter having purposefully encased himself and his team in amber shortly after the Observer takeover . Though they are able to release him from the amber , they find that he has suffered memory damage and lacks the mental capacity to build a strange device of his own design . Simon and Etta talk to Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , learning that Walter had William Bell remove a piece of his brain some time in the past , which she postulates could be used to heal Walter 's brain now . However , the piece is still in storage in the old Massive Dynamic facility on the main island of New York City , tightly controlled by Observers who can read their thoughts , making its recovery difficult . They are able to make it to the vault in Massive Dynamic , in part due to the inability of the Observers to read Etta 's mind , and successfully restore Walter 's memories . They are , however , unaware that they have alerted Fringe division — still led by Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) — and the Observers to their presence ; a coordinated team , instructed to shoot on sight , is dispatched .
A more coherent Walter explains that , according to the Observer September , the Observers made the Earth uninhabitable by 2609 , and so traveled back in time to take over the planet themselves . As forces corner the three , Walter sets up an antimatter device to wipe out the Massive Dynamic building and their pursuers . Walter is able to lead Simon and Etta to where Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) , Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) and William Bell have been encased in amber . They are able to free Astrid , but as Fringe forces approach they find the equipment to free the others has malfunctioned . Simon sacrifices himself to the amber in order to push Peter free , while Walter severs Bell 's hand for an unknown purpose . They escape the area as Broyles and his team arrive , though Broyles finds a piece of licorice , a telltale sign of Walter 's presence . As the group travels away from the city , Walter , in an ominous manner , reminds Astrid of what Bell did to Olivia ( Anna Torv ) . Peter then comes to recognize Etta as his daughter , Henrietta , wearing a fired bullet as a necklace .
= = Production = =
" Letters of Transit " was co @-@ written by consulting producer Akiva Goldsman and executive producers / co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman . Although it was previously reported Goldsman would be directing , executive producer Joe Chappelle ultimately directed the installment . The Observers are prominently featured in the episode , a mythos that has been visible since the pilot . Previously a mysterious background presence , according to Noble , they have now become " incredibly centrally important " to the series ' storyline . " Letters of Transit " was written and shot before the series ' renewal for a fifth season , but it was always envisioned as a genesis of the season . During this time , Wyman confirmed that a majority of the fifth season would be set in 2036 , following the events of this episode , a time period depicting the Observers as oppressors rather than as passive witnesses .
Leading up to its broadcast , journalists noted that the nineteenth episode of each season of Fringe has generally been its " craziest hour " , and anticipated that " Letters of Transit " would be similarly strange . The Fox network promoted the episode with a series of four teaser videos , each containing a clue to a fifth video revealing the special opening credits for this episode . The episode contained a new opening credit sequence that helped set the tone , with " fringe " terms including community , joy , imagination , and free will .
Actor Henry Ian Cusick and actress Georgina Haig guest starred in the episode as a pair of Federal agents . Cusick had worked with co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams and executive producer Pinkner on the ABC series , Lost . Cusick stated that most of his scenes were filmed with Haig and John Noble ( Walter Bishop ) , and that the story leaves a possibility for the return of their characters in the future . Noble found it unusual to film an episode that did not involve the lead actors . He explained , " That was Walter with two really big , important guest stars , Henry Ian Cusick and Georgina Haig . It felt , to me , like it was a really strong episode . The two guest actors did a fantastic job , which is not easy to do , to step into an established company . It is out of the box and is somewhere else completely . I think that the fans will love it . Some fans of this type of material will like it anyway because Henry Ian Cusick was such a big star in Lost , but also , this new girl is just full of wonderful energy , too . "
According to Noble , " Letters of Transit " features his ninth version of Walter Bishop at that point in the series . He remarked , " It ’ s a lot of fun as an actor because it keeps me trying to refine and to finish small parts [ of Walter ] . " In a June 2012 interview with Entertainment Weekly , Noble called " Letters of Transit " one of his favorites of the series , explaining that he " thought that was really a beautiful looking episode , beautifully told . "
= = Cultural references = =
Given guest star Henry Ian Cusick 's prominence in Lost , " Letters of Transit " refers to both " The Purge " and " natives " , two key elements of that show . The episode also contains references to The Prisoner , where Walter exclaims " I am not a number ! I am a free man ! " The episode also references Star Wars when Walter states " these are not the droids you ’ re looking for " and " Move along " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly believed these helped set the tone of the episode : " Fringe in 2036 was The Village writ global and under Imperial rule . " Matt Roush of TV Guide noted that the episode title , " Letters of Transit " , alludes to a key element of the film Casablanca . The episode opens with scrolling text that has been compared to the start of the film Blade Runner .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Letters of Transit " first aired in the United States on April 20 , 2012 . An estimated 3 @.@ 03 million viewers watched the episode . It earned a 1 @.@ 0 ratings share among adults 18 – 49 , a 10 percent increase from the series low of the previous week . Fringe finished third in its timeslot behind NBC 's Grimm and ABC 's Primetime : What Would You Do ? .
= = = Reviews = = =
IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave the episode a mixed review , noting that " its concept is intriguing , bold , and extremely risky . I 'm just not sure if it works . It 's such a drastic change of scenery and tone it 's hard to say whether this is genius or madness . " Isler observed that he would have " absolutely loved " the episode if he had been " given appropriate context through a suitable setup ... But the approach we got feels an awful lot like a gimmick , and this show does not need to gamble with gimmicks at this point . " Isler did find positive elements of the episode however , and rated it 8 out of 10 , an indication of a " great " episode . He praised Walter 's return " to a much more confident , focused man who 's a bit scary in his determination and resolve , " as well as the events that followed . Isler concluded that " the core ideas are really good , but the way the new concepts were introduced seems haphazard , and a huge gamble that could turn off all but the most hardcore viewers . "
Like Isler , Entertainment Weekly columnist Ken Tucker enjoyed Walter 's transition " from happy , babbling , ' I love LSD ! ' licorice @-@ licking Walter to a Walter who yelled at the others when escaping " , calling it " one of the night 's great pleasures . " Tucker 's Entertainment Weekly colleague Jeff Jensen commented that he was able to " roll " with some of the less plausible plot details ( such as a still existing Massive Dynamic ) out of praise for guest stars Cusick and Haig , believing they " worked well in this world . " Jensen also reserved attention for Noble 's scenes , calling them variously " frisky and poignant " , " hilarious " , and " touching . " Lastly , Jensen was happy to find more details about the Observers , but wondered at the lack of the parallel universe 's mention . MTV 's Alex Zalben was more critical . He wondered how the episode fit into the rest of the season , and wrote " It ’ s a curious step , and could likely drive even more viewers away from a show that can ’ t afford to lose them . " While disliking the " clunky , explainy " dialogue , Zalben still commented that , " for a die hard FRINGE fan like myself , this episode was crack . Huge emotion , crazy science , and epic set pieces . The end of the episode had me dying to watch the next one , even if it isn ’ t a direct continuation . That ’ s good television right there . "
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Letters of Transit " the seventeenth best episode of the series , stating " What at first seemed to be one of Fringe 's nutty number 19s turned out to be the episode that helped earn the series a fifth and final year . Of course , some may now question the merits of ringing out the series with a season @-@ long story set entirely in this future dystopia ruled by oppressive Observers . But the single episode that introduced this premise was a cool jolt that opened a new front of Fringe mythology and gave us a character that would have a lasting impact , Etta . " The episode has been nominated for the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) .
= = Olivia Dunham = =
Of the 100 episodes in the five seasons , this is the only one where Olivia Dunham does not appear .
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= Finnhorse =
The Finnhorse or Finnish Horse ( Finnish : Suomenhevonen , literally " horse of Finland " ; nickname : Suokki , or Swedish : Finskt kallblod , literally " finnish cold @-@ blood " ) is a horse breed with both riding horse and draught horse influences and characteristics , and is the only breed developed fully in Finland . In English it is sometimes called the Finnish Universal , as the Finns consider the breed capable of fulfilling all of Finland 's horse needs , including agricultural and forestry work , harness racing , and riding . In 2007 , the breed was declared the official national horse breed of Finland .
The Finnhorse is claimed to be among the fastest and most versatile " coldblood " breeds in the world . In Finland , the term " universal horse " is used to describe the Finnhorse and breeds such as the Fjord horse that are relatively small with a body type that is heavy for a riding horse but light for a draught . There are four separate sections within the Finnhorse stud book , each with different goals : to develop a heavier working horse , a lighter trotter type , a versatile riding horse , and a proportionally smaller pony @-@ sized animal . The combined breed standard for all four sections defines the breed as a strong , versatile horse with pleasant disposition . The average height of the breed is 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 inches , 155 cm ) , and the most typical colour is chestnut , often with white markings and a flaxen mane and tail .
The exact origins of the early Finnish horse are currently not known . Because the Finnhorse breed and its progenitors were the only horses in Finland for centuries , the history of horses in Finland parallels the history of the Finnhorse itself . The documented history of the distinct breed begins at the turn of the 13th century . Outside influences by many light and warmblood breeds were recorded beginning in the 16th century , making the breed larger and more usable . An official Finnhorse studbook was founded in 1907 , producing purebred animals in significant numbers for many years . Due to mechanisation of agriculture and the dismantling of Finnish horse cavalry in the later half of the 20th century , the Finnhorse population plummeted from a high of just over 400 @,@ 000 animals in the 1950s to a low of 14 @,@ 100 in 1987 . However , the breed managed to survive thanks to its popularity for harness racing and its versatility as a mount .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The breed standard defines the Finnhorse as a multi @-@ purpose horse of average height , and sturdy conformation . The ideal Finnhorse is easy @-@ to @-@ handle , versatile , and combines strength , agility , speed and endurance . Finnhorses are lively , with both a reliable and alert temperament . The breed standard encourages a horse that is " honest and sincere " ; eager to cooperate with humans , obedient , and willing to work . They are hardy with good endurance , robust health , and are generally long @-@ lived . The breed standard describes the head of a Finnhorse as dry and the profile straight , not long or convex , with well @-@ spaced , short ears . The neck should be well @-@ shaped and not underslung or ewe @-@ necked ; the body should be on the long side , but rounded and proportionate ; and the croup should neither be level nor with a too @-@ high connection to the tail . Finnhorses are strongly muscled , with good bone , sturdy " dry " legs , and strong hooves .
Finnhorses typically have thick manes and tails , and the legs have light feathering . The average height is 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 inches , 155 cm ) . Pony @-@ sized Finnhorses — under 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) — exist as well , and are licensed for breeding in a separate section of the official stud book . Finnhorses have good gaits that are regular with elasticity , and relatively low , steady action . They are fast for a coldblooded breed , known as good trotting horses and used for harness racing .
In addition to these general traits , there are four separate breed sections in the Finnhorse studbook , and a Finnhorse 's overall conformation should be typical of the section in which it is recorded , though some horses are registered in multiple sections .
= = = Colours = = =
Over 90 percent of Finnhorses today are chestnut . Flaxen manes and tails as well as white markings on the face and legs are common in the breed . As of 2007 , only a minority of Finnhorses are any color other than chestnut : 6 percent are bay and 1 @.@ 2 percent black . Roans , palominos , buckskins and silver dapples exist in smaller numbers . The genes for other cream dilutions and rabicano are present in the gene pool . A distinctive sabino , non @-@ SB1 pattern is moderately common , but is usually minimally expressed due to the selective colour breeding of the 20th century . A single white horse , registered as pinto and deemed " sabino @-@ white , " has been recorded in the modern history of the breed . The number of non @-@ chestnuts is increasing due to dedicated breeding for other colours , and as of 2009 , a few dozen black and grey Finnhorses exist . SW1 , one of the genes responsible for the splashed white markings , has been found in a number of individuals by genetic testing .
Through the 18th and 19th centuries , chestnut in various shades was the prevailing colour of Finnish horses , making up about 40 @-@ 50 percent of the breed , and bays , blacks and greys existed in much greater numbers than today : 34 percent were bay , 16 percent black , and the remaining 3 percent were grey , palomino or spotted . Wide blazes and high leg markings were rare , unlike today ; bold markings became common only in the 20th century .
The change came about through selective breeding . At the turn of the 20th century , when a nationalistic spirit was high , the Finnhorse began to be considered a symbol of Finland , and purebreeding became very popular . In addition , chestnut colour was officially chosen as an official aim for breeding as the " utmost original " colour of the Finnhorse , and named the " Hippos colour " after Hevoskasvatusyhditys Hippos , the name of the recently founded Finnish national horse breeding association that is now Suomen Hippos . Any colours other than chestnut were considered evidence of " foreign " blood , and the goal was to make the Finnhorse an all @-@ chestnut breed . The breeding regulation of 1909 stated that no stallion " with coat of white , grey , palomino or spotted " could be accepted into the stud book . The popularity of bay and black Finnhorses dropped as well , and at least one mare was removed from the stud book solely because of her bay colour . Selective breeding combined with the export of horses in colours popular in neighbouring countries , especially bays into Sweden , and made chestnut the prevailing colour . In the earliest section of the first Finnhorse studbook , 105 of the stallions listed were chestnut and only 8 were bay . There were stallions of other colours as well , but they were not included in the first book . At one point , chestnuts made up more than 96 percent of the breed .
Because of the vigorous colour breeding for chestnut in the early 20th century , combined with a genetic bottleneck resulting from the low number of Finnhorses that existed in the 1980s , colours such as grey and cream dilutions were preserved only by a few minor breeders . In the 1980s there were fewer than ten grey and palomino Finnhorses combined . All Finnhorse carriers of the cream gene today descend from a single maternal line , founded by the palomino mare Voikko ( literally , " Palomino " ) who lived in the 1920s . While both cream dilution and black are rare , there are some known smoky blacks in the breed , the first of which was a filly foaled in 2009 , identified as smoky black and confirmed as such by a DNA test in 2010 . The filly is considered " if not the first ever , at least the first in a long long time . " In April 2010 , a filly appearing to be a double cream dilute was born , sired by a buckskin and out of a palomino . She was blue @-@ eyed and had " pink skin and very pale coat " , and was later officially recognised as a double cream dilute .
The roan colour is rare , and today is passed on via a single dam line that descends from the strawberry roan mare Sonja , foaled in 1936 . As of 2010 , only six confirmed roan Finnhorses exist , all descendants of a 1987 mare , Taika @-@ Tyttö , great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Sonja . The second @-@ to @-@ last roan line died out with the passing of the 1981 stallion Jesper Jr , who had no offspring . Grey exists in one dam line , descending from mare Pelelaikka , especially through her maternal grandson E.V. Johtotähti 1726 @-@ 93Ta , an award @-@ winning working section stallion . The second last grey line died in 2010 with the 1988 mare Iiris 2275 @-@ 88R , who had no grey offspring .
The silver dapple gene survived for two reasons . First , it only affects black colour and therefore is " masked " in chestnuts . Second , when it does act on black and bay base coat colors , it produces a chestnut @-@ like phenotype . Silver dapple bays were long registered as " cinnamon chestnuts " , and silver dapple blacks as " flaxen @-@ maned dark chestnuts " .
= = Breed sections = =
The Finnhorse stud book was created in 1907 . Today it has four sections : the Working section ( T ; draught type ) , Trotter section ( J ) , Riding section ( R ) and Pony @-@ sized section ( P ) In 1924 , the first split in the stud book was created , with the working or draught type ( Finnish : työlinja ) horses in one section , and the " all @-@ around " or " universal " lighter trotting horses in another . In 1965 , this all @-@ around section was renamed the trotter section . Then , in 1971 , this lighter horse section was divided into three parts : the trotter ( Finnish : juoksijalinja ) , riding ( Finnish : ratsulinja ) and pony @-@ sized ( Finnish : pienhevoslinja ) types . Today , the majority of Finnhorses are of trotter type .
= = = Draught type = = =
The working or draught type is the oldest of the Finnhorse types , and has had its own separate breeding section since the studbook was first split in 1924 . Though the oldest of the Finnhorse types , it is rare today , with a total of only about 1 @,@ 000 horses registered in the working section as of 2004 . Draught @-@ type Finnhorses are heavier and have a longer body than horses of the trotter and riding types . Though relatively small compared to other draught breeds , Finnhorses have considerable pulling power and can pull very heavy loads because of the breed 's good pulling technique , with powerful take @-@ off and a low , efficient body stature during the actual pulling . The Finnish Draught type is , pound for pound , stronger than many larger draught breeds . An average horse in draught work is capable of pulling about 80 percent of its own weight , while a Finnhorse can pull as much as 110 percent . In work horse competitions , the best Finnhorses can achieve even higher results , pulling more than 200 percent of their own body weight .
A draught @-@ type horse must pass two tests in the studbook evaluation : a walking test and either a pulling or a general drivability test . The points given for the horse 's performance in these tests are added to those given for its temperament and gaits , resulting in the final workability score . The horse is also given a score for its conformation . In addition to achieving the minimum scores for both workability and conformation , stallions accepted for the working @-@ horse section of the stud book are required to trot 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) in less than 2 minutes and 30 seconds .
= = = Trotter type = = =
The trotter type is the lightest Finnhorse . A trotter section horse should be of light conformation yet muscular , with a relatively long body and long legs . At the studbook evaluation , a trotter @-@ type horse must meet the standards in racing results and / or in breeding value index as decreed by Suomen Hippos . A trotter 's disposition is evaluated during the drivability test . However , type is not part of the studbook evaluation standard for trotters .
The trotter type has existed as a separate breeding section since 1965 , when the " universal horse " section of the Finnhorse studbook was renamed and replaced by the trotter section . While the total number of Finnhorses dropped during the 20th century , the popularity of harness racing turned Finnhorse birthrates around from the historical lows of the 1970s and 1980s . Today , approximately 2 000 Finnhorses are in training and 3 000 compete in harness racing . The official Finnhorse racing championship Kuninkuusravit began in 1924 and has been held annually ever since , attracting tens of thousands of spectators .
The Finnhorse is slower to mature than lighter breeds , and thus usually enters harness racing competition at the age of four . However , its build withstands competition better than light trotters , and the breed 's effective competition career can be very long . The Finnish harness racing bylaws allow Finnhorses to be raced from ages 3 to 16 .
For a " coldblood " breed , the Finnhorse is quite fast . The official Finnish coldblood record from 2010 is 19,9aly , was long held by the quintuple Finnhorse racing champion stallion Viesker . , but was finally broken by Jokivarren Kunkku in 2015 ( 19,5x ) The coldblood horse world record in harness racing was long held by Finnhorses , until in 2005 the record was broken by Järvsöfaks , a Scandinavian coldblood trotter from Sweden . As of 2010 , the official Finnish record for mares , and the world record for coldblood mares , is 20.2aly , held by the double Finnhorse racing female champion I.P. Vipotiina . The absolute Finnhorse speed record is 19.4aly , held by the stallion Sipori . As the result was not achieved from a win , the time is not an official Finnish record . Finnhorses have been so successful against other coldblood trotter breeds of Scandinavia , that by the 21st century , they have been admitted to Swedish and Norwegian races only by invitation .
Some conformation flaws common in the breed that may hinder a trotter 's success include a heavy forehand and overangulated hind legs . Another problem that affects some Finnhorses is a tendency to trot with the front and hind legs directly in line with other , which creates a high probability of forging , where the hind hooves hit the front pasterns , which can cause breaking gait . This can be helped to a degree with careful shoeing . There is also a tendency toward ossification of the hoof cartilages of the front feet , which tends to increase with age , and appears to be heritable . This condition , called sidebone when it affects the lateral and medial cartilages of the foot , is common in draught breeds . However , a study of affected Finnhorses also noted that horses with long toes and low heels were common and ossification correlated with the length of the heels .
= = = Riding horse type = = =
The riding horse section Finnhorse is a capable and reliable mount . It lacks some traits required for competing at the highest levels of international riding sports , but its combination of size and good temperament makes it suitable for both adults and children . To qualify for the riding section , a horse must carry itself well , and have a long neck , small head , sloping shoulder and well @-@ defined withers . The body must not be too long . The universal FInnhorse breeding goals have made the breed of a lighter build , with longer neck , better gaits and fewer faults in conformation , allowing modern riding @-@ type Finnhorses to work more easily on the bit . Even the temperament of the riding section animals appears to have become more lively . To pass the studbook evaluation , a riding type horse must either have placed in a Grade IV dressage or combined driving competition , or pass a dressage test ; must pass a jumping evaluation and a ridability test , and possess clean gaits . Mares may be qualified solely on grounds of a ridability test and a movement evaluation .
Despite the Finnhorse 's image as a working farm horse , the breed was used as a cavalry mount from the 17th century until the end of World War II . After the mechanisation of Finnish agriculture in the 1960s and the 1970s , however , it was not clear if the Finnhorse would make the transition into a riding horse , even though the long use of the breed by the Finnish cavalry had proven it well @-@ suited for the job . The Finnhorse had a strong image as a harnessed working horse , associated with rural life and old times . When riding as a hobby emerged and became more established in Finnish cities during the 1960s , imported horses and ponies were preferred as mounts ; warmblooded horses represented modern times , leisure time and wealth , while the Finnhorse was viewed as rugged and unsophisticated . The riding section studbook , created in 1971 , grew slowly and gained only a few dozen horses during its first decade , as the idea of a Finnhorse used for riding was considered near @-@ ridiculous at the time .
The Suomenratsut ry ( SuoRa , or " Finnmounts " ) organisation was founded in 1974 to promote the use of the Finnhorse under saddle , and with the growing popularity of riding and the support of SuoRa , Finnhorses of riding type gained a foothold , though by the late 1970s , even SuoRa estimated that only about 300 Finnhorses were being used for riding . However , the popularity of harness racing and the breeding of trotter type Finnhorses made the breed lighter and faster overall , which also benefitted the riding section . In addition , the Finnish state horse breeding institute of Ypäjä was founded in the 1970s , and was the first stud farm to breed and train Finnhorses for riding on a larger scale . Well @-@ trained Finnhorse mounts from Ypäjä , seen in growing numbers in competition , added to the popularity and credibility of the breed for under @-@ saddle use . After the slow beginning , the Finnhorse was increasingly appreciated as a riding horse . Today , over 5 @,@ 000 are used for riding . Riding section horses currently are sought after while the trotting section suffers from oversupply .
= = = Pony @-@ sized type = = =
A pony @-@ sized Finnhorse must measure no more than 148 cm ( 14 @.@ 2 @-@ 1 / 2 hands , 58 @-@ 1 / 2 inches ) at the withers or the croup . Both sexes are also required to pass either a drivability or a ridability test . The horse 's pedigree is also evaluated , and uncharacteristically small individuals descending from larger @-@ sized lines are not accepted . The horse should be proportionately small all over , and express all the qualities of a full @-@ size Finnhorse . Especially thorough attention is paid to the pony @-@ sized horse 's character , obedience and cooperation . The pony @-@ sized Finnhorse is suited to practically any use the larger Finnhorse is , with the exception of heavy draught work because of its smaller size and proportionally reduced strength . However , some individuals have been able to compete with and even win against full @-@ size Finnhorses in work horse competitions . Many pony @-@ sized individuals are cross @-@ registered for trotter section breeding , as small Finnhorses can be equal competitors in harness against larger ones . In combined driving , the pony @-@ sized Finnhorse 's size is an advantage , allowing for greater agility . The section is popular for therapy and riding school use .
Although its breeding section was created at the same time as the trotter and riding types , the pony @-@ sized Finnhorse is technically the newest of the sections , as trotters and riding horses were bred as " universal horses " in a combined section beginning in 1924 . The Finnhorse had been bred for larger size for centuries , and when the pony @-@ sized breeding section was established , few pony @-@ sized lines existed . The section remains the rarest type of Finnhorse , with only about 80 stallions and 420 mares accepted in the studbook as of 2010 .
= = Studbook evaluation = =
To be registered as a Finnhorse , a horse must either have parents registered as Finnhorses , or be verified to be descended from at least three generations of Finnhorses . To qualify for the Finnhorse stud book as a breeding animal , a horse must prove itself by meeting or exceeding the breed standard set for various qualities : performance ability , conformation , disposition , and in some cases , quality of offspring . Any horse offered for the Finnhorse studbook must be at least 4 years old , a stallion or a mare , and registered a Finnhorse . The stud book evaluation board considers the performance of horses in their desired discipline : riding , driving , harness racing , or workhorse events . Horses to be registered in the stud book are tested for performance at the stud book registration inspection . With the exception of the trotter section , they are also evaluated on " type " ; the suitability of the horse 's overall build for the section for which it is offered . Individuals that do not qualify for the studbook on their own merits during the stud book evaluation process may be accepted later , based on the quality and accomplishments of their offspring . For this to occur , a horse 's offspring are evaluated by their competitive history or their stud book evaluation , and if of high enough quality , their parent then is also granted acceptance into the stud book . Conversely , a horse may be removed from the studbook if its offspring are found to have any inherited flaw or condition . A stallion may also be removed if his offspring are clearly below the average level in competitive success or stud book evaluations .
= = = Walking test = = =
The walking test is given only to draught type Finnhorses and measures the horse 's endurance while pulling a load . The horse tested pulls a 500 kilograms ( 79 st ; 1 @,@ 100 lb ) load for 500 metres ( 550 yd ) , walking . The calculated time per kilometre must be no more than ten minutes to qualify as accepted . A horse qualifying with this time will be given four points . Extra points are given for faster times at the interval of 30 seconds , and the maximum points given is 10 , for a time no longer than eight minutes and 30 seconds .
= = = Pulling test = = =
The pulling , or tensile resistance , test is also a test only for the draught type horses , and it measures pulling capacity in relation to size . The test is performed in several progressive stages , called " steps " , with the load increased each time . The horse tested will pull a weighed sled on semi @-@ rough sand . The friction between the sled and the sand is taken into account and is measured before the test . The sled is loaded according to the horse 's weight ; on the first attempt , the load equals 36 percent of the estimated weight of the horse ; with each subsequent stage of the test , the load is increased by 6 percent of the horse 's weight . The horse must pull the sled for 10 metres ( 33 ft ) at each weight . If the horse stops during a test and does not resume within one minute , or stops four times before reaching the required distance , the test is discontinued . Two points are awarded for every testing stage completed successfully , with a maximum total score of 20 . The pulling style is also evaluated , and given 4 to 10 points . To pass the test , the horse must successfully complete pulls for at least five " steps " . This corresponds to a pulling capacity of 60 percent of the horse 's weight . An award of 20 points corresponds to 90 percent of the horse 's weight being pulled .
= = = Drivability test = = =
The general drivability test is performed by trotter stallions . It is optional for draught type horses in lieu of the pulling test , and for pony @-@ sized horses in lieu of the rideability test . The horse is driven by two different members of the studbook evaluation committee during this test , and asked to perform at a walk and trot . Its cooperation and disposition are evaluated on a scale of 4 to 10 points .
The draught section drivability test , which evaluates disposition : adaptability , reliability , and calmness , consists of four parts , and 0 – 5 points are given for each . To pass the test , the horse must score at least one point for each part of the test , and its combined score for the test must be at least 10 points . The first part examines the behaviour of the horse while it is being harnessed and loaded , then unloaded and unharnessed , and the remaining three parts evaluate the way the horse behaves when being driven . These parts often include regulation of the speed of the horse 's walk , halts , turns around obstacles , and backing with a load around a corner .
= = = Rideability test = = =
In the rideability test , the horse is evaluated by a member of the studbook evaluation committee by being ridden at a walk , trot and canter . The horse 's movement , balance and disposition are evaluated and given 4 to 10 points . The horse should express cooperation , gentleness , attentiveness , sensitivity to cues , and active effort . This test is required for riding @-@ type horses , and optional for pony @-@ sized horses in lieu of the driveability test .
= = History = =
The ancestors of the modern Finnhorse were important throughout Finnish history , used as work horses and beasts of burden in every aspect of life from antiquity well into the 20th century . The modern breed 's precise line of descent is unclear , but numerous outside influences have been recorded throughout the history of Finland . The earliest hard archaeological evidence of horses existing in what today is Finland dates to the Finnish Middle Iron Age ( 400 @-@ 800 CE ) . The Finnhorse and its progenitors later became an indispensable asset for military forces from the region of Finland during the times of Swedish and Russian rule , and since independence as well . In addition to functionality as military and working horses , the Finnhorse has also been bred for speed in harness racing , and it can be argued that this sport was the main factor in the survival of the breed after its numbers crashed during the later half of the 20th century , from approximately 400 @,@ 000 animals in the 1950s to 14 @,@ 000 in the 1980s . In the 21st century , the numbers of the breed have stabilised at approximately 20 @,@ 000 animals .
= = = Early history = = =
Although multiple hypotheses exist on the origins of the horse in Finland , an indigenous wild horse origin is thought improbable , as significant numbers of domesticated horses were imported from earliest times . The Finnhorse is most likely descended from a northern European domestic horse . One theory suggests that horses arrived from the west , brought to what today is western Finland by the Vikings during the Viking Age , circa 800 – 1050 CE . These Viking horses would have been of northern European ancestry . The other main theory suggests that non @-@ Viking peoples , who migrated into Finland from the southeast and south , brought with them horses of Mongolian origin that had been further developed in the Urals and Volga River regions . Both theories have merit , as there were two distinct horse types in the eastern and western regions of Finland that remained distinct from one another until at least the middle of the 19th century .
The eastern origin of the breed was first proposed by archaeologist Johannes Reinhold Aspelin , who published Suomalaisen hevosen kotoperäisyydestä ( " On the Nativity of the Finnish horse " ) in 1886 – 1887 . Aspelin proposed that Finnish horses descended from an animal that had accompanied the Finno @-@ Ugric peoples ' migration from the Volga region and middle Russia to the shores of the Gulf of Finland . A similar idea was suggested over a hundred years earlier by natural historian Pehr Adrian Gadd , and this theory has continued to receive some support into modern times . The veterinarian Ludvig Fabritius considered the proposed prototype a side branch of a " Tartarian " breed , and considered it possible that the same prototype also influenced Estonian , Swedish and Norwegian horse populations .
Later , agronomist Axel Alfthan ( 1862 – 1934 ) and veterinarian Kaarlo Gummerus ( 1840 – 1898 ) expanded Aspelin 's hypothesis , proposing that the horse population later diverged into Eastern Finnish and Mid @-@ Finnish types , which had remained distinguishable as late as the turn of the 20th century . Photographs support these claims : the small Karelian horse was blocky and stout , with pronounced withers , a short neck and large head . The small horse from central Finland , on the other hand , was " more noble " , with a longer body , lighter neck and more refined head . The Swedish professor Eric Åkerblom even suggested that the Finnish horse spread along river valleys to Troms , Norway , and was the ancestor of the Nordlandshest / Lyngshest , found around the Lyngenfjord . The Norwegians continue to utilise Finnhorse bloodlines , having purchased the Finnish pony @-@ type stallion Viri 632 @-@ 72P for stud use in 1980 . However , Åkerblom dismissed the possibility that the eastern Finnhorse came from same prototype as the western pony breeds .
In 1927 , veterinarian and professor Veikko Rislakki ( then Svanberg ) proposed a different theory in his doctoral thesis . He argued that three types of wild horses existed in Europe , one of which he believed to be the Przewalski 's Horse . Rislakki believed this unrefined and notably large @-@ headed type was the horse the early Finns encountered about 1000 BCE . He suggested that the Finns later encountered other peoples and horses south of the Gulf of Finland , and that these peoples had better proportioned horses with a shorter muzzle and wider forehead , descended from the Tarpan . In addition , Rislakki suggested that the Finns came across European horses of Spanish and French origin during the first few centuries CE , larger in size and with narrow foreheads . Rislakki believed that his craniometric examinations , carried out in the 1920s , proved the influence of all these three horse types . Almost 20 years later , during the Continuation War , Rislakki also measured Karelian horses , and proposed they also came from an original Northern European animal descended from the Tarpan . Modern studies have discredited theories suggesting modern domesticated horse breeds descending from the Tarpan or the Przewalski 's horse . The modern Konik horse resembles the extinct Tarpan however .
In the early 20th century , English J. C. Edward and Norwegian S. Petersen , proposed that Finland and the other countries surrounding the Gulf of Finland were the home region for the so @-@ called " yellow pony " . A later ethnologist , Kustaa Vilkuna ( 1902 – 1980 ) supported this view , proposing that an " Estonian @-@ Finno @-@ Karelian pony " descended from a small forest horse previously widespread in the lands surrounding the Gulf of Finland .
Earliest horse equipment ( bits ) found in Finnish graves date from the Finnish Middle Iron Age , beginning from circa 400 CE . Breeds considered to descend from the same early types as the Finnhorse include the Estonian Native horse , the Norwegian Nordlandshest / Lyngshest , the Swedish Gotland Russ , the Mezen horse from the region of Archangelsk , Russia , and the Lithuanian Žemaitukas .
At some point in their history , not clearly documented , horses bred in the western regions crossbred with horses that originated south of the Gulf of Finland . This made the western Finnish horse type larger and better suited to farming and forestry work . The characteristics of the original western Finnish type prevailed , however , even though influenced by outside blood and traces of outside influence could be detected for a long time . Later , this mixed type was further crossbred with larger horses from Central Europe during the Middle Ages . Foreign horses were also brought to Finland during military campaigns , and additional animals were imported to manor houses for driving . The crossbreed offspring of Central European and Finnish horses were larger than their Finnish parents , and even more suited for agricultural work .
The earliest known documentation of Finnish trade in horses , both as imports and exports , dates to 1299 , when Pope Gregory IX sent a letter of reprimand to the merchants of Gotland , who were selling horses to the non @-@ Christianized Finns . Apparently the Finns succeeded in improving their horse population , as the predominant form of Finnish trade in horses eventually shifted from imports to exports . A Russian chronicle from 1338 mentions " Tamma @-@ Karjala " ( " Karelia of the Mares " ) , presumably denoting a place of good horse breeding . As early as in 1347 , King Magnus IV saw it necessary to put limits to the horse exports from Karelia to Russia .
Later , the 16th century writer Olaus Magnus mentioned the high quality of the horses used by the early Finns ; in the 1520s , Gustav Vasa found the Finns exporting horses by the shipload to Lübeck , and strictly prohibited such trading , banning the sale of horses under the age of 7 years .
= = = Organised breeding = = =
The earliest document noting the importation of outside horses to Finland is a papal letter in 1229 . During the Swedish rule of Finland that followed , foreign horses obtained by the Finnish cavalry , whether purchased for replenishment or seized as spoils of war , probably influenced the Finnish horse population . The first significant , planned efforts to improve the quality of horses through selective breeding in Finland occurred in the 16th century , when Gustav Vasa , known for his interest in horse breeding , founded mare manors ( Finnish : tammakartano ) , stud farms , on his properties in Western Finland . He ordered the importation of larger horses from Central Europe , mainly from the region of Friesland . These horse were brought to Sweden and probably into Finland as well . The imports were kept at regional royal farms ( Swedish : kungsgård , literally , " King 's estate " ) to service local mares . In a letter from 1556 , Gustav Vasa mentions that there were 231 breeding horses of this kind in Finland . It is not known whether these horses were imported directly from Central Europe to Finland , or descended from imports brought first to Sweden . Friesian stallions were used in Finland early in the 16th century to increase the size of the Finnish horse , and were employed for breeding in the royal farms up until the 1650s .
Gustav Vasa also carried out major reforms of his cavalry . After the decline of heavy cavalry in the Late Middle Ages , light cavalry was gaining importance , and with it a new approach to horse breeding . In 1550 , he gave orders that " stud manors " ( Finnish : siittolakartano ) be founded on royal farms ( Sw : kungsgård ) , not only in Sweden but also in every municipality of Finland . These studs were to each hold 20 mares and a smaller number of stallions , both Finnish horses and horses imported from Sweden . Gustav Vasa also imported mares from the lands bordering the North Sea ; most likely of a Friesian type . His goal was to increase the size and weight of the Finnish horse population . His successor , Eric XIV prohibited the exporting of Finnish horses , which demonstrated the success of these efforts as well as the importance of the horses of the region of Finland . The horse breeding farms lasted only for about 100 years under later rulers of the Vasa line before the programs deteriorated . The last of the stud manors , that of Pori , was closed in 1651 , and the crown @-@ owned stallions and mares of the Pori stud were transported to Gotland .
Outside of these breeding efforts , Finnish horses were widely kept in semi @-@ feral conditions through the mid @-@ 19th century . Ethnologist Kustaa Vilkuna describes how all horses regardless or sex and age were let out on forest pastures for the summer after the spring fieldwork was finished . The pasture was scarce and the terrain challenging , with both rocky ground and wetlands . Vilkuna considers this practice an important factor in making the Finnhorse an easy @-@ keeping , hardy breed .
= = = Military use = = =
The goal of Gustav Vasa and others had been to increase the height of the Finnish horse . However , the Finnish cavalry survey records ( katselmuspöytäkirjat ) from the 1620s indicate this goal was not achieved . The heights of horses surveyed in 1623 , measured not at the withers but at the highest point of the croup , which provides a height measurement significantly different from standard measures , ranged between 105 to 130 centimetres ( 41 to 51 in ) , the taller animals being the horses of officers . Only the horses owned by Colonel Herman Fleming were taller , with a croup measurement of 135 to 140 centimetres ( 53 to 55 in ) . It is not known if these horses were domestic crossbreeds or imported . The average height of the horses of the troops of Hollola , Pori and Raseborg was only 115 centimetres ( 45 in ) one year , but those in the next year 's survey were 125 centimetres ( 49 in ) . Overall , there were no pony @-@ sized horses below a croup measurement of 110 centimetres ( 43 in ) , and the all @-@ around average height of the horses used by the cavalry was about 120 centimetres ( 47 in ) .
During the Thirty Years ' War in 1618 – 1648 , the horses used by Finnish cavalry were small and unrepresentative , considered inferior even to the cargo horses used by the Swedish Royal Army . However , these animals had great stamina , a crucial quality during long , exhausting campaigns . The humble @-@ looking Finnish horses were presumably exchanged when possible for other horses obtained as spoils of war . It was probably rare for a cavalryman to return with the same horse with which he left , and it is likely that the horses brought back to Finland were crossbreeds or of purely Central European lines . Reinforcements to replace the considerable horse casualties were obtained from the Baltic States , but during the reign of Charles XI almost all of the cavalry horses were imported from south of the Gulf of Finland , due to their larger size .
Before World War II , the Finnhorse was the breed that made up almost all of the horses that were part of the Finnish army and mounted police forces . While officers mostly rode various foreign light horse breeds , the so @-@ called " light type " of Finnhorse was used for the enlisted members of the cavalry . Many of the most talented Finnhorses had competitive success during their service . After the war , the Finnish cavalry was converted to infantry , and the use of the Finnhorse for riding purposes nearly ended .
= = = Crossbreeding = = =
The Finnish horse had been intentionally crossbred from as early as the 16th century . Friesians and Oldenburgs were among the first known influences in the breed , having been used in the early 17th century to add size . Friesian horses were used systematically until the 1650s . During the 18th century , new warmblood breeds were created throughout Europe by crossing local native horse populations with light , hotblooded riding horses . Finnish military officers developed an interest in similar breeding while on study secondments ( assignments ) in foreign military forces . In 1781 , Colonel Yrjö Maunu Sprengtporten founded a state stud farm in conjunction with the Haapaniemi military school . The stud had a few stallions described as " Arabian " and " Andalusian " . For about 30 years , these stallions influenced the local horse population outside the military school as well , and a number of writings from the 19th century mention a " Haapaniemi breed " . Similar if smaller crossbreeding programs developed elsewhere ; at Tavinsalmen kartano , the royal estate ( kungsgård ) of Tavinsalmi , at least one of the mares had been imported from Sweden .
Russian Orlov trotters and Don horses also influenced the Finnhorse population in the first half the 19th century , improving its size , ridability and refinement . The horse type originating in Northern Savonia known as the " Fürstenbergian breed , " bred by the engineer Fürstenberg at the beginning of the 19th century , was a crossbreed between the Finnish horses and Orlov trotters . The influence of Don horses was seen as late as in the 1920s and 1930s among the black and bay horses used by the Finnish cavalry – the dragoons of Nyland had two full squadrons of these colours .
In addition to the needs of the military , crossbreeding was used to improve the common working horse ; improved roads and advances in agriculture had replaced the previously predominant oxen with the horse , and more horses of better quality were needed for transport and agricultural work . Attempts to create better working horses used many breeds , including Percherons and a heavy Norwegian breed ; Ardennes horses were favoured in Southern Ostrobothnia and Southern Finland . In Southern Savonia a multitude of breeds were used . The amount and diversity of crossbreeding led to difficulties in creating a consistent type up until the beginning of the 20th century and the creation of the Finnhorse studbook ; some of the first stallions accepted in the studbook were criticised for having a " Norwegian " look .
Other intentional crossbreeding experiments included the bloodstock of Sarkkila and Hali in Northern Karelia , descended from crosses with Russian military horses . The breeding programme of Sarkkila stated one of the stallions to be of " Fürstenbergian breed " , and one of the mares of " oriental " descent . The " Hali breed " , descending from the stallions of Sarkkila , was an important influence in the pedigree of a few notable Finnhorse trotter sires such as Eino 680 and his son Eino @-@ Vakaa 25 .
Some estates , especially in southern regions of Finland , were known to have used stallions of several light and hot @-@ blooded breeds ; for example , an officer in Pernaja bred Arabians . These crossbreeds were probably an attempt to create showy driving horses . A notable failing of a crossbreeding attempt happened in 1875 , when a stud was founded in Porvoo to import and export Norfolk Trotters , a breed that has had important influence in several driving horse breeds , including the Standardbred . The crossbred offspring were praised for their looks , but turned out to have poor temperaments and no talent for speed . Due to a combination of the large population of horses in Finland ( over 200 000 animals ) and the later enthusiasm for purebreeding , these estate @-@ based crossbreeding attempts never had significant influence on the modern Finnish horse .
An especially detailed description of the best Finnish horses of the mid @-@ 19th century is available due to the development of the Tori horse in Estonia . Three experts were consulted about the Finnish horse in order to ascertain its value for the project . According to the stud farm inspector of the Russian Empire , Mayendorff , Finnish horses were found in four types : the " Haapaniemi type " , the " Fürstenbergian type " , an " Orlov type " , and a " Karelian type " . A Finnish academic master , A. Elving , considered Finnish horses most purebred in Karelia , and mixed elsewhere , especially in Southwest Finland , where Swedish , North @-@ German and even English horses had been crossed with Finnish ones , while in Karelia and Savonia the outside influence had been mainly Russian . Swedish count Carl Gustav Wrangler , a respected hippologist of the time , mentioned in his report that Finns were then importing Norfolk Trotters for crossbreeding purposes .
Documents created some years after a number of Finnish horses had been imported to the Tori stud describe the Finnish mares obtained . Their average height was 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , and the colour was typically dark with a star . Their heads were large and necks short but well @-@ carried ; their bodies sturdy and proportionate with muscular withers , deep chest and muscular back ; the loins were on the long side , and the haunches muscular if sloping . The leg joints were well @-@ defined , the pasterns short and the feet tough . However , records also noted that the legs had " serious faults of position , " not further defined . The Finnish horses also were considered calm and good workers , and swift walkers and runners .
= = = Decline = = =
In the 18th century , the horse population of Finland vastly diminished in both numbers and quality . At the beginning of the century , during the Great Northern War campaigns of Charles XII , the Finnish cavalry was larger than at any other time in history , and almost every usable horse of Finland was needed . Horses were used by the cavalry , infantry , and for transporting supplies . Horses serving in the Swedish military never returned to Finland ; even the animals provided to the last remaining Swedish reinforcement regiments were taken to Sweden in 1714 , and to Norway in 1718 .
The Russian invasion and occupation caused additional hardships . By the end of Russian occupation in 1721 , a third of the Finnish human populace as well as large numbers of horses were lost to war and epidemic diseases . Furthermore , a great number of horses were exported to Russia during the invasion at the command of Peter I. Horses removed from Finland ended up mainly in the area of Vyatka government , and some Russian researchers such as Simanov and Moerder have suggested that the Vyatka horse was developed mainly from Estonian and Finnish bloodlines . In addition to the hardships of war and occupation , the treaties of Nystad in 1721 and Åbo in 1743 ceded Finnish territory to Russia , which resulted in much of the Finnish horse population being left behind the new borders . The Finnish horses in these now @-@ Russian areas were crossbred with the Russian horses in significant numbers .
With the Russians having taken the best animals , combined with the old custom of pastures shared by municipalities or larger areas , rebuilding the horse population took decades . To increase numbers , horses were often bred too young , and inbreeding also occurred . By 1761 , one of the first researchers in the agricultural chemistry in Finland described the Finnish horse population of the time :
The Savonian @-@ Karelian horse is its own breed , descended from [ the horses of ] Tartary . It is rarely taller than 9 korttelis [ 133 centimetres ( 52 in ) ] , and it is of good conformation , and a good puller , chestnut or bay of coat . [ The same breed is also found in Western Finland , where it is ] mixed and bigger by the influence of Scanian horses .
According to ethnologist Kustaa Vilkuna 's estimations , calculated from measurements of horse collars used in Finland in the early 18th century , the average peasant 's horse was about 12 @.@ 3 hands ( 51 inches , 130 cm ) tall , while some horses employed by manors were larger , sometimes more than 13 @.@ 3 hands ( 55 inches , 140 cm ) tall . Vilkuna also discovered that the horses of the southern and western regions of Finland were larger than those of the northern and eastern regions . This was probably due to the influence of imported horses . By the mid @-@ 18th century , a typical Finnish horse was probably about 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 inches , 137 cm ) , about the same size as a small contemporary Finnhorse yearling , and weighed about 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) , roughly half the weight of a contemporary 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) working section horse . A civilian horse of good quality had good action and was swift . However , leg faults were common .
In response to the decline of the Finnish horse population and especially the great loss of good quality breeding animals experienced during the great famine of 1866 – 1868 , the Senate of Finland gave orders for three provinces to obtain quality stallions for public use . The scope of the programme was later expanded to include eight provinces , and Finland was divided into breeding districts , which were all to have a state @-@ owned stallion available to service local mares . The horses in this programme became known as " crown stallions " ( Finnish : ruununori , ruununoriit ) . Official guidelines for the selection of stallions were never given , but one common aim throughout Finland was to increase the size and bulk of the horse population to create a type better suited for agricultural work .
= = = Purebreeding and revival = = =
By the end of the 18th century , crossbreeding of Finnish horses began to be described , especially by military leaders , as " detrimental crossbreeding " — damaging to the quality of the Finnish horse , particularly for military use . In the beginning of the 19th century , German historian Friedrich Rühs especially blamed the west coast estates for damaging the Finnish horse by crossbreeding . Nonetheless , outside stallions were still imported to Finland . At the end of the century , stallions " of oriental , Arabian blood " still served at state farms . The influence of the Russian @-@ imported " oriental " Turkish and Caucasian horses , as well as " Fürstenbergian " horses was also noted . Orlov Trotters were used in Savonia and Karelia , and Norwegian stallions were brought to northern Ostrobothnia . Light riding horses were imported from Russian and Central Europe . Conversely , heavier horses such as the Norfolk Trotter and Ardennes were imported to southern Finland as late as 1870 .
As Finnish nationalism arose and increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , crossbreeding of the Finnish horse essentially ended and a new direction was taken by Finnish horse breeders . The breed was considered a symbol of the nation , and thus it was desired that it be as purebred as possible . On 20 November 1894 , Finland 's first horse breeding association Hevoskasvatusyhdistys Hippos ( now Suomen Hippos ) was founded to breed and improve the Finnish horse by the means of purebreeding , and in 1905 , a governmental decree was issued for horse breeding associations to be founded throughout the country , leading to the establishment of the Finnhorse stud book in 1907 .
At first the only notable objectives of the Finnhorse breeding programme concerned appearance , especially the colour , of the breed . The aim was to remove " foreign " characteristics . Later , in the 1920s , trials of performance were introduced , and since then , the main objectives of the Finnhorse breeding programme have continued to encourage improvements in the capacity , movement , conformation and character of the breed .
Since the establishment of the Finnhorse stud book it has been closed and the breed has been bred pure . While accidental and even intentional Finnhorse crossbreds exist , they are not accepted for the Finnhorse registry and have not been used to develop new breeds within Finland . The Finnhorse stud book remains in the control of Suomen Hippos .
= = = Impact of World War II = = =
Horses were a central asset to Finnish military forces during the Winter War ( 1939 – 40 ) and Continuation War ( 1941 – 1944 ) , when tens of thousands of horses were the main locomotive power of the army due to the shortage of automobiles . Animals were procured from private owners in a systematic procedure , but to ensure the continuity of Finnhorse breeding , neither stallions nor any nursing , pregnant or studbook @-@ approved mares were enrolled to be eligible for military procurement . All procured horses officially remained their private owners ' property , were marked for identification and as necessary , were returned or reported dead . The program was successful in preserving the breed , as the horse population rebounded to its pre @-@ war count of over 380 000 animals as soon as 1945 .
The great number of Russian horses captured as matériel during wartime became a threat to the Finnhorse 's purebreeding : many Russian animals were stallions , and there was no way to ensure new owners would not crossbreed them with Finnhorses . For practical and political reasons , Soviet Russia would not accept these horses back as a part of Finland 's massive war indemnity . Finnhorses however , were accepted as payment , and a total of 18 000 animals were sold to Soviet Russia at low rates in 1947 and 1948 . The best Finnhorses were not offered to the Soviets , however , and according to comtemporary witnesses , many showy but otherwise useless horses ended up in Russia .
= = = Post @-@ war decline = = =
Approximately 300 @,@ 000 horses existed in Finland when the Finnhorse studbook was established in the beginning of the 20th century . The horse population , consisting almost entirely of Finnhorses , remained stable for 50 years . The rebuilding of the country after two wars had increased demand for horse power , and by the 1950s , the breed reached its all @-@ time peak , with an estimated 409 @,@ 000 animals , with a great majority of the horses being of the draught type . However , with the increased mechanisation of agriculture and forestry in the 1960s , the number of Finnhorses dropped precipitously . Horses , having been bred in large numbers only a few years earlier , were taken to slaughter by the thousands ; a change in forestry tax policy made previously state @-@ supported horse @-@ powered forestry unprofitable and further discouraged keeping horses . Many working horse bloodlines ended , while lines more suitable for sports and recreation survived . By the 1970s , the breed 's numbers had declined to 90 @,@ 000 animals , and 10 years later as few as 20 @,@ 000 Finnhorses existed . The breed 's all @-@ time lowest point was 1987 , with only 14 @,@ 100 horses . By this time , however , the overall horse population in Finland had been increasing for almost a decade , with lighter harness racing horse breeds establishing their position , counting 12 @,@ 800 animals the same year .
Although other breeds were being increasingly imported and bred , the numbers of the Finnhorse population also slowly began to recover ; in 1997 , 19 @,@ 000 Finnhorses existed . Harness racing and associated parimutuel betting , and to some degree also the relatively new hobby of riding , became the most important factors ensuring the survival of the breed .
= = = 21st century = = =
Nearly all Finnish horses foaled since 1971 have been registered . During the first decade of the 21st century , the breed 's numbers in Finland stabilised at roughly 20 @,@ 000 animals , and approximately 1 @,@ 000 foals are born annually . The breed makes up roughly one third of Finland 's total horse population . The objective for ensuring the breed 's continuity is to have at least 200 stallions and 2 @,@ 000 mares used for breeding every year , 3 @,@ 000 horses used for harness racing , and 6 @,@ 000 horses for riding and other uses . In the 21st century , most Finnhorses are bred to be trotters , but the breed is also popular at riding schools and for recreational riding .
The Finnhorse is a relatively unknown horse breed outside of Finland , with no organised efforts to promote it internationally . The very word " Finnhorse " was only recently coined , and only became the standard name after 1990 . However , a few Finnhorses exist outside Finland , having been exported in small numbers to nations such as Germany and Sweden . As part of an equestrian exchange project carried out in the 1980s , a number of Finnhorses were sold to Austria and Germany in 1985 and 1987 . In Germany , the horses were used as foundation bloodstock for the Freund stud , which went on to breed dozens of Finnhorses , selling them in Germany and Austria . A number of horses were also exported to the Netherlands . The German Finnhorse population remains the most notable one outside Finland , with 150 animals .
Apart from the exchange project of the late 1980s , activity to export the Finnhorse has been minimal . However , a 2008 study stated that increased international interest and demand for the Finnhorse was advisable to ensure the survival of the breed . To this end , the objectives of the national breeding program , as of 2008 , include increasing international recognition of the Finnhorse and generating demand for the breed for recreational and educational uses such as in Pony Club ; to make it the standard breed used in Finland for equestrian tourism ; and to improve the opportunities for Finnhorse trotters to participate in Swedish and Norwegian heats .
Within Finland , the Finnhorse is considered to have value as the national horse breed with cultural ties and strong support from a variety of Finnhorse organisations . On the other hand , progress in popularizing the breed internationally is complicated by the its low population and lack of international recognition . The strengths of the breed in international disciplines are considered to be its good health and working qualities , its versatility , and its novelty value outside of Finland . The versatility of the breed 's " universal " horse type , a Finnish concept , has plusses and minuses : It creates a challenge in marketing because of its vague status to buyers who currently tend to seek conventional horse types , and as a result it lacks a strong advantage over specialized breeds . Yet , the versatility of the Finnhorse can also be an advantage ; more specialised breeds may be limited to a smaller range of activities .
= = Influence on other horse breeds = =
From the 14th to the 16th century , Finnish horses were exported to Russian and Germany in such quantities that eventually restrictions on the number of exports were set . The Finnish horses exported to Russia in early 19th century influenced the development of the Vyatka horse . In the 19th century and early 20th century , horses of Finnish origin were used in creating many Baltic and Russian agricultural draught breeds , such as the Tori Horse and the Lithuanian Draught . In most cases , these breeds were developed by crossbreeding Finnish horses on small local horses , thus increasing size . In the 1920s and 1930s , the Finnhorse was also used in the breeding of the Estonian horse . The heavy Mezen horse was bred with both the Finnhorse and the Estonian Horse , until its stud book was closed in the 1950s . Traces of Finnhorse influence is found in other Soviet and Russian work horse breeds , in the mid @-@ 20th century , Finland exported 15 @,@ 000 horses to Soviet Russia as part of its war indemnity . In the 1960s and 1970s , pony @-@ sized Finnhorses were also used to improve quality and broaden the gene pool of the Norwegian Nordlandshest , which had become highly inbred by the 1960s .
= = = Tori horse = = =
In the mid @-@ 19th century , manor owners in Estonia found the native Estonian Horse too small for their agricultural needs , and came to the conclusion that the population would benefit from crossbreeding . Finnish horses were among the good quality breeds considered for the job . The state stud farm of Tori was founded as the central base for the new Estonian breed in 1856 , and ten Finnish mares and three stallions were bought for its needs . Though some purebred Finnish horses were produced , they were used mainly for crossbreeding ; the later offspring of part @-@ Finnish crossbreds , however , did not prove as good as expected , and the Tori stud gradually stopped using Finnish horses . One Finnish @-@ Arabian stallion , Orro , has had noteworthy influence on the modern @-@ day Tori horse , through his widely used great @-@ grandson Harun 42 T.
= = Uses = =
In the 21st century , approximately 75 percent of Finnhorses are used at some point in their lives for harness racing , with riding being the second most popular use . Many Finnhorses have multiple uses , such as starting their career in harness racing and later moving on to riding . Finnhorses perform both at their own competitions and in open , all @-@ breed classes in dressage , show jumping , and eventing . They are also used for endurance riding , western riding and combined driving . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 Finnhorses are used in riding schools and in riding therapy . They are also popular as pleasure horses .
= = = Draft work = = =
Agricultural and forestry work were the traditional uses of the Finnhorse . The Finnhorse was never bred to be a particularly large or heavy draught horse , as it was the only horse breed of the country , and versatility was desired as the Finnhorse was also used as the primary steed of the cavalry . The climate and conditions of Finland necessitated that the breed be durable and hardy . As a result , the Finnhorse remained small but tough , and could pull heavy loads in difficult terrain and even in chest @-@ deep snow . Relative to its size , the Finnhorse is among the most powerful workhorses in the world with the best animals able to pull as much as 200 percent of their own weight .
There are few draft @-@ type Finnhorse family lines left , and only an estimated two or three hundred animals are known to be used as actual workhorses in the 21st century . However , interest in traditional uses and methods has been increasing , and workhorse competitions are regularly held which usually include horse pulling or ploughing contests .
= = = Harness = = =
Finnhorses have historically been used for harness racing , with organised harness races having been held since 1817 . Prior to that , racing from church back home had been a traditional recreation among farmers , and harness racing remained a farmer 's hobby up to the end of the 1950s . By that time , the number of horses kept in Finland was plummeting and racing lost popularity . After 1959 the Finnhorse was no longer the only horse breed that was allowed to race in Finland ; the importing of faster , light trotter breeds and the introduction of Parimutuel betting brought professionalism and new life to the harness racing sport . Increased interest in betting led to growth in racing , which in turn helped establish harness racing as the main use for the Finnhorse during the next decades .
Finnhorses also successfully compete in combined driving , and are the breed most often used for the sport in Finland , especially at regional and national levels ; the Finnhorse Jehun Viima , driven by Heidi Sinda , was a member of the Finnish singles driving team that finished 2nd at the 2002 World Singles Championships in Conty , France . According to Sinda , the Finnhorse is ideally suited for combined driving , being well @-@ mannered , focused , hard working , obedient , and possessing " cool nerves . "
= = = Riding = = =
Finnhorses are popular as recreational riding horses , and well @-@ suited for use at riding schools , trekking , and riding therapy . Of the ten horses currently employed by the mounted police of Helsinki , two are Finnhorses , though they are considered a bit small for the job . They are also competitive in many disciplines , and in the 1970s separate competition classes for Finnhorses were established at horse shows , which also helped to increase the popularity of the breed . While in eventing and horse racing , Finnhorses are too slow to compete directly against Thoroughbreds and the sport horse breeds , they are a highly reliable mount for cross @-@ country riding , particularly over difficult terrain ; during the Continuation War , the breed successfully crossed any wetland with which it was confronted . In endurance riding . Uusi @-@ Helinä , ridden by Ritva Lampinen , successfully finished the endurance riding world championship competition in Stockholm , Sweden in 1990 , finishing 28th .
The Finnhorse is considered a reliable and fairly good jumper , and is regularly seen in 130 centimetres ( 51 in ) show jumping classes . Finnhorses have been quite successful at lower levels because they are clean and efficient jumpers , but their shorter stride at the canter and gallop keeps them from competing at more advanced levels . In his 1952 book Ratsastuskirja , Olympic rider Werner Walldén described the Finnhorse as enduring and resilient , mentally focused , and an easy keeper . He considered jumping to be the breed 's best asset as a riding animal , but noted that its scope does not reach the level required for modern international competition .
In dressage , the Finnhorse is able to compete with warmbloods up to national levels , and in lower levels it has the upper hand because it can easily perform the required movements , and has smoother gaits that allow for ease of riding . In 2010 , a Finnhorse medaled in international paraequestrian dressage competition . In higher level dressage , the breed however it is hindered by its less @-@ flashy movement , restricted by a somewhat upright shoulder . Despite this there are successful dressage horses , and a number of Finnhorses even earn their keep with their dressage winnings , a notable achievement as competing in Finland is expensive and prize money low . Most Finnhorses used in dressage compete at the national 4th level ( US ) or Grade IV ( GB ) , though some individuals have competed at the Prix de St. Georges level .
The Finnhorse is also well @-@ suited to riding therapy , being calm and steady , hard @-@ working , obedient , healthy and enduring . They are small enough to allow the patient to be assisted easily , yet large enough to have gaits that stimulate the muscles , senses , and balance of the rider . Many Finnhorses have also been trained for driving , and therefore are familiar with unusual noises and can be controlled from behind , and ex @-@ trotters are inexpensive . Many Finns also find the appearance of the Finnhorse comforting .
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= Badami cave temples =
The Badami cave temples are a complex of four Hindu , Jain and possibly Buddhist cave temples located in Badami , a town in the Bagalkot district in northern part of Karnataka , India . The caves are considered an example of Indian rock @-@ cut architecture , especially Badami Chalukya architecture , which dates from the 6th century . Badami was previously known as Vataapi Badami , the capital of the early Chalukya dynasty , which ruled much of Karnataka from the 6th to the 8th century . Badami is situated on the west bank of an artificial lake ringed by an earthen wall with stone steps ; it is surrounded on the north and south by forts built in later times .
The Badami cave temples represent some of the earliest known examples of Hindu temples . UNESCO has described the designs of the Badami cave temples , and those in Aihole , as having transformed the Malaprabha River valley into a cradle of temple architecture that defined the components of later Hindu temples elsewhere in India .
Caves 1 to 4 are in the escarpment of the hill in soft Badami sandstone formation , to the south @-@ east of the town . In Cave 1 , among various sculptures of Hindu divinities and themes , a prominent carving is of the Tandava @-@ dancing Shiva as Nataraja . Cave 2 is mostly similar to Cave 1 in terms of its layout and dimensions , featuring Hindu subjects of which the relief of Vishnu as Trivikrama is the largest . The largest cave is Cave 3 , featuring Vishnu @-@ related mythology , and it is also the most intricately carved cave in the complex . Cave 4 is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism . Cave 5 may be a Buddhist cave . Another cave was discovered in 2015 , about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from the four main caves , with 27 Hindu carvings .
= = Geography = =
The Badami cave temples are located in the town of Badami in the north @-@ central part of Karnataka , India . The temples are about 70 miles ( 110 km ) north @-@ east of Hubli @-@ Dharwad , the second @-@ largest metropolitan area of the state . The Malaprabha River is 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away . Badami , also referred to as Vatapi , Vatapipuri and Vatapinagari in historical texts , the capital of Chalukya dynasty in the 6th century , is at the exit point of a ravine between two steep mountain cliffs . Four cave temples in the escarpment of the hill to the south @-@ east of the town have been excavated . The escarpment is above an artificial lake called Agastya Lake that is created by an earthen dam faced with stone steps . To the west end of this cliff , at its lowest point , is the first cave temple . The largest cave is Cave 3 , which is further to the east on the northern face of the hill . The fourth cave , Cave 4 , is a short distance away .
= = History = =
The cave temples , numbered 1 to 4 in the order of their creation , in the town of Badami – the capital city of the Chalukya kingdom ( also known as Early Chalukyas ) – are dated from the late 6th century onwards . The exact dating is known only for Cave 3 , which is a temple dedicated to Vishnu . An inscription found here records the creation of the shrine by Mangalesha in Saka 500 ( lunar calendar , 578 / 579 CE ) . The inscription , written in the Kannada language , has enabled the dating of these rock cave temples to the 6th century .
The Badami caves complex is part of a UNESCO @-@ designated World Heritage Site candidate under the title " Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole @-@ Badami @-@ Pattadakal " in the Malaprabha river valley , considered a cradle of temple architecture that formed the model for later Hindu temples in the region . The artwork in Caves 1 and 2 exhibit the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th centuries , while those in Cave 3 simultaneously represent two ancient Indian artistic traditions ; the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles . Cave 3 also shows icons and reliefs in the Vesara style , a creative fusion of ideas from the two styles , as well as some of the earliest surviving historical examples in Karnataka of yantra @-@ chakra motifs ( geometric symbolism ) and colored fresco paintings . The first three caves feature sculptures of Hindu icons and legends focusing on Shiva and Vishnu , while Cave 4 features Jain icons and themes .
= = Temple caves = =
The Badami cave temples are man @-@ made , all carved out of soft Badami sandstone on a hill cliff . The plan of each of the four caves ( 1 to 4 ) includes an entrance with a verandah ( mukha mandapa ) supported by stone columns and brackets , a distinctive feature of these caves , leading to a columned mandapa , or main hall ( also maha mandapa ) , and then to the small , square shrine ( sanctum sanctorum , garbhaghrha ) cut deep inside the cave . The cave temples are linked by a stepped path with intermediate terraces overlooking the town and lake . The cave temples are labelled 1 – 4 in their ascending series ; this numbering does not reflect the sequence of excavation .
The architecture includes structures built in the Nagara and Dravidian styles , which is the first and most persistent architectural idiom to be adopted by the early chalukyas . There is also a fifth natural cave temple in Badami , a Buddhist temple , a natural cave that can only be entered by crouching on all fours .
= = = Cave 1 = = =
Cave 1 is about 59 feet ( 18 m ) above ground level on the north @-@ west part of the hill . Access is through a series of steps that depict carvings of dwarfish ganas ( with bovine and equine heads ) in different postures . The verandah , with an inner measurement of 70 feet ( 21 m ) by 65 feet ( 20 m ) , has four columns sculpted with reliefs of the god Shiva shown in dancing positions and incarnations . The guardian dwarapalas ( door keepers ) at the entrance to the cave measure 6 @.@ 166 feet ( 1 @.@ 879 m ) .
The cave portrays the Tandava @-@ dancing Shiva as Nataraja . The image , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall , has 18 arms in a form that expresses the dance positions arranged in a geometric pattern , which Alice Boner – a Swiss art historian and Indologist , says is a time division symbolizing the cosmic wheel . While most of the arms express mudras ( symbolic hand gestures ) , some of the arms hold objects such as drums , a trident and an axe ; some also have serpents coiled around them . Shiva has his son Ganesha and the bull Nandi by his side . Adjoining the Nataraja , one wall depicts the goddess Durga , who is depicted slaying the buffalo @-@ demon Mahishasura . Elsewhere , the sons of Shiva , Ganesha and Kartikkeya , the god of war and family deity of the Chalukya dynasty , are seen in one of the carved sculptures on the walls of the cave , with Kartikkeya riding a peacock .
The cave also has carved sculptures of the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati flanking Harihara , a 7 @.@ 75 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 36 m ) high sculpture of a fused image that is half @-@ Shiva and half @-@ Vishnu . To the right , toward the end of the wall , is a relief sculpture of Ardhanarishvara , a composite androgynous form of Shiva and his consort Parvati along with a female decorated goddess holding a flat object in her left hand ; Nandi , the bull and Bhringi , a devotee of Shiva .
All the figures are adorned with carved ornaments and surrounded by borders with reliefs of animals and birds . The lotus design is a common theme . On the ceiling are images of the Vidyadhara couples . Through a cleft in the back wall of the cave is a square sanctuary with more carved images .
The roof of the cave has five carved panels with the central panel depicting the serpent Shesha . The head and bust are well formed and project boldly from the centre of the coil . In another compartment a bas @-@ relief 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) in diameter has carvings of a male and female ; the male is Yaksha carrying a sword and the female is Apsara with a flying veil . The succeeding panel has carvings of two small figures and the panel at the end is carved with lotuses .
= = = Cave 2 = = =
Cave 2 , lying to the west of Cave 3 and facing north , was created in late 6th century . It is almost same as Cave 1 in terms of its layout and dimensions , but it is dedicated primarily to Vishnu . Cave 2 is reached by climbing 64 steps from the first cave . The cave entrance is a verandah divided by four square pillars , which has carvings from its middle section to the top where there are yali brackets with sculptures within them . The cave is adorned with reliefs of guardians . Like Cave 1 , the carved cave art is a pantheon of Hindu divinities .
The largest relief in Cave 2 shows Vishnu as Trivikrama ( Vamana ) , with one foot on Earth and another directed to the north . Other representations of Vishnu in this cave include Varaha ( a boar ) shown rescuing Bhudevi ( a symbol of the earth ) from the depths of the ocean ; and Krishna avatars , legends found in Hindu Puranas texts such as the Bhagavata Purana . Like other major murti ( forms ) in this and other Badami caves , the Varaha sculpture is set in a circle ; according to Alice Boner , the panel is an upright rectangle whose " height is equal to the octopartite directing circle and sides are aligned to essential geometric ratios , in this case to the second vertical chord of the circle " .
The doorway is framed by pilasters carrying an entablature with three blocks embellished with gavaksha ornament . The entrance of the cave also has two armed guardians holding flowers rather than weapons . The end walls of the outer verandah are adorned with sculpted panels : to the right , Trivikrama and to the left , Varaha rescuing Bhudevi , with a penitent multi @-@ headed snake ( Nāga ) below . The adjacent side walls and ceiling have traces of colored paint , suggesting the cave used to have fresco paintings . The columns show gods and battle scenes ; the churning of the cosmic ocean ( Samudra Manthan ) ; Gajalakshmi and figures ; Brahma ; Vishnu asleep on Shesha ; illustrations of the birth of Krishna ; Krishna 's youth ; Krishna with gopis ; and cows .
The ceiling of Cave 2 shows a wheel with sixteen fish spokes in a square frame along with swastikas and flying couples . The end bays have a flying couple and Vishnu on Garuda . The main hall in the cave is 33 @.@ 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 16 m ) wide , 23 @.@ 583 feet ( 7 @.@ 188 m ) deep , and 11 @.@ 33 feet ( 3 @.@ 45 m ) high and is supported by eight square pillars in two rows . The roof of this hall has panels filled with bas @-@ relief carvings . At the upper reaches of the wall , a frieze runs all along the wall with engravings of episodes from the Krishna or Vishnu legends .
The sculptures of Cave 2 , like Cave 1 , are of the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th century similar to that found in Ellora caves .
= = = Cave 3 = = =
Cave 3 is dedicated to Vishnu ; it is the largest and most intricately carved cave in the complex . It has well carved , giant figures of Trivikrama , Anantasayana , Paravasudeva , Bhuvaraha ( Varaha ) , Harihara and Narasimha . Cave 3 's primary theme is Vaishnavite , though it also shows Harihara on its southern wall – half Vishnu and half Shiva shown fused as one , making the cave important to Shaivism studies .
Cave 3 , also facing north , is 60 steps away from Cave 2 . Cave 3 's temple 's verandah is 70 feet ( 21 m ) in length with an interior width of 65 feet ( 20 m ) ; it has been sculpted 48 feet ( 15 m ) deep into the mountain ; an added square shrine at the end extends the cave 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) further inside . The verandah itself is 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide and has four free @-@ standing , carved pillars separating it from the hall . The cave is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high ; it is supported by six pillars , each measuring 2 @.@ 5 square feet ( 0 @.@ 23 m2 ) . Each column and pilaster is carved with wide , deep bases crowned with capitals that are partly hidden by brackets on three sides . Each bracket , except for one , has carvings of human figures standing under foliage in different postures , of male and female mythological characters , and an attendant figure of a dwarf . A moulded cornice in the facia , with a dado of blocks below it ( generally 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) long ) , has about thirty compartments carved with series of two fat dwarves called ganas . The cave shows a Kama scene on one pillar , where a woman and a man are in maithuna ( erotic ) embrace beneath a tree .
Cave 3 also shows fresco paintings on the ceiling , some of which are faded , broken and unclear . These are among the earliest known surviving evidence of fresco painting in Indian art . The Hindu god Brahma is seen in one of the murals ; the wedding of Shiva and Parvati , attended by various Hindu deities , is the theme of another . There is a lotus medallion on the floor underneath the mural of the four @-@ armed Brahma . The sculpture is well preserved , and a large number of Vishnu 's reliefs including standing Vishnu with eight arms ; Vishnu seated on the hooded serpent Shesha on the eastern side of the verandha ; Vishnu as Narasimha ( half human , half lion ) ; Varaha fully armed in the back wall of the cave ; Harihara ( a syncretic sculpture of Vishnu and Shiva ) ; and Trivikrama avatars . The back wall also has carvings of Vidhyadharas holding offerings to Varaha ; adjoining this is an inscription dated 579 AD with the name Mangalis inscribed on it .
At one end of the pilaster is a sculpture of Vamana shown with eight arms ( Ashtabhuja ) ; this is decorated with various types of weapons . A crescent moon is crafted above his face and the crown of Vishnu decorates his head . He is flanked by Varaha and two other figures ; below on his right is his attendant Garuda . The images in front of Vamana are three figures of Bali and his wife with Shukra , his councillor . Reliefs stand 4 metres ( 13 ft ) tall . Some aspects of the culture and clothing in the 6th century is visible in the art sculpted in this cave . The roof of the verandah has seven panels created by cross beams ; each is painted in circular compartments with images of deities including Shiva , Vishnu , Indra , Brahma and Kama , with smaller images of Dikpalas ( cardinal guardians ) with geometric mosaics filling the gaps at the corners .
The roof of the front aisle has panels with murals in the centre of male and female figurines flying in the clouds ; the male figure is yaksha holding a sword and a shield . Decoration of lotus blooms are also seen on the panels . The roof of the hall is divided into nine panels slightly above the level of the ceiling . The central panel here depicts a deva mounted on a ram – conjectured to be Agni . Images of Brahma and Varuna are also painted on the central panels ; the floating figures are seen in the remaining panels .
= = = Cave 4 = = =
Located to the east of Cave 3 , Cave 4 is situated higher than the other caves . It is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism and is the most @-@ recently constructed of the caves . Like the other caves , it features detailed carvings and a diverse range of motifs . The cave has a five @-@ bayed entrance with four square columns – each with brackets and capitals . To the back of this verandah is a hall with two standalone and two joined pillars . The first aisle is a verandah 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) long by 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) wide , extending to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) deep . From the hall , steps lead to the sanctum sanctorum , which is 25 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) wide extends to a depth of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
On the back part of this , Mahavira is represented sitting on a lion throne ; this figure is flanked by bas @-@ reliefs of attendants with chauri ( fans ) , sardulas and makara 's heads . The end walls have Parshvanath about 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) tall with his head decorated with a multi @-@ headed cobra representing protection and reverence . Carvings include Indrabhuti Gautama covered by four snakes , and Bahubali seen to the left of Gautama with his lower legs surrounded by snakes , together with his daughters Brahmi and Sundari . In the sanctum is an image of Mahavira resting on a pedestal containing a 12th @-@ century Kannada inscription marking the death of one Jakkave . Many Jaina Tirthankara images have been engraved on the inner pillars and walls . In addition there are idols of Yakshas , Yakshis , Padmavati and other Tirthankaras . Most scholars believe Cave 4 was created in the mid @-@ 7th century , but some place its creation in the 8th century .
= = = Cave 5 = = =
Cave 5 is an as @-@ yet @-@ undated , natural cave of small dimensions that is approached by crawling due to its narrow opening . Inside , there is a carved statue seated over a sculpted throne with reliefs showing people holding chauris ( fans ) , a tree , elephants , and lions in an attacking pose . The face of this statue was reasonably intact until about 1995 , it is now damaged and missing parts .
There are several theories as to who the statue represents . One theory holds that it is a relief of the Buddha in a sitting posture . According to this theory , those holding the chauris are Bodhisattvas flanking the Buddha . In the intervening centuries , the cave was converted to a Hindu shrine of Vishnu , as is seen from the white , religious markings painted on the face of the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu . According to B.V. Shetti – archaeologist and curator of Prince of Wales Museum of Western India , the cave was not converted but from the start represented a tribute to Mayamoha of the Hindu Puranas , or Buddhavatara Vishnu , its style suggesting it was likely carved in or before the 8th century .
A second theory , found in colonial @-@ era texts such as one by John Murray – a missionary in British India and Jainism scholar , say the main image carved in Cave 5 is that of a Jaina figure . According to a third theory , by Henry Cousens and A. Sundara – archaeologists , and supported by local legends , the statue is of an ancient king ; in a photograph of the statue taken before its face was damaged , the figure lacked the Ushnisha lump that typically goes with Buddha 's image . The statue has several unusual , non @-@ Buddha ornaments such as rings for fingers , a necklace and a chest @-@ band ; it wears a Hindu Yajnopavita thread and its head is stylistically closer to a Jina head than a Buddha head . These features suggest the statue may be of a king represented with features of various traditions . According to Carol Radcliffe Bolon – Assistant Curator at the Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art , the date and identity of the main statue in Cave 5 remains enigmatic .
= = = Other caves = = =
In 2013 , Manjunath Sullolli – Assistant Director of Bagalkot district working for the state government of Karnataka , reported the discovery of another cave with 27 rock carvings , about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from the four main caves . Water gushes from this newly discovered cave year round . It depicts Vishnu and other Hindu deities , and features an inscription in the Devanagari script . The dating of these carvings is unknown .
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= Geilo Airport , Dagali =
Geilo Airport , Dagali ( Norwegian : Geilo flyplass , Dagali ; formerly Geilo lufthavn , Dagali ; IATA : DLD , ICAO : ENDI ) is a private airport located at Dagali in Hol , Norway . It was previously a public airport that was both a regional airport and served international tourist charter airlines serving the nearby ski resorts centered on Geilo . The airport opened in 1985 , but failed commercially and was eventually closed in 2003 .
Originally featuring a 1 @,@ 300 @-@ meter ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) runway , it was extended to 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in 1988 . Now it is limited to 850 meters ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) which can still be used for private aircraft . The airport has been converted to a go cart track , though there is still some general aviation at the airport . The commercial services have been moved to Fagernes Airport , Leirin , which opened in 1987 . The airport is owned and operated by a company owned by the municipalities of Hol and Nore og Uvdal .
= = History = =
Geilo Airport was opened in 1985 as a regional airport . On 20 June 1986 , Coast Aero Center was awarded the concession for flying from Stavanger to Geilo Airport , Dagali until 1991 . The airline used a Beechcraft 200 Super King Air on the service . At the same time , Norving started operations to Oslo . The ridership from Geilo turned out to be insufficient to make a profit , and both Coast Aero Center and Norving terminated their routes . Widerøe and Norsk Air said there was not enough ridership for them to be interested . In 1989 , Coast Air received a one @-@ year concession to operate from Geilo to Oslo and Stavanger . The company used de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter aircraft . The service was soon limited to two round trips each week .
Construction of a runway expansion from 1 @,@ 300 to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 900 ft ) was started in 1988 , allowing the airport to be served by jet aircraft in international charter traffic . The 15 @.@ 3 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) investment was financed through a municipal and county @-@ guaranteed loan . Since 1984 , the owners had hoped that the airport would become part of a state financing scheme that secured both guarantees for the operation of the airport , as well as subsidies to scheduled traffic . Geilo never received such status , unlike the nearby Fagernes Airport , Leirin which opened in 1987 . By 1992 , the mayors of Hol and Nore og Uvdal , the municipalities who owned the airport , admitted that it had been a mistake to build the airport . There were less than 1 @,@ 000 passengers annually , and the scheduled traffic with Coast Air cost the municipalities NOK 1 million per year . In addition came the operating deficit of the airport itself . The company Norcharter had been created by Hol and Nore og Uvdal , along with private investors , but it failed to increase ridership , despite spending NOK 8 million on marketing the region and the airport .
Twenty @-@ six municipally @-@ owned airports were taken over by the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration ( now Avinor ) on 1 January 1996 . Geilo Airport was not among these , but received a NOK 1 @.@ 5 million annual grant from the state . Following Norway 's entry into the Schengen Agreement in 2000 , more money had to be invested in the airport to rebuilt it to meet immigration requirements . The airport set a new record with 8 @,@ 870 passengers in 2002 . From 1 June 2003 , a new company , Geilo Lufthavn Drift A / S , made an agreement to take over operations of the airport . But the airport was temporally closed from April to September , and the new company chose to not reopen the airport afterward . The airport has since been turned into a go cart track , but private aircraft can use 850 by 20 meters ( 2 @,@ 789 by 66 ft ) of the runway .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
On 25 April 1992 , the pilot and passenger of a Cessna 172 , en route from Molde Airport , Årø to Geilo , were killed when the aircraft crashed two kilometers east of Dagali .
On 18 October 1992 , a Piper PA @-@ 24 Comanche crashed after losing motor power at 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) altitude . The plane became a total wreck , but the pilot managed to get out after the emergency landing with only a few scratches .
On 19 March 1993 , a Beechcraft Super King Air from Trønderfly crashed 4 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) from the airport while attempting to land . Three people were killed in the accident .
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= Battle of Kalavrye =
The Battle of Kalavrye ( also Kalavryai or Kalavryta ) was fought in 1078 between the Byzantine imperial forces of general ( and future emperor ) Alexios Komnenos and the rebellious governor of Dyrrhachium , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder . Bryennios had rebelled against Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) and had won over the allegiance of the Byzantine army 's regular regiments in the Balkans . Even after Doukas 's overthrow by Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( r . 1078 – 81 ) , Bryennios continued his revolt , and threatened Constantinople . After failed negotiations , Botaneiates sent the young general Alexios Komnenos with whatever forces he could gather to confront him .
The two armies clashed at Kalavrye on the Halmyros river in what is now European Turkey . Alexios Komnenos , whose army was considerably smaller and far less experienced , tried to ambush Bryennios 's army . The ambush failed , and the wings of his own army were driven back by the rebels . Alexios barely managed to break through with his personal retinue , but succeeded in regrouping his scattered men . At the same time , and despite having seemingly won the battle , Bryennios 's army fell into disorder after its own Pecheneg allies attacked its camp . Reinforced by Turkish mercenaries , Alexios lured the troops of Bryennios into another ambush through a feigned retreat . The rebel army broke and Bryennios was captured .
The battle is known through two detailed accounts , Anna Komnene 's Alexiad , and her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger 's Material for History , on which Anna 's own account relies to a large degree . It is one of the few Byzantine battles described in detail , and hence a valuable source for studying the tactics of the Byzantine army of the late 11th century .
= = Background = =
After the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Seljuk Turks and the overthrow of Romanos IV Diogenes ( r . 1068 – 71 ) , the Byzantine Empire experienced a decade of near @-@ continuous internal turmoil and rebellions . The constant warfare depleted the Empire 's armies , devastated Asia Minor and left it defenceless against the increasing encroachment of the Turks . In the Balkans , invasions by the Pechenegs and the Cumans devastated Bulgaria , and the Serbian princes renounced their allegiance to the Empire .
The government of Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) failed to deal with the situation effectively , and rapidly lost support among the military aristocracy . In late 1077 , two of the Empire 's leading generals , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder , the doux of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans , and Nikephoros Botaneiates , the strategos of the Anatolic Theme in central Asia Minor , were proclaimed emperors by their troops . Bryennios set out from Dyrrhachium towards the imperial capital Constantinople , winning widespread support along the way and the loyalty of most of the Empire 's Balkan field army . He preferred to negotiate at first , but his offers were rebuffed by Michael VII . Bryennios then sent his brother John to lay siege to Constantinople . Unable to overcome its fortifications , the rebel forces soon retired . This failure led the capital 's nobility to turn to Botaneiates instead : in March 1078 Michael VII was forced to abdicate and retire as a monk , and Nikephoros Botaneiates was accepted into the city as emperor .
At first , Botaneiates lacked enough troops to oppose Bryennios , who in the meantime had consolidated his control over his native Thrace , effectively isolating the capital from the remaining imperial territory in the Balkans . Botaneiates sent an embassy under the proedros Constantine Choirosphaktes , a veteran diplomat , to conduct negotiations with Bryennios . At the same time he appointed the young Alexios Komnenos as his Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) , and sought aid from the Seljuk Sultan Suleyman , who sent 2 @,@ 000 warriors and promised even more . In his message to Bryennios , the aged Botaneiates ( 76 years old at his accession ) offered him the rank of Caesar and his nomination as heir to the throne . Bryennios agreed in principle , but added a few conditions of his own , and sent the ambassadors back to Constantinople for confirmation . Botaneiates , who likely had initiated negotiations only to gain time , rejected Bryennios 's conditions , and ordered Alexios Komnenos to campaign against the rebel .
= = Prelude = =
Bryennios had camped at the plain of Kedoktos ( a name deriving from the Latin aquaeductus ) on the road to Constantinople . His army comprised 12 @,@ 000 mostly seasoned men from the regiments ( tagmata ) of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace , as well as Frankish mercenaries and the elite tagma of the Hetaireia . Alexios 's forces included 2 @,@ 000 Turkish horse @-@ archers , 2 @,@ 000 Chomatenoi from Asia Minor , a few hundred Frankish knights from Italy , and the newly raised regiment of the Immortals , which had been created by Michael VII 's chief minister Nikephoritzes and was intended to form the nucleus of a new army . Estimates of Alexios 's total force vary from 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 500 ( Haldon ) to some 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 ( Birkenmeier ) , but it is clear that he was at a considerable disadvantage against Bryennios ; not only was his force considerably smaller , but also far less experienced than Bryennios 's veterans .
Alexios 's forces set forth from Constantinople and camped on the shore of the river Halmyros — a small stream between Herakleia ( modern Marmara Ereğlisi ) and Selymbria ( modern Silivri ) , modern Kalivri Dere — near the fort of Kalavrye ( Greek : Καλαβρύη , modern Yolçatı ) . Curiously , and against established practice , he did not fortify his camp , perhaps so as not to fatigue or dishearten his men with an implicit admission of weakness . He then sent his Turkish allies to scout out Bryennios 's disposition , strength and intentions . Alexios 's spies easily accomplished their tasks , but on the eve of the battle some were captured and Bryennios too was informed of Alexios 's strength .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial dispositions and plans = = =
Bryennios arranged his army in the typical three divisions , each in two lines , as prescribed by the Byzantine military manuals . The right wing , under his brother John , was 5 @,@ 000 strong and comprised his Frankish mercenaries , Thessalian cavalry , the Hetaireia , and the Maniakatai regiment ( descendants of the veterans of George Maniakes 's campaign in Sicily and Italy ) . His left wing , 3 @,@ 000 men from Thrace and Macedonia , was placed under Katakalon Tarchaneiotes , and the centre , under Bryennios himself , comprised 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men from Thessaly , Thrace and Macedonia . Again , according to standard doctrine , on his far left , about half a kilometer ( " two stadia " ) from the main force , he had stationed an outflanking detachment ( hyperkerastai ) of Pechenegs .
Alexios deployed his smaller army in waiting near Bryennios 's camp , and divided it in two commands . The left , which confronted Bryennios 's strongest division , was commanded by himself and contained the Frankish knights to the right and the Immortals to the Franks ' left . The right command was under Constantine Katakalon , and comprised the Chomatenoi and the Turks . The latter , according to the Alexiad , were given the role of flank guard ( plagiophylakes ) and tasked with observing and countering the Pechenegs . Conversely , on the extreme left Alexios formed his own flanking detachment ( apparently drawn from among the Immortals ) , concealed from enemy view inside a hollow . Given his inferiority , Alexios was forced to remain on the defensive . His only chance at success was that his out @-@ flankers , concealed by the broken terrain , would surprise and create enough confusion among Bryennios 's men for him and his strong left wing to break through their lines .
= = = Alexios 's army collapses = = =
As the rebel forces advanced towards his enemy 's line , Alexios 's flankers sprung their ambush . Their attack did indeed cause some initial confusion , but Bryennios ( or , according to the Alexiad , his brother John , who commanded the right wing ) rallied his men and led forth the second line . This counter @-@ attack broke Alexios 's flankers ; as they retreated in panic , they fell upon the Immortals , who also panicked and fled , abandoning their posts . Although they suffered some casualties from Bryennios 's pursuing men , most managed to escape well to the rear of Alexios 's army .
Alexios , who was fighting with his retinue alongside the Franks , did not immediately realize that his left wing had collapsed . In the meantime , on his right wing , the Chomatenoi , engaged with Tarchaneiotes 's men , were outflanked and attacked in the rear by the Pechenegs , who had somehow evaded Alexios 's Turkish flank @-@ guards . The Chomatenoi too broke and fled , and Alexios 's fate seemed sealed . At this point the Pechenegs failed to follow up their success , and instead turned back and began looting Bryennios 's own camp . After gathering what plunder they could , they left the battle and made for their homes .
Nevertheless , Bryennios 's victory seemed certain , for his wings began to envelop Alexios 's Franks in the centre . Realizing his position and despairing in the face of defeat ( and , as Bryennios the Younger records , because he had disobeyed imperial orders to wait for more Turkish reinforcements and feared punishment from Botaneiates ) , Alexios at first resolved to attempt an all @-@ or @-@ nothing attack on Bryennios himself to decapitate the enemy army , but was dissuaded by his servant . With only six of his men around him , he then managed to break through the surrounding enemy soldiers . Confusion reigned behind their lines as a result of the Pecheneg attack on the rebel camp , and in this tumult Alexios saw Bryennios 's imperial parade horse , with his two swords of state , being driven away to safety . Alexios and his men charged the escort , seized the horse , and rode away with it from the battlefield .
Having reached a hill behind his army 's original position , Alexios began to regroup his army from the units that had broken . He sent out messengers to rally his scattered men with news that Bryennios had been killed , showing his parade horse as evidence . At the same time , the promised Turkish reinforcements began arriving at the scene , lifting his men 's morale . All the while , on the battlefield , Bryennios 's army had closed around Alexios 's Franks , who dismounted and offered to surrender . In the process the rebel army had become totally disordered , with units mixed and their formations disordered . Bryennios 's reserves had been thrown in confusion by the Pecheneg attack , while his front lines relaxed , thinking that the battle was over .
= = = Alexios 's counter @-@ attack = = =
Having restored his surviving forces to order , and aware of the confusion in Bryennios 's forces , Alexios decided to counter @-@ attack . The plan he laid out made far greater use of the particular skills of his Turkish horse @-@ archers . He divided his force into three commands , of which two were left behind in ambush . The other , formed from the Immortals and the Chomatenoi under Alexios 's own command , was not arrayed in one continuous line , but broken up in small groups , intermingled with other groups of Turkish horse @-@ archers . This command would advance on the rebels , attack them , then feign retreat and draw them into the ambush .
The attack of Alexios 's division initially caught Bryennios 's men off guard , but , being veteran troops , they soon recovered and once again began to push it back . Retreating , Alexios 's troops , and especially the Turks , employed skirmishing tactics , attacking the enemy line and then withdrawing swiftly , thus keeping their opponents at bay and weakening the coherence of their line . Some among Alexios 's men chose to attack Bryennios , and the rebel general had to defend against several attacks himself .
When the battle reached the place of the ambush , Alexios 's wings , likened in the Alexiad to a " swarm of wasps " , attacked the rebel army on the flanks firing arrows and shouting loudly , spreading panic and confusion among Bryennios 's men . Despite the attempts of Bryennios and his brother John to rally them , their army broke and fled , and other units , which were following behind , did likewise . The two brothers tried to put up a rear @-@ guard defence , but they were overcome and captured .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle marked the end of Bryennios 's revolt , although Nikephoros Basilakes gathered up much of Bryennios 's defeated army and attempted to claim the throne for himself . He too was defeated by Alexios Komnenos , who then proceeded to expel the Pechenegs from Thrace . The elder Bryennios was blinded on Botaneiates 's orders , but the emperor later took pity on him and restored him his titles and his fortune . After Alexios Komnenos seized the throne himself in 1081 , Bryennios was further honoured with high dignities . He even held command during Alexios 's campaigns against the Pechenegs , and defended Adrianople from a rebel attack in 1095 . His son or grandson , Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger , was married to Alexios 's daughter Anna Komnene . He became a prominent general of Alexios 's reign , eventually raised to the rank of Caesar , and a historian .
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= John Sigismund Zápolya =
John Sigismund Zápolya or Szapolyai ( Hungarian : Szapolyai János Zsigmond ; 7 July 1540 – 14 March 1571 ) was King of Hungary as John II from 1540 to 1551 , and from 1556 to 1570 , and the first Prince of Transylvania from 1570 to his death . He was the only son of John I , King of Hungary , and Isabella of Poland . John I ruled parts of the Kingdom of Hungary , with the support of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman ; the remaining areas were ruled by Ferdinand I , who also claimed Hungary . The two kings concluded a peace treaty in 1538 acknowledging Ferdinand 's right to reunite Hungary after John I 's death , but shortly after John Sigismund 's birth , and on his deathbed , John I bequeathed his realm to his son . The late king 's staunchest supporters elected the infant John Sigismund king , but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary .
Suleiman invaded Hungary under the pretext of protecting John Sigismund against Ferdinand . The capital of Hungary , Buda , fell to the Ottomans without opposition in 1541 , but Suleiman allowed the dowager queen , Isabella , to retain the territory east of the river Tisza on John Sigismund 's behalf . Isabella and John Sigismund moved to Lippa ( now Lipova in Romania ) . Before long , they took up residence in Gyulafehérvár in Transylvania ( now Alba Iulia in Romania ) . John Sigismund 's realm was administered by his father 's treasurer , George Martinuzzi , who wanted to reunite Hungary under the rule of Ferdinand . Martinuzzi forced Isabella to renounce her son 's realm in exchange for two Silesian duchies and 140 @,@ 000 florins in 1551 . John Sigismund and his mother settled in Poland , but she continued to negotiate for John Sigismund 's restoration with Ferdinand 's enemies .
Ferdinand could not protect eastern Hungary against the Ottomans . Urged by Suleiman , the Transylvanian Diet in 1556 persuaded John Sigismund and his mother to return to Transylvania . She ruled her son 's realm until her death in 1559 . A wealthy lord , Melchior Balassa , rebelled against John Sigismund in late 1561 , which contributed to the loss to Ferdinand of most counties outside Transylvania . The Székely people , whose liberties had been restricted in the 1550s , also rose up against John Sigismund , but he crushed the rebellion . During the ensuing war against the Habsburgs , the Ottomans supported John Sigismund , and he paid homage to Suleiman in Zemun in 1566 . The 1568 Treaty of Adrianople concluded the war , confirming John Sigismund in the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary ( Transylvania and " Partium " ) .
John Sigismund initiated a series of theological debates among the representatives of the concurring theological schools of the Reformation in the 1560s . He converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism in 1562 and from Lutheranism to Calvinism in 1564 . Around five years later , accepting the Anti @-@ Trinitarian views of his physician , Giorgio Biandrata and court preacher Ferenc Dávid , he became the only Unitarian monarch in history . In 1568 , the Diet passed the Edict of Torda ( now Turda in Romania ) , which emphasized that " faith is a gift of God " and prohibited the persecution of people for religious reasons . The edict expanded the limits of freedom of religion beyond the standards of late 16th @-@ century Europe . John Sigismund abandoned the title " elected king of Hungary " in the Treaty of Speyer in 1570 . Thereafter , he styled himself " Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary " . He died childless . The Catholic Stephen Báthory succeeded him .
= = Family = =
John Sigismund 's father , John Zápolya , was the wealthiest Hungarian lord in the early 16th century . After the Ottoman Sultan , Suleiman the Magnificent , inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hungarian army in the Battle of Mohács , the majority of the noblemen elected John Zápolya king in 1526 . However , a group of influential lords proclaimed Ferdinand of Habsburg , Archduke of Austria , king in the same year . Hungary fell into a civil war that lasted for decades .
John paid homage to Suleiman at Mohács in 1529 to secure Ottoman support against Ferdinand . However , neither John nor Ferdinand could win control of the whole country during the next years . To conclude the civil war , the two kings ' envoys signed the Treaty of Várad on 24 February 1538 , which confirmed both kings ' right to retain the lands that they held . John , who was childless , also acknowledged Ferdinand 's right to take control of his realm ( the central and eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary ) after his death . John also stipulated , if he fathered a son , his son would inherit his ancestral domains . Ferdinand , however , proved unable to protect John 's realm against an Ottoman invasion . At age 52 John married Isabella Jagiellon , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Sigismund I the Old , King of Poland , on 2 March 1539 . The humanist scholars Paolo Giovio and Antun Vrančić emphasized that Isabella was one of the most educated women of their age .
John Sigismund was born in Buda on 7 July 1540 . On learning of his birth , his father , who was on campaign in Transylvania , rode to his soldiers ' camp to inform them of the good news . The following day John fell ill , and he died on 21 or 22 July . Before his death he persuaded those present at his death bed to take an oath that they would prevent the transfer of his realm to Ferdinand .
= = Childhood = =
= = = Accession = = =
Soon after John Zápolya died , his treasurer , George Martinuzzi , hurried to Buda to secure John Sigismund 's inheritance . On Martinuzzi 's proposal , the Diet of Hungary elected John Sigismund king on 13 September 1540 , but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary . The Diet proclaimed Queen Isabella and George Martinuzzi , along with two powerful lords , Péter Petrovics and Bálint Török , the guardians of the infant monarch .
In August , Ferdinand 's envoys had demanded the transfer of the late John Zápolya 's realm to Ferdinand in accordance with the Treaty of Várad . Peter Perényi , who had been the commander of Zápolya 's troops in Upper Hungary , and Franjo Frankopan , Archbishop of Kalocsa , soon deserted to Ferdinand . The wealthy Stephen Majláth expelled most of John Sigismund 's supporters from Transylvania in an attempt to seize the province for himself . Ferdinand 's envoy , Hieronymus Łaski , informed Suleiman of the Treaty of Várad , asking the sultan to consent to the unification of Hungary under Ferdinand 's rule . Instead , the sultan stated that he supported John Sigismund and had Łaski arrested .
Ferdinand 's army seized Visegrád , Vác , Pest , Tata and Székesfehérvár in October , but could not capture Buda . His military commander , Wilhelm von Roggendorf , again laid siege to Buda on 4 May 1541 . Suleiman left Istanbul at the head of a large army in June to take advantage of the new civil war in Hungary . On his command , Petru Rareș , Prince of Moldavia , captured Stephen Majláth and forced the Transylvanian Diet to swear fealty to John Sigismund in late July . Roggendorf lifted the siege of Buda before Suleiman reached the town on 26 August .
Suleiman said that he had come to protect John Sigismund 's interests , but also announced that he wanted to see the infant king , because he had heard rumours about Isabella 's having actually given birth to a daughter . Six Hungarian lords ( including George Martinuzzi and Bálint Török ) accompanied John Sigismund to the sultan 's camp on 29 August . During the meeting , janissaries entered Buda , saying that they wanted to see the town . This turned out to be a trick that enabled them to seize the capital of Hungary without opposition . Bálint Török was captured in the sultan 's camp . Suleiman declared that John Sigismund could retain the territories to the east of the river Tisza in exchange for a yearly tribute of 10 @,@ 000 florins .
= = = First rule = = =
Isabella and Martinuzzi left Buda on 5 September 1541 , taking John Sigismund and the Holy Crown with them . She and her son settled in Lippa , which was the center of an old domain of the Zápolya family . The delegates of the counties of John Sigismund 's realm met in Debrecen on 18 October . They swore fealty to him and acknowledged the sultan 's suzerainty . Martinuzzi signed a treaty with Ferdinand I 's representative , Caspar Serédy , in Gyalu ( now Gilău in Romania ) on 29 December . According to the Treaty of Gyalu , Hungary was to be reunited under the rule of Ferdinand , but John Sigismund 's right to the Zápolyas ' domains in Upper Hungary was confirmed .
On 29 March 1542 , the " Three Nations of Transylvania " urged Isabella to move from Lippa ( which was located near the Ottoman Empire ) to Transylvania . After John Statileo , Bishop of Transylvania , died in April , the Diet granted the domains of the bishopric to the royal family . Isabella and John Sigismund moved to Gyulafehérvár in June , taking up residence in the bishops ' castle .
The Transylvanian Diet confirmed the Treaty of Gyalu in August . The representatives of the noblemen of the Partium ( the counties between the Tisza and Transylvania ) also consented to a war against the Ottoman Empire in November . However , the Habsburgs ' army was unable to recapture Pest or defeat the Ottomans . Caspar Serédy came to Gyalu to take possession of John Sigismund 's realm on Ferdinand 's behalf , but Isabella refused him on 17 December . Three days later , the Diet declared the Treaty of Gyalu null and void , over the objections of the delegates of the Transylvanian Saxons .
The relationship between Isabella and Martinuzzi was tense . Martinuzzi continued to control state administration and finance even after the Diet confirmed Isabella 's superior position in February 1543 . The first tribute from John Sigismund 's realm was sent to the Ottoman Sultan in June . In the same month , Saxon clergymen from Kronstadt ( now Brașov in Romania ) , who had adopted Lutheranism , participated in a debate with Catholic priests in the presence of the queen and Martinuzzi in Gyulafehérvár . The Saxons were allowed to leave , although Martinuzzi , who was bishop of Várad , wanted to bring them before court on charges of heresy . In April 1544 , the Diet of Torda prescribed that travellers should respect the religious customs of the settlements they visited , showing that the ideas of the Reformation had spread to the whole province .
The first Transylvanian Diet at which delegates from the Partium were present met in August 1544 . At the Diet , Martinuzzi was made chief justice . Five counties that had previously accepted Ferdinand 's rule – Bereg , Szabolcs , Szatmár , Ung and Zemplén – swore allegiance to John Sigismund before the end of 1555 .
The Ottomans laid claim to two fortresses , Becse and Becskerek ( now Novi Bečej and Zrenjanin in Serbia ) , in early 1546 . The sultan refused to include John Sigismund 's realm in the peace treaty that he concluded with Ferdinand 's brother , Emperor Charles V , in 1547 . Both actions suggested that Suleiman intended to seize part of John Sigismund 's kingdom , prompting Isabella and Martinuzzi to reopen negotiations with Ferdinand on the reunification of Hungary in 1548 . Martinuzzi and Ferdinand 's envoy , Nicolaus of Salm , signed a treaty in Nyírbátor on 8 September 1549 . According to their agreement , Isabella and John Sigismund were to abdicate in exchange for the Silesian duchies of Opole and Racibórz and 100 @,@ 000 florins in compensation . Isabella refused to execute the treaty and remained in Gyulafehérvár . Martinuzzi laid siege to the town , forcing her to give up resistance in October 1550 .
Isabella and her supporters Péter Petrovics and Ferenc Patócsy made a new attempt to prevent the execution of the Treaty of Nyírbátor in May 1551 , but Martinuzzi defeated them . Under duress , Isabella abdicated in favor of Ferdinand on John Sigismund 's behalf , in return for the two Silesian duchies and 140 @,@ 000 florins on 19 July . Two days later , she surrendered the Holy Crown to Ferdinand 's representative , Giovanni Battista Castaldo . The Diet acknowledged their abdication and swore fealty to Ferdinand on 26 July .
= = = In exile = = =
Isabella and John Sigismund left Transylvania on 6 August 1551 , accompanied by Péter Petrovics . They settled in Kassa ( now Košice in Slovakia ) , and moved to Opole in March 1552 . Realizing that the Silesian duchies were poor , they left for Poland before the end of April . During the following years they lived in Kraków , Warsaw , Sanok , and other Polish towns . John Sigismund often went hunting for bison and regularly visited his uncle , Sigismund II Augustus , King of Poland . However , his health was delicate because he suffered from epilepsy and chronic intestinal disorders .
The contemporaneous historian Ferenc Forgách , who was Isabella 's implacable enemy , accused her of bringing her son up " shamefully " , allowing him to keep bad company and drink . John Sigismund 's tutors were actually humanist scholars : the Hungarian Mihály Csáky and the Polish Wojciech Nowopołski . Nowopołski aroused John Sigismund 's interest in theological debates .
Ferdinand 's rule remained fragile in the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary because he did not send enough mercenaries to defend them . Suspecting that Martinuzzi was conspiring with the Ottomans , Castaldo had Martinuzzi murdered in late 1551 . The Ottomans occupied the lowlands of Banat in the summer of 1552 .
In March 1553 Suleiman urged Isabella to return to Hungary . Péter Petrovics rose against Ferdinand , and an assembly of the Székely people declared their loyalty to John Sigismund . However , both uprisings were crushed before the end of September . Deciding in April 1554 that Hungary should be restored to John Sigismund , Suleiman allowed Péter Petrovics to take control of two fortresses in Banat . Henry II of France , engaged in war against the Habsburgs , also urged Isabella to return to Hungary , promising one of his daughters in marriage to John Sigismund .
Suleiman sent messages to the Transylvanian lords in 1555 , demanding they obey John Sigismund without resistance . Before the end of the year , the representatives of the Three Nations petitioned Ferdinand either to send reinforcements or to absolve them from their oath of fealty . Petrovics stormed into Transylvania in early 1556 . The Diet swore an oath of fealty to John Sigismund on 12 March 1556 , referring to him as " the son of King John " . The envoys of the Diet departed for Poland on 1 June to persuade Isabella and her son to return . Two weeks later , Ferdinand informed Suleiman that he was ready to withdraw his troops from John Sigismund 's former realm .
= = = Return = = =
The representatives of the Three Nations received Isabella and John Sigismund with much pomp and ceremony in Kolozsvár ( now Cluj @-@ Napoca in Romania ) on 22 October 1556 . The Diet confirmed her right to administer state affairs in the name of her son , who was still a minor . In the following months several counties outside Transylvania ( including Abaúj , Bihar , and Gömör ) also acknowledged John Sigismund 's rule .
Isabella adopted a tolerant religious policy , enabling the spread of Calvinism , especially in Partium and Kolozsvár . In 1559 she started new negotiations with Ferdinand , proposing to renounce her son 's title of king if Ferdinand would agree to marry one of his daughters to John Sigismund and to confirm John Sigismund 's rule in the lands to the east of the Tisza . However , the dowager queen died at the age of 40 on 18 September 1559 .
= = King @-@ elect = =
= = = Start of personal rule = = =
John Sigismund 's rule began with his mother 's death . Rather than adopting a new title , he continued to style himself rex electus ( king @-@ elect ) . Mihály Csáky , Christopher and Stephen Báthory , and his mother 's other advisors continued to participate in state administration . John Sigismund sent envoys to Ferdinand to propose marriage with one of Ferdinand 's daughters , but also to announce his claim to the parts of Hungary under Ferdinand 's rule . His demands were rejected , but peace was preserved .
John Sigismund showed a particular interest in religious matters and initiated several debates among the representatives of diverse theological schools . The first debate was held between Lutheran and Calvinist priests in Medgyes ( now Mediaș in Romania ) in January 1560 . A year and a half later , John Sigismund sent letters to the University of Wittenberg and other theological centers in Germany to seek advice on the main points of the two Protestant schools of thought .
Melchior Balassa , one of the wealthiest lords in John Sigismund 's realm , deserted to Ferdinand in December 1561 . John Sigismund moved to seize Balassa 's domains , but his army was routed at Hadad ( now Hodod in Romania ) on 4 March 1562 . Stirred up by Balassa , the Székely commoners rose to restore their ancient liberties ( including exemption from taxes ) , which had been restricted in the 1550s . John Sigismund 's army routed them in May , and their leaders were impaled or mutilated . The Diet adopted new laws to restrict the privileges of the Székelys , including a ban on the employment of commoners as jurors . Two new royal castles named Székelytámad ( " Székely @-@ assault " ) and Székelybánja ( " Székely @-@ regret " ) were erected in the Székely Land . After Balassa 's revolt , most counties outside Transylvania changed allegiance from John Sigismund to Ferdinand . To persuade Ferdinand to renounce the counties , John Sigismund even offered not to style himself king , but this was rejected in July 1562 .
John Sigismund , originally Roman Catholic , converted to Lutheranism before the end of 1562 . However , debates between Lutheran and Calvinist theologians continued . John Sigismund appointed his court physician , Giorgio Biandrata ( who as an Anti @-@ Trinitarian did not share either the Lutheran or the Calvinist view ) to head a synod to reconcile the Lutheran and the Calvinist clergymen , but their differences proved insuperable in April 1564 . The Diet acknowledged the existence of a separate Calvinist denomination in June . John Sigismund also adopted Calvinism and made Ferenc Dávid his court preacher .
= = = Wars and debates = = =
Ferdinand died on 25 July 1564 , and his son Maximilian succeeded him . The Transylvanian Diet declared war to reoccupy the counties that had been lost to the Habsburgs in 1562 . John Sigismund 's army seized Szatmár ( now Satu Mare in Romania ) , Hadad and Nagybánya ( now Baia Mare in Romania ) before the end of 1562 , but a counter @-@ invasion by Lazarus von Schwendi reached the river Szamos in March 1565 . The envoys of John Sigismund and Maximilian concluded a treaty in Szatmár on 13 March 1565 in which John Sigismund renounced his title of king in return for the recognition of his hereditary rule in Transylvania John Sigismund was also to marry Maximilian 's sister , Joanna .
However , the Ottomans forced John Sigismund to declare the treaty null and void on 21 April . John Sigismund and Hasan , Pasha of Temesvár , joined forces and recaptured Erdőd ( now Ardud in Romania ) , Nagybánya and Szatmár . He intended to see the sultan in Istanbul to give an explanation for the Treaty of Szatmár , but Suleiman informed him that he would personally come to Hungary .
Ferenc Dávid began to include Anti @-@ Trinitarian ideas in his sermons , which infuriated the Calvinist bishop of Debrecen , Péter Melius Juhász . John Sigismund organized an open debate about the doctrine of Trinity , which was held in Gyulafehérvár in April 1566 . After the debate John Sigismund granted funds to the Calvinist publishing house in Debrecen . He also sponsored the establishment of Protestant colleges in Kolozsvár , Marosvásárhely ( present @-@ day Târgu Mureș in Romania ) and Nagyvárad . His letters to Petrus Ramus and other leading scholars of the Reformation show that he wanted to develop the royal college in Gyulafehérvár into an academy . An anthology of Italian poems , published in Venice in the 1560s , hailed John Sigismund as " patron of the Renaissance " .
Sultan Suleiman came to Zemun on the Danube in preparation for his campaign against Habsburg territories in the summer of 1566 . John Sigismund hurried to the sultan 's camp , accompanied by 400 Transylvanian lords . After John Sigismund and his principal advisors prostrated themselves before the sultan in his tent , Suleiman confirmed John Sigismund 's position as hereditary ruler . According to the eyewitness Mustafa Selaniki , the sultan addressed John Sigismund as his " beloved son " .
John Sigismund invaded Upper Hungary on the sultan 's order on 28 July . However , when Suleiman died during the Siege of Szigetvár on 6 September , Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ordered John Sigismund to return to Transylvania . In a letter written about this time to Cosimo I , Duke of Florence , the mercenary Giovanandrea Gromo described John Sigismund as " extremely benevolent , gracious , subtle in thought , wise , level @-@ headed , industrious [ and ] brave " . Gromo mentioned that John Sigismund spoke Latin , Italian , German , Polish , Hungarian and Romanian well , and could also speak Greek and Turkish .
[ John Sigismund ] is of medium height and slender , with blond , silky hair and extremely fine , white skin . ... [ H ] is blue eyes gaze mildly and with benevolence ... His arms and hands are long and finely articulated , but powerful ... [ H ] e heartily enjoys every kind of hunting , both for large game ... and for hare and fowl . ... He enjoys training horses . ... He is very strong in battle with the lance ... [ I ] n archery few are his equal ... He runs and jumps better than average ; he loves wrestling , even if many are superior to him ... [ H ] e loves music very much ... He plays the lute surpassing all but very few . ... [ H ] e tends more to cheerfulness than to melancholy ... He is opposed to suffering and only with great difficulty does he bring himself to mete out punishment ... Among his recognized fine qualities is his abstinent mode of life ...
John Sigismund appointed a Calvinist bishop as the only religious leader of the Romanians in his realm in November 1566 . The Diet also ordered that all Romanian priests who refused to convert to Calvinism were to be expelled , but this decision was not carried out . Influenced by Dávid and Biandrata , John Sigismund became receptive to Anti @-@ Trinitarian ideas from early 1567 . With John Sigismund 's support , Dávid published five books to promote his views , reproving for idolatry those who accepted the dogma of the Trinity .
John Sigismund and Hasan Pasha stormed into Upper Hungary in March 1567 . However , John Sigismund was taken seriously ill in summer . The Transylvanian lords pledged to respect his last will when electing his successor . The Ottoman Sultan Selim II granted the Transylvanian lords the right to freely elect their monarch , only preserving the right to approve their decision . Before long , John Sigismund recovered .
= = = Freedom of religion = = =
The Diet met again in Torda in early 1568 and authorized preachers to " teach the Gospel " according to their own understanding . The Diet also declared that nobody should " suffer at the hands of others for religious reasons " , stating that " faith is a gift of God " . The Edict of Torda expanded the limits of religious freedom far beyond the standard of 16th @-@ century Europe . The decree did not put a complete end to discrimination , because official status was granted only to the Catholic , Lutheran , and Calvinist clergymen , but Unitarian , Orthodox , Armenian , Jewish , and Muslim believers could also freely practise their religions .
The Treaty of Adrianople , signed in February 1568 , concluded the first war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs . According to the treaty , John Sigismund retained all territories that he had conquered from Maximilian in the previous years . The envoy of the Ottoman Sultan Selim II in Paris suggested that John Sigismund should marry Margaret of Valois , but his proposal was ignored .
Many theological discussions on the Trinity were organized in 1568 , the first of them taking place in his presence in Gyulafehérvár from 8 to 17 March . The growing influence of the Anti @-@ Trinitarians on John Sigismund became obvious in 1569 . After Péter Károlyi , a Calvinist cleric , complained about John Sigismund 's bias , John Sigismund accused the Calvinist bishop , Melius , of having persecuted non @-@ Calvinist priests , stating that Melius " should not play the pope " . The largest debate between the Calvinist and Anti @-@ Trinitarian , or Unitarian , theologians took place in Nagyvárad from 20 to 25 October 1569 . Although neither side was declared winner , after the debate John Sigismund accepted Anti @-@ Trinitarian ideas , which made him the only Unitarian monarch in history .
We wish that in our country ... freedom shall reign . We know furthermore that faith is a gift from God and that conscience cannot be constrained . And if [ Peter Melius Juhász ] does not abide by this , he may go to the other side of the Tisza . | John Sigismund 's words to Péter Károlyi
After John Sigismund 's conversion , most of his courtiers also adhered to Unitarianism . According to historian Gábor Barta , political factors also contributed to John Sigismund 's conversion , because he " found in [ Anti @-@ Trinitarianism ] the means through which he could express both his adherence to the Christian world and the distance from it " . István Keul says that the simplicity of the idea that " There is but one God ! " also contributed to the spread of Unitarianism , especially among the Székely villagers and the townspeople of Kolozsvár . A religious enthusiast , György Karácsony , stirred up many peasants in Partium to wage holy war against the Ottomans in 1569 . They marched against Debrecen , but the neighboring noblemen routed them near the town in early 1570 .
= = Prince of Transylvania = =
Negotiations between John Sigismund and Maximilian concluded with the Treaty of Speyer , signed on 16 August 1570 . John Sigismund acknowledged Maximilian as the sole king of Hungary and abandoned his own royal title . Instead , he adopted the new title " Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary " , also confirming that his realm was part of the Kingdom of Hungary and would revert to Maximilian or Maximilian 's heir after John Sigismund 's death .
John Sigismund , now gravely ill , ratified the treaty on 1 December . The last Diet to meet during his reign confirmed the decrees of previous Diets enhancing religious freedom . He died in Gyulafehérvár on 14 March 1571 , a few days after Maximilian had ratified the Treaty of Speyer . The Transylvanian lords kept his death secret for days . He was buried in St. Michael 's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár , in accordance with Unitarian rite .
John Sigismund had made his last testament and will in the presence of Chancellor Mihály Csáky and Treasurer Gáspár Bekes during his earlier illness in the summer of 1567 . Despite his recovery , he did not alter the text in the following years . He willed most of his wealth to his uncle , Sigismund August of Poland , and his three aunts , Sophia , Anna and Catherine . He bequeathed his library to the Protestant school of Gyulafehérvár .
John Sigismund , who never married and left no heir , was the last member of the Zápolya family . In his will , he assured the Diet of its right to choose the new monarch . The representatives of the Three Nations elected the Roman Catholic Stephen Báthory , who adopted the title Voivode of Transylvania . Gáspár Bekes , supported by Maximilian , contested the election , but Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and consolidated his rule .
= = Ancestors = =
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