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= St Mary Redcliffe =
St. Mary Redcliffe is an Anglican parish church located in the Redcliffe district of Bristol , England . The church is a short walk from Bristol Temple Meads . The church building was constructed from the 12th to the 15th centuries , and it has been a place of Christian worship for over 900 years . The church is renowned for the beauty of its Gothic architecture and is classed as a Grade I listed building by Historic England . It was famously described by Queen Elizabeth I as " the fairest , goodliest , and most famous parish church in England . "
Little remains of the earliest churches on the site although a little of the fabric has been dated to the `12th century . Much of the current building dates from the late 13th and 14th centuries when it was built and decorated by wealthy merchants of the city whose tomb and monuments decorate the church . The spire fell after being struck by lightning in 1446 and was not rebuilt until 1872 . Little of the original stained glass remains following damage in the English Civil War with extensive new glass being added during the Victorian era . The tower contains 15 bells designed for full @-@ circle English @-@ Style change ringing . Other music in the church is provided by several choirs and the Harrison & Harrison organ .
= = History = =
The first church on this site was built in Saxon times , as the Port of Bristol first began . In medieval times , St. Mary Redcliffe , sitting on a red cliff above the River Avon , was a sign to seafarers , who would pray in it at their departure , and give thanks there upon their return . The church was built and beautified by Bristol 's wealthy merchants , who paid to have masses sung for their souls and many of whom are commemorated there .
Parts of the church date from the beginning of the 12th century . Although its plan dates from an earlier period , much of the church as it now stands was built between 1292 and 1370 , with the south aisle and transept in the Decorated Gothic of the 13th century and the greater part of the building in the late 14th century Perpendicular . The patrons included Simon de Burton , Mayor of Bristol , and William I Canynges , merchant , five times Mayor of Bristol and three times MP . In the 15th century Canynges ' grandson , the great merchant William II Canynges , also five times Mayor and three times MP , assumed responsibility for bringing the work of the interior to completion and filling the windows with stained glass . In 1446 much of this work was damaged when the spire was struck by lightning , and fell , causing damage to the interior ; however the angle of the falling masonry and the extent of the damage is unclear . Although the spire was to remain damaged for the next 400 years , Canynges continued in his commitment to restore and beautify the church . He took Holy Orders after the death of his wife , and is buried in the church . Other families associated with St Mary Redcliffe include the Penns , the Cabots , the Jays , the Ameryks and the Medes .
In 1571 , the school that was to become St Mary Redcliffe and Temple School was formed in a chapel in the churchyard . The church and school have remained closely linked in many aspects of their operations .
The 17th century saw the loss of many of the church fittings and much of the stained glass during the Reformation and the English Civil War . During the reign of Queen Anne , and partially funded by her , the interior of St. Mary Redcliffe was refitted in the Baroque style .
Thomas Chatterton , whose father was sexton of St Mary Redcliffe , was born in the house next to the church in 1752 . He studied the church records in a room above the south porch , and wrote several works which he attempted to pass as genuine medieval documents . He committed suicide in London at the age of seventeen . In 1795 the church saw the marriages of Samuel Taylor Coleridge to Sarah Fricker and Robert Southey to Sarah 's sister Elizabeth .
The upper part of the spire , missing since being struck by lightning in 1446 , was reconstructed in 1872 to a height of 292 ft ( 89 m ) . Funds for the spire rebuilding had been raised by the Canynges Society , the Friends of St Mary Redcliffe , which was formed in 1843 . They raised most of the £ 40 @,@ 000 needed . The 1 tonne ( 0 @.@ 98 long tons ; 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) capstone was laid by the Mayor , Mr William Procter Baker , at the top of the scaffolding . Because of the effect of environmental pollution on the Dundry Stone , further repairs to the spire and other stonework was needed in the 1930s . A mobile telecommunication mast is fitted inside the spire .
During the Bristol Blitz in the Second World War a bomb exploded in a nearby street , throwing a rail from the tramway over the houses and into the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe , where it became embedded in the ground . The rail is left there as a monument .
= = Archives = =
Parish records for St Mary Redcliffe church , Bristol are held at Bristol Record Office ( Ref . P.St MR ) ( online catalogue ) including baptism , marriage and burial registers . The archive also includes records of the incumbent , churchwardens , overseers of the poor , parochial church council , chantries , charities , estates , restoration of the church , schools , societies and vestry plus deeds , photographs , maps and plans . Records related to St Mary Redcliffe are also held at Berkeley Castle in the Muniments Room and on microfilm at Gloucestershire Archives .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Mary Redcliffe is one of the largest parish churches in England , and according to some sources it is the largest of all . The spire is also the third tallest among parish churches , and it is the tallest building in Bristol .
St Mary Redcliffe is cruciform in plan , with a chapel extending to the east of the chancel , and a large 13th @-@ century tower placed asymmetrically to the north of the west front . The tower was added to the building in the 13th century . It has broad angle buttresses and Y tracery to the windows . The bell stage has ogee gables and polygonal corner pinnacles . After the collapse of the original spire in 1446 it remained truncated until the 1870s when George Godwin rebuilt it . The nave , chancel and choir are vaulted with richly decorated with bosses in a variety of styles . The Lady Chapel has a star vault . The transepts has large pointed spandrels and a blind arcade with mullions descending from the clerestory windows . Beneath the Lady Chapel is a small crypt , with a larger one beneath the transept of three by two bays .
There is a rectangular 13th century porch on either side of the nave . The north porch has an inner component dating from 1200 , with black Purbeck Marble columns , and an outer hexagonal portion built in 1325 which is ogee @-@ cusped with a Moorish appearance . The outer polygonal part of the north porch was built in the 14th century . It has crocketed gables to the buttresses and is richly decorated with pinnacles and a quatrefoil parapet above a lierne vault .
Within the church are an oak chest with caryatids dating from 1593 . The choir stalls date from the 15th century . There are two fonts ; one from the 13th century and the other made of marble by William Paty was made in 1755 . The oak pulpit was built in the 19th century by William Bennett . A wrought @-@ iron gilded chancel screen built by William Edney in 1710 still stands under the tower .
On 1 June 2016 Purcell announced they had been awarded the contract to extend St Mary Redcliffe to include visitor amenities , step @-@ free access and a community hub .
= = = Monuments and memorials = = =
The church is adorned with monuments to individuals from the history of the city , including Sir William Penn ( the father of William Penn , founder of Pennsylvania ) . His helm and half @-@ armour are hung on the wall , together with the tattered banners of the Dutch ships that he captured in battle . The church also displays a rib of a whale that John Cabot brought back from one of his voyages .
The tombs of William II Canynges and his grandfather William I Canynges both have effigies on them , as does the tomb of Robert de Berkeley . There are also multiple wall monuments and brasses .
= = = Stained glass = = =
Little of the early stained glass remains . In the west window of St John 's Chapel , for instance , the medieval glass barely survived the destruction ( said to have been caused by Oliver Cromwell 's men ) . Most of the higher portions went untouched , but others were severely damaged . In some cases the windows were impossible to repair , and clear glass was eventually introduced to replace the missing scenes . The Victorian stained @-@ glass windows were created by some of the finest studios of that period .
William Wailes produced a design for the seven @-@ light east window following a competition launched in 1846 ; however , delays in raising the money caused delays in its installation . Controversy over the design meant that it was replaced with the current depiction of the Crucifixion by Clayton and Bell in 1904 . The tree design in the window of the south transept was also by Wailes and was installed in 1854 . In the north transept is a memorial window to Samuel Lucas who died in 1853 , designed and installed by the St Helens Crown Glass Company which later became Pilkington . Another Wailes design depicting the Offering of the Wise Men was installed in the Lady Chapel , alongside one designed by Arthur O 'Connor . The windows in the choir aisles are by Clayton and Bell who also designed the memorial to Edward Colston which is in the north wall of the north transept .
The west window was obscured by the organ until the 1860s when it was moved to make way for a depiction of the Annunciation which was designed by John Hardman Powell of Hardman & Co. and funded by Sholto Hare . Attempts to achieve some conformity with the installed work and subsequent designs lead to a further commissions for Clayton and Bell and Hardman & Co. generally as memorials to wealthy local dignitaries who had contributed to the restoration of the church .
= = = Hogarth 's triptych = = =
Sealing the Tomb , a great altarpiece triptych by William Hogarth , was commissioned in 1756 to fill the east end of the chancel . The churchwardens paid him £ 525 for his paintings of the three scenes depicted ; the Ascension featuring Mary Magdalene , on a central canvas which is 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) by 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . It is flanked by The Sealing of the Sepulchre and the Three Marys at the Tomb , each of which is 13 feet 10 inches ( 4 @.@ 22 m ) by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . They are mounted in gilded frames made by Thomas Paty . This was removed from the church by mid @-@ Victorian liturgists , before being displayed at the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery ; it is now stored in the redundant church of St Nicholas , Bristol .
= = The church bells = =
The tower contains a total of 15 bells , one bell dating from as early as 1622 cast by Purdue and two cast by Thomas I Bilbie of the Bilbie family from Chew Stoke in 1763 , the remainder were cast by John Taylor & Co at various dates , 1903 ( 9 bells ) , 1951 ( 1 bell ) , 1969 ( 1 bell ) and 2012 ( 1 bell ) . The larger Bilbie ( 10th ) bell along with the 1622 Purdue ( 11th ) bell are included in the 50cwt ring of 12 bells .
The bells are hung in a cast iron and steel H @-@ frame by John Taylor & Co dating from the major overhaul of 1903 . A number of small modifications have taken place when each additional bell was added . The 50cwt tenor bell is the largest bell in a parish church to be hung for full @-@ circle English @-@ Style change ringing and the 7th @-@ largest bell in the world , only surpassed by Liverpool Anglican Cathedral 11th ( 55cwt ) , Wells Cathedral tenor ( 56cwt ) , York Minster tenor ( 59cwt ) , St Paul 's Cathedral tenor , London ( 61cwt ) , Exeter Cathedral tenor ( 72cwt ) and Liverpool Cathedral tenor ( 82cwt ) . A new 8th bell was cast by John Taylor & Co in 2012 for the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee replacing the 1768 Bilbie bell a non @-@ swinging bell with an internal hammer fitted for use as a service bell chimed from within the body of the church .
The ring of 12 bells is augmented with two additional semitone bells . A sharp treble bell cast by John Taylor & Co in 1969 is the smallest bell in the tower and a " flat 6th " cast by John Taylor & Co in 1951 and allow different diatonic scales to be rung . All the bells have been tuned on a lathe ; the tenor bell was tuned in 1903 and strikes the note of B ( 492 Hz ) . The St Mary Redcliffe Guild of Change Ringers was founded in 1948 .
The clock chime can be heard striking the quarter chimes on the 3rd , 4th , 5th and 8th bells of the ring of 12 with the hours being struck on the largest 50cwt ( 12th ) tenor bell . The clock chime strikes the " Cambridge Chimes " , commonly known as the " Westminster Chimes " , every quarter of an hour daily from 7 a.m. to 11pm . The chimes are disabled outside of these hours . If the bells are in the ' up ' position , the chimes are also disabled ( normally during the day on Sundays ) . The clock was fully converted to electric operation during the 1960s . It is now driven by a Smith 's of Derby synchronous motor . The old pendulum , gravity escapement and weights , etc . , were removed when the clock was automated . What remains of the clock movement and electrified chiming barrel is housed in a large enclosure in the ringing room . The clock face is approximately 3 m in diameter and is on the northern elevation .
= = Choir = =
The choir have released numerous recordings , as well as touring Europe and North America .
= = Organ = =
The first pipe organ in the church , built by Harris and Byfield in 1726 , was of three manuals and 26 stops . It was rebuilt in 1829 and again in 1867 on either side of the chancel . In 1912 a four @-@ manual , 71 @-@ stop organ having over 4 @,@ 300 pipes was installed by Harrison & Harrison . Towards the end of his life Arthur Harrison said that he regarded the organ at St Mary Redcliffe as his " finest and most characteristic work " . The organ remains essentially as he designed it in 1911 .
Kevin Bowyer recorded Kaikhosru Sorabji 's First Organ Symphony on it in 1988 , for which the organ was an " ideal choice " ; the notes to the recording describe the church as " acoustically ideal , with a reverberation period of 3 ½ seconds " , and notes that the organ has " a luxuriousness of tone " and " a range of volume from practically inaudible to fiendishly loud " . William McVicker , organist at the Royal Festival Hall , has called the organ " the finest high @-@ Romantic organ ever constructed " .
November 2010 saw the first performances on the organ after an 18 @-@ month renovation by its original builders Harrison & Harrison , costing around £ 800 @,@ 000 . The organ had been disassembled and some of it taken away to the builders ' workshop in Durham . The pipes were cleaned and the leather of the bellows was replaced . The manuals were also fitted with an electronic panel for storing combinations of stop settings .
= = = Organists , choirmasters and directors of music = = =
There is no record of the names of some of the early organists ; however there is a record of several payments to Mr Nelme Rogers for playing the organ in the 1730s . Rogers had a long tenure from 1727 when a new organ was installed until 1772 , when John Allen took over . Cornelius Bryan served as the organist from 1818 until 1840 . He was followed by Edwin Hobhouse Sircom until 1855 and then William Haydn Flood until 1862 . For the next hundred years the post of organist was combined with that of choirmaster and was held by : Joseph William Lawson 1862 – 1906 , Ralph Thompson Morgan 1906 – 1949 , Kenneth Roy Long 1949 – 1952 and Ewart Garth Benson 1953 – 1968 , who continued as the organist until 1987 .
From 1967 a choirmaster was appointed . The post was held by : Peter Fowler 1968 , Bryan Anderson 1968 – 1980 and John Edward Marsh 1980 – 1987 . From 1987 the title of the post was Director of Music and organist , with the post being held by : John Edward Marsh 1987 – 1994 , Anthony John Pinel 1994 – 2003 and Andrew William Kirk since 2003 . The assistant organists have been : John Edward Marsh 1976 – 1980 , Colin Hunt 1980 – 1990 , Anthony John Pinel 1990 – 1994 , Graham Alsop 1994 – 2003 and Graham and Claire Alsop from 2003 .
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= Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 =
The Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 was a sickout strike by white transit workers in Philadelphia that lasted from August 1 to August 6 , 1944 . The strike was triggered by the decision of the Philadelphia Transportation Company ( PTC ) , made under prolonged pressure from the federal government in view of significant labor shortages , to allow black employees of the PTC to hold non @-@ menial jobs , such as motormen and conductors , that were previously reserved for white workers only . On August 1 , 1944 the eight black employees being trained as streetcar motormen were to make their first trial run ; that fact was used by the white PTC workers to start a massive sickout strike .
The strike paralyzed the public transport system in Philadelphia for several days , bringing the city to a standstill and crippling its war production . Although the Transport Workers Union ( TWU ) was in favor of allowing promotions of black workers to any positions they were qualified for , and opposed the strike , the union was unable to persuade the white PTC employees to return to work . On August 3 , 1944 , under the provisions of the Smith – Connally Act , President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to take control of the Philadelphia Transportation Company , and Major @-@ General Philip Hayes was put in charge of its operations . After several days of unsuccessful negotiations with the strike leaders , Hayes issued an order that the striking workers return to work on August 7 , 1944 , and that those refusing to comply be fired , stripped of their military draft deferment , and denied job availability certificates by the War Manpower Commission for the duration of the war . This ultimatum proved effective and on August 7 the strike ended and the strikers returned to work . The black workers , whose pending promotions to non @-@ menial jobs triggered the strike , were allowed to assume those jobs .
During the strike , despite considerable tensions , the city of Philadelphia remained mostly calm and there were no major outbreaks of violence . All of the city 's newspapers editorialized against the strike and the public was , by and large , opposed to the strike as well . Several of the strike leaders , including James McMenamin and Frank Carney , were arrested for violating the anti @-@ strike act . The NAACP played an active role both in pressuring the PTC and the federal government to institute fair hiring practices at the PTC for several years before the strike , and in maintaining the calm during the strike itself .
The strike received considerable attention in the national media . The Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 is one of the most high profile instances of the federal government invoking the Smith – Connally Act . The Act had been passed in 1943 over President Roosevelt 's veto .
= = Background = =
= = = PTC and the union = = =
Since even before the official entry of the United States into World War II in December 1941 , Philadelphia had been one on the major industrial war production centers in the U.S. By 1944 Philadelphia was regarded as the second largest war production center in the country . During that period the black population of the city grew substantially , and tensions with the predominantly white population began to increase . The Philadelphia Transportation Company ( PTC ) ran the city 's huge public transportation system , including subways , buses and trolleys ; by the time of the strike , it carried over one million people per day . By 1944 , the PTC 's eleven thousand strong workforce included 537 black employees . However , the PTC 's black workers had been restricted to holding menial jobs ; none were allowed to serve as conductors or motormen – positions that were reserved for white employees . As early as August 1941 , black employees started pressuring the PTC for fairer employment practices that would allow upgrading of black workers to the more prestigious jobs hitherto reserved for whites . Their efforts were rebuffed by PTC management , who claimed that the current union contract contained a clause prohibiting any significant change in employment practices and customs without the union 's approval ( although the contract said nothing about race ) . The leader of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Employees Union ( PRTEU ) , Frank Carney , proved to be equally reticent and claimed that he was not authorized by the union members to consider a request to allow promotions of black employees .
= = = Federal involvement = = =
The black PTC employees enlisted the help of the NAACP and started lobbying the federal authorities , particularly the Fair Employment Practices Commission ( FEPC ) , to intervene . The Fair Employment Practices Commission , created by an executive order of the President in 1941 , was charged with ensuring non @-@ discrimination employment practices by government contractors . Initially it was a fairly weak agency , but its authority was significantly strengthened in 1943 by a new executive order that required all government contracts to have a non @-@ discrimination clause . As the war progressed , the manpower shortages were getting more severe . In January 1943 the PTC requested 100 white motormen from the United States Employment Service ( USES ) , which was a part of the War Manpower Commission ( WMC ) . The WMC , aware that PTC had a pool of black employees seeking upgrading , asked the PTC to allow hiring of black employees for the vacant motormen positions . The PTC refused , again citing the " customs clause " of its union contract . After a complaint from the NAACP , the matter landed at the FEPC , headed at the time by Malcolm Ross .
The FEPC made a series of unsuccessful attempts to convince the PTC management and the union leadership to change their stance and to allow promotions of black employees to non @-@ menial jobs . The PTC eventually conceded that it would be willing to go along with the government 's request and " employ Negroes , provided they are acceptable to fellow @-@ workers " , but the PRTEU leadership , particularly Frank Carney , staunchly resisted . On November 17 , 1943 , the FEPC issued a directive requiring that PTC end its discriminatory employment practices and allow blacks to hold non @-@ menial jobs . The directive also required the PTC to review all job applications from June 1941 and redress earlier employment abuses based on racial discrimination . The union immediately protested and requested a public hearing , which took place on December 8 , 1943 . At the hearing the union tried to make the argument that hiring blacks who had applied for the non @-@ menial positions since June 1941 but were denied would adversely affect the seniority rights of the presently employed white workers . Malcolm Ross rejected that argument , pointing out that the seniority rights only begin when an employee is actually hired for a particular job . On December 29 , 1943 , FEPC issued a second directive , reinforcing the first one .
In an attempt to deflect the pressure , Carney and PRTEU contacted Virginia congressman Howard W. Smith , who at the time was the Chair of the House Committee to Investigate Executive Agencies . Smith , known for his segregationist views and eager to embarrass and possibly destroy the FEPC , quickly scheduled a hearing . In the meantime , the union informed the PTC that it refused to comply with the FEPC order , and the PTC management told Ross that , given the union 's position , the PTC would not comply with the FEPC directive either . The hearing in front of Smith 's committee took place on January 11 , 1944 . The hearing was inconclusive , with Ross reiterating the FEPC position , and the union representatives falling back on the " customs clause " and their claims about seniority issues . Several white workers testifying at the hearing predicted that there would be trouble and unrest if promotions of black employees at the PTC were allowed : " We are not going to accept them [ the blacks ] as fellow workers . ... We are not going to work with them . If anybody believe it , let them try it " . A petition , signed by 1776 workers , presented at the hearing , read : " Gentlemen : We , the white employees of the Philadelphia Transportation Co . , refuse to work with Negroes as motormen , conductors , operators and station trainmen " .
= = = Inter @-@ union struggle = = =
After the January 11 congressional hearing , Ross delayed enforcement of the FEPC directive to await the outcome of the upcoming union elections . The PRTEU contract with the PTC was expiring on February 11 , 1944 and a union election was called for March 14 , 1944 . Apart from PRTEU , which was still staunchly opposed to promotions of black employees , there were two other unions competing for the right to represent PTC workers : the Transport Workers Union ( TWU ) , which was a Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) affiliate , and the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employees of America , an American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) affiliate . The TWU said that it would allow promotions of black employees while the Amalgamated Association stayed silent on the matter . The PRTEU leadership tried to campaign on the race issue during the union elections , but the topic was overshadowed by other issues , such as the details of a new contract with the PTC . After a bitter campaign , the TWU won the union elections , receiving more votes than both of the other unions combined . At the time of the elections many white workers perceived the contract issue to be more important , where the TWU was promising more attractive terms , and they did not consider promotions of black employees a realistic possibility . Despite the TWU victory , animosities from white workers towards the black employees remained and were largely unabated . The negotiations between the TWU and the PTC on a new contract dragged on , and in the absence of a contract the company continued to resist implementing the FEPC directives .
= = = Immediate run up to the strike = = =
In view of growing labor shortages , on July 1 , 1944 the War Manpower Commission made an important decision , ruling that from then on all hiring of male employees in the country was to be done through the United States Employment Service ( USES ) . By that time the USES followed strict anti @-@ discrimination employment practices . The PTC management finally gave in and within a week posted notices about available skilled positions that would be open to all applicants , regardless of race . The company accepted eight black applicants ( three from the USES and five from its own ranks ) to train as streetcar coachmen . Their training was to take place in late July , and they were to start taking an empty streetcar on the lines from August 1 . It was that impending trial run of the streetcars by the eight black trainees that finally triggered the strike .
As the news spread , resentment among the white PTC workers began to grow . There were postings on PTC bulletin boards urging non @-@ compliance with the new policy , and a petition was circulated calling for a strike to protest job upgrades of black employees . There were also several meetings called by agitators for the strike to discuss the plan of action . Frank Carney played an active role in these meetings . At the last such meeting , on July 31 , Carney announced that the " D @-@ Day " for white workers had arrived . The TWU and the NAACP representatives warned the PTC about impending trouble , but the company management ignored those warnings , maintaining that there was nothing to fear .
= = Events of the strike = =
= = = Start of the strike = = =
At 4 : 00 a.m. on August 1 , 1944 most trolleys , buses and subways in Philadelphia stopped running . Strike agitators blocked access to PTC depos with vehicles and advised the arriving workers of a sickout strike . By noon of August 1 the entire PTC transportation system was paralyzed . James McMenamin , a veteran PTC white motorman , organized a 150 @-@ member strike steering committee and became one of the main leaders of the strike . Frank Carney , the ousted union boss , was another key strike leader . At the end of the day the strikers held a large meeting , attended by more than 3 @,@ 500 employees , outside the PTC carbarn on Luzerne Street . The racial rhetoric was escalating . At the meeting , Frank Carney declared that driving a streetcar was a white man 's job and said : " put the Negroes back where they belong , back on the roadway " . McMenamin declared that " the strike was a strictly black and white issue " .
The PTC 's response to the strike was anemic and was interpreted by some contemporary observers and later historians as tacitly supporting the strike . Arthur Mitten , chairman of the company 's Industrial Relations Division , stopped by the Luzerne carbarn and asked the workers to return to work . Subsequently he suggested that WMC temporarily suspend the non @-@ discrimination order , and even brought a pile of freshly printed fliers with a suspension announcement to the WMC offices . However , the WMC officials refused to approve suspension of the FEPC order and Mitten 's suspension fliers were not distributed . On the morning of August 1 , PTC officials immediately shut down the high @-@ speed lines , even before the strike had spread , and instructed the company supervisors to stop selling tickets . The PTC left its carbarns open , which allowed the strikers to use the carbarns as rallying points and coordinating centers for their activities . The company also cancelled the regularly scheduled meeting of its executive committee , where the response to the strike could have been discussed , and refused to join the TWU in a radio broadcast urging the strikers to return to work .
The TWU officials denounced the strike and pleaded with the PTC employees to resume work , but without success . The city 's mayor , Bernard Samuel , closed all alcohol @-@ selling establishments in an effort to prevent drunken crowds . Governor Edward Martin followed suit and closed the state liquor stores in the area . The city deployed its full police force , with extra police officers posted at major intersections and other vital points . The NAACP , as well as other black civic groups , worked energetically to maintain calm among the black people of Philadelphia . They distributed more than 100 @,@ 000 posters in black sections of the city , which read " Keep Your Heads and Your Tempers ! ... Treat other people as you would be treated " .
The strike continued on August 2 . About 250 TWU members initiated a back @-@ to @-@ work movement but were quickly forced to back down by the strike 's leaders and supporters . At the end of the day , William H. Davis , head of the War Labor Board , wrote to President Roosevelt that the WLB had no jurisdiction over the situation and that it was up to the President to intervene . Representatives of the WMC and the FEPC had reached a similar conclusion about the need for the President 's intervention the day before .
= = = Military takeover of the PTC = = =
The Roosevelt administration felt that it needed to act quickly to stop the strike . War plants in Philadelphia reported debilitating absentee rates in their workforce due to the strike , which was causing significant damage to the city 's war production . The military reported delays in delivery of fighter planes , radar equipment , flamethrowers and numerous other items . Rear Admiral Milo Draemel complained that the strike so significantly slowed the war production in the area that " it could delay the day of victory " . The strike was also negatively affecting America 's image abroad , particularly in Europe , where the U.S. was fighting Nazi Germany under the slogans of freedom and racial justice . Germany , as well as Japan , were apt to use every instance of racial unrest in the U.S. for propaganda purposes . Official reaction by the White House was somewhat delayed by the President Roosevelt 's absence : at the time he was on a warship on his way from Hawaii to the Aleutian islands . At 7 : 45 p.m. on August 3 , in his twenty @-@ fifth seizure order under the Smith – Connally Act , President Roosevelt authorized the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to take control of the Philadelphia Transportation Company . Major @-@ General Philip Hayes , head of the Army 's Third Service Command , was put in charge of the PTC 's operations .
Hayes acted quickly to take control of the situation . He posted the President 's order on the PTC carbarns and announced that the Army hoped to avoid using the troops and would try to rely on the local and state police to the extent possible . Hayes also announced that he had no intention of canceling or suspending the WMC hiring order . At 10 : 00 p.m. on August 3 , mistakenly believing that the government had agreed to the strikers ' demands , McMenamin declared the end of the strike . The mistake was quickly discovered , and over 1000 strikers voted in the early hours of August 4 to continue the strike .
On August 4 limited transportation service resumed but largely dwindled as the day progressed . Hayes and his staff warned the strikers about the severe penalties provided by the Smith – Connally Act for disruption of the war production : the instigators could be subject to a fine of $ 5 @,@ 000 , one year in prison , or both . This prospect was made more real when the United States Attorney General Francis Biddle started an inquiry into possible violations of federal laws by the strike organizers . On August 4 the strike committee again voted to continue the strike , but , in view of the possible Smith – Connally Act penalties , told the workers to make up their own minds and follow the committee if they chose . The maneuver worked and the strike continued .
On Saturday , August 5 , with his patience exhausted , Hayes moved 5 @,@ 000 army troops into the city . He announced that they would operate all idle PTC vehicles and ride as guards on active vehicles . He also made a plea to the strikers to support the war effort : " We cannot kill any Germans or Japs with the troops who drive transit vehicles in Philadelphia " . Later on August 5 , Hayes issued an ultimatum to the strikers , which was posted at all carbarns . The PTC workers were given a deadline of 12 : 01 a.m. on August 7 to resume their work . Those who refused would be fired and refused the WMC job availability certificates for the duration of the war ; those between the ages of 18 and 37 would also lose their military draft deferments . The Justice Department obtained federal warrants for McMenamin , Carney and two other strike leaders ; they were quickly arrested , and McMenamin finally told his followers to return to work on Monday , August 7 , as the government demanded . However , he expressed no regret for his actions before and during the strike .
The strike was essentially over . On Sunday , August 6 , the PTC workers signed cards pledging to return to work on Monday . On Monday , August 7 , normal PTC operations resumed and the absentee rate was significantly lower than on a typical work day before the strike . As the strike ended , twenty @-@ four strikers were dropped from the PTC rolls and six were immediately drafted into the military .
= = = Actions of the local government = = =
The enhanced police presence throughout the city during the strike helped to keep the calm , and the restrained approach of the police officers generally won praise from all sides , even though many of the policemen were seen as sympathetic to the striking white workers . The administration of Philadelphia 's Republican mayor Bernard Samuel was also seen as quietly sympathetic to the strikers . Throughout the strike , Mayor Samuel , who was also a member of the PTC board of directors , avoided any attempts of mediation . He refused to call a meeting of the PTC board of directors or to discuss the crisis with the TWU leaders . The mayor denied police protection to the two TWU officials who were willing to travel throughout the city and advocate an end to the strike . Samuel also refused to grant air time to War Production Board representatives who wanted to make a radio plea to end the strike . On August 2 , the mayor declined , without an explanation , the NAACP request for permission to send two sound @-@ trucks into black neighborhoods to broadcast appeals for calm . The city 's black population felt disappointed and disenchanted with the actions of the local administration .
= = = Public reaction = = =
Except for a few incidents , the city of Philadelphia remained calm during the strike and , despite considerable fears of race riots , there were no major outbreaks of violence . At the start of the strike there were some incidents of vandalism and store window smashing , and the police arrested about 300 people , most of them blacks . In a nastier episode , three white motorists drove a car through a black neighborhood and , without stopping or warning , shot at a 13 @-@ year @-@ old black boy , who received non @-@ critical injuries . The most visible episode of unrest came when a black war factory worker , whose brother was in the Army , threw a paperweight at the Liberty Bell shouting " Liberty Bell , oh Liberty Bell — liberty , that 's a lot of bunk ! " He was arrested and sent by the magistrate for a psychiatric evaluation . However , by and large , calm prevailed and there were no major outbreaks of violence and no deaths or critical injuries among the public .
The public opinion and the media in the city were overwhelmingly against the strikers . All the city 's newspapers ran editorials denouncing the strike , which was perceived as unpatriotic and harmful to the war effort ; a number of editorials also decried the racial nature of the strike . Most of the letters to the editor condemned the strike . The radio stations in the city denounced the strike as well , as did the national press . The New York Times wrote : " It would be hard to find in the whole history of American labor a strike in which so much damage has been done for so base a purpose " . The Wall Street Journal editorial condemned the strike but stated that the powers exercised by the government in ending the strike were only justified by the war time conditions . The Los Angeles Times and the Chicago Tribune , while denouncing the strike , tried to put the blame for causing it on the CIO @-@ affiliated Transport Workers Union , and accused the Roosevelt administration of acting too slowly because of its support for the CIO .
While critical of the strike , the public did not necessarily support the cause of equal employment opportunities for black workers . A public opinion poll conducted in Philadelphia during the strike showed that only a slim majority of the city 's population felt that blacks should be hired as motormen and conductors , but that a significant majority opposed having a strike over this issue .
The strikers directed much of their anger at the federal government , which they accused of overreaching and of refusing to listen to legitimate complaints by white workers . This view resonated with many white Philadelphians and with conservative politicians nationally . On August 8 , Senator Richard Russell from Georgia , one of the leaders of the conservative coalition in Congress , gave a seventy @-@ minute speech on the Senate floor , blaming the FEPC for causing the strike . Russell finished his speech by calling the FEPC " the most dangerous force in existence in the United States today " . Some of the newspapers in the South also blamed the incident on the Roosevelt administration and even on First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , with Savannah News claiming that the episode was caused by " Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt 's persistent efforts to force social equality on the American people " .
= = Aftermath = =
Starting with August 7 , the PTC resumed its normal schedule and there were no further disruptions . The troops remained in Philadelphia for another week and a half and rode as guards on PTC vehicles , but encountered no further problems . Seven of the eight black trainees resumed their training ( one withdrew voluntarily because his duties as Jehovah 's Witness minister conflicted with the PTC work schedule ) . On August 9 , the PTC finally agreed to a favorable contact which had been approved by the TWU in June . On August 17 , Hayes returned full control of the public transportation network to the PTC . Subsequent integration of black employees into the PTC workforce proceeded with no further trouble . By December 1944 the PTC had 18 black streetcar operators . An attractive new union contract helped quell the remaining discontent among the white PTC workers . Within a year , the company had over 900 black employees working in a variety of positions , including as drivers and conductors .
The NAACP later blamed the PTC management for intentionally dragging its feet on the contract that the TWU approved in late June . The NAACP claimed that the PTC management had hoped to undermine the TWU 's position with the workers and to possibly oust TWU in favor of the more pliable PRTEU . The PTC was aware that the Smith – Connally Act forbade strikes harming war production and that if , with a contract impasse , TWU itself had initiated a contract strike , the union might have been tossed out . This analysis of the situation was shared later by several historians , particularly by James Wolfinger . Another historian , Alan M. Winkler , also had a largely negative view of the company 's role in the conflict and concluded that PTC management , while not overtly conspiring with the strikers , reacted feebly to the strike and tried to opportunistically exploit the situation and the racist attitudes of many white workers for their own purposes .
The leaders of the strike , including McMenamin and Carney , were charged in federal court under the Smith – Connally Act ; some thirty strikers were also indicted later . The federal grand jury was convened on August 9 and heard testimony for two months . However , the grand jury returned inconclusive findings ; their report stated that most of the striking workers knew nothing about the strike at the start , and blamed a few instigators for escalating the situation , but did not detail the instigators ' activities . The report was also critical of the PTC 's response to the strike , characterizing it as inadequate and ineffective . The government dropped its charges against the defendants on March 12 , 1945 , with most of them pleading nolo contendere and receiving a fine of $ 100 each .
As labor historian James Wolfinger observed , the strike " demonstrated the profound racial cleavages , that divided the working class , not just in the South but across the nation " .
Although brief , the Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 had significant negative impact on the war effort , resulting in a loss of four million work hours in war plants alone . The War Manpower Commission estimated that the Philadelphia strike cost the nation 's war production the equivalent of 267 Flying Fortresses or five destroyers . Malcolm Ross later characterized the strike as " the most expensive racial dispute of World War II " . The strike also exposed the limitations of the FEPC 's power . The FEPC did not possess the final authority to enforce its decisions and only the executive intervention of the President made the resolution of the dispute possible . Nevertheless , the strike demonstrated that a combination of black activism , particularly by the NAACP , together with resolute federal policies , were able to break long standing racial barriers in employment .
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= Kaivalya Upanishad =
The Kaivalya Upanishad ( Sanskrit : कैवल ् य उपनिषत ् ) is an ancient Sanskrit text and one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism . It is classified as a Shaiva Upanishad , and survives into the modern times in two versions , one attached to the Krishna Yajurveda and other attached to the Atharvaveda . It is , as an Upanishad , a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature collection that present the philosophical concepts of Hinduism .
The Upanishad extols Shiva , aloneness and renunciation , describes the inner state of man in his personal spiritual journey detached from the world . The text is notable for presenting Shaivism in Vedanta , discussing Atman ( Soul , Self ) and its relation to Brahman , and Self @-@ knowledge as the path to kaivalya ( liberation ) .
The text , states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy , is particularly beautiful in the way it describes the self @-@ realized man who " feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all " , who feels identity of his and everyone 's consciousness with God ( Shiva , highest Atman ) , who has found this highest Atman within , in the depths of his heart .
= = Etymology = =
The Sanskrit word Kaivalya means " aloneness , isolation " , and refers to someone who has renounced and isolated himself from all attachments to worldly desires . It also refers to " the absoluteness " , states Deussen , the inner conviction of man on a spiritual journey to liberation .
The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or " hidden doctrine " text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature collection presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture , the Vedas .
= = Chronology and anthology = =
The Kaivalya Upanishad , remarks Deussen , is from the group of five Upanishads which extol and assert god Shiva as a symbolism for Atman ( soul ) . These five Upanishads – Atharvashiras , Atharvashikha , Nilarudra , Kalagnirudra and Kaivalya – are ancient , with Nilarudra likely the oldest and Kaivalya the relatively later era 1st millennium BCE Upanishad , composed closer to Shvetashvatara Upanishad , Mundaka Upanishad , and Mahanarayana Upanishad .
The manuscripts of this minor Upanishad is sometimes attached to the Krishna Yajurveda , or alternatively attached to the Atharvaveda . In the Muktika canon , narrated by Rama to Hanuman , this Shaiva Upanishad is listed 12th in the anthology of 108 Upanishads . The text is also titled as the Kaivalyopanishad .
= = Structure = =
The Kaivalya Upanishad manuscripts vary , depending on which Veda it is attached to . The one attached to Krishna Yajurveda has 26 verses , while the edition attached to the Atharvaveda has 24 verses with an epilogue . Both convey the same message , but the former is structured as a single chapter , and the latter into two chapters ( 19 verses in first , 5 verses in second ) . The text is structured as verses , set to a poetic Vedic meter ( exactly same number of syllables per verse of the song ) .
The Upanishad is presented as a discourse between the Vedic sage Ashvalayana and the god Brahma , wherein the Ashvalayana asks Brahma for Brahma @-@ vidya , that is the knowledge of ultimate reality Brahman .
The Upanishad 's structure is notable as it embeds key parts of verses from early Principal Upanishads , thus referencing them and yet building its own message . The fragments of earlier major Upanishads it thus integrates within it , include Mundaka Upanishad and Shvetashvatara Upanishad .
The text is also notable for presenting Shaivism with Vedanta terminology , discussing the relationship of Atman ( Soul , Self ) and Brahman ( ultimate Reality ) , and Self @-@ knowledge as the means to Kaivalya ( liberation ) . The text describes the self @-@ realized man as one who " feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all " , who feels identity of his and everyone 's consciousness with Shiva ( the highest soul ) , who has found this highest soul within , in the depths of his heart .
= = Content = =
= = = The setting : Ashvalayana and Brahma ( verses 1 @-@ 2 ) = = =
The Upanishad opens with sage Ashvalayana meeting Brahma , the creator god in Hindu trimurti . Ashvalayana is a revered Vedic sage , mentioned in the Rigveda , student of the ancient grammarian Shaunaka , and belonging to the Hindu tradition of forest hermits who wander . Ashvalayana , states the text , asks Paramesthi ( synonym for Brahma ) for Brahmavidya , which Ashvalyana calls " the highest knowledge , always cultivated by the good " , one that enables to reach the person who is greater than the great . This verse references a fragment from section 3 @.@ 2 of the Mundaka Upanishad .
Brahma answers , asserts verse 2 of the Upanishad , " Seek knowledge with Sraddha @-@ bhakti @-@ dhyana @-@ yogadavehi ( faith , devotion , meditation in yoga ) , not ritual works , not wealth , not offsprings " . Aloneness and renunciation , states the text , is the path to the life of eternity .
= = = Brahma 's answer : Grasp Vedanta doctrine ( verses 3 @-@ 5 ) = = =
Beyond heaven , in the heart , that which shines within , states Brahma in verse 3 of the Upanishad , is the destination of those who have understood the meaning of Vedanta doctrine . There , states the text , all the sannyasis ( renunciates ) who have reached that wisdom reside , in the state of pure being . The Upanishad says , seclusion is their place , enthroned is their joy , calm is their Yoga .
These are the ones , asserts the Upanishad , who revere their teachers ( Guru ) , who live a life of virtuous self @-@ restraint , in their Ashrama ( stage ) of life . These are the ones who meditate , states the text , their focus on their heart , wherein resides the pure one , the griefless , the bliss .
The verse 4 references a fragment each from section 3 @.@ 2 of Mundaka Upanishad , and section 2 @.@ 8 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad .
= = = Meditate on Shiva : He , Brahman , Indra , Vishnu are same ( verses 6 @-@ 9 ) = = =
The text then iconographically paints god Shiva , as the one who is the companion of Uma , with three eyes , blue neck , the calm wonderful lord imbued with intelligence and bliss , the source of everything . It is this supreme lord , states the text , one must meditate on , asserts verse 7 .
This supreme , states Kaivalya Upanishad , is the eternal , the all @-@ pervading , formless , unmanifest , infinite , inconceivable , one without beginning or middle or end , one which is chidananda ( " consciousness @-@ bliss " ) . He is , states the Upanishad , Brahman , Shiva , Indra , Vishnu , Prana ( life force , breath ) , fire and moon ( time , lunar calendar ) . Eternity is him , states the text , all that originated is him , all that originates is him . Know him , find liberation , there is no other way , states verse 9 .
= = = Meditate on Om : the three states of consciousness ( verses 10 @-@ 15 ) = = =
The Kaivalya Upanishad asserts that one must see " his Atman ( soul ) in all beings , and all beings in his Atman " to attain salvation , there is no other way .
In verse 11 , the text makes a reference to a fragment from section 1 @.@ 14 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad , to metaphorically describe how to gain this knowledge . Making his own soul as the lower fire stick and Om the upper fire stick , states the Kaivalya Upanishad , one must rub these together , light up the fire of knowledge , and burn the ties to ignorance .
A Jiva ( being ) immersed in Maya ( changing reality , illusive world ) craves for worldly greed , performs karoti ( Sanskrit : करोति , ritual works ) , enjoys bodily pleasures like women , food , drink and pleasures . This , states the text , gives him satisfaction in his wakeful state , in dream as he sleeps his soul fashions a dream world of joys and nightmares , but this is all deception . True bliss , states the text , comes in the third state of consciousness . It is , states the text , the third state , everything comes to rest , in whole , in peace , in bliss .
= = = Shiva , Brahman is within you ( verses 16 @-@ 17 ) = = =
The next two verses of the Upanishad states , describes Chester Starr – an American professor of History , the crystallization of ancient Hindu thought . Man has an Atman ( spirit ) identical with the great spirit of the world , repeated in its great Upanishadic saying , " That art thou , " or God is within man .
Thou art that
The verse 17 of the text repeats , that all three states , experienced when one is awake , when one dreams , when one is in deep dreamless sleep , is illuminated therein . " Know yourself to be that Brahman " , translates Deussen , and experience liberation .
= = = The state of liberation ( verses 18 @-@ 24 ) = = =
The text , in verses 18 to 24 describes the state of liberated renouncer . The Upanishad states he is blissful , content in all three states of consciousness , feels everything was born in him and abides in him and dissolves in him , that he is Brahman that is in everyone , he is Sadashiva , ancient , diverse , spiritual , with the gift to know eternity .
The liberated renouncer , feels he is the knower , the perceiver , the one to learn the Vedas , the one to perfect the Vedas , states verse 22 of the text . He feels his essence is beyond good and bad , beyond body and mind , beyond merit and demerits , beyond what perishes , asserts the text . The liberated man , states the Upanishad , has found the highest Atman in his heart .
= = = Epilogue = = =
In the end , the glories of reciting the Kaivalya Upanishad are told . Recitation of this Upanishad , asserts the epilogue , frees one of various sins , end the cycle of samsara ( birth @-@ death @-@ rebirth ) , gains Supreme Knowledge and kaivalya .
The style of the text 's epilogue , that is the concluding verses , is odd and different from the rest of the text . This structural anomaly , as well as the very different message therein , states Deussen , suggests that the passage on the " study of Satarudriyam and all sorts of promises " may be a later insertion or an accident of extraction from the Vedic text this Upanishad was embedded in .
= = Commentaries = =
Commentaries on the Kaivalya Upanishad are written by Brahmayogin ( c . 1800 CE ) and Osho ( 1931 – 1990 ) . An incomplete commentary , which includes only the first verse , by Aurobindo was written in 1912 and first published in 1971 . Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan translated this text in 1953 .
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= James Longstreet =
James Longstreet ( January 8 , 1821 – January 2 , 1904 ) was one of the foremost Confederate generals of the American Civil War and the principal subordinate to General Robert E. Lee , who called him his " Old War Horse . " He served under Lee as a corps commander for many of the famous battles fought by the Army of Northern Virginia in the Eastern Theater , but also with Gen. Braxton Bragg in the Army of Tennessee in the Western Theater . Biographer and historian Jeffry D. Wert wrote that " Longstreet ... was the finest corps commander in the Army of Northern Virginia ; in fact , he was arguably the best corps commander in the conflict on either side . "
Longstreet 's talents as a general made significant contributions to the Confederate victories at Second Bull Run ( Second Manassas ) , Fredericksburg , and Chickamauga , in both offensive and defensive roles . He also performed strongly during the Seven Days Battles , the Battle of Antietam , and until he was seriously wounded , at the Battle of the Wilderness . His performance in semiautonomous command during the Knoxville Campaign resulted in a Confederate defeat . His most controversial service was at the Battle of Gettysburg , where he openly disagreed with General Lee on the tactics to be employed and reluctantly supervised the disastrous infantry assault known as Pickett 's Charge .
He enjoyed a successful post @-@ war career working for the U.S. government as a diplomat , civil servant , and administrator . However , his conversion to the Republican Party and his cooperation with his old friend , President Ulysses S. Grant , as well as critical comments he wrote in his memoirs about General Lee 's wartime performance , made him anathema to many of his former Confederate colleagues . His reputation in the South further suffered when he led African @-@ American militia against the anti @-@ Reconstruction White League at the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874 . Authors of the Lost Cause movement focused on Longstreet 's actions at Gettysburg as a primary reason for the Confederacy 's loss of the war . His reputation in the South was damaged for over a century and has only recently begun a slow reassessment .
= = Early life and career = =
James Longstreet was born on January 8 , 1821 in Edgefield District , South Carolina , an area that is now part of North Augusta , Edgefield County . He was the fifth child and third son of James Longstreet ( 1783 @-@ 1833 ) , of Dutch descent , and Mary Ann Dent ( 1793 @-@ 1855 ) of English descent , originally from New Jersey and Maryland respectively , who owned a cotton plantation close to where the village of Gainesville would be founded in northeastern Georgia . James 's ancestor Dirck Stoffels Langestraet immigrated to the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1657 , but the name became Anglicized over the generations . James 's father was impressed by his son 's " rocklike " character on the rural plantation , giving him the nickname Peter , and he was known as Pete or Old Pete for the rest of his life .
Longstreet 's father decided on a military career for his son , but felt that the local education available to him would not be adequate preparation . At the age of nine , James was sent to live with his aunt and uncle in Augusta , Georgia . His uncle , Augustus Baldwin Longstreet , was a newspaper editor , educator , and a Methodist minister . James spent eight years on his uncle 's plantation , Westover , just outside the city while he attended the Academy of Richmond County . His father died from a cholera epidemic while visiting Augusta in 1833 ; although James 's mother and the rest of the family moved to Somerville , Alabama , following his father 's death , James remained with uncle Augustus .
In 1837 , Augustus attempted to obtain an appointment for James to the United States Military Academy , but the vacancy for his congressional district had already been filled so James was appointed in 1838 by a relative , Reuben Chapman , who represented the First District of Alabama ( where Mary Longstreet lived ) . James was a poor student academically and a disciplinary problem at West Point , ranking 54th out of 56 cadets when he graduated in 1842 . He was popular with his classmates , however , and befriended a number of men who would become prominent during the Civil War , including George Henry Thomas , William S. Rosecrans ( his West Point roommate ) , John Pope , D.H. Hill , Lafayette McLaws , George Pickett , and Ulysses S. Grant of the class of 1843 . Longstreet was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 4th U.S. Infantry . Longstreet spent his first two years of service at Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , where he was soon joined by his friend , Lieutenant Ulysses Grant .
Soon after , Longstreet met his future first wife Maria Louisa Garland , called Louise by her family . She was the daughter of Longstreet 's regimental commander , Lt. Col. John Garland . They married in March 1848 , after the Mexican @-@ American War . Although their marriage would last for over 40 years and produce 10 children , Longstreet never mentioned Louise in his memoirs and most anecdotes about their relationship came to historians through the writings of his second wife , Helen Dortch Longstreet .
At about the same time as Longstreet began courting Garland , Grant became acquainted with and courted Longstreet 's fourth cousin , Julia Dent , and the couple eventually married . Historians agree that Longstreet attended the Grant wedding on August 22 , 1848 in St. Louis , but his role at the ceremony remains unclear . Grant biographer Jean Edward Smith asserted that Longstreet served as Grant 's best man at the wedding . John Y. Simon , editor of Julia Grant 's memoirs , concluded that Longstreet " may have been a groomsman , " and Longstreet biographer Donald Brigman Sanger called the role of best man " uncertain " while noting that neither Grant nor Longstreet mentioned any such role in either of their memoirs .
= = Mexican @-@ American War = =
Longstreet served with distinction in the Mexican @-@ American War with the 8th U.S. Infantry . Early in the war , he served as a lieutenant in Zachary Taylor 's army at the 1846 Battle of Monterrey . He received brevet promotions to captain for Contreras and Churubusco and to major for Molino del Rey . In the Battle of Chapultepec on September 12 , 1847 , he was wounded in the thigh while charging up the hill with his regimental colors ; falling , he handed the flag to his friend , Lt. George E. Pickett , who was able to reach the summit .
Longstreet was a veteran member of the Aztec Club of 1847 . The Aztec Club was a military society for officers who had served in the Mexican War . Many distinguished officers , both Union and Confederate , who served the American Civil War were members of the Aztec Club .
After the war and his recovery from the Chapultepec wound , Longstreet and his new wife served on frontier duty in Texas , primarily at Fort Martin Scott near Fredericksburg and Fort Bliss in El Paso . He performed scouting missions and also served as major and paymaster for the 8th Infantry from July 1858 . Author Kevin Phillips claims that during this period Longstreet was involved in a plot to draw the Mexican state of Chihuahua into the Union as a slave state .
Longstreet was not enthusiastic about secession from the Union , but he had learned from his uncle Augustus about the doctrine of states ' rights early in his life and had seen his uncle 's passion for it . Although he was born in South Carolina and reared in Georgia , he offered his services to the state of Alabama , which had appointed him to West Point and where his mother still lived . Furthermore , he was the senior West Point graduate from that state , which implied a commensurate rank in the state 's forces would be available . He resigned from the U.S. Army in June 1861 to cast his lot with the Confederacy in the Civil War .
= = American Civil War = =
= = = First Bull Run and the Peninsula = = =
Longstreet arrived in Richmond , Virginia with a commission as a lieutenant colonel in the Confederate States Army . He met with Confederate President Jefferson Davis at the executive mansion on June 22 , 1861 , where he was informed that he had been appointed a brigadier general with date of rank on June 17 , a commission he accepted on June 25 . He was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas , where he was given command of a brigade of three Virginia regiments — the 1st , 11th , and 17th Virginia Infantry regiments .
Longstreet assembled his staff and trained his brigade incessantly . They saw their first action at Blackburn 's Ford on July 18 , resisting a Union Army reconnaissance in force that preceded the First Battle of Bull Run ( First Manassas ) . When the main attack came at the opposite end of the line on July 21 , the brigade played a relatively minor role , although it endured artillery fire for nine hours . Longstreet was infuriated that his commanders would not allow a vigorous pursuit of the defeated Union Army . His trusted staff officer , Moxley Sorrel , recorded that he was " in a fine rage . He dashed his hat furiously to the ground , stamped , and bitter words escaped him . " He quoted Longstreet as saying , " Retreat ! Hell , the Federal army has broken to pieces . " On October 7 , Longstreet was promoted to major general and assumed command of a division in the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia — four infantry brigades and Hampton 's Legion .
Tragedy struck the Longstreet family in January 1862 . A scarlet fever epidemic in Richmond claimed the lives of his one @-@ year @-@ old daughter Mary Anne , his four @-@ year @-@ old son James , and eleven @-@ year @-@ old Augustus ( " Gus " ) , all within a week . His 13 @-@ year @-@ old son Garland almost succumbed . The losses were devastating for Longstreet and he became withdrawn , both personally and socially . In 1861 his headquarters were noted for parties , drinking , and poker games . After he returned from the funeral the headquarters social life became more somber , he rarely drank , and he became a devout Episcopalian .
Longstreet turned in a mixed performance in the Peninsula Campaign that spring . He executed well as a rear guard commander at Yorktown and Williamsburg , delaying the advance of Union Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's army toward Richmond . During the Battle of Seven Pines he marched his men in the wrong direction down the wrong road , causing congestion and confusion with other Confederate units , diluting the effect of the massive Confederate counterattack against McClellan . His report unfairly blamed fellow Maj. Gen. Benjamin Huger for the mishaps . Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was wounded during the battle and he was replaced in command of the Army of Northern Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee .
During the Seven Days Battles that followed in late June , Longstreet had operational command of nearly half of Lee 's army — 15 brigades — as it drove McClellan back down the Peninsula . Longstreet performed aggressively and well in his new , larger command , particularly at Gaines ' Mill and Glendale . Lee 's army in general suffered from weak performances by Longstreet 's peers , including , uncharacteristically , Maj. Gen. Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson , and was unable to destroy the Union Army . Moxley Sorrel wrote of Longstreet 's confidence and calmness in battle : " He was like a rock in steadiness when sometimes in battle the world seemed flying to pieces . " Gen. Lee said , " Longstreet was the staff in my right hand . " He had been established as Lee 's principal lieutenant .
= = = Second Bull Run , Maryland , and Fredericksburg = = =
The military reputations of Lee 's corps commanders are often characterized as Stonewall Jackson representing the audacious , offensive component of Lee 's army , whereas Longstreet more typically advocated and executed defensive strategies and tactics . Jackson has been described as the army 's hammer , Longstreet its anvil . In the Northern Virginia Campaign of August 1862 , this stereotype did not hold true . Longstreet commanded the Right Wing ( later to become known as the First Corps ) and Jackson commanded the Left Wing . Jackson started the campaign under Lee 's orders with a sweeping flanking maneuver that placed his corps into the rear of Union Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia , but he then took up a defensive position and effectively invited Pope to assault him . On August 28 and August 29 , the start of the Second Battle of Bull Run ( Second Manassas ) , Pope pounded Jackson as Longstreet and the remainder of the army marched north to reach the battlefield . Postwar criticism of Longstreet claimed that he marched his men too slowly , leaving Jackson to bear the brunt of the fighting for two days , but they covered roughly 30 miles ( 50 km ) in a little over 24 hours and Gen. Lee did not attempt to get his army concentrated any faster .
When Longstreet 's men arrived around midday on August 29 , Lee planned a flanking attack on the Union Army , which was concentrating its attention on Jackson . Longstreet demurred against three suggestions from Lee , urging him to attack , recommending instead that a reconnaissance in force be conducted to survey the ground in front of him . By 6 : 30 p.m. the division of Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood moved forward against the troops of the Union V Corps , and Longstreet withdrew them at 8 : 30 p.m. , having a better idea of the terrain and enemy soldiers in the area . On the next day , Longstreet 's preparations paid dividends , as his artillery was a major factor in helping Jackson resist the V Corps attack , and he capitalized on Federal confusion by launching an attack of his own , anticipating an order from Lee that had not yet arrived . Despite the smashing victory that followed , Longstreet 's performance at the battle was criticized by postbellum advocates of the Lost Cause , claiming that his slowness , reluctance to attack , and disobedience to Gen. Lee were a harbinger of his controversial performance to come on July 2 , 1863 , at the Battle of Gettysburg . Lee 's biographer , Douglas Southall Freeman , wrote : " The seeds of much of the disaster at Gettysburg were sown in that instant — when Lee yielded to Longstreet and Longstreet discovered that he would . "
Despite this criticism , the following day , August 30 , was one of Longstreet 's finest performances of the war . Pope came to believe that Jackson was starting to retreat and Longstreet took advantage of this by launching a massive assault on the Union army 's left flank with over 25 @,@ 000 men . For over four hours they " pounded like a giant hammer " with Longstreet actively directing artillery fire and sending brigades into the fray . Longstreet and Lee were together during the assault and both of them came under Union artillery fire . Although the Union troops put up a furious defense , Pope 's army was forced to retreat in a manner similar to the embarrassing Union defeat at First Bull Run ( First Manassas ) , fought on roughly the same battleground . Longstreet gave all of the credit for the victory to Lee , describing the campaign as " clever and brilliant . " It established a strategic model he believed to be ideal — the use of defensive tactics within a strategic offensive .
Longstreet 's actions in the final two major Confederate defensive battles of 1862 would be the proving grounds for his development of dominant defensive tactics . In the Maryland Campaign of September , at the Battle of Antietam , Longstreet held his part of the Confederate defensive line against Union forces twice as numerous . After the delaying action Longstreet 's corps fought at South Mountain , he retired to Sharpsburg to join Stonewall Jackson , and prepared to fight a defensive battle . Using terrain to his advantage , Longstreet validated his idea that the tactical defense was now vastly superior to the exposed offense . While the offense dominated in the time of Napoleon , the technological advancements had overturned this . Lt. Col. Harold M. Knudsen claims that Longstreet was one of the few Civil War officers truly aware of this . At the end of that bloodiest day of the Civil War , Lee greeted his subordinate by saying , " Ah ! Here is Longstreet ; here 's my old war @-@ horse ! " On October 9 , a few weeks after Antietam , Longstreet was promoted to lieutenant general . Lee arranged for Longstreet 's promotion to be dated one day earlier than Jackson 's , making the Old War @-@ Horse the senior lieutenant general in the entire Confederate Army . In an army reorganization in November , Longstreet 's command , now designated the First Corps , consisted of five divisions , approximately 41 @,@ 000 men .
In December , Longstreet 's First Corps played the decisive role in the Battle of Fredericksburg . Since Lee moved Longstreet to Fredericksburg early , it allowed Longstreet to take the time to dig in portions of his line , methodically site artillery , and set up a kill zone over the axis of advance he thought the Union attack would come . Remembering the slaughter at Antietam , in which the Confederates did not construct defensive works , Longstreet ordered trenches , abatis , and fieldworks to be constructed , which would set a precedent for future defensive battles of the Army of Northern Virginia . Additionally , Longstreet positioned his men behind a stone wall at the foot of Marye 's Heights and held off fourteen assaults by Union forces . The Union army suffered almost 8 @,@ 000 casualties at Marye 's Heights , Longstreet only 1 @,@ 000 . His great defensive success was not based entirely on the advantage of terrain ; this time it was the combination of terrain , defensive works , and a centralized coordination of artillery .
= = = Suffolk = = =
In the early spring of 1863 , Longstreet suggested to Lee that his corps be detached from the Army of Northern Virginia and sent to reinforce the Army of Tennessee , where Gen. Braxton Bragg was being challenged in Middle Tennessee by Union Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans , Longstreet 's roommate at West Point . It is possible that Longstreet believed that an independent command in the West offered better opportunities for advancement than a corps under Lee 's shadow . Lee did detach two divisions from the First Corps , but ordered them to Richmond , not Tennessee . Seaborne movements of the Union IX Corps potentially threatened vital ports on the mid @-@ Atlantic coast . The division of George Pickett started for the capital in mid @-@ February , was followed by John Hood 's , and then Longstreet himself was told to take command of the detached divisions and the Departments of North Carolina and Southern Virginia .
In April , Longstreet besieged Union forces in the city of Suffolk , Virginia , a minor operation , but one that was very important to Lee 's army , still stationed in war @-@ devastated central Virginia . It enabled Confederate authorities to collect huge amounts of provisions that had been under Union control . However , this operation caused Longstreet and 15 @,@ 000 men of the First Corps to be absent from the Battle of Chancellorsville in May . Despite Lee 's brilliant victory at Chancellorsville , Longstreet once again came under criticism , claiming that he could have marched his men back from Suffolk in time to join Lee . However , from the Chancellorsville and Suffolk scenario , Longstreet brought forward the beginnings of a new Confederate strategy . These events proved that the Army of Northern Virginia could manage with fewer troops for periods of time , and units could be shifted to create windows of opportunity in other theaters . Longstreet advocated the first strategic movements to utilize rail , interior lines , and create temporary numerical advantages in Mississippi or Tennessee prior to Gettysburg .
= = = Gettysburg = = =
= = = = Campaign plans = = = =
Following Chancellorsville and the death of Stonewall Jackson , Longstreet and Lee met in mid @-@ May to discuss options for the army 's summer campaign . Longstreet advocated , once again , detachment of all or part of his corps to be sent to Tennessee . The justification for this course of action was becoming more urgent as Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was advancing on the critical Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River , Vicksburg . Longstreet argued that a reinforced army under Bragg could defeat Rosecrans and drive toward the Ohio River , which would compel Grant to break his hold on Vicksburg . Lee was opposed to a division of his army and instead advocated a large @-@ scale offensive or raid into Pennsylvania . In his memoirs , Longstreet described his reaction to Lee 's proposal :
His plan or wishes announced , it became useless and improper to offer suggestions leading to a different course . All that I could ask was that the policy of the campaign should be one of defensive tactics ; that we should work so as to force the enemy to attack us , in such good position as we might find in our own country , so well adapted to that purpose — which might assure us of a grand triumph . To this he readily assented as an important and material adjunct to his general plan .
This was written years after the campaign and is affected by hindsight , both of the results of the battle and of the postbellum criticism of the Lost Cause authors . In letters of the time Longstreet made no reference to such a bargain with Lee . In April 1868 , Lee said that he " had never made any such promise , and had never thought of doing any such thing . " Yet in his post @-@ battle report , Lee wrote , " It had not been intended to fight a general battle at such a distance from our base , unless attacked by the enemy . "
The Army of Northern Virginia was reorganized after Jackson 's death . Two division commanders , Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill , were promoted to lieutenant general and assumed command of the Second and the newly created Third Corps respectively . Longstreet 's First Corps gave up the division of Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson during the reorganization , leaving him with the divisions of Lafayette McLaws , George Pickett , and John Hood .
In the initial movements of the campaign , Longstreet 's corps followed Ewell 's through the Shenandoah Valley . A spy he had hired , Henry Thomas Harrison who went by just " Harrison " , was instrumental in warning the Confederates that the Union Army of the Potomac was advancing north to meet them more quickly than they had anticipated , prompting Lee to order the immediate concentration of his army near Gettysburg , Pennsylvania .
= = = = Battle of Gettysburg = = = =
Longstreet 's actions at the Battle of Gettysburg would be the centerpiece of the controversy that surrounded him for over a century . Ahead of his troops he arrived on the battlefield late in the afternoon of the first day , July 1 , 1863 . By then , two Union corps had been driven by Ewell and Hill back through the town into defensive positions on Cemetery Hill . Lee had not intended to fight before his army was fully concentrated , but chance and questionable decisions by A.P. Hill brought on the battle , which- on the first day- was an impressive Confederate victory . Meeting with Lee , Longstreet was concerned about the strength of the Union defensive position and advocated a strategic movement around the left flank of the enemy , to " secure good ground between him and his capital , " which would presumably compel the Union commander , Maj. Gen. George G. Meade , to attack defensive positions erected by the Confederates . Instead , Lee exclaimed , " If the enemy is there tomorrow , we must attack him . "
Lee 's plan for July 2 called for Longstreet to attack the Union 's left flank , which would be followed up by Hill 's attack on Cemetery Ridge near the center , while Ewell demonstrated on the Union right . Longstreet was not ready to attack as early as Lee envisioned . He received permission from Lee to wait for Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade ( Hood 's division ) to reach the field before he advanced any of his other brigades ; Law marched his men quickly , but did not arrive until noon . Three of Longstreet 's brigades were still in march column , and some distance from the attack positions they would need to reach . All of Longstreet 's divisions were forced to take a long detour while approaching the enemy position , misled by inadequate reconnaissance that failed to identify a completely concealed route .
Postbellum criticism of Longstreet claims that he was ordered by Lee to attack in the early morning and that his delays were a significant contributor to the loss of the battle . However , Lee agreed to the delays for arriving troops and did not issue his formal order for the attack until 11 a.m. Although Longstreet 's motivations have long been clouded by the vitriol of the Lost Cause partisans ( see Legacy ) , many historians agree that Longstreet did not aggressively pursue Lee 's orders to launch an attack as early as possible . Biographer Jeffry D. Wert wrote , " Longstreet deserves censure for his performance on the morning of July 2 . He allowed his disagreement with Lee 's decision to affect his conduct . Once the commanding general determined to assail the enemy , duty required Longstreet to comply with the vigor and thoroughness that had previously characterized his generalship . The concern for detail , the regard for timely information , and the need for preparation were absent . " Military historians Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote , " Unenthusiastic about the attack , Longstreet consumed so much time in properly assembling and aligning the corps that the assault did not commence until 4 p.m. During all the time that passed , Meade continued to move in troops to bring about a more and more complete concentration ; by 6 p.m. he had achieved numerical superiority and had his left well covered . " Campaign historian Edwin Coddington presents a lengthy description of the approach march , which he described as " a comedy of errors such as one might expect of inexperienced commanders and raw militia , but not of Lee 's " War Horse " and his veteran troops . " He called the episode " a dark moment in Longstreet 's career as a general . " Gettysburg historian Harry Pfanz concluded that " Longstreet 's angry dissidence had resulted in further wasted time and delay . " David L. Callihan , in a 2002 reassessment of Longstreet 's legacy , wrote , " It is appalling that a field commander of Longstreet 's experience and caliber would so cavalierly and ineptly march and prepare his men for battle . " An alternative view has been expressed by John Lott , " General Longstreet did all that could be expected on the 2nd day and any allegations of failing to exercise his duty by ordering a morning assault can be repudiated . It would have been impossible to have commenced an attack much earlier than it occurred , and it is doubtful that the Confederacy could have placed the attack in any more secure hands than General Longstreet . " But Longstreet 's command of the operation had for the most part , been reasonable , since taking the route he should have would have alerted the whole Union army of his assault . Regardless of the controversy regarding the preparations , however , once the assault began around 4 p.m. , Longstreet pressed the assault by McLaws and Hood ( Pickett 's division had not yet arrived ) competently against fierce Union resistance , but it was largely unsuccessful , with significant casualties .
On the night of July 2 , Longstreet did not follow his usual custom of meeting Gen. Lee at his headquarters to discuss the day 's battle , claiming that he was too fatigued to make the ride . Instead , he spent part of the night planning for a movement around Big Round Top that would allow him to attack the enemy 's flank and rear . ( Longstreet , despite his use of scouting parties , was apparently unaware that a considerable body of troops from the Union VI Corps was in position to block this move . ) Shortly after issuing orders for the attack , around sunrise , Longstreet was joined at his headquarters by Lee , who was dismayed at this turn of events . The commanding general had intended for Longstreet to attack the Union left early in the morning in a manner similar to the attack of July 2 , using Pickett 's newly arrived division , in concert with a resumed attack by Ewell on Culp 's Hill . What Lee found was that no one had ordered Pickett 's division forward from its bivouac in the rear and that Longstreet had been planning an independent operation without consulting with him . Lee wrote with some restraint in his after @-@ battle report that Longstreet 's " dispositions were not completed as early as was expected . "
Since his plans for an early @-@ morning coordinated attack were now infeasible , Lee instead ordered Longstreet to coordinate a massive assault on the center of the Union line , employing the division of George Pickett and brigades from A.P. Hill 's corps . Longstreet knew this assault had little chance of success . The Union Army was in a position reminiscent of the one Longstreet had taken at Fredericksburg to defeat Burnside 's assault . The Confederates would have to cover almost a mile of open ground and spend time negotiating sturdy fences under fire . The lessons of Fredericksburg and Malvern Hill were lost to Lee on this day . In his memoirs , Longstreet claims to have told Lee that he believed the attack on the Union center would fail :
General , I have been a soldier all my life . I have been with soldiers engaged in fights by couples , by squads , companies , regiments , divisions , and armies , and should know , as well as any one , what soldiers can do . It is my opinion that no fifteen thousand men ever arranged for battle can take that position .
During the artillery barrage that preceded the infantry assault , Longstreet began to agonize over an assault that was going to cost dearly . He attempted to pass the responsibility for launching Pickett 's division to his artillery chief , Col. Edward Porter Alexander . When the time came to actually order Pickett forward , Longstreet could only nod in assent , unable to verbalize the order . The assault , known as Pickett 's Charge , suffered the heavy casualties that Longstreet anticipated . It was the decisive point in the Confederate loss at Gettysburg and Lee ordered a retreat back to Virginia the following day .
Criticism of Longstreet after the war was based not only on his reputed conduct at the Battle of Gettysburg , but also intemperate remarks he made about Robert E. Lee and his strategies , such as :
That he [ Lee ] was excited and off his balance was evident on the afternoon of the 1st , and he labored under that oppression until enough blood was shed to appease him .
For years after the war Longstreet 's reputation suffered and was blamed for the failed attack even though Lee ordered the advance after Longstreet 's repeated advice to cancel the attack .
= = = Tennessee = = =
In mid @-@ August 1863 , Longstreet resumed his attempts to be transferred to the Western Theater . He wrote a private letter to Secretary of War James Seddon , requesting that he be transferred to serve under his old friend Gen. Joseph E. Johnston . He followed this up in conversations with his congressional ally , Senator Louis Wigfall , who had long considered Longstreet a suitable replacement for Braxton Bragg . Since Bragg 's army was under increasing pressure from Rosecrans outside of Chattanooga , Lee and President Davis agreed to the request on September 5 . In one of the most daunting logistical efforts of the Confederacy , Longstreet , with the divisions of Lafayette McLaws and John Hood , a brigade from George Pickett 's division , and Porter Alexander 's 26 @-@ gun artillery battalion , traveled over 16 railroads on a 775 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 247 km ) route through the Carolinas to reach Bragg in northern Georgia . Although the entire operation would take over three weeks , Longstreet and lead elements of his corps arrived on September 17 .
The First Corps veterans arrived in the early stages of the Battle of Chickamauga . Bragg had already begun an unsuccessful attempt to interpose his army between Rosecrans and Chattanooga before the arrival of Longstreet 's corps . When the two met at Bragg 's headquarters in the evening , Bragg placed Longstreet in command of the Left Wing of his army ; Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk commanded the Right . On September 20 , 1863 , Longstreet lined up eight brigades in a deep column against a narrow front , an attack very similar to future German tank tactics in World War II . By chance , a mistaken order from General Rosecrans caused a gap to appear in the Union line and Longstreet took additional advantage of it to increase his chances of success . The organization of the attack was well suited to the terrain and would have penetrated the Union line regardless . The Union right collapsed and Rosecrans fled the field , as units began to retreat in panic . Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas managed to rally the retreating units and solidify a defensive position on Snodgrass Hill . He held that position against repeated afternoon attacks by Longstreet , who was not adequately supported by the Confederate right wing . Once night fell , the battle was over , and Thomas was able to extricate the units under his control to Chattanooga . Bragg 's failure to coordinate the right wing and cavalry to further envelop Thomas prevented a total rout of the Union Army . Bragg also neglected to pursue the retreating Federals aggressively , resulting in the futile siege of Chattanooga . Nevertheless , Chickamauga was the greatest Confederate victory in the Western Theater and Longstreet deserved a good portion of the credit .
Longstreet soon clashed with Bragg and became leader of the group of senior commanders of the army who conspired to have him removed . Bragg 's subordinates had long been dissatisfied with his leadership and abrasive personality ; the arrival of Longstreet ( the senior lieutenant general in the Army ) and his officers , added credibility to the earlier claims , and was a catalyst toward action . Longstreet wrote to Seddon , " I am convinced that nothing but the hand of God can save us or help us as long as we have our present commander . " The situation became so grave that President Davis was forced to intercede in person . What followed was one of the most bizarre scenes of the war , with Bragg sitting red faced as a procession of his commanders condemned him . Longstreet stated that Bragg " was incompetent to manage an army or put men into a fight " and that he " knew nothing of the business . " Davis sided with Bragg and did nothing to resolve the conflict .
Bragg retained his position , relieving or reassigning the generals who had testified against him , and retaliated against Longstreet by reducing his command to only those units that he brought with him from Virginia . Despite the dysfunctional command climate under Bragg , and the lack of support from the War Department and President Davis concerning Bragg 's removal , Longstreet did the best he could to continue to seek options in the Chattanooga Campaign . While Bragg resigned himself and his army to the siege of the Union Army of the Cumberland in Chattanooga , Longstreet devised a strategy to prevent reinforcement and a lifting of the siege by Grant . He knew this Union reaction was underway , and that the nearest railhead was Bridgeport , Alabama , where portions of two Union corps would soon arrive . After sending his artillery commander , Porter Alexander , to reconnoiter the Union @-@ occupied town , he devised a plan to shift most of the Army of Tennessee away from the siege , setting up logistical support in Rome , Georgia , to go after Bridgeport to take the railhead , possibly catching Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker and arriving Union troops from the Eastern Theater in a disadvantageous position . The plan was well received and approved by President Davis , but it was disapproved by Bragg , who objected to the significant logistical challenges it posed . Longstreet accepted Bragg 's arguments and agreed to a plan in which he and his men were dispatched to East Tennessee to deal with an advance by Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . Longstreet was selected for this assignment partially due to enmity on Bragg 's part , but also because the War Department intended for Longstreet 's men to return to Lee 's army and this movement was in that direction .
Longstreet was criticized for the slow pace of his advance toward Knoxville in November and some of his troops began using the nickname " Peter the Slow " to describe him . Burnside evaded him at the Battle of Campbell 's Station and settled into entrenchments around the city , which Longstreet besieged unsuccessfully . The Battle of Fort Sanders failed to bring a Confederate breakthrough . When Bragg was defeated by Grant at Chattanooga on November 25 , Longstreet was ordered to join forces with the Army of Tennessee in northern Georgia . He demurred and began to move back to Virginia , soon pursued by Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman in early December . The armies went into winter quarters and the First Corps rejoined the Army of Northern Virginia in the spring . The only real effect of the minor campaign was to deprive Bragg of troops he sorely needed in Chattanooga . Longstreet 's second independent command ( after Suffolk ) was a failure and his self @-@ confidence was damaged . He reacted to the failure of the campaign by blaming others , as he had done at Seven Pines . He relieved Lafayette McLaws from command and requested the court martial of Brig. Gens . Jerome B. Robertson and Evander M. Law . He also submitted a letter of resignation to Adjutant General Samuel Cooper on December 30 , 1863 , but his request to be relieved was denied .
His corps suffered through a severe winter in Eastern Tennessee with inadequate shelter and provisions . Writing to Georgia 's Quartermaster General , Ira Roe Foster on January 24 , 1864 , Longstreet noted : " There are five Georgia Brigades in this Army – Wofford 's , G.T. Anderson 's , Bryan 's , Benning 's , and Crews ' cavalry brigade . They are all alike in excessive need of shoes , clothing of all kinds , and blankets . All that you can send will be thankfully received . " Meanwhile , Longstreet again developed strategic plans . He called for an offensive through Tennessee into Kentucky in which his command would be bolstered by P.G.T. Beauregard and 20 @,@ 000 men . Although he had the concurrence of Gen. Lee , Longstreet was unable to convince President Davis or his newly appointed military advisor , Braxton Bragg .
= = = Wilderness to Appomattox = = =
Finding out that his old friend Ulysses Grant was in command of the Union Army , he told his fellow officers that " he will fight us every day and every hour until the end of the war . " Longstreet helped save the Confederate Army from defeat in his first battle back with Lee 's army , the Battle of the Wilderness in May 1864 , in which he launched a powerful flanking attack along the Orange Plank Road against the Union II Corps and nearly drove it from the field . Once again he developed innovative tactics to deal with difficult terrain , ordering the advance of six brigades by heavy skirmish lines , which allowed his men to deliver a continuous fire into the enemy , while proving to be elusive targets themselves . Wilderness historian Edward Steere attributed much of the success of the Army to " the display of tactical genius by Longstreet which more than redressed his disparity in numerical strength . " After the war , the Union II Corps commander that day , Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock , said to Longstreet of this flanking maneuver : " You rolled me up like a wet blanket . "
Longstreet was wounded during the assault — accidentally shot by his own men only about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away from the place where Jackson suffered the same fate a year earlier . A bullet passed through his shoulder , severing nerves , and tearing a gash in his throat . Micah Jenkins , who was riding with Longstreet , was also shot and died from his wounds . The momentum of the attack subsided . As he was taken from the field , Longstreet urged Lee to press the attack . Instead , Lee delayed further movement until units could be realigned , giving the Union defenders adequate time to reorganize . The subsequent attack was a failure . E.P. Alexander called the removal of Longstreet the critical juncture of the battle : " I have always believed that , but for Longstreet 's fall , the panic which was fairly underway in Hancock 's [ II ] Corps would have been extended & have resulted in Grant 's being forced to retreat back across the Rapidan . "
Longstreet missed the rest of the 1864 spring and summer campaign , where Lee sorely missed his skill in handling the army . He was treated in Lynchburg , Virginia , and recuperated in Augusta , Georgia , with his niece , Emma Eve Longstreet Sibley , the daughter of his brother Gilbert . While in Augusta , he participated in the funeral service for Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk at Saint Paul 's Church , joining the Bishops of Mississippi and Arkansas in casting earth onto the coffin . He rejoined Lee in October 1864 , with his right arm paralyzed and in a sling , initially unable to ride a horse . He had taught himself to write with his left hand ; by periodically pulling on his arm , as advised by doctors , he was able to regain use of his right hand in later years . For the remainder of the Siege of Petersburg he commanded the defenses in front of the capital of Richmond , including all forces north of the James River and Pickett 's Division at Bermuda Hundred . He retreated with Lee in the Appomattox Campaign , commanding both the First and Third Corps , following the death of A.P. Hill on April 2 . As Lee considered surrender , Longstreet advised him of his belief that Grant would treat them fairly , but as Lee rode toward Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 , Longstreet said , " General , if he does not give us good terms , come back and let us fight it out . "
= = Post @-@ bellum life = =
After the war , Longstreet and his family settled in New Orleans , a location popular with a number of former Confederate generals . He entered into a cotton brokerage partnership there and also became the president of the newly created Great Southern and Western Fire , Marine and Accident Insurance Company . He actively sought the presidency of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad but was unsuccessful , and also failed in an attempt to get investors for a proposed railroad from New Orleans to Monterrey , Mexico . ( In 1870 , he was named president of the newly organized New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad . ) He applied for a pardon from President Andrew Johnson , endorsed by his old friend Ulysses S. Grant . Johnson refused , however , telling Longstreet in a meeting : " There are three persons of the South who can never receive amnesty : Mr. Davis , General Lee , and yourself . You have given the Union cause too much trouble . " Regardless of such opposition the United States Congress restored his rights of citizenship in June 1868 .
Longstreet was the only senior Confederate officer to join the Republican Party during Reconstruction . He endorsed Grant for president in 1868 , attended his inauguration ceremonies , and six days later received an appointment as surveyor of customs in New Orleans . For these acts he lost favor with many white Southerners . His old friend Harvey Hill wrote to a newspaper : " Our scalawag is the local leper of the community . " Unlike Northerners who moved South and were sometimes referred to as " Carpetbaggers , " Hill wrote , Longstreet " is a native , which is so much the worse . " The Republican governor of Louisiana appointed Longstreet the adjutant general of the state militia and by 1872 he became a major general in command of all militia and state police forces within New Orleans . During protests of election irregularities in 1874 , referred to as the Battle of Liberty Place , an armed force of 8 @,@ 400 White League members advanced on the State House . Longstreet commanded a force of 3 @,@ 600 Metropolitan Police , city policemen , and African @-@ American militia troops , armed with two Gatling guns and a battery of artillery . He rode to meet the protesters but was pulled from his horse , shot by a spent bullet , and taken prisoner . The White League charged , causing many of Longstreet 's men to flee or surrender . There were casualties of 38 killed and 79 wounded . Federal troops were required to restore order . Longstreet 's use of black troops during the disturbances increased the denunciations by anti @-@ Reconstructionists .
In 1875 the Longstreet family left New Orleans with concerns over health and safety , returning to Gainesville , Georgia . By this time Louise had given birth to ten children , five of whom lived to adulthood . He applied for various jobs through the Rutherford B. Hayes administration and was briefly considered for Secretary of the Navy . He served briefly as deputy collector of internal revenue and as postmaster of Gainesville . In 1880 Hayes appointed Longstreet as his ambassador to the Ottoman Empire , and later he served from 1897 to 1904 , under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt , as U.S. Commissioner of Railroads , succeeding Wade Hampton III .
On one of his frequent return trips to New Orleans on business , Longstreet converted to Catholicism in 1877 and was a devout believer until his death . He served as a U.S. Marshal from 1881 to 1884 , but the return of a Democratic administration ended his political careers and he went into semiretirement on a 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) farm near Gainesville , where he raised turkeys and planted orchards and vineyards on terraced ground that his neighbors referred to jokingly as " Gettysburg . " A devastating fire on April 9 , 1889 ( the 24th anniversary of Lee 's surrender at Appomattox ) destroyed his house and many of his personal possessions , including his personal Civil War documents and memorabilia . That December Louise Longstreet died . He remarried in 1897 , in a ceremony at the governor 's mansion in Atlanta , to Helen Dortch , age 34 . Although Longstreet 's children reacted poorly to the marriage , Helen became a devoted wife and avid supporter of his legacy after his death . She outlived him by 58 years , dying in 1962 .
After Louise 's death , and after bearing criticism of his war record from other Confederates for decades , Longstreet refuted most of their arguments in his memoirs entitled From Manassas to Appomattox , a labor of five years that was published in 1896 . His final years were marked by poor health and partial deafness . In 1902 he suffered from severe rheumatism and was unable to stand for more than a few minutes at a time . His weight diminished from 200 to 135 pounds by January 1903 . Cancer developed in his right eye , and in December he had X @-@ ray therapy in Chicago to treat it . He contracted pneumonia and died in Gainesville , six days before his 83rd birthday . Longstreet 's remains are buried in Alta Vista Cemetery . He outlived most of his detractors , and was one of only a few general officers from the Civil War to live into the 20th century .
= = Legacy = =
Criticism from authors in the Lost Cause movement attacked Longstreet 's war career for many years after his death . Knudsen maintains that because Longstreet became a " reconstructed rebel " , embraced equal rights for blacks , unification of the nation , and reconstruction , he became the target of those who wanted to maintain racist policies and otherwise could not accept the verdict of the battlefield . The attacks formally began on January 19 , 1872 , the anniversary of Robert E. Lee 's birth , and less than two years after Lee 's death . Jubal Early , in a speech at Washington College , exonerated Lee of his failure at Gettysburg and falsely accused Longstreet of attacking late on the second day and of being responsible for the debacle on the third . The following year William N. Pendleton , Lee 's artillery chief , claimed in the same venue that Longstreet disobeyed an explicit order to attack at sunrise on July 2 . Both of these allegations were fabrications ; however , Longstreet failed to challenge these lies publicly until 1875 . The delay was damaging to his reputation , as the Lost Cause mythology had taken hold in common opinion by this time . In the 20th century Douglas Southall Freeman kept criticism of Longstreet foremost in Civil War scholarship in his biography of Lee . Clifford Dowdey , a Virginia newspaperman and novelist , was noted for his severe criticism of Longstreet in the 1950s and 1960s .
After Longstreet 's death , his second wife Helen privately published Lee and Longstreet at High Tide in his defense , in which she stated " the South was seditiously taught to believe that the Federal Victory was wholly the fortuitous outcome of the culpable disobedience of General Longstreet . "
The publication of Michael Shaara 's novel The Killer Angels in 1974 , based in part on Longstreet 's memoirs , followed by its 1993 film adaptation , Gettysburg , have been credited with helping to restore Longstreet 's reputation as a general and to dramatically raise his public visibility . The 1982 work by Thomas L. Connolly and Barbara L. Bellows , God and General Longstreet , provided a " further upgrading of Longstreet through an attack on Lee , the Lost Cause , and the Virginia revisionists . "
Jeffry D. Wert wrote that " Longstreet ... was the finest corps commander in the Army of Northern Virginia ; in fact , he was arguably the best corps commander in the conflict on either side . " Richard L. DiNardo wrote " Even Longstreet 's most virulent critics have conceded that he put together the best staff employed by any commander , and that his de facto chief of staff , Lieutenant Colonel G. Moxley Sorrel , was the best staff officer in the Confederacy . " DiNardo cited the effective way in which Longstreet delegated responsibilities for control of battlefield movements to his staff and how they were able to communicate with him more effectively during battles than the staffs of other Confederate generals during the war .
= = = In memoriam = = =
Longstreet is remembered through numerous places that bear his name in and around Gainesville , Georgia , including Longstreet Bridge , a portion of U.S. Route 129 that crosses the Chattahoochee River ( later dammed to form Lake Sidney Lanier ) , and the local Longstreet Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy .
In 1998 , one of the last monuments erected at Gettysburg National Military Park was dedicated as a belated tribute to Longstreet , an equestrian statue by sculptor Gary Casteel . He is shown riding on a depiction of his favorite horse , Hero , at ground level in a grove of trees in Pitzer Woods — unlike most generals , who are elevated on tall bases overlooking the battlefield .
The Longstreet Society is an organization and museum in Gainesville , dedicated to the celebration and study of his life and career . The General Longstreet Recognition Project is an educational project of the Agribusiness Council Heritage Preservation Committee aimed at broadening public awareness of Longstreet 's military and public service .
Longstreet 's Billet , the house in Russellville , Tennessee , that Longstreet occupied during the winter of 1863 – 64 , has been converted into The Longstreet Museum , open to the public .
= = In popular culture = =
Longstreet plays a prominent role in Michael Shaara 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning 1974 novel The Killer Angels . He is portrayed in the 1993 film Gettysburg ( based on the The Killer Angels ) by Tom Berenger , and in the prequel , Gods and Generals ( 2003 ) , by Bruce Boxleitner . He was portrayed by Brian Amidei onstage in the world premiere of The Killer Angels at the Lifeline Theatre in Chicago .
Longstreet is a character in a number of prominent alternate history novels : Robert Skimin 's Gray Victory ( 1988 ) , Robert Conroy 's 1901 ( 1995 ) , and Harry Turtledove 's Southern Victory Series : Volume 1 : How Few Remain ( 1997 ) .
Longstreet appears as a character in Row After Row , a full length one act play by American playwright , Jessica Dickey . The action of the play takes place in the evening after a re @-@ enactment of Gettysburg . One re @-@ enactor , Cal , plays Longstreet in the battle . In parts of the play , the action moves to the moments leading up to Pickett 's Charge . The play ends with tormented Longstreet addressing the future as he wonders if we will ever form a " more perfect union . "
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= Linois 's expedition to the Indian Ocean =
Linois 's expedition to the Indian Ocean was a commerce raiding operation launched by the French Navy during the Napoleonic Wars . Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois was ordered to the Indian Ocean in his flagship Marengo in March 1803 accompanied by a squadron of three frigates , shortly before the end of the Peace of Amiens . When war between Britain and France broke out in September 1803 , Marengo was at Pondicherry with the frigates , but escaped a British squadron sent to intercept it and reached Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) . The large distances between naval bases in the Indian Ocean and the limited resources available to the British commanders in the region made it difficult to concentrate sufficient forces to combat a squadron of this size , and Linois was subsequently able to sustain his campaign for three years . From Isle de France , Linois and his frigates began a series of attacks on British commerce across the Eastern Indian Ocean , specifically targeting the large convoys of East Indiamen that were vital to the maintenance of trade within the British Empire and to the British economy . Although he had a number of successes against individual merchant ships and the small British trading post of Bencoolen , the first military test of Linois squadron came at the Battle of Pulo Aura on 15 February 1804 . Linois attacked the undefended British China Fleet , consisting of 16 valuable East Indiamen and 14 other vessels , but failed to press his military superiority and withdrew without capturing a single ship .
In September 1804 , Linois attacked a small British convoy at Vizagapatam in the Bay of Bengal and captured one ship , but was again driven off by inferior British forces . The damage Marengo suffered on the return to Isle de France was so severe that she had to be overhauled at Grand Port , and after subsequent cruises in the Red Sea and in the central Indian Ocean , where Linois was again driven away from a large British convoy by inferior British forces , he attempted to return to Europe via the Cape of Good Hope . On the return journey , Linois 's ships sailed into the cruising ground of a British squadron participating in the Atlantic campaign of 1806 and was captured by overwhelming forces at the Action of 13 March 1806 , almost exactly three years after leaving France . Linois 's activities in the Indian Ocean had caused panic and disruption across the region , but the actual damage inflicted on British shipping was negligible and his cruise known more for its failures than its successes . In France , Napoleon was furious and refused to exchange Linois for captured British officers for eight years , leaving him and his crew as prisoners of war until 1814 .
= = Background = =
During the early nineteenth century the Indian Ocean was a vital conduit of British trade , connecting Britain with its colonies and trading posts in the Far East . Convoys of merchant ships , including the large East Indiamen , sailed from ports in China , South East Asia and the new colony of Botany Bay in Australia , as well as Portuguese colonies in the Pacific Ocean . Entering the Indian Ocean , they joined the large convoys of ships from British India that carried millions of pounds of trade goods to Britain every year . Together these ships crossed the Indian Ocean and rounded the Cape of Good Hope , sailing north until eventually reaching European waters . Docking at one of the principal British ports , the ships unloaded their goods and took on cargo for the return journey . This often consisted of military reinforcements for the Army of the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) , whose holdings in India were constantly expanding at the expense of neighbouring states .
During the French Revolutionary Wars ( 1793 – 1801 ) , French frigates and privateers operated from the French Indian Ocean colonies of Isle de France and Réunion against British trade routes . Although protected by Royal Navy and the fleet of the HEIC , there were a number of losses among individually sailing ships , particularly the " country ships " : smaller and weaker local vessels less able to defend themselves than the large East Indiamen . Many of these losses were inflicted by privateers , in particular the ships of Robert Surcouf , who captured the East Indiaman Kent in 1800 and retired on the profits . However , these losses formed only a tiny percentage of the British merchant ships crossing the Indian Ocean : the trade convoys continued uninterrupted throughout the conflict . In 1801 the short @-@ lived Peace of Amiens brought an end to the wars , allowing France to reinforce their colonies in the Indian Ocean , including the Indian port @-@ city of Pondicherry on the Bay of Bengal .
Another feature of the French Revolutionary Wars was the effect of British blockade on French movements . The Royal Navy maintained an active close blockade of all major French ports during the conflict , which resulted in every French ship that left port facing attack from squadrons and individual ships patrolling the French and allied coasts . The losses the French Navy suffered as a result of this strategy were high , and the blockade was so effective that even movement between ports along the French coasts was restricted . In the Indian Ocean however the huge distances between the French bases on Réunion and Isle de France and the British bases in India meant that close blockade was an ineffective strategy : the scale of the forces required to maintain an effective constant blockade of both islands , as well as the Dutch ports at the Cape of Good Hope and in the Dutch East Indies were too large to be worth their deployment to such a distant part of the world . As a result , the French raiders operating from the Indian Ocean bases were able to travel with more freedom and less risk of interception than those in the Atlantic or Mediterranean .
During 1802 , tensions rose again between Britain and France , the latter country now under the rule of First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte . Aware that a return to war was almost inevitable , Napoleon ordered the French Navy to prepare a force for extended service in the Indian Ocean , a force that would be capable of inflicting significant losses on the British trade from the region . The flagship of the squadron was to be the fast ship of the line Marengo , a 74 @-@ gun vessel commanded by Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Léon Durand Linois . Linois was a highly experienced officer who had been engaged with the British on a number of occasions during the French Revolutionary Wars : in May 1794 , he was captured when his frigate Atalante was run down in the mid @-@ Atlantic by HMS Swiftsure . Rapidly exchanged , his next ship Formidable was captured after a fierce defence at the Battle of Groix , and the following year he was captured again in his new frigate Unité and subsequently participated in the disastrous Expédition d 'Irlande in the ship of the line Nestor after a third prisoner exchange . His most important battle was in July 1801 , when he commanded the French squadron during their victory at the First Battle of Algeciras , where HMS Hannibal was captured . He was also in partial command at the defeat in the Second Battle of Algeciras four days later , but the action enhanced his reputation within the French Navy as a successful commander . Marengo was accompanied by the frigates Atalante , Sémillante and Belle Poule and the transports Côte d 'Or and Marie Françoise . Ostensibly this squadron was despatched to the Indian Ocean to take possession of Pondicherry and install a new governor in the French Indian Ocean colonies , General Charles Decaen . The convoy carried 1 @,@ 350 soldiers and a significant quantity of supplies for both the four @-@ month journey to India and the anticipated extended operations that were to follow it .
= = Movements in 1803 = =
Linois 's squadron departed Brest on 6 March 1803 . The four @-@ month journey to Pondicherry was interrupted by a fierce storm on 28 April , which caused Belle Poule to separate from the squadron and shelter in Madagascar for several days . The transports Côte d 'Or and Marie Françoise were also detached in the high winds , and made their way separately to the destination . The bad weather delayed the arrival of Linois 's main squadron , and thus Belle Poule arrived in India first , on 16 June . Napoleon believed , and had assured Linois , that war with Britain was not likely until September , but relations broke down faster than expected and Britain began mobilising on 16 May , issuing a formal declaration of war two days later . As news could only travel at the same speed as a fast ship , it had not arrived in the Indian Ocean by the time of Belle Poule 's arrival , although it was expected at any moment . Colonel Louis Binot , who had sailed on the frigate , called on the British officials then operating the factories in Pondicherry to turn them over to the French as stipulated in the Treaty of Amiens , but was refused . The factory owners were under orders from Governor @-@ General Lord Wellesley , in turn under orders from Lord Hawkesbury , to deny the French access to Pondicherry 's commercial assets . The French position was further weakened when a large British squadron , consisting of the ships of the line HMS Tremendous , HMS Trident and HMS Lancaster , the fourth @-@ rate HMS Centurion and the frigates HMS Sheerness , HMS Concorde , HMS Dedaigneuse and HMS Fox anchored at Cuddalore , 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south of Pondicherry . This squadron had been sent from Bombay under Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier to watch French movements . On 5 July , Rainier had received word from Bombay , via Madras , that war was imminent although not yet declared , and had moved his ships to an anchorage within sight of Pondicherry in anticipation of the outbreak of war .
Linois arrived at Pondicherry on 11 July to find Rainier 's ships anchored nearby and most of the city 's financial institutions still in British hands . Trident and the brig HMS Victor were anchored in Pondicherry roads , although on Linois 's arrival they sailed to join Rainier 's squadron . The following day , Linois sent Captain Joseph @-@ Marie Vrignaud and his own nephew on board Rainier 's flagship with an invitation to breakfast the following morning , which was accepted . At 10 : 00 , the transport Marie François arrived in Pondicherry , having been separated in the storm , and she was followed at 18 : 00 by the brig Bélier . Bélier had been sent out from Brest on 16 March carrying , among other papers , copies of a speech made before the British Parliament by King George III that threatened conflict and orders from Napoleon to immediately sail for Isle de France in anticipation of the declaration of war . Linois was instructed to deliver Decaen to the island , and prepare his ships on the Indian Ocean island for a lengthy raiding operation against British commerce in the region . When dawn rose on 13 July , Rainier embarked on the 16 @-@ gun brig HMS Rattlesnake for his breakfast appointment , only to discover that Linois 's ships had slipped away in the night .
Linois had escaped so swiftly that his anchors and boats had been left in the bay , where he had abandoned them rather than draw attention to his movements by drawing them in . He had also just missed the transport Côte d 'Or with its 326 soldiers , which arrived on the evening of 13 July and was swiftly surrounded by Centurion and Concorde . Detaching most of his squadron to Madras , Rainier waited off Pondicherry for further French movements and on 15 July spotted Belle Poule just off the coast . Linois had detached the frigate to investigate the anchorage at Madras , but she had been intercepted and followed by the frigate HMS Terpsichore , whose insistent shadowing had forced Captain Alain @-@ Adélaïde @-@ Marie Bruilhac to return to Pondicherry . Belle Poule and Côte d 'Or exchange signals during the morning , and at 11 : 00 the transport suddenly raised sails and departed the anchorage , Terpsichore pursuing closely . Early on 16 July , Terpsichore overtook the transport and fired several shots across her bow , forcing her captain to surrender . Bruilhac had used the distraction to sail Belle Poule to Isle de France without pursuit . Côte d 'Or was returned to Pondicherry and , since there was no news of war from Europe , released on 24 July on condition that she only sail to Isle de France and no other destination . Dedaigneuse was detached to ensure that the transport followed these conditions and Rainier returned to Madras , joined by Dedaigneuse the following day once the transport 's course was ensured . Rainier immediately ordered his ships to take on military supplies in preparation for military operations , although news of the declaration of war , made on 18 May , did not reach him until 13 September .
By the time Rainier learned of the outbreak of war , Linois was already at Isle de France , where his ships had arrived without incident on 16 August . Decaen was installed as governor and some of the troops disembarked to reinforce the garrison , although Linois retained the rest on board his squadron . On the journey to India , Linois and Decaen had fallen out , and the effects of their distaste for one another would be a repeated feature of the following campaign . Britain 's declaration of war reached Isle de France at the end of August aboard the corvette Berceau , which Linois added to his squadron . By 8 October his preparations were complete , and the French admiral issued his orders for his squadron to sail . Atalante was detached to raid shipping in the area of Muscat , an important Portuguese trading post . The rest of the squadron , except the troopships , was to sail with Linois to Réunion ( soon to be renamed Île Bonaparte ) , where the garrison was reinforced . It then sailed eastwards to the Dutch East Indies , diverting to raid British shipping lanes , where many merchant ships were still unaware of the outbreak of war . Linois 's first combat cruise was successful , and he captured a number of undefended prizes from the country ships encountered en route to the East Indies . In early December , shortly before he reached Batavia on Java , Linois stopped at the minor British trading town of Bencoolen . The local maritime pilot believed the squadron to be British and brought them into the harbour , anchoring them just outside the range of the port 's defensive battery but within range of the small merchant ships clustered in the bay . These merchant ships recognised the French warships and fled , pursued closely by Berceau and Sémillante . Six were scuttled by their crews at Sellebar 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the south and two more burnt by French landing parties after grounding . The French also destroyed three large warehouses containing cargoes of spices , rice and opium and captured three ships , losing two men killed when a cannon shot from the shore struck Sémillante . On 10 December the squadron arrived at Batavia for the winter , disembarking the remaining soldiers to augment the Dutch garrison .
= = Pulo Aura = =
On 28 December 1803 , carrying provisions for six months cruising , Linois 's squadron left Batavia . Sailing northwards into the South China Sea , Linois sought to intercept the HEIC China Fleet , a large convoy of East Indiamen carrying trade goods worth £ 8 million ( the equivalent of £ 635 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) from Canton to Britain . The annual convoy sailed through the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca , gathering ships from other destinations en route and usually under the protection of an escort formed from Royal Navy ships of the line . However , the 1804 fleet had no escort : the outbreak of war had delayed the despatch of the vessels from Rainier 's squadron . Thus as the convoy approached the Straits of Malacca it consisted of 16 East Indiamen , 11 country ships and two other vessels guarded by only one small HEIC armed brig , Ganges . On 14 February , close to the island of Pulo Aura , the commodore of the convoy , Nathaniel Dance , was notified that sails were sighted approaching from the south @-@ west . Suspicious , Dance sent a number of the East Indiamen to investigate , and rapidly discovered that the strange ships were the French squadron under Linois . Dance knew that his convoy would be unable to resist the French in combat and instead decided to bluff the French by pretending that a number of his large East Indiamen were disguised ships of the line .
Dance formed his ships into a line of battle and ordered three or four of them to raise blue ensigns and the others red , giving the impression of a heavy escort by implying that the ships with blue ensigns were warships . This ruse provoked a cautious response from Linois , who ordered his squadron to shadow the convoy without closing with them . During the night , Dance held position and Linois remained at a distance , unsure of the strength of the British convoy . At 09 : 00 , Dance reformed his force into sailing formation to put distance between the two forces and Linois took the opportunity to attack , threatening to cut off the rearmost British ships . Dance tacked and his lead vessels came to the support of the rear , engaging Marengo at long range . Unnerved by the sudden British manoeuvere , Linois turned and retreated , convinced that the convoy was defended by an overwhelming force . Continuing the illusion that he was supported by warships , Dance ordered his ships to pursue Linois over the next two hours , eventually reforming and reaching the Straits of Malacca safely . There they were met several days later by two ships of the line sent from India .
The engagement was an embarrassment for Linois , who insisted that the convoy was defended by up to eight ships of the line and maintained that his actions had saved his squadron from certain destruction . His version of events was widely ridiculed by both his own officers and the authorities in Britain and France , who criticised his timidity and his failure to press the attack when such a valuable prize was within his reach . Dance by contrast was lauded for his defence and rewarded with a knighthood and large financial gifts , including £ 50 @,@ 000 divided among the officers and men of the convoy . The engagement prompted a furious Napoleon to write to the Minister of Marine Denis Decrès :
All the enterprises at sea which have been undertaken since I became the head of the Government have missed fire because my admirals see double and have discovered , I know not how or where , that war can be made without running risks . . . Tell Linois that he has shown want of courage of mind , that kind of courage which I consider the highest quality in a leader .
= = Operations in the Indian Ocean = =
Arriving at Batavia in the aftermath of the engagement , Linois was the subject of criticism from the Dutch governors for his failure to defeat the China convoy . They also refused his requests to make use of the Dutch squadron stationed in port for future operations . Rejoined by Atalante , Linois sold two captured country ships and resupplied his squadron , before sailing for Isle de France , Marengo arriving on 2 April . During the return journey , Linois had detached his frigates and they captured a number of valuable merchant ships sailing independently before joining the admiral at Port Louis , which Decaen had renamed Port Napoleon . On his arrival , Linois was questioned by Decaen about the engagement with the China Fleet and when Decaen found his answers unsatisfactory the governor wrote a scathing letter to Napoleon , which he despatched to France on Berceau . Linois remained at Isle de France for the next two and a half months , eventually departing with Marengo , Atalante and Sémillante in late June , while Belle Poule was detached to cruise independently .
= = = Second cruise of Linois = = =
Linois initially sailed for Madagascar , seeking to prey on British trade rounding the Cape of Good Hope . Bad weather forced him to shelter in Saint Augustin for much of the next month , taking on fresh provisions before departing to the Ceylon coast . There he captured a number of valuable prizes , including two rice ships which were sent to Isle de France to provide a ready store of food for the squadron . Linois 's force gradually moved northwards into the Bay of Bengal and in late August passed Madras , remaining 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) off the coast to avoid an unequal encounter with Rainier 's squadron . He investigated the harbours at Masulipatam and Cosanguay , making a number of small captures and subsequently cruising along Coastal Andhra in search of valuable convoys . Prisoners from one of the ships taken off Masulipatam on 14 September informed him that a valuable British convoy was anchored in the harbour at Vizagapatam , consisting of the frigate HMS Wilhelmina and two East Indiamen .
Arriving off Vizagapatam early on 15 September 1804 , Linois discovered that Rainier , concerned by French depredations off the Indian coast , had substituted Wilhemina for the larger and heavier HMS Centurion , a 50 @-@ gun fourth rate . Also anchored in the harbour roads were the small East Indiamen Barnaby and Princess Charlotte . Centurion 's captain , James Lind , was ashore and command rested with Lieutenant James Robert Phillips , who was suspicious of the new arrivals and fired on them as they came within range . Raising French flags , Linois 's frigates closed on the anchored ships , coming under fire from a gun battery on shore . Marengo remained beyond the sandbanks that marked the harbour entrance but still within long range of Centurion , unwilling to risk grounding his flagship in the shallow waters . Phillips issued urgent orders for the Indiamen to provide assistance , but was ignored : Barnaby drifted ashore and was wrecked when her captain cut her anchor cables while Princess Charlotte refused to participate in the engagement at all , remaining at anchor without making use of her 30 cannon . The French ships temporarily withdrew for repairs at 10 : 45 , but Centurion was even more severely damaged , drifting beyond the support of the shore batteries as the French returned to the attack at 11 : 15 . With the harbour exposed , Princess Charlotte surrendered to Sémillante as Atalante and Marengo continued to engage the British ship . By 13 : 15 , with Centurion badly damaged and the prize secure , Linois decided to withdraw , easily outdistancing the limping British pursuit . Linois subsequently came under criticism for his failure to annihilate the British warship , Napoleon later commenting that " France cared for honour , not for a few pieces of wood . "
With Marengo damaged and Rainier actively hunting for his squadron , Linois withdrew from the Bay of Bengal and returned to Isle de France . Rainier knew that his chances of discovering Linois in the open Indian Ocean were insignificant , and instead decided to keep watch for him off his principal base at Port Napoleon . A squadron was detached to the port , but Linois 's scouts discovered the blockade before he arrived and he was able to safely reach Grand Port instead on 31 October . Entering over the reefs that protected the anchorage , Marengo 's deeper keel scraped on the coral . The ship 's hull was badly damaged and her rudder torn off , requiring extensive repairs . Linois was later joined by Captain Bruilhac in Belle Poule , who had captured a valuable merchant ship on his individual cruise in the Bay of Bengal .
With his flagship severely damaged , Linois began an extensive series of repairs to Marengo , which was overhauled and beached to have her bottom and rudder replaced . The repairs lasted until May 1805 , and the expense of feeding and accommodating the hundreds of sailors from the squadron placed a significant strain on Decaen 's resources , despite the captured food supplies sent in by Linois during 1804 . To alleviate the pressure , Linois ordered Captain Gaudin @-@ Beauchène in Atalante to cruise independently off the trade routes that passed the Cape of Good Hope and on 6 March detached Sémillante from the squadron entirely , sending Captain Léonard @-@ Bernard Motard on a mission to the Philippines . He was then ordered to sail on across the Pacific to Mexico , to liaise with the Spanish officials there before returning to Europe around Cape Horn . Motard 's mission to the Americas was brought to an end on 2 August 1805 , when he encountered HMS Phaeton and HMS Harrier under Captain John Wood in the San Bernardino Strait , after resupplying for the Pacific voyage at San Jacinto . In a sharp engagement the British ships inflicted severe damage to Sémillante before being driven off by a Spanish fort overlooking the strait . The damage was so severe that Motard abandoned the plans to sail for Mexico , returning to the Indian Ocean and continuing to operate from Isle de France against British trade routes until 1808 .
= = = Third cruise of Linois = = =
Departing Isle de France for the third and final time on 22 May 1805 , Linois initially sailed northwest to the mouth of the Red Sea . Finding few targets , he turned eastwards and by July was again raiding shipping off the coast of Ceylon , accompanied by Belle Poule . There on 11 July he discovered his richest prize yet , the 1200- ton ( bm ) East Indiaman Brunswick . Linois discovered Brunswick , under the command of Captain James Ludovic Grant , and the 935 @-@ ton ( bm ) country ship Sarah , under Captain M 'Intosh . With the French advancing rapidly on the heavily laden merchant ships , Grant ordered Sarah to separate and attempt to shelter on the Ceylon coast . Linois detached Belle Poule to chase Sarah . M 'Intosh ran Sarah onto the beach to avoid capture , the crew scrambling ashore as Sarah broke up in the heavy surf . Brunswick was slower than Sarah , and although Grant opened fire on Marengo the engagement was brief , Brunswick rapidly surrendering to the larger French vessel . Grant was taken aboard Marengo and observed the French ship at close quarters , developing a negative opinion of Linois and his crew :
She sails uncommonly fast : but her ship 's company , though strong in number , there being 800 men now on board , does not possess 100 effective seamen . . . There does not appear to be the least order or discipline amongst their people ; all are equal , and each man seems equally conscious of their own superiority ; and such is the sad state and condition of the Marengo that I may with safety affirm , she floats upon the sea as a hulk of insubordination , filthiness and folly .
In early 1805 , Rainier had been replaced in command at Madras by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew , a more aggressive officer with a reputation of success against the French Navy . Learning of Linois 's reappearance off Ceylon , Pellew immediately despatched a squadron in search of him . Linois discovered the impending arrival of Pellew 's ships from captured prisoners and departed westwards , successfully avoiding an encounter with the British force . After again cruising off the entrance to the Red Sea without success , Linois sailed southwards to intersect the trade routes between the Cape of Good Hope and Madras . During the journey , his squadron were caught in a heavy storm and Belle Poule lost her mizenmast . Linois was able to replace it , but the incident left him without any spare masts should either of his ships lose another . Without a full sailing rig , his ships were vulnerable to capture by faster and more agile British vessels , and Linois decided that protecting his masts was his most important priority .
On 6 August 1805 , Linois encountered his first significant prize since Brunswick , when he discovered a convoy of eleven large ships sailing eastwards along the trade route from the Cape to Madras at 19 ° 09 ′ S 81 ° 22 ′ E. Closing to investigate the convoy , which was shrouded in fog , Linois was again cautious , unwilling to engage until he was certain that no Royal Navy ships lay among the East Indiamen . At 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) distance it became clear that one of the ships was certainly a large warship , flying a pennant indicating the presence of an admiral on board . This ship was HMS Blenheim , a ship of the line built in 1761 as a 90 @-@ gun second rate but recently cut down to 74 @-@ guns . She was commanded by Captain Austen Bissell and flew the flag of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Troubridge , a prominent officer who had been sent to the Indian Ocean to assume command of half of Pellew 's responsibilities after a political compromise at the Admiralty . Troubridge 's flagship was the convoy 's only escort , leading ten East Indiamen through the Indian Ocean to Madras .
As at Pulo Aura , the Indiamen formed line in preparation for Linois 's attack , and once again Linois refused to engage them directly : Blenheim was a powerful ship capable of inflicting fatal damage on Marengo even if the French managed to defeat her , an uncertain outcome given the presence of the heavily armed merchant ships . Instead , Linois swung in behind the convoy , hoping to cut off a straggler . These manoeuveres were too complex for the poorly manned Brunswick , and she fell out of the French formation and was soon left behind , disappearing over the horizon . At 17 : 30 , Marengo pulled within range of the rearmost East Indiaman and opened a long @-@ range fire , joined by Belle Poule . The rear ship Cumberland , a veteran of the Battle of Pulo Aura , was unintimidated and returned fire as Blenheim held position so that the convoy passed ahead and the French ships rapidly came up with her . Opening a heavy fire with the main deck guns , Troubridge was able to drive the French ships off , even though his lower deck guns were out of service due to the heavy seas that threatened to flood through the lower gunports . Linois , concerned for the safety of his masts , pressed on all sail and by 18 : 00 had gone beyond range of Blenheim 's guns and overtaken the convoy , remaining within sight until nightfall .
At midnight , the French ships crossed the bows of the convoy and by morning were 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) to windward , to the south . Troubridge maintained his line throughout the night and at 07 : 00 on 7 August 1805 he prepared to receive the French again as Linois bore down on the convoy . Retaining their formation , the combined batteries of the Indiamen and Blenheim dissuaded Linois from the pressing the attack and he veered off at 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) distance , holding position for the rest of the day before turning southwards at 21 : 00 and disappearing . Troubridge wanted to pursue in Blenheim , but was dissuaded by the presence of Belle Poule , which could attack the convoy while the ships of the line were engaged . He expressed confidence however that he would have been successful in any engagement and wrote " I trust I shall yet have the good fortune to fall in with him when unencumber 'd with convoy " . Linois 's withdrawal was prudent : his mainmast had been struck during the brief cannonade and was at risk of collapse if the engagement continued . Losses among the crew were light , Marengo suffering eight men wounded and Belle Poule none . British casualties were slightly heavier , a passenger on Blenheim named Mr. Cook was killed by langrage shot and a sailor was killed on the Indiaman Ganges by a roundshot . No British ships suffered anything more than superficial damage in the combat , and the convoy continued its journey uninterrupted , arriving at Madras on 23 August .
= = Return to the Atlantic = =
Retiring from the encounter with Blenheim , Linois sailed westwards and arrived in Simon 's Bay at the Dutch colony of Cape Town on 13 September . He was hoping there to join up with the Dutch squadron maintained at the Cape , but discovered that the only significant Dutch warship in the port was the ship of the line Bato , which was stripped down and unfit for service at sea . Repairing the damage suffered in the August engagement and replenishing food and naval stores over the next two months , Linois was joined in October by Atalante . On 5 November a gale swept the bay and Atalante dragged her anchors , Captain Gaudin @-@ Beauchène powerless to prevent his frigate driving ashore and rapidly becoming a total wreck . The crew were able to escape to shore in small boats and were then divided among Marengo and Belle Poule , with 160 men left to augment the garrison at Cape Town . Linois 's prize , the Brunswick , too was wrecked near Simon 's Bay .
Leaving Simon 's Bay on 10 November , Linois slowly sailed up the West African coast , investigating bays and estuaries for British shipping , but only succeeding in capturing two small merchant vessels . He passed Cape Negro and Cape Lopez and obtained fresh water at Príncipe , before cruising in the region of Saint Helena . There he learned on 29 January 1806 from an American merchant ship that a British squadron had captured Cape Town . With the last safe harbour within reach in enemy hands and in desperate need of repair and resupply , Linois decided to return to Europe and slowly passed north , following the trade routes in search of British merchant shipping . On 17 February , Marengo crossed the equator and on 13 March was in position 26 ° 16 ′ N 29 ° 25 ′ W.
= = = Atlantic campaign of 1806 = = =
Unknown to Linois , his squadron was sailing directly into the path of a major naval campaign , the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . In the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805 , and the subsequent end of the Trafalgar Campaign at the Battle of Cape Ortegal on 5 November 1805 , the British had relaxed their blockade of the French Atlantic ports . French and Spanish losses had been so severe in the campaign that it was believed by the British First Lord of the Admiralty , Lord Barham , that the French Navy would be unable to respond in the following winter , and consequently withdrew most of the blockade fleet to Britain until the spring . This strategy miscalculated the strength of the French Brest fleet , which had not been engaged in the Trafalgar campaign and therefore was at full strength . Taking advantage of the absence of the British squadrons off his principal Atlantic port , Napoleon ordered two squadrons to put to sea on 15 December 1805 . These forces were ordered to cruise the Atlantic shipping lanes in search of British merchant convoys and avoid confrontations with equivalent British forces . One squadron , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissegues , was ordered to the Caribbean while the other , under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , was ordered to the South Atlantic .
Discovering on 24 December that the French squadrons had broken out of Brest , Barham despatched two squadrons in pursuit , led by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren . A third squadron detached from the blockade of Cadiz without orders , under its commander Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth , all three British forces cruising the mid @-@ Atlantic in search of the French . Following a brief encounter with Willaumez , Duckworth sailed to the Caribbean and there discovered and destroyed Leissegues ' squadron at the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 . With one of the French squadrons eliminated , Strachan and Warren remained in the mid @-@ Atlantic anticipating Willaumez 's return from his operations to the south . Warren 's squadron was ordered to cruise in the Eastern Atlantic , in the region of the island of Madeira , directly across Linois 's line of advance .
= = = Capture of Linois = = =
At 03 : 00 on 13 March 1806 , lookouts on Marengo spotted sails in the distance to the southeast . Ignoring arguments from Bruilhac that the sails could be a British battle squadron , Linois insisted that they were a merchant convoy and ordered his ships to advance . The night was dark and visibility was consequently extremely limited ; Linois was therefore unaware of the nature of his quarry until the 98 @-@ gun second rate HMS London loomed out of the night immediately ahead . London 's captain , Sir Harry Burrard Neale , had sighted Linois 's sails at a distance and sailed to investigate , hanging signals with blue lights that notified the rest of Warren 's squadron , which was strung out ahead of the slow sailing London , of his intentions . Neale 's ship was accompanied by the frigate HMS Amazon under Captain William Parker , whose lookouts could not see the enemy but followed London 's wake in anticipation of action .
Linois made determined efforts to turn Marengo away from the large British ship , but his flagship was too slow and London opened up a fierce fire . Linois responded in kind and a battle commenced in which both ships suffered serve damage to their masts and rigging . Belle Poule assisted Linois , but on the arrival of Amazon the French admiral gave orders for Bruilhac to escape . Turning to the northeast , Belle Poule pulled away with Amazon gaining rapidly . At 06 : 00 , Linois tried to open some distance between Marengo and from her opponent , but found his flagship too badly damaged to manoeuvre , fire from London continuing unabated . At 08 : 30 , Parker reached Bruilhac 's frigate and opened fire , inflicting serious damage to Belle Poule 's rigging . By 10 : 25 it was clear that the French position was hopeless , with nearly 200 men killed or wounded , the latter including Linois and Vrignaud , both ships badly damaged and unmanoeuverable and the ships of the line HMS Foudroyant , HMS Repulse and HMS Ramillies all coming into range with three others close behind : recognising that defeat was inevitable , the most senior remaining officer on Marengo surrendered , Bruilhac following suit soon afterwards .
Warren returned to Britain with his prizes , the squadron weathering a serious storm on 23 April which dismasted Marengo and Ramillies . British losses in the engagement had totalled 14 dead and 27 wounded , to French casualties of 69 dead and 106 wounded . Warren was highly praised for his victory and both French ships were taken into British service under their French names . The battle marked the end of Linois 's cruise , three years and seven days after he had left Brest for the Indian Ocean . In contrast to the criticism attracted by his earlier engagements , Linois 's final battle with Warren won praise for his resilience in the face of larger and more powerful opposition : British naval historian William James claimed that if Marengo and London had met independently , Linois might well have been the victor in the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Linois 's operations in the Indian Ocean have been compared to those of Captain Karl von Müller in SMS Emden 108 years later : like von Müller , Linois 's raids caused significant concern among British merchant houses and the British authorities in the Indian Ocean , in Linois 's case principally due to the threat he posed to the East Indiaman convoys such as that encountered off Pulo Aura . The practical effects of his raiding were however insignificant : in three years he took just five East Indiamen and a handful of country ships , briefly terrorising the Andhra coast in 1804 but otherwise failing to cause major economic disruption to British trade . The only achievement of his cruise was to force Rainier 's squadron to operate in defence of British convoys and ports , preventing any offensive operations during Linois 's time in the Indian Ocean . The vast distances between friendly ports , the lack of sufficient food supplies or naval stores and the strength of British naval escorts after the initial months of war all played a part in Linois 's failings to fully exploit his opportunity , but the blame for his inadequate achievements has been consistently placed with Linois 's own personal leadership failings , both among his contemporaries and by historians . In battle Linois refused to place his ships in danger if it could be avoided , he spent considerable periods of the cruise refitting at French harbours and even when presented with an undefended target was reluctant to press his advantage .
Linois and his men remained prisoners in Britain until the end of the war , Napoleon refusing to exchange them for British prisoners . His anger at Linois 's failure would have precluded any further appointments even if he had returned to France , but in 1814 he was made Governor of Guadeloupe by King Louis XVIII . On the return of Napoleon during the Hundred Days , Linois declared for the Emperor , the only French colonial governor to do so . Within days a small British expeditionary force had ousted him and on 8 July Napoleon himself surrendered . Linois 's career was over , and he died in 1848 without performing any further military service . The Indian Ocean remained an active theatre of warfare for the next four years , the campaign against British merchant shipping in the region conducted by frigate squadrons operating from the Isle de France . These were initially led by Motard in Sémillante , who proved to be a more successful commerce raider than his former commander , until his ship was retired from service in 1808 , too old and battered to remain in commission . Command later passed to Commodore Jacques Hamelin , whose squadron caused more damage in one year than Linois managed in three : capturing seven East Indiamen during 1809 – 1810 . Eventually British forces were marshalled to capture the island in the Mauritius campaign of 1809 – 1811 , culminating in the Invasion of Isle de France in December 1810 and the final defeat of the French in the Indian Ocean .
= = Order of battle = =
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= Constitution of Belarus =
The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus ( Belarusian : Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь , Russian : Конституция Республики Беларусь ) is the ultimate law of Belarus . Adopted in 1994 , three years after the country declared its independence from the Soviet Union , this formal document establishes the framework of the Belarusian state and government and enumerates the rights and freedoms of its citizens . The Constitution was drafted by the Supreme Soviet of Belarus , the former legislative body of the country , and was improved upon by citizens and legal experts . The contents of the Constitution include the preamble , nine sections , and 146 articles .
The structure and substance of the Constitution were heavily influenced by constitutions of Western powers and by Belarus ' experiences during the Soviet era . While much of the Constitution establishes the government 's functions and powers , an entire section details rights and freedoms granted to citizens and residents . The Constitution has been amended twice since the original adoption , in 1996 and in 2004 . Two referendums that were disputed by independent observers and government opposition leaders increased the power of the presidency over the government and eliminated the term limits for the presidency .
= = History = =
Belarus adopted its first temporary constitution on October 11 , 1918 .
In 1919 , after the occupation of the country by the Russian Bolsheviks , Belarus became a Soviet Republic ( USSR ) , and a new constitution was adopted . Belarus continued to use this constitution until it – along with Russia , Ukraine , and the Transcaucasus – signed a treaty to form the Soviet Union . Now the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Byelorussian SSR ) , the country adopted its first Soviet @-@ era constitution in 1927 , complementing the recently adopted Soviet Constitution . After a re @-@ adoption in 1937 , the Byelorussian SSR adopted its last Soviet @-@ era constitution in 1978 , mainly to reflect changes made in the 1977 Soviet Constitution .
When Belarus became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991 , the Supreme Soviet of Belarus passed the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic , proclaiming Byelorussian SSR acts legal priority over USSR ones ( per article 7 of the Declaration , but this provision was inserted into 1978 Constitution only in August 1991 ) and formally starting a constitutional process in Republic . Soon afterwards , the government established a Constitution Commission to facilitate the adoption of a post @-@ Soviet constitution . In November 1991 , the commission sent the first of three drafts to the Supreme Soviet . Upon approval from the Supreme Soviet , the first draft was published in December 1991 in order for the Belarusian populace to make comments and suggestions . The commission submitted the third and final draft to the Supreme Soviet , where it was signed on March 15 , 1994 by the Speaker of the Supreme Soviet and Head of State , Myechyslaw Hryb . The gazette Zvezda officially published the Constitution fifteen days later . The Supreme Soviet passed a second law along with the Constitution , titled the Enactment Law , rendering the 1978 Byelorussian SSR Constitution and the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic void , with a few exceptions . The law , passed during the thirteenth session of the Supreme Soviet , also provided transitional phases for office holders and government organs to form within two years . Every year since 1994 , March 15 has been commemorated in Belarus as Constitution Day , a national holiday .
The Constitution introduces separation of powers . According to Belarusian law , each office is separate but must work together to serve the people . The Constitution also makes Belarus a presidential democracy , significantly reducing the role of the prime minister . Of the fifteen former Soviet republics , Belarus was the one of latest to create and pass a new constitution subsequent to the dissolution of the USSR . A delay occurred due to debates among Supreme Soviet deputies , who were also trying to stave off the opposition and democratic forces who wanted to close the Supreme Soviet down for good . A power struggle to determine the relationship between the new executive branch and the legislature caused much of the debate in 1992 and 1993 . The former chairman of the Supreme Soviet , Stanislau Shushkevich , criticized the early drafts due to the amount of power granted to the president . The opposition Belarusian Popular Front criticized the final drafts due to the lack of balance between the two parties and for allowing Vyachaslau Kebich to run for presidential elections in June of that year despite serving in the same role with the SSR .
When drafting the Belarus Constitution , the Supreme Soviet deputies were influenced by the constitutions of various countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , Sweden , and the United States . Internally , the Constitution was influenced by the period of Soviet domination and a desire to bring back traditions brushed aside by the Soviet Government . The structure of the Constitution is similar to the Russian Federation : for example , the office of the President has powers analogous to those granted to the President of Russia . Overall , the Constitution sought to preserve the statehood of Belarus from pro @-@ Russian unity movements , provide a strong head of state that could cure the ailments Belarus would endure in the post @-@ Soviet era , and lay out a compromise between the political factions in Belarus .
= = Preamble = =
In the preamble of the Constitution , Belarus assumes the responsibility for its destiny as a member of the international community . To execute this responsibility , the government undertakes to show " adherence to values common to all mankind , founding ourselves on our inalienable right to self @-@ determination , " which is " supported by the centuries @-@ long history of development of Belarusian statehood . " Belarus also pledges to honor the rights and freedoms of its citizens and to maintain a stable government that is run by the people and based on the rule of law .
= = Section One : Principles of the Constitutional System = =
Section One of the Constitution sets up the governmental framework and specifies that the government is run by the people of Belarus . The government , which has been declared a multi @-@ party representative democracy , forms its own foreign policy and is willing to defend the right to do so when necessary . Section One also establishes that the state protects the rights and freedoms of its citizens , but contains the proviso that a citizen of Belarus " bears a responsibility towards the State to discharge unwaveringly the duties imposed upon him by the Constitution . "
The government itself has a system of checks and balances for each branch of the government , but all of the branches are to be independent from influence from the other branches . The government is authorized to pass laws conforming with the provisions of the Constitution , by which it is expected to abide . If the laws do not conform with the Constitution , then they can be declared void . The laws themselves are subject to international law and Belarus is willing to " recognize the supremacy of the universally acknowledged principles of international law and ensure that its laws comply with such principles . "
The territory of Belarus is divided into discrete regions , called oblasts . The oblasts are further divided into districts which are in turn subdivided into cities . The Constitution also allows for special regions to be created , which are to be controlled by legislation . Citizens of Belarus are also promised protection and sponsorship , regardless of whether they are inside Belarusian borders or in a foreign country . With some exceptions , those who do not have a nationality and foreigners are , under the Constitution , granted the same status and rights as citizens of Belarus . Belarus also has the power to grant asylum to those who have been subject to persecution due to their ethnic background , political ideology or religious affiliation .
The Constitution also establishes Belarusian and Russian as the official languages of the country , pledges neutrality and non @-@ nuclear proliferation , adopts national symbols , and establishes Minsk as the capital ( Minsk was previously the capital of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic ) .
= = Section Two : The Individual , Society and the State = =
Section Two describes rights the government grants to citizens . According to the document , providing and protecting these basic rights , which include the " right to a dignified standard of living , including appropriate food , clothing , housing and likewise a continuous improvement of necessary living conditions " , is the top priority of the government . These rights are granted to all citizens of Belarus and every Belarusian is to be treated equally under Belarusian law . However , these rights can be removed for national security reasons or if Belarus is under a state of emergency . No one is allowed to " enjoy advantages and privileges that are contrary to the law . " A state of emergency , which can be called by the President of Belarus according to Article 84 , has to be approved by the Council of the Republic within three days of its announcement , according to Article 98 .
The Constitution provides that life is a right and that the government will protect the lives of its citizens against other citizens who wish to harm them or their property . The Constitution also allows for the death penalty to be exercised for grave crimes , but only in accordance with national law . If citizens are arrested , they are granted due process of law and do not have to testify against themselves or their family members . Citizens are also given the right to vote , housing , compensation for their share of work , and have the ability to move wherever they wish inside Belarus , and have the right to protest against the government .
= = Section Three : Electoral System . Referendum = =
Section Three is divided into two chapters dealing with the organization and running of elections . The first chapter deals with the Belarusian electoral system and the second chapter details the organization of national referendums .
In Belarus , the right to vote in elections and plebiscites is extended to those who are above the age of eighteen . During elections and plebiscites , a citizen can vote or not vote without any consequences from the government . The Constitution describes two methods of preventing a citizen from voting . First , a court can issue an order stating that the citizen does not have the mental capacity to understand and to cast a ballot . Second , a person being held in detention or confined in a prison during an election cannot cast a ballot . The Constitution says nothing about the voting rights of those who have served their prison terms , nor does it state how those citizens gain the rights back .
National referendums , or plebiscites , are elections whereby citizens can determine whether a specific legal text can become official law or not . For this to take place , one of the following conditions must be met : The president wishes to hold one , both houses of the National Assembly request to hold one , or the citizens petition for it . If the National Assembly calls for a plebiscite , a majority is needed in both chambers for it to be official . If the citizens request a plebiscite , they must gather 430 @,@ 000 signatures from eligible voters across the country . Additionally , over 30 @,@ 000 people from each region must sign the petition , including the capital Minsk . Once either condition is met , the president must issue a decree setting the date of the national plebiscite . The plebiscite must take place less than three months after the decree was signed . Local cities can hold their own plebiscites if ten percent of the local population ask for it .
= = Section Four : The President , Parliament , Government , the Courts = =
Section Four , which is divided into four chapters , outlines the functions of the Belarusian Government , mainly the President of the Republic of Belarus , the Council of Ministers , the Parliament of Belarus and the courts . Although elected by the Belarusian people , the president must not be a member of a political party when he or she assumes office . The Constitution also lists official duties for various posts , such as the president being the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces . The section also describes procedures for situations where the president cannot continue duties or if the president dies in office .
Chapter Four lists the powers and duties of the Parliament of Belarus , which is called the National Assembly . The National Assembly itself is divided into two houses : the lower House of Representatives and the upper Council of the Republic . While each house has its own rules governing how members are elected , members decide on the various bills that could become Belarusian law and approve the nominations of cabinet heads that the president chooses .
The Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus , headed by the prime minister , is the body of officials that are heads of various ministries of the Belarusian government . The president appoints each member of the council , but the National Assembly must also approve each member . Council members stays on until their term as a minister is over or the president has been replaced .
The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Belarus is the highest court in Belarus . While other courts deal with civil or criminal issues , the Constitutional Court deals with matters involving the Constitution and the legality of certain laws passed by the government . The court has the power to declare any law unconstitutional . From April until May 2007 , the Constitutional Court reviewed 101 laws and decrees ; they were deemed to be constitutional . The court that deals with criminal law matters is the Supreme Court of Belarus .
= = Section Five : Local Government and Self @-@ Government = =
Section Five permits the formation of local governments . Local governments are selected by the local population and they have the power to administer local affairs , such as budgets , social services , and economic development . They also have the authority to collect taxes . The president can appoint and dismiss the heads of the local governments on the approval of the relevant local council of deputies .
= = Section Six : The Procurator 's Office . The State Supervisory Committee = =
Section Six lists the office and duties of the prosecutor general ( Procurator General in the official translation ) and the State Supervisory Committee . The prosecutor general and his appointed assistant prosecutors are tasked with the balanced implementation of national , regional and local laws on all sectors of government and public society . The prosecutor general is appointed by the president with permission from the Council of the Republic .
The State Supervisory Committee is tasked with monitoring the national budget , implementing the president 's economic policy , and regulating the use of government property . As with the prosecutor general , the State Supervisory Committee is appointed by the president .
= = Section Seven : Financial and Credit System of the Republic of Belarus = =
Section Seven specifies the fiscal responsibilities of Belarus . A national budget must be created , along with budgets for the local regions and cities . The money used in the national budget is acquired from national taxes and fines , and payments made to Belarus by foreign governments . At the end of a fiscal year , the National Assembly must review the budget for the next fiscal year within five months . After the review and passing of the national budget , it is published for public viewing . Local budgets follow the same procedures . The National Bank of the Republic of Belarus is the state bank of Belarus and is the office responsible for issuing the national currency , the Belarusian ruble .
= = Section Eight : The Application of the Constitution = =
Section Eight describes processes for enforcing and amending the Constitution . The Constitution is the supreme law of the land , therefore other laws and edicts cannot conflict with it . If a conflict occurs , the Constitution applies . If the Constitution is not in conflict , but a law and a decree is , the law would be enforced .
To amend the Constitution , one of two things must happen before the National Assembly can consider the measure : The president must suggest the change , or 150 @,@ 000 eligible voters must send a petition to the National Assembly . Both chambers of the National Assembly must discuss the proposed amendments for a minimum of three months . Two conditions can prevent a discussion from taking place : Either there is a state of emergency , or there are less than six months in the current term of the House of Representatives . In order for an amendment to take effect , it must be approved by either two @-@ thirds of both chambers of the National Assembly or a simple majority of the voting population of Belarus in a national referendum . The only restriction is that Sections One , Two , Four and Eight can only be changed by national referendum . Rules for conducting a national referendum are enumerated in Chapters 22 through 25 of the Electoral Code of the Republic of Belarus . Since the original adoption of the Constitution in 1994 , it has been amended twice ; once in 1996 and once in 2004 .
= = Section Nine : Final and Transitional Clauses = =
The ninth and last section of the Constitution was added following passage of the 1996 revision of Constitution and addresses laws passed before 1996 . If the laws that were passed before the adoption of the Constitution are not in conflict with the Constitution , they are still enforced . All changes to the Constitution come into effect when formally issued by the president , unless specified otherwise . With the passage of the 1996 revision of the Constitution , the 1994 law " On the Procedure Governing the Entry into Force of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus " ceased to be enforced . As a transitional measure , Section Nine states that the present ( as of November 1996 ) leadership of Belarus can continue to serve until their term of service has been completed . When the Constitution is enforced , the national government is allowed to exercise their assigned duties . Unless otherwise stated in Article 143 , Part 3 , the national leadership must form state governmental bodies two months after the Constitution goes into effect .
= = Amendments = =
After Lukashenko assumed the presidency in 1994 , he stated his intention to amend the recently passed Constitution . The amendments , according to Lukashenko , would expand the power of his office , marking a turning point in post @-@ Soviet era politics in Belarus . A May 1995 national referendum was the first step in the amendment process . Out of the four questions , one asked if the president could disband parliament if the members violate national law . The vote , which several Supreme Soviet deputies protested , resulted in 77 % in favor of the provision regarding the dismissal of the legislature by the president . Other questions on the ballot , such as the national flag and national emblem , didn 't affect the Constitution as a whole , but their status has been decided by the Constitution . Two years later , Lukashenko scheduled the first referendum that would potentially alter the Constitution . The last referendum on the Constitution occurred in 2004 , also scheduled by Lukashenko .
= = = 1996 = = =
More calls for constitutional reform came in 1996 . President Lukashenko unilaterally established the referendum after the Supreme Soviet refused to support the measures or set up a date for the vote . An earlier attempt by the Supreme Soviet to establish their own referendum in September 1996 was struck down as " inconsistent with the Constitution " by the Constitutional Court . The referendum amended the Constitution mostly to strengthen the power of the presidency . Amongst the changes made were the following :
1- The Supreme Soviet , the unicameral parliament of Belarus , was abolished . The Supreme Soviet was replaced by the National Assembly , a bicameral parliament ;
2- The term of President Alexander Lukashenko was extended from 1999 until 2001 .
During the referendum , 84 % of the approximately 7 @.@ 5 million voters approved the amendments . On November 28 of that year , President Lukashenko signed the changes into law . Other results not directly related to the voting included the expanding role of the Council of Ministers , which allowed it to deal with issues related to development of economic , social and political spheres within Belarus . The 1996 referendum was not , however , the first call to dissolve the Supreme Soviet . In 1991 and 1992 , after the August coup in Moscow by senior CPSU officials , democratic forces in the government wanted to dissolve the Supreme Soviet permanently . The members of the Belarusian Popular Front pressed for a referendum , and despite achieving the number of signatures required by law at the time , the Supreme Soviet quashed the measure .
The results of the 1996 referendum led to the exclusion of opposition parties from the new parliament . Due to problems associated with transparency and ballot stuffing , the European Union , United States and several other nations do not recognize the results of the vote .
= = = 2004 = = =
Along with choosing members for the National Assembly , Belarusian voters were presented with a referendum regarding presidential term limits . Before the vote , President Alexander Lukashenko was only allowed to serve two terms before the Constitution required him to step down . The voter turnout for the referendum was nearly 90 % , with 77 @.@ 3 % of the voters agreeing to eliminating term limits . The changes were implemented on October 17 , 2004 . Like the 1996 referendum , the validity of the vote was brought into question . According to the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , many polling places went without independent observers . The OSCE believed that the standards of the vote did not meet OSCE requirements for " free and fair elections " . Data from other non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGO ) point out that 50 % of voters did not participate in the referendum , so they contend that the results reported by the government are flawed . Two years later , Lukashenko ran in the 2006 election and won 83 % of the vote during the first ballot . With no term limits , Lukashenko states that , depending on his health , he will not retire from politics and might run for re @-@ election in 2011 .
= = Criticism of constitutional changes = =
Both referendums were severely criticized by the political opposition inside Belarus as well as by international observers such as the OSCE . Observers state that both referendums were non @-@ transparent and that the real results were not published . Observers were not allowed to see the process of counting ballots . Specifically , the democratic opposition to President Lukashenko decided to boycott the 1996 referendum on the Constitution . During the same election , international observers found problems with the voting process or found pro @-@ government advertisements or notices at polling places . Opposition parties contend that the vote to dissolve the Supreme Soviet in 1996 removed Belarus ' last democratically elected parliament and installed Lukashenko 's hand picked parliament . Despite the claims of manipulation of the elections and the Constitution itself , there are a few parts of the current constitution approved by key leaders of the Belarusian democratic opposition . In a 2005 interview with Radio Free Europe , presidential candidate Alaksandar Milinkievič stated that Belarus ' stance as a neutral country , stated in Article 18 , should be preserved with regard to joining NATO and the European Union . Legal interpretation of the Constitution is also brought into question . In a 1998 journal , the New York University School of Law noted that Belarusian legal scholars came up with a new theory to deal with jurisprudence . Laws are constitutional if they follow the will of President Lukashenko and the people ; unconstitutional if the president and the people do not like it . The laws that fall in the latter category are considered " ignored " by the legal scholars . In June 1999 , a Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers from the United Nations visited Belarus and noted inconsistency between national laws , decrees and the Constitution . The UN rapporteur , Dato Param Cumaraswamy , especially noted that temporary decrees issued by the national authorities are still in force , even if they had expired or contradict the Constitution .
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= Cold ( Kanye West song ) =
" Cold " ( originally " Theraflu " and then " Way Too Cold " ) is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West , released as the second single from the album Cruel Summer ( 2012 ) . The song , which features DJ Khaled , was made available for purchase on the iTunes Store on April 17 , 2012 . Songwriting is credited to West , Chauncey Hollis , James Todd Smith and Marlon Williams , while production was handled by Hit @-@ Boy . Lyrically , the song features West boasting about his personal issues and touching on subjects such as his relationship with Kim Kardashian , his breakup with Amber Rose , and his feelings on Wiz Khalifa and Kris Humphries . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised West 's lyrical performance and the boldness of his subject matter . The song contains an interpolation of " Lookin ' at Me " ( 1997 ) as performed by Mase and Puff Daddy , and a sample of " Illegal Search " ( 1990 ) also performed by LL Cool J.
The song peaked at number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and hit 68 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The track received single artwork designed by frequent West collaborator George Condo , designer of the cover of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . West performed the song at the 2012 Watch the Throne Tour , and at the 2012 BET Awards , along with singles " Mercy " and " New God Flow " . The song drew controversy from Humphries , the brand Theraflu , and PETA who criticized the content of West 's lyrics , claiming the track glorified fur clothing .
= = Production and release = =
" Way Too Cold " was produced by Hit @-@ Boy , a producer signed to West 's label GOOD Music , known for his production on " Niggas in Paris " . According to Hit @-@ boy , he had “ made the beat a couple months ago , just in a session messing around ” and that Kanye " just did the record maybe a week and a half ago . We actually don ’ t know if it ’ s going to be on Khaled ’ s album or ‘ Ye ’ s album . We just put it out because we felt like it was so urgent , people just needed to hear it . " In an interview Khaled explained : " I was in the studio with ' Ye [ Kanye ] and I was like , ' Let 's do something for your album , and let 's do something for my album , ' and you can just release it for fun . "
The song was first released on the New York City radio station Hot 97 by Funkmaster Flex on April 4 , 2012 . The cover artwork was designed by George Condo , who designed the artwork for West 's album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and singles like " Power " and " Runaway " . The first cover originally featured a bottle of Theraflu atop the woman 's neck , was edited to remove the bottle before being released for digital download . On April 15 , West announced on Twitter that the name of the song had been changed to " Way Too Cold " , and then finally " Cold " . The track was then released as a single onto iTunes on April 17 , 2012 . Following its digital release , the song impacted urban contemporary radio on May 8 , 2012 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was released on August 13 , 2012 at the end of DJ Khaled 's " I Wish You Would " video . The video features an appearance by Kim Kardashian and was directed by Hype Williams .
= = Composition = =
" Cold " is a bass @-@ heavy , bouncy track with West rapping prominently over a " furious beat " . It includes West 's " blunt thoughts on his romance with model Amber Rose " , who was engaged to rapper Wiz Khalifa at the time , with lines like , " only nigga I got respect for is Wiz / And I admit I fell in love with Kim around the same time she fell in love with him " . The second part of the quote alludes to his relationship with Kim Kardashian and her estranged husband , Kris Humphries . West boasts that Kris is " lucky I ain 't had Jay drop him from the team " , a line referencing his frequent collaborator Jay @-@ Z , who was part @-@ owner of the New Jersey Nets , the NBA team that basketball star Kris Humphries played for at the time . The song " is stuffed with boasts about the rapper 's fashion cred , from boasting that he 's had dinner with Vogue editor Anna Wintour to showing off a $ 6000 pair of shoes . The track features vocal assists from DJ Khaled and DJ Pharris , who close out the outro of the song with their boasting .
= = Critical reception = =
Tom Breihan of Stereogum described the song as " a seriously strong performance , all hard snarls over a bleepy late- ' 90s @-@ style beat " and that it " finds Kanye getting surprisingly personal , at least for a couple of lines , about his long @-@ rumored relationship with Kim Kardashian . " Rob Markman of MTV stated that " lyrically , Kanye delivers a fiery performance " on the track , and that " it 's all pretty intriguing , considering Kanye has shied away from the media for almost two years now . " Alex Gale of BET mused that the song features a " brash Kanye West going in furiously over a schizophrenic soundscape from Hit @-@ Boy , the production maestro behind The Throne 's ' Niggas in Paris . ' Yeezy 's bars are buzzworthy to say the least " . DJBooth mused " arrogance is busting through the seams on the record , yet it is balanced enough to sound charismatic in a form that Mr. West has perfected . " Rolling Stone wrote that the song was " surprisingly magnanimous " and that it features West in his " full @-@ on braggart mode " .
In Complex 's list of the best 25 lines of the first half of 2012 , West 's line " And I 'll admit , I had fell in love with Kim / Around the same time she had fell in love with him / Well that 's cool , baby girl , do ya thang / Lucky I ain 't had Jay drop him from the team " was listed as the second best . " Cold " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 92 , and achieved a peak position of 86 . The song peaked at number 68 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts .
= = Controversy = =
When " Cold " premiered , it was titled " Theraflu " . A representative of Theraflu released a statement to TMZ which read " We in no way endorse or approve of the references or use of the image and likeness of Theraflu in this manner . " Theraflu noted that this was not done at their request . In response to the line " Tell PETA my mink is draggin ' on the floor , " PETA stated :
" What 's draggin ’ on the floor is Kanye 's reputation as a man with no empathy for animals or human beings . He ’ s a great musician but doesn ’ t seem to have the fashion sense to design anything more than caveman costumes . We keep hoping that one day he ’ ll find his heart and join evolved style icons-- including Russell Simmons , Pink , and Natalie Portman-- who have dropped animal skins . "
= = Live performances = =
The song was first performed by West at the London stop of his 2012 Watch the Throne Tour , with West performing the song a cappella . At the 2012 BET Awards , the song was performed with rappers Big Sean , Pusha T , 2 Chainz , as filed out one by one to deliver their verses from the song " Mercy " , with West emerging to perform his verses from " Cold " and " New God Flow " afterwards . Though Los Angeles Times 's Randall Roberts noted that it wasn 't " until West moved into his hit " Cold " that things got great " .
= = Chart performance = =
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= I 've Got Nothing =
" I 've Got Nothing " is a song released by the participants of the BBC Two documentary series Chartjackers and is credited as such . The track was produced by university student Marc Dowding and its music video was filmed by YouTube user Charlie McDonnell . It was released by the record label Swinging Mantis on 9 November 2009 exclusively through the iTunes Store . The single and its release were the end product of a ten @-@ week campaign documented on Chartjackers , which challenged the global online community to write , record and release a pop song that would make number one on the UK Singles Chart . The song was written entirely through crowdsourcing , with its every aspect , such as the title , lyrics , melody and singers , having been solicited from YouTube users .
" I 've Got Nothing " was a charity single released to benefit the UK charity Children in Need . It was sung by vocalists Miranda Chartrand and Adam Nichols , both on the record and at live performances . Its music video featured shots of Chartrand and Nichols singing in a London park with Children in Need mascot Pudsey Bear , as well as video clips submitted by Chartjackers viewers of themselves miming to the track . The song was generally ignored by music critics and received mostly negative reviews — it went on to sell a total of 20 @,@ 000 copies worldwide and earned a chart position of Number 36 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background and writing = =
" I 've Got Nothing " was written in ten weeks entirely through crowdsourcing as part of a project that was documented on the BBC Two series Chartjackers . Members of the online community were asked to submit various song ideas on the YouTube channel " ChartJackersProject " , with the aim that a single could be written , recorded and then released on 9 November 2009 .
The lyrics for " I 've Got Nothing " were written on the week of 8 September . A video posted to the YouTube channel " ChartJackersProject " invited viewers to submit possible lines as comments . Viewers posted more than 4 @,@ 000 comments , from which the song 's lyrics were selected . The following week , another video was uploaded to " ChartJackersProject " that published the winning lyrics and announced that the song 's title was to be " I 've Got Nothing " — the song 's chorus had been written by YouTube user " blakeisno1 " . The video also invited viewers to compose a melody for the completed lyrics . Viewers submitted 51 melodies as video responses , with the entry from Jonny Dark , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old musician from London , being selected as the winner .
A new YouTube video was uploaded to " ChartJackersProject " on 25 September , offering viewers the opportunity to audition to sing " I 've Got Nothing " on the final release . Hundred of viewers auditioned , with ten being selected to go through as finalists . These ten finalists auditioned in person at the Wellfield Working Men 's Club in Rochdale , where Miranda Chartrand , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old au pair from Stroud , Gloucestershire , and Adam Nichols , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old musician from Essex , were chosen to perform " I 've Got Nothing " on the single .
= = Recording and release = =
" I 've Got Nothing " was produced and co @-@ written by university student Marc Dowding . Dowding learnt about the opportunity through a video posted to the YouTube channel " ChartJackersProject " and was offered the job after e @-@ mailing his CV to a BBC Switch producer . Chartrand and Nichols travelled to Newport , South Wales on 7 October to record the single at the recording studio of the University of Wales , Newport . On producing the single , Dowding remarked : " It was a great help to be able to use the recording studios at the University . "
" I 've Got Nothing " was leaked to the internet during October 2009 , before being officially released a month later by record label Swinging Mantis . As Swinging Mantis was a small record label , the budget for " I 've Got Nothing " was limited , so a physical version of the single was never made available . Instead , the track was made sold exclusively as an iTunes digital download . " I 've Got Nothing " was released worldwide through the iTunes Store at midnight on 9 November . Each copy was sold for £ 0 @.@ 79 in the United Kingdom and $ 0 @.@ 99 in the United States .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" I 've Got Nothing " was largely ignored by the mainstream media and did not receive many reviews — the reviews that it did receive from critics were generally negative . British music website Popjustice called the effort " very bad " , and Ellie Halfacre of Tower Review explained that " some commented that the melody was bad , and others said it was the lyrics " . Halfacre also questioned whether the project was about self @-@ promotion or charity . David Balls of Digital Spy gave the single three stars out of five , predicting that it was " unlikely to make much of a top 40 impact " . James Masterton of Yahoo ! Music felt that the song had " fallen a long way short of " the goal of reaching number one because it had not been able to " guarantee mass public support " . Record producer Mike Stock said that the song had " no killer melody " and singer VV Brown suggested that " the lyrics could be better " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Expectations for the release of " I 've Got Nothing " were high . The main goal of Chartjackers had been for the song to reach number one on the UK Singles Chart , with the synopsis of the first episode expecting it to " sell an estimated 25 @,@ 000 singles " . The single sold almost 20 @,@ 000 copies worldwide and raised £ 10 @,@ 000 for the charity Children in Need . Just under 8 @,@ 400 copies were downloaded in the UK , which gave " I 've Got Nothing " a chart placing of Number 36 in the UK Singles Chart . The following week the single fell out of the UK Top 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " I 've Got Nothing " was edited by YouTube user Charlie McDonnell . It shows various " ChartJackersProject " viewers miming to the song , interspersed with shots of Chartrand and Nichols singing " I 've Got Nothing " in a park . The video was created through crowdsourcing , in a manner similar to the writing of the song itself . On 8 October 2009 , viewers were invited via " ChartJackersProject " to film and submit video clips of themselves either singing or clapping along with the track . Shots of Chartrand and Nichols with an actor dressed as Children in Need mascot Pudsey Bear were filmed in a park . This footage was compiled with some of the clips submitted by viewers and used to construct the final music video , which was shown nationwide on British music channels such as 4Music and Viva .
Many viewers submitted clips that were literal interpretations of the lyrics . For example , some viewers held up medals and trophies for the lyric " won the greatest prize " , others zoomed @-@ in on their own eye during the line " look into my eyes " and others turned off lights for the lyric " the lights are going out " . Most of the shots of Chartrand and Nichols are of them singing " I 've Got Nothing " in a park with an actor dressed as Pudsey Bear , but the video also features shots of them eating ice cream , swinging around a lamp post and dancing in front of a tree . The video begins with shots of the duo throwing a football back and forth to each other . At 2 : 03 , the video splits into 35 equally sized smaller rectangles , each containing a clip of a " ChartJackersProject " viewer clapping in time with " I 've Got Nothing " . Over the next 18 seconds of the song , 11 different sets of 35 viewers ( i.e. approximately 385 viewers in total ) are shown clapping along with the song . The video also features a cameo from YouTube user Peter Oakley at 0 : 06 .
= = Live performances = =
" I 've Got Nothing " was first performed live by Chartrand and Nichols on 4 November 2009 at 93 Feet East in London . Their performance was shown during the ninth episode of Chartjackers . The gig also featured performances from other YouTube users and was headlined by former pop star Chesney Hawkes . The song was performed live for a second time four days later at Switch Live 2009 , an awards show organised by BBC Switch at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo — the event was opened by a performance of " I 've Got Nothing " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Miranda Chartrand – vocals
Adam Nichols – vocals
Jonny Dark – writer ( melody )
Marc Dowding – writer , producer , engineer and mixer
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= 94 Meetings =
" 94 Meetings " is the 21st episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 27th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 29 , 2010 . In the episode , Ron is forced to handle 94 meetings in a single day due to an error by his assistant , April . Meanwhile , Leslie tries to stop alterations to a historic mansion while dealing with her hidden insecurities about the escalation of Ann and Mark 's romantic relationship .
The episode was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Tristram Shapeero . It featured guest appearances by several actors who had appeared in previous episodes , including Susan Yeagley , Alison Becker and Yvans Jourdain . It also introduced April Ludgate 's family . According to Nielsen Media Research , " 94 Meetings " was seen by 4 @.@ 03 million household viewers , and received particularly high ratings among males between ages 18 and 34 . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Due to a mistake by April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) is forced to deal with 93 meetings in a single day . He enlists the aid of April , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and Ann ( Rashida Jones ) to help handle them , while telling Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) that he is free to go home early . During her first meeting , Leslie learns a historic town monument , the Turnbill mansion , is soon to be altered by its new renter , the former Miss Pawnee beauty pageant winner Jessica Wicks ( Susan Yeagley ) . Leslie and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) leave to meet with her at the mansion , where Jessica is planning a birthday party for her extremely old husband , the wealthy Nick Newport Sr. ( Christopher Murray ) , founder of the Sweetums candy company . Leslie is shocked Jessica has already made several alterations , such as hanging up nude portraits of herself and painting the floor .
Leslie is outraged when Jessica reveals her plans to demolish an old gazebo in the backyard of Turnbill Mansion , the site of a historic wedding between a Pawnee Native American and white woman , which became a " bloodbath " when knowledge of the wedding became public . Under Leslie 's orders , Tom chains Leslie to the front gate to prevent construction crews from entering . However , she mistakenly assumes the gate opens from the middle , allowing the crews to enter right past Leslie and demolish the gazebo . At the end of the day , Ann and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) arrive to free her , and Leslie finally reveals to Tom the true source of her anxiety — Mark 's intentions to marry Ann . Leslie feels emotional confusion over this fact . On the one hand , she wants her friends to be happy . On the other hand , she used to have romantic feelings for Mark , she feels insecure about being single , and she worries about losing her two friends . In response , Tom assures her not to worry , thus empowering Leslie to crash and ruin Jessica 's party .
Meanwhile , Ron and the others deal with their meetings : April acts as uninterested as possible , Andy makes promises to people against Ron 's wishes , and Ann provides several medical consults after revealing she is really a nurse ( not a parks and recreation department employee ) . Although the two had previously been developing a romantic interest , Andy now acts uninterested in April because he feels uncomfortable about the eight @-@ year age difference between them , further upsetting April on a difficult day . Ron , who views the many meetings as an utter nightmare , calls in the others during the middle of the day for a progress report , and angrily berates April for her mistake . After all the meetings , April arranges her own meeting with Ron , where she announces she is quitting . When Andy learns this , he convinces Ron that April is a great assistant . Ron goes to April 's house and convinces her to come back by telling her about Andy 's compliments . April then reveals that she knows Ron is Duke Silver , since her mother is a huge fan , and that she recognized him the first time that they met . On her first day back , April successfully scares off someone wanting to meet with Ron by scheduling absurd meeting dates and times such as June 50th , the " one @-@ teenth " of " march @-@ tember " and 2 : 65 PM . Ron gives her an approving smile and nod while watching from his office .
= = Production = =
" 94 Meetings " was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Tristram Shapeero . Ron Swanson and his staff handle only 93 meetings in the episode , but the 94th meeting from the episode title refers to April 's hastily arranged meeting with Ron in which she quits the job . " 94 Meetings " was the first episode to introduce April Ludgate 's family , who Ron meets when he goes to April 's house to convince her to return to work . The family includes April 's extremely chipper mother and father Larry and Rita Ludgate ( John Ellison and Terri Hoyos ) , and April 's younger sister Natalie Ludgate ( Minni Jo Mazzola ) , who is cynical and brooding very much like April herself . Susan Yeagley , who previously appeared in " Beauty Pageant " , guest starred in " 94 Meetings " as Jessica Wicks , and Alison Becker reprised her role as reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , who was first introduced in " The Reporter " . The episode also featured Yvans Jourdain in his recurring role as Pawnee Councilman Howser .
" 94 Meetings " included several references to past Parks and Recreation episodes . The Newport family and their powerful " Sweetums " corporation were first featured in the episode " Sweetums " , where they convinced the public to allow their extremely unhealthy nutrition bars to be sold at a local park . In another scene , April refers to Ron as " Duke Silver " , his secret jazz saxophonist alter ego first revealed in the episode " Practice Date " . It also features several running gags from throughout the series , including angrily complaining Pawnee citizens , Ann helping parks employees despite not working there , and extremely gory and racist historical Pawnee murals .
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , a copy of a desk calendar chronicling all of Ron Swanson 's meetings from the episode was placed on the official Parks and Recreation website . That site also featured three deleted scenes from the episode . In the first , 80 @-@ second clip , Leslie and Jessica get into a fight about the gazebo , and Jessica reveals she has trimmed the mansion 's historic hedges into the shape of elephants . The second clip , which lasted one minute , features several more of Ron Swanson 's meetings , including one where he tries to literally will a man away with his mind . Andy also tells Ron he accidentally agreed to sell the recreation center to the Quiznos fast food restaurant chain . In the third , 90 @-@ second clip , Leslie tries to end Nick Newport Sr. ' s birthday party by pulling the plug on the lights , but accidentally disconnects his breathing machine instead .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " 94 Meetings " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 03 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , which tied the ratings of the last original episode , " Summer Catalog " , although that episode was seen by around 110 @,@ 000 more viewers . " 94 Meetings " received particularly high ratings among males between ages 18 and 34 , a demographic particularly sought after by the networks . The episode received a 2 @.@ 2 rating in that group , besting the CBS reality series Survivor 's 2 @.@ 0 rating .
Alan Sepinwall , television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger , said the meetings themselves were very entertaining and allowed for good character development between April and Andy , and Ron and April . However , he said the main plot with Leslie and the historic mansion was not tied strongly enough to Leslie 's fear that Mark and Ann would get married . Matt Fowler of IGN praised the episode , especially the callbacks to previous episodes and the interaction of the characters during the meetings . Although the show was only on hiatus for about a month , he said , " Man , it feels so good to have Parks and Recreation back . [ ... ] I don 't think there 's another comedy on TV right now that contains such ' miss @-@ able ' characters . "
The A.V. Club writer Leonard Pierce said " 94 Meetings " was a particularly strong episode that focused equally on the show 's premise and developing the relationships between characters . He particularly praised Susan Yeagley , but said Tom Haverford was underused , and felt the scenes between Ann and Mark were lacking . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said it was a fast @-@ paced and funny episode , calling the jokes about the complaining residents " rapid @-@ fire scenes " . Kandell criticized Mark , who he said has been resorted to boring " straight @-@ man services " , and said he did not mind that Paul Schneider was leaving the series . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad appreciated that the episode reintroduced the fact that Leslie once was in love with Mark , and criticized the show for ignoring that fact all season . Gallagher also criticized the fact that a historic building could so easily be damaged and demolished , which he called unrealistic .
= = DVD release = =
" 94 Meetings " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= SMS Lothringen =
SMS Lothringen was the fifth of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class in the German Imperial Navy laid down in 1902 and commissioned 1906 . She was named for the then German province of Lothringen , now Lorraine , a region of France . Her sister ships were Braunschweig , Elsass , Hessen , and Preussen .
Lothringen served in the II Battle Squadron of the German High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She participated in a fleet advance in December 1914 in support of the Raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby during which the German fleet encountered and briefly clashed with a detachment of the British Grand Fleet . Her poor condition necessitated her withdrawal from fleet service in 1916 , after which she was used as a guard ship in the Baltic Sea , and later as a training ship . After the war , Lothringen was retained by the re @-@ formed Reichsmarine and converted into a depot ship for F @-@ type minesweepers . She was stricken in March 1931 and sold to ship breakers later that year .
= = Construction = =
Lothringen was laid down in 1902 , at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig under construction number 716 . The fifth and final unit of her class , she was ordered under the contract name " M " as a new unit for the fleet . The ship cost 23 @,@ 801 @,@ 000 marks . Lothringen was launched on 27 May 1904 and commissioned into the fleet on 18 May 1906 .
The ship was 127 @.@ 7 m ( 419 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 73 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 27 ft ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Lothringen 's powerplant was rated at 16 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 15 @,@ 781 ihp ; 11 @,@ 768 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Lothringen 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning , Lothringen was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the German fleet . Lothringen participated in the de Ruyter festival in Amsterdam on 24 March 1907 . In 1909 , Lothringen and the older battleship Mecklenburg won the annual Kaiser 's Prize for accurate shooting . By 1911 , Germany 's first two classes of dreadnought battleships — the Nassau and Helgoland classes — were entering service . These ships were assigned to I Battle Squadron ; all of the older Kaiser Friedrich III and Wittelsbach @-@ class vessels , armed with only 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , were placed in reserve . Germany now had a battleship fleet armed entire with guns 28 cm ( 11 in ) or larger .
Lothringen was present during the fleet cruise to Norway in July 1914 , which was cut short by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and subsequent rise in international tensions . On 25 July the ship 's crew was made aware of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia ; Lothringen left Norway to rendezvous with the rest of the fleet the following day .
= = = World War I = = =
After the outbreak of war in August 1914 , the High Seas Fleet conducted a series of operations designed to lure out a portion of the numerically superior British Grand Fleet and destroy it . By achieving a rough equality of forces , the German navy could then force a decisive battle in the southern portion of the North Sea . The first such operation in which the High Seas Fleet , including Lothringen , participated was the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . The main fleet acted as distant support for Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruiser squadron while it raided the coastal towns . On the evening of 15 December , the fleet came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced the German fleet commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that the entire Grand Fleet was deployed before him . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back towards Germany .
Like her sister Preussen , Lothringen missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , though for different reasons . Preussen had been temporarily transferred to guard duties in the Baltic , while Lothringen was in such poor condition that Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the fleet commander , removed her from the squadron . Jutland proved to Scheer that the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were too vulnerable to take part in a major fleet action , and so detached the II Squadron from the High Seas Fleet . Lothringen became a guard ship in the Baltic after she left the battle fleet . The following year she was transferred to Wilhelmshaven , where she was used as an exercise ship , as well as to train engineers . She served in this capacity until the end of the war in 1918 .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
The Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war , specified that Germany was permitted to retain six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Lothringen was among those ships chosen to remain on active service with the newly reformed Reichsmarine . Like her sister Preussen , Lothringen was converted into a parent ship for F @-@ type minesweepers at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in 1919 ; the ship was disarmed and platforms for holding the minesweepers were installed .
Lothringen served in this capacity with the newly reformed Reichsmarine from 1922 until 1926 , after which she was placed in reserve . She was stricken from the naval register on 31 March 1931 ; the Reichsmarine then sold her , minus her armor plating , to ship breakers that year for 269 @,@ 650 Reichsmarks . Lothringen was subsequently broken up for scrap by Blohm & Voss in Hamburg .
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= Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) =
Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Slipknot . The album was released on May 25 , 2004 , through Roadrunner Records , and a special edition , containing a bonus disc , was released on April 12 , 2005 . It is the band 's only album produced by Rick Rubin , and also the only one not to feature profanity . Following the band 's tour to promote its second album in 2002 , speculation regarding the future began . Some band members had already been involved in side projects including Murderdolls , To My Surprise , and the reformation of Stone Sour . In 2003 , Slipknot moved into The Mansion to work on the album . Initially , the band was unproductive ; lead vocalist Corey Taylor was drinking heavily . Nevertheless , they wrote more than enough material for a new album — the band 's first to incorporate more traditional , melodic song structures , guitar solos and acoustic guitars .
The album received generally positive reviews . Slipknot was praised by Allmusic for its " dedication to making it a Slipknot album " , while Q added that the album was " a triumph " . The album peaked within the top ten in album sales across eleven countries , and went Platinum in the United States . The band also received the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance for the song " Before I Forget " . At the end of 2009 , " Before I Forget " was listed as " AOL 's Top Metal Song of the Decade " . Roadrunner Records have listed the music video for " Duality " as the best video in Roadrunner history .
= = Production = =
Slipknot recorded Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses with producer Rick Rubin at The Mansion in Los Angeles , California in 2003 . Earlier there had been speculation regarding the possibility of a third album and the band 's future , as some members worked on other musical projects . After the album was completed , the band said that these side projects " saved the band " and " helped [ them ] break out of the box [ they ] were in " . Coming back together and working out their differences hindered the writing process initially . During an interview in 2008 , drummer Joey Jordison said " we didn 't talk to each other for three months , we just sat there wasting money in the fucking Houdini mansion . " Speaking retrospectively percussionist Shawn Crahan states ; " eventually we got sick of waiting for shit to happen . We got together , had a few beers and wrote a really artsy , fucked up song called ' Happy Ending ' . "
In a 2003 interview , Jordison explained that despite the initial problems more than enough material was written for the album and added that " it 's better to have stuff to pick from than to settle for shit " , in contrast to how Slipknot settled too soon with fewer songs on previous albums . Band members were divided over their experience of working with producer Rubin ; some doubted his commitment to Slipknot as he split his time between many artists at once . Lead vocalist Corey Taylor admitted in an interview that he drank heavily throughout their time in the mansion , saying " I would drink from the moment I got up until the moment I passed out . " He explained that ; " everything I did while I was drinking sounded like shit " , while expressing how unhappy he was with the choice of vocal takes which ended up on the album . During this time , percussionist Crahan worked on Voliminal : Inside the Nine , a video documenting the creation process of the album and the touring which would follow .
In a 2008 interview , Corey Taylor said that he only met Rubin four times during the entire recording process of Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses and that Rubin barely ever showed up to the studio : " ... we were being charged horrendous amounts of money . And for me , if you 're going to produce something , you 're fucking there . I don 't care who you are . " He also added : " He is overrated , he is overpaid , and I will never work with him again . " Conversely , Slipknot 's guitarist Jim Root had said in that same interview that " A lot of the guys in the band say Rick was unavailable . And yeah , he takes on a lot of projects at one time , but he also does things that are beneficial . He would listen to what we 'd done , then have us retrack things that needed work . He 's kind of like Big Brother up on the hill . Even though he wasn 't there physically every day , he was . That 's my favorite record we 've done . "
= = = Artwork = = =
The cover of the album features the " maggot mask " designed by Shawn Crahan . The name of the mask is a reference to the name given to fans by the band . The mask was made of stitched leather , with a zipper around the mouth area , and copies can be obtained as part of the band 's merchandise . It is featured in the music video for the album 's second single " Vermilion " , in which the band appears whenever the protagonist wears the mask .
= = Promotion = =
Prior to the release of the album , the band released " Pulse of the Maggots " in its entirety as a free downloadable track on the now defunct SK Radio website , it was available for one day only on March 30 , 2004 . This also marked the beginning of Slipknot 's touring cycle , The Subliminal Verses World Tour , starting with their appearance on the Jägermeister Music Tour . On May 4 , 2004 , " Duality " was released as their first official single . Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) was finally released on May 25 , 2004 , to coincide with the release of the album " Duality " was released on a special edition 7 @-@ inch red vinyl . Alongside the normal edition of the album Roadrunner Records also released a limited edition CD that could connect to the Slipknot web site and obtain new songs and other promotional material , but as of 2009 the link on the CD has stopped working . Other singles from the album included " Vermilion " , " Before I Forget " and " The Blister Exists " . On April 12 , 2005 , a special edition version of the album , containing a bonus disc , was released .
= = Musical and lyrical themes = =
Before the release of Vol . 3 , band members had promised a more experimental album ; drummer Jordison said that " it 's almost as if Slayer was tapping on Radiohead " . For the first time in Slipknot 's career , songs such as " Circle " and " Vermilion Pt . 2 " were led by an acoustic rather than an electric guitar . According to Todd Burns of Stylus , songs such as " Pulse of the Maggots " and " Before I Forget " incorporate a " pounding metal " style . Allmusic wrote that tracks , such as " The Blister Exists " , " Three Nil " , and " Opium of the People " , combine the two extremes of their recognizable metal edge with melody , and the most apparent shifts being in Taylor 's vocal style , with relatively few songs relying solely on screamed vocals in comparison to their earlier work . Entertainment Weekly wrote that the album " [ bounced ] between over @-@ powering speed @-@ metal and haunting acoustic rock " .
Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses is Slipknot 's first album that does not warrant a Parental Advisory label , mainly because the lyrics of Vol . 3 , compared to other Slipknot albums , are much less explicit in terms of profanity and obscure dark themes . The special edition still has a Parent Advisory label . In a 2008 interview , guitarist Mick Thomson explained that vocalist Corey Taylor made a point of avoiding the use of profanity in response to claims that he relied on use of it . Only two instances of profanity occur ; the use of the word " bitched " in Duality and " bastards " which appears in the monologue leading into " Pulse of the Maggots " . According to Allmusic , the lyrics of Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) include metaphors and touch on themes that include anger , disaffection , and psychosis . Taylor 's diversity in his vocal delivery was praised ; Burns considered tracks like " Vermilion Pt . 2 " to have " stately vocal harmonies " . Taylor 's performance on the closing track " Danger — Keep Away " was specifically praised ; Stylus called it the most " depressing and emotional " track on the album . Burns concluded that overall " the riffs have lost none of their impact , but it seems like finally the group also wants you to appreciate their vocal and lyrical impact . "
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reception to Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses was generally positive . It received a score of 70 % on review aggregator Metacritic based on 12 reviews . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic called the album " not just another flashy alt @-@ metal billboard " , praising the band 's " dedication to making it a Slipknot album " . Todd Burns of Stylus wrote that people who accuse the band of having " softened " are " mistaking softness for maturation " . Burns went on to call the album " the best pop inflected metal album since System of a Down 's Toxicity " . Sean Richardson of Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A − and wrote that it is a " deranged hippie update " of Slayer 's " masterpiece " Reign in Blood , which was also produced by Rubin . Q hailed Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses as " a triumph " . John Robb of PlayLouder complimented Slipknot 's unexpected rise to become " one of the biggest groups in the world " , dubbing " Before I Forget " a " classic [ Slipknot ] anthem " . Robb added that the album is better than Iowa , citing its " differing textures " . Rolling Stone gave the album a rating of 3 out of 5 , stating the album presented " newer extremes " for the band , " which in Slipknot 's case means tunefulness and traditional song structures " .
A review from the BBC praised the album , declaring that there " is no finer metal band on the planet " . It cited the group 's integration of " hyperactive bass drums , complex , compelling riffs and ridiculously fast fretwork " with more melodic styles and described Vermilion as " the key track ... an emotional , melodramatic , utterly convincing rollercoaster ride " .
Alternative Press criticized the album , writing that it " plays out like a tepid , second @-@ rate version of Iowa , which pretty much makes it a third @-@ rate anything else . " Yahoo ! ' s Chris Heath also reviewed the album negatively , writing that " The Nameless " combines " the ludicrously vicious and ridiculously placid " and that by doing so makes the track feel " awkward " . Heath added , " the themes are predictably absurd ... yet mildly comical given the inclusion of such disparate styles stationed side by side . "
Vol . 3 : The Subliminal Verses peaked at position number two on the US Billboard 200 , online , Australian Recording Industry Association , and Canadian sales charts . The album was certified Platinum in the United States on February 21 , 2005 . In 2006 , the band won their first Grammy for Best Metal Performance with " Before I Forget " . In 2009 , Metal Hammer called it one of the " Albums of the Decade " . It was also rated 31st in UK magazine Kerrang ! ' s " The 50 Best Albums of the 21st Century " reader poll . In 2005 , the album was ranked number 396 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Shawn Crahan , Jim Root , Chris Fehn , Paul Gray , Joey Jordison , Corey Taylor , Craig Jones , Mick Thomson and Sid Wilson .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
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= Stuckism =
Stuckism is an international art movement founded in 1999 by Billy Childish and Charles Thomson to promote figurative painting as opposed to conceptual art . By July 2012 the initial group of 13 British artists had expanded to 233 groups in 52 countries .
Childish and Thomson have issued several manifestos . The first one was The Stuckists , consisting of 20 points starting with " Stuckism is a quest for authenticity " . Remodernism , the other well @-@ known manifesto of the movement , is a criticism of postmodernism ; it aims to get back to the true spirit of modernism , to produce art with spiritual value regardless of style , subject matter or medium . In another manifesto they define themselves as anti @-@ anti @-@ art which is against anti @-@ art and for art .
After exhibiting in small galleries in Shoreditch , London , the Stuckists ' first show in a major public museum was held in 2004 at the Walker Art Gallery , as part of the Liverpool Biennial . The group has demonstrated annually at Tate Britain against the Turner Prize since 2000 , sometimes dressed in clown costumes . They have also come out in opposition to the Charles Saatchi @-@ patronised Young British Artists .
Although painting is the dominant artistic form of Stuckism , artists using other media such as photography , sculpture , film and collage have also joined , and share the Stuckist opposition to conceptualism and ego @-@ art .
= = Name , founding and origin = =
The name " Stuckism " was coined in January 1999 by Charles Thomson in response to a poem read to him several times by Billy Childish . In it , Childish recites that his former girlfriend , Tracey Emin had said he was " stuck ! stuck ! stuck ! " with his art , poetry and music . Later that month , Thomson approached Childish with a view to co @-@ founding an art group called Stuckism , which Childish agreed to , on the basis that Thomson would do the work for the group , as Childish already had a full schedule .
There were eleven other founding members : Philip Absolon , Frances Castle , Sheila Clark , Eamon Everall , Ella Guru , Wolf Howard , Bill Lewis , Sanchia Lewis , Joe Machine , Sexton Ming , and Charles Williams . The membership has evolved since its founding through creative collaborations : the group was originally promoted as working in paint , but members have since worked in various other media , including poetry , fiction , performance , photography , film and music .
In 1979 , Thomson , Childish , Bill Lewis and Ming were members of The Medway Poets performance group , to which Absolon and Sanchia Lewis had earlier contributed . Peter Waite 's Rochester Pottery staged a series of solo painting shows . In 1982 , TVS broadcast a documentary on the poets . That year , Emin , then a fashion student , and Childish started a relationship ; her writing was edited by Bill Lewis , printed by Thomson and published by Childish . Group members published dozens of works . The poetry group dispersed after two years , reconvening in 1987 to record The Medway Poets LP . Clark , Howard and Machine became involved over the following years . Thomson got to know Williams , who was a local art student and whose girlfriend was a friend of Emin ; Thomson also met Everall . During the foundation of the group , Ming brought in his girlfriend , Guru , who in turn invited Castle .
= = Manifestos = =
In August 1999 , Childish and Thomson wrote The Stuckists manifesto which stress the value of painting as a medium , its use for communication , and the expression of emotion and experience – as opposed to what Stuckists see as the superficial novelty , nihilism and irony of conceptual art and postmodernism . The most contentious statement in the manifesto is : " Artists who don 't paint aren 't artists " .
The second and third manifestos , An Open Letter to Sir Nicholas Serota and Remodernism respectively , were sent to the director of the Tate , Nicholas Serota . He sent a brief reply : " Thank you for your open letter dated 6 March . You will not be surprised to learn that I have no comment to make on your letter , or your manifesto ' Remodernism ' . "
In the Remodernism manifesto , the Stuckists declared that they aimed to replace postmodernism with remodernism , a period of renewed spiritual ( as opposed to religious ) values in art , culture and society . Other manifestos have included Handy Hints , Anti @-@ anti @-@ art , The Cappuccino writer and the Idiocy of Contemporary Writing , The Turner Prize , The Decreptitude of the Critic and Stuckist critique of Damien Hirst .
In Anti @-@ anti @-@ art , the Stuckists outlined their opposition to what is known as " anti @-@ art " . Stuckists claim that conceptual art is justified by the work of Marcel Duchamp , but that Duchamp 's work is " anti @-@ art by intent and effect " . The Stuckists feel that " Duchamp 's work was a protest against the stale , unthinking artistic establishment of his day " , while " the great ( but wholly unintentional ) irony of postmodernism is that it is a direct equivalent of the conformist , unoriginal establishment that Duchamp attacked in the first place " .
Manifestos have been written by other Stuckists , including the Students for Stuckism group . An " Underage Stuckists " group was founded in 2006 with a manifesto for teenagers written by two 16 @-@ year @-@ olds , Liv Soul and Rebekah Maybury , on MySpace .
= = Growth in UK = =
In July 1999 , the Stuckists were first mentioned in the media , in an article in The Evening Standard and soon gained other coverage , helped by press interest in Tracey Emin , who had been nominated for the Turner Prize .
The first Stuckist show was Stuck ! Stuck ! Stuck ! in September 1999 in Joe Crompton 's in Shoreditch Gallery 108 ( now defunct ) , followed by The Resignation of Sir Nicholas Serota . In 2000 they staged The Real Turner Prize Show at the same time as the Tate Gallery 's Turner Prize exhibition .
A " Students for Stuckism " group was founded in 2000 by students from Camberwell College of Arts , who staged their own exhibition . S.P. Howarth was expelled from the painting degree course at Camberwell college for his paintings , and had the first solo exhibit at the Stuckism International Gallery in 2002 , named I Don 't Want a Painting Degree if it Means Not Painting .
Thomson stood as a Stuckist candidate for the 2001 British General Election , in the constituency of Islington South & Finsbury , against Chris Smith , the then Secretary of State for Culture . He picked up 108 votes ( 0 @.@ 4 % ) . Childish left the group at this time because he objected to Thomson 's leadership .
From 2002 to 2005 Thomson ran the Stuckism International Centre and Gallery in Shoreditch , London . In 2003 , under the title A Dead Shark Isn 't Art , the gallery exhibited a shark which had first been put on public display in 1989 ( two years before Damien Hirst 's ) by Eddie Saunders in his Shoreditch shop , JD Electrical Supplies . It was suggested that Hirst may have seen this and copied it .
In 2003 they reported Charles Saatchi to the UK Office of Fair Trading , complaining that he had an effective monopoly on art . The complaint was not upheld . In 2003 , an allied group , Stuckism Photography , was founded by Larry Dunstan and Andy Bullock . In 2005 the Stuckists offered a donation of 175 paintings from the Walker show to the Tate , but it was rejected by the Tate 's trustees .
In August 2005 Thomson alerted the press to the fact that the Tate had purchased a work by Chris Ofili , The Upper Room , for £ 705 @,@ 000 while the artist was a serving Tate trustee . Fraser Kee Scott , owner of A Gallery , demonstrated with the Stuckists outside the Tate Gallery against the gallery 's purchase of The Upper Room . Scott said in The Daily Telegraph that the Tate Gallery 's chairman , Paul Myners , was hypocritical for refusing to divulge the price paid . Ofili had asked other artists to donate work to the gallery . In July 2006 the Charity Commission censured the gallery for acting outside its legal powers . Sir Nicholas Serota stated that the Stuckists had " acted in the public interest " .
In October 2006 , the Stuckists staged their first exhibition , Go West , in a commercial West End gallery , Spectrum London , signalling their entry as " major players " in the art world .
An international symposium on Stuckism took place in October 2006 at the Liverpool John Moores University during the Liverpool Biennial . The programme was led by Naive John , founder of the Liverpool Stuckists . There was an accompanying exhibition in the 68 Hope Gallery at Liverpool School of Art and Design ( John Moores University Gallery ) .
By 2006 there were 63 Stuckist groups in the UK . Members include Naive John , Mark D , Elsa Dax , Paul Harvey , Jane Kelly , Udaiyan , Peter McArdle , Peter Murphy , Rachel Jordan , Guy Denning and Abby Jackson . John Bourne opened Stuckism Wales at his home , a permanent exhibition of ( mainly Welsh ) paintings . Mandy McCartin is a regular guest artist .
In 2010 , Paul Harvey 's painting of Charles Saatchi was banned from the window display of the Artspace Gallery in Maddox Street , London , on the grounds that it was " too controversial for the area " . It was the centrepiece of the show , Stuckist Clowns Doing Their Dirty Work , the first exhibition of the Stuckists in Mayfair , and depicted Saatchi with a sheep at his feet and a halo made from a cheese wrapper . The Saatchi Gallery said that Saatchi " would not have any problem " with the painting 's display . The gallery announced they were shutting down the show . Harvey said , " I did it to make Saatchi look friendly and human . It 's a ludicrous decision " . The Stuckists considered legal action , and protested with emails to the gallery . Subsequently , the painting was reinstated and the show continued .
= = = Demonstrations = = =
The Stuckists gained significant media coverage for eight years of protests ( 2000 @-@ 2006 and 2008 ) outside Tate Britain against the Turner Prize , sometimes dressed as clowns . In 2001 they demonstrated in Trafalgar Square at the unveiling of Rachel Whiteread 's Monument . In 2002 , they carried a coffin marked The Death of Conceptual Art to the White Cube Gallery . In 2004 outside the launch of The Triumph of Painting at the Saatchi Gallery they wore tall hats with Charles Saatchi 's face emblazoned and carried placards claiming that Saatchi had copied their ideas .
Events outside Britain have included The Clown Trial of President Bush held in New Haven in 2003 to protest against the Iraq War . Michael Dickinson has exhibited political and satirical collages in Turkey for which he was arrested , and charged , but acquitted of any crime — an outcome which was seen to have positive implications for Turkey 's relationship with the European Union .
= = = The Stuckists Punk Victorian = = =
The Stuckists Punk Victorian was the first national gallery exhibition of Stuckist art . It was held at the Walker Art Gallery and Lady Lever Art Gallery and was part of the 2004 Liverpool Biennial . It consisted of over 250 paintings by 37 artists , mostly from the UK but also with a representation of international Stuckist artists from the US , Germany and Australia . There was an accompanying exhibition of Stuckist photographers . A book , The Stuckists Punk Victorian , was published to accompany the exhibition . Daily Mail journalist Jane Kelly exhibited a painting of Myra Hindley in the show , which may have been the cause of her dismissal from her job .
= = = A Gallery = = =
In July 2007 , the Stuckists held an exhibition at A Gallery , I Won 't Have Sex with You as long as We 're Married , titled after words apparently said to Thomson by his ex @-@ wife , Stella Vine on their wedding night . The show coincided with the opening of Vine 's major show at Modern Art Oxford and was prompted by Thomson 's anger that the material promoting her show did not mention her time with the Stuckists . Tate chairman Paul Myners visited both shows .
= = = Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision = = =
Charles Thomson 's painting , Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision , as Charlotte Cripps of The Independent wrote is one of the best known paintings to come out of the Stuckist movement , and as Jane Morris wrote in The Guardian it 's a likely " signature piece " for the movement , standing for its opposition to conceptual art . Painted in 2000 , the piece has been exhibited in laterStuckist shows , and featured on placards in Stuckist demonstrations against the Turner Prize . It depicts Sir Nicholas Serota , Director of the Tate Gallery and the usual chairman of the Turner Prize jury , and satirises Young British Artist Tracey Emin 's installation , My Bed , consisting of her bed and objects , including knickers , which she exhibited in 1999 as a Turner Prize nominee .
= = International movement = =
In 2000 Regan Tamanui started the first Stuckist group outside Britain in Melbourne , Australia , and it was decided that other artists should be free to start their own groups also , named after their locality . Stuckism has since grown into an international art movement of 233 groups in 52 countries , as of July 2012 .
= = = Africa = = =
Mafa Bamba founded The Abidgan Stuckists in 2001 in Ivory Coast and Kari Seid founded The Cape Town Stuckists in 2008 in South Africa .
= = = America = = =
In 2000 , Susan Constanse founded the first US group The Pittsburgh Stuckists in Pittsburgh — the second group to be founded outside the UK . This was announced in the In Pittsburgh Weekly , 1 November 2000 : " The new word in art is Stuckism . A Stuckist paints their life , mind and soul with no pretensions and no excuses . " By 2011 there are 44 US Stuckist groups . There have been Stuckist shows and demonstrations in the US , and American Stuckists have also exhibited in international Stuckist shows abroad . US Stuckists include Jeffrey Scott Holland , Tony Juliano , Frank Kozik and Terry Marks . There are also 4 Stuckist groups in Canada including The White Rock Stuckists in British Columbia founded by David Wilson .
= = = Asia = = =
Asim Butt founded the first Pakistani Stuckist group , The Karachi Stuckists , in 2005 . At the end of 2009 he was thinking of expanding The Karachi Stuckists with new members , but on 15 January 2010 he committed suicide . In 2011 Sheherbano Husain restarted the group .
The Tehran Stuckists is an Iranian Stuckist , Remodernist and anti @-@ anti @-@ art group of painters founded in 2007 in Tehran , which is a major protagonist of Asian Stuckism . In April 2010 they curated the first Stuckist exhibition in Iran , Tehran Stuckists : Searching for the Unlimited Potentials of Figurative Painting , at Iran Artists Forum , Mirmiran Gallery . Their second exhibition , International Stuckists : Painters Out of Order , including paintings by Stuckists from Iran , Britain , USA , Spain , South Africa , Pakistan and Turkey was held at Day Gallery in November 2013 . Although one of the main aspects of Stuckism movement is that " the Stuckist allows him / herself uncensored expression " , but The Tehran Stuckists ' exhibitions in Iran are censored and they are not allowed to exhibit some of their artworks in Iranian galleries . The group has also participated in Stuckist exhibitions in Britain , Lithuania and Spain .
Other Asian Stuckists are Shelley Li ( China ) , Smeetha Boumik ( India ) , Joko Apridinoto ( Indonesia ) , Elio Yuri Figini ( Japan ) and Fady Chamaa ( Lebanon ) .
= = = Europe = = =
The Prague Stuckists were founded in 2005 in the Czech Republic by Robert Janás , Other Stuckist artists in Europe include Peter Klint ( Germany ) , Michael Dickinson ( Turkey ) , Odysseus Yakoumakis ( Greece ) , Artista Eli ( Spain ) , Kloot Per W ( Belgium ) , Jaroslav Valecka ( Czech Republic ) , Jiri Hauschka ( Czech Republic ) , Marketa Koreckova ( Czech Republic ) , Jan Macko ( Slovakia ) and Pavel Lefterov ( Bulgaria ) .
= = = Oceania = = =
In October 2000 , Regan Tamanui founded The Melbourne Stuckists in Melbourne , the fourth Stuckist group to be started and the first one outside the UK . On 27 October 2000 , he staged the Real Turner Prize Show at the Dead End Gallery in his home , concurrent with three shows with the same title in England ( London , Falmouth and Dartington ) and one in Germany in protest against the Tate Gallery 's Turner Prize . Other Australian Stuckists include Godfrey Blow , who exhibited in The Stuckists Punk Victorian . In 2005 Mike Mayhew also founded The Christchurch Stuckists in New Zealand .
= = Ex Stuckists = =
Co @-@ founder , Billy Childish left the group in 2001 , but has stated that he remains committed to its principles . Sexton Ming left to concentrate on a solo career with the Aquarium Gallery . Wolf Howard left in 2006 , but has exhibited with the group since . Jesse Richards who ran the Stuckism Centre USA in New Haven , left the group in 2006 to focus on Remodernist film .
In June 2000 , Stella Vine went to a talk given by Childish and Thomson on Stuckism and Remodernism in London . At the end of May 2001 , she exhibited some of her paintings publicly for the first time in the Vote Stuckist show in Brixton , and formed The Westminster Stuckists group . On 4 June , she took part in a Stuckist demonstration in Trafalgar Square . By 10 July , she renamed her group The Unstuckists . In mid @-@ August , Thomson and Vine were married . A work by her was shown in the Stuckist show in Paris , which ended in mid @-@ November , by which time she had rejected the Stuckists , and the marriage had ended .
In February 2004 , Charles Saatchi bought a painting of Diana , Princess of Wales by Vine and was credited with " discovering " her . Thomson said it was the Stuckists and not Saatchi who had discovered her . At the end of March 2004 , Thomson made a formal complaint about Saatchi to the Office of Fair Trading , claiming that Saatchi 's leading position was monopolistic " to the detriment of smaller competitors " , citing Vine as an example of this . On 15 April , the OFT closed the file on the case on the basis that Saatchi was not " in a dominant position in any relevant market . "
= = Responses = =
In 1999 , two performance artists , Yuan Chai and Jian Jun Xi , jumped on Tracey Emin 's installation My Bed , a work consisting of the artist 's own unmade bed , at the Tate Gallery 's Turner Prize , in an unauthorised art intervention . Chai had written , among other things , the words " Anti Stuckism " on his bare back . Fiachra Gibbons of The Guardian wrote ( in 1999 ) that the event " will go down in art history as the defining moment of the new and previously unheard of Anti @-@ Stuckist Movement . " Writing in The Guardian ten years later , Jonathan Jones described the Stuckists as " enemies of art " , and what they say as " cheap slogans " and " hysterical rants " .
The artist Max Podstolski wrote that the art world needed a new manifesto , as confrontational as that of Futurism or Dadaism , " written with a heart @-@ felt passion capable of inspiring and rallying art world outsiders , dissenters , rebels , the neglected and disaffected " , and suggests that " Well now we 've got it , in the form of Stuckism " .
New York art gallery owner Edward Winkleman wrote in 2006 that he had never heard of the Stuckists , so he " looked them up on Wikipedia " , and stated he was " turned off by their anti @-@ conceptual stance , not to mention the inanity of their statement about painting , but I 'm more than a bit interested in the democratization their movement represents . " Thomson responded to Winkleman directly .
Also in 2006 , Colin Gleadell , writing in The Telegraph , noted that the Stuckist 's first exhibition in central London had brought " multiple sales " for leading artists of the movement , and that this raised the question of how good they were at painting . He observed that " Whatever the critics may say , buyers from the UK , the US and Japan have already taken a punt . Six of Thomson 's paintings have sold for between £ 4 @,@ 000 and £ 5 @,@ 000 each . Joe Machine , a former jailbird who paints for therapeutic reasons , has also sold six paintings for the same price . "
The BBC arts correspondent Lawrence Pollard wrote in 2009 that the way was paved for " cultural agitators " like the Stuckists , as well as the Vorticists , Surrealists and others , by the Futurist Manifesto of 20 February 1909 .
= = Gallery = =
Some UK artists .
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= Typhoon Gay ( 1992 ) =
Typhoon Gay , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Seniang , was the strongest and longest @-@ lasting storm of the 1992 Pacific typhoon season . It formed on November 14 near the International Date Line from a monsoon trough , which also spawned two other systems . Typhoon Gay later moved through the Marshall Islands as an intensifying typhoon , and after passing through the country it reached its peak intensity over open waters . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 872 mb ( 25 @.@ 8 inHg ) . However , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , which is the official warning center in the western Pacific , estimated winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , with a pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . Gay weakened rapidly after peaking because of interaction with another typhoon , and it struck Guam with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) on November 23 . The typhoon briefly re @-@ intensified before weakening and becoming extratropical south of Japan on November 30 .
The typhoon first affected the Marshall Islands , where 5 @,@ 000 people became homeless and heavy crop damage was reported . The nation 's capital of Majuro experienced power and water outages during the storm . There were no fatalities among Marshall Islands citizens , although the typhoon killed a sailor traveling around the world . When Gay struck Guam , it became the sixth typhoon of the year to affect the island . Most of the weaker structures had been destroyed during Typhoon Omar earlier in the year , resulting in little additional damage from Gay . Because of its substantial weakening , the typhoon had a disrupted inner @-@ core and produced minimal rainfall . However , strong winds scorched the plants on Guam with saltwater , causing extensive defoliation . Further north , high waves from the typhoon destroyed a house on Saipan , and heavy rainfall in Okinawa , Japan , caused flooding and power outages .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Gay were from a tropical disturbance east of the International Date Line along a monsoon trough that extended west to the South China Sea in mid @-@ November 1992 . The same trough had earlier spawned Tropical Storm Forrest and would later create Typhoon Hunt . The tropical disturbance moved westward across the dateline and gradually became better organized with increased convection . On November 14 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . At 1800 UTC that day , the agency initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 31W , located to the east of the Marshall Islands . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also assessed that the depression had developed by that time . The next day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gay .
For most of Typhoon Gay 's existence , a strong anticyclone to its north steered the storm to the west or west @-@ northwest . The JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status early on November 17 , and the JMA followed suit the next day . Gay first affected Mejit Island and eventually crossed the central portion of the Marshall Islands . Owing to favorable sea surface temperatures and upper @-@ level wind patterns , the storm entered a phase of rapid deepening similar to other November typhoons near that location . On November 19 , the JTWC upgraded Gay to a super typhoon , which is a typhoon with 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Gradual intensification ensued , and based on satellite estimates , the JTWC estimated that Typhoon Gay attained peak winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) at 0000 UTC on November 21 . The agency also estimated that the typhoon reached a minimum barometric pressure of 872 mb ( 25 @.@ 8 inHg ) , which would have made Gay the most intense typhoon since Typhoon Tip in 1979 . At the same time , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , with a pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) .
After Gay attained its peak intensity , outflow from Typhoon Hunt to its northwest increased the wind shear over the typhoon . The wind shear deteriorated Gay 's northern eyewall , causing the typhoon to weaken . In the 24 hours after Gay reached its peak intensity , the JTWC estimated that the winds had decreased by 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) to below super typhoon status ; such rapid weakening is uncommon for a storm over open waters . Tropical cyclone forecast models had anticipated Gay to make a turn to the north and northeast , but it maintained a west @-@ northwest track toward Guam . Despite weakening steadily , the typhoon maintained a large size with a wind diameter of 1 @,@ 480 km ( 920 mi ) . Around 0000 UTC on November 23 , Gay made landfall on Guam , becoming the third typhoon in three months to strike the island — the others were Typhoon Omar in August and Typhoon Brian in October . Both the JTWC and the JMA estimated the typhoon to have had winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) at landfall . The influence from Typhoon Hunt diminished after Gay affected Guam , allowing it to begin restrengthening . Late on November 25 , the JTWC estimated that the typhoon attained a secondary peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) . Gay subsequently slowed while moving along the western periphery of the subtropical ridge , and it turned north while gradually weakening . On November 28 , the JMA downgraded Gay to a tropical storm , and the JTWC followed suit the next day . The JMA assessed that Gay became an extratropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on November 30 ; however , the JTWC continued issuing advisories until December 1 , making it the longest @-@ lasting typhoon of the season with 63 advisories . The remnant of Gay accelerated and turned to the northeast , passing to the southeast of Japan and crossing the International Date Line .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Marshall Islands = = =
Typhoon Gay first affected the Marshall Islands , striking several atolls in the archipelago with typhoon @-@ force winds . On Mejit Island , the first island to be affected , the typhoon destroyed every wooden structure and left most of the islanders homeless . High winds downed all of the island 's trees and destroyed 75 % of the crops . Nearby , Ailuk Atoll experienced similar winds , though house damage was minor despite similar crop losses . The large wind field extended to the south , affecting Maloelap and Aur atolls with winds that damaged 30 % of the houses and crops . Further south , the Marshall Islands capital city of Majuro experienced lightning strikes from the typhoon , which caused an island @-@ wide power outage and cuts to the water supply and radio communication . Debris from the storm closed the Marshall Islands International Airport for two days . On Ujae Atoll , the typhoon destroyed an automated meteorological observing station that had been installed in 1989 . The typhoon left over 5 @,@ 000 people homeless across the country , but there were no native deaths and only one injury in the archipelago owing to well @-@ executed warnings and preparations . However , large waves from the typhoon sank a boat in a small lagoon , killing one of the boat 's two sailors .
= = = Guam and Northern Marianas = = =
After affecting the Marshall Islands , Gay tracked toward Guam and became the fifth typhoon to come within 110 km ( 68 mi ) of the island in six months . Extensive preparations were made , including the sending of ships to mitigate damage and flying United States Air Force planes to other bases in the region . The schools , government buildings , airport , and port were closed , and about 4 @,@ 300 people evacuated to storm shelters . Further north , 1 @,@ 639 people evacuated to storm shelters on Saipan , which set the record for the most storm evacuees at the time .
Despite weakening greatly from its peak intensity , Gay struck Guam with sustained winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) , with gusts to 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) on Nimitz Hill . The winds were strong enough to disrupt power and water utilities , as well as destroy a few houses . As a result of its weakening , Gay had a disrupted inner @-@ core with little precipitation , which prompted the JTWC to label it as a " dry typhoon " ; rainfall totals on the island ranged from only 40 – 90 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) . Despite the extreme winds , little wind @-@ thrown trees or snapped branches were observed . The combination of the winds and light rainfall , however , sprayed saltwater over the island 's vegetation , leading to near island @-@ wide loss of leaves . Majority of the local dicots withered and lost their leaves within two days after the storm , while other plants such as palms , cycads and gymnosperms retained their foliage but turned brown . The defoliation led to significant losses for crop farmers ; in some locations , the crops did not recover for four years . Along the east coast of Guam , Gay produced a storm surge of 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 – 6 ft ) . The surge reached 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) on Cabras Island in northern Guam , washing sand and water onto coastal roads and breaking a boat from its moorings . The JTWC estimated that damage would have been worse had Typhoon Omar not destroyed the weaker structures three months earlier ; little additional damage occurred to the island 's capital of Hagåtña . The typhoon destroyed four iron roofs on Tinian Island , located north of Guam . On Saipan to its north , the storm surge destroyed one house and threatened the foundation of several others ; twelve families required rescue by emergency workers . The storm caused power outages , and one house sustained fire damage due to candles and kerosene lamps .
= = = Japan = = =
While Gay was becoming extratropical , Okinawa Prefecture experienced heavy rainfall . The highest total was 322 mm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) , and one station recorded 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) in a ten @-@ minute period . The rains flooded four buildings and inundated crop fields . Rough winds with gusts peaking at 82 km / h ( 51 mph ) caused isolated power outages and the cancellation of two airline flights .
= = Aftermath = =
Marshall Islands president Amata Kabua declared nine islands as disaster areas . United States president George H. W. Bush also declared the Marshall Islands a disaster area on December 16 . Despite being an independent nation , the Marshall Islands were eligible to the same funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency as a U.S. state or territory . The United States provided a loan of $ 508 @,@ 245 ( 1994 USD ) for emergency assistance and to train locals to mitigate future events . After the storm , workers near Majuro planted seeds to regrow the damaged crops .
The rapid succession of typhoons in 1992 caused a significant drop in tourism in Guam . During typhoons Omar and Gay , there was little communication between residents on the island . As a result , the Guam Communications Network was created to facilitate future relief efforts during storms .
A research paper published ten years after the storm suggested that Gay could have been stronger than Typhoon Tip , which attained the lowest barometric pressure ever recorded . While at its peak intensity , Gay registered a rating of 8 @.@ 0 for nine consecutive hours using the Dvorak technique , indicating sustained wind speeds of at least ( 315 km / h ) 195 mph . In addition , the cyclone had a significantly colder band of clouds around the eye . Typhoon Angela in 1995 presented similar features and could have been stronger than Gay . Neither of the two had direct observations into their eyes , however , making it impossible to confirm such intensity .
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= Constitution of the Republic of Singapore Tribunal =
The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore Tribunal was established in 1994 pursuant to Article 100 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore . Article 100 provides a mechanism for the President of Singapore , acting on the advice of the Singapore Cabinet , to refer to the Tribunal for its opinion any question as to the effect of any provision of the Constitution which has arisen or appears to likely to arise . Questions referred to the Tribunal may concern the validity of enacted laws or of bills that have not yet been passed by Parliament .
Constitutional questions may also be referred to the Tribunal when Parliament attempts to circumvent or curtail the discretionary powers conferred on the President by the Constitution . If the attempt is by way of an ordinary bill , the President can exercise personal discretion to withhold assent to it . It is then open to Cabinet to advise the President to refer to the Tribunal the question whether the bill in fact circumvents or curtails his discretionary powers . If the bill is determined by the Tribunal not to have that effect , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day following the day when the Tribunal 's opinion is pronounced in open court . When Article 5A of the Constitution is brought into force , a similar procedure will apply to attempts to circumvent or curtail the President 's discretionary powers through a constitutional amendment . If the Tribunal rules that the proposed amendment does have the effect of restricting the discretionary powers of the President , the Prime Minister is entitled to submit the bill to a national referendum for approval .
The Tribunal consists of not less than three judges of the Supreme Court . Its opinions are binding on all other courts . Since the Tribunal was established in 1994 , to date only one constitutional question has been referred to it . The Tribunal determined in 1995 that although Article 5 ( 2A ) was not in force , Article 22H ( 1 ) did not prevent Parliament from restricting the President 's discretionary powers through a constitutional amendment . Since then , there have been several unsuccessful attempts to persuade Cabinet to invoke the Article 100 procedure .
= = History = =
The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore Tribunal is an ad hoc tribunal established by Article 100 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore . Article 100 was introduced into the Constitution by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment No. 2 ) Act 1994 , which was passed by Parliament on 25 August 1994 and assented to by President Ong Teng Cheong on 14 September 1994 . It came into force on 1 October 1994 .
Prior to the enactment of Article 100 , Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong noted during the Second Reading of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment No. 2 ) Bill that the Singapore Constitution had no provisions for referring questions of constitutional interpretation to the courts for an advisory ruling , especially those relating to new and complex provisions of the Constitution . Article 100 was intended to address this perceived lacuna in the Constitution .
One question of constitutional interpretation that was highlighted during the parliamentary debates pertained to the former Article 22H which had been incorrectly inserted into the Constitution by the Constitution ( Amendment ) Act 1991 in January 1991 . Article 22H ( 1 ) provided that the President might , acting in his discretion , withhold his assent to any bill passed by Parliament ( other than a bill to which Article 5 ( 2A ) applied ) if the bill provided for the circumvention or curtailment of the discretionary powers conferred upon him by the Constitution . At that time , Article 5 ( 2A ) , which entrenched certain core constitutional provisions ( of which Article 22H ( 1 ) was one ) by requiring the approval of the electorate at a national referendum for their amendment , had not been brought into force .
In August 1994 , Parliament intended to amend Article 22H to restrict the President 's powers thereunder to only non @-@ constitutional bills which provided for the circumvention or curtailment of the President 's discretionary powers conferred upon him by the Constitution . Because Article 5 ( 2A ) was not in force , a question arose as to whether the President had the power under Article 22H ( 1 ) to withhold his assent to any bill seeking to amend any of the provisions referred to in Article 5 ( 2A ) , and specifically to any bill seeking to amend Article 22H . President Ong Teng Cheong stated that in the interest of testing out the system , he wished to have this question referred to the courts for a ruling , and that he would accept as correct whatever interpretation of Article 22H was given by the court . In response to his request , Article 100 was inserted into the Constitution by Parliament for that purpose .
= = Reference of constitutional questions = =
= = = Grounds for bringing of reference = = =
A constitutional question can be referred to the Tribunal on three grounds . First , under Article 100 itself , the President , acting on the advice of Cabinet , may refer to the Tribunal for its opinion any question as to the effect of any provision of the Constitution which has arisen or appears to the President likely to arise . During the parliamentary debates preceding the introduction of Article 100 , Nominated Member of Parliament Associate Professor Walter Woon posed the following question :
The President can only refer a constitutional question to the tribunal on the advice of the Cabinet . He has no discretion to refer it himself . If you are going to give the power to the President to clear up constitutional ambiguities , would it not be better to allow him to make the reference himself when he sees there is an ambiguity , rather than to constrain it only to situations where Cabinet sees there is an ambiguity ?
The reply by the Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong was threefold :
Article 100 was drafted by following the precedent in the Constitution of Malaysia . Since it had worked for Malaysia , the drafters thought it safe for Singapore to follow suit .
It was the intention of legislation concerning the elected President that the initiative to refer the question to the Tribunal should lie with the Government , and generally not with the President whose recourse was in vetoing the legislation . The Cabinet would advise the President and the matter would then be referred to the Tribunal .
In the event of Cabinet wishing to ride roughshod over the President 's views and refusing to refer a particular matter , there would be considerable public pressure exerted on the Government to so refer .
Questions referred to the Tribunal may concern the validity of enacted laws or of bills that have not yet been passed by Parliament .
The other two grounds relate to attempts by Parliament to circumvent or curtail the discretionary powers conferred on the President by the Constitution . Article 22H of the Constitution deals with attempts to alter the President 's powers by introducing an ordinary bill . If this occurs , the President may exercise personal discretion to withhold assent to the bill . The Cabinet may , if it wishes , advise the President to refer to the Tribunal the question whether the bill in fact has the effect of circumventing or curtailing his discretionary powers . If the Tribunal determines that the bill does not have that effect , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day following the day when the Tribunal 's opinion is pronounced in open court .
When Article 5A is brought into force , the President will also be able to decline to assent to a bill seeking to amend the Constitution that has a direct or indirect effect of circumventing or curtailing his discretionary powers . In this case , the Cabinet may also advise the President to refer to the Tribunal the question of whether the bill indeed has this effect . If the Tribunal rules that the bill does not have this effect , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day immediately following the day when the Tribunal pronounces its opinion in open court . On the other hand , if the Tribunal decides to the contrary , the Prime Minister may opt to submit the bill to the electorate . If the bill is supported at a national referendum by not less than two @-@ thirds of the total number of votes cast , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day immediately following the day when the results of the referendum have been published in the Government Gazette .
= = = Procedure = = =
A reference must be made under the hand of ( that is , signed by ) the President , and must be served on the Attorney @-@ General . The Attorney @-@ General is required to assist the Tribunal in the hearing of the reference , and the President may be represented by such legal counsel as the Tribunal may appoint , after consulting the President . The parties appearing before the Tribunal are not confined to the President and the Attorney @-@ General . The Tribunal may direct that the hearing of a reference be notified to any interested person or , where there is an interested class of persons , to one or more representatives of the class . If there is any interest that is affected which is not represented by counsel , the Tribunal may request that counsel argue the case for this interest .
The reference must state the questions on which the Tribunal 's opinion is required in a form which allows , as far as possible , answers to be given in the affirmative or the negative . There must also be a concise statement of facts , and documents must be included , as are necessary to enable the Tribunal to decide the questions referred . During the hearing of a reference , the procedure in proceedings before the Court of Appeal applies . The President of Singapore is treated as the appellant and all other parties as respondents . However , the Tribunal is not bound by strict rules of evidence . The proceedings of the Tribunal , except for the hearing for directions , are held in open court . No party to any proceedings is ordered to pay any costs , and no court fees are payable in respect of any proceedings .
The Tribunal has to consider and answer a question referred to it not more than 60 days after the date of such reference . The Tribunal is mandated to certify to the President for his information its opinion on the question referred to it with reasons for its answer , and any Tribunal judge who differs from the opinion of the majority shall similarly certify his opinion and his reasons . The opinion of the majority of judges is the opinion of the Tribunal , and is required to be pronounced in open court .
= = Composition = =
The Constitution provides that the Tribunal must consist of not less than three judges of the Supreme Court , as Parliament intended that the Tribunal should have the same structure as the Court of Appeal . In practice , the Tribunal consists of the Chief Justice and not less than two other judges of the Supreme Court as the Chief Justice may determine . If for any reason the Chief Justice is unable to be a Tribunal member , the Tribunal must consist of not less than three Supreme Court judges . The Chief Justice is the President of the Tribunal and , in his absence , the presidency of the Tribunal is determined in accordance with the following order of precedence :
the vice @-@ presidents of the Court of Appeal ;
the Judges of Appeal ( other than vice @-@ presidents ) ; and
the Judges of the High Court .
Among themselves , the judges in each category rank according to the priority of their appointments to the Bench .
= = Effect of opinions = =
Opinions of the Tribunal cannot be questioned by any court . This includes the Tribunal 's view of the validity of any law , the bill of which has been the subject of a reference to a Tribunal . This means that although the Tribunal lies outside the normal hierarchy of the courts since it does not hear appeals from any courts , its opinions are binding on all other courts . It is technically open for the President , on Cabinet 's advice , to refer the same matter to the Tribunal for its re @-@ consideration .
= = Invocations of the constitutional reference process = =
= = = Constitutional Reference No. 1 of 1995 = = =
Since the creation of the Tribunal in 1994 , only one constitutional reference has been made to it . Constitutional Reference No. 1 of 1995 arose from the issue of the application of Article 22H ( 1 ) of the Constitution in relation to Article 5 ( 2A ) , which was and is still not yet in force . The matter was referred by President Ong Teng Cheong to clarify the scope of the application of both Articles . The Government was represented by Chan Sek Keong and Soh Tze Bian of the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers , and the Presidency by Joseph Grimberg and Walter Woon .
The Constitutional Tribunal , which consisted of the Chief Justice Yong Pung How and Judges of Appeal M. Karthigesu and L.P. Thean , held that although Article 5 ( 2A ) was in abeyance , it represented the will of Parliament and therefore had to be taken into consideration . The Tribunal concluded that the President had no power under Article 22H ( 1 ) to withhold his assent to any bill seeking to amend any of the provisions referred to in Article 5 ( 2A ) .
= = = Attempted invocations = = =
= = = = Rescue and assistance package for Indonesia = = = =
The first instance of a non @-@ governmental attempt to put an issue before the Constitutional Tribunal came from Non @-@ constituency Member of Parliament Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam . He challenged the constitutionality of Singapore 's US $ 5 billion loan offer to Indonesia in November 1997 on the basis of Article 144 ( 1 ) of the Constitution which states : " No guarantee or loan shall be given or raised by the Government , except under the authority of any resolution of Parliament with which the President concurs . " Jeyaretnam interpreted this to mean that the giving of a loan required parliamentary and presidential approval . The Finance Minister Dr. Richard Hu Tsu Tau did not agree with Jeyaretnam 's interpretation of the provision , and stated that the Attorney @-@ General had given advice that the granting of loans and the purchase of securities of this type had the prior approval of two Presidents .
Subsequently , the Ministry of Finance stated that Article 144 ( 1 ) applied only to the giving of guarantees or the raising of loans by the Government , and not the giving of loans . The Attorney @-@ General Chan Sek Keong confirmed that this reading of the provision , which he characterized as reddendo singula singulis ( Latin for " referring each to each " ) , was correct . The Attorney @-@ General also suggested that Jeyaretnam bring the matter to the Tribunal , a procedure seemingly inconsistent with a rule which stipulates that a reference to the Tribunal shall be made under the hand of the President of Singapore . This issue was finally abandoned when Jeyaretnam refused to pay for the costs for referring the matter to the Tribunal and the Ministry of Law found it ludicrous that it was asked by Jeyaretnam to bear the costs .
= = = = Public Entertainments Act = = = =
On 20 January 1999 , Jeyaretnam wrote to President Ong Teng Cheong requesting the reference of another constitutional question to the Tribunal . This was made on behalf of his client , opposition politician Chee Soon Juan , who had been charged for giving a public talk on 20 December 1999 without a licence under the Public Entertainments Act . The question involved the constitutionality of the Act . Jeyaretnam argued that the Act violated Articles 14 ( 1 ) ( a ) and ( b ) of the Constitution , which enshrines freedom of speech and assembly .
The President , acting on the advice of the Cabinet , turned down the request . The reply to Jeyaretnam dated 29 January 1999 pronounced the request as " misconceived " . The following reasons were given :
The jurisdiction of the Tribunal should only be invoked " when there is no other forum available to a person who claims that his constitutional rights have been infringed to have such claim tested " . The Tribunal was not a court of law , but only advisory in nature . Chee would be able to raise the same constitutional question at trial or on appeal as he had been charged under the Act .
If the Tribunal were to come into the picture when the court had yet to resolve the matter , then this would " constitute an improper interference with the judicial power of the courts and the constitutional functions of the Public Prosecutor " .
= = = = Misuse of Drugs Act = = = =
A plea for a review by the Constitutional Tribunal was sought as a last @-@ ditch attempt to stave off the execution of drug trafficker Shanmugam Murugesu . Shanmugam 's lawyer contended that his client 's right to equal protection under Article 12 of the Constitution had been infringed . Referring to cases of six recent offenders similarly convicted under the Misuse of Drugs Act , Shanmugam 's lawyer drew attention to the fact that those offenders had imported more than 700 grammes of cannabis , an offence which attracted the death penalty , but were eventually charged with possessing less than 500 grammes of cannabis which resulted only in a jail sentence . In contrast , Shanmugam , who had imported 1 @,@ 029 @.@ 8 grammes of cannabis , did not have the amount reduced and was sentenced to death . The plea was rejected by the President on 12 May 2005 , one day before the execution date .
= = = = Legal status of the right to vote = = = =
Speaking in Parliament on 12 February 2009 , Nominated Member of Parliament Thio Li @-@ ann posed the question of whether the right to vote is a constitutional one and suggested that the Law Minister obtain an advisory opinion to clarify the point . This issue was briefly dealt with by the Minister who simply answered it in the affirmative , rendering the need for a resolution by the constitutional tribunal nugatory . Thio subsequently expressed the view that it would be desirable to ask the Constitutional Tribunal to give its authoritative opinion as the courts are the final arbiter on questions of constitutionality in Singapore .
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= Reaction ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" Reaction " is the eighth episode of the American animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man , created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode originally broadcast in the United States on the Kids WB ! block for The CW on May 3 , 2008 , where it was rated TV @-@ Y7 @-@ FV .
The episode details Dr. Otto Octavius as an accidental laboratory incident caused by the Green Goblin where the radiation merges special mechanical tentacles to his skin and seemingly damaged his brain ( although it was later suggested that what was interpreted as brain damage was in fact his mind rewiring itself to accommodate four extra limbs ) , and turns him from a timid and weak scientist into the villain Dr. Octopus . " Reaction " was directed by Jennifer Coyle and was the first episode of the series to be written by Randy Jandt . While writing the teleplay , Jandt was challenged with staying true to the original material of Spider @-@ Man , particularly towards that of Dr. Octopus .
" Reaction " received generally positive reviews , with television critics singling out Dr. Octopus ' portrayal . Octopus 's character design was applauded by both the designers and Coyle ; the latter noted that his design allowed her to direct them freely in different manners , and that the arms in particular were particularly well @-@ done . Peter MacNicol voiced the character and used a voice inspired by that of late actor Laird Cregar . It is available on both the third volume DVD set for the series , as well as the complete season box set .
= = Plot summary = =
Dr. Otto Octavius tries to complain to his boss Norman Osborn about the dangers of several recent experiments they have been performing to create super villains in his laboratory , but is quickly berated by Osborn for his " whining . " Octavius backs down and goes to work inside an experimentation chamber while Osborn departs . Unbeknown to him , the villain Green Goblin sneaks into the lab , activating the chamber 's generators while locking Octavius inside . While unsuccessfully trying to escape from the chamber , the radiation emitted fuses the mechanical tentacles he is wearing into his skin .
Osborn and others arrive on the scene to turn off the generator , while Spider @-@ Man jumps in to help get Octavius out of the wreckage . When the doctor wakes up , he attacks Osborn with his tentacles and pins him to a wall . When Spider @-@ Man tries to intervene , Octavius brushes him aside as well with one of his tentacles , declaring himself " Dr. Octopus . " He steals a power battery to recharge his tentacles and storms out of the building , using his tentacles as extra limbs . The next day , Peter , Gwen , Harry and some of Harry 's new popular friends go to Coney Island , where Harry impresses everyone with his newfound strength . Liz Allan begins to attach herself to Peter and the two have a fun time . However , Peter spots Dr. Octopus and abandons the group to pursue him as Spider @-@ Man .
Spider @-@ Man follows Dr. Octopus to TriCorp , where he attempts to steal a power pack from a vault . Spider @-@ Man swoops in and gets to the power source before him . He then runs out , with Dr. Octopus pursuing him , hoping to cause the doctor to run out of energy . They reach Coney Island through their ensuing brawl and Octopus , aware of Spider @-@ Man 's desire to save innocent lives , kidnaps Liz . With only an hour of energy left , he climbs to the top of a roller coaster , forcing Spider @-@ Man to choose between the power pack and Liz . Spider @-@ Man throws the pack in the air before rescuing Liz ; he gets close to Dr. Octopus as the latter scrambles for the power pack and is able to take it away from him , successfully defeating the doctor .
When Peter returns to the group , he discovers that Liz is breaking up with her boyfriend Flash Thompson after the latter gets jealous that she spent the day so close to Peter . Gwen approaches Peter , and the two agree they need to have a talk with Harry about his belligerent attitude towards them and constant strange behavior .
= = Production = =
" Reaction " was written by Randy Jandt and directed by Jennifer Coyle . It originally aired on the Kids WB ! block for The CW on May 3 , 2008 , at 10 : 00 a.m. Eastern / Pacific time , with a parental guidance rating of TV @-@ Y7 @-@ FV . The episode 's title , " Reaction , " expands the series theme " The Education of Peter Parker " chosen by developer Greg Weisman . Episodes in the third season one arc all shared a naming scheme based on chemistry .
The episode was the first of the series to be penned by Jandt , who said that the opportunity to work on the series was " both thrilling and a bit daunting , primarily because of the elevated expectations of such a high @-@ profile , established franchise . " To meet these expectations , he followed a simplistic strategy — " be mindful of the history , listen to the direction and guidance of Greg Weisman , and then write an episode with a good , entertaining story that is packed with as much action and humor as 22 minutes will allow . " Writing for Dr. Octopus in particular was difficult for the first @-@ time writer as he had " such a range of character . "
" Reaction " marked the first appearance of Dr. Otto Octavius as Dr. Octopus . Coyle noted her enthusiasm for the character , particularly towards his design ; she has given noteworthy praise towards his arms , as they " are amazing , and the timing has been really good for this show , so much so that I think you feel the impact of those arms . " Coyle also believes that people can connect with the character on different levels . Similarly , Sean Galloway — a character designer on the series — said that he is " probably one of [ his ] favorites " to have designed .
Peter MacNicol was cast to play Dr. Octopus . MacNicol had starred in primetime television series , including Chicago Hope , Numb3rs , and Boston Legal , while also being a veteran to the voice acting profession on animated series such as The Wild Thornberrys and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command . MacNicol chose to base Dr. Octopus ' voice on that of Laird Cregar , a 1940s actor who , throughout his short @-@ lived career , was challenged with obesity , until he lost too much weight and died at age 30 . MacNicol , though , notes that he is " no mimic and it was Cregar 's quality rather than his voice which gave me my model . "
" Reaction " became available on the DVD The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , Volume 3 , on March 17 , 2009 , alongside the episodes " Catalysts " and " The Uncertainty Principle . " The volume featured episodes that detailed Green Goblin as a prominent or supporting character . " Reaction " also became available on the full season DVD box set entitled The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man : The Complete First Season DVD , which featured every other episode of season one for the series .
= = Reception = =
" Reaction " received a generally positive response from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN , giving the episode an 8 @.@ 2 @.@ rating ( " Impressive " ) , wrote favorably , noting that the depiction Dr. Octopus " was very clever – on one hand , he was a pitiful , cowering pushover . But when Norman was berating him we got a brief look at the anger within , as he imagined attacking Norman with his robotic tentacles . " Goldman applauded both Dr. Octopus ' line , " I 've been good " and when Spider @-@ Man crashes into several stuffed animals , only to be pulled out by Dr. Octopus in a manner similar to a carnival game ; he concluded that , " This show continues to leave several prime time live @-@ action shows to shame when it comes to building serialized stories and has been one of the most pleasant surprises of the TV season . "
Luke Bonanno of Ultimate Disney listed " Reaction " as one of his top five favorite episodes of the first season , while commenting that " the uniform excellence of the lot [ makes ] this a challenging task . " Writing for DVD Talk , reviewer Justin Felix opined that the episode was " particularly action @-@ packed . " Rob M. Worley of Mania described Dr. Octopus ' introduction as " explosive , " while praising MacNicol for balancing such a heavy workload between both the episode and other series .
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= Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition =
The Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition or shaft tomb culture refers to a set of interlocked cultural traits found in the western Mexican states of Jalisco , Nayarit , and , to a lesser extent , Colima to its south , roughly dating to the period between 300 BCE and 400 CE , although there is not wide agreement on this end @-@ date . Nearly all of the artifacts associated with this shaft tomb tradition have been discovered by looters and are without provenance , making dating problematic . The first major undisturbed shaft tomb associated with the tradition was not discovered until 1993 , at Huitzilapa , Jalisco .
Originally regarded as of Purépecha origin , contemporary with the Aztecs , it became apparent in the middle of the 20th century , as a result of further research , that the artifacts and tombs were instead over 1000 years older . Until recently , the looted artifacts were all that was known of the people and culture or cultures that created the shaft tombs . So little was known , in fact , that a major 1998 exhibition highlighting these artifacts was subtitled : " Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past " .
It is now thought that , although shaft tombs are widely diffused across the area , the region was not a unified cultural area . Archaeologists , however , still struggle with identifying and naming the ancient western Mexico cultures of this period .
= = Description = =
The shaft tomb tradition is thought to have developed around 300 BCE . Some shaft tombs predate the tradition by more than 1000 years – for example , the shaft tomb at El Opeño in Michoacán has been dated to 1500 BCE but is linked to Central , rather than Western , Mexico . Like much else concerning the tradition , its origins are not well understood , although the valleys around Tequila , Jalisco , which include the archaeological sites of Huitzilapa and Teuchitlan , constitute its " undisputed core " . The tradition lasted until at least 300 CE although there is not wide agreement on the end date .
The Western Mexico shaft tombs are characterized by a vertical or nearly vertical shaft , dug 3 to 20 metres down into what is often underlying volcanic tuff . The base of the shaft opens into one or two ( occasionally more ) horizontal chambers , perhaps 4 by 4 metres ( varying considerably ) , with a low ceiling . The shaft tombs were often associated with an overlying building .
Multiple burials are found in each chamber and evidence indicates that the tombs were used for families or lineages over time . The labor involved in the creation of the shaft tombs along with the number and quality of the grave goods indicate that the tombs were used exclusively by the society 's elites , and demonstrate that the shaft tomb cultures were highly stratified at this early date .
The sites of El Opeño and La Campana in Colima feature some shaft tombs , and are often associated with the Capacha culture .
= = Ceramic figurines and tableaus = =
Grave goods within these tombs include hollow ceramic figures , obsidian and shell jewelry , semi @-@ precious stones , pottery ( which often contained food ) , and other household implements such as spindle whorls and metates ( see this Flickr photo for a reconstruction ) . More unusual items include conch shell trumpets covered with stucco and other appliques . Unlike those of other Mesoamerican cultures such as the Olmec and the Maya , shaft tomb artifacts carry little to no iconography and so are seemingly bereft of symbolic or religious meaning .
The plentiful ceramic figurines have attracted the most attention , and are among the most dramatic and interesting produced in Mesoamerica . In fact , these ceramics were apparently the primary outlet for artistic expression for the shaft tomb cultures and there is little to no record of associated monumental architecture , stelae , or other public art .
Since the vast majority of these ceramics are without provenance , analysis has largely focused on the ceramics ' styles and subjects .
= = = Styles = = =
The major stylistic groups include :
Ixtlan del Rio . These abstract figurines have flat , squarish bodies with highly stylized faces complete with nose rings and multiple earrings . Seated figurines have thin rope @-@ like limbs while the standing figurines have short stocky limbs . One of the first styles to be described , noted ethnographer , and caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias stated that it " reaches the limits of absurd , brutal caricature , a peculiar aesthetic concept that relishes the creation of haunting subhuman monstrosities " . Art historian George Kubler finds that " the square bodies , grimacing mouths , and staring eyes convey a disturbing expression which is only in part resolved by the animation and plastic energy of the turgid forms " .
" Chinesca " or " Chinesco " figurines were named by art dealers after their supposed Chinese @-@ like appearance . An early type , Chinesco is identified with Nayarit and up to five major subgroups have been identified , although there is considerable overlap . Type A figurines , the so @-@ called " classic Chinesco " , are realistically rendered . One prominent curator , Michael Kan , finds that " their calm , subtle exterior suggests rather than demonstrates emotion " . These Type A figures are so similar to one another that it has been suggested that they were the production of a single " school " . Types B through E are more abstract , characterized by puffy , slit @-@ like eyes blended into the face , and broad rectangular or triangular heads . These figures are often shown seated or reclining , with shortened bulbous legs quickly tapering to a point .
The Ameca style , associated with Jalisco , is characterized by an elongated face and a high forehead which is often capped by braids or turban @-@ like headgear . The aquiline nose is also elongated and the large eyes are wide and staring , with pronounced rims created by adding separate strips of clay ( " fillets " ) around the eyes . The wide mouth is closed or slightly opened and the large hands have carefully delineated nails . Kubler detects both an early " sheep @-@ faced " style that seem " eroded or melted in the continuous passages of modelling that unite rather than divide the parts of the body " and a later style which are " more animated and more incisively articulated " .
Colima ceramics can be identified by their smooth , round forms and their warm brown @-@ red slip . Colima is particularly known for its wide range of animal , especially dog , figurines . Human subjects within the Colima style are more " mannered and less exuberant " than other shaft tomb figurines .
Other styles include El Arenal , San Sebastián , and Zacatecas . Although there is general agreement on style names and characteristics , it is not unanimous . Moreover , these styles often overlap to one degree or another , and many figurines defy categorization .
= = = Subject matter = = =
Common subjects of shaft tomb tradition ceramics are :
Ceramic tableaus showing several or even several dozen people engaged in various seemingly typical activities . Concentrated in highland Nayarit and adjoining Jalisco , these tableaus present rich ethnographic insight into funerary practices , the Mesoamerican ballgame , architecture ( most importantly perishable architecture ) , and perhaps even religious thought during the late Formative period .
Some tableaus are almost photographic in their detail and have even been associated with architecture ruins in the field .
Ceramic dogs are widely known from looted tombs in Colima . Dogs were generally believed in Mesoamerican cultures to represent soul guides of the dead and several dog ceramics wear human masks . Nonetheless , it should also be noted that dogs were often the major source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica .
Ancestor ( or marriage ) pairs of female and male figurines are common among shaft tomb tradition grave goods . These figurines , perhaps representing ancestors , may be joined or separate and often are executed in the Ixtlán del Río style .
Many shaft tomb figurines , spanning various Western Mexico styles and locations , wear a horn set high on the forehead . Several theories have been advanced for these horns : that they show that the figure is a shaman , that they are abstract conch shells ( a not uncommon shaft tomb relic ) and as such , are an emblem of rulership , or are a phallic symbol . These theories are not mutually exclusive .
= = = Uses = = =
While these ceramics were obviously recovered as grave goods , there is a question of whether they were specifically created for a mortuary rite , or whether they were used prior to burial , perhaps by the deceased . While some ceramics do show signs of wear , it is as yet unclear whether this was the exception or the rule .
= = Context = =
= = = Western Mexico cultures = = =
Considerable effort has been made connecting the shaft tomb tradition to the Teuchitlán tradition , a complex society that occupies much the same geography as the shaft tomb tradition .
Unlike the typical Mesoamerican pyramids and rectangular central plazas , the Teuchitlán tradition is marked by central circular plazas and unique conical pyramids . This circular architectural style is seemingly mirrored in the many circular shaft tomb tableau scenes . Known primarily from this architecture , the Teuchitlán tradition rises at roughly the same time as the shaft tomb tradition , 300 BCE , but lasts until 900 CE , many centuries after the end of the shaft tomb tradition . The Teuchitlán tradition appears to be an outgrowth and elaboration of the shaft tomb tradition .
= = = Mesoamerican cultures = = =
Because western Mexico is on the very periphery of Mesoamerica , it has long been considered outside the Mesoamerican mainstream and the cultures at this time appear to be particularly insulated from many mainstream Mesoamerican influences . For example , no Olmec @-@ influenced artifacts have been recovered from shaft tombs , nor are any Mesoamerican calendars or writing systems in evidence , although some Mesoamerican cultural markers , particularly the Mesoamerican ballgame , are present .
Despite this , the inhabitants of this area lived much like their Mesoamerican counterparts elsewhere . The usual trio of beans , squash , and maize was supplemented with chiles , manioc and other tubers , various grains , and with animal protein from domestic dogs , turkeys , and ducks , and from hunting . They lived in thatched roof wattle @-@ and @-@ daub houses , grew cotton and tobacco , and conducted some long @-@ distance trade in obsidian and other goods .
Shaft tombs themselves are not encountered elsewhere in Mesoamerica and their nearest counterparts come from northwestern South America .
= = = South American shaft tombs = = =
Shaft tombs also appear in northwestern South America in a somewhat later timeframe than western Mexico ( e.g. 200 @-@ 300 CE in northern Peru , later in other areas ) . To Dorothy Hosler , Professor of Archaeology and Ancient Technology at MIT , " The physical similarities between the northern South American and West Mexican tomb types are unmistakable . " while art historian George Kubler finds that the western Mexican chambers " resemble the shafted tombs of the upper Cauca river in Colombia " . However , others disagree that the similarity of form demonstrates cultural linkages — Karen Olsen Bruhns states that " this sort of contact . . . seems mainly in the ( muddled ) eye of the synthesizer " .
However , other linkages between Western Mexico and northwestern South America have been proposed , in particular the development of metallurgy . See Metallurgy in pre @-@ Columbian Mesoamerica .
= = History of scholarly research = =
The first major work to discuss artifacts associated with the shaft tomb tradition was Carl Lumholtz 's 1902 work , Unknown Mexico . Along with illustrations of several of the grave goods , the Norwegian explorer described a looted shaft tomb he had visited in 1896 . He also visited and described the ruins of Tzintzuntzan , the seat of Purépecha Empire some 150 miles ( 250 km ) to the east , and was one of the first to incorrectly use the term " Tarascan " ( Purépecha ) to describe the shaft tomb artifacts .
During the 1930s , artist Diego Rivera began accumulating many Western Mexico artifacts for his private collection , a personal interest that sparked a wider public interest in West Mexican grave goods . It was in the late 1930s that one of the most prominent of Western Mexico archaeologists , Isabel Truesdell Kelly , began her investigations . In the period from 1944 until 1985 , Kelly would eventually publish over a dozen scholarly papers on her work in this region . In 1948 , she was the first to hypothesize the existence of the " shaft tomb arc " , the geographic distribution of shaft tomb sites over western Mexico ( see map above ) .
In 1946 , Salvador Toscano challenged the attribution of shaft tomb artifacts to the Purépechans , a challenge that was echoed in 1957 by Miguel Covarrubias who firmly declared that Purépecha culture appeared only " after the 10th century " . Toscano 's and Covarrubias 's views were later upheld by radiocarbon dating of plundered shaft tombs ' charcoal and other organic remains salvaged in the 1960s by Diego Delgado and Peter Furst . As the result of these excavations and his ethnological investigations of the modern @-@ day indigenous Huichol and Cora peoples of Nayarit , Furst proposed that the artifacts were not only mere representations of ancient peoples , but also contained deeper significance . The model houses , for example , showed the living dwelling in context with the dead – a miniature cosmogram – and the horned warriors ( as discussed above ) were shaman battling mystical forces .
In 1974 , Hasso von Winning published an exhaustive classification of Western Mexico shaft tomb artifacts ( including , for example , the Chinesco A through D types mentioned above ) , a classification still largely in use today .
The 1993 discovery of an unlooted shaft tomb at Huitzilapa is the latest major milestone , providing " the most detailed information to date on the funerary customs " associated with shaft tomb tradition .
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= 3 ( Britney Spears song ) =
" 3 " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her second greatest hits album , The Singles Collection ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by Max Martin and Shellback , with additional writing from Tiffany Amber . The song was released on October 2 , 2009 by Jive Records , as the only single from The Singles Collection . " 3 " is an uptempo electropop song that features a heavy bassline and synthesizers , and lyrics that talk about threesomes , while referencing American folk @-@ singing trio Peter , Paul and Mary during the chorus as sexual slang .
" 3 " received positive appreciation from contemporary music critics , with some reviewers calling it a classic Spears song . The song achieved commercial success by topping the charts in the United States and Canada , as well as reaching the top ten in many countries around the world , including Australia , Finland , Norway , Sweden and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song debuted at number one in the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the first to debut at the top position in over three years and the first non @-@ American Idol artist in eleven years to do so . " 3 " was also the fifteenth song in the history of Billboard to debut at number one .
An accompanying music video for " 3 " , directed by Diane Martel , features Spears and her dancers in front of different black and white backgrounds . Martel described it as sexy and playful , while contemporary critics gave it positive reviews , complimenting its simplicity . A director 's cut was leaked on December 15 , 2009 . Spears has performed " 3 " during the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) and her Las Vegas residency Britney : Piece Of Me ( 2013 @-@ 2015 ) .
= = Background = =
On July 12 , 2009 , Spears confirmed through her Twitter account that she had begun recording new material , stating she was going into the studio with Swedish songwriter and producer Max Martin , while she was in Stockholm during the European leg of The Circus Starring Britney Spears . They had previously collaborated on earlier hits including " ... Baby One More Time " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " Stronger " and " If U Seek Amy " . " 3 " was written and produced by Martin and Shellback , while additional writing was done by Tiffany Amber . Spears recorded her vocals for the song with the producers at Maratone Studios . John Hanes was responsible for Spears ' vocal editing on " 3 " , which was later mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . On September 23 , 2009 , Jive Records officially announced the release of a greatest hits titled The Singles Collection through Spears 's official website , in celebration of Spears 's ten @-@ year anniversary in the music industry , also announcing the release of " 3 " as the lead single from the album . The artwork for the single was unveiled through Spears ' official website on September 28 , 2009 . " 3 " was sent to radio stations on September 29 , 2009 , while being digitally released on October 2 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" 3 " is an uptempo electropop song , which opens with synths and vocal effects . The song has a basic sequence of Fm – E ♭ – B ♭ m – Fm as its chord progression . During the middle eight , the song slows down with synthetic strings and bass beats , and the section ends with a beat similar to a four @-@ on @-@ the floor , a rhythm pattern popularized in 1970s disco music . Throughout the song , Spears ' vocals are autotuned that , according to the Daily Mail , gives the song " a futuristic , contemporary feel " .
The song 's lyrics are about threesomes . Unlike " If U Seek Amy " , the song has no double entendre and it ’ s more straightforward lyrically . The innuendo in the lyrics such as " Merrier the more , triple fun that way " have been compared to the songs in Prince ’ s 1980s studio album Dirty Mind . The chorus has been compared to a playground chant and closes with an extended moan . During the second part of the chorus , there is a reference to the folk group Peter , Paul & Mary , that in the song is used as sexual slang for a threesome . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times called the reference " the cut 's biggest oddity " .
= = Critical reception = =
" 3 " received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Monica Herrera of Billboard commented that the song " builds to a climax of wildly pulsing bass that summons fans to the dancefloor " and added that " [ it ] will be another notch in this pop provocateur 's belt " . On its online edition , Rolling Stone 's writer Daniel Kreps praised the song for its up @-@ tempo melody and racy lyrics , while comparing it to Flo Rida 's recent work , saying that " 3 " " is more of a surefire dance @-@ floor stomper than anything Brit loaded onto Blackout or Circus " . On the printed issue , the magazine gave the song four stars and called it an " instant Britney classic " . Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly called it " a fembot voice , near @-@ seizure @-@ inducing dance @-@ floor frenzy " . While crediting the production for " elevating the song above typical dance products " , the Los Angeles Times said that Spears sounded " sweetly generic " .
In his review of The Singles Collection , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic selected " 3 " as one of the " track picks " and commented , " [ it is ] much better than any of the three new cuts on My Prerogative " . Bill Lamb of About.com said that although the lyrics are controversial , " the bottom line is this is another irresistibly catchy pop confection that beats out most everything else on pop radio today " . He praised the chorus and the middle section and called the track " classic Britney " . The song was also compared to Madonna ’ s " Celebration " , since they " musically present nothing particularly new , but they do manage to encapsulate many of the elements that make the singer a star " . A.J. Mayers of MTV picked it as the eighth best song of 2009 .
= = Chart performance = =
On October 8 , 2009 , " 3 " entered at number fourteen on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 and at number thirty @-@ eight on the U.S. Billboard Pop Songs , becoming Spears ' twenty @-@ fourth career entry in the latter chart , most among all artists . The following week , the song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Spears ’ third number @-@ one single in the United States and breaking many of the chart records . It made Spears the first artist in over three years to debut at the top position and the only non @-@ American Idol artist in eleven years to do so . It was the fifteenth song in the chart history to debut at the top position and also the shortest title for a song reaching the top of the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also charted at number one on the Billboard Digital Songs , selling 255 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week and having the highest one week total of any song , since The Black Eyed Peas ' " Boom Boom Pow " back in April 2009 . As of October 2015 , " 3 " has sold 2 @.@ 4 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . It is her fourth best @-@ selling digital single in the country . In Canada , the song debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Canadian Hot 100 on October 17 , 2009 and rose up to number one the following week , making it the biggest jump to number one in the history of the chart . It was certified two times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for sales over 80 @,@ 000 copies .
" 3 " debuted at number fifty on the Australian Singles Chart on October 12 , 2009 , with only two days of digital sales . It peaked at number six on the week of October 26 , 2009 . " 3 " has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . On October 12 , 2009 , the song debuted at number sixteen in New Zealand , making it her highest chart debut since " Womanizer " . On its fifth week on the chart , " 3 " reached its peak position at number twelve . On the UK Singles Chart , " 3 " debuted at number seven on November 16 , 2009 , becoming Spears ' twentieth top ten hit on the chart . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 145 @,@ 000 copies there . " 3 " achieved similar success throughout Europe reaching the top ten in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Finland , Norway , Sweden as well as the top twenty in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) and Denmark .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed on October 5 and October 6 , 2009 in Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Diane Martel and choreographed by Tone & Rich . Fashion stylist GK Reid worked closely with Spears to design the fashion . On October 15 , 2009 , images of the video were released . A countdown , including images and video previews , was announced on her official website and the release date was revealed to be on October 30 , 2009 . When asked about the video , Diane Martel said ,
" I think it 's her next sexy video . It 's a very simple video for her – I don 't think you 've seen her this much under a magnifying glass . Everything 's really strong and playful . We collaborated on the wardrobe and had meetings about hair and makeup people , we talked a lot on the phone and met Tone and Rich — two of the best choreographers . [ .. ] [ Spears ] ' so sweet and funny and so normal and down to earth . It 's really fun as a director to see her in front of the camera . She 's so creative with this stuff . The video is very simple , it 's very , very minimal . So it 's her , her , her . And she 's totally engaging every second . She really knows how to work with a camera and move . I was really impressed , and I have worked almost with every female artist in the business " .
The video begins with Spears wearing a sparkly black dress at a dressing table , putting mascara and Circus Fantasy on . Then , it cuts to her holding her hair up and singing the first lines in front of a white background . There are also black and white scenes of her wearing a white leotard behind a foggy glass . She then appears wearing the leotard and glasses , while surrounded by four female dancers wearing black outfits , hanging from a raised barre . The word " sin " is censored and changed for the word " this " during the pre @-@ chorus . In the chorus , she dances in front of a white wall with barcode @-@ like light installations with six male dancers . There also scenes of her dancing provocatively with two male dancers . At the bridge , there are intercut close @-@ ups of her that end with a smirk . The video concludes with Spears dancing with the two male dancers and cuts to a close @-@ up of her looking into the camera .
Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps compared the video with the music video of " Single Ladies " and complimented the choreography saying Spears had not danced with so much conviction since the In the Zone era . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse likened the video 's choreography and dancer 's wardrobe to Janet Jackson 's " Feedback " video . Jocelyn Vena of MTV gave the video a positive review , stating that it 's a " sexy , fast @-@ paced clip " and that " there are a few moments in the video where Britney 's personality shines " adding that " she smiles at the song 's tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics , particularly when she finishes the song 's bridge . " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly complimented the video ’ s choice of wardrobe , but said that the video was " sparse " , adding " there ’ s not much to the single besides trite , ridiculous advocation for a ménage à trois anyway , so why would the video go any deeper ? " . The Daily Mail said the video " features Britney writhing around in scantily @-@ clad outfits with male dancers in the best way she knows how " .
On December 15 , 2009 , a director 's cut version of the video for " 3 " leaked online . Kreps commented that the new version " offers up a slightly more NSFW edit of Martel ’ s dance @-@ heavy vid that seems to find a better cadence with the music , as opposed to the original version , which was essentially filmed and edited in the matter of days to coincide with The Singles Collection release " .
= = Live performances and cover version = =
On March 25 , 2011 , Spears performed a special show at Rain Nightclub in Las Vegas . The setlist of the show consisted on three songs from her seventh studio album , Femme Fatale , including " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " . During the performance of " Big Fat Bass " , Spears wore a latex bodysuit and elements of " 3 " , " Gimme More " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " were also included . On March 27 , 2011 , " Big Fat Bass " was also performed at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 , and the same day , Spears performed the set at Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
" 3 " was performed at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . After " Up ' n Down " , Spears put on a white fedora and trench coat and performed the song with her female dancers , dressed in a similar style . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter named it one of the best performances of the show along with " Piece of Me " and " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , stating that " ironically enough , [ they ] were the ones with fewest frills . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect said " ' 3' gave way to a massive sing @-@ a @-@ long " and added that it " [ spoke ] right to the noir @-@ ish connotations of the Femme Fatale tour . However , she built a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind space where Kim Basinger 's elegant L.A. Confidential beauty becomes enveloped by edgy modern dance attitude . "
Spears is currently performing " 3 " as the third song on her Las Vegas residency , Britney : Piece of Me . After a brief talk with the audience , the singer starts a performance of the song , jumping into a triangular cage and was wheeled around by her dancers across the stage . Then , a parallel bar dropped out of the ceilling , and Spears done a choreography similar to its music video . For Billboard 's Keith Caulfield , the song " served as the sexiest jungle gym in Vegas , as Spears and her dancers undulated their way across and around the bar " . Girls ' Generation member Sunny performed a cover version of the song during the Girls ' Generation Tour that took place in 2011 and 2012 . A studio version was also released online alongside the live version featuring on the tour album .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead and background vocals
Max Martin – songwriting , production , keyboards
Shellback – songwriting , production , keyboards , guitars
Serban Ghenea – mixing
Tim Roberts – assistant engineer
John Hanes – vocal editing
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Kingdom Hearts χ =
Kingdom Hearts χ ( キングダム ハーツ キー , Kingudamu Hātsu Kī ) , stylized as Kingdom Hearts χ [ chi ] , is a Japanese role @-@ playing browser game developed by Square Enix and Success Corporation , and published by Square Enix for web browsers as the eighth installment in the Kingdom Hearts series . Gameplay involves players navigating a customized avatar through Disney @-@ inspired worlds fighting enemies , along with taking down bosses in multiplayer matches in competition with other teams .
Kingdom Hearts χ is a prequel to the Kingdom Hearts series as a whole , set 100 years before the events of Kingdom Hearts . It takes place before the Keyblade War , which established the organization of the Kingdom Hearts universe as of the original game . The player assumes the role of a Keyblade wielder who joins one of five factions led by Keyblade Masters fighting for control of the limited Light existing in the world . The game 's plot is connected to Kingdom Hearts III , the next main entry in the series . The title refers to the legendary χ @-@ blade , a weapon central to the series ' story arc .
The game was designed as a playing experience that newcomers to the series could come to . Its presentation was compared to that of a fairy tale , as depicting the usual style of the series would have been difficult on the platform . Both Tetsuya Nomura and Yoko Shimomura , veterans from the main series , returned as director and composer respectively . Since release , the game has received favorable opinions from players .
= = Gameplay = =
Kingdom Hearts χ is a role @-@ playing video game set in the universe of Kingdom Hearts which includes original characters and locations as well as ones from Disney and Final Fantasy media properties . Before beginning , players create their own character . Players can customize the gender , hair , and clothing , and choose accessories themed after both Square Enix and Disney universes present in the Kingdom Hearts series . Story missions are unlocked by the player . After a certain amount of the available content has been completed , new story missions become available . Players navigate their surroundings by dragging their cursor across the screen . Players navigate different worlds defeating monsters known as the Heartless . The base game is free to play , with optional microtransactions . Actions use up AP , which can be replenished by either waiting or by using potions , which can be earned or bought . Rare items such as special cards can also be purchased . Alongside the single @-@ player mode , there is a multiplayer mode where teams of players take on Raid Bosses , gigantic Heartless with high HP .
Enemies appear on @-@ screen , and can be engaged by clicking on them . During the player 's turn , three cards are randomly drawn from a deck of nine , each resulting in an attack . If the cards ' combined strength and attached skills are insufficient to exhaust the enemy 's HP , the heartless will counterattack . If the player survives this attack , or continues by spending additional AP , a new turn begins . Upon defeating an enemy , the player earns Lux , experience points , and Munny , an in @-@ game currency . The player also earns Fragments , cards based on the characters original to the Kingdom Hearts series and those from Disney and Final Fantasy franchises : the fragments are imbued with different properties depending on the character , such as physical or elemental strikes . Players can level up their cards to improve their attack and defense . Players can strengthen their Keyblade using materials found in each world , and new Keyblades are acquired as the story progresses . Each strengthens different types of cards - for example , Starlight is an all @-@ around Keyblade offering boosts for Power- , Speed- and Magic @-@ type cards , while the Snow White @-@ inspired Treasure Trove is Power @-@ type focused .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Kingdom Hearts χ is set before the legendary Keyblade War , when disputes between Keyblade wielders over the Light that created the world sparked a war between Light and Darkness , triggering a calamity that created the world of Kingdom Hearts as seen in the first game in the series . Prior to the war , an unnamed Keyblade Master bestowed a book called the Tome of Prophecy to five of his six apprentices before disappearing . The Tome has the ability to predict and even manifest objects and people from the future . The five apprentices learned of a prophecy foretelling the world falling to Darkness and the Light being destroyed . In order to prevent this , each of the apprentices decided to attempt to prevent the prophecy from coming true . As part of their efforts , they used the Tome to manifest powerful warriors from the future as the Fragments . Each eventually begins hoarding pieces of Light , called Lux , from the monsters known as Heartless , and each creates their own factions themed around their individual animal icon : Ursus , Anguis , Unicornus , Leopardus , and Vulpeus . The player character , a newly awakened Keyblade Wielder , chooses to support one of the factions and works to ensure the chosen faction 's supremacy . The story serves as a prequel to the Keyblade War , which all other Kingdom Hearts games occur after .
= = = Story = = =
Kingdom Hearts χ opens in pop @-@ up book format , showing Kairi and her grandmother in Radiant Garden while Kairi is told a story about the Light and the Darkness . The narrative switches to the distant past where a newly awakened Keyblade wielder , who is controlled by the player , is given a choice of joining one of five factions or " unions " known as Anguis , Leopardos , Unicornis , Ursus and Vulpeus . Once the player chooses , they are brought to Daybreak Town and assaulted by an army of Heartless coming through a portal . Before the player is overwhelmed , however , a powerful Keyblade wielder known as a Foreteller arrives and pursues the Heartless back through their portal . A cat @-@ like creature named Chirithy , which had been accompanying the Foreteller , befriends the player 's character and explains their destiny . The player must use their Keyblade to collect Light and stop the Heartless from conquering every world and spreading Darkness . Chirithy also reveals he has been tasked by the Foreteller to aid the player in his training , and part of that process is the finding of powerful cards called Fragments to augment their power .
After exploring the area and defeating several Heartless , the player is approached by the Foreteller , who tells them that defeating weaker Heartless is possible to do alone , but they will need others help to defeat more powerful opponents . The Foreteller also describes how many others are collecting light as well , though some may secretly be doing to to gain power instead of fighting the Darkness , and the player must decide who to trust . Chirithy then encourages the player to explore other worlds and help rid them of the Heartless before it is too late . The player then visits the illusion future visions of Disney worlds , where they interact with the locals and help defeat the hoards of Heartless . The player is brought to each world under Chirithy 's direction , and together the two characters search for the origin of the Darkness . As the player succeeds in defeating the forces of evil , Chirithy begins to reveal the full extent of his knowledge regarding the war between Light and Darkness . Chirithy remembers being born in a place of Light , with his creator smiling upon him in the beginning . The creator would later vanish , but before doing so he renamed six of his followers and gave five of them a prophecy of the future . The five , later known as the Foretellers , were shocked to discover that the future ended with a great battle in which the Light would be defeated and the eternal reign of Darkness would begin . To save the future , the Foretellers began to use the hidden powers within the written copy of the prophesy known as the Book of Prophesies ( which creates the future worlds that the players travel to ) . Through this book , the Foretellers traveled to the future to grow more powerful and save the Light from final defeat . The power retrieved from the future is manifested as the Cards the player gathers to grow stronger .
As the player moves from world to world driving out the Heartless , they return to Daybreak Town where they meet another Keyblade wielder named Ephemera , who is part of a rival union . He wishes to explore a mysterious tower that lies within the center of the town , and against Chirithy 's wishes , the player agrees to help find a way in . Ephemera , however , abandons the player to explore the tower himself . During the player 's exploration , the tower is discovered to be the base of the Foretellers and while there , the player is confronted by Master Ava , the Foreteller they had met previously . She challenges the player to test their strength , and afterwards tells the player they have sadness in their hearts which links them to the Darkness . Undeterred , the player continues their mission and later meets another Keyblade wielder named Skuld who comes from Ephemera 's union . She expresses an interest in further exploring the mysterious tower of the Foretellers . She and the player encounter warring Foretellers from different unions and new kinds of Heartless that are revealed to be corrupted Keyblade wielders as well as a dark vision of Chirithy .
To further understand the mysteries of the Foretellers and the future , the player , Chirithy , and Skuld re @-@ enter the Foretellers tower where they are caught by a Foreteller . They are also told that Ephemera was a traitor to his Union and that he has disappeared . The player then challenges the Foreteller to a duel , assuming Ephemera has been captured , but is easily defeated . The Foreteller reveals that she is in fact Master Ava , and that the player 's quest was a test of their character to see if they are worthy of leaving this world before the Great War between Light and Darkness . Keyblade wielders that can resist the Darkness and fight for what they believe in , like their friends , are worthy of becoming elite Keyblade warriors known as Dandelions and going on to the World of Light and avoiding the coming universal war . All who stay will become a part of that war and must face an uncertain future . Skuld accepts the offer , but the player 's character is uncertain if they should join Ephemera , who has gone on to the World of Light , or stay and fight to save the future . The story continues without revealing their choice . Later , they encounter two Keyblade warriors accusing each other of stealing Lux from their Unions and the player is forced to fight Master Aced and loses . Another Foreteller named Ira arrives to stop the fighting . Aced claims that he is collecting more Keyblade warriors to prepare for the upcoming war before leaving . Ira informs the player , Skuld , and Chirithy that this war can 't be avoided and there will be no winner . The only Foreteller who may have a solution is Gula so the trio go to look for him . When Gula is found , he reveals that the only one who can change this is the Master , the Foreteller 's mentor , who had disappeared recently along with the sixth apprentice , Luxu . Meanwhile , Ava tracks down Luxu , who had been ordered to watch the place by the Master . He reveals that he wants to move forward to see the end of the upcoming Keyblade war after discovering what happens in the " Lost Page " in the Book of Prophesies , also revealing that he is the one turning the unions against one another .
= = Development = =
Kingdom Hearts χ was co @-@ directed by Tetsuya Nomura , one of the series ' creators , and Tatsuya Kando , who had previous directed Nintendo DS game The World Ends with You . The game 's music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , a regular contributor to the series ' music . The game was co @-@ developed by Square Enix and Japanese studio Success Corporation . Square Enix originally handled the planning and design itself , but due to their developers inexperience with creating browser games , development was transferred to the Success Corporation , who were familiar with the process . Despite multiplayer elements being included , the game was " fundamentally single @-@ player " , as with most other entries in the series . Chirithy , the player characters ' companion , was designed around the concept of a supportive yet unobtrusive guide . Nomura based the characters design on the Scottish Fold domestic cat .
Due to difficulties that arose adapting the core Kingdom Hearts experience into a browser game , the presentation was designed in a fairy tale @-@ style instead of the locations encountered previously by series protagonists Sora and Riku . And because the game was to be played with a mouse instead of a game controller , the gameplay focus became simple controls and " flashy " battles . In an interview , Nomura stated that the work on developing Kingdom Hearts χ was paused for a time so developers could work on Kingdom Hearts III . He also stated that at the time they were exploring ways to allow more fans of the series to experience the game . The stories of Kingdom Hearts χ and Kingdom Hearts III were both written at the same time , and thus share a strong connection . Despite this strong link , it was described by Tetsuya Nomura as a title where story was not the focus , and that its content was completely separate from the main series , making it accessible for newcomers . The game 's title refers to the χ @-@ blade ( chi @-@ blade ) , the original Keyblade and a weapon central to the Kingdom Hearts storyline .
= = Release = =
The game was first announced at the Tokyo Game Show on September 20 , 2012 alongside Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix under the tentative title Kingdom Hearts for PC Browsers . Its official title was announced in February the following year . To promote the game , codes for special items and in @-@ game currency were included with first @-@ print copies of Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . A closed beta for the title began on March 22 , 2013 , with Beta recruitment beginning on March 13 . The test was available for users who had a Yahoo Japan ID , and included in @-@ game items and currency as a starting gift . An open beta test began on July 9 , 2013 , and the game 's official service began on July 18 of the same year . Since the original release , the game received constant updates to its story missions , providing additional content to players . In April 2016 , Square Enix announced that the browser game would be discontinued in September 2016 .
= = Reception = =
By September 2013 , 200 @,@ 000 users were announced to have enrolled for the game . During the 2013 WebMoney Awards , Kingdom Hearts χ was among the games voted into the " Best Rookie of the Year Good Games " category , with most voters praising the game for being accessible to series newcomers , and fun to play . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku was generally positive , saying that despite it being similar to other Japanese browser games and using a micro @-@ transaction system , it was " an enjoyable little time waster . "
= = Kingdom Hearts Unchained χ = =
A updated version of the game was released for mobile devices under the title Kingdom Hearts Unchained χ . It shares multiple gameplay features with its browser counterpart : the main exception is that this version is tailored for a touch screen . The ability to travel freely between different Disney worlds is also replaced with a stage system . These stages , called quests , are confined to specific areas of specific worlds . Instead of spending AP on individual actions , AP is paid to start a quest , and the player can attack as many enemies , collect as many materials , and open as many chests as he or she can find before defeating a target Heartless . If the player 's HP is fully depleted , a choice is offered between forfeiting all progress in the quest or continuing to fight by spending Jewels , a new general @-@ purpose in @-@ game currency . Lux is considered another name for character @-@ leveling experience points . Clothing , hair , and accessories are obtained through Avatar Boards , which each contain an array of nodes on branching pathways . These nodes are unlocked , in set sequences , with Avatar Coins , and may also yield such benefits as increased limits for AP and HP . Cards from the browser version are here replaced by Medals , which are no longer drawn randomly in battle . Instead , each equipped Medal is presented one at a time , and the player is given the choice of attacking one enemy , attacking all enemies ( dealing less damage ) , or using the special attack granted by the Medal ( provided the Keyblade 's special attack gauges are sufficiently filled ) . Medals can be combined with matching Medals to improve their special attacks .
The creation of a mobile version of the game was decided upon while the browser version was still being developed . Nomura initially planned to release both titles simultaneously , with each being updated individually . However , as development went on , the teams efforts became focused on finishing Kingdom Hearts χ , and development on Unchained was halted . The original plan was to make the game a simpler version of its browser counterpart , but with the increasing specs of mobile devices , the workload increased , contributing to the halt to development . As mobile devices employ a different control set @-@ up to web browsers , Unchained could not work simply as a port of Kingdom Hearts χ . Its title " Unchained " signified the gameplay and story of Kingdom Hearts χ being released into a mobile format . One of the changes instituted during the games mobile remake was to make the gameplay more " casual " than Kingdom Hearts χ , with battles being shorter and potentially easier .
Disney Interactive was forced to delay a western localization of the game when the game 's publisher Playdom , a social game network owned by Disney , was shut down . Despite this , planning continued for a western release with playtesting taking place to improve upon the game before launch . The western localization was revealed to the public with the title Kingdom Hearts Unchained X at the 2015 Electronic Entertainment Expo . Unchained χ was released in Japan on September 3 , 2015 , in North America on April 7 , 2016 , and in Europe on June 16 , 2016 .
= = = Reception = = =
Kingdom Hearts χ Unchained received mixed reviews . It received an aggregated score of 73 @.@ 33 % on GameRankings and 70 / 100 on Metacritic . AV Club praised the game for being a true Kingdom Hearts title despite its free to play format . Touch Arcade gave the game three out of five stars , praising the music and graphics while calling the gameplay shallow with an overcomplicated user interface . Gamezebo called the title " better than expected " , citing the games fun but simple combat and extensive character customization but critiquing the games dialogue for being cheesy and the story for being weaker than the console Kingdom Hearts titles . In the month after it was released , the mobile version was downloaded over two million times .
= = HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue = =
In September 2015 , Square Enix announced a new game entitled Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . The collection features Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover , which will tell the tale of the Foretellers and reveal new parts of the series ' history in the form of a one hour cinematic video . It will be released worldwide in December 2016 .
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= Scotland in the Late Middle Ages =
Scotland in the Late Middle Ages , between the deaths of Alexander III in 1286 and James IV in 1513 , established its independence from England under figures including William Wallace in the late 13th century and Robert Bruce in the 14th century . In the 15th century under the Stewart Dynasty , despite a turbulent political history , the Crown gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords and regained most of its lost territory to approximately the modern borders of the country . However , the Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 and the death of the king James IV , which would be followed by a long minority and a period of political instability .
The economy of Scotland developed slowly in this period and a population of perhaps a little under a million by the middle of the 14th century began to decline after the arrival of the Black Death , falling to perhaps half a million by the beginning of the 16th century . Different social systems and cultures developed in the lowland and highland regions of the country as Gaelic remained the most common language north of the Tay and Middle Scots dominated in the south , where it became the language of the ruling elite , government and a new national literature . There were significant changes in religion which saw mendicant friars and new devotions expand , particularly in the developing burghs .
By the end of the period Scotland had adopted many of the major tenets of the European Renaissance in art , architecture and literature and produced a developed educational system . This period has been seen one in which a clear national identity emerged in Scotland , as well as significant distinctions between different regions of the country which would be particularly significant in the period of the Reformation .
= = Political history = =
= = = Wars of Independence 1286 – 1371 = = =
= = = = John = = = =
The death of king Alexander III in 1286 , and the subsequent death of his granddaughter and heir Margaret ( called " the Maid of Norway " ) in 1290 , left 14 rivals for succession . To prevent civil war the Scottish magnates asked Edward I of England to arbitrate . He extracted legal recognition that the realm of Scotland was held as a feudal dependency to the throne of England before choosing John Balliol , the man with the strongest claim , who became king as John I ( 30 November 1292 ) . Robert Bruce of Annandale , the next strongest claimant , accepted this outcome with reluctance . Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained to systematically undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland . In 1295 John , on the urgings of his chief councillors , entered into an alliance with France , the beginning of the Auld Alliance .
In 1296 Edward invaded Scotland , deposing King John . The following year William Wallace and Andrew Murrey raised forces to resist the occupation and under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge . Murrey died of wounds after the battle and for a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm . Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk . Wallace escaped but probably resigned as Guardian of Scotland . In 1305 he fell into the hands of the English , who executed him for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England .
= = = = Robert I = = = =
Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce , grandson of the claimant Robert Bruce of Annandale , were appointed as joint guardians in Wallace 's place . On 10 February 1306 , Bruce participated in the murder of Comyn , at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries . Less than seven weeks later , on 25 March Bruce was crowned as king Robert I at Scone . However , Edward 's forces overran the country after defeating Bruce 's small army at the Battle of Methven . Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V , his support grew ; and by 1314 , with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and the Earl of Moray , only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control . Edward I had died in 1307 and his heir Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control . They were defeated by forces under Robert I at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 , securing de facto independence .
In 1320 the Declaration of Arbroath , a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland , helped to convince Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland 's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties . The Declaration has also been seen as one of the most important documents in the development of a Scottish national identity . Robert 's brother Edward Bruce carried out a series of campaigns against English forces in Ireland and was declared High King . The campaigns in Ireland , although ultimately unsuccessful , opened the prospect of what has been characterised as " Pan @-@ Gaelic Greater Scotia " under the Bruce dynasty . Robert 's forces carried out a series of raids of Northern England , defeating an English army in 1327 at the Battle of Stanhope Park . Robert 's victories contributed to the deposition of Edward II and Robert was able to take advantage of the minority of his son Edward III to secure the Treaty of Edinburgh @-@ Northampton , signed in May 1328 , which recognised Scotland as an independent kingdom , and Bruce as its king .
= = = = David II = = = =
Robert I died in 1329 , leaving his five @-@ year @-@ old son to reign as David II . During his minority , the country was ruled by a series of governors , two of whom died as a result of a renewed invasion by English forces from 1332 . This was on the pretext of restoring Edward Balliol , son of John Balliol , to the Scottish throne , thus starting the Second War of Independence . Despite victories at Dupplin Moor ( 1332 ) and Halidon Hill ( 1333 ) , in the face of tough Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray , the son of Wallace 's comrade in arms , successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed . Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protege after the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War with France . In 1341 David was able to return from temporary exile in France . In 1346 under the terms of the Auld Alliance , he invaded England in the interests of France , but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville 's Cross on 17 October 1346 and would remain in England as a prisoner for 11 years . His cousin Robert Stewart ruled as guardian in his absence . Balliol finally resigned his claim to the throne to Edward in 1356 , before retiring to Yorkshire , where he died in 1364 .
Without swearing allegiance to Edward III , David was released for a ransom of 100 @,@ 000 marks in 1357 , but he was unable to pay , resulting in secret negotiations with the English and attempts to secure succession to the Scottish throne for an English king . Major issues were his marriages and the failure to produce an heir . His first wife , Joan , the sister of Edward III , left him for England sometime after his return and she died without children in 1362 . His planned second marriage to Margaret , the widow of the knight Sir John Logie , resulted in a factional division that alienated nobles including Robert Steward . Eventually the king backed the queen 's opponents and attempted to divorce her . She fled to the continent and appealed to the Pope for support . Before he could marry again David died , apparently unexpectedly , bringing the Bruce dynasty to an end .
= = = The Stewarts 1371 – 1513 = = =
= = = = Robert II , Robert III and James I = = = =
After the unexpected death of the childless David II , Robert Stewart , the first of the Stewart ( later Stuart ) monarchs , came to the throne in 1371 . Despite his relatively venerable age of 55 , his son , John , Earl of Carrick , grew impatient and assumed the reins of government as Lord Lieutenant . A border incursion into England led to the victory at Otterburn in 1388 , but at the cost of the life of John 's ally James Douglas , 2nd Earl of Douglas . This , along with Carrick having suffered a debilitating horse kick , led to a shift in power to his brother Robert Stewart , Earl of Fife , who now was appointed as Lieutenant in his place . When Robert II died in 1390 John took the regnal name Robert III , to avoid awkward questions over the exact status of the first King John , but power rested with his brother Robert , now Duke of Albany . After the suspicious death of his elder son , David , Duke of Rothesay in 1402 , Robert , fearful for the safety of his younger son , James ( the future James I ) , sent him to France in 1406 . However , the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom . As a result , after the death of Robert III later that year , regents ruled Scotland : first Albany and after his death in 1420 his son Murdoch , during whose term of office the country suffered considerable unrest .
When the Scots finally began the ransom payments in 1424 , James , aged 32 , returned with his English bride , Joan Beaufort , determined to assert this authority . He revoked grants from customs and of lands made during his captivity , undermining the position of those who had gained in his absence , particularly the Albany Stewarts . James had Murdoch and two of his sons tried and then executed with further enforcement of his authority by more arrests and forfeiture of lands . In 1436 he attempted to regain one of the major border fortresses still in English hands at Roxburgh , but the siege ended in a humiliating defeat . He was murdered by discontented council member Robert Graham and his co @-@ conspirators near the Blackfriars church , Perth in 1437 .
= = = = James II = = = =
The assassination left the king 's seven @-@ year @-@ old son to reign as James II . After the execution of a number of suspected conspirators , leadership fell to Archibald Douglas , 5th Earl of Douglas , as lieutenant @-@ general of the realm . After his death in 1439 , power was shared uneasily between the Douglas family , William , 1st Lord Crichton , Lord Chancellor of Scotland and Sir Alexander Livingston of Callendar . A conspiracy to break the power of the Douglas family led to the " Black Dinner " at Edinburgh Castle in 1440 , which saw the judicial murder of the young William Douglas , 6th Earl of Douglas and his brother by Livingstone and Crichton . The main beneficiary was the victims ' great uncle James Douglas , Earl of Avondale who became the 7th Earl of Douglas and emerged as the main power in the government .
In 1449 James II was declared to have reached his majority , but the Douglases consolidated their position and the king began a long struggle for power , leading to the murder of the 8th Earl of Douglas at Stirling Castle on 22 February 1452 . This opened an intermittent civil war as James attempted to seize Douglas lands , punctuated by a series of humiliating reversals . Gradually James managed to win over the allies of the Douglases with offers of lands , titles and offices and the Douglases ' forces were finally defeated at the Battle of Arkinholm on 12 May 1455 . Once independent , James II proved to be an active and interventionist king . He travelled the country dispensing justice and some of the unpopular policies of the following reign , such as the sale of pardons , may have originated in this period . Ambitious plans to take Orkney , Shetland and the Isle of Man came to nothing . His attempt to take Roxburgh from the English in 1460 succeeded , but at the cost of his life as he was killed by an exploding artillery piece .
= = = = James III = = = =
James II 's son , aged nine or ten , became king as James III , and his widow Mary of Gueldres acted as regent until her own death three years later . The Boyd family , led by Robert , Lord Boyd , emerged as the leading force in the government , making themselves unpopular through self @-@ aggrandisement , with Lord Robert 's son Thomas being made Earl of Arran and marrying the king 's sister , Mary . While Robert and Thomas were out of the country in 1469 the king asserted his control , executing members of the Boyd family . His foreign policy included a rapprochement with England , with his eldest son , the future James IV , being betrothed to Cecily of York , the daughter of Edward IV of England , a change of policy that was immensely unpopular at home .
During the 1470s conflict developed between the king and his brothers , Alexander , Duke of Albany and John , Earl of Mar. Mar died suspiciously in 1480 and his estates were forfeited and possibly given to a royal favourite , Robert Cochrane . Albany fled to France in 1479 , accused of treason . By this point the alliance with England was failing and from 1480 there was intermittent war , followed by a full @-@ scale invasion of Scotland two years later , led by the Duke of Gloucester , the future Richard III , and accompanied by Albany . James was imprisoned by his own subjects in Edinburgh Castle , and Albany was established as lieutenant @-@ general . Having taken Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed the English retreated and Albany 's government began to collapse forcing him to flee . Despite conspiracies and more attempts at invasion , James was able to regain power . However , the king managed to alienate the barons , refusing to travel for the implementation of justice , preferring to be resident in Edinburgh , he debased the coinage , probably creating a financial crisis , he continued to pursue an English alliance and dismissed key supporters , including his Chancellor Colin Campbell , 1st Earl of Argyll , becoming estranged from his wife , Margaret of Denmark , and his son James . Matters came to a head in 1488 when he faced an army raised by the disaffected nobles , and many former councillors , acting in the name of the prince as James IV . He was defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn and killed .
= = = = James IV = = = =
James IV was 15 when he came to the throne , but soon proved a capable and independent minded ruler , whose reign is often considered to have seen a flowering of Scottish culture under the influence of the European Renaissance . He took a direct interest in the administration of justice and frequently moved his court in legal circuits of justice ayres . He defeated a major Northern rebellion , mainly of supporters of the murdered James III . It began in Dunbarton in 1489 , led by the Earl of Lennox and Lord Lyle and spreading through the North . James is credited with finally bringing the Lordship of the Isles under control . He forcing through the forfeiture of the lands of the last lord John MacDonald in 1493 , backing Alexander Gordon , 3rd Earl of Huntly 's power in the region and launching a series of naval campaigns and sieges that resulted in the capture or exile of his rivals by 1507 .
For a time he supported Perkin Warbeck , the pretender to the English throne , and carried out a brief invasion of England on his behalf in 1496 . However , he then established good diplomatic relations with England , and in 1502 signed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace , marrying Henry VII 's daughter , Margaret Tudor , thus laying the foundation for the 17th century Union of the Crowns . Animosity with Henry VIII of England helped prompt the renewal of the Auld Alliance in 1512 . When the Pope organised a Holy League , which included England , against the French in 1511 , James was caught between incompatible diplomatic policies . He tried to suggest an unrealistic European Crusade to Constantinople , but after border skirmishing , when the French were attacked by the English he declared war on England and was excommunicated by the Pope . He sent his navy and gunners to support the French and in 1513 led a major army of perhaps 34 @,@ 000 over the border . After using his formidable artillery train to take Norham Castle he marched south , where the invasion was stopped decisively on 9 September 1513 at the Battle of Flodden . The King , many of his nobles , and a large number of ordinary troops were killed , commemorated by the song " The Floo 'ers o ' the Forest " . Once again Scotland 's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V.
= = Geography = =
The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the lowlands in the south and east . The highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which the border with England came to run by the end of the period . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width and , because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional medieval government . However , the Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . This provided Scotland with a form of protection , as minor English incursions had to cross the difficult southern uplands and the two major attempts at conquest by the English , under Edward I and then Edward III , were unable to penetrate the highlands , from which area potential resistance could reconquer the lowlands . However , it also made those areas problematic to govern for Scottish kings and much of the political history of the era after the wars of independence circulated around attempts to resolve problems of entrenched localism in these regions .
It was in the later medieval era that the borders of Scotland reached approximately their modern extent . The Isle of Man fell under English control in the 14th century , despite several attempts to restore Scottish authority . The English were able to annexe a large slice of the lowlands under Edward III , but these losses were gradually regained , particularly while England was preoccupied with the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) . In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III married Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry . However , in 1482 Berwick , a border fortress and the largest port in medieval Scotland , fell to the English once again , for what was to be the final change of hands .
= = Demography = =
Because medieval Scotland lacked the intrusive government and growing bureaucracy that can be found in contemporaneous England , there is very little evidence on which to base reliable estimates of population before the early 18th century . On the basis that it had roughly a sixth of the farmable land of England , it has been suggested that the population would have been of a similar proportion , probably a little less than a million at its height before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 . Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague , there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the 15th century . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later clearances and the industrial revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of fifty burghs that existed at the beginning of the period , mainly in the east and south . It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many would be much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the era .
= = Economy = =
= = = Agriculture = = =
Scotland is roughly half the size of England and Wales , but has only between a fifth and a sixth of the amount of the arable or good pastoral land , making marginal pastoral farming and , with its extensive coastline , fishing , the key factors in the medieval economy . With difficult terrain , poor roads and methods of transport there was little trade between different areas of the country and most settlements depended on what was produced locally , often with very little in reserve in bad years . Most farming was based on the lowland farmtoun or highland baile , settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams , allocated in run rigs to tenant farmers . They usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land , helping to offset some of the problems of extreme weather conditions . This land was divided into the infield , which was in continuous arable cultivation , and the outfield which was rotated between arable and grass . Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron coulter , pulled by oxen , who were more effective and cheaper to feed than horses . Obligations to the local lord usually included supplying oxen for ploughing the lord 's land on an annual basis and the much resented obligation to grind corn at the lord 's mill . The rural economy appears to have boomed in the 13th century and in the immediate aftermath of the Black Death was still buoyant , but by the 1360s there was a severe falling off of incomes , which can be seen in clerical benefices , of between a third and half compared with the beginning of the era . This was followed by a slow recovery in the 15th century .
= = = Burghs = = =
Most of the burghs were on the east coast , and among them were the largest and wealthiest , including Aberdeen , Perth and Edinburgh , whose growth was facilitated by trade with the continent . Although in the southwest Glasgow was beginning to develop and Ayr and Kirkcudbright had occasional links with Spain and France , sea trade with Ireland was much less profitable . In addition to the major royal burghs this era saw the proliferation of lesser baronial and ecclesiastical burghs , with 51 being created between 1450 and 1516 . Most of these were much smaller than their royal counterparts ; excluded from international trade , they mainly acted as local markets and centres of craftsmanship . In general burghs probably carried out far more local trading with their hinterlands , relying on them for food and raw materials . The wool trade was a major export at the beginning of the period , but the introduction of sheep @-@ scab was a serious blow to the trade and it began to decline as an export from the early 15th century and despite a levelling off , there was another drop in exports as the markets collapsed in the early @-@ 16th century Low Countries . Unlike in England , this did not prompt the Scots to turn to large scale cloth production and only poor quality rough cloths seem to have been significant .
= = = Crafts , industry and trade = = =
There were relatively few developed crafts in Scotland in this period , although by the later 15th century there were the beginnings of a native iron casting industry , which led to the production of cannon , and of the silver and goldsmithing for which the country would later be known . As a result , the most important exports were unprocessed raw materials , including wool , hides , salt , fish , animals and coal , while Scotland remained frequently short of wood , iron and , in years of bad harvests , grain . Exports of hides and particularly salmon , where the Scots held a decisive advantage in quality over their rivals , appear to have held up much better than wool , despite the general economic downturn in Europe in the aftermath of the plague . The growing desire among the court , lords , upper clergy and wealthier merchants for luxury goods that largely had to be imported led to a chronic shortage of bullion . This , and perennial problems in royal finance , led to several debasements of the coinage , with the amount of silver in a penny being cut to almost a fifth between the late 14th century and the late 15th century . The heavily debased " black money " introduced in 1480 had to be withdrawn two years later and may have helped fuel a financial and political crisis .
= = Society = =
= = = Kinship and clans = = =
The fundamental social bond in late medieval Scottish society was that of kinship . Descent was agnatic , with members of a group sharing a ( sometimes fictional ) common ancestor , in the south often reflected in a common surname . Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic ( derived through both males and females ) , women retained their original surname at marriage and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship . As a result , a shared surname has been seen as a " test of kinship " , proving large bodies of kin who could call on each other ’ s support and this could help intensify the idea of the feud , which was usually carried out as a form of revenge for a kinsman and for which a large bodies of kin could be counted on to support rival sides , although conflict between members of kin groups also occurred .
The combination of agnatic kinship and a feudal system of obligation has been seen as creating the highland clan system , evident in records from the 13th century . Surnames were rare in the highlands until the 17th and 18th centuries and in the Middle Ages all members of a clan did not share a name and most ordinary members were usually not related to its head . The head of a clan in the beginning of the era was often the strongest male in the main sept or branch of the clan , but later , as primogeniture began to dominate , was usually the eldest son of the last chief . The leading families of a clan formed the fine , often seen as equivalent to lowland gentlemen , providing council in peace and leadership in war , and below them were the daoine usisle ( in Gaelic ) or tacksmen ( in Scots ) , who managed the clan lands and collected the rents . In the isles and along the adjacent western seaboard there were also buannachann , who acted as a military elite , defending the clan lands from raids or taking part in attacks on clan enemies . Most of the followers of the clan were tenants , who supplied labour to the clan heads and sometimes act as soldiers . In the early modern era they would take the clan name as their surname , turning the clan into a massive , if often fictive , kin group .
= = = Social structure = = =
In the late medieval era the terminology used to describe the different ranks of Scottish social structure was increasingly dominated by the Scots language and as a result began to parallel the terminology used in England . This consciousness over status was reflected in military and ( from 1430 ) sumptuary legislation , which set out the types of weapons and armour that should be maintained , and clothes that could be worn , by various ranks . Below the king were a small number of dukes ( usually descended from very close relatives of the king ) and earls , who formed the senior nobility . Below them were the barons , and , from the 1440s , fulfilling the same role were the lords of Parliament , the lowest level of the nobility with the rank @-@ given right to attend the Estates . There were perhaps 40 to 60 of these in Scotland throughout the period . Members of these noble ranks , perhaps particularly those that had performed military or administrative service to the Crown , might also be eligible for the status of knighthood . Below these were the lairds , roughly equivalent to the English gentlemen . Most were in some sense in the service of the major nobility , either in terms of land or military obligations , roughly half sharing with them their name and a distant and often uncertain form of kinship . Serfdom died out in Scotland in the 14th century , although through the system of courts baron landlords still exerted considerable control over their tenants . Below the lords and lairds were a variety of groups , often ill @-@ defined . These included yeomen , sometimes called " bonnet lairds " , often owning substantial land , and below them the husbandmen , lesser landholders and free tenants that made up the majority of the working population . Society in the burghs was headed by wealthier merchants , who often held local office as a burgess , alderman , bailies or as a member of the council . A small number of these successful merchants were dubbed knights for their service by the king by the end of the era , although this seems to have been an exceptional form of civic knighthood that did not put them on a par with landed knights . Below them were craftsmen and workers that made up the majority of the urban population .
= = = Social conflict = = =
Historians have noted considerable political conflict in the burghs between the great merchants and craftsmen throughout the period . Merchants attempted to prevent lower crafts and gilds from infringing on their trade , monopolies and political power . Craftsmen attempted to emphasise their importance and to break into disputed areas of economic activity , setting prices and standards of workmanship . In the 15th century a series of statutes cemented the political position of the merchants , with limitations on the ability of residents to influence the composition of burgh councils and many of the functions of regulation taken on by the bailies . In rural society historians have noted a lack of evidence of widespread unrest similar to that evidenced the Jacquerie of 1358 in France and the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 in England , possibly because there was relatively little of the type of change in agriculture , like the enclosure of common land , that could create widespread resentment before the modern era . Instead a major factor was the willingness of tenants to support their betters in any conflict in which they were involved , for which landlords reciprocated with charity and support . Highland and border society acquired a reputation for lawless activity , particularly the feud . However , more recent interpretations have pointed to the feud as a means of preventing and speedily resolving disputes by forcing arbitration , compensation and resolution .
= = Government = =
= = = The Crown = = =
The Crown was at the centre of government in late medieval Scotland . The unification of the kingdom , the spread of Anglo @-@ Norman custom , the development of a European trading economy and Robert I 's success in achieving independence from England , all did much to build up the prestige of the institution . However , its authority within the kingdom was not unchallenged , not least from the many semi @-@ independent lordships and it endured a series of crisis , particularly frequent minorities and resulting regencies . All of this , in addition to the relative poverty of the kingdom and the lack of a system of regular taxation , helped to limit the scale of central administration and government . Much more than the English monarchy , the Scottish court remained a largely itinerant institution , with the king moving between royal castles , particularly Perth and Stirling , but also holding judicial sessions throughout the kingdom , with Edinburgh only beginning to emerge as the capital in the reign of James III at the cost of considerable unpopularity . Like most western European monarchies , the Scottish Crown in the 15th century adopted the example of the Burgundian court , through formality and elegance putting itself at the centre of culture and political life , defined with display , ritual and pageantry , reflected in elaborate new palaces and patronage of the arts .
= = = Privy Council = = =
After the Crown the most important government institution was the Privy Council , composed of the king 's closest advisers , but which , unlike in England , retained legislative and judicial powers . It was relatively small , with normally less than 10 members in a meeting , some of whom were nominated by Parliament , particularly during the many minorities of the era , as a means of limiting the power of a regent . The council was a virtually full @-@ time institution by the late 15th century , and surviving records from the period indicate it was critical in the working of royal justice . Nominally members of the council were some of the great magnates of the realm , but they rarely attended meetings . Most of the active members of the council for most of the period were career administrators and lawyers , almost exclusively university @-@ educated clergy , the most successful of which moved on to occupy the major ecclesiastical positions in the realm as bishops and , towards the end of the period , archbishops . By the end of the 15th century this group was being joined by increasing numbers of literate laymen , often secular lawyers , of which the most successful gained preferment in the judicial system and grants of lands and lordships . From the reign of James III onwards the clerically @-@ dominated post of Lord Chancellor was increasingly taken by leading laymen .
= = = Parliament = = =
The next most important body in the process of government was parliament , which had evolved by the late 13th century from the King 's Council of Bishops and Earls into a ' colloquium ' with a political and judicial role . By the early 14th century , the attendance of knights and freeholders had become important , and probably from 1326 burgh commissioners joined them to form the Three Estates , meeting in a variety of major towns throughout the kingdom . It acquired significant powers over particular issues , including consent for taxation , but it also had a strong influence over justice , foreign policy , war , and other legislation , whether political , ecclesiastical , social or economic . From the early 1450s , a great deal of the legislative business of the Scottish Parliament was usually carried out by a parliamentary committee known as the ' Lords of the Articles ' , chosen by the three estates to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed . Parliamentary business was also carried out by ' sister ' institutions , before c . 1500 by General Council and thereafter by the Convention of Estates . These could carry out much business also dealt with by Parliament — taxation , legislation and policy @-@ making — but lacked the ultimate authority of a full parliament . In the 15th century parliament was being called on an almost annual basis , more often than its English counterpart , and was willing to offer occasional resistance or criticism to the policies of the Crown , particular in the unpopular reign of James III . However , from about 1494 , after his success against the Stewarts and Douglases and over rebels in 1482 and 1488 , James IV managed to largely dispense with the institution and it might have declined , like many other systems of Estates in continental Europe , had it not been for his death in 1513 and another long minority .
= = = Local government = = =
At a local level , government combined traditional kinship @-@ based lordships with a relatively small system of royal offices . Until the 15th century the ancient pattern of major lordships survived largely intact , with the addition of two new " scattered earldoms " of Douglas and Crawford , thanks to royal patronage after the Wars of Independence , mainly in the borders and south @-@ west . The dominant kindred were the Stewarts , who came to control many of the earldoms . Their acquisition of the Crown , and a series of internal conflicts and confiscations , meant that by around the 1460s the monarchy had transformed its position within the realm , gaining control of most of the " provincial " earldoms and lordships . Rather than running semi @-@ independent lordships , the major magnates now had scattered estates and occasional regions of major influence . In the lowlands the Crown was now able to administer government through a system of sheriffdoms and other appointed officers , rather than semi @-@ independent lordships . In the highlands James II created two new provincial earldoms for his favourites : Argyll for the Campbells and Huntly for the Gordons , which acted as a bulwark against the vast Lordship of the Isles built up by the Macdonalds . James IV largely resolved the Macdonald problem by annexing the estates and titles of John Macdonald II to the Crown in 1493 after discovering his plans for an alliance with the English .
= = Warfare = =
= = = Armies = = =
Scottish armies of the late medieval era depended on a combination of familial , communal and feudal forms of service . " Scottish service " ( servitum Scoticanum ) , also known as " common service " ( communis exertcitus ) , a levy of all able @-@ bodied freemen aged between 16 and 60 , provided the bulk of armed forces , with ( according to decrees ) 8 days warning . Feudal obligations , by which knights held castles and estates in exchange for service , provided troops on a 40 @-@ day basis . By the second half of the 14th century money contracts of bonds or bands of manrent , similar to English indentures of the same period , were being used to retain more professional troops , particularly men @-@ at @-@ arms and archers . In practice forms of service tended to blur and overlap and several major Scottish lords brought contingents from their kindred .
These systems produced relatively large numbers of poorly armoured infantry , often armed with 12 – 14 foot spears . They often formed the large close order defensive formations of shiltrons , able to counter mounted knights as they did at Bannockburn , but vulnerable to arrows ( and later artillery fire ) and relatively immobile , as they proved at Halidon Hill . There were attempts to replace spears with longer pikes of 15 ½ to 18 ½ feet in the later 15th century , in emulation of successes over mounted troops in the Netherlands and Switzerland , but this does not appear to have been successful until the eve of the Flodden campaign in early 16th century . There were smaller numbers of archers and men @-@ at @-@ arms , which were often outnumbered when facing the English on the battlefield . Archers became much sought after as mercenaries in French armies of the 15th century to help counter the English superiority in this arm , becoming a major element of the French royal guards as the Garde Écossaise . Scottish men @-@ at @-@ arms often dismounted to fight beside the infantry , with perhaps a small mounted reserve , and it has been suggested that these tactics were copied and refined by the English , leading to their successes in the Hundred Years ' War .
= = = Artillery = = =
The Stewarts attempted to follow France and England in building up an artillery train . The abortive siege of Roxborugh in 1436 under James I was probably the first conflict in which the Scots made serious use of artillery . James II had a royal gunner and received gifts of artillery from the continent , including two giant bombards made for Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy , one of which , Mons Meg , still survives . Although these were probably already outdated on the continent , they represented impressive military technology when they reached Scotland . James II enthusiasm for artillery cost him his life , and James III also experienced ill @-@ fortune when artillery sent from Sigismund , Archduke of Austria , sank in a storm en route to Scotland in 1481 . James IV brought in experts from France , Germany and the Netherlands and established a foundry in 1511 . Edinburgh Castle had a house of artillery where visitors could see cannon cast for what became a formidable train , allowing him to send cannon to France and Ireland and to quickly subdue Norham Castle in the Flodden campaign . However , 18 heavy artillery pieces had to be drawn by 400 oxen and slowed the advancing army , proving ineffective against the longer range and smaller calibre English guns at the Battle of Flodden .
= = = Navy = = =
After the establishment of Scottish independence , Robert I turned his attention to building up a Scottish naval capacity . This was largely focused on the west coast , with the Exchequer Rolls of 1326 recording the feudal duties of his vassals in that region to aid him with their vessels and crews . Towards the end of his reign he supervised the building of at least one royal man @-@ of @-@ war near his palace at Cardross on the River Clyde . In the late 14th century naval warfare with England was conducted largely by hired Scots , Flemish and French merchantmen and privateers . James I took a greater interest in naval power . After his return to Scotland in 1424 he established a shipbuilding yard at Leith , a house for marine stores , and a workshop . King 's ships , one of which accompanied him on his expedition to the Islands in 1429 , were built and equipped there to be used for trade as well as war , and the office of Lord High Admiral was probably founded in this period . In his struggles with his nobles in 1488 James III received assistance from his two warships the Flower and the King 's Carvel also known as the Yellow Carvel .
James IV put the enterprise on a new footing , founding a new harbour at Newhaven in May 1504 , and two years later ordered the construction of a dockyard at the Pools of Airth . The upper reaches of the Forth were protected by new fortifications on Inchgarvie . The king acquired a total of 38 ships for the Royal Scottish Navy , including the Margaret , and the carrack Michael or Great Michael . The latter , built at great expense at Newhaven and launched in 1511 , was 240 feet ( 73 m ) in length , weighed 1 @,@ 000 tons , had 24 cannon , and was , at that time , the largest ship in Europe . Scottish ships had some success against privateers , accompanied the king in his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts in Scandinavia and the Baltic . In the Flodden campaign the fleet consisted of 16 large and 10 smaller craft . After a raid on Carrickfergus in Ireland , it joined up with the French and had little impact on the war . After the disaster at Flodden the Great Michael , and perhaps other ships , were sold to the French and the king 's ships disappeared from royal records after 1516 .
= = Religion = =
= = = The Church = = =
Since gaining its independence from English ecclesiastical organisation in 1192 , the Catholic Church in Scotland had been a " special daughter of the see of Rome " , enjoying a direct relationship with the Papacy . Lacking archbishoprics , it was in practice run by special councils of made up of all the bishops , with the bishop of St Andrews emerging as the most important player , until in 1472 St Andrews became the first archbishopric , to be followed by Glasgow in 1492 . Late medieval religion had its political aspects , with Robert I carrying the brecbennoch ( or Monymusk reliquary ) , said to contain the remains of St. Columba , into battle at Bannockburn and James IV using his pilgrimages to Tain and Whithorn to help bring Ross and Galloway under royal authority . There were also further attempts to differentiate Scottish liturgical practice from that in England , with a printing press established under royal patent in 1507 to replace the English Sarum Use for services . As elsewhere in Europe , the collapse of papal authority in the Papal Schism allowed the Scottish Crown to gain effective control of major ecclesiastical appointments within the kingdom , a position recognised by the Papacy in 1487 . This led to the placement of clients and relatives of the king in key positions , including James IV 's illegitimate son Alexander , who was nominated as Archbishop of St. Andrews at the age of 11 , intensifying royal influence and also opening the Church to accusations of venality and nepotism . Despite this , relationships between the Scottish crown and the Papacy were generally good , with James IV receiving tokens of papal favour .
= = = Popular practice = = =
Traditional Protestant historiography tended to stress the corruption and unpopularity of the late medieval Scottish church , but more recent research has indicated the ways in which it met the spiritual needs of different social groups . Historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in this period , with many religious houses keeping smaller numbers of monks , and those remaining often abandoning communal living for a more individual and secular lifestyle . New monastic endowments from the nobility also declined in the 15th century . In contrast , the burghs saw the flourishing of mendicant orders of friars in the later 15th century , who placed an emphasis on preaching and ministering to the population . The order of Observant Friars were organised as a Scottish province from 1467 and the older Franciscans and Dominicans were recognised as separate provinces in the 1480s . In most burghs , in contrast to English towns where churches tended to proliferate , there was usually only one parish church , but as the doctrine of Purgatory gained in importance in the period , the number of chapelries , priests and masses for the dead within them grew rapidly . The number of altars to saints also grew dramatically , with St. Mary 's in Dundee having perhaps 48 and St Giles ' in Edinburgh over 50 , as did the number of saints celebrated in Scotland , with about 90 being added to the missal used in St Nicholas church in Aberdeen . New cults of devotion connected with Jesus and the Virgin Mary also began to reach Scotland in the 15th century , including The Five Wounds , The Holy Blood and The Holy Name of Jesus and new feasts including The Presentation , The Visitation and Mary of the Snows . In the early 14th century the Papacy managed to minimise the problem of clerical pluralism , but with relatively poor livings and a shortage of clergy , particularly after the Black Death , in the 15th century the number of clerics holding two or more livings rapidly increased . This meant that parish clergy were largely drawn from the lower and less educated ranks of the profession , leading to frequent complaints about their standards of education or ability , although there is little clear evidence that this was actually declining . Heresy , in the form of Lollardry , began to reach Scotland from England and Bohemia in the early 15th century , but despite evidence of a number of burnings of heretics and some apparent support for its anti @-@ sacramental elements , it probably remained a relatively small movement .
= = Culture = =
= = = Education = = =
In medieval Scotland education was dominated by the Church and largely aimed at the training and education of clerics . In the later medieval period there was a general increase in the numbers of educational institutions as well as increasing use by the laity . These included private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers , song schools attached to most major churches and an increasing number of grammar schools , particularly in the expanding burghs . These were almost exclusively aimed at boys , but by the end of the 15th century Edinburgh also had schools for girls . The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
Until the 15th century those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent , but this situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413 , the University of Glasgow in 1451 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative post in the government and law . Scottish scholars continued to visit the continent for their second degrees and this international contact helped bring the new ideas of humanism back into Scottish intellectual life .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Scotland is known for its dramatically placed castles , many of which date from the late medieval era . In contrast to England , where the wealthy began to move towards more comfortable grand houses , these continued to be built into the modern period , developing into the style of Scottish Baronial architecture in the 19th century , popular amongst the minor aristocracy and merchant class . This building type , often built with defence in mind in the form of the tower house , was characterised by corbelled turrets and crow @-@ stepped gables marked the first uniquely Scottish mode of building . Ceilings of these houses were decorated with vividly coloured painting on boards and beams , using emblematic motifs from European pattern books or the artist 's interpretation of trailing grotesque patterns . The grandest buildings of this type were the royal palaces in this style at Linlithgow , Holyrood , Falkland and the remodelled Stirling Castle , all of which have elements of continental European architecture , particularly from France and the Low Countries , adapted to Scottish idioms and materials ( particularly stone and harl ) . More modest buildings with continental influences can be seen in the late 15th century western tower of St Mary 's parish church , Dundee , and tollbooths like the one at Dunbar .
Parish church architecture in Scotland was often much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings . However , there were some churches built in a grander continental style . French master @-@ mason John Morrow was employed at the building of Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey , both considered fine examples of Gothic architecture . The interiors of churches were often more elaborate before the Reformation , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , created in the mid @-@ 15th century , elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Late medieval Scottish churches also often contained elaborate burial monuments , like the Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas .
There is relatively little information about native Scottish artists during the late Middle Ages . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits used for copies and reproductions , but the versions that survive are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included the delicate hanging lamp in St. John 's Kirk in Perth ; the tabernacles and images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld , and vestments and hangings in Holyrood ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III , the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named , and the illustrated Flemish Bening Book of Hours , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor .
= = = Language and literature = = =
In was in this period that the Scots language became the dominant language of the state and the social elite , while also becoming linked with Scottish national identity and making inroads into the highland zone at the expense of Gaelic . Middle Scots , often called " English " in this period , was derived largely from Old English , with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French . Although resembling the language spoken in northern England , it became a distinct dialect from the late 14th century onwards . It was the dominant language of the lowlands and borders , brought there largely by Anglo @-@ Saxon settlers from the 5th century , but began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French in the late medieval era . By the 15th century it was the language of government , with acts of parliament , council records and treasurer 's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards . As a result , Gaelic , once dominant north of the Tay , began a steady decline .
Gaelic was the language of the bardic tradition , which provided a mechanism for the transference of oral culture from generation to generation . Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry . In a non @-@ literate society they were the repositories of knowledge , including not just stories and songs , but also genealogies and medicine . They were found in many of the courts of the great lords , down to the chiefdoms of the highlands at the beginning of the period . The bardic tradition was not completely isolated from trends elsewhere , including love poetry influenced by continental developments and medical manuscripts from Padua , Salerno and Montpellier translated from Latin . The Gaelic oral tradition also began to manifest itself in written form , with the great compilation of Gaelic poetry , the Book of the Dean of Lismore produced by James and Duncan MacGregor at the beginning of the 16th century , probably designed for use in the courts of the greater chiefs . However , by the 15th century lowland writers were beginning to treat Gaelic as a second class , rustic and even amusing language , helping to frame attitudes towards the highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the lowlands .
It was Scots that emerged as the language of national literature in Scotland . The first surviving major text is John Barbour 's Brus ( 1375 ) , composed under the patronage of Robert II and telling the story in epic poetry of Robert I 's actions before the English invasion until the end of the war of independence . The work was extremely popular among the Scots @-@ speaking aristocracy and Barbour is referred to as the father of Scots poetry , holding a similar place to his contemporary Chaucer in England . In the early 15th century these were followed by Andrew of Wyntoun 's verse Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland and Blind Harry 's The Wallace , which blended historical romance with the verse chronicle . They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were also produced in the period , including The Buik of Alexander , Launcelot o the Laik and The Porteous of Noblenes by Gibert Hay .
Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars , poets with links to the royal court . These included James I who wrote The Kingis Quair . Many of the makars had university education and so were also connected with the Kirk . However , Dunbar 's Lament for the Makaris ( c . 1505 ) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost . Before the advent of printing in Scotland , writers such as Robert Henryson , William Dunbar , Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry .
In the late 15th century , Scots prose also began to develop as a genre . Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose , such as the Auchinleck Chronicle , the first complete surviving works include John Ireland 's The Meroure of Wyssdome ( 1490 ) . There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s , including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum , an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle 's advice to Alexander the Great . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados , which was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden .
= = = Music = = =
Bards , who acted as musicians , but also as poets , story tellers , historians , genealogists and lawyers , relying on an oral tradition that stretched back generations , were found in Scotland as well as Wales and Ireland . Often accompanying themselves on the harp , they can also be seen in records of the Scottish courts throughout the medieval period . Scottish church music from the later Middle Ages was increasingly influenced by continental developments , with figures like 13th @-@ century musical theorist Simon Tailler studying in Paris before returning to Scotland , where he introduced several reforms in church music . Scottish collections of music like the 13th @-@ century ' Wolfenbüttel 677 ' , which is associated with St Andrews , contain mostly French compositions , but with some distinctive local styles . The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423 , where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer , may have led him to take English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release . In the late 15th century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands before returning home , including John Broune , Thomas Inglis and John Fety , the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh , introducing the new five @-@ fingered organ playing technique . In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle , with a new and enlarged choir , and it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music . Burgundian and English influences were probably reinforced when Henry VII 's daughter Margaret Tudor married James IV in 1503 .
= = National identity = =
The late Middle Ages has often been seen as the era in which Scottish national identity was initially forged , in opposition to English attempts to annexe the country and as a result of social and cultural changes . English invasions and interference in Scotland have been judged to have created a sense of national unity and a hatred towards England which dominated Scottish foreign policy well into the 15th century , making it extremely difficult for Scottish kings like James III and James IV to pursue policies of peace towards their southern neighbour . In particular the Declaration of Arbroath asserted the ancient distinctiveness of Scotland in the face of English aggression , arguing that it was the role of the king to defend the independence of the community of Scotland . This document has been seen as the first " nationalist theory of sovereignty " .
The adoption of Middle Scots by the aristocracy has been seen as building a shared sense of national solidarity and culture between rulers and ruled , although the fact that north of the Tay Gaelic still dominated may have helped widen the cultural divide between highlands and lowlands . The national literature of Scotland created in the late medieval period employed legend and history in the service of the Crown and nationalism , helping to foster a sense of national identity at least within its elite audience . The epic poetic history of the Brus and Wallace helped outline a narrative of united struggle against the English enemy . Arthurian literature differed from conventional version of the legend by treating Arthur as a villain and Mordred , the son of the king of the Picts , as a hero . The origin myth of the Scots , systematised by John of Fordun ( c . 1320 @-@ c . 1384 ) , traced their beginnings from the Greek prince Gathelus and his Egyptian wife Scota , allowing them to argue superiority over the English , who claimed their descent from the Trojans , who had been defeated by the Greeks .
It was in this period that the national flag emerged as a common symbol . The image of St. Andrew , martyred while bound to an X @-@ shaped cross , first appeared in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of William I and was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th century ; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland , dated 1286 . Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew , the saltire , has its origins in the late 14th century ; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew 's Cross on their person , both in front and behind , for the purpose of identification . Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew 's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century . The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew 's Cross as a flag is to be found in the Vienna Book of Hours , circa 1503 .
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= A. E. J. Collins =
Arthur Edward Jeune " James " Collins ( 18 August 1885 – 11 November 1914 ) , typically now known by his initials A. E. J. Collins , was an English cricketer and soldier . He is most famous for achieving what was , for 116 years , the highest @-@ ever recorded score in cricket : as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy , he scored 628 not out over four afternoons in June 1899 . Collins 's record @-@ making innings drew a large crowd and increasing media interest ; spectators at the Old Cliftonian match being played nearby were drawn away to watch the junior school house cricket match in which Collins was playing . Despite this achievement , Collins never played first @-@ class cricket .
Collins joined the British Army in 1902 and studied at the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , before becoming an officer in the Royal Engineers . He served in France during the First World War , where he was killed in action in 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres . Collins had been mentioned in despatches and also represented the Royal Military Academy at cricket and rugby union .
= = Early life and education = =
Collins was born in Hazaribagh , India , to Arthur Herbert Collins , a judge in the Indian Civil Service , and Mrs Esther Ida Collins . It had been thought that both of his parents had died by the time he began his education at Clifton College , Bristol , where he held a scholarship . However , the 1901 census shows that Arthur 's mother was actually still alive .
He joined Clifton College in September 1897 , becoming a member of Clark 's House , although he later moved to North Town House . Clifton had an excellent reputation for sport . W.G. Grace scored 13 first @-@ class centuries on the Close ( Clifton 's first XI ground ) , and he sent his sons to the school . Collins played half @-@ back for the rugby XV , and was also in the cricket XI . He won a bronze medal for boxing at the public schools tournament in Aldershot in 1901 , along with E. A. Hughes and H. P. Hewett .
Tim Rice , in a 9 June 1999 article for The Telegraph to celebrate the centenary of the score , entitled " On the seventh day AEJ Collins rested " , described him thus :
He was an orphan whose guardians lived in Tavistock , Devon . He was a reserved boy , short and stockily built , fair @-@ haired and pale . He was remembered by contemporaries as one who led by example , rather than by inspiration , although paradoxically he was regarded as likely to fall short of the highest standards as a cricketer because of his recklessness at the crease .
= = The famous match = =
In 1899 , as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy , Collins scored the highest ever recorded cricket score of 628 not out . This feat took place during a junior school house cricket match between Clarke 's House and North Town House . Such matches were timeless , played to a finish however long they took . The match was played on an outfield off Guthrie Road , Bristol , now named Collins Piece . The ground had both a poor surface and a very unusual shape : it was very short ( only 60 yards ( 55 m ) long ) , with a wall only 70 yards ( 60 m ) away forming the boundary on one side , while the other side was a gentle slope falling away towards the school sanatorium in the distance . The pitch occupied the central 22 yards ( 20 m ) of the narrow field , with the boundary only 17 yards ( 16 m ) behind each set of stumps . Hits to the long boundary , down the slope , had to be all @-@ run , but the three short boundaries only counted for two runs .
The match commenced on Thursday , 22 June , to take advantage of two half @-@ day holidays while the college team played their annual match against Old Cliftonians nearby . Collins , a right @-@ handed batsman , won the toss for Clarke 's House and chose to bat first . Collins hit his first stroke at around 3 @.@ 30 pm By the close of play at 6 pm , he had scored 200 runs , having been dropped on 50 , 100 and 140 .
School lessons allowed another two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours ' play on Friday , 23 June , and by then news of an exceptional innings had gone round the school . So brilliant was his play that even the crowd watching an Old Cliftonian match being played nearby lost its interest and a large crowd watched Collins 's phenomenal performance . Collins 's innings almost ended at 400 when an easy catch was dropped by the youngest player on the field , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Victor Fuller @-@ Eberle , but at around 5 @.@ 30 pm , after batting for around five hours , rapturous applause broke out when he passed Andrew Stoddart 's world @-@ record score of 485 . At the end of the second day , he remained unbeaten on 509 and the team on 680 for 8 . His innings was reported as a world record in The Times newspaper on Saturday 24 June ; the paper , however , gave Collins 's score by the close of play on Friday as 501 , his age as 14 and mis @-@ reported his name as " A. E. G. Collins " .
The match resumed in the lunch hour on Monday , 26 June , at 12 : 30 pm , with a large crowd . By the end of play , Collins had been dropped again , on 556 , to reach 598 , but another wicket had fallen , and Collins was running out of partners . On Tuesday , 27 June , the school authorities extended the hours available for play in an attempt to finish the match . The crowds grew and media interest escalated , as The Times again reported on the match on Tuesday , and the disruption to school life was considerable . Collins hit out , with his approach being described as " downright reckless " . He was dropped twice more , on 605 and 619 . After just 25 minutes ' play , Collins lost his final partner , Thomas Redfern , caught by Victor Fuller @-@ Eberle at point for 13 , with Collins 's score on 628 . Collins had played less than seven hours ' cricket , carrying his bat through his side 's innings . He had scored 1 six , 4 fives , 31 fours , 33 threes , 146 twos and 87 singles . The Times once again ran a report , giving the final figures for Collins 's innings in its Wednesday 28 June edition — once again , however , they misspelled his third initial .
North Town House , demoralised , were bowled out for 87 in 90 minutes on Tuesday . The match resumed on Wednesday 28 June , when North Town 's second innings went even worse , making 61 in just over an hour , so Clarke House won by an innings and 688 runs . Collins showed some ability as an all @-@ rounder , with his right @-@ arm medium pace bowling taking 11 wickets for 63 runs .
The scorebook hangs in the pavilion at Clifton to this day . The scorers faced a difficult task in accurately recording the innings . One of them , Edward Peglar , is said to have remarked that Collins 's score was " 628 , plus or minus twenty shall we say " . The other scorer for the match was J.W. Hall , whose father in 1868 had batted with Edward Tylecote , who later played Test cricket for England and whose name is on a poem kept with the Ashes urn . Tylecote had earlier set a world @-@ record score of 404 not out in 1868 , also at Clifton . Hall later wrote that " The bowling probably deserved all the lordly contempt with which Collins treated it , sending a considerable number of pulls full pitch over the fives courts into the swimming baths to the danger of the occupants . "
Collins became public property for a long while after the match , forever associated with his great score . " Today all men speak of him , " wrote one newspaper , " … he has a reputation as great as the most advertised soap : he will be immortalised . " After leaving school , he never wanted to be reminded of his famous innings ; nevertheless , he has been remembered well beyond his own lifetime .
Within two years , 31 @-@ year @-@ old Australian Test cricketer Charles Eady came close to breaking the record , when he made 566 for Break @-@ o ' -Day against Wellington in Hobart in less than eight hours spread over three weeks in March 1902 . This remained , for over a century , the closest challenge to Collins 's record : his score was finally beaten in January 2016 by Pranav Dhanawade , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old Indian boy who scored 1 @,@ 009 not out from 327 balls for KC Gandhi School against Arya Gurukul School in Mumbai . Only five other players , Prithvi Shaw ( 546 ) , Dadabhoy Havewala ( 515 ) , JC Sharp ( 505 not out ) , Malhotra Chamanlal ( 502 not out ) , and Brian Lara ( 501 not out ) have ever scored more than 500 runs in one innings in any form of cricket . Lara is the only person to have achieved a score of over 500 runs in first @-@ class cricket .
= = Military career = =
Collins chose to follow an army career , passing his entrance exams to the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich in September 1901 and representing the Royal Military Academy at both football and rugby as well as cricket , scoring a century in a match against the Royal Military College , Sandhurst . He joined the British Army the following year , being commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers on 21 December 1904 . Despite the limitations on his sport that the military service caused , he played several matches for Old Cliftonians , his regiment , and the Army , remaining a free @-@ hitting batsman . He played at Lord 's in 1913 for Royal Engineers against Royal Artillery , scoring 58 and 36 runs in the two innings , but he never played first @-@ class cricket . He also joined Clifton Rugby Football Club in February 1905 , but never rose above the 2nd XV . He served with the 2nd Sappers and Miners in India , and was promoted to Lieutenant on 23 June 1907 .
Collins married Ethel Slater in the spring of 1914 and was sent to France when the First World War broke out later that year . He was killed in action on 11 November 1914 at the First Battle of Ypres , while serving as a Captain with the 5th Field Company , Royal Engineers , at the age of 29 . He was signalling for more men to protect the flank of his trench when he was wounded ; he was dragged back into the trench by Sapper Farnfield ( 23900 ) but he died an hour later . The 5th Field Company carried out the burials of its Company on 12 November . Due to the continual fighting over this area for the next four years what remained of his grave and remains were never found , but his name is recorded at the Menin Gate Memorial in Belgium . Before his death , he had been Mentioned in Despatches . His younger brother Herbert ( a Lieutenant in the 24th Battalion of the Manchester Regiment and also an old Cliftonian ) was killed in action on 11 February 1917 , aged 27 . Collins 's wife , Ethel , lived as a widow for over fifty years , dying on 1 September 1966 in Haslemere .
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= German submarine U @-@ 40 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 40 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II .
U @-@ 40 was built in Bremen by DeSchiMAG AG Weser as yard number 945 . She was launched in November 1938 and commissioned in February 1939 .
U @-@ 40 conducted two war patrols during her career . Both of which were part of the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla . During her short time in the war , she sank no ships .
U @-@ 40 was sunk on 13 October 1939 by a mine in the English Channel .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 40 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 29 July 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her kneel was laid down on 1 July 1937 . U @-@ 40 was launched on 9 November 1938 and commissioned on 11 February 1939 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Werner von Schmidt .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 40 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 40 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
After being commissioned and deployed , U @-@ 40 was stationed in the German port city of Wilhelmshaven , which to be her home for the rest of her fairly short career .
= = = Patrols = = =
U @-@ 40 left Wilhelmshaven on 19 August 1939 , before World War II began , for her first patrol . For nearly four weeks she operated off the coast of Gibraltar , before returning home on 18 September that same year . U @-@ 40 would once again leave Wilhelmshaven , this time under the command of Kapitänleutnant Wolfgang Barten , on 10 October 1939 . During this patrol , she was to conduct joint operations off the coasts of Portugal and Spain .
= = = Fate = = =
On 13 October 1939 , U @-@ 40 was sunk by a British mine at 50 ° 41 ′ 6 ″ N 00 ° 15 ′ 1 ″ E. She was to operate as part of the first pack of U @-@ boats in World War II ; however , because she left port late , Barten decided to take a shortcut to the U @-@ boat 's designated meeting point , southwest of Ireland . This shortcut was through the English Channel , which was festooned with many British naval mines . Choosing to make the voyage nearly three and a half hours after high tide , the mines were not at their lowest point . The boat struck one of these devices and sank immediately to the sea floor . Nevertheless , nine crew members were able to exit through the aft escape hatch . Using escape equipment , they were able to reach the surface ; one of the nine died on his journey . Once there , five more died from exposure to the harsh elements of the English Channel . Nearly ten hours after the sinking , the remaining three men were rescued and taken prisoner by HMS Boreas .
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= The Bold Bank Robbery =
The Bold Bank Robbery is a 1904 short crime film produced and distributed by the Lubin Manufacturing Company . The silent film depicts a group of burglars who plan and execute a successful bank heist . Company employee Jack Frawley was the film 's director , also coming up with the story and serving as cinematographer ; the cast 's identities are unknown . The silent film was the first Lubin Manufacturing Company release to feature an original narrative .
The film was created after the commercial success of the Edwin S. Porter film The Great Train Robbery , and was intended to be similar to it . Released on July 30 , 1904 , reception was mixed . It is credited with having motivated Porter to direct the film Capture of the " Yegg " Bank Burglars . A print of the seven @-@ minute film , which is now in the public domain , is preserved in the Library of Congress . In 2002 , the film was released on DVD as part of a compilation of silent films .
= = Plot = =
After learning they are short of money , a group of four robbers decide to execute a bank heist . The four create a plan and hire an unwitting chauffeur to drive them to their location . As soon as they reach an isolated road , the robbers force the chauffeur out of the car , gag him , and throw him into a ditch . The robbers then drive the car to the bank . After entering , they kill a security guard and use explosives to force the bank vault open . The thieves steal as much money as possible and make a quick retreat to their car . Back in the park , a young couple on a walk discover the unconscious body of the chauffeur , and the man calls the police .
The band of robbers , now at home , are about to start splitting their stolen goods equally , when the police barge in . While three of the robbers are subdued after a fight , one manages to make his escape via a window and ends up on the roof . The two policeman chase the criminal , who eludes them by jumping from rooftop to rooftop . After the robber jumps down to the street , he runs toward the railroad station and boards a departing train . The police officers arrive but are too late , as the robber has left . The officers tell the train dispatcher to send a telegram to the next station , informing them of the fugitive and asking them to catch him as soon as possible . When the train reaches the next station , the burglar exits the train and unknowingly runs right into the path of policemen . With all four of the robbers caught , they are sentenced to forty years in jail . While doing work in the jail 's quarry , the group review their failure , with each robber pinning the blame on another .
= = Production = =
The Bold Bank Robbery was directed by Jack Frawley and produced by the Lubin Manufacturing Company . Frawley worked at the company , serving as their general manager . He often devised the stories for their films ; The Bold Bank Robbery was no exception . The film was the company 's first to feature an original narrative .
Frawley , who also served as cinematographer for the film , had a relaxed approach to making films ; he did not use screenplays and never numbered the scenes . During the assembling of Frawley 's films , the sole material for editors to rely on was a pad with notes scrawled in it . The identities of the cast of The Bold Bank Robbery are unrecorded . The film , silent and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , was filmed in Philadelphia . It was shot using a camera that company creator Siegmund Lubin had built back in 1901 .
The Bold Bank Robbery was inspired by and created after the success of the 1903 western film The Great Train Robbery ; other inspirations included American and European crime films . Lubin Manufacturing Company had been known to produce films similar to other popular ones ; film historian Kemp R. Niver observed that " if it seemed like a good idea , and other film producers were making money , ' Pop ' Lubin simply appropriated the title and remade or duped the motion picture . " Siegmund Lubin filed a copyright for the film on July 25 , 1904 . The finished product comprised 600 feet ( 182 m ) of film .
= = Release = =
The Bold Bank Robbery was released on July 30 , 1904 . Distribution was handled by Lubin Manufacturing Company and the Kleine Optical Company . To promote the film , Siegmund Lubin placed an advertisement in Billboard ; appearing in its October 15 , 1904 issue , it was the first film to be advertised in the magazine . The advertisement offered the film for purchase at the price of 66 dollars , along with a free Victor Talking Machine if one were to purchase two other films . An advertisement for the film in the New York Clipper declared that The Bold Bank Robbery was " the most sensational film ever made . "
When the film was shown in theaters , it was played alongside a phonograph , a device used to record and replay audio . However , the audio was often not synchronized with the action , perhaps owing to the fact that the projectionists still had to operate the machines by hand . It received a positive review from a writer for the American newspaper The Victoria Advocate , who branded it as a film that " everyone should see . " Adversely , author Jay Leyda , writing for Film Quarterly , criticized the film for being " obviously derivative . "
In 1904 , Edwin S. Porter directed a film entitled Capture of the " Yegg " Bank Burglars , distributed by Edison Studios . Filmed in August and September of that year , the film features a group of robbers who execute a heist . Porter had been motivated to produce it by The Bold Bank Robbery . A man from Belleville , Ontario , who held screenings of The Bold Bank Robbery and paired it with other films in the crime genre , once screened the films at a fair . The man was surprised by the ovation received from the audience , writing that " The applause was something amazing . I really thought the grandstand had collapsed . "
The film has survived ; a print of The Bold Bank Robbery is preserved in the Library of Congress film archive . In 2002 , the film was released on DVD by Kino International as part of The Movies Begin , a DVD boxset which collects 133 silent short films released between 1894 and 1913 . The film is now in the public domain .
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= The X @-@ Files =
The X @-@ Files is an American science fiction horror drama television series created by Chris Carter . The program originally aired from September 10 , 1993 , to May 19 , 2002 , on Fox , spanning nine seasons , with 202 episodes and a feature film of the same name , before returning with a second film in 2008 and a six @-@ episode tenth season in 2016 . The series revolves around FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who investigate X @-@ Files : marginalized , unsolved cases involving paranormal phenomena . Mulder believes in the existence of aliens and the paranormal while Scully , a medical doctor and a skeptic , is assigned to make scientific analyses of Mulder 's discoveries to debunk his work and thus return him to mainstream cases . Early in the series , both agents become pawns in a larger conflict and come to trust only each other and a very few select people . They develop a close relationship which begins as a platonic friendship , but becomes a romance by the end of the series . In addition to the series @-@ spanning story arc , " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episodes form roughly two @-@ thirds of all episodes .
The X @-@ Files was inspired by series which featured elements of suspense and speculative fiction , including Alfred Hitchcock Presents , The Twilight Zone , Night Gallery , Tales from the Darkside , and especially Kolchak : The Night Stalker . When creating the main characters , Carter sought to reverse gender stereotypes by making Mulder a believer and Scully a skeptic . The first seven seasons featured Duchovny and Anderson equally . In the last two seasons , Anderson took precedence while Duchovny appeared intermittently . New main characters were introduced : FBI agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) . Mulder and Scully 's boss , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , also became a main character . The first five seasons of The X @-@ Files were filmed and produced in Vancouver , British Columbia , before eventually moving to Los Angeles to accommodate Duchovny . The series later returned to Vancouver to film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe as well as the tenth season of the series .
The X @-@ Files was a hit for the Fox network and received largely positive reviews , although its long @-@ term story arc was criticized near the conclusion . Initially considered a cult series , it turned into a pop culture touchstone that tapped into public mistrust of governments and large institutions and embraced conspiracy theories and spirituality . Both the series itself and lead actors Duchovny and Anderson received multiple awards and nominations , and by the end it was the longest @-@ running science fiction series in U.S. television history . The series also spawned a franchise which includes The Lone Gunmen spin @-@ off , two theatrical films and accompanying merchandise . After the final theatrical film in 2008 , fans continued to push for a third movie to conclude the series ' plot lines , and in March 2015 , Fox eventually announced that the series would return , with Chris Carter as executive producer and writer , and Duchovny , Anderson , Pileggi , Davis , and Gish all reprising their roles . The revival premiered on January 24 , 2016 .
= = Premise = =
= = = General = = =
The X @-@ Files follows the careers and personal lives of FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Mulder is a talented profiler and strong believer in the supernatural . He is also adamant about the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life and its presence on Earth . This set of beliefs earns him the nickname " Spooky " and an assignment to a little @-@ known department that deals with unsolved cases , known as the X @-@ Files . His belief in the paranormal springs from the claimed abduction of his sister Samantha Mulder by extraterrestrials when Mulder was 12 . Her abduction drives Mulder throughout most of the series . Because of this , as well as more nebulous desires for vindication and the revelation of truths kept hidden by human authorities , Mulder struggles to maintain objectivity in his investigations .
Agent Scully is a foil for Mulder in this regard . As a medical doctor and natural skeptic , Scully approaches cases with complete detachment even when Mulder , despite his considerable training , loses his objectivity . Her initial task is to debunk Mulder 's theories , supplying logical , scientific explanations for the cases ' apparently unexplainable phenomena . Although she is frequently able to offer scientific alternatives to Mulder 's deductions , she is rarely able to refute them completely . Over the course of the series , she becomes increasingly dissatisfied with her own ability to approach the cases scientifically . After Mulder 's abduction at the hands of aliens in the seventh season finale " Requiem " , Scully becomes a " reluctant believer " who manages to explain the paranormal with science .
Various episodes also deal with the relationship between Mulder and Scully , originally platonic , but that later develops romantically . Mulder and Scully are joined by John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) late in the series , after Mulder is abducted . Doggett replaces him as Scully 's partner and helps her search for him , later involving Reyes , of whom Doggett had professional knowledge . The X @-@ Files ends when Mulder is secretly subjected to a military tribunal for breaking into a Top Secret military facility and viewing plans for alien invasion and colonization of Earth . He is found guilty , but he escapes punishment with the help of the other agents and he and Scully become fugitives .
= = = Mythology = = =
As the show progressed , key episodes , called parts of the " Mytharc " , were recognized as the " mythology " of the series canon ; these episodes carried the extraterrestrial / conspiracy storyline that evolved throughout the series . " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " — often abbreviated as " MOTW " or " MoW " — came to denote the remainder of The X @-@ Files episodes . These episodes , comprising the majority of the series , dealt with paranormal phenomena , including cryptids and mutants ; science fiction technologies ; horror monsters ; and satiric / comedic elements . The main story arc involves the agents ' efforts to uncover a government conspiracy to hide the existence of extraterrestrials on Earth and their sinister collaboration with those governments . Mysterious men comprising a shadow element within the U.S. government , known as " The Syndicate " , are the major villains in the series ; late in the series it is revealed that The Syndicate acts as the only liaison between mankind and a group of extraterrestrials that intends to destroy the human species . They are usually represented by Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , a ruthless killer , masterful politician , negotiator , failed novelist , and the series ' principal antagonist .
As the series goes along , Mulder and Scully learn about evidence of the alien invasion piece by piece . It is revealed that the extraterrestrials plan on using a sentient virus , known as the black oil , to infect mankind and turn the population of the world into a slave race . The Syndicate — having made a deal to be spared by the aliens — have been working to develop an alien @-@ human hybrid that will be able to withstand the effects of the black oil . The group has also been secretly working on a vaccine to overcome the black oil ; this vaccine is revealed in the latter parts of season five , as well as the 1998 film . Counter to the alien colonization effort , another faction of aliens , the faceless rebels , are working to stop alien colonization . Eventually , in the season six episodes " Two Fathers " / " One Son " , the rebels manage to destroy the Syndicate . The colonists , now without human liaisons , dispatch the " Super Soldiers " : beings that resemble humans , but are biologically alien . In the latter parts of season eight , and the whole of season nine , the Super Soldiers manage to replace key individuals in the government , forcing Mulder and Scully to go into hiding .
= = Cast and characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Fox Mulder ( seasons 1 – 7 , 10 , main ; season 8 – 9 , intermittent lead ) is portrayed by David Duchovny . Mulder is an Oxford @-@ educated FBI special agent who believes in the existence of extraterrestrials and a government conspiracy to hide the truth regarding them . He works in the X @-@ Files office , which is concerned with cases marked as unsolvable ; most involve supernatural / mysterious circumstances . Mulder considers the X @-@ Files so important that he has made their study his life 's main purpose . After his abduction by aliens at the end of season seven , his role in the show diminished and much of his work is taken on by Agent John Doggett . He appeared in an episode of The Lone Gunmen and in both the 1998 film The X @-@ Files and the 2008 film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe .
Dana Scully ( seasons 1 – 10 , main ) is portrayed by Gillian Anderson . Scully is an FBI special agent , a medical doctor , and scientist who is Mulder 's partner . In contrast to his credulity , Scully is a skeptic , basing her beliefs on scientific explanations . However , despite her otherwise rigid skepticism , she is a Catholic , and her faith plays an important role in several episodes . As the series progresses , she becomes more open to the possibility of paranormal happenings . In the latter part of the eighth season , her position in the X @-@ Files office is taken by Agent Monica Reyes , and Scully moves to Quantico to teach new FBI agents . She appeared in both The X @-@ Files feature films .
Walter Skinner ( seasons 1 – 8 , recurring ; season 9 – 10 , intermittent lead ) is portrayed by Mitch Pileggi . Skinner is an FBI assistant director who served in the United States Marine Corps in the Vietnam War . During this time he shot and killed a young boy carrying explosives , an incident which scarred him for life . Skinner is originally Mulder and Scully 's direct supervisor . He later serves the same position for Doggett and Reyes . Although he is originally portrayed as somewhat antagonistic , he eventually becomes a close friend of Mulder and Scully . He appeared in an episode of The Lone Gunmen and in both The X @-@ Files feature films .
John Doggett ( seasons 8 – 9 , main ) is portrayed by Robert Patrick . Doggett is an FBI special agent who makes his first appearance in the season eight episode " Within " . Doggett served in the United States Marine Corps from the 1970s to the 1980s . Later , he started to work with the New York City Police Department , reaching the rank of detective . After his son 's death , he joined the FBI 's Criminal Investigations Division . In 2000 , Alvin Kersh assigned him to the X @-@ files unit as Scully 's partner after an unsuccessful task force attempt to find Mulder . He did not appear in The X @-@ Files feature films .
Monica Reyes ( season 8 , recurring ; season 9 , main ; season 10 , guest ) is portrayed by Annabeth Gish . Reyes is an FBI special agent who was born and raised in Mexico City . She majored in folklore and mythology at Brown University and earned a master 's degree in religious studies . Her first FBI assignment was serving on a special task force investigating satanic rituals . She is a longtime friend of Doggett 's and becomes his partner after Scully 's departure . She did not appear in The X @-@ Files feature films .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Cigarette Smoking Man ( seasons 1 – 7 , 9 – 10 ) is portrayed by William B. Davis . The Cigarette Smoking Man is the series ' primary villain . In the ninth season episodes " William " and " The Truth " , it is suggested that he is Mulder 's biological father . In the seventh season episode " Requiem " , he is believed to be killed after being pushed down a flight of stairs by Alex Krycek until the ninth season finale " The Truth " , where Mulder and Scully travel through remote New Mexico and reach a pueblo where a " wise man " reputedly lives and is revealed to be Cigarette Smoking Man . He appears in the 1998 feature film and in the first and sixth episodes of the 2016 season .
Alex Krycek ( seasons 2 – 9 ) is portrayed by Nicholas Lea . Krycek is a Russian @-@ American , the son of Cold War immigrants , and first introduced as an FBI Special Agent assigned as a temporary investigation partner to Fox Mulder . Krycek proceeds to work with Mulder and attempts to gain his trust . However , it later becomes evident that Krycek is actually an undercover agent working for Cigarette Smoking Man . Krycek plays an important part in several events that are harmful to Mulder and Scully .
Jeffrey Spender ( seasons 5 – 6 , 9 ) is portrayed by Chris Owens . Spender was a skeptic who was assigned to The X @-@ Files after Fox Mulder 's forced leave . Spender is the son of Cigarette Smoking Man and his ex @-@ wife , multiple abductee Cassandra Spender , as well as possibly being the half @-@ brother of Mulder . Initially thought to have been murdered by Cigarette Smoking Man , Spender returned , horribly disfigured , in the ninth season and helped Scully 's son William .
Alvin Kersh ( seasons 6 , 8 – 9 ) is portrayed by James Pickens , Jr .. As an assistant director ( and later deputy director ) , he temporarily became supervisor to Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully when they were assigned away from the X @-@ Files division . During this time , Cigarette Smoking Man would often visit him in his office . Kersh assigned Mulder and Scully mostly to menial tasks , such as terrorist details and Federal background checks . Kersh was largely antagonistic to Mulder and Scully , but in " The Truth " somewhat redeemed himself by helping Mulder escape capital punishment .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
California native Chris Carter was given the opportunity to produce new shows for the Fox network in the early 1990s . Tired of the comedies he had been working on for Walt Disney Pictures , a report that 3 @.@ 7 million Americans may have been abducted by aliens , the Watergate scandal and the 1970s horror series Kolchak : The Night Stalker , triggered the idea for The X @-@ Files . He wrote the pilot episode in 1992 .
Carter 's initial pitch for The X @-@ Files was rejected by Fox executives . He fleshed out the concept and returned a few weeks later , when they commissioned the pilot . Carter worked with NYPD Blue producer Daniel Sackheim to further develop the pilot , drawing stylistic inspiration from the 1988 documentary The Thin Blue Line and the British television series Prime Suspect . Inspiration also came from Carter 's memories of The Twilight Zone as well as from The Silence of the Lambs , which provided the impetus for framing the series around agents from the FBI , in order to provide the characters with a more plausible reason for being involved in each case than Carter believed was present in Kolchak . Carter was determined to keep the relationship between the two leads strictly platonic , basing their interactions on the characters of Emma Peel and John Steed in The Avengers series .
The early 1990s series Twin Peaks was a major influence on the show 's dark atmosphere and its often surreal blend of drama and irony . Duchovny had appeared as a cross @-@ dressing DEA agent in Twin Peaks and the Mulder character was seen as a parallel to that show 's FBI Agent Dale Cooper . The producers and writers cited All the President 's Men , Three Days of the Condor , Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Raiders of the Lost Ark , Rashomon , The Thing , The Boys from Brazil , The Silence of the Lambs and JFK as other influences . Carter 's use of continuous takes in " Triangle " was modeled on Hitchcock 's Rope . In addition , episodes written by Darin Morgan often referred to or referenced other films .
= = = Casting = = =
Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles for three years prior to The X @-@ Files ; at first he wanted to focus on feature films . In 1993 , his manager , Melanie Green , gave him the script for the " pilot episode " of The X @-@ Files . Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script , so he auditioned for the lead . Duchovny 's audition was " terrific " , though he talked rather slowly . While the casting director of the show was very positive toward him , Carter thought that he was not particularly intelligent . He asked Duchovny if he could " please " imagine himself as an FBI agent in " future " episodes . Duchovny , however , turned out to be one of the best @-@ read people that Carter knew .
Anderson auditioned for the role of Scully in 1993 . " I couldn ’ t put the script down " , she recalled . The network wanted either a more established or a " taller , leggier , blonder and breastier " actress for Scully than the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Anderson , a theater veteran with minor film experience . After auditions , Carter felt she was the only choice . Carter insisted that Anderson had the kind of no @-@ nonsense integrity that the role required . For portraying Scully , Anderson won numerous major awards : the Screen Actors Guild Award in 1996 and 1997 , an Emmy Award in 1997 , and a Golden Globe Award 1997 .
The character Walter Skinner was played by actor Mitch Pileggi , who had unsuccessfully auditioned for the roles of two or three other characters on The X @-@ Files before getting the part . At first , the fact that he was asked back to audition for the recurring role slightly puzzled him , until he discovered the reason he had not previously been cast in those roles — Carter had been unable to envision Pileggi as any of those characters , because the actor had been shaving his head . When Pileggi auditioned for Walter Skinner , he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow . His attitude fit well with Skinner 's character , causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy . Pileggi later realized he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles , as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role .
Before the seventh season aired , Duchovny filed a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox . He was upset because , he claimed , Fox had undersold the rights to its own affiliates , thereby costing him huge sums of money . Eventually , the lawsuit was settled , and Duchovny was awarded a settlement of about $ 20 million . The lawsuit put strain on Duchovny 's professional relationships . Neither Carter nor Duchovny was contracted to work on the series beyond the seventh season ; however , Fox entered into negotiations near the end of that season in order to bring the two on board for an eighth season . After settling his contract dispute , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season . Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny 's departure , but it was decided that Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh seasons and would return in 12 episodes the following year . The producers then announced that a new character , John Doggett , would fill Mulder 's role .
More than 100 actors auditioned for the role of Doggett , but only about ten were seriously considered . Lou Diamond Phillips , Hart Bochner , and Bruce Campbell were among the ten . The producers chose Robert Patrick . Carter believed that the series could continue for another ten years with new leads , and the opening credits were accordingly redesigned in both seasons eight and nine to emphasize the new actors ( along with Pileggi , who was finally listed as a main character ) . Doggett 's presence did not give the series the ratings boost the network executives were hoping for . The eighth season episode " This is Not Happening " marked the first appearance of Monica Reyes , played by Gish , who became a main character in season nine . Her character was developed and introduced due to Anderson 's possible departure at the end of the eighth season . Although Anderson stayed until the end , Gish became a series regular .
= = = = Minor recurring characters = = = =
Glen Morgan and James Wong 's early influence on The X @-@ Files mythology led to their introduction of popular secondary characters who continued for years in episodes written by others : Scully 's father , William ( Don S. Davis ) ; her mother , Margaret ( Sheila Larken ) ; and her sister , Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) . The conspiracy @-@ inspired trio The Lone Gunmen were also secondary characters . The trio was introduced in the first season episode " E.B.E. " as a way to make Mulder appear more credible . They were originally meant to appear in only that episode , but due to their popularity , they returned in the second season episode " Blood " and became recurring characters . Cigarette Smoking Man portrayed by William B. Davis , was initially cast as an extra in the pilot episode . His character , however , grew into the main antagonist .
= = = Filming = = =
During the early stages of production , Carter founded Ten Thirteen Productions and began to plan for filming the pilot in Los Angeles . However , unable to find suitable locations for many scenes , he decided to " go where the good forests are " and moved production to Vancouver . It was soon realized by the production crew that since so much of the first season would require filming on location , rather than on sound stages , a second location manager would be needed . The show remained in Vancouver for the first five seasons ; production then shifted to Los Angeles beginning with the sixth season . Duchovny was unhappy over his geographical separation from his wife Téa Leoni , although his discontent was popularly attributed to frustration with climatic conditions in Vancouver . Anderson also wanted to return to the United States and Carter relented following the fifth season . The season ended in May 1998 with " The End " , the final episode shot in Vancouver ( until the 2016 revival ) and the final episode with the involvement of many of the original crew members , including director and producer R.W. Goodwin and his wife Sheila Larken , who played Margaret Scully and would later return briefly . The X @-@ Files crew returned to Vancouver to film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . According to Spotnitz , the film script was written specifically for the city and surrounding areas .
With the move to Los Angeles , many changes behind the scenes occurred , as much of the original The X @-@ Files crew was gone . New production designer Corey Kaplan , editor Lynne Willingham , writer David Amann and director and producer Michael Watkins joined and stayed for several years . Bill Roe became the show 's new director of photography and episodes generally had a drier , brighter look due to California 's sunshine and climate , as compared with Vancouver 's rain , fog and temperate forests . Early in the sixth season , the producers took advantage of the new location , setting the show in new parts of the country . For example , Vince Gilligan 's " Drive " , about a man subject to an unexplained illness , was a frenetic action episode , unusual for The X @-@ Files largely because it was set in Nevada 's stark desert roads . The " Dreamland " two @-@ part episode was also set in Nevada , this time in Area 51 . The episode was largely filmed at " Club Ed " , a movie ranch located on the outskirts of Lancaster , California .
Although the sixth through ninth seasons were filmed in Los Angeles , the series ' second movie , The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe ( 2008 ) , was filmed in Vancouver , as was the 2016 revival .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Mark Snow , who got involved with The X @-@ Files through his friendship with executive producer Goodwin . Initially Carter had no candidates . A little over a dozen people were considered , but Goodwin continued to press for Snow , who auditioned around three times with no sign from the production staff as to whether they wanted him . One day , however , Snow 's agent called him , talking about the " pilot episode " and hinting that he had got the job .
The theme , " The X @-@ Files " , used more instrumental sections than most dramas . The theme song 's famous whistle effect was inspired by the track " How Soon Is Now ? " from The Smiths ' 1985 album Meat Is Murder . After attempting to craft the theme with different sound effects , Snow used a Proteus 2 rack @-@ mount synth with an effect called " Whistling Joe " . After hearing this effect , Carter was " taken aback " and noted it was " going to be good " . According to the " Behind the Truth " segment on the first season DVD , Snow created the echo effect on the track by accident . He felt that after several revisions , something still was not right . Carter walked out of the room and Snow put his hand and forearm on his keyboard in frustration . By doing so , he accidentally activated an echo effect setting . The resulting riff pleased Carter ; Snow said , " this sound was in the keyboard . And that was it . " The second episode , " Deep Throat " , marked Snow 's debut as solo composer for an entire episode . The production crew was determined to limit the music in the early episodes . Likewise , the theme song itself first appeared in " Deep Throat " .
Snow was tasked with composing the score for both The X @-@ Files films . The films marked the first appearance of real instruments ; previous music had been digitally crafted by Snow . Snow 's soundtrack for the first film , The X @-@ Files : Original Motion Picture Score , was released in 1998 . For the second film , Snow recorded with the Hollywood Studio Symphony in May 2008 at the Newman Scoring Stage at 20th Century Fox in Century City . UNKLE recorded a new version of the theme music for the end credits . Some of the unusual sounds were created by a variation of silly putty and dimes tucked into piano strings . Snow commented that the fast percussion featured in some tracks was inspired by the track " Prospectors Quartet " from the There Will Be Blood soundtrack . The soundtrack score , The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe : Original Motion Picture Score , was released in 2008 .
= = = Opening sequence = = =
The opening sequence was made in 1993 for the first season and remained unchanged until Duchovny left the show . Carter sought to make the title an " impactful opening " with " supernatural images " . These scenes notably include a split @-@ screen image of a seed germinating as well as a " terror @-@ filled , warped face " . The latter was created when Carter found a video operator who was able to create the effect . The sequence was extremely popular and won the show its first Emmy Award , which was for Outstanding Graphic Design and Title Sequences . Rabwin was particularly pleased with the sequence and felt that it was something that had " never [ been ] seen on television before " .
The premiere episode of season eight , " Within " , revealed the first major change to the opening credits . Along with Patrick , the sequence used new images and updated photos for Duchovny and Anderson , although Duchovny only appears in the opening credits when he appears in an episode . Carter and the production staff saw Duchovny 's departure as a chance to change things . The replacement shows various pictures of Scully 's pregnancy . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , the sequence also features an " abstract " way of showing Mulder 's absence in the eighth season : he falls into an eye . Season nine featured an entirely new sequence . Since Anderson wanted to move on , the sequence featured Reyes and Skinner . Duchovny 's return to the show for the ninth season finale , " The Truth " marked the largest number of cast members to be featured in the opening credits , with five .
The sequence ends with the tagline " The Truth Is Out There " , which is used for the majority of the episodes . The tagline changes in specific episodes to slogans that are relevant to that episode . The first of these was " Trust No One " in " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . Other examples include : " Deny Everything " in " Ascension " , " Éí ' Aaníígóó ' Áhoot 'é " in " Anasazi " , " Everything Dies " in " Herrenvolk " , " Believe to Understand " in " Closure " , " They 're Watching " in " Trust No 1 " , and " This Is the End " in " My Struggle II " .
= = Broadcast and release = =
= = = Episodes = = =
= = = Nielsen ratings = = =
The pilot premiered on September 10 , 1993 , and reached 12 million viewers . As the season progressed , ratings began to increase and the season finale garnered 14 million viewers . The first season ranked 105th out of 128 shows during the 1993 – 94 television season . The series ' second season increased in ratings — a trend that would continue for the next three seasons — and finished 63rd out of 141 shows . These ratings were not spectacular , but the series had attracted enough fans to receive the label " cult hit " , particularly by Fox standards . Most importantly it made great gains among the 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 age demographic sought by advertisers . During its third year , the series ranked 55th and was viewed by an average of 15 @.@ 40 million viewers , an increase of almost seven percent over the second season , making it Fox 's top @-@ rated program in the 18 – 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Although the first three episodes of the fourth season aired on Friday night , the fourth episode " Unruhe " aired on Sunday night . The show remained on Sunday until its end . The season hit a high with its twelfth episode , " Leonard Betts " , which was chosen as the lead @-@ out program following Super Bowl XXXI . The episode was viewed by 29 @.@ 1 million viewers , the series ' highest @-@ rated episode . The fifth season debuted with " Redux I " on November 2 , 1997 and was viewed by 27 @.@ 34 million people , making it the highest @-@ rated non @-@ special broadcast episode of the series . The season ranked as the eleventh @-@ most watched series during the 1997 – 98 year , with an average of 19 @.@ 8 million viewers . It was the series ' highest @-@ rated season as well as Fox ' highest @-@ rated program during the 1997 – 98 season .
The sixth season premiered with " The Beginning " , watched by 20 @.@ 24 million viewers . The show ended season six with lower numbers than the previous season , beginning a decline that would continue for the show 's final three years . The X @-@ Files was nevertheless Fox 's highest @-@ rated show that year . The seventh season , originally intended as the show 's last , ranked as the 29th most @-@ watched show for the 1999 – 2000 year , with 14 @.@ 20 million viewers . This made it , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated year of the show since the third season . The first episode of season eight , " Within " , was viewed by 15 @.@ 87 million viewers . The episode marked an 11 % decrease from the seventh season opener , " The Sixth Extinction " . The first part of the ninth season opener , " Nothing Important Happened Today " , only attracted 10 @.@ 6 million viewers , the series ' lowest @-@ rated season premiere .
The original series finale , " The Truth " , attracted 13 @.@ 25 million viewers , the series ' lowest rated season finale . The ninth season was the 63rd most @-@ watched show for the 2001 – 02 season , tying its season two rank . On May 19 , 2002 , the finale aired and the Fox network confirmed that The X @-@ Files was over . When talking about the beginning of the ninth season , Carter said " We lost our audience on the first episode . It 's like the audience had gone away and I didn 't know how to find them . I didn 't want to work to get them back because I believed what we are doing deserved to have them back . " While news outlets cited declining ratings because of lackluster stories and poor writing , The X @-@ Files production crew blamed September 11 terrorist attacks as the main factor . At the end of 2002 , The X @-@ Files had become the longest @-@ running consecutive science fiction series ever on U.S. broadcast television . This record was later surpassed by Stargate SG @-@ 1 in 2007 and Smallville in 2011 .
The debut episode of the 2016 revival , " My Struggle " , first aired on January 24 , 2016 and was watched by 16 @.@ 19 million viewers . In terms of viewers , this made it the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air since the eighth season episode " This Is Not Happening " in 2001 , which was watched by 16 @.@ 9 million viewers . When DVR and streaming are taken into account , " My Struggle " was seen by 21 @.@ 4 million viewers , scoring a 7 @.@ 1 Nielsen rating . The season ended with " My Struggle II " , which was viewed by 7 @.@ 60 million viewers . In total , the season was viewed by an average of 13 @.@ 6 million viewers ; it ranked as the seventh most @-@ watched television series of the 2015 – 16 year , making it the highest @-@ ranked season of The X @-@ Files to ever air .
= = = Foreign broadcast = = =
By the time TV Asahi started broadcasts , The X @-@ Files was already a solid performer at video stores in Japan with sales of over 300 @,@ 000 . When The X @-@ Files first hit Japan , it was the No. 1 rated show in its time slot and had an average rating of 14 @.@ 9 % for its first season . It was the first American @-@ produced series to succeed in Japan in almost a decade and the only U.S. program to have a regular primetime spot on a Japanese television network during its initial three @-@ year run .
= = = Films = = =
After several successful seasons , Carter wanted to tell the story of the series on a wider scale , which ultimately turned into a feature film . He later explained that the main problem was to create a story that would not require the viewer to be familiar with the broadcast series . The movie was filmed in the hiatus between the show 's fourth and fifth seasons and re @-@ shoots were conducted during the filming of the show 's fifth season . Due to the demands on the actors ' schedules , some episodes of the fifth season focused on just one of the two leads . In summer 1998 , the eponymous The X @-@ Files , also known as The X @-@ Files : Fight the Future was released . The crew intended the movie to be a continuation of the season five finale " The End " , but was also meant to stand on its own . The season six premiere , " The Beginning " , began where the film ended .
The film was written by Carter and Spotnitz and directed by series regular Rob Bowman . In addition to Mulder , Scully , Skinner and Cigarette Smoking Man , it featured guest appearances by Martin Landau , Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl and Blythe Danner , who appeared only in the film . It also featured the last appearance of John Neville as the Well @-@ Manicured Man . Jeffrey Spender , Diana Fowley , Alex Krycek and Gibson Praise — characters who had been introduced in the fifth season finale — do not appear in the film . Although the film had a strong domestic opening and received mostly positive reviews from critics , attendance dropped sharply after the first weekend . Although it failed to make a profit during its theatrical release — due in part to its large promotional budget — The X @-@ Files film was more successful internationally . Eventually , the worldwide theatrical box office total reached $ 189 million . The film 's production cost and ad budgets were each close to $ 66 million . Unlike the series , Anderson and Duchovny received equal pay for the film .
In November 2001 , Carter decided to pursue a second film adaptation . Production was slated to begin after the ninth season , with a projected release in December 2003 . In April 2002 , Carter reiterated his desire and the studio 's desire to do a sequel film . He planned to write the script over the summer and begin production in spring or summer 2003 for a 2004 release . Carter described the film as independent of the series , saying " We 're looking at the movies as stand @-@ alones . They 're not necessarily going to have to deal with the mythology . " Bowman , who had directed various episodes of The X @-@ Files in the past as well as the 1998 film , expressed an interest in the sequel , but Carter took the job . Spotnitz co @-@ authored the script with Carter . The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe became the second film based on the series , after 1998 's The X @-@ Files : Fight the Future . Filming began in December 2007 in Vancouver and finished on March 11 , 2008 .
The film was released in the United States on July 25 , 2008 . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Carter said that if I Want to Believe proved successful , he would propose a third movie that would return to the television series ' mythology and focus on the alien invasion foretold within the series , due to occur in December 2012 . The film grossed $ 4 million on its opening day in the United States . It opened fourth on the U.S. weekend box office chart , with a gross of $ 10 @.@ 2 million . By the end of its theatrical run , it had grossed $ 20 @,@ 982 @,@ 478 domestically and an additional $ 47 @,@ 373 @,@ 805 internationally , for a total worldwide gross of $ 68 @,@ 369 @,@ 434 . Among 2008 domestic releases , it finished in 114th place . The film 's stars both claimed that the timing of the movie 's release , a week after the highly popular Batman film The Dark Knight , negatively affected its success . The film received mixed to negative reviews . Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 reviews from mainstream film critics , reported " mixed or average " reviews , with an average score of 47 based on 33 reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 32 % of 160 listed film critics gave the film a positive review , with an average rating of 4 @.@ 9 out of 10 . The website wrote of the critics ' consensus stating ; " The chemistry between leads David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson do live up to The X @-@ Files ' televised legacy , but the roving plot and droning routines make it hard to identify just what we 're meant to believe in . "
= = = Revival = = =
In several interviews around the release , Carter said that if the X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe movie proved successful at the box office , a third installment would be made going back to the TV series ' mythology , focusing specifically on the alien invasion and colonization of Earth foretold in the ninth season finale , due to occur on December 22 , 2012 . In an October 2009 interview , David Duchovny likewise said he wanted to do a 2012 X @-@ Files movie , but did not know if he would get the chance . Anderson stated in August 2012 that a third X @-@ Files film is " looking pretty good " . As of July 2013 , Fox had not approved the movie , although Carter , Spotnitz , Duchovny and Anderson expressed interest . At the New York Comic Con held October 10 – 13 , 2013 , Duchovny and Anderson reaffirmed that they and Carter are interested in making a third film , with Anderson saying “ If it takes fan encouragement to get Fox interested in that , then I guess that ’ s what it would be . ”
On January 17 , 2015 , Fox confirmed that they were looking at the possibility of bringing The X @-@ Files back , not as a movie , but as a limited run television season . Fox chairman Dana Walden told reporters that " conversations so far have only been logistical and are in very early stages " and that the series would only go forward if Carter , Anderson , and Duchovny were all on board , and that it was a matter of ensuring all of their timetables are open . On March 24 , 2015 , it was confirmed the series would return with series creator Chris Carter and lead actors David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson . It premiered on January 24 , 2016 .
= = = Home video release = = =
On September 24 , 1996 , the first " wave " set of The X @-@ Files VHS tapes were released . Wave sets were released covering the first through fourth seasons . Each " wave " was three VHS tapes , each containing two episodes , for a total of six episodes per wave and two waves per season . For example , the home video release of wave one drew from the first half of the first season : " Pilot " / " Deep Throat " , " Conduit " / " Ice " and " Fallen Angel " / " Eve " . Each wave was also available in a boxed set . Unlike later DVD season releases , the tapes did not include every episode from the seasons . Ultimately twelve episodes — approximately half the total number aired — were selected by Carter to represent each season , including nearly all " mythology arc " episodes and selected standalone episodes . Carter briefly introduced each episode with an explanation of why the episode was chosen and anecdotes from the set . These clips were later included on the full season DVDs . Wave eight , covering the last part of the fourth season , was the last to be released . No Carter interviews appeared on DVDs for later seasons . Many of the waves had collectible cards for each episode .
All nine seasons were released on DVD along with the two films . The entire series was re @-@ released on DVD in early 2006 , in a " slimmer " package . The first five slim case versions did not come with some bonus materials that were featured in the original fold @-@ out versions . However , seasons six , seven , eight and nine all contained the bonus materials found in the original versions . Episodic DVDs have also been released in Region 2 , such as " Deadalive " , " Existence " , " Nothing Important Happened Today " , " Providence " and " The Truth " . Various other episodes were released on DVD and VHS . In 2005 , four DVD sets were released containing the main story arc episodes of The X @-@ Files . The four being Volume 1 – Abduction , Volume 2 – Black Oil , Volume 3 – Colonization and Volume 4 – Super Soldiers . A boxed set containing all nine seasons and the first film was made available in 2007 , which contains all of the special features from the initial releases . The set also includes an additional disc of new bonus features and various collectibles , including a poster for the first film , a comic book , a set of collector cards and a guide to all 202 episodes across all nine seasons and the first film . Due to the fact that the set was released in 2007 , the second film , which was released in 2008 , is not included .
Release of The X @-@ Files ' seasons on Blu @-@ ray , restored in high @-@ definition , was rumored to begin in late 2013 . The German TV channel ProSieben Maxx began airing first season episodes reformatted in widescreen and in high @-@ definition on January 20 , 2014 . On April 23 , 2015 , Netflix began streaming episodes of The X @-@ Files in high definition , marking the first time that the series has been made available in the high resolution format in North America . In October 2015 , it was confirmed that the complete series would be reissued on Blu @-@ ray , and the full set was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
= = = The Lone Gunmen = = =
The Lone Gunmen is an American science fiction television series created by Carter and broadcast on Fox , and was crafted as a more humorous spin @-@ off of The X @-@ Files . The series starred the eponymous Lone Gunmen , and was first broadcast in March 2001 , during The X @-@ Files 's month @-@ long hiatus . Although the debut episode garnered 13 @.@ 23 million viewers , its ratings began to steadily drop . The program was cancelled after thirteen episodes . The last episode was broadcast in June 2001 and ended on a cliffhanger which was partially resolved in a ninth season episode of The X @-@ Files titled " Jump the Shark " .
= = = Comic books = = =
The X @-@ Files was converted into a comic book series published by Topps Comics during the show 's third and fourth seasons . The initial comic books were written solely by Stefan Petrucha . According to Petrucha , there were three types of stories : " those that dealt with the characters , those that dealt with the conspiracy , and the monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week sort of stuff " . Petrucha cited the latter as the easiest to write . Petrucha saw Scully as a " scientist [ … ] with real world faith " , and that the difference between [ Mulder and Scully ] is not that Mulder believes and Scully doesn 't ; it 's more a difference in procedure . " In this manner , Mulder 's viewpoint was often written to be just as valid as Scully 's , and Scully 's science was often portrayed to be just as convincing as Mulder 's more outlandish ideas . Petrucha was eventually fired and various other authors took up the job . Topps published 41 regular issues of The X @-@ Files from 1995 – 1998 .
A 30 Days of Night / The X @-@ Files cross @-@ over graphic novel was published by WildStorm in 2010 . It follows Mulder and Scully to Alaska as they investigate a series of grisly murders that may be linked to vampires .
In 2013 , it was announced that The X @-@ Files would return to comic book form with " Season 10 " , now published by IDW . The series , which follows Mulder and Scully after the events of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , was released in June 2013 . Joe Harris wrote the series , and Michael Walsh and Jordie Bellaire provided the artwork . It was later announced that Carter himself would be the executive producer for the series and would be " providing feedback to the creative team regarding scripts and outlines to keep the new stories in line with existing and on @-@ going canon . " The series restarted the series ' mythology , and the first arc of the story focused on " seek [ ing ] to bring the mythology of the Alien Conspiracy back up to date in a more paranoid , post @-@ terror , post @-@ wikileaks society . ” In addition , sequels to popular Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week episodes were made . The X @-@ Files Season 10 concluded in July 2015 after 25 issues .
In August 2015 , The X @-@ Files Season 11 comic book began , also published by IDW . The 8 @-@ issue series served as a continuation of the TV show . Chris Carter was the Executive Producer of the comic book series , while the issues were written by Joe Harris and illustrated by Matthew Dow Smith and Jordie Bellaire .
= = Influence = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = Overall = = = =
The X @-@ Files received positive reviews from television critics , with many calling it one of the best series that aired on American television in the 1990s . Ian Burrell from the British newspaper The Independent called the show " one of the greatest cult shows in modern television " . Richard Corliss from Time magazine called the show the " cultural touchstone of " the 1990s . Hal Boedeker from the Orlando Sentinel said in 1996 that the series had grown from a cult favorite to a television " classic " . The Evening Herald said the show had " overwhelming influence " on television , in front of such shows as The Simpsons . In 2012 , Entertainment Weekly listed the show at # 4 in the " 25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years " , describing it as " a paean to oddballs , sci @-@ fi fans , conspiracy theorists and Area 51 pilgrims everywhere . Ratings improved every year for the first five seasons , while Mulder and Scully 's believer @-@ versus @-@ skeptic dynamic created a TV template that 's still in heavy use today . "
In 2004 and 2007 , The X @-@ Files ranked # 2 on TV Guide 's " Top Cult Shows Ever " . In 2002 , the show ranked as the 37th best television show of all time . In 1997 , the episodes " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Small Potatoes " respectively ranked # 10 and # 72 on " TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time " . In 2013 , TV Guide included it in its list of the " 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time " and ranked it at # 25 on their list of the " 60 Best Series of All Time " . In 2007 , Time included it on a list of the " 100 Best TV Shows of All Time " . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly named it the fourth @-@ best piece of science fiction media , the fourth best TV show in the last 25 years and in 2009 , named it the fourth @-@ best piece of science fiction , in their list of the " 20 Greatest Sci @-@ Fi TV Shows " in history . Empire magazine ranked The X @-@ Files ninth best TV show in history , further claiming that the best episode was the third season entry " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " . According to The Guardian , MediaDNA research discovered that The X @-@ Files was on top of the list of the most innovative TV brands . In 2009 , it was announced that the show 's catchphrase " The Truth Is Out There " was among Britain 's top 60 best @-@ known slogans and quotes .
The X @-@ Files was criticized for being unscientific and presenting paranormal and supernatural ideas ( notably in the person of Fox Mulder ) . For instance , in 1998 , Richard Dawkins wrote that " The X @-@ Files systematically purveys an anti @-@ rational view of the world which , by virtue of its recurrent persistence , is insidious . "
= = = = First seven seasons = = = =
The " pilot episode " was generally well received by fans and critics . Variety criticized the episode for " using reworked concepts " , but praised the production and noted its potential . Of the acting , Variety said " Duchovny 's delineation of a serious scientist with a sense of humor should win him partisans and Anderson 's wavering doubter connects well . They 're a solid team ... ' " Variety praised the writing and direction : " Mandel 's cool direction of Carter 's ingenious script and the artful presentation itself give TV sci @-@ fi a boost . " The magazine concluded , " Carter 's dialogue is fresh without being self @-@ conscious and the characters are involving . Series kicks off with drive and imagination , both innovative in recent TV . " Entertainment Weekly said that Scully " was set up as a scoffing skeptic " in the pilot but progressed toward belief throughout the season . After the airing of four episodes , the magazine called The X @-@ Files " the most paranoid , subversive show on TV " , noting the " marvelous tension between Anderson — who is dubious about these events — and Duchovny , who has the haunted , imploring look of a true believer " . Virgin Media said the most memorable " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " was " Eugene Tooms " from " Squeeze " and " Tooms " .
The following four seasons received similar praise . During the show 's second season , Entertainment Weekly named The X @-@ Files the " Program of the Year " for 1994 , stating " no other show on television gives off the vibe that The X @-@ Files does " . The DVD Journal gave the second season four out of four stars , calling it a " memorable season " . The review highlighted " The Host " , " Duane Barry " and " Ascension " , the cliffhanger finale " Anasazi " , the " unforgettable " " Humbug " and meeting Mulder and Scully 's families in " Colony " and " One Breath " . IGN gave the season a rating of 9 out of 10 , with the reviewer noting it was an improvement upon the first as it had " started to explore a little " and the " evolution of the characters makes the product shine even though the plotlines have begun to seem familiar " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the third season The X @-@ Files ' " best season and maybe one of the greatest TV seasons of all time " , noting it was consistent and " [ swung ] from strength to strength " between mythology and stand @-@ alone episodes . Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly gave the fifth season an " A – " , writing that it " proves the show was — even then — still at its creative peak ( if only for another year or so ) and full of surprises " . He praised the new additions to the series ' mythology and concluded that " many stand @-@ alone episodes now look like classics " . Francis Dass , writing for the New Straits Times , noted that the season was " very interesting " and possessed " some [ ... ] truly inspiring and hilarious " episodes .
After the 1998 film , the show began to receive increasingly critical reviews . Some longtime fans became alienated during the show 's sixth season , due to the different tone taken by most stand @-@ alone episodes after the move to Los Angeles . Rather than adhering to the " Monsters @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " style , they were often romantic or humorous or both , such as " Arcadia " or " Terms of Endearment " . Some fans felt there was no coherent plan to the main storyline and that Carter was " making it all up as he goes along " . As for the seventh season , The A.V. Club noted that while the first eight seasons of The X @-@ Files were " good @-@ to @-@ great " , the seventh season of the show was " flagging " and possessed " significant problems " . Despite this , the final two seasons that featured Duchovny included several episodes that were lauded by critics , including the sixth season entries " Triangle " and " The Unnatural " , as well as the seventh season installment " X @-@ Cops " .
= = = = Seasons eight and nine = = = =
The show 's eighth season received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club noted that the eighth season was " revitalized by the new ' search for Mulder ' story @-@ arc " . Amy H. Sturgis commended the eighth season , praising Anderson 's performance as Scully as " excellence " and positively wrote that Doggett was " non @-@ Mulderish " . Collin Polonowonski from DVD Times said that the season included " more hits than misses overall " but offered a negative word about the mythology episodes , claiming that they were the " weakest " episodes in the season . Jesse Hassenger from PopMatters , however , criticized the new season , claiming that Patrick was miscast and calling Duchovny 's appearances as Mulder shallow .
Season nine received mixed to negative reviews by critics and garnered negative reaction from many long @-@ time fans and viewers . Sabadino Parker from PopMatters , called the show " a pale reflection of the show it once was " . Elizabeth Weinbloom from The New York Times concluded , " shoddy writing notwithstanding , it was this halfhearted culmination of what was once a beautifully complicated friendship " , between Mulder and Scully that ended remaining interest in what was a " waning phenomenon " . Another The New York Times review stated , " The most imaginative show on television has finally reached the limits of its imagination . " The A.V. Club listed the ninth season and the 2008 film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe as the " bad apple " of The X @-@ Files franchise , describing the ninth season as " clumsy mish @-@ mash of stuff that had once worked and new serialized storylines about so @-@ called ' super soldiers ' " . Brian Linder from IGN , on the other hand , was more positive to the ninth season , saying that the series could still have aired if the writers created a new storyline for Patrick and Gish 's characters .
= = = Accolades = = =
The X @-@ Files received prestigious awards over its nine @-@ year run , totaling 62 Emmy nominations and 16 awards . Capping its successful first season , The X @-@ Files crew members James Castle , Bruce Bryant and Carol Johnsen won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences in 1994 . In 1995 , the show was nominated for seven Emmy Awards with one win . The following year , the show won five Emmys out of eight nominations , including Darin Morgan for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . In 1997 , The X @-@ Files won three awards out of twelve , including Gillian Anderson for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series . In 1998 , the show won one of fifteen . In 1999 , it won one out of eight , in the category for Outstanding Makeup for a Series . Season seven won three Emmys from six nominations . The following season would not be as successful , catching only two nominations and winning again in the Makeup category for " Deadalive " . The ninth season received one nomination in Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) .
The show was nominated for 12 Golden Globe Awards overall , winning five . The first nomination came in 1994 , when the show won Best Series – Drama . The following year , Anderson and Duchovny were nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role and Best Actress in a Leading Role , respectively . In 1996 , the series won three awards ; Anderson and Duchovny for Best Actress and Actor and for Best Series – Drama . In 1997 and 1998 , the show received the same three nominations . In 1997 , however , the series won Best Series – Drama " . In 1998 the series won no award and received no nominations thereafter .
The show was nominated for 14 SAG Awards overall , winning twice . In 1996 and 1997 , Anderson won for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series . In 1996 , the show won a Peabody Award for being able " to convey ideas that are both entertaining and thought @-@ provoking " . The show has also been nominated for : two American Cinema Editors awards , three Directors Guild of America Awards , nine Television Critics Association Awards and two Writers Guild of American Awards . The X @-@ Files was also nominated for nine Satellite Awards , managing to win two of them ; and two Young Artist Awards , winning one .
= = = Fandom = = =
As The X @-@ Files saw its viewership expand from a " small , but devoted " group of fans to a worldwide mass cult audience , digital telecommunications were becoming mainstream . According to The New York Times , " this may have been the first show to find its audience growth tied to the growth of the Internet " . The X @-@ Files incorporated new technologies into storylines beginning in the early seasons : Mulder and Scully communicated on cellular phones , e @-@ mail contact with secret informants provided plot points in episodes such as " Colony " and " Anasazi " , while The Lone Gunmen were portrayed as Internet aficionados as early as 1994 . Many X @-@ Files fans also had online access . Fans of the show became commonly known as " X @-@ Philes " , a term coined from the Greek root " -phil- " meaning love or obsession . In addition to watching the show , X @-@ Philes reviewed episodes themselves on unofficial websites , formed communities with other fans through Usenet newsgroups and listservs , and wrote their own fan fiction .
The X @-@ Files also " caught on with viewers who wouldn 't ordinarily consider themselves sci @-@ fi fans " . While Carter argued that the show was plot @-@ driven , many fans saw it as character @-@ driven . Duchovny and Anderson were characterized as " Internet sex symbols " . As the show grew in popularity , subgroups of fans developed , such as " shippers " hoping for a romantic or sexual partnership between Mulder and Scully , or those who already perceived one between the lines . Other groups arose to pay tribute to the stars or their characters , while others joined the subculture of " slash " fiction . As of summer 1996 , a journalist wrote , " there are entire forums online devoted to the ' M / S ' [ Mulder and Scully ] relationship " . In addition to " MOTW " , Internet fans invented acronyms such as " UST " meaning " unresolved sexual tension " and " COTR " standing for " conversation on the rock " — referencing a popular scene in the third season episode " Quagmire " — to aid in their discussions of the agents ' relationship , which was itself identified as the " MSR " .
The producers did not endorse some fans ' readings , according to a study on the subject : " Not content to allow Shippers to perceive what they wish , Carter has consistently reassured NoRomos [ those against the idea of a Mulder / Scully romance ] that theirs is the preferred reading . This allows him the plausible deniability to credit the show 's success to his original plan even though many watched in anticipation of a romance , thanks , in part , to his strategic polysemy . He can deny that these fans had reason to do so , however , since he has repeatedly stated that a romance was not and would never be . " The Scully @-@ obsessed writer in Carter 's 1999 episode " Milagro " was read by some as his alter ego , realizing that by this point " she has fallen for Mulder despite his authorial intent " . The writers sometimes paid tribute to the more visible fans by naming minor characters after them . The best example is Leyla Harrison . Played by Jolie Jenkins and introduced in the eighth season episode " Alone " , Harrison , was created and named in memory of an Internet fan and prolific writer of fan fiction of the same name , who died of cancer on February 10 , 2001 .
= = = Merchandise = = =
The X @-@ Files spawned an industry of spin @-@ off products . In 2004 , U.S.-based Topps Comics and most recently , DC Comics imprint Wildstorm launched a new series of licensed tie @-@ in comics . During the series ' run , the Fox Broadcasting Company published the official The X @-@ Files Magazine . The X @-@ Files Collectible Card Game was released in 1996 and an expansion set was released in 1997 . The X @-@ Files has inspired three video games . In 1998 , The X @-@ Files Game was released for the PC and Macintosh and a year later for the PlayStation . This game is set within the timeline of the second or third season and follows an Agent Craig Willmore in his search for the missing Mulder and Scully . In 2000 , Fox Interactive released The X @-@ Files : Unrestricted Access , a game @-@ style database for Windows and Mac , which allowed users access to every case file . Then , in 2004 , The X @-@ Files : Resist or Serve was released . The game is a survival @-@ horror game released for the PlayStation 2 and is an original story set in the seventh season . It allows the player control of both Mulder and Scully . Both games feature acting and voice work from members of the series ' cast . A 6 @-@ player pinball game , called The X @-@ Files , was produced by Sega in 1997 .
= = = Legacy = = =
The X @-@ Files directly inspired other TV series , including Strange World , The Burning Zone , Special Unit 2 , Mysterious Ways , Lost , Dark Skies , The Visitor , Fringe , Warehouse 13 , Supernatural , and Gravity Falls , with key aspects carried over to more standard crime dramas , such as Eleventh Hour and Bones . The influence can be seen on other levels : television series such as Lost developed their own complex mythologies . In terms of characterization , the role of Dana Scully was seen as innovative , changing " how women [ on television ] were not just perceived but behaved " and perhaps influencing the portrayal of other " strong women " investigators . Russell T Davies said The X @-@ Files had been an inspiration on his series Torchwood , describing it as " dark , wild and sexy ... The X @-@ Files meets This Life " . Other shows have been influenced by the tone and mood of The X @-@ Files . For example , Buffy the Vampire Slayer drew from the mood and coloring of The X @-@ Files , as well as from its occasional blend of horror and humor ; creator Joss Whedon described his show as a cross between The X @-@ Files and My So @-@ Called Life . It also inspired themes in video games Deus Ex and Perfect Dark .
The show 's popularity led it to become a major aspect of popular culture . The show is parodied in The Simpsons season eight episode " The Springfield Files " , which aired on January 12 , 1997 . In it , Mulder and Scully — voiced by Duchovny and Anderson — are sent to Springfield to investigate an alien sighting by Homer Simpson , but end up finding no evidence other than Homer 's word and depart . Cigarette Smoking Man appears in the background when Homer is interviewed and the show 's theme plays during one particular scene . Nathan Ditum from Total Film ranked Duchovny and Anderson 's performances as the fourth @-@ best guest appearances in The Simpsons history . In the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " , Benjamin Sisko is interviewed by Federation Department of Temporal Investigations agents Dulmer and Lucsly , anagrams of Mulder and Scully , respectively . The pair were later expanded upon in Christopher L. Bennett 's book Watching the Clock . The X @-@ Files has also been parodied or referenced in countless other shows , like : 3rd Rock from the Sun , Archer , American Horror Story , The Big Bang Theory , Bones , Breaking Bad , Californication , Castle , Family Guy , Hey Arnold ! , King of the Hill , South Park , and Two and a Half Men . Welsh music act Catatonia released the 1998 single " Mulder and Scully " , which became a hit in the United Kingdom . American singer and songwriter Bree Sharp wrote a song called " David Duchovny " about the actor in 1999 that heavily references the show and its characters . Although never a mainstream hit , the song became popular underground and gained a cult following . The series has also been referenced in : " The Bad Touch " by the Bloodhound Gang , " A Change " by Sheryl Crow , " Year 2000 " by Xzibit , and " One Week " by Barenaked Ladies .
Carter , Duchovny and Anderson celebrated the 20th anniversary of the series at a July 18 , 2013 panel at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con hosted by TV Guide . During the discussion , Anderson discussed Scully 's influence on female fans , relating that a number of women have informed her that they entered into careers in physics because of the character . Anderson also indicated that she was not in favor of an X @-@ Files miniseries , and Duchovny ruled out working with her on an unrelated project , but both expressed willingness to do a third feature film . Carter was more reserved at the idea , stating , " You need a reason to get excited about going on and doing it again . " The series attained a degree of historical importance , as well . On July 16 , 2008 , Carter and Spotnitz donated several props from the series and new film to the Smithsonian 's National Museum of American History . Some of the items included the original pilot script and the " I Want to Believe " poster from Mulder 's office .
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= V. Gordon Childe =
Vere Gordon Childe ( 14 April 1892 – 19 October 1957 ) , better known as V. Gordon Childe , was an Australian archaeologist and philologist who specialized in the study of European prehistory . Working most of his life as an academic in the United Kingdom for the University of Edinburgh and then the Institute of Archaeology , London , he wrote twenty @-@ six books and was an early proponent of culture @-@ historical archaeology and Marxist archaeology .
Born in Sydney , New South Wales to a middle @-@ class family of English descent , Childe studied Classics at the University of Sydney before moving to England to study Classical archaeology at the University of Oxford . Here , he embraced the socialist movement and campaigned against the First World War , viewing it as a conflict waged by competing imperialists to the detriment of Europe 's working class . Returning to Australia in 1917 , he was prevented from working in academia because of his socialist activism , instead working for the Australian Labor Party as the private secretary of politician John Storey . Growing critical of Labor , he authored an analysis of their policies and joined the far @-@ left Industrial Workers of the World . Emigrating to London in 1921 , he became librarian of the Royal Anthropological Institute and continued his research into European prehistory through various journeys across the continent , publishing his findings in academic papers and books . In doing so he introduced the continental European concept of an archaeological culture to the British archaeological community .
From 1927 through to 1946 he worked as the Abercromby Professor of Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh , and then from 1947 to 1957 as director of the Institute of Archaeology , London . During this period he oversaw excavation of a number of archaeological sites in Scotland and Northern Ireland , focusing in particular on the society of Neolithic Orkney by excavating the settlement of Skara Brae and the chambered tombs of Maeshowe and Quoyness . Throughout , he continued to publish prolifically , producing excavation reports , journal articles , and books . With Stuart Piggott and Grahame Clark he co @-@ founded The Prehistoric Society in 1934 , becoming its first president . Remaining committed to his socialist ideals , he embraced Marxism , and used Marxist ideas as an interpretative framework for archaeological data . He also became a noted sympathiser with the Soviet Union and visited the country on a number of occasions , although grew sceptical of Soviet foreign policy following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 . His beliefs resulted in him being legally barred from entering the United States , despite being repeatedly invited to lecture there . Upon retirement , he returned to Australia 's Blue Mountains , there committing suicide .
Widely regarded as one of the most important archaeologists and prehistorians of his generation , he became known as the " great synthesizer " for his work in synthesizing regional research into a broader picture of Near Eastern and European prehistory . He was also renowned for his emphasis on the role of revolutionary technological and economic developments in human society , such as the Neolithic Revolution and the Urban Revolution , in this manner being influenced by Marxist ideas on societal development .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1892 – 1910 = = =
Childe was born on 14 April 1892 in Sydney , New South Wales . He was the only surviving child of the Reverend Stephen Henry ( 1844 – 1923 ) and Harriet Eliza Childe ( 1853 – 1910 ) , a middle @-@ class couple of English descent . Stephen Childe was a second @-@ generation Anglican priest , ordained into the Church of England in 1867 after gaining a BA from the University of Cambridge . Becoming a teacher , in 1871 he married Mary Ellen Latchford , together having five children . They moved to Australia in 1878 . It was here that Mary died , and in 1886 Stephen married Harriet , an Englishwoman from a wealthy background who had moved to Australia as a child . Gordon Childe was raised alongside five half @-@ siblings at his father 's palatial country house , the Chalet Fontenelle , in the township of Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains west of Sydney . Reverend Childe worked as the minister for St. Thomas ' Parish , but proved unpopular , arguing with his congregation and taking unscheduled holidays .
A sickly child , Gordon Childe was educated at home for a number of years , before gaining a private school education in North Sydney . In 1907 , he began attending Sydney Church of England Grammar School , gaining his Junior Matriculation in 1909 and Senior Matriculation in 1910 . At school he studied ancient history , French , Greek , Latin , geometry , algebra and trigonometry , achieving good marks in all subjects , but was bullied because of his strange appearance and unathletic physique . In July 1910 his mother died ; his father soon took Monica Gardiner as his third wife . Childe 's relationship with his father was strained , particularly following his mother 's death , and they disagreed on the subject of religion and politics , with the Reverend being a devout Christian and conservative while his son was an atheist and socialist .
= = = University in Sydney and Oxford : 1911 – 1917 = = =
Childe studied for a degree in Classics at the University of Sydney in 1911 ; although focusing on the study of written sources , he first came across classical archaeology through the works of archaeologists Heinrich Schliemann and Arthur Evans . At university , he became an active member of the Debating Society , at one point arguing in favour of the proposition that " socialism is desirable " . Increasingly interested in socialism , he read the works of Marxism 's founders Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , as well as those of philosopher G. W. F. Hegel , whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marxist theory . Also while there , he became a great friend of fellow undergraduate Herbert Vere Evatt , with whom he remained in contact throughout his life . Ending his studies in 1913 , Childe graduated the following year with various honours and prizes , including Professor Francis Anderson 's prize for Philosophy .
Wishing to continue his education , he gained a £ 200 Cooper Graduate Scholarship in Classics , allowing him to afford the tuition fees at Queen 's College , a part of the University of Oxford , England . He set sail for Britain aboard the SS Orsova in August 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. At Queen 's , Childe was entered for a diploma in classical archaeology followed by a Literae Humaniores degree , although he never completed the former . Whilst there , he studied under John Beazley and Arthur Evans , the latter acting as Childe 's supervisor . In 1915 , he published his first academic paper , " On the Date and Origin of Minyan Ware " , which appeared in the Journal of Hellenic Studies , and the following year produced his B.Litt. thesis , " The Influence of Indo @-@ Europeans in Prehistoric Greece " , displaying his interest in combining philological and archaeological evidence .
At Oxford he became actively involved with the socialist movement , antagonising the conservative university authorities . Becoming a noted member of the left @-@ wing reformist Oxford University Fabian Society , then at the height of its power and membership , he was there in 1915 when it changed its name to the Oxford University Socialist Society , following a split from the Fabian Society . His best friend and flatmate was Rajani Palme Dutt , a British citizen born to an Indian father and Swedish mother , who was a fervent socialist and Marxist . The two often got drunk and tested each other 's knowledge about classical history late at night . With Britain in the midst of World War I , many socialists refused to fight for the British Army despite the government imposed conscription . They believed that the war was being waged in the interests of the ruling classes of the European imperialist nations at the expense of the working classes , and that class war was the only conflict that they should be concerned with . Dutt was imprisoned for refusing to fight , and Childe campaigned for his release and the release of other socialists and pacifist conscientious objectors . Childe was never required to enlist in the army , most likely because of his poor health and eyesight . The authorities were concerned by his anti @-@ war sentiments ; the intelligence agency MI5 opening a file on him , his mail was intercepted , and he was kept under observation .
= = = Early career in Australia : 1918 – 1921 = = =
Childe returned to Australia in August 1917 , and being a known socialist agitator , he was soon placed under surveillance by the security services , who intercepted all of his mail . In 1918 he took up the post of Senior Resident Tutor at St Andrew 's College , Sydney University , getting involved in Sydney 's socialist and anti @-@ conscription movement . In Easter 1918 he spoke at the Third Inter @-@ State Peace Conference , an event organised by the Australian Union of Democratic Control for the Avoidance of War , a group opposed to the plans by Prime Minister Billy Hughes and the centre @-@ right Nationalist Party of Australia to introduce conscription . The conference had a prominent socialist emphasis , and its report argued that the best hope for the end to international war was the " abolition of the Capitalist System " . News of Childe 's participation reached the Principal of St Andrew 's College . Under pressure from the university authorities , he forced Childe to resign despite much opposition from staff .
With his good academic reputation , several staff members provided him with work as a tutor in Ancient History in the Department of Tutorial Classes , but he was prevented from doing so by the Chancellor of the University , Sir William Cullen , who feared that Childe would propagate socialism to students . This infringement of Childe 's civil rights was condemned in the leftist community , and the issue was brought up in the Parliament of Australia by centre @-@ left politicians William McKell and T.J. Smith . Moving to Maryborough , Queensland , in October 1918 Childe took up employment teaching Latin at the Maryborough Grammar School . Here too his political affiliations became known , and he was subject to an opposition campaign from local conservative groups and the Maryborough Chronicle , resulting in abuse from disobedient pupils . He soon resigned .
Realising that an academic career would be barred from him by the right wing university authorities , Childe turned to getting a job within the leftist movement . In August 1919 , he became private secretary and speech writer to politician John Storey , a prominent member of the centre @-@ left Australian Labor Party then in opposition to New South Wales ' Nationalist government . Representing the Sydney suburb of Balmain on the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , Storey became state premier in 1920 when Labor achieved an electoral victory there . Working within the Labor Party allowed Childe to gain an " unrivalled grasp of its structure and history " , enabling him to write a book on the subject , How Labour Governs ( 1923 ) . The greater his involvement , the more Childe became critical of Labor , believing that they betrayed their socialist ideals once they gained political power and moved to a centrist , pro @-@ capitalist stance . He joined the Industrial Workers of the World , which in Australia served mostly as a centre of radical labourers within existing unions , and at the time was banned by the government as a political threat . In 1921 Childe was sent to London by Storey , in order to keep the British press updated about developments in New South Wales , but in December Storey died , and a few days later the New South Wales elections restored a Nationalist government under the premiership of George Fuller . Fuller thought Childe 's job unnecessary , and in early 1922 terminated his employment .
= = = London and early books : 1922 – 1926 = = =
Unable to find an academic job in Australia , Childe remained in Britain , renting a room in Bloomsbury , Central London , and spending much time studying at the British Museum and the Royal Anthropological Institute library . An active member of the London socialist movement , he associated with leftists at the 1917 Club in Gerrard Street , Soho , and befriended members of the Marxist Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) , contributing to their publication , Labour Monthly ; however he had not yet openly embraced Marxism . Having earned a reputation as an excellent prehistorian , he was invited to other parts of Europe in order to study prehistoric artefacts . In 1922 he travelled to Vienna , Austria to examine unpublished material about the painted Neolithic pottery from Schipenitz , Bukovina held in the Prehistoric Department of the Natural History Museum ; he published his findings in the 1923 Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute . Childe used this excursion to visit a number of museums in Czechoslovakia and Hungary , bringing them to the attention of British archaeologists in a 1922 article published in Man . Returning to London , in 1922 Childe became a private secretary for three Members of Parliament , including John Hope Simpson and Frank Gray , both members of the centre @-@ left Liberal Party . Supplementing this income , Childe worked as a translator for the publishers Kegan Paul , Trench , Trübner & Co and occasionally lectured in prehistory at the London School of Economics .
In 1923 his first book , How Labour Governs , was published by the London Labour Company . Examining the Australian Labor Party and its wider connection with the Australian labour movement , it reflect Childe 's disillusionment with the party , believing that the politicians that it managed to get elected had abandoned their socialist ideals in favour of personal comfort . Childe 's biographer Sally Green noted that How Labour Governs was of particular significance at the time because it was published just as the British Labour Party was emerging as a major player in British politics , threatening the two @-@ party dominance of the Conservatives and Liberals ; in 1924 they were elected to power . Childe had planned a sequel expanding on his ideas , but it was never published .
In May 1923 he visited continental Europe , journeying to the museums in Lausanne , Bern and Zürich to study their prehistoric artefact collections ; that year he became a member of the Royal Anthropological Institute . In 1925 , the Institute offered him one of the only archaeological jobs then available in Britain , and he became their librarian , in doing so cementing connections with scholars across Europe . This job meant that he came into contact with many of Britain 's archaeologists , of whom there were relatively few during the 1920s ; he developed a great friendship with O. G. S. Crawford , the Archaeological Officer to the Ordnance Survey , influencing the latter 's move toward socialism and Marxism .
In 1925 , Kegan Paul , Trench , Trübner & Co published Childe 's second book , The Dawn of European Civilisation , in which he synthesised the varied data about European prehistory that he had been exploring for many years . An important work , it was released when the few archaeologists across Europe were amateur and focused purely on studying their locality ; The Dawn was a rare example that looked at the larger picture across the continent . Its importance was also due to the fact that it introduced the concept of the archaeological culture into Britain from continental scholarship , thereby aiding in the development of culture @-@ historical archaeology . Childe later stated that the book " aimed at distilling from archaeological remains a preliterate substitute for the conventional politico @-@ military history with cultures , instead of statesmen , as actors , and migrations in place of battles . " In 1926 he published a successor , The Aryans : A Study of Indo @-@ European Origins , exploring the theory that civilisation diffused northward and westward into Europe from the Near East via an Indo @-@ European linguistic group known as the Aryans ; with the ensuing racial use of the term " Aryan " by the German Nazi Party , Childe avoided mention of the book . In these works , Childe accepted a moderate diffusionism , believing that although most cultural traits spread from one society to another , it was possible for the same traits to develop independently in different places , a theory at odds with the hyper @-@ diffusionism of Sir Grafton Elliot Smith .
= = Later life = =
= = = Abercromby Professor of Archaeology : 1927 – 1946 = = =
In 1927 , Childe was offered the newly created post of Abercromby Professor of Archaeology at Scotland 's University of Edinburgh ( at what is now the School of History , Classics and Archaeology ) , established by deed poll in the bequest of prehistorian Lord John Abercromby . Although sad at leaving London , Childe took the prestigious position , moving to Edinburgh in September 1927 . Aged 35 , Childe became the " only academic prehistorian in a teaching post in Scotland " , and was disliked by many Scottish archaeologists , who viewed him as an outsider with no specialism in Scottish prehistory ; this hostility intensified , and he wrote to a friend , remarking that " I live here in an atmosphere of hatred and envy . " He nevertheless made friends in Edinburgh , including Sir W. Lindsay Scott , Alexander Curle , J.G. Callender , Walter Grant and Charles Galton Darwin , becoming godfather to the latter 's youngest son . Initially lodging at Liberton , he moved into the semi @-@ residential Hotel de Vere in Eglington Crescent .
At Edinburgh University , Childe focused on research , and although reportedly very kind towards his students , had difficulty speaking to large audiences ; he organised the BSc degree course so that it began studying the Iron Age , progressing chronologically backward to the Palaeolithic , confusing many students . Founding the Edinburgh League of Prehistorians , he took his more enthusiastic students on excavations and invited guest lecturers to visit . Involving them in experimental archaeology , of which he was an early proponent , in 1937 he performed experiments to understand the vitrification process that had occurred at several Iron Age forts in northern Britain .
Regularly travelling to London to visit friends , one notable comrade was Stuart Piggott , another influential British archaeologist who succeeded Childe as Abercromby Professor at Edinburgh . The duo , along with Grahame Clark , were elected onto the committee of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia , in 1934 using their influence to convert it into a nationwide organisation , the Prehistoric Society , of which Childe was elected president .
Often attending conferences across Europe , Childe became fluent in several languages , and in 1935 first visited the Soviet Union , spending 12 days in Leningrad and Moscow ; impressed with the socialist state , he was particularly interested in the role of Soviet archaeology . Returning to Britain , he became a vocal Soviet sympathiser who avidly read the CPGB 's Daily Worker , although he was heavily critical of certain Soviet government policies , in particular the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany . His socialist convictions led to an early denunciation of European fascism , and he was outraged by the Nazi co @-@ option of prehistoric archaeology to glorify their own conceptions of an Aryan racial heritage . Supportive of the British government 's decision to fight the fascist powers in the Second World War , he made the decision to commit suicide should the Nazis conquer Britain . Though opposing fascist Germany and Italy , he also criticised the imperialist , capitalist governments of the United Kingdom and United States : he often described the latter as being full of " loathsome fascist hyenas " . Nevertheless , in summer 1939 he visited the U.S. , lecturing at the University of Harvard , University of California , Berkeley , and University of Pennsylvania .
= = = = Excavations = = = =
Childe 's university position meant that he was obliged to undertake archaeological excavations , something he loathed and believed that he did poorly . Students agreed , but recognised his " genius for interpreting evidence " . Unlike many contemporaries , he was scrupulous with writing up and publishing his findings , producing almost annual reports for the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland , unusually ensuring that he acknowledged the help of every digger .
His best known excavation was undertaken from 1928 to 1930 at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands . Uncovering a well @-@ preserved Neolithic village , in 1931 he published the excavation results in a book titled Skara Brae . He nevertheless made an error of interpretation , erroneously attributing the site to the Iron Age . Getting on particularly well with the locals , it is reported that to them " he was every inch the professor " because of his eccentric appearance and habits . In 1932 , Childe , collaborating with anthropologist C. Daryll Forde , excavated two Iron Age hillforts at Earn 's Hugh on the Berwickshire coast , while in June 1935 he excavated a promontory fort at Larriban near to Knocksoghey in Northern Ireland . Together with Wallace Thorneycroft , another Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland , Childe excavated two vitrified Iron Age forts in Scotland , at Finavon , Angus ( 1933 – 34 ) and at Rahoy , Argyllshire ( 1936 – 37 ) . In 1938 , he and Walter Grant oversaw excavations at the Neolithic settlement of Rinyo ; excavation ceased during the Second World War , but resumed in 1946 .
= = = = Publications = = = =
Childe continued writing and publishing books on archaeology , beginning with a series of works following on from The Dawn of European Civilisation and The Aryans by compiling and synthesising data from across Europe . First was The Most Ancient Near East ( 1928 ) , which assembled information from across Mesopotamia and India , setting a background from which the spread of farming and other technologies into Europe could be understood . This was followed by The Danube in Prehistory ( 1929 ) which examined the archaeology along the Danube river , recognising it as the natural boundary dividing the Near East from Europe ; Childe believed that it was via the Danube that new technologies travelled westward in prehistory . The book introduced the concept of an archaeological culture to Britain from Germany , revolutionising the theoretical approach of British archaeology .
Childe 's next work , The Bronze Age ( 1930 ) , dealt with the titular Bronze Age in Europe , and displayed his increasing acceptance of Marxist theory in understanding how society functioned and changed . He believed that metal was the first indispensable article of commerce , and that metal @-@ smiths were therefore full @-@ time professionals who lived off the social surplus . Within a matter of years he had followed this up with a string of further works : The Forest Cultures of Northern Europe : A Study in Evolution and Diffusion ( 1931 ) and The Continental Affinities of British Neolithic Pottery ( 1932 ) .
In 1933 , Childe travelled to Asia , visiting Iraq – a place he thought " great fun " – and India , which he felt was " detestable " due to the hot weather and extreme poverty . Touring archaeological sites in the two countries , he opined that much of what he had written in The Most Ancient Near East was outdated , going on to produce New Light on the Most Ancient Near East ( 1935 ) , applying his Marxist @-@ influenced ideas about the economy to his conclusions .
After publishing Prehistory of Scotland ( 1935 ) , Childe produced one of the defining books of his career , Man Makes Himself ( 1936 ) . Influenced by Marxist views of history , Childe argued that the usual distinction between ( pre @-@ literate ) prehistory and ( literate ) history was a false dichotomy and that human society has progressed through a series of technological , economic and social revolutions . These included the Neolithic Revolution , when hunter @-@ gatherers began settling in permanent farming communities , through to the Urban Revolution , when society progressed from a series of small towns through to the first cities , and right up to more recent times , when the Industrial Revolution changed the nature of production .
With the Second World War 's outbreak , Childe was unable to travel across Europe , instead focusing on writing Prehistoric Communities of the British Isles ( 1940 ) . Childe 's pessimism surrounding the war 's outcome led him to believe that " European Civilization – Capitalist and Stalinist alike – was irrevocably headed for a Dark Age . " In this state of mind he produced a sequel to Man Makes Himself titled What Happened in History ( 1942 ) , a synthesis of human history from the Palaeolithic through to the fall of the Roman Empire . Although Oxford University Press offered to publish the work , he released it through Penguin Books because they could sell it at a cheaper price , something he believed pivotal in providing knowledge for " the masses . " This was followed by two short works , Progress and Archaeology ( 1944 ) and The Story of Tools ( 1944 ) , the latter being explicitly Marxist and written for the Young Communist League .
= = = Institute of Archaeology , London : 1946 – 1956 = = =
In 1946 , Childe left Edinburgh to take up the position as Director and Professor of European Prehistory at the Institute of Archaeology ( IOA ) in London . Anxious to return to the capital , he had kept silent over his disapproval of government policies so that he would not be prevented from getting the job . He took up residence at Lawn Road Flats near to Hampstead .
Located in St John 's Lodge in the Inner Circle of Regent 's Park , the IOA was founded in 1937 , largely by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler , but until 1946 relied primarily upon volunteer lecturers . Childe 's relationship with the conservative Wheeler was strained , the latter being intolerant of the shortcomings of others , something Childe made an effort never to be . He was popular among students , who saw him as a kindly eccentric ; they commissioned a bust of Childe from Marjorie Maitland Howard . His lecturing was nevertheless considered poor , as he often mumbled and walked into an adjacent room to find something while continuing to talk . He consistently referred to the socialist states of eastern Europe by their full official titles , and called towns by their Slavonic rather than Germanic names , further confusing his students . He was deemed better at giving tutorials and seminars , where he devoted more time to interacting with his students . As Director , Childe was not obliged to excavate , though he did undertake projects at the Orkney Neolithic burial tombs of Quoyness ( 1951 ) and Maes Howe ( 1954 – 55 ) .
In 1949 he and O.G.S. Crawford resigned as Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries in protest at the election of James Mann to the Presidency following the retirement of Cyril Fox . They believed that Mann , Keeper of the Tower 's Armouries at the Tower of London , was a poor choice and that Wheeler , an actual prehistorian , should have won the election . In 1952 a group of British Marxist historians began publishing the periodical Past & Present , with Childe joining the editorial board . He also became a board member for The Modern Quarterly ( later The Marxist Quarterly ) during the early 1950s , working alongside old friend , the Communist leader , Rajani Palme Dutt , chairman of the board . He authored occasional articles for Palme Dutt 's socialist journal , the Labour Monthly , but disagreed with him over the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 ; Palme Dutt defended the Soviet Union 's decision to quash the revolution using military force , but like many western socialists , Childe strongly disagreed . The event made Childe abandon faith in the Soviet leadership , but not in socialism and Marxism . Childe retained a love of the Soviet Union , having visiting on multiple occasions and having been involved with CPBG satellite body the Society for Cultural Relations with the USSR , and serving as President of their National History and Archaeology Section from the early 1950s until his death .
In April 1956 , Childe was awarded the Gold Medal of the Society of Antiquaries for his services to archaeology . He was invited to lecture in the U.S. on multiple occasions , by Robert Braidwood , William Duncan Strong , and Leslie White , but was barred from entering the country due to his socialist beliefs . Whilst working at the Institute , Childe continued writing and publishing books dealing with archaeology and prehistory . History ( 1947 ) continued his belief that prehistory and literate history must be viewed together , and adopted a Marxist view of history , whilst Prehistoric Migrations ( 1950 ) displayed his views on moderate diffusionism . In 1946 he had also published a paper in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology , titled " Archaeology and Anthropology " which argued that the two disciplines must be used in tandem , something that would be widely accepted in the decades following his death .
= = = Retirement and death : 1957 = = =
In the summer of 1956 , Childe retired as IOA Director a year prematurely . European archaeology had rapidly expanded during the 1950s , leading to increasing specialisation and making the synthesising that Childe was known for increasingly difficult . That year , the Institute was moving to Gordon Square , Bloomsbury , and Childe wanted to give his successor , W.F. Grimes , a fresh start in the new surroundings . To commemorate his achievements , the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society published a Festschrift edition on the last day of his Directorship containing contributions from friends and colleagues from all over the world , something that touched Childe deeply . Upon his retirement , he told many friends that he planned to return to Australia , visit his relatives , and then commit suicide ; he was terrified of becoming old , senile , and a burden on society , and suspected that he had cancer . Subsequent commentators have suggested that a core reason for his suicidal desires was his loss of faith in Marxism following the Hungarian Revolution and Premier Nikita Khrushchev 's denouncement of Joseph Stalin , although Bruce Trigger noted that while Childe was critical of the Soviet Union 's foreign policy , he never saw the state and Marxism as " synonymous " , thereby dismissing this explanation .
Sorting out his affairs , Childe donated most of his library and all of his estate to the Institute . After a holiday visiting archaeological sites in Gibraltar and Spain in February 1957 , he sailed to Australia , reaching Sydney on his 65th birthday . Here , the University of Sydney , which had once barred him from working there , awarded him an honorary degree . Travelling around the country for six months , visiting family members and old friends , he was unimpressed by Australian society , believing it reactionary , increasingly suburban and uneducated . Looking into Australian prehistory , he found it a lucrative field for research , and lectured to archaeological and leftist groups on this and other topics , taking to Australian radio to attack academic racism towards Indigenous Australians .
Writing personal letters to many friends , he sent one to Grimes , requesting that it not be opened until 1968 . In it , he described how he feared old age , and stated his intention to take his own life , remarking that " Life ends best when one is happy and strong . " On 19 October 1957 , Childe went to the area of Govett 's Leap in Blackheath in the Blue Mountains where he had grown up . Leaving his hat , spectacles , compass , pipe and Mackintosh atop the cliffs , he fell 1000 feet ( 300 m ) to his death . A coroner ruled his death as accidental , although in the 1980s the Grimes letter saw publication , allowing for recognition of his suicide . His remains were cremated at the Northern Suburbs Crematorium , and his name added to a small family plaque in the Crematorium Gardens . Following his death , an " unprecedented " level of tributes and memorials were issued by the archaeological community , all testifying to his status as Europe 's " greatest prehistorian and a wonderful human being . "
= = Archaeological methodology and theory = =
Childe has been considered the principal contributor to archaeological methodology in the first part of the 20th century . His theoretical approach blended together Marxism , diffusionism , and functionalism . Childe was critical of the evolutionary archaeology which was dominant during the 19th century . He believed that those archaeologists who adhered to it placed a greater emphasis on artefacts themselves rather than their makers . He recognised flaws in the technological @-@ based three @-@ age system first developed by Danish antiquarian Christian Jürgensen Thomsen , rejecting its evolutionary chronology that divided prehistory into the Stone Age , Bronze Age , and Iron Age by noting that many of the world 's societies were still effectively Stone Age in their technology . He nevertheless saw it as a useful model for analysing socio @-@ economic development when combined with a Marxist model . He therefore used technological criteria for dividing up prehistory into three ages , but instead used economic criteria for sub @-@ dividing the Stone Age into the Palaeolithic and Neolithic , rejecting the concept of the Mesolithic as useless .
= = = Culture @-@ historical archaeology = = =
Childe was a proponent of the culture @-@ historical approach to archaeology , coming to be seen as one of its " founders and chief exponents " . Culture @-@ historical archaeology revolved around the concept of " culture " , which it had adopted from anthropology . This has been seen as " a major turning point in the history of the discipline " , allowing archaeologists to look at the past through a spatial dynamic rather than simply a temporal one . Childe adopted the concept of " culture " from German philologist and archaeologist Gustav Kossinna , before using it in three of his books – The Dawn of European Civilisation ( 1925 ) , The Aryans ( 1926 ) and The Most Ancient East ( 1928 ) – without defining it . He proceeded to give it a specifically archaeological definition in The Danube in Prehistory ( 1929 ) . There , he defined a " culture " as being a set of " regularly associated traits " in the material culture – i.e. " pots , implements , ornaments , burial rites , house forms " – that are repeatedly found across a certain area . He stated that in this respect a " culture " was the archaeological equivalent of a " people " . Childe 's use of the term was non @-@ racial , and he considered a " people " to be a social grouping , not a biological race . He opposed the equation of archaeological cultures with biological races , as various nationalists were doing in Europe at the time , and was a vociferous critic of Nazi uses of archaeology , arguing that the Jewish people were not a distinct biological race but a socio @-@ cultural grouping .
In 1935 , he suggested that culture worked as a " living functioning organism " , emphasising the adaptive potential of material culture ; in this he was influenced by anthropological functionalism . However , by the late 1940s he came to question the utility of " culture " as an archaeological concept , and therefore the validity of the culture @-@ historical approach . McNairn suggested that this was because the term had become popular across the social sciences in reference to all learned modes of behaviour , and not just material culture as Childe had first used it . He accepted that archaeologists defined " cultures " based on a subjective selection of material criteria ; this view later came to be widely adopted by archaeologists like Colin Renfrew .
= = = Marxist archaeology = = =
Childe has typically been seen as a Marxist archaeologist , being the first archaeologist in the West to use Marxist theory in his work . McNairn noted that Marxism was " a major intellectual force in Childe 's thought " , while Trigger stated that Childe identified with Marx 's theories " both emotionally and intellectually " . Biographer Sally Green noted that Childe 's beliefs were " never dogmatic , always idiosyncratic " and " continually changing throughout his life " but that " Marxist views on a model of the past " were accepted by Childe because they offer " a structural analysis of culture in terms of economy , sociology and ideology , and a principle for cultural change through economy . " She noted that " Childe 's Marxism " often differed from the orthodox Marxism of his contemporaries because he made reference to the original texts of Hegel , Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels rather than later interpretations and because he was selective in his use of their writings . Similarly , McNairn considered Childe 's Marxism to be " an individual interpretation " that differed from " popular or orthodox " conceptions of Marxism .
Marxist archaeology had developed in the Soviet Union in 1929 , when young archaeologist Vladislav I. Ravdonikas published a report titled " For a Soviet history of material culture " . Criticising the archaeological discipline as inherently bourgeois and therefore anti @-@ socialist , it called for the adoption of a pro @-@ socialist , explicitly Marxist approach to archaeology that was a part of the academic reforms instituted under the administration of Premier Joseph Stalin . Although influenced by Soviet archaeology , Childe maintained a sceptical approach to much of it , disapproving of Soviet archaeologists ' tendencies to assume their conclusions in advance of analysing the data , something he recognised as being encouraged by the Soviet government .
Childe was heavily critical of the Marxist trend in Soviet archaeology , based on the theories of Georgian philologist Nicholas Marr , which rejected diffusionism in favour of unilinear evolutionism ; instead , Childe saw diffusionism as a key part of historical development . Childe did not publicly air these criticisms of his Soviet colleagues , perhaps so as not to offend his communist friends or to provide support for right @-@ wing archaeologists . Instead , he publicly praised the Soviet system of archaeology and heritage management , contrasting it favourably with that in Britain because it encouraged collaboration rather than competition between archaeologists . After first visiting the country in 1935 , he returned in 1945 , 1953 , and 1956 , befriending many Soviet archaeologists , but shortly before his suicide sent a letter to the Soviet archaeological community stating that he was " extremely disappointed " that they had methodologically fallen behind Western Europe and North America .
Other Marxists , such as George Derwent Thomson and Neil Faulkner , have argued that Childe 's archaeological work should not correctly be considered Marxist because he failed to take into account the existence of class struggle as an instrument of social change , something which was a core tenet of Marxist thought . While class struggle was not a factor he considered in his archaeological work , Childe did accept that historians and archaeologists typically interpreted the past through their own class interests , and that most of his contemporaries were producing studies with an innate bourgeois agenda . Childe also diverged from orthodox Marxism by not employing dialectics in his methodology . Furthermore , he denied Marxism 's ability to predict the future development of human society , and did not consider humanity 's development into pure communism to be inevitable , instead opining that society could fossilize or become extinct instead .
= = = The Neolithic and Urban Revolutions = = =
Influenced by Marxism , Childe argued that society experienced widescale changes in relatively short periods of time , citing the Industrial Revolution as a modern example . He first introduced these ideas of " revolutions " in 1935 , as part of his functional @-@ economic interpretation of the three @-@ age system . Here , he argued for a " Neolithic Revolution " which initiated the Neolithic era , and also believed that there were others that marked the start of the Bronze Age and the Iron Age . However the following year , in Man Makes Himself , he combined these Bronze and Iron Age Revolutions into a singular " Urban Revolution , " which corresponded largely to Lewis H. Morgan 's concept of " civilization . "
For Childe , the Neolithic Revolution was a radical period in which humans – who had formerly been hunter @-@ gatherers – began cultivating plants and breeding animals for food , allowing for greater control of the food supply and population growth . He believed that the Urban Revolution was largely caused by the development of bronze metallurgy , and in a 1950 paper proposed ten traits that he believed were present in the oldest cities : they were larger than earlier settlements , they contained full @-@ time craft specialists , the surplus was collected together to a god or king , they witnessed monumental architecture , there was an unequal distribution of social surplus , writing was invented , the sciences developed , naturalistic art developed , trade with foreign areas increased , and the state organisation was based on residence rather than kinship . Childe also believed that the Urban Revolution had a negative side , in that it led to increased social stratification into classes and the oppression of the majority by a power elite . Childe 's concept of " revolutions " were not universally adopted in archaeology , with many believing that the term " revolution " was misleading because the processes of agricultural and urban development were gradual transformations .
= = = Influence on processual and post @-@ processual archaeology = = =
Through his work , Gordon Childe contributed to two of the major theoretical movements in Anglo @-@ American archaeology , processualism and post @-@ processualism . Prominent processual archaeologist Colin Renfrew described him as " one of the fathers of processual thought " due to his " development of economic and social themes in prehistory " , an idea echoed by Marxist archaeologist Neil Faulkner . Trigger argued that Childe 's work foreshadowed processual thought in two clear ways ; first by emphasising the role of change in societal development , and second by adhering to a strictly materialist view of the past . Both of these arose from Childe 's Marxist beliefs . However , most American processualists ignored Childe 's work , seeing him as particularist and irrelevant in their search for generalised laws of societal behaviour . In keeping with Marxist thought , Childe did not agree that such generalised laws existed , believing that behaviour was conditioned by socio @-@ economic factors and was not universal .
Peter Ucko , who was one of Childe 's successors as director of the Institute of Archaeology , highlighted that in his writings , Childe accepted the subjectivity of archaeological interpretation , something which was in stark contrast to the processualists ' insistence that archaeological interpretation could be objective . This acceptance of subjectivity led Trigger to comment that Childe was a " prototypical post @-@ processual archaeologist " .
= = Personal life = =
Biographer Sally Green found no evidence that Childe ever had a serious relationship with anyone ; she assumed him to be heterosexual because she found no evidence of same @-@ sex attraction . He had many friends of both sexes , although remained " awkward and uncouth , without any social graces " . He enjoyed interacting and socialising with students , often inviting them to dine with him , despite finding it difficult relating to other humans . He was shy , and often hid his personal feelings . He could speak a number of European languages , having taught himself in early life when he was travelling across much of the continent .
Childe believed that the study of the past could offer guidance for how humans should act in the present and future . A socialist from his undergraduate days , Childe was an atheist and critic of religion , viewing it as a false consciousness based in superstition . In History ( 1947 ) he commented that " Magic is a way of making people believe they are going to get what they want , whereas religion is a system for persuading them that they ought to want what they get . " Archaeologist Colin Renfrew noted that Childe was liberal minded on social issues , but thought that although Childe deplored racism , he did not entirely escape the pervasive 19th century view on distinct differences between different races .
Childe was fond of driving cars , enjoying the " feeling of power " he got from them . He often told a story about how he had raced at high speed down Piccadilly , London at 3 o 'clock in the morning for the sheer enjoyment of it , only to be pulled over by a policeman for such illegal activity . He loved practical jokes , and allegedly kept a halfpenny in his pocket to trick pickpockets . On another occasion he played a joke on the delegates at a Prehistoric Society conference by lecturing them on a theory that the Neolithic monument of Woodhenge had been constructed as an imitation of Stonehenge by a nouveau riche chieftain . Several audience members failed to realise that he was being tongue in cheek .
Childe 's other hobbies included walking in the British hillsides , attending classical music concerts , and playing the card game contract bridge . Fond of poetry , his favourite poet was John Keats , although his favourite poems were William Wordsworth 's " Ode to Duty " and Robert Browning 's " A Grammarian 's Funeral " . He was not particularly interested in reading novels but his favourite was D. H. Lawrence 's Kangaroo ( 1923 ) , a book echoing many of Childe 's own feelings about Australia . He was a fan of good quality food and drink , and frequented a number of restaurants . Known for his battered , tatty attire , Childe always wore his wide @-@ brimmed black hat , which he had purchased from a hatter in Jermyn Street , central London , as well as a tie , which was usually red , a colour chosen to symbolise his socialist beliefs . He regularly wore a black Mackintosh raincoat , often carrying it over his arm or draped over his shoulders like a cape . In summer he frequently wore shorts with socks , sock suspenders , and large boots .
= = Legacy and influence = =
On his death , Childe was praised by his colleague Stuart Piggott as " the greatest prehistorian in Britain and probably the world " . The archaeologist Randall H. McGuire later described him as " probably the best known and most cited archaeologist of the twentieth century " , an idea echoed by Bruce Trigger , while Barbara McNairn labelled him " one of the most outstanding and influential figures in the discipline " . By 1956 , he was cited as the most translated Australian author in history , having seen his books published in such languages as Chinese , Czech , Dutch , French , German , Hindi , Hungarian , Italian , Japanese , Polish , Russian , Spanish , Sweden and Turkish . The archaeologists David Lewis @-@ Williams and David Pearce considered Childe to be " probably the most written about " archaeologist in history , commenting that his books were still " required reading " for those in the discipline in 2005 .
Childe is primarily respected for developing a synthesis of European and Near Eastern prehistory at a time when most archaeologists were focused on regional sites and sequences , gaining the moniker of " the Great Synthesizer " . Since his death , this framework has been heavily revised following the discovery of radiocarbon dating , while his interpretations have been " largely rejected " . Various archaeologists have debated and disagreed over the importance of various different parts of Childe 's work . Childe himself believed that his primary contribution to archaeology was in his interpretative frameworks , an analysis supported by Alison Ravetz and Peter Gathercole . Childe 's theoretical work had been largely ignored in his lifetime , and remained forgotten in the decades after his death , although would see a resurgence in the late 1990s and early 2000s . It remained best known in Latin America , where Marxism remained a core theoretical current in the archaeological community throughout the latter 20th century .
Despite his global influence , Childe 's oeuvre was poorly understood in the United States , where his work on European prehistory had never become well known . As a result , in the U.S. he erroneously gained the reputation of being a Near Eastern specialist , where he was regarded by anthropologists as one of the founders of neo @-@ evolutionism , alongside Julian Steward and Leslie White , despite the fact that his approach was " more subtle and nuanced " than theirs . Nevertheless , Bruce Trigger believed that it was an American archaeologist , Robert McCormick Adams , Jr . , who did the most to develop Childe 's " most innovative ideas " after the latter 's death .
= = = Academic publications = = =
Following his death , various articles were published that examined Childe 's work from a historical perspective . In 1980 , Bruce Trigger published Gordon Childe : Revolutions in Archaeology , which studied the influences that extended over Childe 's archaeological thought . That year , Barbara McNairn published The Method and Theory of V. Gordon Childe , examining his methodological and theoretical approaches to the discipline . The following year , Sally Green 's Prehistorian : A Biography of V. Gordon Childe , was published , in which she described him as " the most eminent and influential scholar of European prehistory in the twentieth century " . Peter Gathercole thought the work of Trigger , McNairn and Green to have been " extremely important " , while Ruth Tringham considered them part of a " let 's @-@ get @-@ to @-@ know @-@ Childe @-@ better " movement , expressing her opinion that they were all worth reading .
In July 1986 , a colloquium devoted to Childe 's work was held in Mexico City , marking the 50th anniversary of Man Makes Himself 's publication . In May 1992 , a conference marking his centenary was held at the UCL Institute of Archaeology in London , co @-@ sponsored by the Institute and the Prehistoric Society , both organisations that he had formerly headed . The proceedings of the conference were subsequently published in a 1994 volume edited by Institute director David R. Harris , The Archaeology of V. Gordon Childe : Contemporary Perspectives . Harris stated that the book was designed to " demonstrate the dynamic qualities of Childe 's thought , the breadth and depth of his scholarship , and the continuing relevance of his work to contemporary issues in archaeology . " In 1995 , another anthology based on a conference was published . Titled Childe and Australia : Archaeology , Politics and Ideas , it was edited by Peter Gathercole , T.H. Irving , and Gregory Melleuish . Further papers would appear on the subject of Childe in ensuing years , looking at such subjects as his personal correspondences , and final resting place .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Childe is referenced in the American blockbuster film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ( 2008 ) . Directed by Steven Spielberg and George Lucas , the motion picture was the fourth film in the Indiana Jones series that dealt with the eponymous fictional archaeologist and university professor . In the film , Jones is heard advising one of his students that to understand the concept of diffusion he must read the works of Childe .
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= Netball in the Cook Islands =
The Cook Islands compete as a part of netball 's Oceania region . More than 1 @,@ 000 players have registered to play the sport . Participation in the game grew during the 1970s . Much of this is possible because of the national governing organisation , the Cook Islands Netball Association which is a member of Oceania Netball Federation . Because of the level of organisation and the game 's development , the country has participated at several international events including the Pacific Games , the Commonwealth Games , the World Games , the Oceania Netball Tournament , the World Youth Netball Championship , and the International Challenge Men ’ s and Mixed Netball Tournament . A demonstration of the Cook Islands success can be found by looking at the national team : It is one of the top ranked in the world .
Netball has grassroots support and plays an important part in the life of women on the islands . There are over 15 netball clubs . Beyond club competitions , the game is played at schools and at national festivals like the Manea Games . The game 's reach extends beyond traditional gender boundaries and is also being played by some Cook Islander men . Netball has benefited from several high visibility players and administrators , who have helped to develop the game internally and internationally .
= = About the Cook Islands = =
The Cook Islands are an island nation , with a population of 23 @,@ 400 people as of September 2010 . As of 2006 , there were 15 @,@ 324 total residents of the Cook Islands . Of these , 7 @,@ 822 were male and 7 @,@ 502 were female . The most populated islands and regions were Raratonga with 10 @,@ 226 residents of which 5 @,@ 008 were female , Atiutaki with 1 @,@ 975 total residents of whom 989 were female , Mangaia with 631 total residents of which 324 were female , Atiu with 558 residents of which 275 were female , Pukapuka with 419 total residents of whom 184 were female , Mauke with 372 total residents of which 178 were female , and Manihiki with 344 total residents of which 153 are female .
= = Netball history and development = =
Because of a favourable climate , sport is played year @-@ round in the Cook Islands . Most sports , including netball , cricket , tennis , boxing , golf , soccer , squash and rugby union , are of European origin . The most developed and popular of them is netball , a sport in which the Cook Islands has participated on a global stage . The two most important international sport competitions that the Cook Islands participate in are the Commonwealth Games and the South Pacific Games . The Cook Islands was a major force behind the creation of the South Pacific Mini Games , participation in which has played an important role in the country 's modern sporting history . Since the 1970s , the popularity of netball on the islands grew and the Cook Islands has made an effort to host these events as a way to improve facilities . During the 1970s , the Cook Islands began bidding to host international sporting events . Meanwhile , the popularity of netball grew . The sport 's popularity is partly due to the influence of New Zealand , where Cook Island players have competed for New Zealand 's national team . One such player was Margharet Matenga , who joined the Silver Ferns in 1979 . Another was Anna Noovao , who was the captain of the New Zealand side in 1992 . New Zealand encouraged the sport in the Cook Islands during the 1980s by hosting coaching and umpiring clinics . There are a number of athletes from the Cook Islands who reside overseas . This is especially true of netball . Some commentators state that living abroad has provided these athletes with access to facilities and levels of higher competition that they cannot get at home .
In 1991 , the Government of the Cook Islands identified the lack of funding for sport facilities as a key reason why the nation has not succeeded at international competitions . It believed that investing in sporting infrastructure would enable the nation to be more globally competitive . Netball was not recognised as an Olympic sport until 1995 . While official recognition as an Olympic sport did not mean that it was played at the Olympics , it did mean that the national association and the Cook Islands government could then access Olympic funding to help cover costs for facilities , travel , coaching , umpire training and other grass roots development efforts . The Cook Islands Netball Association is the governing body for the sport in the Cook Islands , and historically , the sport has been administered by women . Most netball courts are owned by the local village or club . With the exception of National Auditorium , all courts are outside . In 1990 , the Cook Islands Netball Association had 15 clubs affiliated with it , all based in the southern islands group , including Ngatangia / Matavera , Avatiu / Nikao , Arorangi , Titikaveka , Takuvaine , Tupapa , Outer Islands .
The South Pacific Mini Games is a sporting event televised by a local Cook Islands television station . Sports contested at the games included netball . These games were televised , with funding to buy the rights being provided by the West German Government and the Government of the Cook Islands . In 2008 , the first live broadcast of a netball game happened on television in the Cook Islands when the Silver Ferns played the Aussie Diamonds on 29 September .
The Manea Games are an annual eleven @-@ day sport festival . The fifth version of the festival was held in 2008 at Aitutaki . The 2011 edition of the games were held in Mangaia . Sports represented at the games include netball , athletics , cricket , darts , soccer , rugby sevens , table tennis , tennis , touch rugby , volleyball and traditional games . The games are taken very seriously across all sports . Girls competing at netball compete with the hope of one day competing at the international level .
In 1992 , the government detailed its national sport objectives . These objectives included promoting youth activity in order to improve quality of life , encourage young people to participate in national celebrations , develop and organize local sport , and foster a sense of competition and national unity in the sporting community across the village , national and international sphere . While not specifically mentioning netball , it did acknowledge the importance of the sport in terms of international prestige . One of the strategies to help meet those objectives was to strengthen national sporting bodies like the netball association . This worked ; by 2009 , there were more than 1 @,@ 000 players registered with the Cook Islands Netball Association .
= = Grass roots netball = =
There are at least three netball courts on the island of Atiu , which has a population of around 650 . The netball and tennis rivalries between villagers on the island is fierce , and they built the netball facilities to help them win . The island has nine tennis courts , which used more often for playing netball , volleyball and soccer than tennis . There are a number of netball teams affiliated with schools on Atiu . Each has its own colours : Teenui wears blue on top and white on the bottom ; Tengatangi and Mapumai wears green on top and white on the bottom ; Ngatirua wears black on top and bottom ; and Areora wears red on top and white on the bottom . The Girls ' Brigade , Girl Guides and Junior Missionary Volunteers also have their own uniforms and colours .
Netball is played on the island of Aitutaki . Other sports played on the island include rugby union , rugby sevens , association football , cricket , volleyball , darts , tennis , badminton , ping pong and athletics .
Netball plays an important role on the social life of Cook Island women . For their social activities , rather than go to bars , they play netball and go to church . Netball games are most often played on Saturdays during the winter months from April to August , though games can be played throughout the year . Female players who make the national team are treated like minor celebrities .
Traditionally , on village feast days , several sport competitions are held including netball , rugby and dance .
The Cook Islands Golden Oldies Netball Association is a local league that is part of a network of leagues in various sports aimed at seniors . Belonging to these teams offers seniors a chance to travel that they might not be able to afford otherwise because of the high cost of transportation from the Cook Islands to other locations .
= = Men 's netball = =
Unlike some countries , the growth of men 's netball is hampered by cultural bias against it ; when parents see their boys playing it , they actively discourage them from continuing . Despite this , the Cook Islands also has a men 's national team that has competed in the 2006 , 2009 and 2011 International Challenge Men ’ s and Mixed Netball Tournament . The popularity of netball is growing amongst men on the island , as sport is an important way of villages keeping in touch with each other .
At the Easter sports day , organised by the Christian Youth Organization , traditional roles are exchanged and boys play netball while girls play rugby . During this sporting event , the boys cross dress and wear the uniforms that are traditionally worn by women .
= = People = =
Many people have been important in the push to develop the game in the Cook Islands and raise the profile of the national netball team on the global stage . They include Anna Noovao , who was the captain of the 1992 New Zealand side , Margharet Matenga , who was the first Cook Islands player to play for New Zealand 's national team , and Mamia , who was the secretary of the Cook Islands Netball Association for six years . Mamia was an umpire and an umpire examiner for the Oceania region . She attended South Pacific Games in Micronesia , the Commonwealth Games in Malaysia , and the Olympic Games in Sydney . Mamia was a national representative for teams that had competed in the South Pacific Games during the 1980s . Tina Pupuke Browne was president of the Cook Islands Netball Association . Elizabeth Tou was coach of the national team from 2005 to 2007 . She represented the country as a player at Pacific Games , Commonwealth Games and the World Championships .
= = International = =
The Cook Islands Netball Association is a member of the Oceania Netball Federation . The nation 's participation in the international netball community has raised the islands ' visibility globally . The Cook Islands won the netball competition at the first South Pacific Games , now Pacific Games , held in 1981 . The national team had its first win in the tournament in 1983 , when it beat Fiji . In 1986 , the government provided NZ $ 20 @,@ 000 to help the team travel to the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Scotland . The 1987 Netball World Championships were also held in Scotland , and the Cook Islands team came in sixth . At the World Games 1989 in Germany , the team came fourth . In the 1990 Oceania Netball Tournament , the team defeated New Zealand , Tonga and Fiji to come in second behind Australia . In January 2011 , the national team was ranked eleventh in the world .
At the 1992 World Youth Cup in Samoa , the Cook Islands U @-@ 21 team defeated several high profile international teams including Wales , Samoa , and England . The Cook Islands ' defeat of Canada , 114 – 13 , in that tournament was a record for the highest score in the tournament . The Cook Islands also has a national team that competes in the international Golden Oldies netball tournament . In 2004 , a team from the Cook Islands competed in the International Schoolgirls Netball Challenge . The country hosted the 2008 World Youth Championship , and the 2009 International Challenge Men ’ s and Mixed Netball Tournament . In 2011 , a New Zealander , Margaret Foster , was appointed as head coach of the development squad . One of her goals was to improve the team 's fitness levels .
In the lead up to the 2009 World Youth Championship , there was considerable anxiety over the facilities , and whether they would be up to world standards . The Prime Minister of the Cook Islands reconfirmed that his government would deliver a new venue . Because of this , the International Netball Federation reaffirmed their support for hosting the event in the Cook Islands . The Chinese government offered to step in and loan the country NZ $ 9 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 to help pay the costs for constructing the facility . The loan was controversial as some organisations felt the country had misplaced priorities . During the planning and preparation period in the lead up to the 2009 World Youth Championship , the government sought to increase the size of the loan for the facility to NZ $ 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The opposition leader Norman George was unhappy with how the government handled the whole situation regarding new sporting facilities to be built for the World Youth Netball Championships and the 2009 Pacific Mini Games .
= = = Competitive history = = =
The table below contains a sample of the Cook Islands results in international competitions .
The table below contains sample of Cook Islands results in individual international matches .
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= Order of Karađorđe 's Star =
The Order of Karađorđe 's Star ( Serbian : Orden Karađorđeve zvezde , Cyrillic : Орден Карађорђеве звезде ) is Serbia 's highest civilian and military decoration . It originated in the Kingdom of Serbia , and was initially awarded exclusively to Serbian citizens in return for services rendered to the Serbian monarchy , the Serb people and the Serbian state , though it is now bestowed upon Serbs and non @-@ Serbs alike . During the Balkan Wars and World War I , the Order was mostly awarded for acts of bravery on the battlefield . The post @-@ war Kingdom of Yugoslavia retained the Order , and it was awarded by the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile until the end of World War II , in some cases to individuals who collaborated with the Axis powers . Following the war , the monarchy was outlawed and a communist government came to power . Along with other monarchist symbols , the Order was suppressed during the administration of Josip Broz Tito , and replaced with communist decorations such as the Order of the People 's Hero .
Following the breakup of Yugoslavia , Serbia ceased using many of the awards and decorations established during the communist period , though it was not until 2010 that the Serbian Government officially reinstated the Order of Karađorđe 's Star as Serbia 's highest decoration . During the Cold War , it had been awarded by the Karađorđević family in exile . The first person to receive it following its reinstatement as a state order was the tennis player Novak Djokovic , in February 2012 .
= = History = =
The Order of Karađorđe 's Star was instituted by the royal decree of King Peter I on 1 January 1904 , commemorating his recent accession to the Serbian throne , as well as the one @-@ hundredth anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising . It was meant to replace the Order of the Cross of Takovo and the Order of Miloš the Great , two decorations that had been awarded by the rival Obrenović dynasty , which ruled Serbia prior to the May 1903 coup d 'état that reinstated Peter 's Karađorđević dynasty after several decades in exile . The first award was disagreeable to the Karađorđevićes and their supporters because it was named after Takovo , the village where Obrenović dynasty founder Miloš Obrenović had launched the Second Serbian Uprising . The Order of Miloš the Great had to be replaced as it was named after Obrenović himself .
Initially , the Order of Karađorđe 's Star was categorized as a senior state award , and organized into four classes . The Grand Cross of Karađorđe 's Star , the highest class , consisted of a badge of the Order on a sash and breast star ; a Grand Officer of Karađorđe 's Star was decorated with a badge necklet and a slightly smaller breast star ; a Commander of Karađorđe 's Star was only awarded a badge necklet ; and the recipient of the Order 's fourth class , the Officer of Karađorđe 's Star , would receive a small triangular chest ribbon . The Order was usually awarded for services to the Karađorđević dynasty , the Serbian state or the Serb people , while Karađorđević princes received a Grand Cross at baptism . Recipients included both soldiers and civilians , though until 1906 only Serbian citizens were permitted to receive the award .
During the Balkan Wars ( 1912 – 13 ) , the Serbian Government introduced the War Merit Order of Karađorđe 's Star to reward acts of " conspicuous gallantry of commissioned officers in the field " , as well as the battlefield victories of the Royal Serbian Army 's senior officers ; non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) and soldiers in the field were ineligible . In June 1915 , at the height of World War I , Serbia instituted a sub @-@ division of the War Merit Order , called the Military Order , which was awarded to NCOs and men for bravery in combat . The War Merit Order was divided into two classes : the 1st division Gold Cross and the 2nd division Silver Cross . One of the recipients of the Military Order was the highly decorated female soldier Milunka Savić , and another was Flora Sandes , the only British woman to openly serve as a soldier in the war . Several senior Serbian military leaders were recipients of the War Merit Order , including Prince Regent Alexander , and Field marshals Živojin Mišić and Stepa Stepanović . Foreign recipients included American General John J. Pershing , the British Field marshal Douglas Haig , the French generals Joseph Joffre , Maurice Sarrail , Philippe Pétain , and Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey , and the Romanian King Ferdinand I.
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia retained the Order after World War I. In 1939 , it was awarded to the city of Belgrade . During World War II , Peter II bestowed the Order upon a number of Chetniks on the recommendation of Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović . Some of the decorated Chetnik commanders included Pavle Đurišić , Dobroslav Jevđević , Momčilo Đujić and Uroš Drenović . These decorations proved controversial both during and after the war , as many of the commanders cooperated with Germany and Italy against the communist Partisans for several years . Such a discrepancy can best be seen in the case of Đujić , who was given the Order for displaying " gallantry in the face of the enemy " , and subsequently celebrated receiving it at an Italian general 's headquarters . In Jevđević 's case , the Order was given in 1943 for his services to the Serb population of Herzegovina during a series of Ustaše massacres , but Mihailović had news of the award suppressed because Jevđević had visited Rome to plan an anti @-@ communist offensive with the Italians and his forces had carried out several massacres of non @-@ Serbs over the previous several years .
After the war , Yugoslavia came under the rule of communist dictator Josip Broz Tito , and Karađorđević @-@ era medals and orders were replaced by non @-@ royal decorations , such as the Order of the People 's Hero . In the 1990s , the Republika Srpska instated its own decoration also called the Order of Karađorđe 's Star , though this is not to be confused with the medal historically awarded by Serbia and the Karađorđević dynasty .
In 2010 , the Government of Serbia decided to reinstate the Order as an official state award , though the Karađorđević 's had continued giving the award in exile over the previous sixty years . In February 2012 , tennis player Novak Djokovic became the first person to receive the Order after it was reinstated . The most recent recipient of the Order is the Military Medical Academy , in April 2014 .
= = Design = =
The Order comes in either gold or silver depending on class , and the obverse features a white enameled cross pattée with gilt rays protruding from each of the arms . The rays are intersected diagonally by a pair of sabres when the recipient is awarded an Order " with swords " . Orders from the royal period contain a blue medallion at the centre depicting a Serbian cross with a fire @-@ steel at each corner , with the words " For Faith and Freedom , 1804 " etched into the small circle in the middle of the cross . The reverse of these Orders contains a red medallion depicting a white eagle , with the words " Peter I , 1904 " written around it . The bravery medals awarded from June 1915 forward are almost identical to the Orders awarded before that date , save for the crossed swords being present on all of them regardless of class . Such Orders also lacked the phrase etched into the obverse of the older ones and the date 1904 on the reverse , which marked the centenary of the First Serbian Uprising . Instead , they merely had King Peter 's name on the obverse beside the year when the Order was bestowed . The Orders themselves were originally manufactured by foreign makers of decorations and medals , such as France 's Arthus @-@ Bertrand and Switzerland 's Huguenin Fréres ; during the interwar period ( 1919 – 39 ) they were produced domestically .
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= Monadnock Building =
The Monadnock Building ( historically the Monadnock Block ; pronounced / məˈnædnɒk / mə @-@ NAD @-@ nok ) is a skyscraper located at 53 West Jackson Boulevard in the south Loop area of Chicago , Illinois . The north half of the building was designed by the firm of Burnham & Root and built starting in 1891 . The tallest load @-@ bearing brick building ever constructed , it employed the first portal system of wind bracing in America . Its decorative staircases represent the first structural use of aluminum in building construction . The south half , constructed in 1893 , was designed by Holabird & Roche and is similar in color and profile to the original , but the design is more traditionally ornate . When completed , it was the largest office building in the world . The success of the building was the catalyst for an important new business center at the southern end of the Loop .
The building was remodeled in 1938 in one of the first major skyscraper renovations ever undertaken — a bid , in part , to revolutionize how building maintenance was done and halt the demolition of Chicago 's aging skyscrapers . It was sold in 1979 to owners who restored the building to its original condition , in one of the most comprehensive skyscraper restorations attempted as of 1992 . The project was recognized as one of the top restoration projects in the USA by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1987 . The building is divided into offices from 250 square feet ( 23 m2 ) to 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) in size , and primarily serves independent professional firms . It was listed for sale in 2007 .
The north half is an unornamented vertical mass of purple @-@ brown brick , flaring gently out at the base and top , with vertically continuous bay windows projecting out . The south half is vertically divided by brickwork at the base and rises to a large copper cornice at the roof . Projecting window bays in both halves allow large exposures of glass , giving the building an open appearance despite its mass . The Monadnock is part of the Printing House Row District , which also includes the Fisher Building , the Manhattan Building , and the Old Colony Building .
When it was built , many critics called the building too extreme , and lacking in style . Others found in its lack of ornamentation the natural extension of its commercial purpose and an expression of modern business life . Early 20th @-@ century European architects found inspiration in its attention to purpose and functional expression . It was one of the first buildings named a Chicago Architectural Landmark in 1958 . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 , and named as part of the National Historic Landmark South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row North Historic District in 1976 . Modern critics have called it a " classic " , a " triumph of unified design " , and " one of the most exciting aesthetic experiences America 's commercial architecture produced " .
= = History = =
= = = North half ( 1881 – 1891 ) = = =
The Monadnock was commissioned by Boston real estate developers Peter and Shepherd Brooks in the building boom following the Depression of 1873 – 79 . The Brooks family , which had amassed a fortune in the shipping insurance business and had been investing in Chicago real estate since 1863 , had retained Chicago property manager Owen F. Aldis to manage the construction of the seven @-@ story Grannis Block on Dearborn Street in 1880 . It was Aldis , one of two men Louis Sullivan credited with being " responsible for the modern office building " , who convinced investors such as the Brooks brothers to build new skyscrapers in Chicago . By the end of the century , Aldis would create over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office space and manage nearly one fifth of the office space in the Loop .
Daniel Burnham and John Wellborn Root met as young draftsmen in the Chicago firm of Carter , Drake , and Wight in 1872 and left to form Burnham & Root the following year . At Aldis 's urging , the Brooks brothers had retained the then @-@ fledgling firm to design the Grannis Block , which was their first major commission . Burnham and Root would become the architects of choice for the Brooks family , for whom they would complete the first high @-@ rise building in Chicago , the 10 @-@ story Montauk Building , in 1883 , and the 11 @-@ story Rookery Building in 1888 .
The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 had destroyed a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) by 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) swath of the city between the Chicago River and Lake Michigan , and subsequent commercial development expanded into the area far south of the main business district along the river that would come to be known as " the Loop " . Between 1881 and 1885 , Aldis bought a series of lots in the area on Peter Brooks ' behalf , including a 70 @-@ by @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 21 by 61 m ) site on the corner of Jackson and Dearborn streets . The location was remote , yet attractive for several reasons . The construction of the Chicago Board of Trade Building in 1885 had made nearby LaSalle Street the city 's prime financial district , driving up property values , and railroad companies were buying up land further south for new terminal buildings , creating further speculation in the southeastern end of the Loop . Brooks commissioned Burnham & Root to design a building for the site in 1884 , and the project was announced in 1885 , with a brief trade journal notice that the building would cost $ 850 @,@ 000 ( $ 22 @.@ 4 million in 2016 dollars ) . The Chicago building community had little faith in Brooks ' choice of location . Architect Edwin Renwick would say :
When Owen Aldis put up the Monadnock on Jackson Boulevard there was nothing on the south side of the street between State Street and the river but cheap one @-@ story shacks , mere hovels . Every one thought Mr. Aldis was insane to build way out there on the ragged edge of the city . Later when he carried the building on through Van Buren Street they were sure he was .
Early sketches show a 13 @-@ story building with Ancient Egyptian ornament and a slight flaring at the top , divided visually into five sections with a lotus @-@ blossom decorative motif . This design was never approved , as Brooks waited for the real estate market in the south Loop , still mostly warehouses , to improve . Where Root was known for the detailed ornamentation of his designs ( as seen in the Rookery Building ) , Brooks was known for his stinginess and preference for simplicity . For the Monadnock , Brooks insisted that the architects refrain from elaborate ornamentation and produce instead " the effect of solidity and strength , or a design that will produce that effect , rather than ornament for a notable appearance . " In an 1884 letter to Aldis , he wrote :
My notion is to have no projecting surfaces or indentations , but to have everything flush .... So tall and narrow a building must have some ornament in so conspicuous a situation ... [ but ] projections mean dirt , nor do they add strength to the building ... one great nuisance [ is ] the lodgment of pigeons and sparrows .
While Root was on vacation , Burnham had a draftsman create a " straight up @-@ and @-@ down , uncompromising , unornamented facade . " Objecting at first , Root later threw himself into the design , declaring that the heavy lines of an Egyptian pyramid had captured his imagination and that he would " throw the thing up without a single ornament " .
In 1889 , a new plan was announced for the building : a thick @-@ walled brick tower , 16 stories high , devoid of ornamentation and suggestive of an Egyptian pylon . Brooks insisted that the building have no projections , for which reason the plan did not include bay windows , but Aldis argued that more rentable space would be created by projecting oriel windows , which were included in the final design . The Monadnock 's final height was calculated to be the highest economically viable for a load @-@ bearing wall design , requiring walls 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick at the bottom and 18 inches ( 46 cm ) thick at the top . Greater height would have required walls of such thickness that they would have reduced the rentable space too greatly . The final height was much dithered over by the owners , but a decision was forced when the city proposed an ordinance restricting the height of buildings to 150 feet ( 46 m ) . To protect future income potential , Aldis sought a permit for a 16 @-@ story building immediately . The building commissioner , although " staggered by the sixteen story plan " , granted the permit on June 3 , 1889 .
With its 17 stories ( 16 rentable plus an attic ) , its 215 feet ( 66 m ) high load @-@ bearing walls were the tallest of any commercial structure in the world . To support the towering structure and reinforce against wind , the masonry walls were braced with an interior frame of cast and wrought iron . Root devised for this frame the first attempt at a portal system of wind bracing in America , in which iron struts were riveted between the columns of the frame for reinforcement . The narrow lot allowed only a single , double @-@ loaded corridor , which was appointed with a 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high wainscot of white Carrara marble , red oak trim , and feather @-@ chipped glass that allowed outside light to filter from the offices on each side into the hallways . Floors were covered with hand @-@ carved marble mosaic tiles . Skylit open staircases were made of bronze @-@ plated cast iron on upper floors . On the ground floor , they were crafted in cast aluminum — an exotic and expensive material at the time — representing the first use of aluminum in building construction .
The building was constructed by the firm of George A. Fuller , who trained as an architect but made his mark as the creator of the modern contracting system in building construction . His firm had supervised construction of the Rookery , and later built New York 's Flatiron Building with Burnham in 1902 . The Monadnock Block was built as a single structure but was legally two buildings , the Monadnock and the Kearsarge , named for Mount Monadnock and Mount Kearsarge in New Hampshire . Work was completed in 1891 . The Monadnock , which Root called his " Jumbo " , was his last project ; he died suddenly while it was under construction .
= = = South half and early history ( 1891 – 1893 ) = = =
Encouraged by the early success of the building , Shepherd Brooks purchased the 68 @-@ by @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 21 by 61 m ) lot adjoining to the south in 1893 for $ 360 @,@ 000 ( $ 9 @.@ 48 million in 2016 dollars ) . Aldis recommended the firm of Holabird & Roche , who had designed the Pontiac Building for Peter Brooks in 1891 , to extend the Monadnock south to Van Buren . William Holabird and Martin Roche had trained together in the office of William LeBaron Jenney , and in 1881 formed their own firm , which would become one of the most prolific in the city and the acknowledged leader of the Chicago school of architecture . The north half had struggled with cost overruns and Holabird & Roche presented a far more cost @-@ effective design . The design , for two buildings called the Katahdin and Wachusett ( also named for New England mountains ) , connected them to the north half as a single structure at an estimated cost of $ 800 @,@ 000 ( $ 21 @.@ 1 million in 2016 dollars ) . Construction began in 1892 , under the supervision of Corydon T. Purdy who would later earn accolades as the structural engineer for many famous Chicago and New York skyscrapers .
The addition , 17 stories high , preserved the color and vertically massed profile of the original , but was more traditionally ornate in its design , with grander entranceways and more neoclassical touches . The building reflected in its design the transition taking place in skyscraper design from load @-@ bearing walls to steel frame construction . The Katahdin , built first , used the same iron framed masonry construction as the original . The Wachusett was entirely steel framed . Where the north half required great thicknesses of brick in the load @-@ bearing walls , the addition employed only a thin facing of brick and terracotta trim , affording larger expanses of glass and faster , less expensive construction . The south half cost 15 percent less , weighed 15 percent less , and had 15 percent more rentable space than the north half . Connected on every floor except the top one and sharing a common basement , each of the four component buildings was equipped with its own heating system , elevators , stairs , and plumbing to facilitate a separate sale if required . The combined final cost in 1893 was $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 65 @.@ 8 million in 2016 dollars ) .
When complete , the Monadnock was the largest office building in the world , with 1 @,@ 200 rooms and an occupancy of over 6 @,@ 000 . The Chicago Daily Tribune commented that the population of most Illinois towns in 1896 would fit comfortably in the building . It was a postal district unto itself , with four full @-@ time carriers delivering mail six times a day , six days a week . It was the first building in Chicago wired for electricity , and one of the first to be fire @-@ proofed , with hollow fire clay tiles lining the structure so that the metal frame would be protected even if the facing brick were to be destroyed .
The Brooks ' decision to construct a building of such scale and in such an unlikely location was vindicated by the Monadnock 's success — it was the most profitable investment they ever made . The Economist , a Chicago real estate journal , conceded in 1892 that :
the rapidity with which the Monadnock and Kearsarge ... have been rented is one of the phenomenal features in the real estate market of this city . The erecting and successful renting of these structures has simply established , in an incredibly short period of time , an important business center at the southwest corner of Jackson and Dearborn streets , a point which was but a short time ago considered too far south for a prosperous business center .
Early tenants , according to Rand McNally , included " great corporations , banks , and professional men ... among them the Santa Fe , the Michigan Central , and the Chicago & Alton Railroads , and the American Exchange National and Globe Savings Banks " .
In 1897 , the Union Elevated Railroad Company opened the Union Loop line of the Chicago " L " , the last leg of which ran immediately alongside the Van Buren side of the building . Aldis filed suit against the " L " in 1901 for $ 300 @,@ 000 in damages ( $ 8 @.@ 53 million in 2016 dollars ) , complaining that :
[ the ] means of access to the said building ... had been cut off and the light , air , and view obstructed , and the enjoyment of the property disturbed by the throwing of smoke , dust , cinders , and filth ... by the creating and causing of loud and ominous noises , and by the causing of the ground to shake and vibrate ... said building and premises are greatly damaged .
Aldis lost the case , but won on appeal , when the Supreme Court of Illinois found that owners of property abutting the " L " lines could recover damages if the property had been injured by noise , vibration , or the blocking of light , paving the way for many lawsuits to follow .
= = = Modernization ( 1938 – 1979 ) = = =
A boom in new construction after 1926 created stiff competition for older buildings like the Monadnock . Occupancy declined from 87 percent in 1929 to 55 percent in 1937 and the building began to lose money . In 1938 , building manager Graham Aldis ( Owen 's nephew ) announced what the Chicago Daily Tribune called " the city 's largest and most novel modernization job " in a move toward halting the destruction of Chicago 's aging skyscrapers . Rejecting the term " modernization " , Aldis called his plan " progressive styling " , which he believed would revolutionize the way building maintenance was done to preserve millions of dollars worth of buildings that would otherwise be destroyed . " There is no reason why " , he said , " any well @-@ designed office building need be torn down because of obsolescence . " Skidmore & Owings , who had pioneered functional design , were retained to lead a $ 125 @,@ 000 program ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million in 2016 dollars ) to restyle the main entrance , remodel the lobby and ground floor shops , modernize all the public spaces , and progressively modernize office suites as demand required . The modernization included covering the mosaic floors with rubber tile and terrazzo , enclosing the elevators and ornamental stairways , and replacing the marble and oak finishes in the corridors and offices with modern materials . By the end of 1938 , 35 new tenants had signed leases and 11 existing tenants had leased additional space in the building .
In 1966 , Aldis & Co . , which had managed the building for the Brooks estate for 75 years , was dissolved and the Monadnock was sold for $ 2 million ( $ 14 @.@ 6 million in 2016 dollars ) to Sudler & Co . , owners of the John Hancock Center , the Rookery , and the Old Colony Building . The new owners again modernized the interior , installing carpet , fluorescent lights , and new doors , and undertook a major effort to shore up the north wall which had sunk 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 44 mm ) during construction of the Kluczynski Federal Building across Jackson Street in 1974 .
By 1977 , operating expenses were high , rents were low , and occupancy had fallen to 80 percent . Struggling to make loan payments , the owners were forced to sell the building to avoid foreclosure . It was purchased by a partnership headed by William S. Donnell in 1979 for $ 5 per square foot ( $ 53 @.@ 82 per square meter ) or approximately $ 2 million ( $ 6 @.@ 52 million in 2016 dollars ) .
= = = Restoration and later ( 1979 – ) = = =
The building Donnell purchased in 1979 had declined badly . The Dearborn entrances had been closed in , the ground floor had been " defaced by garish signs " , and the brick had been painted and was peeling . Inside , the marble wainscoting had been painted over and many of the original oak doors had been replaced with cheaper mahogany . The decorative stair rails had been enclosed , and some stairways and corridors had been closed off completely . Much of the original mosaic tile had been demolished — some floors were carpeted , others tiled in vinyl or terrazzo . Half of the sixteen elevators were still manually operated . " It was as if it had been partly updated every ten years throughout its history " , said Donnell , " it was never done over in its entirety . "
Donnell , who had studied architecture at Harvard , planned to gut the building and construct a new , modern office complex inside the historic shell . Failing to obtain financing for the remodeling , he embarked instead on an incremental , " pay as you go " project to restore the Monadnock to its original condition in painstaking detail . The project was , according to historian Donald Miller , the most comprehensive skyscraper restoration ever attempted at the time ; it took thirteen years to complete . Working from original drawings discovered at the Art Institute of Chicago , and two old photographs , Donnell and John Vinci , one of the nation 's leading preservation architects , restored the building to its condition when first constructed , before any modernizations , working piecemeal as offices became vacant .
The color of the shellac was matched to closets where the wood had not been darkened by exposure to light . The mosaic floors were recreated by Italian craftsmen at a cost of $ 50 per square foot ( $ 538 @.@ 12 per square meter ) . A local firm was found that could reproduce the complicated process of sandblasting and hide glue application used to create the original feather chipped glass . This reproduced glass was used to restore the partitions and naturally lit corridors of Root 's design . To recreate the doors and wood trim , Donnell purchased the firm that had created the original oak woodwork — and still used the same 19th century machinery . Perfect replicas of the original aluminum light fixtures were fabricated from early photographs and carbon filament light bulbs were obtained to recreate the original lighting effect . A single surviving aluminum staircase was discovered behind a wall , restored , and used as a model to rebuild the lobby stairways and metalwork . The wainscoting on the upper floors was restored with marble salvaged from the recently modernized , nearby 19 LaSalle and Manhattan Buildings . Marble was purchased from the same Italian quarry that supplied Root 's original construction to restore the lobby walls and ceilings .
The Dearborn Street entrances were reopened and their massive granite lintels and surrounds cleared of layers of black paint or replaced . A source was found for the molded bricks needed to repair or replace the curved corners . Large plate glass windows at the entrance were removed and replaced with double @-@ hung windows that conformed to the original design . Fiberglass shades resembling the original linen versions were installed to preserve the appearance of the facade . The average cost of the restoration work was $ 1 million per floor ( $ 1 @.@ 91 million in 2016 dollars ) in 1989 , or $ 47 per square foot ( $ 505 @.@ 92 per square meter ) .
Donnell 's goal was that the Monadnock would " not only look as it originally did , it [ would ] also live as it used to " , and he sought tenants for the street @-@ level shops that were similar to their 19th @-@ century occupants . Shop windows were cleared of all signs and obstructions to preserve intended view from the corridor through to the street . Fluorescent lighting was prohibited and only gold leaf lettering on the glass was permitted for signage . Shops , all individually owned , were selected to fit the architectural character of the building . A florist , for example , was chosen that evoked a turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century atmosphere , as well as a barbershop with vintage fixtures and decor . A tobacconist with oak furnishings , a pen shop with glass cases , a shoe @-@ shine stand , and other service establishments represented , in Donnell 's words , " the kind of small @-@ scale entrepreneurs who occupied those spaces at the turn of the century , the kind of people who bring vitality and life to a building because they have a stake in it . "
The restoration was a success both critically and commercially . The building was 80 percent occupied when bought in 1979 and rented for $ 5 @.@ 50 per square foot ( $ 59 @.@ 20 per square meter ) . By 1982 , it was 91 percent occupied and commanded rent of $ 9 per square foot ( $ 96 @.@ 89 per square meter ) . The Monadnock was selected as one of top restoration projects in the country by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1987 , noting " the outstanding quality of the overall restoration effort " , and the precision , detail and faithfulness of the interior restoration , in particular the lobby , which " serves as a model for preservation nationwide . "
The restored Monadnock is divided into offices of from 250 square feet ( 23 m2 ) to 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) As of 2008 , it was 98 @.@ 9 percent leased ; the 300 tenants are primarily independent professional firms and entrepreneurs . Rents range from $ 21 to $ 23 per square foot ( $ 226 to $ 247 per square meter ) , plus electricity .
The building was offered for sale in 2007 , with an expected price of $ 45 to $ 60 million . A tentative deal was reached at a price of $ 48 million in 2008 .
= = Architecture = =
Together , the two parts of the building have a frontage of 420 feet ( 130 m ) on Dearborn Street with a depth of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The original northern half presents a plain , unbroken vertical mass of purple @-@ brown brick , which is contoured to create a gentle curve at the base of the building and an outward flare to form an austere parapet at the top . The gentle swelling at base and cornice , observed historian Donald Hoffman , " came very close to the bell @-@ shaped column the Egyptians had derived from papyrus " . The corners of the building are gracefully chamfered as they rise to the top and the oriel windows are chamfered at their base . The floor divisions are not marked on the exterior ; the unbroken edifice is interrupted only by a series of cantilevered window bays , separated by rows of single thin silled windows set into the vertical face . The entryways are small , single @-@ height portals topped with plain stone lintels .
The south half preserves the lines and color of the older building , but is vertically divided by a stringcourse over the second story , emphasizing the building 's base , and a large ornamental copper cornice at the roof line . Massive blocks of red granite , 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick , frame the large , two @-@ story entrances . The projecting window bays of the original are repeated , but alternate in a pattern of two four @-@ window bays to one recessed strip of windows to create the undulating appearance of the facade that was an early trademark of Holabird & Roche . Carl Condit , historian of the Chicago school , has commented that :
The general appearance of the Monadnock almost belies its masonry construction . The projecting bays of the walls with their large glass areas give the structure a light and open appearance in spite of its great mass .... Stripped of every vestige of ornament , its rigorous geometry softened only by the slight inward curve of the wall at the top of the first story , the outward flare of the parapet , and the progressive rounding of the corners from bottom to top , subtly proportioned and scaled , the Monadnock is a severe yet powerfully expressive composition in horizontal and vertical lines .
The Monadnock rests on the floating foundation system invented by Root for the Montauk Building that revolutionized the way tall buildings were built on Chicago 's spongy soil . A 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) layer of concrete , reinforced with steel beams , forms a spread footing extending out 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) under the surrounding streets , spreading the weight of the building over a large area of earth . The building was designed to settle 8 inches ( 200 mm ) , but by 1905 had settled that much and " several inches more " , necessitating reconstruction of the first floor . By 1948 , it had settled 20 inches ( 51 cm ) , resulting in a step down from the street to the ground floor . The entire east wall is supported on caissons sunk to the hardpan , installed when the subway Blue Line was dug under Dearborn Street in 1940 .
The narrow building allows an external exposure to all of the 300 offices , which pass natural light via double hung outside windows through feather @-@ chipped glass transoms and hallway partitions into the single central corridor . Skylights bring sunlight into the open stairwells . The north half corridors are 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide and the south half corridors are 11 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 51 m ) . In the north half , there are two open stairs in the center at the one third points , with perforated risers , white marble treads , and decorative steel railings . There are two banks of four elevators on the west side of the corridor , one for passengers and the other for freight . In the south half , there is a single bank of elevators on the north half of the length . The southern bank was abandoned and slabbed over on each floor . There is a flight of stairs behind each of these shafts with marble treads , closed cast iron risers , and ornamental balusters . The basic office suite is 600 square feet ( 56 m2 ) , consisting of one outer office and two or more inner offices . Heavy internal walls at the quarter and halfway points , the arches of which manifest Root 's innovative wind bracing , mark the boundaries of the four original buildings .
= = Surrounding area = =
The Monadnock belongs to the Printing House Row District , a National Historic Landmark which includes the Manhattan Building , the Old Colony Building , and the Fisher Building , some of Chicago 's seminal early skyscrapers . The Manhattan Building , built by William LeBaron Jenney in 1890 , was the first building in Chicago with a complete steel skeleton or " Chicago " construction , an innovation Jenney had introduced in the Home Insurance Building in 1884 . The first 16 @-@ story building in America , at the time it was " regarded with awe and fear " . Jenney 's masterpiece , the Manhattan was considered a technical triumph in construction . The 17 @-@ story Old Colony , built by Holabird & Roche in 1894 , was considered one of the structural masterpieces of its time for its revolutionary portal form of bracing . It is the only survivor of a group of Chicago school buildings with rounded corner bays . The Fisher Building , built by Burnham in 1894 , was an engineering miracle — the first tall commercial building to be built almost entirely without bricks . Its steel frame and thin terracotta curtain wall allowed two @-@ thirds of the surface to be covered with glass .
The district overlaps geographically with the Printer 's Row neighborhood , originally the center of Chicago 's printing and publishing industry , but now mostly converted to residential housing . The area is also home to the largest public library in the world , the Harold Washington Library , named for Chicago 's first African @-@ American mayor , and the Loop campus of Depaul University , America 's largest Roman Catholic university .
Immediately to the west on Jackson Street is the Union League Club of Chicago , founded in 1879 as a civic organization for " upright , law @-@ abiding businessmen " . To the north are the three buildings comprising Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe 's minimalist Federal Plaza : the 1964 Everett McKinley Dirksen United States Courthouse , the only courthouse designed by Mies ; the 1973 United States Post Office Loop Station ; and the 1975 Kluczynski Federal Building , Mies 's last project , considered to mark the apex of his career . The triangular , 27 @-@ story Metropolitan Correctional Center , a detention center serving the Federal courts in the Dirksen Building and nearby Ralph H. Metcalfe Federal Building , is southwest of the Monadnock at Clark and LaSalle .
The south leg of the Chicago Transit Authority elevated rail loop runs next to the building on Van Buren Street ; the CTA 's Brown , Orange , Pink , and Purple Lines are served by the Library @-@ State / Van Buren stop one block to the east . The Jackson street subway station , serving the Blue Line , is on the Dearborn Street side of the building .
= = Critical reception and historical significance = =
Contemporary Chicago critics considered the building too radical a departure from Burnham & Root 's previous designs and too extreme in its stark simplicity and disregard for prevailing aesthetic norms , calling it an " engineer 's house " and a " thoroughly puritanical " example of commercial style . European critics were even less approving . In the words of French architect Jacques Hermant , " The Monadnock was no longer the result of an artist responding to particular needs with intelligence and drawing from them all of the possible consequences . It is the work of a laborer who , without the slightest study , super @-@ imposes 15 strictly identical stories to make a block then stops when he finds the block high enough . "
Other critics saw this lack of style as " natural " and what made the Monadnock truly modern . New York critic Barr Feree wrote in 1892 that " There are no attempts at facades ... no ornamental appendages , nothing but a succession of windows , frankly stating that the structure is an office building , devoted to business , needing and using every available surface . " Other critics praised the truthfulness of the building to the ideals of business , which , while " not necessarily the highest to which we might aspire to in art ... are the only ideals the business building ought to express " . Montgomery Schuyler , one of the Monadnock 's most enthusiastic defenders , argued that the Monadnock 's lack of ornament was not a lack of art , but rather " radiated the gravity of modern business life " .
The Monadnock was widely praised by early twentieth @-@ century German architects , including Mies , who on his arrival in Chicago in 1938 declared that " The Monadnock block is of such vigor and force that I am at once proud and happy to make my home here . " These European architects found the building 's attention to purpose and functional expression inspiring . Bauhaus architect Ludwig Hilberseimer wrote that " The false solution — unfortunately too common — of applying meaningless and misplaced adornment is here instinctively avoided . An innate feeling for proportion gives this great building inner consistency and logical purity . "
Modern critics have praised the Monadnock as one of the most important exemplars of the Chicago school , along with Louis Sullivan 's Carson , Pirie , Scott and Company Building . It has been called " a triumph of unified design " comparable to Henry Hobson Richardson 's Marshall Field 's Wholesale Store , and " one of the most exciting aesthetic experiences our commercial architecture has ever produced " .
The building was one of the first five selected by the Chicago Commission on Architectural Landmarks in 1958 , " in recognition of its original design and its historical interest as the highest wall @-@ bearing structure in Chicago " . The commission went on to note that the " restrained use of brick , soaring massive walls , omission of ornamental forms , unite in a building simple yet majestic . " In 1973 , the Chicago City Council voted unanimously to designate the Monadnock a Chicago Landmark , stating that " The two halves of this building provide a unique perspective for examining the history and development of modern architecture .... Together , they mark the end of one building tradition and the beginning of another . " Critics of the Monadnock 's landmark status objected that it would prevent the necessary demolition of the building , which was " an excellent example of a building that is ... no longer fulfilling the functions it was designed to fulfill " and " a wasting asset " that underperformed the market and was far less valuable than the land on which it stood would be .
The National Register of Historic Places , to which the Monadnock was added in 1970 , noted that " the sheer , unadorned walls of this building forming a powerful mass became , prophetically , a forerunner of the ' slab skyscraper ' — a style not popular until the late 1920s " and that " the two sections ... make , as an ensemble , one of the strongest , yet refined architectural statements in the development of twentieth century architecture . " Its nomination as a National Historic Landmark in 1976 , as part of the South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row Historic District , included the comment that it was " one of the most classical statements ever made in the skyscraper idiom . "
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= Daniel Lambert =
Daniel Lambert ( 13 March 1770 – 21 June 1809 ) was a gaol keeper and animal breeder from Leicester , England , famous for his unusually large size . After serving four years as an apprentice at an engraving and die casting works in Birmingham , he returned to Leicester around 1788 and succeeded his father as keeper of Leicester 's gaol . He was a keen sportsman and extremely strong ; on one occasion he fought a bear in the streets of Leicester . He was an expert in sporting animals , widely respected for his expertise with dogs , horses and fighting cocks .
At the time of Lambert 's return to Leicester , his weight began to increase steadily , even though he was athletically active and , by his own account , abstained from drinking alcohol and did not eat unusual amounts of food . In 1805 , Lambert 's gaol closed . By this time , he weighed 50 stone ( 700 lb ; 320 kg ) , and had become the heaviest authenticated person up to that point in recorded history . Unemployable and sensitive about his bulk , Lambert became a recluse .
In 1806 , poverty forced Lambert to put himself on exhibition to raise money . In April 1806 , he took up residence in London , charging spectators to enter his apartments to meet him . Visitors were impressed by his intelligence and personality , and visiting him became highly fashionable . After some months on public display , Lambert grew tired of exhibiting himself , and in September 1806 , he returned , wealthy , to Leicester , where he bred sporting dogs and regularly attended sporting events . Between 1806 and 1809 , he made a further series of short fundraising tours .
In June 1809 , he died suddenly in Stamford . At the time of his death , he weighed 52 stone 11 pounds ( 739 lb ; 335 kg ) , and his coffin required 112 square feet ( 10 @.@ 4 square metres ) of wood . Despite the coffin being built with wheels to allow easy transport , and a sloping approach being dug to the grave , it took 20 men almost half an hour to drag his casket into the trench , in a newly opened burial ground to the rear of St Martin 's Church . While others have since overtaken Daniel Lambert 's record as the heaviest person in history , he remains a popular character in Leicester , and in 2009 was described by the Leicester Mercury as " one of the city 's most cherished icons " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Daniel Lambert was born at his parents ' house in Blue Boar Lane , Leicester , on 13 March 1770 . His father , also named Daniel Lambert , had been the huntsman to Harry Grey , 4th Earl of Stamford , and at the time of his son 's birth was the keeper of Leicester 's gaol . The eldest of four children , Daniel Lambert had two sisters , and a brother who died young .
At the age of eight he was a keen swimmer , and for much of his life he taught local children to swim . Lambert 's paternal uncle — like his father — also worked with animals , but as a professional gamekeeper ; his maternal grandfather was a breeder of champion fighting cocks . Lambert grew up with a strong interest in field sports , and was particularly fond of otter hunting , fishing , shooting and horse racing . From his early teens , Lambert was a keen sportsman and by his late teens he was considered an expert in the breeding of hunting dogs .
In 1784 , he was apprenticed to Messrs Taylor & Co , an engraving and die casting works in Birmingham owned by a Mr Benjamin Patrick . The engraved buckles and buttons in which Patrick 's factory specialised became unfashionable , however , and the business went into decline . In 1788 , Lambert returned to Leicester , to serve as his father 's assistant at the gaol ( some sources date Lambert 's return to Leicester to 1791 , following the destruction of the building housing Messrs Taylor & Co in the Priestley Riots of July 1791 ) . His father retired soon afterwards and Lambert succeeded him as gaol keeper . The younger Daniel Lambert was a much @-@ respected gaoler ; he befriended many of the prisoners , and made every effort to help them when they went to trial .
= = = Weight = = =
Although by his own account Lambert did not eat unusually large amounts of food , at about the time of his return to Leicester his weight began to increase steadily , and by 1793 , he weighed 32 stone ( 450 lb ; 200 kg ) . Concerned for his fitness , in his spare time he devoted himself to exercise , building his strength to the point where he was able to easily carry five long hundredweight ( 560 lb ; 250 kg ) . On one occasion , while he was watching a dancing bear on display in Blue Boar Lane , his dog slipped loose and bit it . The bear knocked the dog to the ground , and Lambert asked its keeper to restrain it so he could retrieve his wounded animal ; however , the keeper removed the bear 's muzzle so it could attack the dog . Lambert reportedly struck the bear with a pole and with his left hand , punched its head , knocking it to the ground to allow the dog to escape .
Despite his increasingly large girth , Lambert remained fit and active , once walking seven miles ( 11 km ) from Woolwich to the City of London " with much less apparent fatigue than several middle @-@ sized men who were of the party " . Although not particularly agile , he was not significantly restricted by his bulk , and was able to stand on one leg and kick the other to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . He continued to teach swimming in Leicester , and was able to stay afloat with two grown men sitting on his back . He disliked changing his clothes , and each morning habitually wore the clothes he had worn the day before , regardless of whether they were still wet ; by Lambert 's own account he suffered no colds or other ill effects from this behaviour .
By 1801 , Lambert 's weight had increased to about 40 stone ( 560 lb ; 250 kg ) , and , as his bulk meant neither he nor his horse were able to keep up with the hunt , he was forced to give up hunting . He continued to maintain an interest in field sports , keeping a pack of 30 terriers . By this time , although he retained his solid reputation as a gaoler , serious concerns were being raised about his fitness for the post . Traditional gaols were falling out of favour and being replaced with forced labour institutions , and in 1805 , the old Bridewell gaol was closed . Lambert was left without a job , but was granted an annuity of £ 50 ( about £ 3 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) a year by the Leicester magistrates , in recognition of his excellent service as gaol keeper .
= = = Unemployment = = =
Lambert 's girth was then enormous ; six men of normal size could fit together inside his waistcoat , and each of his stockings was the size of a sack . His £ 50 annuity did not adequately cover his living costs , and his size prevented him from working . He became a virtual recluse . Stories of his bulk had by then begun to spread , and travellers visiting Leicester would use various pretexts to visit his home . One such visitor asked Lambert 's servant to allow him entry as he wished to ask Lambert 's advice about fighting cocks ; Lambert leaned out of the window and told the servant to " tell the gentleman that I am a shy cock " . On another occasion , he admitted into his house a Nottingham man who sought his advice about a mare 's pedigree ; on realising the man was visiting only to look at him , Lambert told him that the horse in question was " by Impertinence out of Curiosity " .
Sensitive about his weight , Daniel Lambert refused to allow himself to be weighed , but sometime around 1805 , some friends persuaded him to come with them to a cock fight in Loughborough . Once he had squeezed his way into their carriage , the rest of the party drove the carriage onto a large scale and jumped out . After deducting the weight of the ( previously weighed ) empty carriage , they calculated that Lambert 's weight was now 50 stone ( 700 lb ; 320 kg ) , and that he had thus overtaken Edward Bright , the 616 @-@ pound ( 279 kg ) " Fat Man of Maldon " , as the heaviest authenticated person in recorded history .
= = = London = = =
Despite his shyness , Lambert badly needed to earn money , and saw no alternative to putting himself on display , and charging his spectators . On 4 April 1806 , he boarded a specially built carriage and travelled from Leicester to his new home at 53 Piccadilly , then near the western edge of London . For five hours each day , he welcomed visitors into his home , charging each a shilling ( about £ 3 @.@ 7 as of 2016 ) .
Lambert shared his interests and knowledge of sports , dogs and animal husbandry with London 's middle and upper classes , and it soon became highly fashionable to visit him , or become his friend . Many called repeatedly ; one banker made 20 visits , paying the admission fee on each occasion . During this period of English history no real stigma was attached to obesity , and Lambert was generally considered a wonder to be marvelled at , rather than a freak to be gawped or sneered at . His business venture was immediately successful , drawing around 400 paying visitors per day . His home was described as having the air of a fashionable resort , rather than that of an exhibition , and he was pleased to find that his customers generally treated him with courtesy , and not simply as a spectacle . He insisted on maintaining amongst his visitors an atmosphere of civility and all men entering his rooms were obliged to remove their hats . One visitor refused to remove his " even if the King were present " but Lambert replied that " Then by G — — , Sir , you must instantly quit this room , as I do not consider it a mark of respect due to myself , but to the ladies and gentlemen who honor me with their company . "
Lambert 's popularity inspired an imitator in " Master Wybrants , Mr. Lambert in miniature " , exhibited a short distance away in Sackville Street . A handbill described Wybrants as " Master Wybrants the Modern Hercules , who at the age of 4 Months weighed 39 pounds , measured 2 feet round the Body 15 Inches round the thigh and 8 Inches round the Arm , to be seen at the corner of Sackville Street Piccadilly " .
People would travel long distances to see him ( on one occasion , a party of 14 travelled to London from Guernsey ) , and many would spend hours speaking with him on animal breeding . A life @-@ sized waxwork of Lambert was displayed in London , where it became extremely popular . Daniel Lambert soon became a popular subject with cartoonists , who often depicted him as John Bull . He mixed well with the upper classes , and on one occasion met King George III . The King 's and Lambert 's reactions to this meeting are not recorded .
= = = Medical examination = = =
Lambert soon came to the attention of the medical profession , and shortly after his arrival in London , the Medical and Physical Journal published an article about him . They confirmed that he weighed 50 stone ( 700 lb ; 320 kg ) , and measured his height as 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) . A thorough medical examination found that his bodily functions worked correctly , and that he breathed freely . Lambert was described as active and mentally alert , well @-@ read , and with an excellent memory . He was fond of singing , and had a normal speaking voice which showed no signs of pressure on the lungs . Doctors found tumefaction of his feet , legs and thighs , and accumulation of fat within the abdomen , but other than scaly and thickened skin on his legs caused by previous attacks of erysipelas , he had no health problems . Lambert told the doctors that he ate normal quantities of ordinary food . He claimed that since about 1795 he had drunk nothing but water , and that even while young , and a regular party @-@ goer , he did not join his fellow revellers in drinking . Lambert estimated that he was able to walk about a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) without difficulty . He slept regularly for no more than eight hours per night , always with his window open , and was never heard to snore ; on waking he was always fully alert within five minutes , and he never napped during the day .
= = = = Possible causes = = = =
It is impossible to be certain about what caused Daniel Lambert 's extreme weight , but it is considered unlikely to have been caused by an endocrine ( glandular ) or genetic disorder . Other than his weight gain , he showed no symptoms of a thyroid disorder , and none of his many portraits show the moon face of a patient with Cushing 's syndrome . Patients with Bardet – Biedl syndrome and Prader – Willi syndrome , genetic syndromes which can lead to obesity in patients , also suffer from learning disabilities and muscular weakness , but all those who knew Lambert agreed that he was highly intelligent , was extremely strong physically , and , except for erysipelas and venous insufficiency ( varicose veins ) in his legs , did not suffer from any health problems . One contemporary commentator remarked that " Mr. Lambert scarcely knows what it is to be ailing or indisposed " . Lambert 's only recorded psychological problem was an occasional " depression of the spirits " , during his time in London . Although he had an aunt and uncle who were overweight , his parents and surviving siblings remained of normal build throughout their lives .
Consequently , it is likely that Lambert 's weight gain was caused not by a physical disorder but by a combination of overeating and a lack of exercise . Although heavily built in his teens , he began to gain weight only when he took up the relatively sedentary job of prison keeper . A biography of Lambert published during his lifetime recounted that " it was within a year of this appointment that his bulk received the greatest and most rapid encrease " . Although he claimed to eat little , and to abstain from alcohol , it is likely that a man with his lifestyle and position in society would have eaten large amounts of meat , and drunk beer at social events .
= = = Józef Boruwłaski = = =
After some months in London , Lambert was visited by Józef Boruwłaski , a 3 @-@ foot @-@ 3 @-@ inch ( 99 cm ) dwarf then in his seventies . Born in 1739 to a poor family in rural Pokuttya , Boruwłaski was generally considered to be the last of Europe 's court dwarfs . He was introduced to the Empress Maria Theresa in 1754 , and after a short time residing with deposed Polish king Stanisław Leszczyński , he exhibited himself around Europe , thus becoming a wealthy man . At age 60 , he retired to Durham , where he became such a popular figure that the City of Durham paid him to live there and he became one of its most prominent citizens . Boruwłaski had a superb memory , and recalled that Lambert , while still employed by Patrick 's die casting works and before he grew fat , had paid to see him in Birmingham . Boruwłaski remarked " I have seen this face twenty years before at Birmingham , but certainly it be another body " . He had been told that Lambert 's bulk was a hoax , and he therefore felt his leg to prove to himself that it was not . The two men compared their respective outfits , and calculated that one of Lambert 's sleeves would provide enough cloth to make an entire coat for Boruwłaski . Lambert enquired after Boruwłaski 's wife , Isalina Barbutan , whereupon the latter replied " No , she is dead , and I am not very sorry , for when I affront her , she put me on the mantle @-@ shelf for punishment . "
The meeting of Lambert and Boruwłaski , the largest and smallest men in the country , was the subject of enormous public interest ; one newspaper reported that " It was Sir John Falstaff and Tom Thumb , which must have afforded a double treat to the curious " . Boruwłaski lived to see his 98th year , despite the prediction of the money @-@ lender who sold him his annuity that his small stature would make him prone to illness .
= = = Disillusionment = = =
Although generally respected by London society , the longer Lambert remained there , the more irritable he became . Shy and self @-@ conscious , he was annoyed at repeatedly being asked about the size of his clothes . In answer to one request , to a woman who enquired as to the cost of his coat , he replied " I cannot pretend to charge my memory with the price , but I can put you into a method of obtaining the information you want . If you think proper to make me a present of a new coat , you will then know exactly what it costs " . Another interested spectator claimed that since his entrance fee was paying for Lambert 's clothing , he had the right to know about it ; Lambert replied " Sir , if I knew what part of my next coat your shilling would pay for , I can assure you I would cut out the piece " . Lambert calculated in 1806 that a full suit of clothes cost him £ 20 , about £ 1 @,@ 500 as of 2016 .
= = = Return to Leicester = = =
Lambert had the acumen to refuse the management offers of various impresarios and agents , and by September 1806 , he had returned to Leicester as a wealthy man . He returned to his favourite pastimes , breeding sporting dogs and fighting cocks . A terrier bitch , for which he was offered 100 guineas ( about £ 7 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) , was said to be the finest in England . He refused to sell the dog , which became his lifetime companion . He began again to attend sporting events , as a report on the Leicester Races of September 1806 noted that " Among the distinguished characters upon the turf we were glad to see our old friend , Mr. Daniel Lambert , in apparent high health and spirits " . Although too heavy to follow hunts on horseback , he used a portion of the money earned in London to build up a pack of greyhounds , watching from his carriage as they coursed hares in the Leicestershire countryside .
In December 1806 , Lambert went on a brief fundraising tour , and exhibited himself in Birmingham and Coventry . Early the next year he returned to London , and stayed in the fashionable Leicester Square . There he fell ill ; his physician Dr Heaviside felt that his illness might have been caused by the polluted London air , and Lambert returned to Leicester . He recovered , and later in 1807 , made a series of tours of England .
In summer 1808 , Lambert briefly returned to the capital , where he sold a pair of spaniels for 75 guineas ( about £ 5 @,@ 500 as of 2016 ) at Tattersalls . Later that year , he exhibited himself in York . In June 1809 , he set off on another tour of East Anglia , to conclude in Stamford during the Stamford Races . One account suggests that this tour was intended to be his last , as he was then sufficiently wealthy to retire . While on the tour , Lambert was weighed in Ipswich ; his weight was 52 stone 11 pounds ( 739 lb ; 335 kg ) . No longer able to use stairs , he took lodgings on the ground floor of the Waggon & Horses inn at 47 Stamford High Street on 20 June .
= = = Death = = =
Following his arrival at Stamford , Lambert sent a message to the Stamford Mercury , ordering advertisements and handbills . Stating that " as the Mountain could not wait upon Mahomet , Mahomet would go to the mountain " , he asked the printer to visit him at the Waggon & Horses , to discuss his printing requirements . That evening , Lambert was in bed and admitted to feeling tired , but nonetheless he was able to discuss his requirements with the printer , and was anxious that the handbills be delivered on time .
On the morning of 21 June , Lambert woke at his usual time and appeared in good health . As he began to shave , he complained of breathing difficulties . Ten minutes later , he collapsed and died .
There was no autopsy , and the cause of Lambert 's death is unknown . While many sources say that he died of a fatty degeneration of the heart or of stress on his heart caused by his bulk , his behaviour in the period leading to his death does not match that of someone suffering from cardiac insufficiency ; witnesses agree that on the morning of his death he appeared well , before he became short of breath and collapsed . Bondeson ( 2006 ) speculates that the most consistent explanation of his death , given his symptoms and medical history , is that he had a sudden pulmonary embolism .
= = Burial = =
Lambert 's corpse rapidly began to putrefy . There was no question of his body being returned to Leicester , and so on 22 June , it was placed inside an elm coffin , 6 feet 4 inches long , 4 feet 4 inches wide and 2 feet 4 inches deep ( 193 cm × 132 cm × 71 cm ) , built on wheels to allow it to be moved . The coffin was so large that to wheel it out of the inn and to the newly opened burial ground at the rear of St Martin 's Church , the window and wall of his apartment were demolished . A suitably sized grave had been dug , with a sloping approach to avoid the need to lower the coffin from above , but on 23 June , it nonetheless took almost half an hour for twenty men to pull Lambert 's enormous coffin into the grave .
Lambert 's friends paid for a large gravestone , inscribed :
In Remembrance of that Prodigy in Nature .
DANIEL LAMBERT .
a Native of Leicester :
who was possessed of an exalted and convivial Mind
and in personal Greatness had no CompetitorHe measured three Feet one Inch round the Legnine Feet four Inches round the Bodyand weighedFifty two Stone eleven Pounds !
He departed this Life on the 21st of June 1809Aged 39 yearsAs a Testimony of Respect this Stone is erected by his Friends in Leicester
= = After death = =
In late 1809 , a Mr J. Drakard released The life of that wonderful and extraordinary heavy man , the late Danl . Lambert , from his birth to the moment of his dissolution , with an account of men noted for their corpulency , and other interesting matter , the first full biography of Lambert to be released after his death . Lambert 's position as the heaviest person in recorded history was soon overtaken by the American Mills Darden ( 1799 – 1857 ) , but Lambert had by now become a cult figure , and virtually every item connected with him was preserved for posterity . His clothes and possessions were sold at auction to collectors , and many of them are preserved in museums today .
Across England , many public houses and inns were renamed after Daniel Lambert , particularly in Leicester and Stamford . The Daniel Lambert public house at 12 Ludgate Hill , near the entrance to St Paul 's Cathedral in London , was well known , and had a large portrait of Daniel Lambert and Lambert 's walking stick on display in the lobby . James Dixon , owner of the Ram Jam Inn in Stamford , bought the suit of clothes Lambert had been wearing when he died and put it on display , renaming the inn the Daniel Lambert .
The term " Daniel Lambert " entered common use in English speech and writing , to refer to any fat man . His name continued in this use long after the details of his life had been largely forgotten ; in 1852 , Charles Dickens remarked that " Lambert 's name is known better than his history " . Dickens 's Nicholas Nickleby compares the obese George IV to Lambert , and William Makepeace Thackeray used the term in Vanity Fair to refer to the obese Joseph Sedley , and in The Luck of Barry Lyndon to refer to the fat servant Tim . As time progressed , " Daniel Lambert " came to mean anything exceptionally large ; Herbert Spencer 's The Study of Sociology used the phrase " a Daniel Lambert of learning " , while Thomas Carlyle referred sarcastically to Oliver Cromwell as " this big swollen Gambler and gluttonous hapless ' spiritual Daniel Lambert ' " . In 1874 , The Times , in reviewing the newly translated French comedy La Fiammina by Mario Uchard in which a character is named " Daniel Lambert " , noted that the name is " always associated in the English mind with the notion of obesity " , and in 1907 , almost 100 years after Lambert 's death , the Château de Chambord was referred to as " the Daniel Lambert among châteaux " . Nellie Lambert Ensall , at the time the heaviest woman in Britain , claimed in 1910 to be Daniel Lambert 's great @-@ granddaughter , but her claim is likely to be untrue ; Lambert was unmarried and is unlikely to have had any children .
In 1838 , the English Annual published a series of poems , purportedly written by Lambert and found amongst his papers at the Waggon and Horses after his death . No source published during Lambert 's lifetime mentions his having any interest in poetry or in any reading matter other than periodicals on field sports , and it is unclear why his papers should have been with him in Stamford at his death , rather than at his home in Leicester . The discoverer of the poems is credited only as " Omega " . It is likely that the poems are a hoax .
= = = P. T. Barnum and General Tom Thumb = = =
P. T. Barnum and the 25 @-@ inch ( 64 cm ) tall General Tom Thumb ( Charles Sherwood Stratton ) visited Stamford in 1846 and donated one of Thumb 's costumes to Dixon to be displayed alongside Lambert 's . General Tom Thumb visited Stamford again in 1859 and was tied up inside one of Lambert 's stockings . In 1866 , General Tom Thumb , with his equally short wife Lavinia Warren ( Mercy Lavinia Warren Bump ) , her sister Minnie Warren ( Huldah Pierce Warren Bump ) and Barnum 's other celebrated dwarf Commodore Nutt ( George Washington Morrison Nutt ) visited Stamford . All four were able to pass through the knee of Lambert 's breeches together . In 1866 , Lambert 's and Tom Thumb 's clothes were sold to the Old London Tavern in Stamford ; they were later in the possession of Stamford Museum . ( In June 2010 , it was announced that the Stamford Museum would close in June 2011 , with its collection transferred to Stamford Library . )
The 1806 waxwork of Lambert was exported to the United States and was on show in New Haven , Connecticut , by 1813 . By 1828 , the effigy was displayed in the Boston Vauxhall Gardens dressed in a complete set of Lambert 's clothes . It was later bought by P.T. Barnum and displayed at Barnum 's American Museum in New York , but the museum was destroyed by fire in 1865 and , although workmen endeavoured to save the waxwork , it melted in the heat and was destroyed .
= = = In popular memory = = =
Lambert is still a popular character in Leicester , described in 2009 by the Leicester Mercury as " one of the city 's most cherished icons " ; several local public houses and businesses are named after him . Sue Townsend 's play The Ghost of Daniel Lambert , in which Lambert 's ghost watches disapprovingly over the 1960s demolition and redevelopment of Leicester 's historic town centre , premiered at Leicester 's Haymarket Theatre in 1981 . Lambert is also a popular figure in Stamford , and local football team Stamford A.F.C. are nicknamed " The Daniels " , after him .
A set of Lambert 's clothes , together with his armchair , walking stick , riding crop and prayer book , are on permanent display at the Newarke Houses Museum in Leicester . Stamford Museum exhibited a tailor 's dummy , dressed with Daniel Lambert 's clothes as if they are being made up for him , plus his hat and a portrait . The Daniel Lambert pub in Ludgate Hill no longer exists , and the memorabilia formerly displayed there are now on permanent display at the George Hotel in Stamford . The Daniel Lambert pub in Stamford has also closed .
In 2009 , on the 200th anniversary of his death , Leicester celebrated Daniel Lambert Day , and over 800 people attended an event in his name at Newarke Houses Museum .
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= Lake Ontario Ordnance Works =
The former Lake Ontario Ordnance Works ( LOOW ) was a 7 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 000 ha ) military installation located in Niagara County , New York , United States , approximately 12 @.@ 5 mi ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) north of Niagara Falls .
The property was purchased by the War Department during World War II as a location for the production of TNT . Most of the LOOW property was sold after the war .
The United States Department of Energy currently owns 191 acres ( 77 ha ) of the original LOOW property , on which the Niagara Falls Storage Site ( NFSS ) is located . The NFSS is used for the storage of radioactive materials produced during the development of America 's first atom bombs .
Approximately 93 percent of the original LOOW site — currently occupied by homes , a school , a campground , the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima , farms , local and federal government operations , and a toxic waste facility — meets the criteria of a Formerly Used Defense Site , and one portion of the property is listed as a Superfund cleanup site .
= = History = =
The War Department purchased 7 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 000 ha ) of farmland east of Youngstown , New York , in 1941 as a location to manufacture TNT . The location was selected because of its proximity to chemical manufacturing plants , to Fort Niagara , to the New York Central Railroad , and to water and electrical power .
The LOOW headquarters were at first located in a vegetable canning factory at the site .
The 149 private landowners living there — mostly farmers and orchard growers — were given 30 days to move out , and most of their 125 farmhouses and 538 barns were torn down or burned . Some homes located on the periphery of the LOOW boundary were kept .
Construction of the TNT plant began in January 1941 , and employed over 7 @,@ 500 workers . The production and storage areas occupied approximately 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 ha ) near the center of property , and the remaining 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) was undeveloped and used as a " buffer zone " . A hospital , dormitories , fire department , power plant , USO hall , water supply system , and waste treatment facility were located at the LOOW , and TNT was manufactured for about 9 months , until the plant was decommissioned in 1943 .
Uranium used to produce the first atom bombs from 1942 to 1948 was processed by Linde Air Products in nearby Tonawanda , and in 1944 , the Manhattan Engineer District began using the LOOW site for the storage and transshipment of radioactive residues and wastes created through the processing of uranium ore at Linde .
The War Assets Administration had by 1948 sold or transferred 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) of the original property , and the remaining 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) were given to the newly formed Atomic Energy Commission .
More than 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) were sold or transferred between 1955 – 75 , although the area on which the Niagara Falls Storage Site is located remained in the possession of the U.S. government .
= = Buildings and operations = =
= = = Building 401 = = =
Beginning in 1943 , Building 401 was used as the powerhouse for the production of TNT , though operations lasted less than a year . Building 401 was renovated , and from 1953 – 59 and 1965 – 71 , it was used as a Boron @-@ 10 isotope separation plant . The interior of Building 401 was gutted in 1971 , and its hardware and instrumentation were disposed of . Building 401 was demolished in 2010 .
= = = Concrete silo = = =
A 166 ft ( 51 m ) concrete silo was erected within the east boundary of the LOOW , immediately next to Porter Center Road , which was publicly accessible . A fence with signs warning of " radioactive material " ran next to the road . In 1952 , drums containing 3 @,@ 869 short tons ( 3 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 kg ) of highly @-@ radioactive K @-@ 65 residues were loaded into the silo . The concrete silo was dismantled sometime after 1979 .
= = = Interim waste containment structure = = =
Construction of the interim waste containment structure was completed in 1991 , and is located entirely within the Niagara Falls Storage Site . The 10 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) mound is used for the storage of radioactive waste and residues , and the grass @-@ covered " interim cap " is designed to retard both rainwater infiltration and radon emission .
All of the contaminated and radioactive materials stored at the former LOOW site — including thorium , uranium , and the world ’ s largest concentration of radium @-@ 226 — were placed into the structure .
= = = Rochester Burial Site = = =
In 1951 , laboratory waste and animals that had been injected with plutonium during experiments at the University of Rochester were shipped to the LOOW site for burial .
= = = US Army operations = = =
The United States Army was given an 860 @-@ acre ( 350 ha ) parcel of land from the original LOOW property , located on the northeast boundary . Beginning in 1957 it housed 36 Nike surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles intended to protect the nearby Niagara Hydroelectric Power Project . The property is currently licensed to the New York Army National Guard , and is used as a weekend training site .
= = = US Air Force operations = = =
A 98 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) parcel of land from the original LOOW property was given to the United States Air Force , on which they located an experimental rocket fuel plant called the Youngstown Test Annex Site .
= = = Private waste treatment facilities = = =
Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corporation ( now Occidental Petroleum ) purchased a large portion of the original LOOW property from a private landowner in 1975 to use as a dump site .
Waste Management , Inc currently owns and operates a 713 @-@ acre ( 289 ha ) treatment , storage , disposal , and recovery facility near the center of the former LOOW property . It is the only hazardous waste landfill remaining in the Northeastern United States , and was the location where the anthrax @-@ contaminated desk of news @-@ anchor Tom Brokaw was disposed of in 2001 .
Modern Disposal Services operates a landfill on the former LOOW property .
= = = Other uses = = =
Approximately 380 private residences and a mobile home park are located within the footprint of the former LOOW site . A school , several small farms , a 13 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) campground , and the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima , which attracts thousands of visitors annually , are also located on the former LOOW site .
= = Safety concerns = =
In 1981 , the New York State Assembly Task Force on Toxic Substances wrote that the LOOW was " born in the crisis of war " , and that :
Federal mismanagement at the site was manifested by sloppy and deficient record @-@ keeping procedures , inadequate mapping of buried wastes , and technological primitivism with regard to waste storage and removal . Moreover , it is clear that the site should never have been chosen for the storage of radioactive materials in the first place .
The report added that radioactive waste had been stored " in rusting barrels stacked along the roadside " .
Author Ginger Strand wrote about the LOOW in her 2008 book Inventing Niagara : " the Army Corps engineers , currently charged with the cleanup , readily admit they don 't know everything that went on there " .
An extensive study conducted by the United States Army Corps of Engineers concluded in 2014 that there was " no evidence of potential source areas or releases of contamination to groundwater , surface water , or soil associated with any of the ground disturbances evaluated " at the former LOOW site .
Currently , approximately 7 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 2 @,@ 800 ha ) or 93 percent of the original LOOW site meets the criteria of a Formerly Used Defense Site , making it eligible for environmental restoration funds available from the U.S Army . One portion of the property containing contaminated groundwater is listed as a Superfund cleanup site .
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= Typhoon Pat ( 1985 ) =
Typhoon Pat , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Luming , was a powerful typhoon that struck Japan during the summer of 1985 . Pat is also one of three storms in the Western Pacific which interacted with each other . Originating from a monsoon trough towards the end of August , Pat first formed on August 24 several hundred miles east of the Philippines . It gradually intensified , and two days later , Pat was upgraded into a tropical storm . The cyclone initially moved east @-@ northeast while continuing to deepen . However , Pat leveled off in intensity on August 27 . After turning northwest , Pat attained typhoon intensity on August 28 . Pat accelerated towards the north , and reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on August 30 . The next day , the storm crossed the southern Japanese islands and entered the Sea of Japan . Gradually weakening , Pat transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later on August 31 . Early the next day , the storm moved ashore along northeastern Japan . The system dissipated on September 2 after reentering the Pacific Ocean . A total of 23 perished due to Typhoon Pat and 12 others were rendered as missing . Additionally , 79 people were injured . Furthermore , 38 houses in Japan were demolished , 110 were damaged , and over 2 @,@ 000 were flooded . More than 160 @,@ 000 homes lost power . A total of 165 flights were cancelled .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Pat originated from an active monsoon trough located east of the Philippines in the last two weeks of August . Forming around the time as Typhoon Odessa and Tropical Storm Ruby , an area of enhanced convection was first noted towards the end of August . At 0600 UTC on August 24 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system . Fifteen hours later , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) followed suit . At this time , the system was located within a favorable environment . The JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on the afternoon of August 25 . Early the next day , the JMA upgraded the disturbance into Tropical Storm Pat . Later on August 26 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft reported winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) and a pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) , but did not locate a surface circulation . That afternoon , the TCFA was re @-@ issued . Following additional Hurricane Hunter reports , which noted evidence of a surface circulation , the JTWC declared the system Tropical Storm Pat .
Initially poorly organized , Pat headed east @-@ northeast , south of a subtropical ridge . At 0600 UTC on August 27 , the JMA increased the intensity of the storm to 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC anticipated the storm to move east @-@ northeast and separate from the monsoon trough before turning west @-@ northwest under a weakening ridge . Instead , Pat drifted northeast , but remained situated within the monsoon trough . As such , the JTWC revised their forecast , and now expected the storm to move northwest due to the presence of an eastward moving trough situated over Mongolia . Meanwhile , the JMA increased the intensity of Pat to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) early on August 28 . Several hours later , both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded Pat to a typhoon . According to the JMA , the storm leveled off intensity for about a day . By midday on August 29 , some tropical cyclone forecast models began to show Pat emerging into the Sea of Japan west of the ridge . However , this theory was not supported by the JTWC as they believed that the ridge was too narrow to be picked up a trough . That same day , the JTWC increased the intensity to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 2 cyclone on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . The next day , the agency finally revised its forecast and predicted the storm to enter the sea . Around this time , the JTWC estimated that Pat attained peak intensity , with winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . During the evening of August 30 , the JMA reported that Pat reached its peak intensity of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . By this time , the ridge was gone , though a trough was now located near South Korea .
Shortly after its peak , Pat moved ashore along the southern tip Kyushu on August 31 . Overland , Pat began to weaken , and early the next day , the JMA downgraded Pat to a severe tropical storm . Meanwhile , Pat began to interact with Odessa , as the systems were approximately 500 km ( 310 mi ) apart . As Odessa moved east @-@ northeast , Pat accelerated towards the north , and then emerged into the Sea of Japan later on August 31 . That evening , the JTWC downgraded Pat into a tropical storm . At 2100 UTC that day , the JTWC noted that Pat had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . By this time , all the convection activity was restricted to the northeast quadrant of the system . Early on September 1 , Pat made landfall in Hokkaido along northeastern Japan . At that time , the JMA estimated winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . At midday , the JTWC stopped watching the system , although the JMA continued to do so until 1800 UTC on September 2 .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
While crossing Japan , a peak rainfall total of 374 mm ( 14 @.@ 7 in ) was recorded in Ebino , including 271 mm ( 10 @.@ 7 in ) in a day . A peak hourly storm total of 107 mm ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) was measured at Gokaharadake on Nagasaki . Pat was responsible for strong winds , including a 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) wind speed in Yakushima . The island of Kyushu sustained the worst affects from the typhoon . Twenty @-@ three people were killed by the typhoon while 12 others were listed as missing . A 61 @-@ year @-@ old man who died when knocked over by a street sign in Izumi . A 35 @-@ year @-@ old woman was crushed to death in Kagoshima when her home was demolished . A total of 179 people were injured due to Pat , including 23 on Honshu and 156 on Kyushu . In Aomori , a tent fell on 400 people attending a sporting event , injuring 18 . In the nearby Yamagata prefecture , a signboard at a school ground fell due to strong winds , injuring four students . Nearby , in the Kumamoto prefecture , one man was struck and killed by a flying tin plate , another was swept out to sea , and a man died when a ladder fell on him . Elsewhere , twelve fisherman perished at sea , seven of whom were not confirmed dead until September 2 .
A total of 38 houses in Japan were destroyed , 110 were damaged , and more than 2 @,@ 000 were flooded . Landslides were observed at 56 locations . Power was lost to 160 @,@ 000 families . A total of 165 flights were cancelled , delaying 15 @,@ 000 passengers . A total of 160 trains were cancelled . Two bullet train lines experienced delays in Kyushu ; ferry and air service were also delayed there . Offshore , ten fishing boats sunk , including one Japanese cargo ship . An additional 12 ships were rendered as missing . Ninety @-@ five other boats took refuge in North Korea , though 59 left on September 2 to return to Japan .
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= Maevia inclemens =
Maevia inclemens is a relatively common and colorful jumping spider of North America . In the males there are two forms , a very rare phenomenon in zoology . These use different courting displays , : 3 @-@ 4 and differ in appearance : the " tufted " morph has a black body and pedipalps ( " palps " ) , three black tufts across its " head " , and pale legs ; and the " gray " morph has black and white stripes all over its body and legs , orange palps , and no tufts . However , each form accounts for 50 % of the adult males , and they are equally successful in mating . A female of Maevia inclemens is 6 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 26 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) long , while males are 4 @.@ 75 to 6 @.@ 50 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 187 to 0 @.@ 256 in ) long . : 3 @-@ 4
Like all jumping spiders , M. inclemens has excellent vision . The main eyes , in the front @-@ and @-@ center position , are large , and are more acute than those of a cat and about 10 times as acute as a dragonfly 's . The remaining three pairs of eyes are along the sides of the head , and work as motion detectors . The eyes are used for hunting , for avoiding threats and for finding and wooing mates . Almost all jumping spiders are predators , mostly preying on insects , on other spiders , and on other arthropods .
M. inclemens is one of the 11 species in genus Maevia . The species was first called Attus inclemens , and other names have been used . The two male forms look and behave so differently that they were originally considered two distinct species . In 1955 Robert Barnes chose M. inclemens , : 1 and this has become the standard name .
The species is found in west southern Canada , and in the United States its distribution forms a crescent from the north mid @-@ west through New England and south to Florida . M. inclemens has been able to establish itself in man @-@ made structures such as outbuildings or fences .
= = Taxonomy = =
Maevia inclemens is the type species for the genus Maevia ( C.L. Koch , 1850 ) , : 2 @-@ 3 which includes another 10 species in May 2011 . The species name is derived from Latin adjective inclēmens " cruel , harsh " or " rough " . The species was first called Attus inclemens , and other names including Attus vittatus , Maevia pencillata , and Maevia vittata . : 2 @-@ 3 Also the two male forms look and behave so differently that they were originally considered two distinct species . In 1955 Robert Barnes chose M. inclemens , : 1 and this has become the standard name .
= = Description = =
Spiders are chelicerates , which differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into only two tagmata , the cephalothorax and abdomen . Spiders ' abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of silk glands within their abdomen . The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small , cylindrical pedicel , which allows the abdomen to move while spinning silk . : 571 @-@ 574 While most jumping spiders do not build webs to catch prey , they use silk for other purposes , including molting and laying eggs . : 495
Jumping spiders have large forelegs and short , powerful back legs . Unlike most arthropods , spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by increasing their blood pressure . Jumping spiders can leap several times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs , : 578 reaching up to 200 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) with the forelimbs extended to grasp the prey . Spiders maintain balance when walking , so that legs 1 and 3 on one side and 2 and 4 on the other side are moving , while the other four legs are on the surface . To run faster , spiders increase their stride frequency . : 328
In spiders and other chelicerates , there is only one pair of appendages before the mouth , and in spiders these are modified into fangs that inject poison into the prey . Behind the mouth is a pair of pedipalps ( " palps " for short ) , and those of male spiders are quite large and are used for displaying and mating .
Spiders groom themselves regularly , and more often if wet or dirty . They moisten their fangs , draw the legs one at a time through the fangs , and " comb " the legs with the fangs and palps . The first and fourth pairs of legs are then used to groom other parts of the body , and the only place they appear not to reach is the dorsal surface of the carapace . : 53
The body of M. inclemens is only sparsely covered with hairs and scales . : 2 A female of Maevia inclemens is 6 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 26 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) long , : 3 @-@ 4 her carapace is light brown , her legs are pale and unmarked . The top of her abdomen is chalky : 3 @-@ 4 or rusty colored , and along each side is a black band , often thinly covered with orange scales . Sometimes there is series of chevrons ( V @-@ shaped markings ) along the middle of her abdomen . : 3 @-@ 4 She has a prominent white stripe below the foremost eyes . There are spines on the first and second pair of her legs , but her body never has tufts of hair . : 3 @-@ 4 Males are 4 @.@ 75 to 6 @.@ 50 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 187 to 0 @.@ 256 in ) long , and their carapaces are light to dark brown , with a black line around the edge . There usually is a pair of large lighter areas between the last pair of eyes halfway down the back of the carapace . The eyes are surrounded by black . : 3 @-@ 4 Males occur in two forms , a very rare phenomenon in zoology . The " tufted " morph has a totally black body , black pedipalps , white legs and three tufts of bristles on the front part of the cephalothorax . The " gray " male morph has a black and white striped body , a prominent white stripe on the foremost eyes , striped legs and bright orange pedipalps , and no tufts . : 161 @-@ 162
Jumping spiders have a distinctive rectangular carapace , : 51 and that of female Maevia inclemens average 2 @.@ 30 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 091 in ) wide , while the carapaces of males average 2 @.@ 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 083 in ) . : 1989 The carapace of M. inclemens is fairly high , between 60 % and 70 % of the width . : 1
= = Senses = =
Jumping spiders have eight eyes , the two large ones in the center @-@ and @-@ front position ( the anterior @-@ median eyes , also referred to as " principal eyes " : 51 ) providing acute vision and housed in tubes in the head . The other six are secondary eyes , positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors . : 16 While other spiders can jump , salticids including M. inclemens are the only spiders with good vision , : 521 and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) to infinity , : 51 and in practise can see up to about 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) . : 53 In M. inclemens , the front row of secondary eyes is only slightly wider than the third , whose width is 75 % of the width of the carapace at that point . : 2
Like other arthropods , spiders have sensors , often modified setae ( bristles ) , for smell , taste , touch and vibration , protruding through their cuticle ( " skin " ) . : 532 @-@ 533 Unlike insects , spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae .
= = Feeding = =
Almost all jumping spiders are predators , mostly preying on insects , on other spiders , and on other arthropods . The most common procedure is sighting the prey , stalking , fastening a silk safety line to the surface , using the two pairs of back legs to jump on the victim , and finally biting the prey . Most jumping spiders walk throughout the day , so that they maximize their chances of a catch .
= = Reproduction and lifecycle = =
Each morph accounts for 50 % of the adult males , and they make the same number of attempts to court females , but using a different courting display . Before looking for a mate , a male spider spins a small , flat web on a surface and ejaculates into it . He then loads the semen into syringe @-@ like receptacles in both palps , and then searches for a female . : 581
After sighting a female , the tufted morph pushes himself as high as possible with the last three pair of legs , and claps with the foremost pair , while at the same time waving the palps up and down , and swinging the abdomen from side to side , : 95 usually about 9 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) from the female . : 161 @-@ 162 In contrast , the gray morph crouches down and points the foremost two pairs of legs directly forward , crosses the tips of the legs creating a triangle @-@ like configuration , holds his orange @-@ colored palps beneath his forward eyes , and glides back and forth in stationary or receding semi @-@ circles in front of the female , : 95 at 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) away . : 161 @-@ 162 The movements of the two morphs are identical later in the sequence . : 95 , 98
When receptive , females respond similarly to both male types : approach and settle ; extend the foremost pair of legs or tap with them . : 99 Both male morphs typically end their initial display and start leg @-@ clapping and zig @-@ zag dancing . : 103 , 106
When tufted males clap , females look towards them and display a greater number of tap displays to them than to the gray morph . Females also respond to tufted morphs ' clapping more often by settling than for gray males . : 102 However , after the females look towards the males , gray males approach the female more often than the tufted male . : 102 Females often tip their abdomens from side to side . : 102
Finally the male mounts and copulates with the female . Afterward , the male generally dismounts and the two pair usually run away from each other . However , the male sometimes chases the female and tries to copulate again . : 103 , 106
In an experiment , 12 tufted ( 52 % ) and 14 gray males ( 54 % ) copulated with females after courtship . At the end of copulation , females tried to capture and eat the males , but in the same experiment only one tufted and one gray male were killed . A count of offspring showed no differences in numbers of spiderlings from the two morphs . However , gray males got females ' attention more quickly within 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) while tufted males were quicker between 8 and 30 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 and 11 @.@ 8 in ) from the females . The continuation of two male morphs may be an example of a mixed Evolutionarily Stable Strategy , in which both morphs are genetically determined by their fathers ' morphs , and both are equally successful in their different ways .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Maevia inclemens is found throughout the eastern and mid @-@ west United States and south @-@ west Canada , including : Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York state , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Maryland , West Virginia , Virginia , North Carolina , Florida , Alabama , Louisiana , Texas , Kansas , Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , : 4 Quebec and Manitoba .
A study reported in 1981 on one mature and three recently clear @-@ cut sites in the southern Appalachian Mountains near Highlands , North Carolina . All specimens of spiders that hunt were collected on plants or webs above ground . Clear @-@ cutting caused a marked decrease in the abundance of nine species and a marked increase in four species , while M. inclemens and six others showed no change . : 288 , 291 @-@ 292
A few jumping spider species , including M. inclemens , have been able to establish themselves in man @-@ made structures . Most often these spiders are found on outbuildings or structures such as fences , rather than in permanently inhabited houses .
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= President of Belarus =
The office of President of Belarus ( Belarusian : Прэзідэнт Рэспублікі Беларусь , Russian : Президент Республики Беларусь ) is the head of state of Belarus . The office was created in 1994 with the passing of the Constitution of Belarus by the Supreme Soviet . This replaced the office of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet as the head of state . The tasks of the president including executing foreign and domestic policy , defend the rights and general welfare of citizens and residents and to uphold the Constitution . The president is mandated by the Constitution to serve as a leader in the social affairs of the country and to act as its main representative abroad . The duties , responsibilities and other transitional clauses dealing with the presidency are listed in Chapter Three , Articles 79 through 89 , of the Constitution .
The term for the president is five years , but due to a 1996 referendum , the election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001 . Under the 1994 constitution , the president could only serve for two terms as president , but due to a change in the constitution , term limits were eliminated . During the course of the office , three elections were held in 1994 , 2001 , 2006 and 2010 . The last election was held on 11 October 2015 . Alexander Lukashenko has been the only person who has served as president since the elections in 1994 .
The Presidential office is located in the Republic Palace in Minsk , while the presidential residence is located in Zaslawye ( Заслаўе ) , Minsk District .
= = Historical background = =
The Republic of Belarus was formed in 1991 shortly after declaring itself independent of the Soviet Union . Under the government of the Byelorussian SSR , the de facto leader of the Soviet Republic was the first secretaries of the Communist Party of Byelorussia , the only legal party in Soviet Belarus . From independence until passage of the Constitution in 1994 , the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet was the head of state and the Prime Minister as the head of government . When the office of the presidency was created , the role of the prime minister was reduced to assisting the president and resulted in the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet , along with its Chairman , in 1996 .
In the first set of elections for the office of president , the Prime Minister of Belarus , Vyachaslaw Kyebich , was defeated in a runoff vote by Alexander Lukashenko , resulting in Lukashenko becoming the first president . In elections of 2001 and 2006 , which were contested by international observers , Western powers and internal opposition parties due for failing to meet democratic and fair standards , the incumbent Lukashenko defeated the other candidates within the first ballot . As of 2014 , he is the only person to have served as President of Belarus .
= = Constitutional status = =
Article 79 of the Constitution of Belarus gives the status of head of state to the President of the Republic of Belarus . He is also considered the guardian of the Constitution and the rights and freedoms of those who claim Belarusian citizenship or residency . The President is the personification of unification of the Belarusian state when conducting foreign or internal affairs and shall be the main representative when dealing with other nations or international organizations . The President is also entrusted with the safety , prosperity and stability of the country and acts as an intermediary between the bodies of the national government .
= = Selection process = =
= = = Eligibility = = =
In order to be able to run for office , a candidate must be a Belarusian citizen by birth that is over thirty @-@ five years old . The candidate must also reside within the Republic for ten years and he or she must be able to cast a ballot legally . The provisions are set down in Article 80 of the Constitution .
= = = Election = = =
Elections for president occur every five years by a national vote . Candidates , as soon as they are deemed eligible under Article 80 of the Constitution , are tasked with collecting signatures from eligible voters . After 100 @,@ 000 signatures are collected and certified , the candidate is declared to be official by the Central Elections Committee . In the voting , the secret ballots are collected directly from eligible voters . During the first round of voting , if a candidate earns fifty percent plus one of the votes , they are declared the President @-@ elect . If no one has achieved that number during the first round , then a run @-@ off election will occur between two candidates who won the most votes . The person who wins the most votes in the run @-@ off is declared the President @-@ elect .
In the event the office is vacant , the election to replace the president must occur between thirty and seventy days after the vacancy occurred . During normal election cycles , the elections must occur before the last two months of the current president . In either situation , the government body that calls for elections is the House of Representatives . The next set of presidential elections will occur in 2015 . President Lukashenko , when addressing the press in February 2007 , stated his health will determine if he will run in 2011 or step down at that time .
= = Powers and duties = =
Articles 84 and 85 states the official political , social and national defense duties that are rested with the president Other than the enumerated powers , Number 30 allows the president to use other powers granted to him either from national law or from other sections of the Constitution .
Part of the prerogative of the president is the right to call national referendums , and to call regular and extraordinary elections to the House of Representatives , the Council of the Republic and local representative bodies . He can also dissolve the chambers of the Parliament , as the Constitution permits . It is his duty to appoint the Prime minister of the Republic of Belarus with the consent of the House of Representatives , and to decide the structure of the Government of the Republic of Belarus . The President signs bills , and has the right to return it , fully or in parts , with objections to the House of Representatives . He also appoints – and can dismiss – the deputy Prime ministers , the ministers and the other members of the Government , and he decides in cases of resignation of the Government , or any of its members . With the consent of the Council of the Republic , the President appoints the Chairperson of the Supreme Court , and can dismiss this Chairperson and other judges . The president is supposed to deliver annual messages to the Parliament , and has the right to participate in the sessions of Parliament and its bodies . In instances of strike , the president has the right , in instances specified in the law , to defer or suspend a strike for a period not exceeding three months . In international affairs , it is the President 's duty to conduct negotiations and sign international treaties , and to appoint and recall diplomatic representatives of the Republic .
Not only the president is the head of government , he is the social leader of Belarus . The president delivers messages to the citizens several times a year and can issue decrees to establish red letter days and national holidays . The president is the main authority for the granting of Belarusian citizen and can present state decorations to honored individuals . The president also has the ability to determine the status of asylum seekers and grant pardons to convicted citizens .
As the Supreme Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces , the President has the duty to protect the Belarusian territory from internal and external forces . The president can call for a state of emergency in the following cases : natural disasters , a catastrophe , or unrest involving violence or the threat of violence . Regardless if the declaration affects the entire country or sections of it , the Council of the Republic must be notified by the President and must seek their approval within three days of notification . The same rules applies if the President issues a state of martial law in the event of a possible military action against Belarus . The President has to form and head the Security Council of the Republic of Belarus , and can appoint and dismiss the State Secretary of the Security Council and the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces .
= = Oath of office = =
Before any person can assume the office officially , an oath must be sworn within two months of the election results being finalized . The text of the oath is as follows :
During the inauguration ceremony , members of both houses of the National Assembly , government ministers , officials and judges from the Constitutional , Supreme and Economic Court must be present . Upon reading of the oath , any powers held by a previous president will be transferred to the president @-@ elect . The text of the oath can be found in Article 83 of the Constitution .
= = Removal = =
Articles 87 through 89 of the Constitution deal with how the presidency can change hands in @-@ between election cycles . The President has the ability to resign from office at any time under Article 87 . The letter of resignation is sent to the House of Representatives and is accepted by them . The President has the ability to be removed from office if his physical or mental health is impaired under Article 88 . In order for this to happen , a two @-@ thirds majority must be reached in the House of Representatives and the Council of the Republic on the resolution to remove the President . An ad hoc committee is formed and must make the determination about the state of health before any motion can begin . If the President has committed a grave crime , such as treason , one @-@ third of the House must bring charges against the President formally . The investigation of the charges will be conducted by the Council of the Republic . In order to evict the President from office , a two @-@ thirds majority is needed to vote in favor of conviction . The criminal case is further sent to the Supreme Court for review . The actions of either option must occur one month after the resolution is passed or the action will be considered void by the Constitution .
= = Privileges = =
Under Article 79 of the Constitution , the president is immune from arrest , with exception to the treason / grave crimes clauses listed in Article 88 in the same document . Also under Article 79 , the honor and dignity of the president will be protected by national law . Information , either printed in the news or reported on television , that is considered defamation against the president is illegal under Article 5 of the Belarusian Law on Press .
The president also has an official residence in Minsk surrounded by the streets of Marx , Engels , Kirov and Komsomol . Like the American White House , the streets close to the residence are closed off to vehicular traffic and are patrolled by police forces .
= = Symbols = =
Officially , the only symbol denoting the presence of the President is the standard of the office ( Штандар Прэзідэнта Рэспублікі Беларусь ) . The standard , which has been in use since March 27 , 1997 , was adopted by a decree called " Concerning the Standard of the President of Republic of Belarus . " signed into law by President Lukashenko .
The standard 's design is an exact copy of the national flag , with the addition of the Belarusian national emblem in gold . The standard 's ratio of 5 : 6 differs from that of the national flag , making the standard almost square . The standard is bordered by a golden fringe . There are several copies of the standard ; the original is kept in the office of the President while other copies are used on buildings , residences and vehicles to denote his presence .
= = List of Presidents of Belarus ( 1994 – present ) = =
For leaders before independence , see List of national leaders of Belarus
= = Latest election = =
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= Ice Box Chamberlain =
Elton P. " Ice Box " Chamberlain ( November 5 , 1867 – September 22 , 1929 ) was a professional baseball pitcher . He pitched in Major League Baseball for ten seasons between 1886 and 1896 . In several seasons , Chamberlain finished in his league 's top ten in a number of pitching categories , including wins , earned run average , strikeouts , and shutouts . During one of his best seasons , the 1888 St. Louis Browns won the American Association pennant with a 92 – 43 record . Although a righthanded pitcher , Chamberlain pitched the last two innings of an 1888 game with his left hand .
Chamberlain finished his major league career with 264 complete games out of his 301 games started . After his playing days , he was hired as a baseball umpire and later announced that he was becoming a boxer , but neither venture seems to have worked out . Not much is known about Chamberlain 's later life . He died in Baltimore in 1929 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Chamberlain was born on November 5 , 1867 in Warsaw , New York . He was one of six children born to veterinary surgeon Irving Chamberlain and his wife Carrie . Moving to Buffalo as a child , Chamberlain began to play organized baseball as a teenager . His early professional career included stints in Hamilton , Ontario and with a Southern League team in Macon , Georgia . As a 17 @-@ year @-@ old pitcher with Hamilton , he earned 18 wins and led the league in strikeouts .
Chamberlain made his major league debut with the Louisville Colonels of the American Association on September 13 , 1886 . In early October , Chamberlain was pitching in a game against the Baltimore Orioles when Louisville players began to complain that opposing pitcher Matt Kilroy was leaving the pitcher 's box when he threw the ball . When the umpire did not respond to Louisville 's complaints , Chamberlain 's manager told him to run forward out of the box when he let go of his pitches . The move " scared the Baltimore batters out of their wits " and Kilroy did not deliver any more questionable pitches .
In 1887 , Chamberlain won 18 games for Louisville . The right @-@ hander , who stood 5 ft 9 in ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) and weighed 168 lbs . , earned the nickname " Ice Box " . Some sources attribute the nickname to his ability to remain cool when facing tough opposition , but at least one source links the nickname to chronic laziness . On May 9 , 1888 , while pitching against the Kansas City Cowboys , Chamberlain pitched righthanded for the first seven innings and lefthanded for the last two innings . Louisville won the game by a score of 18 – 6 . He was the third major league pitcher to throw with both his left and right hands during the same game . The feat was not repeated in the major leagues until Greg Harris switched arms for the ninth inning of a 1995 game .
Chamberlain was traded to the St. Louis Browns in August 1888 , having already registered 14 wins for the Colonels that year . He earned 11 more wins in the last six weeks of the season . He struck out 176 batters and registered a 2 @.@ 19 earned run average that season , good for fifth among the league 's pitchers . The Browns finished 1888 with a fourth consecutive league pennant . However , not long after Chamberlain joined the club , pitcher Nat Hudson left the team to get married . In the World Series , the Browns had only Chamberlain and pitcher Silver King to face a trio of New York Giants pitchers that included future Hall of Famer Tim Keefe .
After Chamberlain pitched a shutout in the second game of the 1888 World Series , he lost the fourth , sixth and eighth games . Chamberlain gave up 11 runs in the eighth game . Though the Giants clinched the series after that game , they played a full ten games , with Chamberlain winning the last game . The series was Chamberlain 's last major league postseason playing appearance .
= = = Middle career = = =
The Cincinnati Reds talked to St. Louis about acquiring Chamberlain in 1889 , but Cincinnati balked when St. Louis asked $ 8 @,@ 000 for him . That year , Chamberlain pitched in a career @-@ high 53 games and finished with 32 wins ; his win total was the third highest in the league . Following the 1889 season , a new major league was forming known as the Players ' League . A players association known as the Brotherhood of Professional Ball Players had served as a union and bargaining agent since the mid @-@ 1880s ; now the group 's new league was attempting to compete with established baseball . Browns owner Chris von der Ahe was afraid that Chamberlain would jump to the Chicago team in the new league ; the manager of the Browns from the previous season , Charles Comiskey , had been hired there . Von der Ahe agreed to match the $ 800 pay increase that Chamberlain would have gotten in Chicago .
Chamberlain had returned to Buffalo by May 1890 , where he was reported to be hanging out in pool rooms . Rumors held that Chamberlain wanted to join the Brotherhood and that he was " playing for his release . " He was sold to the Columbus Solons ( also of the American Association ) the next month . Chamberlain had appeared in five games for St. Louis and pitched in 25 more for Columbus by the end of the season . He finished the year with a league @-@ leading six shutouts . In February 1891 , Chamberlain pleaded guilty to a charge of aiding and abetting a prize fight . He received a $ 50 fine and the Columbus team declared that they would not retain him for the 1891 season .
The Philadelphia Athletics indicated immediate interest in Chamberlain , hoping that he would pitch most of the team 's games . Chamberlain earned a 22 – 23 win @-@ loss record in 1891 . He was the losing pitcher in the last of 485 shutouts recorded in the few seasons of American Association play . In August , he gave up the longest home run that had been hit at Boston 's Congress Street Grounds . Chamberlain pitched for the NL 's Cincinnati Reds in 1892 , compiling a 19 – 23 record . In May of that season , Chamberlain pitched in an unusual game that was suspended due to sunlight ; the scoreless game was in extra innings when umpire Jack Sheridan ruled that the sun was too bright for players to see the ball . The 1892 Reds finished with an overall record of 82 – 68 . League officials split the season into two halves and the Reds finished fourth and eighth in the respective halves .
Before the 1893 season , Chamberlain indicated his displeasure with the climate in Cincinnati and said that he hoped to pitch for New York or Philadelphia in the coming year . He also said that he would be happy to pitch in Buffalo if the city received a major league expansion team . Chamberlain stayed in Cincinnati for that season and the next one , earning 16 – 12 and 10 – 9 records . On May 30 , 1894 , Chamberlain was the pitcher when Bobby Lowe became the first major league player to hit four home runs in one game . Two of Lowe 's home runs came in the same inning . Lowe hit only 70 career home runs in an 18 @-@ year career .
= = = Later career and life = = =
Chamberlain had agreed to play for the Cleveland Spiders in 1895 , but instead he joined a Class D baseball team out of Warren , Ohio in the Iron and Oil League . Future Baseball Hall of Fame member Honus Wagner played on the team . Years later , Wagner recalled Chamberlain as an experienced pitcher who shared his baseball knowledge with his young teammates . He reported to the Spiders in 1896 . The team featured Cy Young and young pitchers such as Cy Swaim and Zeke Wilson . Chamberlain was released after appearing in two games .
Chamberlain finished his major league career with a 157 – 120 win @-@ loss record and a 3 @.@ 57 earned run average . Though he only finished among the top ten in complete games in two of his seasons , Chamberlain completed 264 of his 301 games started . His complete game total was ranked 64th on the all @-@ time major league list after the 2013 season . Chamberlain also hit nine home runs , including a grand slam , during his major league career .
In early 1898 , The Montreal Gazette reported that NL president Nicholas Young signed Chamberlain as an umpire for the coming season . Chamberlain did not ultimately work for the NL because he was unhappy with the salary that he was offered . He played local semi @-@ amateur baseball in Buffalo and then announced that he was leaving baseball to become a boxer . He challenged Jack Baty , a black fighter , to a boxing match and posted a $ 500 bet on the fight . There is no record of Chamberlain boxing against Baty or anyone else , and little is known about his life after the major leagues .
Chamberlain briefly played minor league baseball for the 1899 Buffalo Bisons in the Western League . He did not win any games for Buffalo . In 1904 , Sporting Life reported that the pitcher had a brother , F. Earl Chamberlain , who was named a Pacific Coast League umpire . Elton died of colon cancer at the age of 61 . He was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Baltimore , Maryland .
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= Army of Me ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Army of Me " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Christina Aguilera for her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It was co @-@ written by Aguilera with Jamie Hartman , David Glass and Phil Bentley , with production done by Tracklacers and Jamie Hartman . Described by Aguilera as part two to her 2002 single " Fighter " , she decided to record the song so that her newer , younger fans would have an empowering song to listen in case they were unfamiliar with her previous work . The song combines dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ dance genres ; its instrumentation incorporates drum beats and rock guitars . " Army of Me " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Many praised Aguilera 's strong delivery of the song 's message and branded it a potential single , while others criticized it for being too similar to " Fighter " . Upon the release of Lotus , the song debuted on the South Korea international singles chart at number 103 with digital download sales of 2 @,@ 689 . Aguilera has performed the song at the 40th American Music Awards in the United States .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film , Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album , stating that she wanted high quality and " personal " songs for the record . Regarding the creative direction , she revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She further said " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " .
Recorded at Henson Recording Studios , Hollywood , California , and Radley Studios , Los Angeles , California , by Justin Stanley , " Army of Me " was co @-@ written by Aguilera with Jamie Hartman , David Glass and Phil Bentley . It was produced by Tracklacers and it was co @-@ produced by Hartman . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills in California . Programming was carried out by Steve Daly and John Keep , while strings were composed by Hartman . In an interview with Andrew Hampp for Billboard , Aguilera explained how her role on The Voice has allowed her to reach a new generational audience who may not be familiar with her past work , including songs such as her 2002 single , " Fighter " . When asked if some of the songs on Lotus feature themes which are similar to that of her 2002 album , Stripped , Aguilera responded by saying that " Army of Me " is what she describes as " Fighter 2 @.@ 0 " .
Absolutely . There 's a song called ' Army of Me , ' which is sort of a ' Fighter 2 @.@ 0 . ' There is a new generation of fans from a younger demographic that might not have been with me all the way but that watch me on the show now . I feel like every generation should be able to enjoy and have their piece of ' Fighter ' within . This time , the way it musically came together it just felt right for this time and this generation . There 's always going to be a fighter in me getting through some obstacle and some hurdle . All these 6 @-@ year @-@ olds who know me from pushing my button and turning around in a big red chair who weren 't around for the actual ' Fighter , ' this is my chance to recharge it , rejuvenate it and do something modernized for them .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Army of Me " is an up @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ dance song which lasts for a duration of 3 : 26 ( three minutes and 26 seconds ) . Instrumentation consists of a " pounding " drum beat and " rocky " guitars . Aguilera presents herself as a fighter and tells her ex @-@ boyfriend that she is stronger than he is in the lyrics " So how does it feel to know that I beat you ? / That I can defeat you ? " Although Aguilera is heartbroken by the decision to split up with her ex @-@ boyfriend , she is not a broken person . The lyrics " One of me is wiser / One of me is stronger / One of me 's a fighter / And there 's a thousand faces of me / We 're gonna rise up for every time you broke me / You 're gonna face an army of me " are similar to those performed by Aguilera on " Fighter " , although of " Army of Me " does not sample any of the song . Aguilera sings " Now that I 'm wiser / Now that I 'm stronger / Now that I 'm a fighter / There 's a thousand faces on me " over a " thumping " beat , and belts the line " We 're gonna rise up for every time you broke me " on the chorus . The song was covered by recording artist Anastacia for her compilation album Ultimate Collection .
= = Critical reception = =
" Army of Me " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Andrew Hampp for Billboard and Chris Younie for 4Music both though that " Army of Me " could have been a potential single , the latter of whom writing " This track must be a future single . " Younie continued to write that the song " captivates and excites right from the very start " , has a " euphoric " energy and is the type of " angry " pop song that Kelly Clarkson " would give her right arm for " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe described it as a " Gloria Gaynor @-@ meets @-@ Depeche Mode dance of anger . " Mike Wass for Idolator wrote that although " Army of Me " is a " quality " song , it is an album filler . Writing that it sounds as though it would have been a good song to include on her previous studio album , Bionic , Wass thought that Aguilera was " not exaggerating " when she refers to it as " Fighter 2 @.@ 0 " . He concluded his review by saying that although her vocals are sparse , it is a " quirky " addition to Lotus . The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski described Aguilera as a " playful " and " sassy techno diva " on " Army of Me " .
Kitty Empire of The Observer also thought that it shares similarities with " Fighter " . She cited the Björk song of the same name as another influence , due to its " emotional territory " Robert Copsey for Digital Spy described the song as " nothing we haven 't heard from her before , but there 's an urgency to it that suggests Christina needed to get it out of her system " , while Matthew Horton of Virgin Media wrote that Aguilera sounds as though she is declaring war . Michael Gallucci for PopCrush was critical of the song , writing that it sounds like a Cher disco song which features Aguilera " overworking " her vocal cords . Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly found the song 's message to be confusing and did not understand who exactly Aguilera is supposed to be rising up against on the song , writing " She hollers ' And we 're gonna rise up ... / For every time you wronged me / Well , you 're gonna face an army , army of me . ' Which begs the question : Rise up against whom ? Is the whole world really out to get her , or is this just an excuse to wear camouflage hot pants ? "
= = Live performance = =
Aguilera performed " Let There Be Love " for the first time at the 40th American Music Awards on November 18 , 2012 , held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California . As one of the first singers to be announced as a performer at the award ceremony on October 19 , 2012 , Aguilera sang " Army of Me " as part of a medley with two other tracks from Lotus : " Lotus Intro " and " Let There Be Love " . During an interview with MTV News , Aguilera revealed what the performance would be like and the creative direction behind it :
It 's very exciting . It 's definitely going to be a reflection of what Lotus means to me . If you take that album cover and give it a little performance twist , I 'll bring that album cover to life , so it 's going to be really fun . I can 't give too much away about the songs , but it 's definitely going to represent the album because the album is very multilayered . It doesn 't represent ' Your Body ' as a single tone . It has its ballads ; and everything comes from a very sincere , deep – rooted place whether it 's having fun or being vulnerable .
Wearing a " fuller – figure " " cinched in corset " designed by The Blonds , who also design outfits for Lady Gaga , Leah Simpson for the Daily Mail wrote that Aguilera put a " sexy twist on patriotism with a star – spangled bodysuit and managed to get a few pulses racing in the over – the – top ensemble . " The performance featured dance routines and dancers wearing " torture bags labelled the words ' Freak ' and ' Queen ' over their heads . " Bruna Nessif for E ! Online described the performance as " interesting , " and noted that the theme " to celebrate everyone for who they are " was similar to the moral content presented on Gaga 's album Born This Way ( 2011 ) . As Aguilera finished her set , she was joined on stage by Pitbull to perform his song " Feel This Moment " , on which she is a featured artist .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Henson Recording Studios , Hollywood , California ; Radley Studios , Los Angeles , California .
String , Bass and Piano recorded at Henson Recording Studios , Hollywood , California .
Acoustic Guitars , Synth Piano and Synth Strings recorded at Radley Studios , Los Angeles , California .
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Lotus , " Army of Me " debuted on the South Korean singles chart at number 103 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 , due to digital download sales of 2 @,@ 689 .
= = Anastacia version = =
American recording artist Anastacia covered the song for her second greatest hits album Ultimate Collection ( 2015 ) . The song was released as album 's second single on 23 October 2015 by Sony Music Entertainment .
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= Ontario Highway 416 =
King 's Highway 416 , commonly referred to as Highway 416 and as the Veterans Memorial Highway , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Trans @-@ Canada Highway ( Highway 417 ) in Ottawa with Highway 401 between Brockville and Cornwall . The 76 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 47 @.@ 5 mi ) freeway acts as an important trade corridor from Interstate 81 between New York and Eastern Ontario via Highway 401 , as well as the fastest link between Ottawa and Toronto . Highway 416 passes through a largely rural area , except near its northern terminus where it enters the suburbs of Ottawa . The freeway also serves several communities along its length , notably Spencerville and Kemptville .
Highway 416 had two distinct construction phases . Highway 416 " North " was the 21 @-@ kilometre ( 13 mi ) segment starting from an interchange at Highway 417 and bypassing the original route of Highway 16 into Ottawa ( now Prince of Wales Drive ) along a new right @-@ of @-@ way . Highway 416 " South " was the twinning of 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) of Highway 16 New — a two @-@ lane expressway bypassing the original highway that was constructed throughout the 1970s and finished in 1983 — and the construction of a new interchange with Highway 401 . Sections of both opened throughout the late 1990s . Highway 416 was commemorated as the Veterans Memorial Highway on the 54th anniversary of D @-@ Day in 1998 . The final link was officially opened by a World War I veteran and local officials on September 23 , 1999 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 416 begins at an interchange with Highway 401 , branching to the north near the community of Johnstown in the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville . This interchange only provides access to and from the west of Highway 401 , but immediately north of it , a second interchange with the remaining section of Highway 16 provides access from Johnstown and to a parclo interchange with both directions of Highway 401 , as well as to an international crossing into the United States . Proceeding north , the two carriageways of the freeway are separated by a 68 @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 223 ft ) forested median . The route is surrounded by thick forests for the next 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . As it passes beneath Leeds and Grenville County Road 44 , the original routing of Highway 16 ( the Prescott Highway ) south of Spencerville , it exits the forest and enters farm fields . The route travels to the east of the community , access to which is provided by an interchange at County Road 21 , and crosses a swamp and the South Nation River .
Highway 416 crosses under the Prescott Highway a second time ; to the north , the two remain roughly parallel but separated as they pass through a mix of farmland and forest . South of the community of Kemptville , the Prescott Highway crosses the route a third time , with an interchange connecting the two highways . The freeway curves to the northeast , bypassing Kemptville and featuring an interchange with County Road 43 ( formerly Highway 43 ) . It crosses the line of the old Bytown and Prescott Railway , then curves to the northwest , providing an interchange with River Road . At the southeast corner of the River Road interchange is the Veterans Commemorative Park , dedicated in 2000 by the Royal Canadian Legion .
It crosses the Rideau River and enters the City of Ottawa . Aside from the first couple of kilometres north of the Rideau River , the majority of the freeway cuts through swaths of farmland which fill the Ottawa Valley . The median also becomes narrower . The freeway encounters an interchange with Dilworth Road and thereafter with Roger Stevens Drive , the latter providing access to North Gower .
Continuing north of Manotick through fields , Highway 416 is crossed by the Prescott Highway for the fourth and final time as that road turns northeast and travels into downtown Ottawa as Prince of Wales Drive . Shortly thereafter is an interchange with Brophy Drive / Bankfield Road ; the latter provides access to the Prescott Highway / Prince of Wales Drive . Approaching urban Ottawa , the route passes alongside a large quarry , then jogs to the west along an S @-@ curve , crossing the Jock River in the process . After this , an interchange with Fallowfield Road provides access to the suburb of Barrhaven which occupies portions of the land immediately east of the freeway . The route jogs back to the east along a second S @-@ curve and passes through an aesthetically designed bridge while travelling alongside the Stony Swamp .
The final section of Highway 416 travels parallel to Cedarview Road , which was relocated for the freeway . The Stony Swamp lies west of the route while farmland lies to the east . At the northern end of the swamp is an interchange with West Hunt Club Road . The freeway continues through a section of greenspace before descending gently into a trench . It passes beneath Bruin Road and the Ottawa Central Railway while travelling alongside Lynwood Village in Bells Corners . The highway is crossed by Baseline Road and Richmond Road ; the former provides an onramp to southbound Highway 416 . The freeway ends at a large interchange with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , Highway 417 ( Exit 131 ) , just south of the Lakeview and Bayshore communities the on the Ottawa River ; downtown Ottawa is to the east and Kanata is to the west .
= = = Design features = = =
The Stony Swamp overpass at the southern entrance to Ottawa is a pre @-@ tensioned concrete arch ; the design , which allows the structure to cross the entire right of way with a single span , won the 1996 Award of Excellence from the Portland Cement Association . The bridge acts as a gateway to the National Capital Region and is the longest rigid frame bridge in Ontario with a 59 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 194 ft ) span . In the same vicinity , the freeway sinks below ground level in a trench ; groundwater @-@ retaining walls were installed to prevent the lowering of the water table in adjacent wetlands , therefore mitigating damage to them .
At the Jock River , southwest of Barrhaven , deposits of sensitive leda clay presented a challenge in designing the crossing for the freeway as well as the Canadian National Railway overpass to the north . It was feared that the weight of these structures could destabilize the clay deposits beneath and lead to landslides . In place of the standard heavier aggregate , lighter blast furnace slag , at half the weight , was substituted .
Sloped rock cuts line the side of the freeway in numerous locations . With the intent of reducing the severity of collisions against those cuts , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) tested out numerous alternatives to strike a cost @-@ to @-@ benefit balance . The standard slope used by the MTO is vertical , offset from the edge of pavement by 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . The study concluded that although an initially higher investment would be required , the 2 : 1 sloped cut with grass overlaid produced the best results .
= = History = =
= = = Highway 16 New = = =
In 1966 , the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , predecessor to today 's MTO , published the Eastern Ontario Highway Planning Study , identifying the need for a controlled @-@ access highway between Ottawa and Highway 401 . Highway 16 , which passes over the geologically subdued St. Lawrence Lowlands , was selected over Highway 15 , which crosses the undulating Canadian Shield to the west , as the ideal route for the new link . Highway 16 was one of the first roads taken over by the expanding Department of Public Highways in 1918 . The important corridor between the Trans @-@ provincial Highway ( Highway 2 ) and Ottawa was known as the Prescott Highway . In 1925 , the road was given a numerical designation to supplement the name . This highway served the low traffic volumes of the day , but as the number of vehicles increased over the first half of the 20th century , issues arose with the numerous private driveways along the route . To overcome this issue of abutting properties long @-@ established on the old Highway 16 corridor , the DHO began purchasing a new right @-@ of @-@ way between Highway 401 and Century Road by late 1967 for a two @-@ lane bypass of the original alignment , avoiding all the built @-@ up areas that the original Highway 16 encountered . This route was designed to easily accommodate the eventual upgrade to a freeway when traffic volumes necessitated .
Construction of the super two , dubbed Highway 16 New , took place between 1969 and 1983 . The Spencerville Bypass opened by 1971 , connecting with the old highway in the south near Crowder Road and in the north near Ventnor Road . By the end of 1973 , the new highway was completed from immediately north of Highway 401 through Leeds and Grenville United Counties and into Ottawa – Carleton . This included a bypass around Kemptville and a new structure over the Rideau River . The new highway ended at Dilworth Road ( Regional Road 13 ) .
For nearly a decade , no new construction took place . Then , during the summer of 1982 , the MTO awarded a contract to construct the route north from Dilworth Road towards Manotick , bypassing North Gower and extending the route as far north as Roger Stevens Drive ( Regional Road 6 ) , including a structure over Stevens Creek . Following completion of this first contract , a second contract was awarded for the remaining distance north to Century Road ( Regional Road 8 ) . The project was completed in 1983 , merging into the original route of Highway 16 northeast of the present Prince of Wales Drive overpass .
With the completion of Highway 16 New , the MTO needed only to construct interchanges and the southbound lanes in order to create a full freeway corridor . The upgrade to Highway 416 took place between 1989 and 1999 and was carried out through two separate projects : Highway 416 North was a 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) freeway on a new alignment through Ottawa and an interchange at Highway 417 , and Highway 416 South was the twinning of 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) of Highway 16 New and an interchange at Highway 401 .
= = = Change of plans = = =
The original plans for Highway 416 , conceived during the late 1960s , had it enter Ottawa along the Merivale Corridor to merge with the Queensway approximately five kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the present interchange . However , when it came time to construct this section , public attitudes had shifted and environmental concerns had come to the forefront of everyday life ; new roads were now subject to intense public scrutiny . Suburbs grew along Merivale Road , prompting the Region of Ottawa – Carleton to request the MTO decommission the right @-@ of @-@ way along the road in 1977 , which it did . The passing of the Environmental Assessment Act in 1975 , however , meant that new projects were subject to a lengthy investigation of social and environmental concerns .
In 1981 , the MTO began an environmental assessment into a new alignment for the northern connection with the Queensway . It was approved in mid @-@ 1987 , with Cedarview Drive chosen as the ideal alignment for the new freeway . The MTO set out to design a four @-@ lane route to connect the Queensway with Highway 16 New , including a three @-@ level free @-@ flow interchange . A contract for construction of this interchange was awarded in late 1989 and construction began in 1990 . During the 1991 construction season , contracts were awarded to construct several overpasses along the new route . This contract was completed in 1993 , after which budgetary restraints prevented the awarding of further contracts . As a result , aside from the interchange at Highway 417 and some overpasses , construction activity on Highway 416 came to a standstill for two years .
It was during this period that the MTO undertook an engineering review of the entire route in search of cost inefficiencies . Highways 416 and 407 were constructed during a recession in the mid @-@ 1990s . Highway 407 became a tolled highway and for a time it was mentioned in legislative debates that Highway 416 would also be tolled , but ultimately this never happened . Instead , a hiatus in construction allowed engineers to evaluate inefficiencies in bridge and cross @-@ section designs , as well as sensitive clay soils near Ottawa . This initiative led to a cost savings of over C $ 7 million and several of the unique design features located along the length of the freeway .
= = = Twinning and completion = = =
Work resumed on Highway 416 North following the review . It was opened from Century Road to Hunt Club Road on July 16 , 1996 , and completed on July 31 , 1997 , with the opening of the interchange with Highway 417 . The cost of this section was C $ 196 million . On December 8 , 1995 , in North Gower , the provincial and federal governments announced a financing deal to ensure Highway 416 South was completed by 2000 . This section of the route was constructed through a process known as twinning in which a second carriageway is built parallel to an existing road . In addition , existing intersections were rebuilt as grade @-@ separated interchanges . With the right @-@ of @-@ way along Highway 16 New already purchased , construction was able to proceed without disruption to local properties or traffic .
The 57 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 35 mi ) project was constructed through five contracts . The first was awarded to Tarmac Canada on June 10 , 1996 , calling for twinning of 7 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from Century Road south to Roger Stevens Drive . Another contract was awarded one month later to Bot Construction , on August 19 . This contract involved the section from Roger Stevens Drive south to what was then Highway 43 , a distance of 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . On June 12 , 1997 , the first section opened , connecting with the Ottawa Bypass at Century Road . On July 10 , the third contract was awarded to Armbro Construction to construct the 10 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) section from Highway 43 south to Grenville County Road 20 ( Oxford Station Road ) . Another contract followed on October 21 for the 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south to Grenville County Road 20 ( Shanly Road ) which was awarded to Bot Construction . The fifth and final contract was awarded to Armbro Construction on April 8 , 1998 , calling for the construction of the southern nine kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) and the two flyover ramps at Highway 401 . The section between Roger Stevens Drive and what had now become Leeds and Grenville County Road 43 , including a second crossing of the Rideau River , opened to traffic on June 26 , 1998 . This was followed two months later by the section between Highway 43 and Oxford Station Road , which opened on August 24 .
On the fifty @-@ fourth anniversary of D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1998 , then Transportation Minister Tony Clement unveiled two signs in Ottawa and formally declared the entire length of Highway 416 as the Veterans Memorial Highway , despite earlier reluctance from previous minister Al Palladini . Six additional signs were also installed along the length of the route . At the time , the Veterans Memorial Parkway in London already existed . Since then , two additional veterans highways have been named : on October 20 , 2002 , the Veterans Highway was designated in Halton Region along Regional Road 25 ; on September 23 , 2010 , the Niagara Veterans Memorial Highway was designated in Niagara Falls along Regional Road 420 . A ceremony was held in Johnstown on September 23 , 1999 to open the final section of Highway 416 that would complete the link from Highway 401 to Highway 417 . Premier Mike Harris , Transportation Minister David Turnbull and World War I Veteran James W. Fraser officially opened the highway .
On December 14 , 2009 , there was a 60 – 70 vehicle pileup due to fog and icy conditions , forcing the closure of the highway in both directions .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 416 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Operation Doomsday =
In Operation Doomsday , the British 1st Airborne Division acted as a police and military force during the Allied occupation of Norway in May 1945 , immediately after the victory in Europe during the Second World War . The division maintained law and order until the arrival of the remainder of Force 134 , the occupation force . During its time in Norway , the division was tasked with supervising the surrender of the German forces in Norway , as well as preventing the sabotage of vital military and civilian facilities .
The German Instrument of Surrender was delivered on 8 May to General Franz Böhme , the commander of all German forces stationed in Norway , and the 1st Airborne Division landed near Oslo and Stavanger between 9 May and 11 May . The majority of the transport aircraft carrying the division landed safely , but three planes crashed with a number of fatalities . The division encountered little of the expected German resistance . Operational duties included welcoming back King Haakon VII of Norway , looking after Allied ex @-@ prisoners of war , arresting war criminals and supervising the clearing of minefields . The division was also able to confirm the deaths of the British airborne troops that had taken part in Operation Freshman , an unsuccessful attempt to disrupt the German atomic weapons programme in November 1942 . The division returned to Britain at the end of August and disbanded two months later .
= = Background = =
Since 1943 the Western Allies had been developing plans for the occupation of Norway , code @-@ named Operation Apostle , after Germany 's surrender . Force 134 , the occupation force , was composed of Norwegian troops who were stationed in Scotland , as well as a British contingent ( initially the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division ) , a few American troops , and some 12 @,@ 000 Norwegian police troops currently stationed in neutral Sweden . In the event of an emergency , the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force would deploy troops into Norway from Germany . The entire operation came under Headquarters Scottish Command , which had been commanded by General Andrew Thorne since 7 May 1941 . One of the reasons behind Thorne 's appointment to Scottish Command , which he regarded as " being banished to Scotland " , may well have been Thorne 's acquaintance with Adolf Hitler ; they had met several times when Thorne had been British Military Attaché in Berlin in 1934 and 1935 , and Hitler held Thorne and his military abilities in high regard . In the wake of British Commando raids in Norway during 1941 , Hitler had ordered substantial reinforcements for Norway , and British High Command hoped that Thorne as head of Scottish Command would " help to focus the Fuhrer 's attention on the threat posed to Scandinavia " and Norway in particular .
Two separate scenarios were considered in planning for Operation Apostle . The first , known as ' Rankin C ( Norway ) ' was based on the assumption that all German forces occupying Norway would surrender as part of a more general unconditional surrender by Germany . The second was known as ' Rankin B ' and assumed that there was no surrender and that only parts of Norway would be abandoned by the Germans in order to reinforce their troops stationed in north @-@ western Europe against Allied advances there ; in this scenario , Force 134 would encounter heavy German resistance . The development of plans for the liberation and administration of Norway were complicated by it being difficult to predict whether the landings would be opposed by German forces and the extent of damage resulting from Allied bombardments and any German " scorched earth " demolitions . As a result , planning for the administration of Norway was detailed and flexible .
Either of the two ' Rankin ' scenarios would be difficult for Thorne to accomplish however , as the troops allocated to Force 134 were meagre ; from late 1943 onwards the majority of military resources were dedicated to the campaign in north @-@ west Europe . In September 1944 Thorne was even deprived of 52nd Lowland Division , which was attached to the 1st Allied Airborne Army by the War Office and earmarked for Operation Market Garden . Instead Thorne was later given the 1st Airborne Division , under the command of Major General Roy Urquhart . However , owing to the heavy casualties the division had suffered during Market Garden it would not be combat ready until 1 May 1945 after being heavily reinforced . In order to bolster his forces , Thorne would therefore have to rely on Milorg , the Norwegian Resistance . The Allied civil affairs planners maintained very close contact with the Norwegian Government in exile which was based in London as well as Milorg . As a result , by the end of the war Milorg had been preparing for the arrival of an Allied force for some time ; its 40 @,@ 000 members were well @-@ armed and trained , and led by more than 100 Special Operations Executive agents parachuted into Norway , and it was prepared to prevent any sabotage of key communication centres and other important facilities by German troops if they resisted the Allied forces .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Allied preparations = = =
By early May , 1st Airborne Division had been brought up to strength , albeit mainly with inexperienced replacements . 4th Parachute Brigade had been disbanded and its battalions merged with those of 1st Parachute Brigade in the aftermath of the Battle of Arnhem . It was replaced by 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade . The Norwegian Parachute Company was also attached to the 1st Airborne Division . However , on 4 May , Urquhart was ordered to despatch 1st Independent Polish Brigade to Dunkirk , and to detach 1st Parachute Brigade from the division ; one of the brigade 's battalions would immediately be transported to Denmark for occupation duties , with the rest of the Brigade remaining in Britain as a reserve formation . At the same time the rest of the division was warned that it would be soon be transported by air to Norway as part of the occupation force , with the Special Air Service Brigade being temporarily attached to the division to replace 1st Parachute Brigade . Urquhart informed Thorne that the division could be ready for deployment in 48 hours , far less time than Thorne and his staff had expected . When it entered Norway , the division would be responsible for maintaining law and order in the areas it occupied , ensuring that German units followed the terms of their surrender , securing and then protecting captured airfields , and finally preventing the sabotage of essential military and civilian structures . To achieve this , the division would be formed of three brigades : 1st Airlanding Brigade , Special Air Service Brigade and an ad hoc Artillery Brigade formed from divisional troops .
1st Airlanding Brigade would land near to the Norwegian capital , Oslo , and occupy the city alongside other elements of Force 134 . The brigade 's commander , Brigadier R. H. Bower , would become Commander , Oslo area for the duration of the division 's time in Norway . Oslo was chosen because it was the Norwegian capital , as well as being the centre of Norwegian and German administration . Similarly , the Artillery Brigade would land at Stavanger and its commanding officer Brigadier R.G. Loder @-@ Symonds would become Commander , Stavanger area . Stavanger was the closest airfield to Britain , and would also be useful as a fighter base . Finally , Special Air Service Brigade would also land in Stavanger , from where it would advance to and occupy the area around Kristiansand . This was an important port from which the Royal Navy would sweep the surrounding waters for mines . The division 's operations would be divided into four phases over four consecutive days . On 8 May , fifteen transport aircraft would carry advance parties to airfields at Gardermoen , near Oslo , and Sola airfield by Stavanger ; this was to be completed by the evening . The second phase , on 9 May , would see seventy Handley Page Halifaxes transport 1st Airlanding Brigade and elements of Headquarters 1st Airborne Division to both airfields , and another seventy @-@ six C @-@ 47 Dakotas land the Artillery Brigade at Sola . On 10 May , the third phase would see Special Air Service Brigade land at Sola , and finally stores and vehicles would be landed at both airfields on 11 May . Before the division began to land in Norway , specially selected Allied representatives known as ' Heralds ' would accompany German diplomatic delegates to Norway ; only when they signaled that the airfields were clear to land on would the first transport aircraft take off from Britain .
= = = Axis preparations = = =
German forces had started gradual withdrawal to northernmost Finland in early September 1944 in Operation Birke . As the value of Petsamo region had decreased , the Germans decided in early October 1944 to abandon Finland and most of northern Norway and had begun Operation Nordlicht ( Northern Light ) , a retreat into prepared positions at Lyngen in northern Norway . Operation Nordlicht had come to an end at the beginning of January 1945 , with only a few miles of Finnish territory remaining in German hands , and several isolated garrisons in Norwegian Finnmark . Soviet forces occupied eastern Finnmark , and the USSR asked that Western Allied forces be landed to support them . Only a single company of Norwegian mountain infantry could be spared for this duty , though the British and Norwegian governments provided food supplies for the civilian population in the area . Due to the failure of the recent offensive in the Ardennes and the fact that several new types of U @-@ Boat were ready to be deployed , the German positions in Norway became of great value to Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Naval High Command as a way to continue submarine warfare against the Allies . They also were to Adolf Hitler , who denied requests from General Heinz Guderian that divisions should be withdrawn from Norway for use in the defence of Germany , and from Böhme in March that northern Norway should be abandoned and that construction of submarine pens should come to a halt due to lack of materials . He feared that any withdrawal might tempt Sweden to enter the war in support of the Allies , and that any withdrawal from northern Norway would endanger U @-@ Boat bases in the southern parts of the country . Until the last days of the war , Dönitz believed that Norway should be kept in order to deploy submarines against Allied vessels , and on 3 May the Kriegsmarine Naval Warfare Command informed U @-@ Boat staff that even if Germany itself were occupied , submarines would still sail from Norway . Only on 4 May were orders issued by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht that all German troops in Norway were to avoid actions that might provoke Allied forces .
In May 1945 , all German troops in Norway came under the command of the Twentieth Mountain Army , which had absorbed the Army Norway on 18 December 1944 . It was commanded by General Franz Böhme , who had succeeded General Lothar Rendulic as Armed Forces Commander , Norway in January 1945 . At the beginning of May , Böhme informed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Naval High Command and the new German president , with the death of Adolf Hitler , that all forces in Norway consisted of eleven divisions and five brigades . In total , they had a combined strength of between 350 @,@ 000 and 380 @,@ 000 troops . There were also a number of U @-@ boats stationed in naval bases in Norway , including 10 Mark XXI and 17 Mark XXIII models . Yet although Allied forces had entered Germany , and rumours and speculation were rife about a possible invasion of Norway , the Twentieth Mountain Army almost seemed to be at a peace @-@ time status ; Böhme had complained in January that there were some units in the Army that took Sunday off as a holiday , and that he could do little to stop it .
= = Occupation = =
= = = Arrival = = =
In the early hours of 7 May , Dönitz gave the order for all German military forces to unconditionally surrender , and on 8 May the German Instrument of Surrender was delivered to General Böhme . The Germans were to withdraw from all Norwegian towns and the Swedish border and gradually redeploy to areas pre @-@ designated for disarmament ; simultaneously , all senior Nazi party officials and security personnel were to immediately be arrested . Force 134 would be greatly outnumbered during its task ; a total of 30 @,@ 000 Allied troops would have to supervise the disarmament of more than 350 @,@ 000 German troops . There were fears that the German forces might refuse to surrender and instead resist the Allied occupation forces , and there were particular concerns about what the large detachment of Kriegsmarine personnel at the port of Trondheim might do .
Although the first phase of the operation had been scheduled for 8 May , no word was received from the ' Heralds ' and so Doomsday was postponed by twenty @-@ four hours . Contact was successfully established on 9 May and the first units of Force 134 arrived in Norway to begin their occupation , including the first elements of 1st Airborne Division and the Norwegian Parachute Company . All but one of the transport aircraft belonging to the first phase took off and landed in Norway without incident . Phase II was accelerated to compensate for the delay , with aircraft scheduled to leave Britain between 02 : 00 and 13 : 30 . Unfortunately , after approximately 07 : 00 poor weather over Oslo caused many transport aircraft heading for the airfield there to return to Britain , although all of those destined for Stavanger landed successfully . Several crash @-@ landed , and one was reported missing . The remaining aircraft took off again on 11 May , with one crashing on takeoff and another going missing ; of the two missing aircraft , one landed at another airfield in Norway , but the other had crashed killing all of its occupants , including Air Vice @-@ Marshal Scarlett @-@ Streatfield . The aircraft belonging to the next two phases suffered no more casualties , although a number of them were again delayed by inclement weather over the Norwegian airfields . 1st Airborne Division suffered one officer and thirty @-@ three other ranks killed , and one other rank wounded , and the Royal Air Force six killed and seven injured . All of these losses had occurred after the general surrender had been declared .
= = = Occupation duties = = =
The original plan for the division called for two of the airborne battalions to march through Oslo on 10 May , but the delay meant that only a few troops had arrived by this date . Instead , two platoons from 2nd Battalion The South Staffordshire Regiment and four Military Policemen on motorcycles accompanied Urquhart , who rode in a commandeered German staff car . The soldiers , although somewhat nervous given the small size of their group , were greeted enthusiastically by the Norwegian population in Oslo . The only resistance came from the captains of several U @-@ boats at Trondheim . Apart from this , 1st Airborne Division encountered no trouble from the German forces in Norway , who co @-@ operated fully with the airborne troops . They were disarmed without problem , allowed themselves to be transferred to collection camps and also assisted in the clearing of numerous minefields they had sown during their occupation , which resulted in several German casualties .
Until the arrival of other units from Force 134 , as well as the Headquarters of Allied Forces , Norway , Major General Urquhart and his headquarters staff had complete control over all Norwegian activities . This meant that it was Urquhart who welcomed Crown Prince Olaf of Norway and three ministers representing the Norwegian Government when they arrived on a Royal Navy cruiser , and the division also took part in the celebrations when King Haakon VII of Norway returned to his country from exile . Other duties for the division included rounding up war criminals , ensuring that German troops were confined to their camps and reservations and , with Royal Engineer assistance , clearing buildings of mines and other boobytraps . They were also given the responsibility of assisting Allied personnel who had , until the German surrender , been prisoners of war in Norway , a large number of whom were Russian . There were more than 80 @,@ 000 Russian ex @-@ prisoners of war , and many needed medical treatment because of the inhumane conditions of the camps in which they had been imprisoned . When a parade was held in late June to celebrate the Allied liberation , many of the Russians participated , wearing uniforms with Red Star badges they had made themselves . During the division 's time in Norway , some 400 paratroopers under the command of Major Frederick Gough were temporarily transferred to the Netherlands , where they helped take part in Theirs Is the Glory , a documentary about the Battle of Arnhem .
The Norwegian resistance co @-@ operated fully with 1st Airborne Division , often providing liaisons and performing guard duties , and the Norwegian population as a whole gave a warm welcome to the airborne troops . British forces were initially only in control of Oslo , Stavanger and Kristiansand with the resistance and , less commonly , local Norwegian authorities taking control of the rest of the country from the Germans . The resistance also helped the division discover the fate of 1st Airborne Division troops assigned to Operation Freshman , a failed attempt in November 1942 to sabotage the Norsk Hydro chemical plant at Vemork , which produced heavy water for Nazi Germany 's atomic weapons programme . Two gliders had been assigned to the operation , and both had crash @-@ landed after being released by the aircraft towing them . The men who survived the crashes were executed shortly after being captured . Although the local Norwegian population could not prevent the prisoners being executed , they later recovered their remains and reinterred them in marked graves . When it arrived , 1st Airborne Division was informed of the fate of the operation and cooperated with the Norwegian government to have a memorial erected and the fallen men buried with full military honours at Stavanger and Oslo .
= = Aftermath = =
The remaining units of Force 134 entered Norway throughout the rest of May , gradually reinforcing the airborne troops . On 10 May elements of the 12 @,@ 000 strong Norwegian police force began to enter the country from Sweden , having been raised from young Norwegians who had fled to Sweden after Norway had been occupied in 1940 . General Thorne arrived with the rest of his headquarters on 13 May , and took up his position as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Allied Liberation Forces . In the next two weeks further elements of Force 134 arrived , including a composite American regiment , a Norwegian brigade , and two British infantry brigades composed of re @-@ trained anti @-@ aircraft gunners who replaced the Special Air Service Brigade . Thorne was the de facto Head of Government of Norway until 7 June , when King Haakon returned , and from then until his departure at the end of October was Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of all military forces in Norway .
1st Airborne Division was stationed in Norway until the end of the summer . It returned to Britain at the end of August , and its personnel were sent on leave . Initial plans had called for the division to be used as an Imperial Strategic Reserve , as it was believed that 6th Airborne Division would be required in the Far Eastern Theatre ; however , when Japan surrendered in August it negated the need for 6th Airborne Division to be transferred . This created a problem , as two airborne divisions existed , but only one was included in the planned post @-@ war British Regular Army . Although the tradition of seniority might have called for 6th Airborne Division to be disbanded as the junior airborne formation , 1st Airborne Division was still understrength after Operation Market Garden and not fully trained . As such , the division spent the next two months training and transferring troops to 6th Airborne Division , and then disbanded on 15 November 1945 .
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= World War I memorials =
World War I memorials commemorate the events and the casualties of World War I. These war memorials include civic memorials , larger national monuments , war cemeteries , private memorials and a range of utilitarian designs such as halls and parks , dedicated to remembering those involved in the conflict . Huge numbers of memorials were built in the 1920s and 1930s , with around 176 @,@ 000 erected in France alone . This was a new social phenomenon and marked a major cultural shift in how nations commemorated conflicts . Interest in World War I and its memorials faded after World War II , and did not increase again until the 1980s and 1990s , which saw the renovation of many existing memorials and the opening of new sites . Visitor numbers at many memorials increased significantly , while major national and civic memorials continue to be used for annual ceremonies remembering the war .
Architecturally , most war memorials were relatively conservative in design , aiming to use established styles to produce a tragic but comforting , noble and enduring commemoration of the war dead . Classical themes were particularly common , taking the prevailing styles of the late 19th century and typically simplifying them to produce cleaner , more abstract memorials . Allegorical and symbolic features , frequently drawing on Christian imagery , were used to communicate themes of self @-@ sacrifice , victory and death . Some memorials adopted a medievalist theme instead , looking backwards to a more secure past , while others used emerging realist and Art Deco architectural styles to communicate the themes of the war .
The commissioning of memorials occurred through a wide range of national and local institutions , reflecting local political traditions ; funding was similarly disparate , with most countries relying heavily on local charitable contributions to cover the costs of construction . War cemeteries and memorials to particularly significant battles , however , were typically centrally controlled and funded by the state . The war encouraged the creation of new forms of memorial . Lists of memorial names , reflecting the huge scale of the losses , were a common feature , while Tombs of the Unknown Soldier containing a selected , unidentified body , and empty cenotaph monuments commemorated the numerous unidentifiable corpses and those servicemen whose bodies were never found . Ceremonies were often held at the memorials , including those on Armistice Day , Anzac Day and the Fêtes de la Victoire , while pilgrimages to the sites of the conflict and the memorials there were common in the inter @-@ war years .
Much of the symbolism included in memorials was political in tone , and politics played an important part in their construction . Many memorials were embroiled in local ethnic and religious tensions , with memorials either reflecting the contribution of particular groups to the conflict or being rejected entirely by others . In several countries it proved difficult to produce memorials that appealed to and included the religious and political views of all of a community . The Fascist governments that came to power in Italy and Germany during the inter @-@ war period made the construction of memorials a key part of their political programme , resulting in a number of larger memorial projects with strong national overtones being constructed in the 1930s . While few memorials embraced a pacifist perspective , some anti @-@ war campaigners used the memorials for rallies and meetings . Many of the political tensions of the inter @-@ war period had diminished by the end of the 20th century , allowing some countries to commemorate the events of the war through memorials for the first time since the end of the war . In the centennial of World War I , the memory of the war has become a major theme for scholars and museums .
= = Background = =
On the eve of World War I there were no traditions of nationally commemorating mass casualties in war . France and Germany had been relatively recently involved in the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 to 1871 . Germany had built a number of national war memorials commemorating their victory , usually focusing on celebrating their military leaders . In France , memorials to their losses were relatively common , but far from being a national response , and many towns and villages did not erect memorials at all . A new organisation , the Souvenir Français , was established in the 1880s to protect French war memorials and encourage young French people to engage in military activities ; the organisation grew to have many contacts in local government by 1914 .
Britain and Australia had both sent forces to participate in the Second Boer War of 1899 to 1902 , which spurred an increased focus on war memorials . The Boer War had involved 200 @,@ 000 British volunteers alone , and attracted considerable press coverage . Numerous war memorials were erected on their return , either by local community leaders or by the local Lord Lieutenant , acting on behalf of the county regiments ; these were often situated in quiet locations to allow for peaceful reflection by visitors . Australia had honoured its volunteers by placing individual plaques inside buildings , creating outdoor memorial tablets and erecting obelisks in public places . Although the Boer War encouraged a shift away from memorials portraying heroic commanding officers , as had been popular earlier in the 19th century , towards depicting ordinary soldiers , annual ceremonies surrounding the memorials were not common and no official memorial day emerged . Boer War memorials in both countries were widely felt to lack a suitable quality of design and execution , echoing contemporary concerns in the US about the statues erected to commemorate the American Civil War .
The new European states that had formed in the second half of the 19th century typically had traditions of war memorials , but nothing on the scale that would later emerge from World War I. Italy built various war memorials after unification in the 1860s , but there was little agreement about who should be responsible for these within the new Italian state . Romania erected a number of heroically styled memorials after the Romanian War of Independence in 1877 and 1878 , usually celebrating famous leaders associated with Romanian independence , but also including the occasional modest local monuments Bulgaria and Serbia constructed many war memorials after the end of the First Balkan War in 1913 . The public played little role in these eastern European memorials , however , which were typically constructed by the central state authorities .
= = World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) = =
= = = Experience of the conflict = = =
The memorials to World War I were shaped by the traumatic nature of the conflict and its impact on individuals and communities . The experience of the different nations influenced varied considerably , but common themes emerged . The war required a mass call to arms , with a significant percentage of the population mobilised to fight , either as volunteers or through conscription . Campaigns were conducted on multiple fronts across Europe and beyond . The fighting was mechanised and conducted on an industrial scale ; existing weapons , such as machine guns and artillery , were combined with the innovative deployment of aircraft , submarines and poison gas . In many theatres of operation , mobile campaigns degenerated into static trench warfare , depending on the slow attrition of the enemy over many years for victory . The battles spread across larger areas than ever before , with key engagements , such as that at Verdun etched on the memories of the nations involved .
One result of this style of warfare was a level of casualties unknown in previous conflicts . Approximately 2 million Germans and 1 @.@ 3 million Frenchmen died during the war ; 720 @,@ 000 British soldiers died , along with 61 @,@ 000 Canadian , 60 @,@ 000 Australian and 18 @,@ 000 New Zealand servicemen . On the Eastern front , 300 @,@ 000 Romanians alone died . The war had a global impact , and at least 2 @,@ 000 Chinese died in the European theatre of the conflict alone . Many of the deaths occurred within a short period of time , or affected particular groups : half of France 's casualties occurred during the first 17 months of the war , for example , while the French middle and upper classes suffered disproportionate losses . Many of those who survived were injured in the course of the fighting ; some injuries , such as facial traumas , resulted in the victim being shunned by wider society and banned from public events . These losses also left large numbers of widows and orphans – 1 @.@ 36 m in France alone – and affected most families in some way : in Australia , every second family had lost a relative . Even those left at home had suffered extensively from stress , anxiety and grief .
The war had also led to political tensions , revolution and turmoil . In Russia , the conflict resulted in revolution and civil war between 1917 and 1923 , and the rise to power of the Communist Bolshevik government . The German Empire had seen revolution break out at the end of the war , with vicious street fighting in the major cities , including Berlin ; some Germans felt that this experience was too quickly forgotten in the post @-@ war years . Romania almost descended into revolution as well . There was turmoil in Ireland ; 210 @,@ 000 Irish served in the war as part of the British forces , but the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916 led in turn to the Irish War of Independence and the later civil war . Elsewhere the war exposed simmering ethnic and religious divisions . In Canada , for example , the distinctions between the English , largely Protestant , and French speaking , predominantly Catholic , parts of the country become increasingly apparent , with conscription becoming a major political issue .
In the years after the war , veterans , the bereaved and the rest of society focused , to the point of obsession , with the problem of death . There was tremendous interest in creating war memorials that celebrated the themes of glory , heroism and loss . In part , there was a rupture or dislocation with the pre @-@ war norms of how memorials should look and feel ; communities sought to find new , radical ways to mourn the millions of dead , killed in an essentially modern conflict . In other ways , the building of memorials drew on traditional forms and ideas , drawing on existing religious and architectural themes to explore loss and grief .
= = = Responses during the war = = =
As the war progressed , memorials began to be created in most countries , either in civic centres , personal homes or on the battlefields themselves . Memorials took various names across Europe ; amongst English @-@ speaking countries , such memorials had previously been called fallen soldiers ' monuments , but the term " war memorial " became popularised by the conflict , drawing attention to the role of society as a whole in the events . Germany followed suit , terming the memorials Kriegerdenkmal , war monuments . By contrast France and Italy termed them monuments aux morts and monumenti ai caduti : monuments to the dead , an explicit reference to the deceased . Many of these memorials were in private homes rather than in public places , as bereaved families often made domestic memorials , using photographs of the deceased and personal objects sent back from the front .
In Britain and Australia , early memorials were closely linked to the need to promote military recruitment and the state had an ambivalent attitude towards the informal memorials that emerged during the conflict . In Britain , stone memorials to the war began to be erected in towns and villages from 1915 onwards ; some of these were given out by the state as rewards to communities for meeting military recruitment targets . In Australia , the existing memorials to mark the Boer War were used initially used for commemorative ceremonies intended to increase military recruitment . As casualties increased , rolls of honour listing the dead began to be displayed in Britain and honour tablets with the names of those who had enlisted were put up inside Australian buildings : Australia used these lists to apply moral pressure on those who were not yet joined up . Informal memorials began to multiply as the war progressed . Local Australian groups erected small monuments , such as drinking fountains and stone pillars , to the point where the government became concerned about the expenditure on them and passed a law in 1916 to control their numbers . In Britain , some Anglican church leaders began to create street war shrines to the dead . These cheap , local memorials were mainly constructed in working class districts , often built from wood and paper , and were used for holding short services in honour of the dead and to hold donations of flowers . They were criticised , however , as promoting Catholic ritualism . Official support for the shrines only came after a national newspaper campaign , efforts by the Lord Mayor of London and a well @-@ publicised visit from Queen Mary to a shrine , and standardised stone shrines then began to replace the earlier , temporary versions .
Across the German Empire nagelfiguren , war memorials made from iron nails embedded in wood , became popular , particularly in Austria . These took various forms , including knights , shields , eagles and crosses , as well as submarines . This practice had medieval origins , and the memorials were reinforced by the promotion of burgfrieden during the war , a medieval pact in which disparate German communities would put aside their differences during a conflict . In some cases , relatives of the deceased were encouraged to hammer memorial nails in as part of the ceremonies , while children might be encouraged to read out poems in a medieval style . At some nagelfiguren a charge was made for each nail used , with the revenues donated to charities supporting soldiers , orphans and others affected by the conflict .
Some relatively large memorials were constructed during the war . The largest nagelfiguren was a statue of General Hindenburg , famous for his victory over the Russians in Prussia at the battle of Tannenberg ; the 12 m tall statue was put up in Berlin , complete with scaffolding to allow participants to reach the statue and hammer nails in . By the end of the war , architects in Germany already considering how to commemorate the dead . A large , temporary memorial shrine was built in Hyde Park in August 1918 , with over 100 @,@ 000 visitors in its first week : it lasted over a year . The Hyde Park shrine encouraged debate in Britain about permanent war memorials in the major cities and towns . Museums to remember the events of the war also began to be commissioned ; governmentally : the Imperial War Museum in Britain in 1917 , Australia began a War Museum in 1917 ; privately , the repository of wartime records in France , Germany the Kriegsbibliothek .
During the conflict itself , monuments were erected near the battlefields and the temporary cemeteries being used to store the dead . It had been hoped in Britain to repatriate the war dead , but this rapidly proved entirely impractical , leading to haphazard , improvised arrangements around the battlefields . By 1916 over 200 war cemeteries had been commissioned in France and Belgium , prompting debate about what longer term memorials might be appropriate at these sites . The government was concerned that unsuitable , even distasteful memorials might be erected by relatives at the cemeteries and the decision was taken that the cemeteries would be controlled by the state , and that a uniform design would be applied to the memorials at the graves . French cemeteries were used for as memorial sites for ceremonies by injured soldiers during the war and many towns began to name streets and squares after Verdun . In Belgium , where the movement of the war and losses of territory had meant that the Flemish elements of the population were increasingly forming a disproportionate percentage of the army , the language on the memorial headstone gradually became an issue , leading to calls for the creation of heldenhuldezerkjes , headstones inscribed in Flemish , rather than the usual French . In Imperial Russia , the Moscow City Fraternal Cemetery was constructed for the war dead in 1915 by the Imperial royal family and senior Moscow political leaders , who hoped that its inspiring architecture would ensure patriotism in future generations of Russians .
= = Inter @-@ war ( 1919 – 39 ) = =
= = = Construction = = =
= = = = Commissioning memorials = = = =
Various different mechanisms for commissioning the construction of war memorials emerged during the inter @-@ war period . In most of the nations involved in the conflict , the memorials erected in towns and cities were usually commissioned by local community leaders and other civic groups , with relatively little or no central state involvement . Some national organisations emerged , including the British War Memorials Committee and the Canadian War Memorials Fund , but these focused on narrow , limited projects , rather than trying to coordinate a national response . The local processes and committees could result in multiple memorials being created for the same community or event : the site of Verdun was commemorated by three different memorials , for example , while some British towns saw rival memorials created by competing groups in the community .
In contrast , the construction of war cemeteries , graves and their associated memorials were typically placed under the control of a central state authority . The Imperial War Graves Commission ( IWGC ) took on this role for Britain and her empire . The Commissione nazionale per la onoranze ai caduti di guerra in Italy coordinated the military repatriation of bodies and the construction of cemeteries . The German war graves commission , the Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge ( VDK ) , was established in 1919 , and took strict control over the creation and style of German war cemeteries . The American Battle Monuments Commission oversaw US military graves in a similar fashion .
In Britain and Australia , local community leaders were expected to organise local committees to create war memorials . Britain had a strong tradition of local government and mayors , council chairmen or similar leaders would usually step forward to establish a memorial committee . These committees might then bring in a wider cross @-@ section of local community leaders , including Christian clergy , Jewish leaders , voluntary organisations , rifle clubs and volunteer police , although sometimes committees were more tightly controlled by local government officials . Former servicemen occasionally felt that their opinions were excluded from the formal processes , while in other cases complaints were made that the wealthier members of the community were given a disproportionate role in decision @-@ making . In both Britain and Australia , local memorials were also supplemented by other memorials that reflected wider groups in society , such as military units or particular sports , hobbies or even animals . North America largely followed a similar process . In Canada , the early memorials to the war were typically organised by groups of former soldiers , the Canadian Legion or local authorities . There was considerable discussion in the US during 1919 about the need to construct a suitably grand , national monument to commemorate the war dead , but the discussions failed to produce a consensus and no project was undertaken .
In other countries , the state played a stronger role in the process of commissioning memorials . France , for example , mostly relied on local communities to organise and commission most war memorials , but the state played a comparatively larger role than in Britain and similar countries . A law was passed in 1919 establishing an official role for local government officials in the process of commissioning memorials ; many towns then formed committees to take this process forward , typically at the commune level . Members of the Souvenir Français organisation played an important role in many of the resulting local committees . In other cases , governments increased their role in commissioning memorials during the inter @-@ war period . In Romania , most memorials in the early 1920s were initially erected by local communities ; in 1919 the royal family created the Societatea Cultul Eroilor Morţi to oversee commemoration of the war more generally ; the organisation was headed by the Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church . By the 1930s official concern over the diverse range of designs led to increased central control over the process .
The rise of Fascism in particular frequently encouraged greater state involvement . In Italy , between the end of the war and 1923 local groups and organisations had established their own local memorials in villages and towns . Not all villages agreed that memorials were appropriate , either for political or religious reasons . With the Fascist revolution , this process became more centralised ; veteran groups were assimilated by the Fascist government in 1926 , and a systematic attempt to construct suitable national and local memorials followed . In Germany , the political and economic chaos of the immediate post @-@ war years discouraged the construction of civic war memorials and comparatively few civic memorials in their larger towns , mainly due to the shortage of funds in the inter @-@ war German economy and political disagreements between local groups as to what to commemorate and how . Those memorials that were constructed were often built instead by local movements , representing particular factional interests . It was only after the rise of the German Nazi party to power in 1933 that substantial funding began to flow into construction programmes , controlled from Berlin .
As a result of all these processes , large numbers of memorials , more than for any other conflict , were built across the world during the inter @-@ war period . It is estimated that France built around 176 @,@ 000 war memorials , including around 36 @,@ 000 in the local communes . Most of the local commune memorials were built by 1922 , but those in the towns and cities typically required more protracted negotiations , and their construction stretched into the 1930s . The 1920s were particularly busy for construction of memorials in Britain , although the trend tailed off in 1930s , with the last inter @-@ war memorial unveiled at the town of Mumbles in 1939 . The commissioning of Australian war memorials similarly reduced after the mid @-@ 1920s . Over 3 @,@ 500 Romanian memorials were erected . Many German memorials were built during the 1930s . Russia was unusual in building very few war memorials to the events of World War I , mainly as a result of the devastation of the Civil War and the political views of the subsequent Bolshevik government .
= = = = Community and civic memorials = = = =
Civic and private memorials in response to the war took many forms , from monuments , sculpture , buildings , gardens , artistic works or special funds to support particular activities . One of the major distinctions between proposed war memorials involved a distinction between utilitarian and non @-@ utilitarian , symbolic designs ; in the US , utilitarian memorials were termed " living memorials " . Utilitarian memorials were intended to commemorate the dead by having a practical function and typically include projects such as libraries , small hospitals , cottages for nursing staff , parks , clock towers or bowling greens , although in Britain and Canada , large @-@ scale urban redevelopment projects were also proposed , including rebuilding the centre of Westminster , to form a huge war memorial complex and building a subway under the Detroit River . In contrast non @-@ utilitarian memorials , such as monuments , remembered the dead purely through their symbolism or design . Locations could be also contentious : in France , some arguments as to whether market places , for example , were suitable locations : was it good to choose a central location , or did this cheapen the symbolism ? In Britain , in a shift from 19th century practices , memorials were typically placed in busy public places .
In some countries , such as France and Germany , utilitarian memorials were considered totally unsuitable ; the Germans , for example , thought them unpatriotic and disrespectful to the dead . In other , particularly more Protestant countries , however , a vigorous debate raged as to whether utilitarian or symbolic memorials were more appropriate . In Britain , this debate was spurred on by the formation of various national societies to promote particular perspectives . Some felt that practical memorials failed to remember the war dead properly ; others argued that these memorials helped support the survivors of the war and society as a whole . Although these arguments frequently became embroiled in local politics , there was little correlation between national political views and opinions on the form of memorials . Most memorials in Australia were monumental rather than utilitarian , but practical memorials such as hospitals , schools or new roads were increasingly popular in the post war period , although some concerns were raised that these memorials might be later demolished as Australia 's towns expanded . In America , utilitarian memorials were more popular , and the establishment of the National Committee on Memorial Buildings supported this trend . The American " living memorial " movement was aided by widespread criticism of the war monuments to the American Civil War , which many felt to have been purely executed .
For symbolic memorials , numerous designs were possible , from simple monuments through to much more complex pieces of sculpture . Obelisks had been a popular memorial form in the 19th century and remained so in the inter @-@ war years , including in Britain , France , Australia and Romania . One factor in this popularity was that obelisks were relatively cheap to build , while they also fitted well with the existing civic architecture in many towns . Memorial plaques were another popular memorial style around the world . Soldiers , either individually or in groups , were a popular sculptural feature in most countries , portrayed in various stances ; typically these were allegorical , although in France the style of the soldier could also carry political meaning and reflect local political sympathies . Although the trend pre @-@ dated the First World War , very few Western war memorials portrayed heroic commanding officers , as had been popular earlier in the 19th century ; if soldiers were depicted , they were invariably ordinary soldiers , usually infantrymen . After the unveiling of the Cenotaph in London , it became a popular design in many other locations in Britain and Australia too .
In other respects , individual countries had different preferences for styles of memorial . French communities usually chose simple monuments , located in public spaces , and deliberately avoided political or religious imagery and rhetoric . In Australia and the US , memorial halls – some of which were large , grand structures – were popular . Australia also created the idea of an Avenue of Honour , involving lines of trees , with memorial plaques , along a road . Canadians often brought back various material from Europe for their memorials , including pieces of local European churches and soil from the relevant battlefields . Individual countries also had typical national symbols that were widely incorporated , from the British Britannia , to the Gallic rooster to the Romanian vulture . Postcards of war memorials were widely produced in Britain and Italy , and ceramic models of the more famous ones , such as the Cenotaph , were sold as souvenirs .
= = = = Cemeteries = = = =
The World War I war cemeteries represented important memorials sites to the conflict and typically incorporated specific monuments commemorating the dead . Under the Treaty of Versailles , each country was made officially responsible for maintaining the military graves inside their territories , but the relevant countries of the fallen soldiers were typically granted the freedom to design and build the military cemeteries themselves . Some countries ' cemeteries would naturally be on their own soil , but in other cases , such as for Britain and the Dominions , the cemeteries could be relatively distant ; the failure to repatriate British war dead from Europe early in the war had proved domestically controversial , and when the US joined the war in 1917 their government had promised relatives that bodies would be repatriated to the US ; around 70 percent of the US war dead were sent back . Along the Western front , the cemeteries were typically concentrated in specific locations , with the bodies brought in some distances to form larger cemeteries ; elsewhere , the cemeteries tended to be smaller and more scattered .
There was much discussion across the British empire about how the IWGC should commemorate the war dead . The construction of war cemeteries was a clear priority , but there was an ambition to produce a ground @-@ breaking series of memorials to the fallen soldiers and the key battles along the Western front , while in the east there was an urgent political requirement to construct memorials to reinforce Britain 's inter @-@ war claims to influence and territories across the region . The Dominions also wanted to have their own national monuments as part of the programme of work . Initially twelve major memorials were planned , each of which would combine a memorial to a key battlefield , a cemetery and a monument to a specific Dominion , but the French government raised concerns over the considerable number and size of these memorials , leading to the plans being halved in scale .
IWGC war cemeteries featured grass and flowers within a walled area , intended to resemble an English garden ; almost all were constructed around a War Stone and a Cross of Sacrifice , described in more detail below . The style varied slightly by architect and location , but typically the cemeteries followed classical influences in buildings and monuments , sometimes adapted slightly to appeal to the style of a particular Dominion . The buildings at the cemeteries were important symbolically and formed a key part of these designs . The graves proved controversial : initially they were marked by wooden crosses but , after some argument , it was agreed to replace these with Portland stone markers ; the original wooden memorials were in some cases returned to the soldier 's next of kin . Each marker was identical in shape and individualised only through the inscription of the name , regiment , date of death , a religious symbol and a short text agreed by the next of kin . Public debate ensued about these graves throughout the 1920s . British officials were concerned about families erecting their own memorials on the sites and detracting from the appearance of the cemeteries ; critics complained about the secular nature of the memorials , the limited options for families to individualise the graves and the excessive role of the IWGC in determining how the soldiers were buried .
The construction of the French cemeteries was complicated by even more heated arguments over how the bodies of the war dead should be dealt with . During the conflict the French war dead had ended up being split between special war cemeteries , local civilian cemeteries and some had been returned to their original villages . Catholic traditionalists in the government called for the bodies to be buried together in special cemeteries along the Western front , while others campaigned for them to be returned to local cemeteries . In 1919 , the decision was taken to use special war cemeteries and to ban the repatriation of bodies , but by 1920 this decision had been reversed and 300 @,@ 000 French bodies were repatriated to their original homes . The French war cemeteries were typically much larger than their IWGC equivalents and used concrete Catholic crosses for all the graves , with the exception of the Islamic and Chinese war dead .
German war cemeteries are somewhat different from French and British ones , being more austere and simple in design . They were built around lawns , without flowers or other decorations , intended to highlight acceptance of the tragedy and avoid the expensive and pretentious sentimentality that the German VDK felt Allied cemeteries invoked . German war cemeteries also included heldenhaine , heroes ' groves populated with oak trees and large boulders , dolmen . Both symbolising nature ; this landscaping was considered to be particularly important for German war cemeteries . The cemeteries used slate grave markers , less individualised than British or French equivalents , and felt to better symbolise the importance German nation as a whole .
In eastern Europe , Romania built what were termed heroes ' war grave cemeteries , either in existing heroes ' cemeteries , on the sites of the World War I battles , or in new cemeteries symbolically placed on the edges of towns . The situation was somewhat different in Russia , however , where the Moscow City Fraternal Cemetery was used not just for the war dead of World War I , but also for the casualties of the Civil War , and then the victims of the secret police . It was finally closed by the Bolsheviks in 1925 and turned into a park ; subsequently , possibly on the orders of Joseph Stalin , the Eastern Orthodox church and the headstones were systematically destroyed until almost no trace of the cemetery remained .
A final wave of war cemetery memorials were completed in the 1930s under the Fascist governments of Germany and Italy . The main Italian war cemeteries were not finished until 1938 , and their positioning in some cases carried special political meaning , emphasising Italy 's right to claim important , but ethnically diverse , border regions . In Germany , the same decade saw the completion of totenburgen , fortresses of the dead , used as war cemeteries and memorials . These were in some senses an extension of the cemetery designs of the 1920s , celebrating a natural German landscape , but included extensive modernist , monumental features , intending to highlight German artistic skill .
= = = = Battlefields = = = =
Most nations considered certain battlefields particularly important because of the national losses that had been incurred there , and took steps to erect special memorials to them , alongside the cemeteries that held their war dead . The French regarded the battles around Verdun as symbolic of the entire war , while for the British the battle of Ypres in Belgium and the battle of the Somme in France — in particular Thiepval hill — had similar resonances . Australian and New Zealand forces placed special significance on the events of Gallipoli . In the same way , Romania regarded the battles of Mărăşeşti and Mărăşti as hugely significant sites , worth of special remembrance . In the inter @-@ war years , these battlefields were frequently described as forming " sacred " ground because of the number deaths that had occurred there .
National governmental bodies and charities were rapidly formed to produce memorials for these sites . The British government , for example , set up the Battle Exploits Committee in 1919 to create national battlefield memorials , alongside the work of the IWGC . Initially their intent was to celebrate the more heroic aspects of the fighting , and to avoid the flavour of memorials to the fallen that were being built elsewhere ; by 1921 , however , the committee had entered into a partnership with IWGC and adopted the same focus on the sacrifice of the fallen soldiers . The Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission ( CBMC ) was similarly established in 1920 to produce war memorials for the major battlefields involving Canadian forces .
A range of battlefield memorials emerged . The huge Douaumont ossuary was built to remember Verdun through a private French charity , organised by the Bishop of Verdun . The ossuary was deliberately multi @-@ faith , however , with Catholic , Protestant , Jewish and Islamic facilities . The Romanian authorities built a similar mausoleum at Mărăşeşti , explicitly likened to the use French ossuary at Verdun . Canadian Vimy Monument . Amidst some concerns about denigrating the importance of other battlefields , the CBMC focused on producing a single major memorial at Vimy . In Turkey , the entire battlefield of Gallipoli was ceded to Britain and her imperial allies in 1923 , and the area was turned into an extended memorial to the war dead . There were no settlements to reconstruct , so the graves were largely left scattered in individual graves or small cemeteries , and the slopes were planted with Australian vegetation . Obelisks were particularly popular memorials at Gallipoli along the ridges , including one obelisk 100 ft high .
There was uncertainty as to how to treat the wider battlefields surrounding these monuments . At the end of the war , visitors and tourists could easily see the damage caused by the war and the detritus of the fighting , but post @-@ war reconstruction meant that by the 1930s most of this damage along the Western front had been restored . In several cases , veterans felt that the battlefields should be maintained in their immediate post @-@ war condition as memorials ; the reconstruction of the town of Ypres was opposed by some who favoured keeping the ruins as a memorial . It was proposed to leave the fortifications of Douaumont in ruins as a memorial to the dead of Verdun , and the issue of whether or not to replant the region with trees in the 1930s proved controversial with veterans . Some parts of the trench systems were preserved intact as memorials , however , including the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial and the trench system at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial . In other theatres , such as Iraq and Palestine , reconstruction took much longer and bodies remained unburied at least until 1929 .
= = = = Economics = = = =
Resources and funds were needed to construct most memorials , particular larger monuments or building projects ; sometimes professional services could be acquired for nothing , but normally designers , workmen and suppliers had to be paid . Different countries approached this problem in various ways , depending on local culture and the role of the state . Despite the special nature of the memorials , contractual arguments and issues over costs , timings and specifications were common , from smaller works in villages through to major works , such as the Vimy Memorial . The sheer volume of work encouraged industrial innovation : carving the inscriptions into the many thousands of British memorial stones had to originally be undertaken by hand , for example , until a Lancashire company invented an automated engraving process .
In Britain , voluntary subscription , rather than funding from local or central government , was considered the only correct way to pay for a war memorial , although it was disputed whether active proactive fundraising was appropriate . Raising the sums required could be quite difficult , and many committees tried various means , including moral blackmail , to exhort larger sums out of the more wealthy members of the community . The amount of money successfully raised varied considerably : the city of Glasgow , with a million inhabitants , raised approximately £ 104 @,@ 000 for memorials ; Leeds , with around half a million inhabitants , only £ 6 @,@ 000 . A typical memorial monument in Britain costed between £ 1 @,@ 000 and £ 2 @,@ 000 , but some could be cheaper still ; larger pieces , such as the Royal Artillery Memorial , could cost as much as £ 25 @,@ 000 . Australian communities raised funds in similar ways to their British equivalents , but the process of fund @-@ raising was much more open , and included directly canvassing for donations . Typical Australian projects cost between £ 100 and £ 1 @,@ 000 , with the larger memorials costing up to £ 5 @,@ 000 ; bank @-@ loans were also sometimes used . Memorials along the Western front , being larger , cost rather more than their civic equivalents ; the Villers – Bretonneux Australian National Memorial , for example , cost the IWGC and Australian government around £ 40 @,@ 000 .
The French approach to funding memorials also relied mainly on voluntary fundraising , but featured a greater role for the state . A law passed in 1919 provided for a subsidy from central government to local authorities to assist in building memorials ; the money was distributed in proportion to the number of local citizens who had died in the war . Nonetheless the largest French projects , such as the Ossuary of Douaumont , were still paid for mostly through private fund raising across France and the international community : it could take many years to raise the sums required . The Ossuary cost 15 m francs to build ; at the other end of the scale , more modest urban memorials cost around 300 @,@ 000 francs .
Much of the inter @-@ war period saw economic recession or stagnant growth , making fund @-@ raising more challenging . Partially as a result , many memorial projects had to be cut back or altered due to lack of money . The final size of Douaumont had to be cut in size by a third when fund @-@ raising slowed . Proposals to turn the planned Imperial War Museum into a grand memorial for the war dead were shelved due to lack of funds .
The construction of memorials produced a lot of business in all the countries involved in the war . In Britain and Australia , stone masons provided large quantities of mass @-@ produced design , often advertising through catalogues , while professional architects acquired the bulk of the specialised commissions for war memorials , making use of their professional organisations . Professional sculptors argued that their work was superior and more appropriate than that of architects , but they received far fewer commissions . British stone masons provided cheap products through catalogues . In France , funeral directors played a large part in the business of producing designs , producing catalogues of their designs for local communities to choose from . In the US , there was sufficient interest that a specialist magazine , Monumental News , was created to support the trade in war memorials .
= = = Innovation and grieving = = =
= = = = Naming the dead = = = =
The deaths caused by World War I were difficult for post @-@ war societies to cope with : their unprecedented scale challenged existing methods of grieving . Furthermore , an expectation had arisen during the war that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated , even if they were low ranking members of the military . One method used to address this was the inclusion of lists of names . In part , this was a response to the practical problem of commemorating such large numbers of dead , but it carried additional symbolic importance ; in some ways , the physical presence of a name acted to compensate for an absent body . The lists could vary in size from the 21 names listed in a small English village like East Ilsley , to the 54 @,@ 896 names inscribed on the Menin Gate and the 73 @,@ 357 on the Thiepval Memorial .
Civic memorials in Britain and France typically had names inscribed ; in Britain , these were often combined with other mottos or script , in France , where the significance of the name took even greater importance , just the names were used with a simple introduction . In France the names were usually listed in alphabetical order , resembling a military presentation . The British phrase , adopted by IWGC , " their name liveth for evermore " , was popularised by Rudyard Kipling , who had lost a son during the war . British lists often omitted the soldier 's rank , creating an impression of equality in death . Long lists of names — up to 6 @,@ 000 — incorporated into churches in England and Germany . In Australia , where the forces were solely volunteers , all those who served were typically recorded on memorials , while in New Zealand , where conscription applied , only the fallen were recorded on memorials .
Touching the names of the dead on memorials was common gesture of grieving in the inter @-@ war period ; sometimes mourners would also kiss the names . Visitors to the memorials on the Western front would often photograph or trace on paper the relevant names on the memorials , taking these reminders back with them to their homes . By contrast , the naming of the dead played a less significant role in Italy , where formal lists of the war dead were not established until the mid @-@ 1920s ; local communities compiled their own lists , used to produce local memorial plaques , but the national lists remained inaccurate for many years .
After the war , a bronze memorial plaque , inscribed with the name of the deceased alongside Britannia and a lion , and a scroll , sent to the next of kin of those had died in the service of the British Empire . Honour rolls in Canada were very popular , particularly immediately after the end of the war , although the decision on which names to include on them proved contentious : should accidental deaths , for example , be included ? Where it was impractical to inscribe names in churches , usually due to the number of casualties and available space , books of names were often recorded instead .
= = = = Cenotaphs and Tombs of the Unknown Soldier = = = =
A large number of soldiers who died in the war were never found , and similarly bodies were recovered that could not be identified ; once again , this required new forms of memorial . The scale of the issue was once again huge : 73 @,@ 000 Allied dead were never found at the Somme , for example , either because their bodies had been lost , destroyed or were unrecognisable , more than one in ten of the losses in the battle .
One of the key developments in memorials to the war , the cenotaph , used an empty tomb to symbolise these aspects of the war . In 1919 , Britain and France planned victory marches through their respective capitals and as part of this France decided to erect a temporary cenotaph , an empty sarcophagus monument , which would be saluted by the marching troops . The British Prime Minister David Lloyd George decided that a similar memorial should be built in London , despite ministerial opposition that a cenotaph was an inappropriate , Catholic form of monument . The victory marches went ahead ; French political leaders had the memorial in Paris removed immediately after the parade , on the basis that it was too Germanic in appearance , but the London cenotaph proved very popular and hundreds of thousands flocked to see it . The popularity of the temporary Cenotaph resulted in it remaining open until the following year , when the decision had to be taken about what to do with the decaying structure : there was concern from the government that a permanent memorial might be vandalised , while the popular press criticised any suggestion of dismantling the existing structure . A new , permanent cenotaph designed by Edwin Lutyens was commissioned and unveiled on Whitehall Street on Armistice Day 1920 , effectively turning this part of London into a memorial to the war ; over a million people visited the site during November that year . The memorial style became very popular and spread to other countries in the subsequent years .
In contrast to the empty cenotaph , another new form of memorial , the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier , used the idea of burying one of the unidentified bodies from the war as a symbolic memorial to all of the lost soldiers . This idea had begun to emerge towards the end of the war , and was actively promoted by some British veterans ' groups in 1919 . Initially , however , it failed to gain traction with the government because of the success of the Whitehall Cenotaph , and a second memorial was felt to be unnecessary . Finally , in 1920 , following lobbying by British cleric David Railton , Britain and France both decided to create a Tomb of the Unknown Soldier , choosing an unknown body and creating a special memorial around it ; the tombs were inaugurated on Armistice Day . The choice of location for the French tomb proved controversial , however , and it was not finalised until the following year , when the body was laid to rest under the Arc de Triumph . The concept proved popular , and encouraged similar memorials in other countries .
In Italy , the idea of an Unknown Soldier memorial was particularly popular , both because lists of memorial names were less common and because the Italy had suffered particularly heavily from unidentifiable casualties as a result of the campaigns in the Alps — as many of 60 % of the corpses buried at Redipuglia were unidentifiable . The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Rome was built in 1921 , with other unidentifiable bodies being adopted by local cults of the dead across Italy . The Italian tomb was significant in political terms ; Italy was deeply divided in the post @-@ war years and the Liberal government hoped that the opening would reunify the country . In practice , the tomb became a point of tension between the Liberals and the Italian Fascist movement , and Benito Mussolini claimed to have timed his seizure of power the next year to ensure that the 1922 ceremonies at the tomb would occur under a Fascist government .
Other countries considered similar memorials . The US constructed a Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in 1921 ; while the idea was clearly a foreign concept , it proved very popular with the American public and by 1936 was attracting over 1 @.@ 5 m visitors a year and acting as an informal national monument to the war . Edwin Redslob , part of the German government , supported a similar scheme in 1925 , but without success , and Mainz Cathedral and Ulm Minster were later proposed as options for a tomb . In Germany , a tomb was not finally built until 1935 , when it was sponsored by the Nazi government ; the final memorial contained 20 bodies of unknown German soldiers from the Eastern front . Other countries also constructed tombs , including Belgium and Portugal , and as in France and Britain these tombs were placed in capital cities ; there was an abortive attempt to place the Romanian tomb at Mărăşeşti , but this proved impractical for both logistic and ceremonial reasons . Canada , Australia and New Zealand declined to build their own tombs , as they were considered to be represented by the burial in London .
= = = = Ceremonies = = = =
Ceremonies came to surround many memorials ; many memorials were formally opened or unveiled in public ceremonies , while others were used for recurring ceremonies on commemorative days . Memorials in Britain and France were typically opened in civic ceremonies involving local dignitaries , veterans and the next @-@ of @-@ kin of fallen servicemen . Some memorials acquired daily ceremonies ; in 1928 it became customary to play the Last Post bugle call at the Menin Gate memorial each evening , for example , and this practice spread to many other similar memorials in France .
Some ceremonies were formed around the memorials on specific days of the year . During the war , the British had commemorated the 4 August as Remembrance Day , but this was superseded at the end of the conflict by Armistice Day on 11 November each year . It became the norm for ceremonies to be held at memorials across Britain at 11 am on this day , supported by two minutes of silence , instituted by the Government , police and local authorities . The London Cenotaph formed the national hub for these ceremonies from 1919 onwards ; at the first Armistice Day ceremony , it received 500 @,@ 000 visitors in four days . The ceremony at the Cenotaph was equated to a religious event : the Daily Mail , for example , described the emotion and the " mystic meaning " at the ceremony which combined to produce a special " halo " and an " aura " . Ceremonies at the Cenotaph were covered and photographed by the national papers , and national radio broadcasts of the event commenced in 1928 .
Armistice Day ceremonies also became important in France . The early ceremonies were organised by veterans ' associations on the 11 November , but in 1921 the French government became concerned that these ceremonies were impacting on industrial productivity and moved the commemoration to the first available Sunday . Following protests , a national French holiday was declared in 1922 . The ceremonies were heavily influenced by the state , with national and local officials playing an important part , and there was an expectation of universal national participation . Attendees would march , often from the local church , past the local cemeteries to a relevant memorial ; tricolour flags , black wreaths and wreaths of flowers would be place on or around the memorials , but unlike Britain there was almost no military symbolism involved in the ceremony . Up to a hundred names of the dead would then be read out , typically by a war orphan , and the crowd would follow each name by saying " Mort pour la France " – " He died for France " – in unison .
Other important days were commemorated at memorials around the world . Australia commemorated Armistice Day , but held larger scale commemorations around Anzac Day on 25 April . Anzac Day was founded to remember the Gallipoli campaign , and memorials were erected for the first ceremonies in 1916 ; dawn services at local memorials formed a key part of the national event . In France , the authorities in Verdun organised the Fêtes de la Victoire on 23 June , centring on the city 's memorials and the nearby ossuary . These usually involved senior French military figures and pageantry . Ceremonies to honour the fallen of the battle of the Somme were held by the British at the Somme memorials on the Sunday nearest 1 July throughout the 1920s and 1930s . Romania – inter @-@ war years , the Feast of the Ascension used to commemorate the war dead . Termed Heroes ' Day , civic processions under central guidance from the Societata took place to the local war memorials . The 6 August was also used to commemorate the battle of Mărăşeşti at the site . Many of these adopted the British use of collective silence during the memorial ceremonies .
In some locations , these ceremonies could prove controversial . Canada – ceremonies on Armistice Day in the 1920s not straightforward in Montreal ; predominantly Anglican and English , with French and Catholic elements largely excluded until the end . The opening of the Vimy Memorial drew criticism for its secular nature @-@ no clergy were invited to speak @-@ despite the religious symbolism of much of the building .
The emotional character of the ceremonies around the memorials changed as grieving took place and many individuals , inevitably , continued with their lives . Some early ceremonies around memorials were believed to be closely associated with spiritual events . The opening of the Menin Gate memorial , for example , inspired Will Longstaff 's dream that led to the famous Menin Gate at Midnight painting , portraying the fallen dead rising and walking through the gateway , while the Cenotaph ceremonies were photographed in 1922 , and believed by some to show the ghosts of the war dead . Indeed , early ceremonies at the London Cenotaph after the war were felt to be particularly emotional ; commentators felt that by the late 1920s , the events were more formal and less fraught with emotional than previously . Initially foreign diplomats in Britain were expected to lay wreaths on Armistice Day ; this requirement was reviewed in the 1930s . In Australia , there were initially many local ceremonies at memorials on Anzac Day specifically for bereaved mothers ; by the 1930s , these had been discontinued and incorporated into the wider ceremonial occasion .
= = = = Pilgrimages = = = =
Organised or structured visits to war memorials became popular during the inter @-@ war years . These were often termed pilgrimages , in keeping with the spiritual and religious nature of the journeys . These were frequently combined with other ceremonies at the sites . Tensions existed between those who travelled to the sites as tourists and those who perceived themselves as pilgrims .
Along the Western front these began quite early after the war and continued for several decades , dropping in number in the mid @-@ 1920s , when interest in the war temporarily diminished , and again in the Depression years of the early 1930s . Flemish pilgrimages to Belgium graves , particularly the heldenhuldezerkjes , and memorials began in 1919 , continuing through the subsequent decades . The Ossuary at Verdun was the centre for many veterans pilgrimages in the 1920s , one of the better known groups being the Fêtes de la Bataille , which travelled to the site to undertake a vigil , processions and lay wreaths . These pilgrimages were typically low @-@ key and avoided military symbolism or paraphernalia . Ypres became a pilgrimage destination for Britons to imagine and share the sufferings of their men and gain a spiritual benefit ; the Ypres League was established by veterans , and sought to transform the horrors of trench warfare into a purifying spiritual quest . The Menin Gate memorial became a focal point for British pilgrims to the Western front after it was opened in 1927 . Pilgrims could come long distances : in the 1920s Canadians began to journey to Vimy and Australians began visiting Gallipoli from 1925 onwards , bringing back military souvenirs relics .
Guidebooks for English @-@ speaking visitors became common , including a number of official publications , some extremely detailed . Major Dwight D. Eisenhower spent years working on a guide to American battlefields . A 1920 British guide book , The Holy Ground of British Arms captured the mood of the Ypres League , stating : " there is not a single half @-@ acre in Ypres that is not sacred . There is not a single stone which has not sheltered scores of loyal young hearts , whose one impulse and desire was to fight and , if need be , to die for England . "
In central and eastern Europe , the state played a greater role in organising these pilgrimages . The National Orthodox Romanian Women 's Society , supported by the church and the state , played an important part in enabling regular pilgrimages to important Romanian sites up until 1939 . In Germany and Italy , the Fascist governments took a keen interest in organising such journeys . In Italy , these involved large , state @-@ influenced organisations , and the government steadily discouraged private visits or unofficial groups from taking part in alternative ceremonies at these sites . In Nazi Germany , pilgrimages were organised to the new war memorials sponsored by the government in the 1930s .
= = = Politics = = =
The memorials to World War I were frequently politicised , either by the debates over their construction and design , or by the symbolism incorporated into them . Even where attempts were made to ensure political neutrality , as in France where the inscriptions on memorials were usually deliberately neutral , avoiding political controversy , national politics influenced the symbolism and messages incorporated into the memorials .
Pacifism slowly began to emerge after the war , but very few war memorials communicated a pacifist message , largely because in the 1920s , most in the victorious countries felt that the war , while costly in human life , had been worth fighting . Anti @-@ war protests in the inter @-@ war years did use war memorials , however , as locations to communicate their messages ; the Communist party in France , for example , held rallies at them . In Britain , political views about the war influenced attitudes towards memorial design and the ceremonies that surrounded them . Those who supported the war were keen to see the ideals of justice and freedom embodied in the designs ; those who opposed the conflict sought memorials that would convince people to avoid future slaughter . The opening of the tomb of the Unknown Soldier was criticised for what anti @-@ war campaigners felt was its pro @-@ war pomp and ceremony , and the burial of the Unknown Soldier in Westminster raised controversy between those who liked the ceremony , and those who thought that the pageantry was designed to distract from the poor living conditions faced by the survivors of the war .
Religious differences and tensions could make it difficult to design inclusive war memorials . In US , the separation of church and state meant that crosses were discouraged . Despite being banned from onwards 1905 , many French monuments were explicitly Catholic in character , including a Catholic cross . Australia also minimised the use of crosses , partially for similar reasons , but also because over concerns about excluding their Jewish community . Decisions to incorporate Christian imagery into memorials in Britain could also exclude minority groups , such as Jews , from participating in a memorial . In Britain , the religious differences between Anglicans , Nonconformists and Roman Catholics were frequently played out at a local level in arguments over the location and symbolism to be used in memorials . In Canada , where these differences were overlaid across the English and French speaking national divide , war memorials attempted to reunify the country ; the Cross of Sacrifice memorial in Montreal , for example , was deliberately situated in between the Catholic and Protestant war cemeteries . This was only partially successful – inauguration ceremony and the military parade resulted in shouted arguments between French and English speaking parts of the crowd .
World War I memorials were also involved in the civil wars and ethnic disputes of the inter @-@ war period . After independence and the civil war , for example , the Republic of Ireland did not prioritise commemorating the dead of World War I , and indeed the events were largely ignored . Attempts to construct memorials during the 1930s , such as the National War Memorial Gardens in Dublin , were discouraged by the Republican movement and finally blocked altogether in 1939 . By contrast , Unionists in Northern Ireland made the war a key part of their political narrative , emphasising their role in events such as the Battle of the Somme . Monuments were erected in prominent locations in the centres of key Northern Ireland cities .
Other multi @-@ ethnic parts of Europe frequently found war memorials equally contentious . In Flanders , the IJzertoren , a controversial Flemish memorial tower , was opened in 1930 , commemorating the sacrifices during the war , but also celebrating Flemish identity and marking the hard treatment of Flemish activists by the Belgian authorities during the conflict . In disputed multi @-@ ethnic territories in the east , such as Transylvania , the war had created bitter memories between Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants . The arguments were played out in differences as to how the dates of the war @-@ in which Hungary and Romania had entered and left at different times @-@ were recorded on tombstones and other memorials . In Serbia , the Kosovo Maiden was extensively used in war memorials , drawing a link between the war and the Battle of Kosovo .
The Fascist movements in Italy and Germany in the 1920s and 1930s made extensive use of World War I memorials to communicate a political message . War memorials were a key part of the Italian Fascist government 's programme , with memorials set up in the name of the fallen and the Fascist revolution . Local Fascist organisations made extensive use of the war memorials and associated ceremonies to promote loyalty both to Italy , and to the revolution . The government promoted the " cult of the fallen hero " , stressing that the war dead had played a vital role in transforming Italy 's position in Europe and transforming history . The Fascist leader Mussolini was less enthusiastic , however , about the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier , which he felt was associated with the former regime ; he discouraged its use , although remained sensitive to its symbolic importance to various parts of Italian society . Military fly @-@ pasts were added to the Armistice ceremonies and the Tomb itself was moved in 1935 , to make it easier to use the memorial in military parades .
The later German monuments constructed by the Nazi government were substantial , but communicated a limited range of symbolic messages , focusing on German heroism , conservative nationalism sentiments and masculinity . Use of mass graves symbolised the sense of German community . When Paul von Hindenburg died in 1935 , the Tannenberg Memorial was then used as his mausoleum , commemorating elite military leadership during the war . The Nazi government attempted to have the Jewish names removed from the war memorials , but this proved impractical and instead a law was passed forbidding their addition to any future memorials . The government also removed more experimental earlier war memorials which were felt to communicate an inappropriate message about the war , such as the work of Ernst Barlach .
= = = Architecture = = =
Most World War I war designers attempted to produce memorials that were , as cultural historian Jay Winter describes , noble , uplifting , tragic and endurably sad . There were various architectural styles used on memorials , but most were essentially conservative in nature , typically embracing well established styles such as classicism and embracing mainstream Christian symbolism . This conservatism in part resulted from the age and background of the committees that were commissioning the memorials , and also from a sense that established architectural styles , rather a potentially more transitory but fashionable style , would be more enduring and appropriate .
Professional concern was raised in several countries about the quality of memorials . Australians expressed critical concern from 1919 onwards about the poor quality of the sculptures of soldiers on memorials , the blame being placed on the cheap reproductions by stone masons . Their government responded by establishing advisory boards to discourage this trend . Britain also saw concerns over the " stereotyped designs " being supplied by firms of stone masons , and here again numerous bodies issued guidance on better practices , including the Royal Academy of Art , the Church of England ; the Civic Arts Association was formed specifically to help . The opinion of professional artists and critics remained quite important for committees when choosing designs , however , and there was vigorous discussion between supporters of different styles and architectural traditions .
Many designers were involved in the construction of memorials , but some became particularly well known for their work in this area . Many of the sculptors active on the memorials were established , Victorian @-@ era individuals ; the war had disrupted the training of a new generation , and many young sculptors had been killed . Some attempts were made to give preference to designers who had fought in the war , but this was far from universal . In British circles , Edwin Lutyens , Herbert Baker , Reginald Blomfield and Charles Holden formed the core of the established artists ; these were joined by Charles Sargeant Jagger , Gilbert Ledward and Eric Gill from the younger generation . Pietro Porcelli was a particularly prolific Australian designer . In Germany , Käthe Kollwitz memorial of a grieving mother at the Roggevelde cemetery particularly famous , and based on her own loss of a son during the fighting in the war .
= = = = Symbolism = = = =
World War I memorials made extensive use of symbolism and allegory . Some of these symbols were national in character , carrying a simple message about national victory – a Gallic rooster triumphing over a German , the croix de guerre , or the Romanians ' symbol for their heroes ' cult for example – but others , such as images of infantrymen , could be used in different ways , depending on how they were portrayed . Some sculpture of French infantrymen , for example , aims to capture the spirit of French republicanism , while others are designed with more right @-@ wing , nationalist attributes .
Major memorial themes , such as victory and death all had their symbols . Many Canadian and British soldiers are shown raising a hat or a rifle , a sign of victory first introduced into Boer War memorials . The Greek goddess Nike herself frequently appears on civic memorials , particularly in Britain and Canada , personifying victory , often pointing the way to soldiers : the image is far less , common , however , on more sombre memorials in battlefields and graveyards . Personifications of Death rarely feature on these memorials , however , probably because the emphasis is typically on the self @-@ sacrifice of the soldiers involved , rather than their being taken or claimed by Death . Death is more typically presented through images of widows , orphans and elderly parents on memorials , all popular inter @-@ war allegorical forms for death and grieving . Figures of women often represented peace , civilisation or wider humanity .
By far the most important source of symbolism on memorials , however , is Christian imagery and icons . Religious imagery permeated many war memorials , even the secular . The most important of these symbols was the Christian cross , a widely used symbol of hope and suffering . The cross could take multiple forms , from Catholic designs in France , to Orthodox crosses in eastern Europe . Celtic crosses were popular in Britain and Ireland , partially because they avoided Catholic connotations , although they were considered vulgar by more classical architects such as Blomfield . In France , les croix des bois , wooden crosses , became popular symbols at memorials after Roland Dorgelès 's novel of the same name . German memorials made extensive use of the image of the Virgin Mary tending her son Christ , following in the tradition of the pietà . The crucifixion was also a widely used symbol , as seen in Derwent Wood 's Canada 's Golgotha , although Christ himself was relatively rarely typically seen on British memorials .
The widespread use of Christian symbolism led to questions about how to produce memorials suitable for non @-@ Christians . Lutyens attempted to solve this problem for the IWGC through the design of the Great Stone of Remembrance , or War Stone . This was a large , simple stone , intended to resemble an altar and evoke the theme of sacrifice . In practice , many commentators felt it resembled a sarcophagus . Lutyens wanted it to avoid conventional Christian symbolism and based it on designs in Chinese Ming tombs . One of Lutyens ' arguments in favour of his design was that explicit Christian symbolism excluded the Indian and Jewish communities and atheists . The IWGC designs for the Indian and Chinese war cemeteries in Europe deliberately did not use Christian imagery – although , as historian Xu Guoqi notes , the Chinese role in the Allied armies remains largely uncommemorated through memorials .
= = = = Classicism = = = =
Many memorials drew on a classical style of architecture to produce their effect . This had been a popular style for many pre @-@ war memorials , such as those for the dead of the Boer War , and used Greek or Roman structures , styles and symbolism . A key feature of the classical style was the concept of the " beautiful death " — classical memorials might include figures of soldiers , sometimes dying in conflict , but always heroically and , ultimately , peacefully . Soldiers in these memorials were still frequently depicted as Homeric warriors , rather than more realist figures . The classical symbolism was often used to distance the event of death from the observer , appealing to allegories for sacrifice , justice and victory , in an attempt to make mourning easier to bear .
Some inter @-@ war architects developed this approach further . Some traditional classical memorials had been criticised in both England and Germany as being fussy and overly ornate . Men such as Lutyens took the classical principles , but simplified them until the design became almost abstract . These memorials used abstract , beautiful designs intended to remove the viewer from the real world , and focus them on an idealised sense of self @-@ sacrifice , a continuation of the principle of a " beautiful death " . In many ways the simplified , but still classical , forms of memorials like the Cenotaph meant that mourners could read their own thoughts and concerns onto the memorial . Where dead soldiers were shown , they were depicted in an image of serenity and peace , often physically distanced from the viewer on a high platform , the entire effect reflected by the silence that traditionally surrounds ceremonies at the Cenotaph .
Many classical themes were used in this way . Thiepval Memorial , for example uses the classical themes of a victory arch and an abstract pattern of diminishing arches to produce what historian Jay Winter has termed " an embodiment of nothing " . The various Cenotaphs adopt the principle of entasis — Greek method with apparently straight lines , that are in fact slightly curved . Many memorials and war cemeteries used precinct walls to mark out the memorial as special and sacred , originally a Roman feature made popular again in the 19th century . Some features were more literally interpreted : the Victoria State Memorial in Australia , for example , was closely based on a Persian step pyramid .
Classical themes , like Christian symbolism , emphasised the sacred nature of the memorial sites . Nonetheless , there was some criticism of classicism by those who wanted a clearer separation of pagan and Christian symbolism ; this was played out in arguments in Germany over whether Iron Crosses or traditional Christian crosses should be used on memorials . Similarly , Lutyens ' War Stones were criticised for their blending of Christian and non @-@ Christian design , while the London Cenotaph was critiqued by the Catholic Herald as being " insulting to Christianity " . Some Christian symbols were redesigned in the simplified classical style , however , including the Cross of Sacrifice . This cross , in a classical style and featuring a white cross and an inverted bronze sword , was designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield for the War Graves Commission , widely used in Commonwealth countries . The design was criticised by some who felt that it excluded other faiths from the memorial site , but nonetheless , over a 1 @,@ 000 of these crosses were ultimately built .
= = = = Medievalism = = = =
In some countries , particularly Germany and England , memorials used a medieval style , reaching back to a more distant past . Some of these medieval styled memorials were set in existing medieval buildings , fusing older and newer themes . Memorial church windows , for example , could combine medieval and modern features , including armoured knights on horseback , modern weapons @-@ including @-@ tanks and aircraft @-@ and modern national flags . Other memorials deliberately chose medieval themes and symbols , such as the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior in Westminster , where the language of the inscriptions was deliberately archaic , and the tomb itself made from a medieval chest , decorated with a crusader 's sword . England 's patron saint , Saint George , was a particular popular symbol in British designs , typically shown mounted and wearing armour . The Arthurian Round Table and the medieval crusades proved popular themes in Canadian memorials .
New memorial buildings could also adopt a medieval style . The Scottish National War Memorial , for example , a Scots baronial styled memorial hall complete with stained glass in Edinburgh Castle , attempts to blend in with the surrounding medieval fortress . In Germany , the totenburgen usually looked to the past for their style ; Tannenberg , for example , was heavily medieval in appearance , resembling a castle , albeit combined with a huge cross and mass graves . The dolmen boulders used around the outside of many German memorials reinforced the archaic feel of the monuments . In other cases Germans chose to preserve or rebuild real medieval buildings and architecture to form war memorials , such as parts of Dorsten and Dülken .
Medievalism was popular with mourners because it reached back to the past , attempting to heal some of the discontinuities and ruptures of the war . In a period of great uncertainty , the style was reaffirming and apparently immutable , lost in a distant past . By placing the recent dead alongside those who had fallen before , the style gave reassurance that the World War I dead would not be forgotten ; in Westminster , the Dean of Westminster , emphasised when he noted that the Unknown Warrior would be resting alongside his " Saxon and Norman , Plantagenet and Tudor " predecessors . The style was actively promoted by a number of extant artistic and architectural institutions and groups , such as the Victoria and Albert Museum , the Arts and Crafts Movement and Gothic revivalists .
= = = = Alternative styles = = = =
Only a minority of war memorials used some of the newer styles emerging in the inter @-@ war period , such as modernism , realist and Art Nouveau approaches . As noted above , typically existing , traditional themes were preferred for memorials as a way of grounding mourning in a more familiar perspective . Nonetheless , some of the memorials to use the newer styles became particularly famous . There are a handful of memorials conducted in an Art Deco style , including the ANZAC War Memorial in Sydney which uses the delicate aspects of the Art Deco style to invoke sadness in the viewer , and is the only war memorial in the world to depict a naked soldier . The Douaumont Ossuary also draws on Art Deco principles in its structural architecture , avoiding straight lines in favour of gentle , soft , intersecting curves . Modernist principles were taken further in a small number of British memorials designed by Eric Gill , characterised by their highly abstract , simplified forms .
Realism and early modernist principles were applied in Britain to produce a critique of the conventional classical approach and the concept of a " beautiful death " , most notably by Charles Jagger . Jagger 's later work during the inter @-@ war period , most notably his Royal Artillery Memorial , uses realism techniques to portray an oversized BL 9 @.@ 2 inch Mk I howitzer in detail , mounted on a huge , architecturally simple plinth with detailed carvings of military events involving ordinary artillerymen . The sheer size of the piece creates a dehumanizing impact , despite the portrayal of a team of artillerymen , including a covered corpse . Critiqued by much of the British press when unveiled in 1925 , many veterans however felt that the style connected to them in a way that more classical themes could not . While the Royal Artillery Memorial is unique , elements of the style can be seen in some other memorials , such as the Cameronians Memorial which includes a realist , almost tactile depiction of a machine gun position .
Historical accuracy was important to many British designers , resulting in the use of genuine military equipment as models for memorials , and long discussions with committees over the details to be incorporated into designs . In contrast , the British interest in accurately depicting real weaponry from the war was far less common on German monuments , where usually stylised medieval weapons and armour were used .
= = Second World War and Post @-@ War = =
The Second World War that broke out in 1939 consumed the attention of a new generation . Across most of the theatres of conflict , the participants attempted to respect the memorials to World War I. After the Second World War there was no equivalent mass construction of memorials to the war dead ; instead , often local World War I memorials were adapted for use instead : additional names might be inscribed to the existing lists . In some cases , this resulted in memorials losing their exclusive focus on World War I. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington , for example , was expanded in 1950s to include corpses from the Second World War and Korea War , broadening the memorial 's remit to commemorate most modern wars . In other cases , such as the Australian War Memorial , begun in the inter @-@ war years but only opened in 1941 , an essentially new memorial was formed to honour the multiple conflicts .
In Italy and Germany , 1945 saw the collapse of Fascism ; many memorials in Italian towns and cities were used to execute and display the bodies of the overthrown regime , and the inter @-@ war Fascist pilgrimages and ceremonies around the memorials were abandoned and quickly forgotten . The World War I memorial sites continued to be used , but a combination of anti @-@ war feelings and their residual Fascist links limited the attendance at their public ceremonies . Due to the changes in national borders , in the post @-@ war era some sites favoured by the Nazi government , such as the Tannenberg Memorial , found themselves in Poland ; the demolition of Tannenberg began in 1949 and its stonework was reused for Soviet party buildings .
Elsewhere , changes in post @-@ war politics impacted considerably on the memorials. in Belgium , the Flemish IJzertoren tower had become associated with Fascism during the Second World War and was blown up in 1946 by anti @-@ Flemish activists , leading to outrage . Proposals were put forward to build a national monument on the site , but ultimately a second Flemish memorial was constructed instead . In Romania , the Communist post @-@ war government moved away from commemorations around Ascension Day , which was seen as carrying too many religious meanings . The Romanian Societata itself was abolished in 1948 , pilgrimages to the memorials ceased and the focus of the Communist government was almost entirely placed on commemorating the sacrifices of the Soviet army during World War II . Unusually , political changes in Canada led to the construction of new World War I memorials ; some of the inter @-@ war tensions eased , and 35 new memorials were added in Quebec to the existing 68 in the post @-@ war years , often built as combined memorials to later conflicts .
As a whole , interest in the war memorials diminished considerably in the 1950s and 1960s , reflected in a reduced level of ceremonies and a simplification of the commemorative events around memorials . In the post @-@ war years , for example , the separate official and veterans ceremonies at the Verdun memorials blended into one ; in 1956 , German and French ceremonies were also united into a single event . Attendance at events like Anzac Day diminished . Many memorials slowly deteriorated : in some cases the original inter @-@ war funding had never included maintenance , in other cases the materials used to construct the memorials were not durable . In some towns and cities , the memorials were moved to less prominent locations as part of urban renewal projects , or hidden by new buildings . World War I memorials were commonplace in many countries and were paid little attention .
= = Since 1990 = =
In the 1990s , however , there was a resurgence of interest in World War I memorials . This was driven partially by a sequence of academic works on the social and cultural character of the conflict , aided by a sequence of artistic exhibits of some of more famous designers in the 1980s , and partially by generational change in many countries . As the generation who had lived and fought during the war died off , explaining the context of the memorials became more important . In France , veteran groups had begun to build memorial museums alongside the major monuments and battlefields from the late 1930s onwards .
Similar efforts made at the end of the 20th century to create additional museums to explain the events of the war and the memorials ; these initiatives have the support of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission – the successor to the IWGC – but caused concerns amongst British government officials , due to concerns that they might cheapen the symbolism of the memorials . As old imperial links declined , in 1993 , Australia decided to repatriate one of its unidentified war dead from the Western front to form its own Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Canberra .
Meanwhile , some of the political tensions of earlier generations faded , allowing new memorials to be built . In the Republic of Ireland , new war memorials were built , trips organised to war memorials in Europe , and the National War Memorial Gardens were restored and finally officially opened in 1995 .
In Russia , the Memorial Park Complex of the Heroes of the First World War was built on the site of the former Moscow City Fraternity Cemetery after the fall of Communism , opening in 2005 at a cost of 95 million roubles . The park includes 12 monuments , amongst which was the only surviving headstone from the cemetery and a new memorial chapel . In contrast , by the early 21st century , the numbers visiting the IJzertoren tower during the annual pilgrimages declined significantly as memories of the conflict faded .
In the late 1990s and start of the 21st century visitor numbers to the Western Front memorials have risen considerably , and Australian visitors to the memorials at Gallipoli have increased hugely in recent years ; the Prime Ministers of Australia and New Zealand opened a new memorial at the site in 2000 . World War I memorials remain in ceremonial use on Remembrance Day — the post @-@ World War II successor to Armistice Day – Anzac Day and other national occasions , while many utilitarian memorials are still in use by local communities in the 21st century . Systematic efforts are being made to catalogue and record the memorials , with a number of individual restoration projects undertaken with public and private funding . In the centennial of World War I , the memory of the war has become a major theme for scholars and museums . Many museums and historical societies have set up special exhibits , websites , and multimedia exhibits . Proposals were put forward to construct a new national U.S. memorial to the conflict in Washington .
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= Icelandic Phallological Museum =
The Icelandic Phallological Museum ( Icelandic : Hið Íslenzka Reðasafn ) , located in Reykjavík , Iceland , houses the world 's largest display of penises and penile parts . The collection of 280 specimens from 93 species of animals includes 55 penises taken from whales , 36 from seals and 118 from land mammals , allegedly including Huldufólk ( Icelandic elves ) and trolls . In July 2011 , the museum obtained its first human penis , one of four promised by would @-@ be donors . Its detachment from the donor 's body did not go according to plan and it was reduced to a greyish @-@ brown shrivelled mass pickled in a jar of formalin . The museum continues to search for " a younger and a bigger and better one . "
Founded in 1997 by retired teacher Sigurður Hjartarson and now run by his son Hjörtur Gísli Sigurðsson , the museum grew out of an interest in penises that began during Sigurður 's childhood when he was given a cattle whip made from a bull 's penis . He obtained the organs of Icelandic animals from sources around the country , with acquisitions ranging from the 170 cm ( 67 in ) front tip of a blue whale penis to the 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) baculum of a hamster , which can only be seen with a magnifying glass . The museum claims that its collection includes the penises of elves and trolls , though , as Icelandic folklore portrays such creatures as being invisible , they cannot be seen . The collection also features phallic art and crafts such as lampshades made from the scrotums of bulls .
The museum has become a popular tourist attraction with thousands of visitors a year and has received international media attention , including a Canadian documentary film called The Final Member , which covers the museum 's quest to obtain a human penis . According to its mission statement , the museum aims to enable " individuals to undertake serious study into the field of phallology in an organized , scientific fashion . "
= = History = =
The museum 's founder Sigurður Hjartarson worked as a teacher and principal for 37 years , teaching history and Spanish at Reykjavík 's Hamrahlid College before his retirement . As a child , he owned a bull 's pizzle , which was given to him to use as a cattle whip . He began collecting penises after a friend heard the story of the bull 's penis in 1974 and gave him four new ones , three of which Sigurður gave to friends . Acquaintances at whaling stations began bringing him whale penises as well , and the collection grew from there , expanding through donations and acquisitions from various sources around Iceland .
The organs of farm animals came from slaughterhouses , while fishermen supplied those of pinnipeds and the smaller whales . The penises of larger whales came from commercial whaling stations , although this source dried up after the International Whaling Commission implemented a global ban on commercial whaling in 1986 . Sigurður was able to continue to collect whale penises by harvesting them from the 12 – 16 whales that fall victim to stranding on the Icelandic coast each year . He also obtained the penis of a polar bear shot by fishermen who found the animal drifting on drift ice off the Westfjords .
Sigurður was assisted by his family , though not without some occasional embarrassment . His daughter Þorgerður recalls that she was once sent to a slaughterhouse to collect a specimen but arrived just as the workers were taking a lunch break : " Someone asked , ' What 's in the basket ? ' I had to say , ' I 'm collecting a frozen goat penis . ' After that I said , ' I will never collect for you again . ' " According to Sigurður , " Collecting penises is like collecting anything . You can never stop , you can never catch up , you can always get a new one , a better one . "
The collection was at first housed in Sigurður 's office at the college until he retired from his teaching job . He decided , more as a hobby than a job , to put it on public display in Reykjavík and was awarded a grant from the city council of ISK 200 @,@ 000 to support the opening of a museum in August 1997 . By 2003 , it was attracting 5 @,@ 200 visitors a year , of which 4 @,@ 200 were from abroad . He put the museum up for sale in 2003 , but also offered it to the city of Reykjavík as a gift . However , he was unsuccessful in obtaining financial support from the state or city . When he retired in 2004 , he could no longer afford the rent on the museum 's premises .
After his retirement , he moved along with his collection to Húsavík , a fishing village with a population of about 2 @,@ 200 people located 298 miles ( 480 km ) northeast of the capital . The museum was housed in a small building , formerly a restaurant , that was marked with a giant wooden penis and a stone phallus standing outside on the street . The village 's inhabitants were at first skeptical of the new arrival , but came to accept it when they were persuaded that there was nothing pornographic about the museum .
In 2012 he handed over the collection to his son , Hjörtur Gísli Sigurðsson ( described by Slate as " the world 's only hereditary penis @-@ museum operator " ) . It was relocated from Húsavík to Reykjavík 's main shopping street at Laugavegur 116 . Its former location in Húsavík is now home to The Exploration Museum . An offer from a wealthy German to buy the museum for ISK 30 million ( US $ 232 @,@ 000 / € 186 @,@ 000 ) and a proposal to move it to the United Kingdom were both turned down , as Hjörtur insists that " the museum has to be in Iceland . " He intends to continue acquiring new penises because you can " always get a better , newer one ... a bigger size or better shape , you know ? "
According to University of Iceland anthropologist Sigurjón Baldur Hafsteinsson , Icelanders ' tolerance of the museum is an indicator of how Icelandic society has changed since the 1990s , when a newly elected neoliberal government fostered a more open outlook on entertainment , creativity and tourism that has " enabled new ideas to emerge publicly " . He has documented the significance of the museum 's role in Icelandic culture in a book , Phallological museum ( ISBN 9783643904706 ) OCLC 888575994 .
= = Collection = =
According to the museum 's website , the collection comprises 280 specimens from 93 species of animals . They range from some of the largest to some of the smallest penises in the animal world . Its largest exhibit is a portion of a blue whale 's penis measuring 170 cm ( 67 in ) long and weighing 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) , which Iceland Review has dubbed " a real Moby Dick " . The specimen is just the tip , as the entire organ , when intact , would have been about 5 m ( 16 ft ) long and weighed about 350 – 450 kilograms ( 770 – 990 lb ) . The baculum of a hamster , only 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) long , is the smallest item in the collection and needs a magnifying glass to be viewed . Sigurður has described the collection as the product of " 37 years of collecting penises . Somebody had to do it . "
The museum also has a " folklore section " exhibiting mythological penises ; its online catalogue lists specimens taken from elves , trolls , kelpies , and " The Nasty Ghost of Snæfell " . Sigurður says that the elf 's penis , which the museum 's catalogue describes as " unusually big and old " , is among his favourites . It cannot be seen , as Icelandic folklore holds that elves and trolls are invisible . The folkloric penises also include those of a merman , a one @-@ legged , one @-@ armed and one @-@ eyed monster called a Beach @-@ Murmurer , an Enriching Beach Mouse ( said to draw " money from the sea to enrich her owner " ) , and an Icelandic Christmas Lad found dead at the foot of a mountain in 1985 and whose penis was presented to the museum by a former mayor of Reykjavík .
The museum 's website states that it enables " individuals to undertake serious study into the field of phallology in an organized , scientific fashion " , giving due prominence to a field that until now has only been " a borderline field of study in other academic disciplines such as history , art , psychology , literature and other artistic fields like music and ballet . " The museum aims to collect penis specimens from every mammal in Iceland . It also exhibits phallic artwork and penis @-@ related objects or " phallobilia " such as lampshades made from the scrotums of bulls . Other exhibits range " from an 18th @-@ century engraving depicting the circumcision of Christ to a 20th @-@ century plastic penis pacifier . " Most of the collection has been donated , and the only purchase to date has been an elephant 's penis measuring nearly 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long . The penises are either preserved in formaldehyde and displayed in jars or are dried and hung or mounted on the walls of the museum .
Sigurður has used a variety of techniques to preserve the penises , including preservation in formaldehyde , pickling , drying , stuffing and salting . One particularly large penis taken from a bull has been converted into a walking stick . Many of the museum 's exhibits are illuminated by lamps made by Sigurður from rams ' testicles . Sigurður has also carved wooden phalluses , which can be found adorning various objects around the museum , and has a bow tie decorated with images of phalluses that he wears on special occasions .
Josh Schonwald of Salon.com described his impressions of the museum when he visited in 1998 :
They were hanging on the walls , stuffed in jars , displayed with curatorial love – dried penises , penises embalmed in formaldehyde , massive penises displayed like hunting trophies . A tanned bull 's penis , a smoked horse 's penis . There were runty , shriveled penises of reindeer , foxes , minks and rats . There were seal and walrus penises with stiff penis bones – ensuring a perpetually erect state . There was the Big Penis – a 3 @-@ foot @-@ long blue whale penis ( which could have been an oar for a canoe ) .
The museum is open every day and by July 2011 was attracting up to 11 @,@ 000 visitors annually . Sixty percent of the museum 's visitors are reported to be women , though according to the authors of the Rough Guide to Iceland , mentioning the museum " causes the staff at the tourist office to blush with embarrassment . " The museum 's guest book includes comments such as , " I 've never seen so many penises – and I went to boarding school ! " ( from a New Zealand visitor ) , " They 're bigger in the USA , " ( from someone from Wisconsin ) and " Is there a vagina museum ? " On this point , Sigurður has said , " I 'm only collecting the male organ . Somebody else has to do the other job . I 'd be interested in how they would preserve it . I think vaginas are better alive . " ( There is in fact a " Museum of Vaginal Imagination " in Rotterdam in the Netherlands . )
= = = Human penis = = =
For many years , the museum sought to obtain a human penis . Sigurður was able to obtain human testicles and a foreskin from two separate donors ; the foreskin was donated by Iceland 's National Hospital after an emergency circumcision operation . The museum also contains sculptures of 15 penises based on the Iceland national handball team . As the team had won the silver medal at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games , the penises were made from a silvered material . Sigurður claims that although they are not displayed in the same order as the individuals shown in the photograph that accompany them , " their wives would recognise them . " According to Slate , these sculptures were created by Sigurður 's daughter , Þorgerður Sigurðardóttir , and were based on her own experience rather than any knowledge of the team . The team 's goalkeeper denies that the sculptures are casts .
The museum has so far received pledges from four men — an Icelander , a German , an American and a Briton — to donate their penises . Canadian film @-@ maker Zach Math comments that the American , Tom Mitchell , " is an ordinary guy but he has this quirk where he thinks of his penis as a separate entity from his body — Elmo . He has this dream that he wants it to be the most famous penis in the world . " According to Sigurður , Mitchell " wanted to have his penis cut off even during his lifetime and then visit the museum . " Mitchell sent a cast of his penis to serve as a substitute in the meantime , along with photographs of it dressed up as Santa Claus and Abraham Lincoln . The donor also tattooed his penis with the Stars and Stripes to make it look more appealing . He says that " I 've always thought it 'd be really cool for my penis to be the first true penis celebrity " and has made it the star of its own comic book , Elmo : Adventures of a Superhero Penis .
The Icelandic donor was a 95 @-@ year @-@ old man from nearby Akureyri who was said to have been a womaniser in his youth and wanted to donate his penis to the museum to ensure his " eternal fame " . Sigurður said that , even at the age of 95 , the donor remained active , " both vertically and horizontally " . However , the donor was said to be concerned that " his penis is shrinking as he gets older and he is worried it might not make a proper exhibit . " His penis was given priority over those of the non @-@ Icelandic donors in accordance with the museum 's mission to display the organs of Icelandic mammals . Removing and preserving it was not an easy proposition , as Sigurður explained : " The donor and the doctors are in agreement , it must be taken while the body is warm . Then bleed it and pump it up . If it cools you can 't do anything , so [ the donor ] is eager to have it taken warm and treated to be preserved with dignity . "
In January 2011 , the Icelandic donor died and his penis was surgically removed so that it could be added to the museum 's collection . The penectomy was not entirely successful and left the penis " a greyish @-@ brown , shrivelled mass " . According to Sigurður , " I should have stretched it and sewn it at the back to keep it in more or less a normal position " . Instead , it " went directly into the formaldehyde " . Although disappointed with the results , Sigurður expressed confidence that " I will get a younger and a bigger and better one soon . " Visitors ' most common reaction to the preserved human penis is " that it 's very old , you know , a bit shrunken , and the male members [ sic ] say ' oh , I hope mine will not look like this when I get old . ' " Sigurður has considered donating his own penis to the museum when he dies but said that it depends on his wife : " If she dies first , my specimen would go in here . If I die first , well I can 't say . She might say no . "
American writer and actor Jonah Falcon , known for his impressively sized penis , was invited by the museum via The Huffington Post to donate his member after his death . It was announced in May 2014 that Falcon had accepted the proposal , suggesting a display alongside a sperm whale to be called " Jonah and the whale " , after the biblical story .
= = Film = =
The museum is the subject of The Final Member , a film by Canadian documentarians Zach Math and Jonah Bekhor . It profiles Sigurður and his quest to obtain a human penis for the museum , telling the story of the American and Icelandic donors and examining the quasi @-@ taboo nature of the museum 's collection . Bekhor says : " I wouldn 't say it 's a Rorschach test , but depending on how you react to it really says a lot about what your relationship is with that element of the human anatomy . It 's a really interesting phenomenon and we 're really curious to see how audiences respond . " The film premiered on 1 May 2012 at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival .
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= Mamma Mia ( 30 Rock ) =
" Mamma Mia " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 57th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on May 7 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Alan Alda , Steve Buscemi , Stuart Margolin , Keith Olbermann , Clayton Dean Smith , and Michael Benjamin Washington .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) begins to search for his biological father with help from Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) introduces his supposedly illegitimate son ( Washington ) to the cast and crew of the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) , but some question his intentions . At the same time , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and Liz fight for attention when Jenna gets public recognition for a comedic sketch Liz wrote .
" Mamma Mia " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 2 million households during its original broadcast . Ron Weiner and Alan Alda received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series , respectively , both for this episode .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) decides not to search for his biological father , after it was revealed in the previous episode that the man he believed was his father was not . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , however , convinces him to find out who his real father is , so Jack contacts Lenny Wosniak ( Steve Buscemi ) — a private investigator — to search for his biological father . Lenny gives him an envelope containing the names of three individuals who could be his father . Jack tells Liz about the envelope , and she suggests they Mamma Mia ! this and bring the three men to New York under false pretenses , to which Jack agrees . Jack meets the men , George Park , Fred O 'Dwyer ( Stuart Margolin ) , and Professor Milton Greene ( Alan Alda ) . At meeting the three men , Jack comes to the realization that Milton is his father , as George Park is Korean and Fred O 'Dwyer lost his genitals in a grenade explosion during World War II . He tells Milton that he is his son , after Milton admitted to sleeping with his mother , Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) , around the time Jack was conceived . Milton is happy to have him as his son , and reveals to Jack that he is in need of a kidney transplant .
Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) introduces his illegitimate son , Donald ( Michael Benjamin Washington ) , to the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff . Liz and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) suspect that Donald is embezzling from Tracy as they do not believe that Donald is twenty @-@ one years old , which Donald claims to be . Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) , Liz 's assistant , obtains Donald 's birth certificate and gives it to Liz and Pete ; the two learn that Donald is forty years of age , thus confirming their suspicions about him . Liz tells Tracy about this , but Tracy knew all about Donald 's scam , explaining he decided to go along with it because Donald was putting all of the money into a dojo and doing good for the community .
At the same time , Liz becomes jealous when her friend and TGS star Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) takes credit for " That 's A Deal Breaker , ladies ! " catchphrase , resulting in Liz not getting recognition as she wrote the sketch . As a result of this , Jenna is named the " Funniest Person in New York " by Time Out magazine , and seeing how Liz feels about this , Jenna decides to share the magazine cover with her . At the photo shoot , the photographer ( Clayton Dean Smith ) wants Jenna to use props for the shoot , but Jenna is reluctant to use any of them . Liz , however , decides to pose with the props , resulting in her being on the cover of Time Out , much to Jenna 's displeasure .
= = Production = =
" Mamma Mia " was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner , making it his fourth writing credit after " Secrets and Lies " , " Señor Macho Solo " , and " Goodbye , My Friend " . The episode was directed by series producer Don Scardino , his twentieth for the series . " Mamma Mia " originally aired in the United States on May 7 , 2009 , on NBC as the twenty @-@ first episode of the show 's third season and the 57th overall episode of the series .
The character Professor Milton Greene , Jack Donaghy 's biological father , was played by guest actor Alan Alda , best known for his role as Hawkeye Pierce from the television series M * A * S * H. Alda and Alec Baldwin have worked together , having appeared in the 2004 biographical drama film The Aviator . Actor Steve Buscemi reprised his role as private investigator Lenny Wosniak for the third time , having appeared in " The Collection " and " The Natural Order " . Buscemi directed the 30 Rock episode " Retreat to Move Forward " that aired on January 22 , 2009 , during the show 's third season . News anchor Keith Olbermann , of Countdown with Keith Olbermann , did a voice over in this episode , in which Pete recalls hearing a sports anchor ( Olbermann ) saying the line " That 's A Deal Breaker , ladies ! " in SportsCenter during a hockey game highlight .
One filmed scene from " Mamma Mia " was cut out from the airing . Instead , the scene was featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the scene , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) gives George Park , Fred O 'Dwyer , and Milton Greene a tour around the backstage area of TGS . Fred tells Kenneth that he resembles a man he served with in the service , which Kenneth says " Well , obviously that 's a coincidence . How could I be in Normandy ? " . Fred responds by saying that he never told Kenneth where he served . Jack shows up where Kenneth and the three men are , and tells Kenneth that he would like to talk to Milton , prompting Kenneth to tell Jack " As head of this tour , I 'm going to deny your request . " Jack and Milton are then seen at Jack 's office .
= = Cultural references = =
Throughout the episode , numerous references are made to the jukebox musical Mamma Mia ! , in which Jack tells Liz about his possible three fathers , Jack agreeing to meet with the three men , and Liz saying " And all I 'm promising is a madcap musical romp , dot dot dot , fun , dot dot dot , good . ... That was on the [ Mamma Mia ! ] poster " , and finally Jack revealing his kinship to Milton . Liz tells Jack that he should find out who his real father is , explaining " If I have learned anything from my Sims family : When a child doesn 't see his father enough he starts to jump up and down , then his mood level will drop until he pees himself . " The Sims is a video game in which players create virtual people called " Sims " and places them in houses and helps direct their moods and satisfy their desires . Liz and Pete learn from James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) that Tracy 's favorite television show is NCIS , a CBS police drama series revolving around special agents from the Naval Criminal Investigative Service ( NCIS ) , who conduct criminal investigations involving the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps . Later , Liz and Pete sing the song " It Takes Two " by hip @-@ hop duo Rob Base and DJ E @-@ Z Rock to see if Tracy is familiar with the song as they have doubts about the age Tracy claims to be .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Mamma Mia " was watched by 6 @.@ 2 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was an increase from the previous episode , " The Natural Order " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 0 million American viewers . Ron Weiner received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series , but lost it to fellow 30 Rock writer Matt Hubbard for the episode " Reunion " at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . At the same awards show , Alan Alda received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series , but lost it to singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for hosting Saturday Night Live .
IGN contributor Robert Canning complimented 30 Rock for Jack 's search of his father plot , writing that they took it and " rolled forward with energy and smarts and delivered one of the funnier episodes from the past several weeks . " Canning said that the other stories were " also very fun " , and having been a critic to Jane Krakowski 's Jenna , Canning said that her appearance in " Mamma Mia " was " effectively funny without overdoing her self @-@ centeredness . " In conclusion , Canning gave it a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 rating . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that this was a " very funny episode , boosted by the ingenious casting of Alan Alda " as Jack 's biological father . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin praised 30 Rock for delivering " comically " with this episode , and observing there were good elements in it . Rabin opined that the casting of Alda as Jack 's father was " inspired " , and gave " Mamma Mia " an A − grade rating . Entertainment Weekly contributor Aly Semigran was complimentary towards the episode , and appreciated the guest appearances from Alda and Steve Buscemi . Bruce Fretts for TV Guide Magazine said that " Mamma Mia " was " strong " , and cited that it had " quotable inside @-@ TV digs ... an instant chemistry between Alec Baldwin and Alan Alda ... and an infectious rendition of ' It Takes Two ' by Liz and Pete . " Mike Moody of AOL 's TV Squad hoped that " someone on the show figure out " what to do with the Jenna character , and suggested that she have a love interest " that makes her mature or ... makes her move away " because Jenna 's " vacuous , selfish aging diva routine has gotten old already . " Moody , however , said that the best part of Tracy 's story was the karate showdown between Donald and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) .
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= The Tale of Mac Da Thó 's Pig =
The Tale of Mac Da Thó 's Pig ( Old Irish : Scéla Muicce Meicc Da Thó ) is a legendary tale from early Irish literature , written primarily in prose and heroic saga form and placed within the Ulster Cycle . The story 's composition in its present form can probably be attributed to an unknown author of Leinster c . AD 800 , and survives in at least six manuscripts , written between the 12th and 18th centuries . The three most important of these primary sources are held in Trinity College , Dublin and the British Library .
The story tells of a dispute between the Connachta , led by Ailill and Medb , and the Ulaid , led by Conchobar mac Nessa , over the acquisition of the hound of Leinster , Ailbe . The dispute is ultimately resolved through the plan of the king of Leinster , Mac Da Thó , to hold a feast at his hostel , at which a fight breaks out over the assignment of the curadmír or champion 's portion .
The story deals with the themes of provincial rivalry between Ulster and Connacht , communal feasting and the heroic contest over the curadmír , and includes elements which show parallels with older Gaulish and pan @-@ Celtic traditions . Although apparently the quintessential Ulster Cycle story in many respects , the tale 's composition also displays a sophisticated satiric quality as a parody of the genre . The story was apparently popular in the Middle Ages and later times , and became the subject of a number of independent poems . The central figure of the pig has parallels with the great boars of Welsh @-@ language literature and the Matter of Britain , particularly Twrch Trwyth in the 11th @-@ century Welsh story of Culhwch and Olwen .
= = Summary = =
= = = Plot = = =
The story opens with Mac Da Thó , a famous legendary king of Leinster , who possessed a hound called Ailbe . Ailbe defends of the entire province , such that his fame spreads throughout the entire island of Ériu ( Ireland ) . Ailill and Medb , king and queen of Connacht , send messengers to Mac Da Thó demanding the dog ; but at the same time so does Conchobar mac Nessa , king of the Ulaid , the warriors of the province of Ulster . The messengers from Connacht offer an immediate tribute of 160 milch cows , a chariot and two of the finest horses of the Connachta , and the same tribute to be paid to Leinster again the following year . The messengers of Ulster in turn offer Mac Da Thó " jewellery and cattle and everything else from the north " and an alliance through the " great friendship " that would result .
These events trouble Mac Da Thó greatly , such that he goes three days without food , drink or sleep . However , his wife devises for him a plan – that he should give the dog to both parties and let them fight for it . Pleased by this scheme , Mac Da Thó takes each delegation aside in private , and intimates to both that he had awarded the hound to them after much deliberation . Unknowingly , both parties agreed separately that their people should come on the same day to a feast in Leinster to claim Ailbe formally .
The feast is to take place at Mac Da Thó 's Hostel , one of the five famed legendary " hostels " or feasting halls in Ireland at the time . The hostel itself has seven entrances , seven cauldrons full of beef and salted pork , and seven hearths ; and fifty paces between each pair of doorways . The Ulaid and the Connachta arrive at the door of the hostel at the same time to collect the hound . Mac Da Thó feigns innocence as to the immediately apparent inconsistency , yet invites both provinces inside to the feast nevertheless . Though the hostel is by no means small , it is nonetheless filled with tension , as warriors who had previously done each other injury sit opposite each other .
Mac Da Thó has his pig slaughtered for the feast – an animal which had been nourished by 60 milch cows for seven years and which had 40 oxen spread across it for its enormous size . The pig immediately attracts the attention of the Ulaid and Connachta , who must decide over how it is to be divided up , and to whom shall be awarded the curadmír or " hero 's portion " . It is agreed that the warriors shall challenge each other to boast their past exploits in battle . At length the Connacht warrior Cet mac Mágach manages to outboast his Ulster counterparts :
[ Cet ] took knife in hand and sat down to the pig saying " Find among the men of Ériu one to match me in feats – otherwise I will carve the pig . " ... Lóegure spoke then : " It is not right that Cet should carve the pig before our very eyes . " Cet answered " One moment Cet , that I may speak with you . You Ulaid have a custom : every one of you who takes arms makes Connacht his object . You came to the border , then , and I met you ; you abandoned your horses and charioteer and escaped with my spear through you . Is that how you propose to take the pig ? " Lóegure sat down .
A narrative pattern follows , whereby Cet demands a challenge , an Ulster warrior rises , and the Ulaid cry out the name of the challenger ; Cet then proceeds to shame that warrior by recounting one of his deeds against him , as above . Cet shames the challenger Óengus son of Lam Gabuid , by recounting how he had cut off Lam Gabuid 's hands in battle ; he shames Éogan son of Durthacht , the king of Fermag , by recounting how he put out his eye in a cattle @-@ raid ; he reminds Muinremur son of Gerrgend how he had taken his son 's head as a trophy not six days earlier ; Mend son of Salchad , how he had cut off his father 's foot ; Celtchair son of Uthecar , how he had castrated him with his spear ; and even Conchobar 's son Cúscraid Mend Machae , how he had pierced his neck with a spear during Cúscraid 's first feat of arms , in ignominious circumstances which led to the abandonment a third of Cúscraid 's retinue in a cowardly retreat . In each case , the challenging warriors are compelled to retake their seats in shame .
Just as Cet is exulting in his victory over the full warrior contingent of Ulster present , the Ulster hero Conall Cernach enters the hostel , and leaps into the middle of the hall to roars of welcome from the Ulaid . Cet and Conall acknowledge each other in an exchange of archaic rhetorical verses , and Cet concedes that Conall is a better warrior than he . Cet adds that his brother Anlúan would best Conall in a contest : " ' It is our misfortune that he is not in the house . ' ' Oh but he is , ' said Conall , and taking Anlúan 's head from his wallet he threw it at Cet 's breast so that a mouthful of blood spattered over the lips . "
In shame , Cet leaves the pig to Conall , who rightfully claims the belly as his portion , a burden for nine men , leaving only the fore @-@ trotters to the Connachta . Dissatisfied with their meagre share , the Connachta rise against the Ulaid , and a drinking bout breaks out in the hostel and spills out into the courtyard outside . Fergus rips up a great oak tree from the ground by the roots . Mac Da Thó unleashes Ailbe to see which side it would choose ; Ailbe sides with the Ulaid , and precipitates the rout of the Connachta . The dog itself is decapitated by Aillil 's charioteer Fer Loga at Mag nAilbi .
As the hosts sweep westward across Mide , Fer Loga hides in the heather and leaps into the chariot of Conchobar as it passes , seizing the king 's head from behind . Conchobar promises him any ransom he wishes ; Fer Loga asks to be taken to the Emain Macha , capital of Ulster , where the women of the Ulaid and their nubile daughters are to sing to him each evening in chorus , " Fer Loga is my darling . " A year later , at the end of the tale , Fer Loga rides westward across Ath Luain with two of Conchobar 's horses and golden bridles for them both .
= = = Dindsenchas = = =
The final portion of the plot contains an example of Dindsenchas , or onomastic folklore , " a touch of antiquarianism dear to the ancient Irish " . The episode in which Fer Loga spits the head of Ailbe upon his chariot @-@ pole is used as an explanation for the placename of Mag nAilbi , " Ailbe 's Plain " , the valley plain bordering the River Barrow from County Laois and County Carlow to County Kildare .
= = Tradition and criticism = =
= = = Narrative style = = =
In the assessment of Celticist Nora Chadwick , " the tale is told with brilliant narrative power " : its terseness , humour and laconic brevity is reminiscent of the best of the Icelandic sagas . The dialogue is particularly masterly in its " understatement and crisp repartee " , with " the utmost condensation and economy " in its choice of words . " [ I ] n the few remarks made by Mac Da Thó to his visitors , all his previous train of thought , all his cunning and address , are suggested in a few brief words intended by him to hide his true designs from his guests , while suggesting to ourselves his hidden intention . "
In spite of the literary finish of the surviving written versions , the tale remains one to be told orally . The story is characterised by " a total absence of reflection " ; " not a word is wasted , no statement is expanded " . The events of the narrative are expressed with swift movement , aiming to arouse and excite the interest and attention of the hearer rather than to stimulate the thought of the reader . " The story @-@ teller makes use of the element of surprise , of quick developments and dramatic moments . He seeks to impress by rapid crescendo to a startling climax , and a shock " ; as when Cet first reluctantly yields to Conall Cernach in the absence of Ánluan , then is unexpectedly and abruptly shamed in full view of the warriors of Ireland , by Conall suddenly hurling the head @-@ trophy of Ánluan " at the breast of his opponent with such violence that a gush of blood burst through Cet 's lips " .
Chadwick identifies a story calculated to appeal to men rather than women : a stark contrast with " the refined and delicately handled story of Eochaid and Étaín and their supernatural adventures with the god Midir " , with " the poetical beauty of the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisneach " , indeed even with the later heroic tales of the Finn Cycle – " stories of life in the open – of hunting , and romance , and of the magic and prowess of a simpler and less organised society than that of Mac Da Thó 's feast . " The gulf separating the tale from this broad range of genres may be used to illustrate the impressive " range of theme which the early Irish story @-@ tellers had at their command " . In Chadwick 's final assessment :
One thing we can say with confidence . Our prose saga of Mac Da Thó 's Pig is a work of art of high quality in its own right . Without a touch of romance , without the glamour of magic or of the supernatural , almost without antiquarian elements , it holds us throughout by its swift unflagging narrative , the rapid pitch and toss of its dialogue , the brilliant quality of the dramatic presentation . Never has the tradition of the Irish Heroic Age received a more compelling form ...
= = = Theme and antiquity = = =
The Tale of Mac Da Thó 's Pig has been referred to as " one of the most brilliantly told of the early Irish sagas " , which " purports to give a picture of the old heroic life in Ireland and its warlike spirit " . The central theme of the narrative is the curadmír , the right of the greatest champion at a feast to receive the " hero 's portion " from a great central cauldron containing the communal supply . Wherever a great body of heroes was gathered together , this right was determined by boasting contests between the contenders : to assert the right to the hero 's portion , a claimant must first produce his credentials by boasting his heroic exploits , and then shame his opponents by quashing their objections and counter @-@ claims . In the event that this unsuccessful and the distinction between the heroes present unclear , the matter would be taken to arbitration , as in the similar Ulster Cycle tale Fled Bricrenn ; Chadwick suggests that this arbitration may be parodied when Mac Da Thó releases Ailbe to see which province the hound would side with first .
Chadwick argues that the antiquity of the tale 's theme – feasting – is probably the most anciently attested of all Celtic stories . The heroic communal feast was apparently central to the Celtic tradition , and classical ethnographers of the Posidonian tradition , notably the 2nd @-@ century Athenaeus , give accounts of Gaulish feasts which closely parallel their Insular counterparts . Similarly , in the 1st century BC , the Greek ethnographer Diodorus Siculus describes in detail how the Gauls " honour distinguished men with the best portions of the meat " , and how disputes often lead to challenges in which " they set about glorifying the valour of their forefathers and boasting of their own prowess ; and at the same time they deride and belittle their opponent , and try by their speeches to rob him of the courage he has in his heart " .
A secondary theme which drives the contest for the champion 's portion is the rivalry between the royal provinces of Connacht and Ulster , resolved in the contest of the two heroes Cet Mac Mágach and Conall Cernach . The presentation of this rivalry is coloured by the author 's peculiar Leinster viewpoint . He turns both provinces to ridicule by the cunning of Mac Da Thó , King of Leinster ; in particular , the author 's political sympathies favour Connacht and remain hostile to Ulster to the end . To the heroes assembled , Mac Da Thó boasts that all the food provided for the feast is a mere trifle for the Leinstermen . It is tempting to conclude that the inspiration of the story is the claim of Leinster to supersede both Ulster and Connacht . However , it is apparent that by the time of the tale 's composition , even the story @-@ teller does not take the political issues very seriously , using the theme instead as a vehicle for a good story .
An unusual element is that the tale draws its characters from essentially the same cast as Táin Bó Cuailnge , making mention of some thirty heroes from that narrative , yet never once mentions Cú Chulainn . Chadwick suggests this is probably an indication of the antiquity of the tradition of the story 's tradition , predating the development of Cú Chulainn 's story within the Ulster Cycle . Some of the rhetorical verse elements are old and obscure , but certain seemingly parodic elements of the genre at least suggest a later composition of the present form .
= = = Satiric elements = = =
While The Tale of Mac Da Thó 's Pig appears to be the quintessential Ulster Cycle story in theme and narrative , there are certain unusual elements of the extant forms which suggest it may have a more satiric quality , parodying the heroic genre of the Ulster Cycle . The eponymous pig of Mac Da Thó may be mythic in origin , but its highly exaggerated size may also be satiric . In the Táin Bó Cuailnge , the Ulaid and Connachta go to war over a mythic best , the finest bull in Ireland , whereas here they come to blows over a dog .
In " an imitable passage of compressed humour " , Mac Da Thó promises the dog to both parties , then feigns ignorance when both arrive on the same day . During the bragging contest , the heroes of the Ulaid are not merely shamed , but are made to look ridiculous . Hyperbole is used to humorous effect when Conall flings the head of Ánluan at his opponent Cet . Thurneysen notes that in the Harley 5280 manuscript " the mutual slaying of the guests " is referred to as " ' performing a good drinking round ' " ( so @-@ imól ) – a " somewhat coarse joke " that was revised or omitted in the other manuscripts because apparently the copyists did not understand it . Gantz notes that Fer Loga 's demand " that the nubile women of Ulaid sing ' Fer Loga is my darling ' to him every night is so comical that its inclusion cannot possibly be inadvertent " . In Chadwick 's assessment , the story is " a glorious travesty of the Ancient World by one who honoured and laughed at its traditions " .
The tale 's composition in the early period of the Viking Age in Ireland " may have done something to substitute laconic humour and a spirit of ripe burlesque for the dignity and poetical beauty " of other treasures of the Irish sagas . To call the tale a parody would not be entirely accurate ; instead , it seems " that a literary genius has presented us with a well @-@ preserved heroic tradition , seen through the prismatic lens of a later age . He brings to his theme a ripe sophistication , a concentrated irony , and a gay and lighthearted hyperbole . "
= = = Associated traditions = = =
The story appears to have been well known in literary circles . A variant of the tale is apparently mentioned in a poem by Flannacán Mac Cellaich in the Yellow Book of Lecan . Flannacán is said to have been killed by the Vikings in 896 . Another apparent reference , to an Orgain Mic Da Thó – " The Slaughter of Mac Da Thó " – is included in a 10th @-@ century list of the prímscéla , the " primary stories " or " chief stories " which the professional poetic class ( filid ) used to relate to kings . Mac Da Thó 's Hostel is also one of a number cited in a poem on the feasting halls or hostels ( bruidne ) of ancient Ireland . Clearly the tradition predates our oldest surviving copy , that of the Book of Leinster .
The tale was also apparently popular in later times , and became the subject of a number of independent poems ; none appears to have been directly based on the surviving text , however , suggesting that other versions of the same tale served as their inspiration . The first poem is appended to the old text in the Book of Leinster , Harley 5280 and H.3.18. Its author used the opportunity to display his knowledge of the names of Irish heroes in general , in which he does not confine himself to characters of the story . The second poem follows the first in Harley 5280 , and appears also in three other manuscripts : the Book of Lecan , Laud 610 in the Bodelian Library and lastly in the Stowe manuscript collection .
In these two poems , the real hero is not the dog Ailbe but the pig – the latter being " practically a panegyric on the pig " – although the story 's title implies this may have been an original feature . In the unusual choice of a pig as the main protagonist , the story becomes associated with a broader Celtic tradition , including the wild boar motif of Arthurian legend . The wild boar Twrch Trwyth , for example , causes considerable difficulty for the men of Arthur 's court in the 11th @-@ century Welsh story of Culhwch and Olwen ; while the exposition of the geographical details of Ailbe 's route in the rout of the Connachta in the Irish tale has parallels with the route taken by Twrch Trwyth in the Welsh hunt . Indeed , Thurneysen notes that in relation to Mac Da Thó 's pig , the poets use the words torc ( boar ) and muc ( pig ) interchangeably .
The poetic versions of the story allude to additional matter within the tradition of Mac Da Thó 's pig , including the names of Mac Da Thó 's wife Maine Athrai , of his two sons , and of his grandson Léna . According to these accounts , Léna first found the pig in Slieve Bloom , and was responsible for its nourishment until it had seven inches of fat on its snout . Maine Athrai needed the pig for her husband 's great feast ; Léna refused , but he was killed when the pig grubbed up earth with its snout , burying him alive in his sleep . In this version of the tale , which shows how much may have been omitted from the narrow version of the saga , Mac Da Thó 's swineherd Follscaide dutifully delivers the pig to his master 's feast .
In the Laud 610 and Stowe manuscripts , the poem in praise of Mac Datho 's pig forms an appendix to the Dindsenchas of Mag Léna , a plain and heath in County Offaly . The explanation in prose and verse of " the plain of Léna " is as imaginative as could be expected from medieval etymologies : in reality , mag léna simply means " plain of meadows " . Similarly , an associated though dubious etymological tradition in another saga , somewhat later than the original Tale of Mac Da Thó 's Pig , equates the name of Mac Da Thó to " Mac Dá Túa " , " the son of two silent persons " , his parents having been deaf @-@ mutes . Though spurious at best , this explanation has been accepted nevertheless by some poets and redactors , such as that of Rawlinson B 512 , who write dá with a long a and make Thó alliterate with t .
= = = Commentaries = = =
Chadwick , Nora ( 1959 ) . " Scéla Muicce Meicc Da Thó " . In Dillon , Myles . Irish Sagas . Radio Éireann Thomas Davis Lectures . Irish Stationery Office .
Gantz , Jeffrey ( 1981 ) . Early Irish myths and sagas . Penguin Classics . ISBN 0140443975 .
Thurneysen , Rudolf , ed . ( 1935 ) . Scéla mucce Meic Dathó . Mediaeval and Modern Irish Series VI ( 1975 ed . ) . Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies .
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= Røst Airport =
Røst Airport ( Norwegian : Røst lufthavn ; IATA : RET , ICAO : ENRS ) is a regional airport serving the Røst , Norway. located on the northern edge of the main island of Røstlandet . It is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor and handled 9 @,@ 889 passengers in 2014 . Services are provided by Widerøe , operating Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft on contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications to Bodø Airport and Leknes Airport .
Røst was first served using seaplanes from the 1960s , and then by helicopters from 1970 . Røst Airport opened on 1 June 1986 , initially with Widerøe operating de Havilland Canada Twin Otters . From 2000 to 2001 the service was operated by Guard Air , and from 2003 to 2008 by Kato Air ; otherwise Widerøe has flown the route .
= = History = =
Services to Røst started in 1965 , when Widerøe commenced seaplane services to the island using de Havilland Canada Otters and Noorduyn Norseman aircraft . The routes were operated two to three times per week as a charter service , with subsidies from the municipalities of Værøy and Røst . Helikopter Service flew between Bodø Airport to Røst and Værøy — an island community further inland from Røst — with three weekly services from 1973 . The helicopters doubled as serving for search and rescue duty ; in case they were needed for the latter flights to Værøy and Røst were cancelled . The regional airports in Lofoten and Vesterålen opened in 1972 , with the Værøy and Røst service being taken over by Widerøe on 1 September 1973 . As they did not want to operate helicopters , they subcontracted the operations to Helilift . The service operated twice per day on weekdays and once per day in the weekends , using two sixteen @-@ seat Sikorsky S @-@ 58Ts . Subsidies of 1 @.@ 9 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) was granted for the route in 1973 , and the service transported 5 @,@ 359 passengers ( from both Røst and Værøy ) .
One of the helicopters was bought by Widerøe in December 1976 and the operations were subcontracted to Offshore Helicopters . The second Sikorsky was bought from Helilift in March 1978 and also operated by Offshore Helicopters . Helikopter Service merged with Offshore Helicopters in 1980 , and the new Helikopter Service took over the route . They introduced an eleven @-@ seat Bell 212 helicopters from 1 January 1982 because of the high maintenance costs of the S @-@ 58Ts . In 1982 the service to both islands handled 7 @,@ 145 passengers and three tonnes of post and cargo , and made 744 landings . It received subsidies for NOK 4 million .
Plans for an airport with short take @-@ off and landing flights was launched by the government in December 1983 . The airport was proposed along with five other regional airport : Fagernes Airport , Leirin ; Førde Airport , Bringeland ; Mosjøen Airport , Kjærstad ; Rørvik Airport , Ryum and Værøy Airport . The plans were passed by Parliament on 10 April 1984 and construction started in 1985 . On 22 August 1985 the municipality was granted concession to operate the airport . Værøy and Røst Airports were opened on 1 June 1986 , with Røst Airport having cost about NOK 15 million to build .
The Civil Aviation Administration proposed in 1994 closing the airport along with eight other regional airports , because they had high subsidy levels . Røst Airport was nationalized on 1 January 1997 , along with 25 other regional airports , and placed under the control of the Norwegian Civil Airport Administration ( now Avinor ) .
= = = Service = = =
After the airport opened , services started with Widerøe @-@ operated twenty @-@ seat de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters . The airline operated two trips Bodø – Røst – Værøy – Bodø on weekdays and one round trip during the weekend . In addition , there were two weekly trips that connected Værøy to Leknes Airport before returning to Bodø . The service was subsidized by the Ministry of Transport and Communications . Widerøe replaced the Twin Otters with 37 @-@ seat de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 8 @-@ 100 Dash 8s in 1995 . The route from Bodø to Røst was made subject to public service obligation from 1 April 1997 , which was won by the incumbent , after beating Valdresfly and Helikopter Service in the auction . The following contract , valid from 1 April 2000 , was awarded to Guard Air , but this company folded in 2001 . Helikopter Service operated the route temporarily until Widerøe took it over again the same year .
On 1 April 2003 , Kato Air took over the Bodø – Røst route , using Dornier Do 228 aircraft . The new airline had a troubled start with the passenger numbers dropping by 27 percent . On 4 December , a flight from Røst to Bodø was hit by lightning , and received severe damage during the landing at Bodø . The choice of the operator was criticized by the Røst Municipal Council following the incident , stated that the ministry had prioritized price over safety . The council stated that they did not feel that Kato Air provided the same service as Widerøe and that the aircraft were a safety hazard . Among the complaints were lack of accessibility for disabled people , no cabin pressurization , no weather radar , more expensive tickets , no discounted tickets and no possibility for carry @-@ on baggage . In February 2006 , there was a wave of cancellations by Kato Air , due to technical problems with both the airline 's aircraft . In June , the airline 's pilots started selling tickets themselves at the airport . The company stated that this was because they had declined Widerøe to do this because of higher costs . The Civil Aviation Authority of Norway withdrew Kato Air 's concession in 2008 due to lack on maintenance . On an interim basis , the helicopter airline Lufttransport , that operated the route to the nearby island of Værøy , took over the route from 5 September to 29 October , when Widerøe started flying again .
= = Facilities = =
Røst Airport is a regional airport owned and operated by Avinor . It serves the island of Røstlandet , the most remote island in the Lofoten archipelago . It has a terminal building with a capacity for 40 passengers per hour . The largest aircraft that can operate at the airport are the Dash 8 @-@ 100 . There is free parking at the airport for 20 vehicles . Taxis can be prebooked . The airport resides at an elevation of 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 feet ) above mean sea level . It has one runway designated 03 – 21 with an asphalt surface measuring 880 by 30 meters ( 2 @,@ 887 ft × 98 ft ) .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
The airport is served twice daily with a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 8 @-@ 100 Dash 8 by Widerøe . Flight operate from Bodø Airport via Røst to Leknes Airport before returning to Bodø . The routes are operated as a public service obligation on contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications .
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= Tropical Storm Fabian ( 1991 ) =
Tropical Storm Fabian was a short @-@ lived tropical storm during the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth named storm of the year , it formed in the northwest Caribbean southwest of Cuba . The storm reached a peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , shortly before crossing over Cuba as it moved northeast past Florida . Fabian became extratropical north of the Bahamas the next day , and dissipated on October 17 . Fabian caused only light rainfall along its path and there were no reported fatalities or damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Fabian were from a tropical wave and a cold front that entered the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 12 . The two systems interacted in the Gulf of Honduras , producing convection and low atmospheric pressures . An anticyclone developed over the system , which aided in the organization of the thunderstorms . At 1300 UTC on October 15 , a Hurricane Hunters flight observed sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) to the southwest of the Isle of Youth . Based on the report , the system was classified as Tropical Storm Fabian . Its development was typical for an October storm in the western Caribbean . With a high pressure area to the north , there was already a large pressure gradient that had produced tropical storm force winds over the area . By the time Fabian developed a circulation , it was able to be classified as a tropical storm . However , it is possible it was a tropical depression for about 12 hours before the Hurricane Hunters report .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Fabian was disorganized and had restricted outflow . An eastward moving upper @-@ level trough imparted a northeast motion as well as unfavorable wind shear . Despite the atmospheric conditions , Fabian intensified slightly to peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , although the strongest winds were located primarily east of the center . Late on October 15 , the storm moved over the Isle of Youth before crossing over western Cuba . By early on October 16 , the center was becoming difficult to locate on satellite imagery . The storm moved through the Florida Straits , passing just southeast of the Florida mainland and into the Bahamas . There was initial uncertainty whether Fabian would be absorbed by the approaching trough or maintain its separate identity . By late on October 16 , Fabian transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it was absorbed into the trough .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When Fabian first formed , the government of Cuba issued a tropical storm warning from Havana to Ciego de Ávila Province , as well as the Isle of Youth . Before the storm hit the Cuban mainland , it produced wind gusts to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in Cayo Largo del Sur . Its primary form of impact was from heavy rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period , peaking at 6 @.@ 2 inches ( 157 @.@ 5 mm ) in Caonao on the south coast of Cuba . In a six @-@ hour period , Punta del Este recorded 5 in ( 130 mm ) .
Concurrent with Fabian 's first advisory , a tropical storm watch was issued for all of the Florida Keys as well as for the Bahamas . The watch in the Bahamas was later upgraded to a warning . Prior to the storm 's passage , two state parks were closed in the Florida Keys . In Dade County , Florida , a few storm shelters were opened , in anticipation that Fabian might bring flooding rains . As it passed east of the state , it dropped rainfall near the coast that peaked at 4 @.@ 19 in ( 106 mm ) in Conch Key . In the Florida Keys , the National Weather Service Office in Key West recorded sustained winds of 28 mph ( 44 km / h ) with gusts to 32 mph ( 52 km / h ) . Only isolated flooding happened from the precursor system to Fabian . In South Florida , Homestead Air Force Base reported rainfall of 3 @.@ 68 inches ( 93 @.@ 5 mm ) , but this too was attributed to the precursor frontal system , rather than Fabian itself .
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= Sabrina Sidney =
Sabrina Bicknell ( 1757 – 8 September 1843 ) , better known as Sabrina Sidney , was a British foundling girl taken in when she was 12 by author Thomas Day , who wanted to mould her into his perfect wife . Day had been struggling to find a wife who would share his ideology and had been rejected by a number of women . He decided to educate two girls in the style of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's book Emile , or On Education , without any frivolities .
In 1769 , Day and his barrister friend John Bicknell chose Sabrina and another girl , Lucretia , from orphanages and deceitfully declared they would be indentured to Day 's friend Richard Lovell Edgeworth . Day took the girls to France to begin Rousseau 's methods of education in isolation . After a short time he returned to Lichfield with only Sabrina , having deemed Lucretia inappropriate for his experiment . He used unusual techniques to try to increase her fortitude , such as firing blanks at her clothes , dropping hot wax on her arms and having her wade into a lake fully dressed .
When Sabrina reached her teenage years , Day was persuaded by Edgeworth that his ideal wife experiment had failed and he should send her away , as it was inappropriate for Day to live with her unchaperoned . Sabrina then had a number of moves between boarding school , a dressmaker family , before eventually being employed as Day 's housekeeper . Having seen changes in Sabrina , Day proposed marriage , though he soon called this off when she did not follow his strict instructions and again sent her away , this time to a boarding house where she later found work as a lady 's companion .
In 1783 , Bicknell sought her out and proposed marriage , telling her the truth of Day 's experiment . Horrified , she confronted Day in a series of letters ; he admitted the truth but refused to apologise . Sabrina married Bicknell , and the couple had two children before his death in 1787 . Sabrina went on to work with schoolmaster Charles Burney , managing his schools .
In 1804 , Anna Seward published a book about Sabrina 's upbringing . Edgeworth followed up with his memoirs , in which he claimed Sabrina loved Day . Sabrina herself , on the other hand , said she was miserable with Day and that he treated her as a slave .
= = Early life = =
Sabrina was born in 1757 in Clerkenwell , London and was left at the Hospital for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Young Children ( more commonly known as the Foundling Hospital ) in London on 24 May 1757 by an anonymous individual . The individual left a note which explained that her baptismal name was Manima Butler and that she had been baptised in St James 's Church , Clerkenwell . Her name was likely a misspelling of Monimia but there were no baptismal records for any spelling of the name at the parish .
One of the requirements of the Foundling Hospital was that babies were to be less than six months old at time of admittance , but the hospital did not keep more accurate records of age . Another requirement was that foundlings were given a new name and a reference number , so Sabrina became Girl Ann Kingston no . 4759 . She was taken in by a wet nurse , Mary Penfold , who brought her to Wotton , Surrey , where she remained until 1759 , when she was two years old . Although it was usual for foundlings to remain with their wet nurse until the age of 5 or 6 , the Foundling Hospital had received an influx of new babies and moved many children who no longer required nursing , including Sabrina , to the Shrewsbury branch of the Foundling Hospital . The Shrewsbury building was not completed until 1765 , so in the meantime Sabrina and another foundling were cared for by a nurse , Ann Casewell , at Casewell 's home .
= = Day 's experiment = =
Thomas Day was a bachelor who had inherited his fortune from his father when he was an infant . Described as having a pock @-@ marked face through smallpox , a brooding personality and short temper , Day attended Corpus Christi College , Oxford to study philosophy . It was there that he decided to dedicate his life to becoming a virtuous man , shunning luxury and focusing on altruism . Around the same time , he developed a list of requirements for his future wife , that she should be subservient and pure , but also able to discuss philosophy and live without frivolities . These high standards , combined with his generally unlikeable personality , meant that his advances were rejected by multiple women whilst at university .
He was introduced to the work of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau by his friend Richard Lovell Edgeworth and the pair shared a particular affinity for his work on education in the book Emile , or On Education . On leaving Oxford , Edgeworth and Day attempted to teach Edgeworth 's first son , Dick , in the style of Emile , a learning by doing approach . Accompanying Edgeworth to Ireland as Dick 's tutor , Day fell in love and was spurned first by Edgeworth 's sister and then by at least three further women in quick succession .
Day came to the conclusion that he would be unable to find a wife that would meet his high standards and largely blamed women 's education for this . Inspired by Rousseau 's character of Sophie in Emile , or On Education , he resolved to " create " his ideal wife by raising her from adolescence , using the techniques laid out in the book . Day was approaching financial independence , where he would have full access to the money left to him , and conspired with his barrister friend , John Bicknell , to find two girls who could be taken into his care to be groomed as a perfect wife .
= = = Choosing the girls = = =
Just after his 21st birthday in June 1769 , Thomas Day and John Bicknell travelled to the Shrewsbury Orphan Hospital to choose the first girl for his experiment . Sabrina was 12 years old at the time , described as " a clear auburn brunette , with darker eyes more glowing bloom and chestnut tresses " . She was slender , had long eyelashes and a melodious voice . Although Day was struggling to choose a girl for the experiment , Bicknell quickly picked her out . The pair did not tell the orphanage secretary , Samuel Magee , about the planned experiment . Instead they told him that she was to be indentured as a servant at Richard Lovell Edgeworth 's country house in Berkshire , waiving the £ 4 fee they would have received for the apprenticeship . In line with the orphanage 's requirements that responsibility would be held by a married man , Edgeworth would hold legal responsibility for Sabrina , despite him not being present nor even aware of the arrangement .
The apprenticeship was approved by the governors of the orphanage on 30 June 1769 , and Sabrina was collected by Day and Bicknell on 17 August . She was brought to lodgings in London , where she met Edgeworth for the first time . Day changed her name to Sabrina Sidney : Sabrina , the Latin name for the River Severn , which her orphanage looked out onto ; and Sidney after Algernon Sidney , one of Day 's heroes . Day became a benefactor , and subsequently governor , of the Foundling Hospital and on 20 September 1769 , he chose another girl for his experiment , whom he renamed Lucretia .
Day had Bicknell draw up a contract to define the terms of his indenture of the girls . Within one year , he would choose which girl he intended to marry , the other would be given as an apprentice to a woman in a trade , along with a fee of £ 100 ( equivalent to £ 12 @,@ 514 in 2015 ) . He would give a further £ 400 ( equivalent to £ 50 @,@ 056 in 2015 ) upon the girl 's marriage or if she were to start her own business . He would marry his intended bride or , if he decided not to , would gift her the sum of £ 500 ( equivalent to £ 62 @,@ 570 in 2015 ) . Bicknell would act as guarantor for the contract .
= = = Education in France = = =
Day wished for the girls to be isolated from external influences while he educated them . As such , at the beginning of November 1769 he decided to move them to France . There is also a possibility that he did this to protect himself from the legal ramifications of his experiment as well as societal gossip . The trio travelled over 600 miles to Avignon , renting a house in le quartier des fusteries . The girls could speak no French and Day employed no English @-@ speaking servants to be sure that he would be the only person to influence them .
Day focussed on their education , in the style of Emile , or On Education . He expanded on their teachings from the Foundling hospital in reading and basic arithmetic , and he also taught them how to write . He believed that the girls should be able to manage the house , so they were charged with cooking and cleaning as well as other house work . Finally , he wanted to be able to debate complex concepts with them , so he taught them rudimentary theories in physics and geography , tasking them with observing the changing of the seasons and recording details of sunrises and sunsets . He also imparted Rousseau 's philosophy 's contempt for luxury on them .
Edgeworth received correspondence from Day whilst he was in France . He was told that both girls were passionate about their studies , Sabrina more so . He also wrote of anecdotes , such as a boat trip taken by the trio on the Rhone where the boat overturned and Day singlehanded rescued both girls as they could not swim . Day also wrote of an incident where he had challenged a French Army officer to a duel , even bringing out a set of dueling pistols , for simply conversing with the girls . The officer apologised and explained he did not mean any offence , calming the situation .
Accounts by 19th century historians explain that Day eventually became impatient when the girls became bored of their lessons and would squabble ; that he also spent a significant period nursing them through a bout of smallpox . These accounts may have been exaggerated as both girls had been inoculated against smallpox and their strict upbringing would have meant they would not have rebelled excessively .
= = = Return to England = = =
Whilst in France , Day struggled over which girl to choose to bring forward with the experiment . Both were beautiful ; Lucretia was more cheerful although Sabrina was more reserved and studious . The group returned to England in spring 1770 , by which time Day had finally decided that he would carry on with Sabrina 's training . Edgeworth explained that each of Day 's projects with Sabrina had been successful , however he had come to the conclusion that Lucretia was " invincibly stupid " . Day apprenticed Lucretia to a milliner in Ludgate Hill and took Sabrina to Stowe House in Lichfield , where her training could continue . The household would have had no more than a couple of servants , leaving Sabrina to maintain the four floors of the house . Her tutoring continued at the same time , with one @-@ to @-@ one lessons from Day on a variety of subjects .
Day also extended his tutoring to fortify Sabrina against hardship , inspired by Rousseau 's Emile , or On Education . The book explains the concept of ' negative education ' , i.e. protecting a person from vices rather than teaching them virtues . Day interpreted this to mean that submitting Sabrina to tests of endurance would help to create a woman with hardened nerves . One example given by Rousseau was helping Emile become accustomed to explosions such as fireworks by firing pistols with small amounts of powder near him , gradually increasing the amount of powder . Day , on the other hand , fired a pistol loaded only with powder directly at Sabrina 's petticoat , without her knowledge that there was no shot in it .
In an attempt to increase her resistance to pain he would drop hot sealing wax on her back and arms or stick pins in her , commanding her not to cry out . He would test her ability to keep secrets by telling her that his life was in danger and she should tell no one . To increase her resistance to the cold , Day instructed Sabrina to wade into Stowe Pool until the water reached her neck , then lie in the nearby meadow until her clothes and hair had dried in the sun . Finally , to test her resistance to luxury , he gave her a big box of handmade silk clothes and had her throw them in the fire . Day had limited success with these techniques . It seems that she could voluntarily have hot wax on her arm without flinching , but she told others of his secrets and screamed whenever he shot his gun at her .
During their time at Stowe House , Day introduced Sabrina to the local members of the intellectual circle , including the priest at Lichfield Cathedral , Thomas Seward . Seward and his wife hoped that Day might be a suitor for their daughter , Anna , and Anna 's writings of the time show her interest in Day . Anna was also enchanted by Sabrina , who became the link between Day and the Seward family . Anna also took a keen interest in Sabrina 's story , as her father had taken in Honora Sneyd when Sneyd 's mother had died .
= = Moving away from Day = =
By 1770 , Sabrina began to question Day 's techniques and complain about the chores she had to perform . In December , the propriety of Day 's arrangement with Sabrina was being questioned by the local community , especially Anna Seward . Edgeworth joined Day for Christmas at Stowe , and convinced Day that his experiment had been unsuccessful . He also persuaded Day that Sabrina was too old to remain living with him without a chaperone . Day appeared to accept Edgeworth 's point of view , as he paid for Sabrina to attend Sutton Coldfield boarding school in Warwickshire early in 1771 . She remained at the boarding school for three years , including weekends and holidays , with infrequent visits from Day . The school normally focused on preparing high society daughters for marriage , with subjects such as needlework and the arts . Day , however , stipulated that she was to be taught academic subjects but should not dance or learn music .
In 1774 , Day visited Sabrina to inform her that she would be apprenticed to the Parkinsons , a family of dressmakers , as Day believed the profession would not expose her to temptation . She was delivered to the family under the stipulation that she should work hard at chores and be denied luxuries . The Parkinsons , however , treated Sabrina well , to the extent that Day later chastised them for not instilling ' industry and frugality ' in her . Less than a year later the Parkinsons ' business went bankrupt , leaving Sabrina without an apprenticeship and without anywhere to live . Day arranged for her to stay with his friends , the Keir family , and implied that she could take on the role of housekeeper at his own home . Day again considered Sabrina , who was now 18 , as a potential wife , but did not let her know of his intentions , nor that her upbringing was part of his experiment .
= = = Broken engagement = = =
Over the next few months , Day returned to moulding Sabrina to meet his requirements for the ideal woman , choosing what she would wear and pushing his ideas of frugality upon her . Sabrina took on all the ideas willingly and Day believed he had finally created a woman that would meet all his requirements . Day was so confident that he talked openly of marrying Sabrina , despite the fact that she was unaware of his intentions and eventually one of Day 's friends let her know that he hoped to marry her . Sabrina confronted Day about the rumours and he admitted they were true , neglecting to mention that he had hoped to marry her since the day he met her .
Sabrina did not refuse the proposal , so Day planned the wedding whilst she considered it further and eventually agreed . During the preparations Day left Sabrina with friends for a few days , giving her strict instructions on what she should wear . When he returned to find her in an outfit which did not meet his requirements , he flew into a rage and Sabrina fled for a few hours , so Day called off the engagement . Sabrina was sent to a boarding house in Birmingham and given a stipend of £ 50 per annum ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 674 in 2015 ) , resolving to never see her again .
= = Marriage = =
After her engagement to Day ended , Sabrina spent 8 years at boarding houses around Birmingham . Day met and went on to marry an heiress , Esther Milnes in 1778 . Sabrina met an apothecary , Jarvis Wardley , who proposed marriage in an acrostic poem . Sabrina contacted Day for advice , and he told her in absolute terms not to marry Wardley , even writing an acrostic poem for her to use in turning him down . In 1783 , she had become a lady 's companion in Newport , Shropshire It was there that she was approached by Day 's friend , the man who helped choose her at the foundling hospital : John Bicknell . Bicknell was single and had spent the majority of his earnings from his law career in gambling dens . He had not paid much attention to Sabrina since selecting her with Day , but immediately proposed marriage .
Sabrina again consulted with Day on the prospective engagement . Day did not approve , claiming the age difference was too great , despite the fact that Bicknell was just two years older than Day . Bicknell , however , decided to tell Sabrina the truth about the experiment , that she was hand @-@ picked to be Day 's wife from childhood , and that all of Day 's actions were designed to further his goal of turning her into the ideal bride . Horrified , Sabrina wrote to Day to confront him on the accusations , Day admitted the truth but refused to apologise . After a series of letters , Day gave his consent to the marriage , telling her that the letter would be his final communication with her .
Bicknell and Sabrina married on 16 April 1784 at St Philip 's Cathedral , Birmingham . On the same day , Day paid the £ 500 wedding dowry he had stipulated in the contract he had set up with Bicknell , ending his £ 50 per year stipend . The couple bought a house in Shenfield and had two children , John Laurens Bicknell and Henry Edgeworth Bicknell . Bicknell carried on with his gambling habits , squandering the remaining money over the following three years . On 27 March 1787 , after just three years of marriage , John Bicknell died of a paralytic stroke .
Sabrina and her two children were now left without an income . Day sent her a new stipend of £ 30 per year , which was matched by Edgworth . In addition , her husband 's barrister friends raised £ 800 for the widow and her children . Sabrina found a role as housekeeper for Charles Burney , as well as general manager of his schools in Chiswick , Hammersmith and Greenwich . It was at his Greenwich school that Sabrina 's own children were educated .
Day 's widow , Esther , carried on paying Sabrina 's allowance after his death in 1789 , and Sabrina carried on her work with Burney until she was 68 . By this time she was living in a four storey house in Gloucester Circus , Greenwich , with her own servants . On 8 September 1843 , Sabrina died at her home of a severe asthma attack . She was buried at Kensal Green cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Sabrina asked her friends to not discuss her past as she believed her humble beginnings and Day 's treatment of her would tarnish her reputation . Anna Seward , however , wrote about Sabrina 's upbringing in her 1804 work , Memoirs on the Life of Dr. Darwin . As Seward publicly identified Sabrina in the book , it was criticised by the press and Sabrina 's son John was very angry to learn of his mother 's past . In his 1820 memoirs , Edgeworth stated his belief that Sabrina and Day made a good match and that she loved him . Sabrina , however , disagreed with these accounts , stating that she never loved Day , that he had made her miserable and she was effectively a slave .
Sabrina 's education has been compared to George Bernard Shaw 's story of Pygmalion , and strong parallels are drawn to two books in 1871 , Henry James 's Watch and Ward and Anthony Trollope 's Orley Farm . Wendy Moore 's 2013 book How to Create the Perfect Wife and the 2015 BBC Radio 4 staged drama The Imperfect Education of Sabrina Sidney tell the story of her life .
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= BMW M1 Procar Championship =
For the later German touring car series , see ADAC Procar Series .
The BMW M1 Procar Championship , sometimes known simply as Procar , was a one @-@ make auto racing series created by Jochen Neerpasch , head of BMW Motorsport GmbH , the racing division of automobile manufacturer BMW . The series pitted professional drivers from the Formula One World Championship , World Sportscar Championship , European Touring Car Championship , and other international series against one another using identically modified BMW M1 sports cars .
Billed as an opportunity to see a mix of drivers from various motorsport disciplines , the championship served as support races for various European rounds of the 1979 Formula One season , with Formula One drivers earning automatic entry into the Procar event based on their performance in their Formula One cars . Austrian Niki Lauda won the inaugural championship . In 1980 , the series held some events outside of Formula One schedule , and was won by Brazilian Nelson Piquet . BMW chose not to continue the championship in 1981 to concentrate on their entrance into Formula One .
= = Origin = =
Jochen Neerpasch , the head of BMW 's Motorsports division , was the first to propose the idea of a one @-@ make championship . The division had started construction of the first sports car for BMW in 1978 , the M1 , and had planned from the start to enter the new sports car in the World Sportscar Championship in 1979 , as well as offering the cars to customers for other series . BMW Motorsport planned to build M1s to meet regulations known as Group 5 , but a rule change instituted by the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) in 1977 altered the requirements for Group 5 . The new regulations required a minimum of 400 examples of the M1 to be built to meet Group 4 regulations before the car could be further homologated for the Group 5 category .
Development of the Group 4 racing car was already under way at the time of the regulation change . Neerpasch believed that rather than delaying their racing program until 400 road cars had been built , racing cars could be built at the same time since they too counted toward the 400 example minimum . A one @-@ make series consisting of the M1 racing cars intended for Group 4 was devised by Neerpasch since the racing cars could not yet legally compete elsewhere , while at the same time allowing BMW to develop the race cars through experience .
To attract drivers to the series , Neerpasch entered into discussions with Max Mosley . Mosley was the head of March Engineering , a constructor which BMW was partnered with in their factory efforts in the European Formula Two Championship . Mosley was at the time a member of the Formula One Constructors Association , and was able to use his position to convince other Formula One constructors to support the use of Neerpasch 's one @-@ make series as a support race for European Formula One events . A ruling and organisation body for the series , known as The Procar Association , was set up by BMW and approved by FISA .
= = Format = =
With the Procar Championship announced in spring 1978 at the official unveiling of the M1 road car , Neerpasch and the newly formed Procar Association laid out regulations for the 1979 season . Races were planned for the middle of the Formula One season , when the championship remained in Europe for several months . Practice and qualifying were held on Friday of the race weekend , while the race itself occurred on Saturday . The winner of each race received US $ 5 @,@ 000 , second place received $ 3 @,@ 000 , and third place $ 1 @,@ 000 . Races varied in length , but each lasted for approximately half an hour .
To attract Formula One drivers to the championship , seats were guaranteed in the Procar races by cars which were entered by the factory BMW team . The five fastest Formula One drivers from Friday practice were assigned to the factory team , and were even guaranteed the first five grid positions for the Procar race , regardless of their qualifying times in the cars . This not only guaranteed Formula One driver participation , but also allowed for a variety of drivers to be seen over the course of the season . However , because the series ran Goodyear tyres , several Formula One drivers were not allowed to compete due to contractual obligations with competing tyre manufacturer Michelin . As Scuderia Ferrari and Renault were selling roadcars themselves , they did not allow their Formula One drivers to participate and implicitly endorse BMW .
Other teams were allowed to participate , assigning a variety of sportscar and touring car drivers as well as Formula One drivers who had not earned spots in the factory cars . Points were awarded to the top ten finishers , starting with 20 points and decreasing down to 15 , 12 , 10 , 8 , 6 , 4 , 3 , 2 , and finally 1 for the nine remaining drivers . An overall championship was awarded to the driver who had accumulated the most points at the end of the season . A new M1 road car was awarded to the championship winner .
= = = Cars = = =
All cars used in the Procar Championship were built to identical standards , although their origins varied . BS Fabrications constructed five cars for the BMW factory team , while cars for other competitors were constructed by the British Formula Two team Project Four Racing ( led by Ron Dennis ) and the Italian constructor Osella . The racing cars , designed to meet Group 4 technical regulations , shared only some basics from the M1 road cars .
For the M1 's exterior , simple modifications were made to adapt the car aerodynamically . A deep spoiler was added under the nose of the car , while an adjustable wing was added on two mounts at the rear of the engine cover . The arches for the wheels were extended outward to shroud the wider 28 centimetres ( 11 in ) wheels in the front , and 32 cm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) wheels at the rear . The alloy wheels , designed by Campagnolo , featured a central locking nut and mimicked the straked design of the production car 's wheels . Inside , the car featured no finishing or luxuries from the road car , only a rollcage for driver protection . The glass windows were replaced with clear plastic .
Mechanically , the Procar M1s were extensively modified to meet the requirements of circuit racing . The standard M1 featured the cast iron block BMW M88 straight @-@ 6 with 3 @,@ 453 cubic centimetres ( 210 @.@ 7 cu in ) displacement . Modified into the M88 / 1 by a team led by Paul Rosche , it was capable of producing 470 horsepower at 9000 rpm , compared to 277 hp from the standard M1 's engine . The 5 @-@ speed ZF gearbox housing from the road car was retained , but with multiple gear ratios allowed , as well as its own oil cooler .
The suspension was entirely new , adding adjustable anti @-@ roll bars . The brakes were redesigned to adapt the use of a driver @-@ adjustable brake pressure balance , while the servo @-@ activated braking system was removed . A racing steering rack was used in place of the standard power steering unit . Pneumatic jacks were later added to the cars in the 1980 season to allow for quicker pit stops . Goodyear racing tires were used on all cars . All other non @-@ essential items from the road car were not included , bringing the Procar M1 's weight down to 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) . The performance of the Procar M1s was increased to a top speed of 311 kilometres per hour ( 193 mph ) dependent upon gear ratios , and acceleration from 0 – 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) in 4 @.@ 3 seconds . Each Procar M1 cost approximately US $ 60 @,@ 000 .
= = Series history = =
= = = 1979 season = = =
An announced schedule for the inaugural season of the Procar Championship featured events taking place from May to September , when the Formula One World Championship ran eight consecutive Grands Prix in Europe . A ninth event was scheduled at Donington Park as part of the Gunnar Nilsson Memorial Trophy , a charity event for the Gunnar Nilsson Cancer Fund , although it did not award points towards the overall championship .
Different Formula One drivers earned spots on the factory team over the season based on their performance in Formula One practice . These included Mario Andretti , Patrick Depailler , Emerson Fittipaldi , James Hunt , Jean @-@ Pierre Jarier , Alan Jones , Jacques Laffite , Niki Lauda , Nelson Piquet , Didier Pironi , Clay Regazzoni , and John Watson . Teo Fabi , Tiff Needell , Hans @-@ Georg Bürger and Michael Bleekemolen were invited to drive in the factory BMW cars as well although they were not Formula One drivers at the time .
As well as the standard five car entry from BMW , several other notable teams participated . Procar constructor Project Four entered a car for Niki Lauda when he was not in the factory entries , while Osella entered cars for a rotating driver line @-@ up . Touring car teams Tom Walkinshaw Racing , Eggenberger Racing , Ecurie Arvor , and Schnitzer Motorsport entered cars , as did Team Konrad and GS Tuning from sports cars .
= = = = Race results = = = =
= = = = Championship standings = = = =
The following are the ten highest finishing drivers in the points standings . Niki Lauda won the inaugural championship , initially earning a spot in the factory BMW team in the first round , before running the remaining seven races for Project Four .
= = = 1980 season = = =
For the second running of the Procar Championship , the schedule was altered and expanded so that the races did not rely exclusively on Formula One events . This allowed the season to start slightly earlier , this time in April . Donington Park was retained from the previous year but now counted towards the championship . Two German events were added , with the Procar Championship designated as that year 's Avusrennen at the AVUS circuit , and the Procars serving as a support race for the Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft 's 200 Miles of Norisring . Six Formula One Grands Prix remained on the schedule .
Unlike the previous year where the fastest drivers in practice earned seats with the factory BMW team , five drivers were designated as the primary drivers for events which did not share a Grand Prix weekend . These five were Alan Jones , Jacques Laffite , Nelson Piquet , Didier Pironi , and Carlos Reutemann . Other Formula One drivers to participate during Grands Prix were Mario Andretti , Derek Daly , Jean @-@ Pierre Jarier , Riccardo Patrese , and Alain Prost .
Several teams from the previous year entered once more , including Project Four , GS Tuning , Eggenberger Racing , Cassani Racing , and Schnitzer Motorsport . Newcomers included personal teams from Arturo Merzario , Dieter Quester , and Helmut Marko , as well as Swiss sportscar manufacturer Sauber .
= = = = Race results = = = =
= = = = Championship standings = = = =
The following are the ten highest finishing drivers in the points standings . Nelson Piquet won the championship , aided by three consecutive wins to finish the year .
= = Afterwards = =
At the start of the 1980 season , BMW announced their intention to enter Formula One as an engine supplier for Brabham . The deal came in part due to Bernie Ecclestone , then head of Brabham , as well as the head of BS Fabrications , who had built several of the Procar M1s . BMW planned to enter the series in 1982 , and BMW Motorsport was tasked with concentrating their efforts on the new Formula One engines instead of the Procar series .
That same year , BMW officially met FISA 's requirements by having built approximately 400 cars . The M1 was therefore homologated for Group 4 on December 1 , 1980 , allowing BMW to enter the Championship for Makes in 1981 . As BMW shifted towards Formula One , the company ended their plans to enter the Group 5 category after the construction of only two race cars . With BMW no longer needing to quickly build race cars , and with BMW Motorsport shifting to Formula One work , the series was not held in 1981 . The M1s used in the Procar series were sold to various customers for use in the World Championship , as well as smaller series such as the Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft and Camel GT Championship .
In 1988 , Motor Racing Developments , the owners of the Brabham Formula One Team , were sold to Alfa Romeo . Wishing to revive the Procar series , Brabham and Alfa Romeo developed a prototype racing car using a mid @-@ mounted Formula One @-@ based V10 engine , covered in a bodywork silhouette mimicking the Alfa Romeo 164 . Alfa Romeo intended to use identical copies of the car for a resurrected Procar series , but the plans never came to fruition and only the prototype was built .
= = = Revival = = =
On June 30 , 2008 , BMW announced plans to revive the Procar series in an exhibition event at the 2008 German Grand Prix at the Hockenheimring . The races involved ten original M1 Procars driven by several drivers who had participated in the original series as well as modern drivers . Each car included a passenger seat for a guest . The line @-@ up included former competitors Christian Danner , Harald Grohs , Niki Lauda , Dieter Quester , and Marc Surer . Former BMW driver Prince Leopold of Bavaria , BMW Sauber test driver Christian Klien , and a current M1 Procar owner , Marco Wagner , also competed . The BMW M1 Art Car designed by Andy Warhol was involved , driven by series founder Jochen Neerpasch and with fellow Art Car artist Frank Stella as his passenger .
Lauda won the first race held on Saturday , July 19 , while Neerpasch was able to win the race held on Sunday , July 20 , the morning of the Grand Prix .
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= A Little Bit =
" A Little Bit " is a song recorded by American recording artist Jessica Simpson . It was written by Kara DioGuardi , Steve Morales and David Siegel , and was produced by Morales along with Ric Wake . The song was released as the second and final single from Simpson 's second studio album Irresistible ( 2001 ) , on October 29 , 2001 through Columbia Records . Musically , the song is a mid @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song and the lyrics speak about the protagonist wanting changes in a relationship she is in .
The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics ; most of them appreciated the song 's production . It failed to chart in the United States , but reached number sixty @-@ two on Australian Singles Chart . An accompanying music video , directed by Hype Williams , shows Simpson dancing on a futuristic dance floor , along with her backup dancers . Simpson performed the song on her DreamChaser Tour ( 2001 ) , the 2001 Jingle Bell Bash and a few televised shows .
" A Little Bit " was covered by Welsh singer Rosie Ribbons for her unreleased album Misbehaving . Her version was released as a single through Telstar Records and peaked at number nineteen on the UK Singles Chart . The single was promoted through a promotional music video , which shows Ribbons performing dance routines with her dancers , and live performances on various televised appearances like CD : UK and Top of the Pops and Smile .
= = Background and composition = =
" A Little Bit " was written by Kara DioGuardi , Steve Morales and David Siegal , and was produced by Morales and Ric Wake . The song became DioGuardi 's first writing credit for an artist from her native country . Simpson 's vocals were recorded by Dan Hetzel at Sony Music Studios , New York City , and the track was mixed by Hetzel along with Richie Jones at Cove City Sound Studios , Glen Cove , New York . Keyboard programming was done by Eric Kupper . According to Simpson , " the message behind the song is for guys to listen to the girl " . " A guy needs to give a little bit more of himself , a little bit more of his time . It 's about the love going so much further , the guy would actually be selfless , " she expanded on the song 's theme . In the United States , " A Little Bit " was released as the second single from Irresistible . The song saw an airplay @-@ only release there , while in Australia , a physical single was issued on October 29 , 2001 . " A Little Bit " was used to promote Bally Total Fitness and thus , a limited CD single pressing was made available to people who joined the club . The song was also utilized for the company 's promotional advertisement campaign .
" A Little Bit " is a dance @-@ pop song , composed in a " medium pop " tempo . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , it is written in the key of E minor . Its beat is set in common time , and moves at a tempo of 94 beats per minute . It also has the sequence of Em – C – B / D ♯ as its chord progression . Simpson 's voice in the song spans from the note of G3 to the high note of D5 . Following the same beat @-@ oriented pattern as " Irresistible " , " A Little Bit " features piano instrumentation . Simpson sings the lyrics as rapid @-@ fire verses and with start @-@ and @-@ stop hooks . Simpson adopts breathy vocals for the song , and the lyrics talk about what she expects from her partner : " A little more time , a little less wait / A little more heart , a little less break " . She also demands healthy changes in the relationship .
= = Reception = =
" A Little Bit " garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics . Kirsten Koba of PopMatters gave a positive review , writing " with pop star sass , she belts out [ ... ] proving that she 's a girl with attitude — and fierce rhyming ability . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote that the song and " Irresistible " were " double @-@ punch " on the album . Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the song 's production , writing that it " locks [ this one ] inside the head long after it 's faded from the speakers . " Larry Printz of The Morning Call also gave a favorable review , writing that the song " benefit [ s ] " from the start @-@ and @-@ stop hooks . Yushaimi Yahya of The Malay Mail , who was critical of the album as a whole , pointed out that Simpson sounded " decent " on the track . However , Chuck Campbell of Daily News noted Simpson 's singing as " breathless whispers " and deemed the song as being " heavily processed . " The song debuted at number sixty @-@ two on the Australian Singles Chart , on the week dated November 5 , 2001 , which became its peak position . The single fell to number ninety @-@ six the following week , and dropped out of the chart the week after .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video was filmed under the direction of Hype Williams to promote the single . The dance sequence was choreographed by George Hubela ( known as GEO ) and the video takes place in a futuristic spaceship @-@ like setting where Simpson performs an intricate dance choreography with four male and four female dancers . She wears a rainbow @-@ colored tank top and a mini skirt in the video . At one part , the dancers perform in pairs with Simpson in front of them . Later , Simpson dances beside a male dancer while wearing sunglasses and a white top with a bedazzled American flag . In the video 's final scene , Simpson , accompanied by the same dancers from the beginning , perform choreography in a red room , and dance with futuristic pole @-@ stands .
= = = Live performances = = =
Simpson included the song on the set @-@ list of her DreamChaser Tour ( 2001 ) . For the performance on the tour , Simpson was accented by a white top and plaid pants , and also wore a red hat and a red tie . Her performance also made use of poles similar to the one used in music video . She also performed the song on MuchMusic Canada. and the sketch comedy show MADtv . The song was performed along with " Irresistible " , " I Wanna Love You Forever " , and " I Think I 'm in Love with You " , at the Jingle Bell Bash , organized by KBKS @-@ FM , in December 2001 . The same month , she sang the song on the 2001 Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , along with " Irresistible " , and on the Hot 107 @.@ 9 Mistletoe Meltdown . Mark Bialczak of The Post @-@ Standard wrote that Simpson " sure sounded like a diva – especially with the bulked @-@ up tape track that accompanied her singing . "
= = Track listing = =
AUS CD single
" A Little Bit " – 3 : 47
" A Little Bit " ( Chris ' The Greek ' & Guido Club Mix ) – 7 : 54
" A Little Bit " ( Chris ' The Greek ' & Guido Radio Mix ) – 4 : 29
" Irresistible " ( Hex Hector Radio Mix ) – 3 : 32
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " A Little Bit " are adapted from Irresistible liner notes . Credits for the remixes are adapted from " A Little Bit " CD single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Rosie Ribbons version = =
" A Little Bit " was recorded by English singer and Pop Idol runner @-@ up Rosie Ribbons , for her debut studio album Misbehaving . Her version has an " American vibe " and derives from the genres of pop and R & B. A writer for the Western Mail noted that the song contains influences of Samantha Mumba tracks . The song was released on January 13 , 2003 through Telstar Records , as the second single from the album . It reached number nineteen on the UK Singles Chart , and was also accompanied by a music video , which showed Ribbons dancing with her backup dancers . She performed the song on various televised appearances such as CD : UK and Top of the Pops . She also toured with Liberty X and promoted the song .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Ribbons ' version of " A Little Bit " was released as the second single from her debut album titled Misbehaving , on January 13 , 2003 , through Telstar Records . The album was recorded , but due to Telstar going bankrupt , it was never released .
A staff of Tourdates.co.uk gave a favorable review commending Ribbons ' vocal display . The reviewer added " [ so ] often we are bombarded with wannabes with weak vocals and insipid songs , [ Rosie ] shows us that there is life after pop idol and with ' a little bit ' of cred . " Music Week also gave a positive review , noting the song was " catchy " . However , Ian Hyland , writing for the Sunday Mirror was critical of the song , giving it a grade of 6 out of 10 . He remarked that Ribbons " fails " at doing " sexy R 'n'B " . Similarly , Julie MacCaskill of the Daily Record dismissed it as " a lacklustre affair with the wannabe star ditching her Mariah sound- a @-@ like singing in favour of becoming a Kylie clone " . The single debuted at number nineteen on the UK Singles Chart , the week dated January 25 , 2003 . The position became its peak position . The following week , the song dropped to number thirty @-@ seven and the week after exited the top forty .
= = = Promotion = = =
A promotional music video for the song was filmed , which showed Ribbons wearing heavy makeup and donning a stylish costume . The first scene of the music video takes place in an elevator @-@ like set . Ribbons is shown singing in the elevator . Then , as the video progresses she is shown dancing with her backup dancers , in a set with the lyrics of the song inscribed on its walls . Then , Ribbons is shown seducing a man in the elevator . In the last scene Ribbons , along with the backup dancers , dance on a parking lot like set . The music video premiered on CD : UK on December 7 , 2002 . Dean Piper of The Mirror noted the video to be " groovy " .
" A Little Bit " was first performed on the Party in the Park event in 2002 . Later , she performed it on various televised appearances such as the British chart show Top of the Pops , Smile and CD : UK . She also appeared on Smash Hits ' chart countdown and promoted the song . In March 2003 , she toured with British pop group Liberty X.
= = = Track listing = = =
= = = Credits and personnel = = =
Credits are adapted from " A Little Bit " CD single .
Steve Morales – writer
Kara DioGuardi – writer
David Siegal – writer
ICON – producer
Rishi Rich – re @-@ mixer
M * A * S * H – re @-@ mixer
Bini & Martini – re @-@ mixer
Joanna Barnes – rap
Tanya Scarborough – rap
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= Calvin Coolidge =
John Calvin Coolidge Jr . ( / ˈkuːlɪdʒ / ; July 4 , 1872 – January 5 , 1933 ) was the 30th President of the United States ( 1923 – 29 ) . A Republican lawyer from Vermont , Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics , eventually becoming governor of that state . His response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action . Soon after , he was elected as the 29th vice president in 1920 and succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923 . Elected in his own right in 1924 , he gained a reputation as a small @-@ government conservative , and also as a man who said very little , although having a rather dry sense of humor .
Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessor 's administration , and left office with considerable popularity . As a Coolidge biographer wrote , " He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class , could interpret their longings and express their opinions . That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength . " Coolidge 's retirement was relatively short , as he died at the age of 60 in January 1933 , less than two months before his direct successor , Herbert Hoover , left office .
Though his reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald Reagan administration , modern assessments of Coolidge 's presidency are divided . He is adulated among advocates of smaller government and laissez @-@ faire ; supporters of an active central government generally view him less favorably , while both sides praise his stalwart support of racial equality .
= = Birth and family history = =
John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in Plymouth Notch , Windsor County , Vermont , on July 4 , 1872 , the only U.S. president to be born on Independence Day . He was the elder of the two children of John Calvin Coolidge Sr. ( 1845 – 1926 ) and Victoria Josephine Moor ( 1846 – 85 ) . Coolidge Senior engaged in many occupations , but developed a statewide reputation as a prosperous farmer , storekeeper and public servant . He held various local offices , including justice of the peace and tax collector and served in the Vermont House of Representatives as well as the Vermont Senate . Coolidge 's mother was the daughter of a Plymouth Notch farmer . She was chronically ill and died , perhaps from tuberculosis , when Coolidge was twelve years old . His younger sister , Abigail Grace Coolidge ( 1875 – 90 ) , died at the age of fifteen , probably of appendicitis , when Coolidge was eighteen . Coolidge 's father remarried in 1891 , to a schoolteacher , and lived to the age of eighty .
Coolidge 's family had deep roots in New England ; his earliest American ancestor , John Coolidge , emigrated from Cottenham , Cambridgeshire , England , around 1630 and settled in Watertown , Massachusetts . Another ancestor , Edmund Rice , arrived at Watertown in 1638 . Coolidge 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , also named John Coolidge , was an American military officer in the Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch . His grandfather , Calvin Galusha Coolidge , served in the Vermont House of Representatives . Many of Coolidge 's ancestors were farmers , and numerous distant cousins were prominent in politics .
= = Early career and marriage = =
= = = Education and law practice = = =
Coolidge attended Black River Academy and then Amherst College , where he distinguished himself in the debating class , as a senior joined the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta and graduated cum laude . While there , Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman , a Congregational mystic , with a neo @-@ Hegelian philosophy . Garman ignited in Coolidge a manly self @-@ respect , and inspired him with a belief in God as a cosmic conscious , greater than the human , which represented " the way , the truth and the life . "
Coolidge devotedly articulated Garman 's ethics forty years later ,
" ... there is a standard of righteousness that might does not make right , that the end does not justify the means , and that expediency as a working principle is bound to fail . The only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give . Yet people are entitled to the rewards of their industry . What they earn is theirs , no matter how small or how great . But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service ... "
At his father 's urging after graduation , Coolidge moved to Northampton , Massachusetts to become a lawyer . To avoid the cost of law school , Coolidge followed the common practice of apprenticing with a local law firm , Hammond & Field , and reading law with them . John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field , both Amherst graduates , introduced Coolidge to law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County . In 1897 , Coolidge was admitted to the bar , becoming a country lawyer . With his savings and a small inheritance from his grandfather , Coolidge opened his own law office in Northampton in 1898 . He practiced commercial law , believing that he served his clients best by staying out of court . As his reputation as a hard @-@ working and diligent attorney grew , local banks and other businesses began to retain his services .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In 1905 , Coolidge met Grace Anna Goodhue , a University of Vermont graduate and teacher at the Clarke School for the Deaf . They were in the same crowd , boating , picnicking , and dancing — the younger ones of the Congregational Church . That year they were engaged in early summer and married in October , after an attempt in vain by Grace 's mother to postpone the vows : she was never enamored with him nor he with her . The newlyweds went on honeymoon to Montreal , originally planned for two weeks but cut short by a week at Coolidge 's request . After 25 years he wrote of Grace , " ... for almost a quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities and I have rejoiced in her graces " .
Being consistently loyal , he was a devoted husband , but also could be self @-@ centered , undemonstrative and reserved , and often grumpy ; and there was the ubiquitous mistress of politics . But Grace knew all of this when she married him , in addition to recognizing in him a man of solid character . She was amiable , tolerant and possessed of an understanding heart . She could mimic her husband 's peculiarities and did so to the amusement of family and friends , but without mocking him maliciously . She knew his great strengths and understood his minor weaknesses . Socially , she was as quick witted as he and of greater maturity ; she supplemented his natural shyness with a graceful candor , and offset his occasional lapses into taciturnity with a gay loquacity that could keep a dinner table conversation going .
Coolidge was quite frugal when it came to securing a home . They rented . Coolidge did not like to be beholden to bankers or anyone else , for that matter . Independence was his way of protecting his freedom to do what was right . The same impulse caused him to hesitate before joining clubs . Henry Field had a pew in Edwards Church , and Grace was a member , but Coolidge only went along . His decision infuriated his colleagues in politics ; after all , the more clubs one joined , the more friends one had at election time . But Coolidge found another way to connect with fellow citizens : he deposited savings with a variety of institutions . Each additional banker who held some of his money was an additional pair of eyes that would follow him , and likely be an additional vote .
The Coolidges had two sons : John ( September 7 , 1906 – May 31 , 2000 ) and Calvin , Jr . ( April 13 , 1908 – July 7 , 1924 ) . Calvin 's death at age 16 from blood poisoning brought on by an infected blister " hurt him terribly , " according to son John . John became a railroad executive , helped to start the Coolidge Foundation , and was instrumental in creating the President Calvin Coolidge State Historic Site .
= = Local political office = =
= = = City offices = = =
The Republican Party was dominant in New England in Coolidge 's time , and he followed Hammond 's and Field 's example by becoming active in local politics . In 1896 Coolidge campaigned for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley , and the next year he was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee . In 1898 , he won election to the City Council of Northampton , placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected . The position offered no salary , but provided Coolidge invaluable political experience . In 1899 , he declined renomination , running instead for City Solicitor , a position elected by the City Council . He was elected for a one @-@ year term in 1900 , and reelected in 1901 . This position gave Coolidge more experience as a lawyer and paid a salary of $ 600 . In 1902 , the city council selected a Democrat for city solicitor , and Coolidge returned to private practice . Soon thereafter , however , the clerk of courts for the county died , and Coolidge was chosen to replace him . The position paid well , but it barred him from practicing law , so he remained at the job for only one year . In 1904 , Coolidge suffered his sole defeat at the ballot box , losing an election to the Northampton school board . When told that some of his neighbors voted against him because he had no children in the schools he would govern , Coolidge replied , " Might give me time ! "
= = = State legislator and mayor = = =
In 1906 , the local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the state House of Representatives . He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat , and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court . In his freshman term , Coolidge served on minor committees and , although he usually voted with the party , was known as a Progressive Republican , voting in favor of such measures as women 's suffrage and the direct election of Senators . While in Boston , Coolidge became an ally , and then a liegeman , of then U.S. Senator Winthrop Murray Crane who controlled the western faction of the Massachusetts Republican Party ; Crane 's party rival in the east of the commonwealth was U.S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge . Another key strategic alliance which Coolidge forged was with Guy Currier , who had served in both state houses and had the social distinction , wealth , personal charm and broad circle of friends which Coolidge lacked , and which would have a lasting impact on his political career . In 1907 , he was elected to a second term , and in the 1908 session , Coolidge was more outspoken , though not in a leadership position .
Instead of vying for another term in the State House , Coolidge returned home to his growing family and ran for mayor of Northampton when the incumbent Democrat retired . He was well liked in the town , and defeated his challenger by a vote of 1 @,@ 597 to 1 @,@ 409 . During his first term ( 1910 to 1911 ) , he increased teachers ' salaries and retired some of the city 's debt while still managing to effect a slight tax decrease . He was renominated in 1911 , and defeated the same opponent by a slightly larger margin .
In 1911 , the State Senator for the Hampshire County area retired and successfully encouraged Coolidge to run for his seat for the 1912 session ; Coolidge defeated his Democratic opponent by a large margin . At the start of that term , he became chairman of a committee to arbitrate the " Bread and Roses " strike by the workers of the American Woolen Company in Lawrence , Massachusetts . After two tense months , the company agreed to the workers ' demands , in a settlement proposed by the committee . A major issue affecting Massachusetts Republicans that year was the party split between the progressive wing , which favored Theodore Roosevelt , and the conservative wing , which favored William Howard Taft . Although he favored some progressive measures , Coolidge refused to leave the Republican party . When the new Progressive Party declined to run a candidate in his state senate district , Coolidge won reelection against his Democratic opponent by an increased margin .
In the 1913 session , Coolidge enjoyed renowned success in arduously navigating to passage the Western Trolley Act which connected Northampton with a dozen similar industrial communities in western Massachusetts . Coolidge intended to retire after his second term as was the custom , but when the President of the State Senate , Levi H. Greenwood , considered running for Lieutenant Governor , Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer . Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate , he was defeated primarily due to his opposition to women 's suffrage ; Coolidge was in favor of the women 's vote , won his own re @-@ election and with Crane 's help , assumed the presidency of a closely divided Senate . After his election in January 1914 , Coolidge delivered a published and frequently quoted speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts , which summarized his philosophy of government .
Coolidge 's speech was well received , and he attracted some admirers on its account ; towards the end of the term , many of them were proposing his name for nomination to lieutenant governor . After winning reelection to the Senate by an increased margin in the 1914 elections , Coolidge was reelected unanimously to be President of the Senate . Coolidge 's supporters , led by fellow Amherst alumnus Frank Stearns , encouraged him again to run for lieutenant governor . Stearns , an advertising executive , became another key ally , and began a publicity campaign on Coollidge 's behalf before he announced his candidacy at the end of the 1915 legislative session .
= = Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts = =
Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall . Coolidge was the leading vote @-@ getter in the Republican primary , and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall 's eastern base of support . McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election to their respective one @-@ year terms , with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50 @,@ 000 votes .
In Massachusetts , the lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate , as is the case in many other states ; nevertheless , as lieutenant governor , Coolidge was a deputy governor functioning as administrative inspector and was a member of the governor 's council . He was also chairman of the finance committee and the pardons committee . As a full @-@ time elected official , Coolidge discontinued his law practice in 1916 , though his family continued to live in Northampton . McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917 . When McCall decided that he would not stand for a fourth term , Coolidge announced his intention to run for governor .
= = = 1918 election = = =
Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918 . He and his running mate , Channing Cox , a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives , ran on the previous administration 's record : fiscal conservatism , a vague opposition to Prohibition , support for women 's suffrage , and support for American involvement in World War I. The issue of the war proved divisive , especially among Irish- and German Americans . Coolidge was elected by a margin of 16 @,@ 773 votes over his opponent , Richard H. Long , in the smallest margin of victory of any of his statewide campaigns .
= = = Boston Police Strike = = =
In 1919 , in reaction to a plan of the policemen of the Boston Police Department to register with a union , Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis announced that such an act would not be tolerated . In August of that year , the American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union . Curtis declared the union 's leaders were guilty of insubordination and would be relieved of duty , but indicated he would cancel their suspension if the union was dissolved by September 4 . The mayor of Boston , Andrew Peters , convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days , but with no results , and Curtis suspended the union leaders on September 8 . The following day , about three @-@ quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike . Coolidge , tacitly but fully in support of Curtis ' position , closely monitored the situation but initially deferred to the local authorities . He anticipated that only a resulting measure of lawlessness could sufficiently prompt the public to understand and appreciate the controlling principle – that a policeman does not strike . That night and the next , there was sporadic violence and rioting in the unruly city . Peters , concerned about sympathy strikes by the firemen and others , called up some units of the Massachusetts National Guard stationed in the Boston area pursuant to an old and obscure legal authority , and relieved Curtis of duty .
Coolidge , sensing the severity of circumstances were then propitious to his intervention , conferred with Crane 's operative , William Butler , and then acted . He called up more units of the National Guard , restored Curtis to office , and took personal control of the police force . Curtis proclaimed that all of the strikers were fired from their jobs , and Coolidge called for a new police force to be recruited . That night Coolidge received a telegram from AFL leader Samuel Gompers . " Whatever disorder has occurred " , Gompers wrote , " is due to Curtis 's order in which the right of the policemen has been denied … " Coolidge publicly answered Gompers 's telegram , denying any justification whatsoever for the strike – and his response launched him into the national consciousness ( quoted , above left ) . Newspapers across the nation picked up on Coolidge 's statement and he became the newest hero to opponents of the strike . In the midst of the First Red Scare , many Americans were terrified of the spread of communist revolution , like those that had taken place in Russia , Hungary , and Germany . While Coolidge had lost some friends among organized labor , conservatives across the nation had seen a rising star . Although he usually acted with deliberation , the Boston police strike gave him a national reputation as a decisive leader , and as a strict enforcer of law and order . The Boston Police Patrolman Association was finally formed in 1965 ; it would be unionized in 1998 .
= = = 1919 election = = =
Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919 . By this time Coolidge 's supporters ( especially Stearns ) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and the nation and some of Coolidge 's speeches were published in book form . He faced the same opponent as in 1918 , Richard Long , but this time Coolidge defeated him by 125 @,@ 101 votes , more than seven times his margin of victory from a year earlier . His actions in the police strike , combined with the massive electoral victory , led to suggestions that Coolidge run for president in 1920 .
= = = Legislation and vetoes as governor = = =
By the time Coolidge was inaugurated on January 2 , 1919 , the First World War had ended , and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $ 100 bonus to Massachusetts veterans . He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty @-@ four hours to forty @-@ eight , saying , " We must humanize the industry , or the system will break down . " He signed into law a budget that kept the tax rates the same , while trimming $ 4 million from expenditures , thus allowing the state to retire some of its debt .
Coolidge also wielded the veto pen as governor . His most publicized veto prevented an increase in legislators ' pay by 50 % . Although Coolidge was personally opposed to Prohibition , he vetoed a bill in May 1920 that would have allowed the sale of beer or wine of 2 @.@ 75 % alcohol or less , in Massachusetts in violation of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . " Opinions and instructions do not outmatch the Constitution , " he said in his veto message . " Against it , they are void . "
= = Vice presidency = =
= = = 1920 election = = =
At the 1920 Republican National Convention , most of the delegates were selected by state party conventions , not primaries . As such , the field was divided among many local favorites . Coolidge was one such candidate , and while he placed as high as sixth in the voting , the powerful party bosses running the convention , primarily the party 's U.S. Senators , never considered him seriously . After ten ballots , the bosses and then the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for president . When the time came to select a vice presidential nominee , the bosses also made and announced their decision on whom they wanted – Sen. Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin – and then prematurely departed after his name was put forth , relying on the rank and file to confirm their decision . A delegate from Oregon , Wallace McCamant , having read Have Faith in Massachusetts , proposed Coolidge for vice president instead . The suggestion caught on quickly with the masses starving for an act of independence from the absent bosses , and Coolidge was unexpectedly nominated .
The Democrats nominated another Ohioan , James M. Cox , for president and the Assistant Secretary of the Navy , Franklin D. Roosevelt , for vice president . The question of the United States joining the League of Nations was a major issue in the campaign , as was the unfinished legacy of Progressivism . Harding ran a " front @-@ porch " campaign from his home in Marion , Ohio , but Coolidge took to the campaign trail in the Upper South , New York , and New England – his audiences carefully limited to those familiar with Coolidge and those placing a premium upon concise and short speeches . On November 2 , 1920 , Harding and Coolidge were victorious in a landslide , winning more than 60 percent of the popular vote , including every state outside the South . They also won in Tennessee , the first time a Republican ticket had won a Southern state since Reconstruction .
= = = " Silent Cal " = = =
The U.S. vice presidency did not carry many official duties , but Coolidge was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings , making him the first vice president to do so . He gave a number of unremarkable speeches around the country .
As the U.S. vice president , Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties , where the legend of " Silent Cal " was born . It is from this time that most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate . Although Coolidge was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker , in private he was a man of few words and was commonly referred to as " Silent Cal " . A possibly apocryphal story has it a matron , seated next to him at a dinner , said to him , " I made a bet today that I could get more than two words out of you . " He replied , " You lose . " Dorothy Parker , upon learning that Coolidge had died , reportedly remarked , " How can they tell ? " Coolidge often seemed uncomfortable among fashionable Washington society ; when asked why he continued to attend so many of their dinner parties , he replied , " Got to eat somewhere . " Alice Roosevelt Longworth , a leading Republican wit , underscored Coolidge 's silence and his dour personality : " When he wished he were elsewhere , he pursed his lips , folded his arms , and said nothing . He looked then precisely as though he had been weaned on a pickle . "
As president , Coolidge 's reputation as a quiet man continued . " The words of a President have an enormous weight , " he would later write , " and ought not to be used indiscriminately . " Coolidge was aware of his stiff reputation ; indeed , he cultivated it . " I think the American people want a solemn ass as a President , " he once told Ethel Barrymore , " and I think I will go along with them . " Some historians would later suggest that Coolidge 's image was created deliberately as a campaign tactic , while others believe his withdrawn and quiet behavior to be natural , deepening after the death of his son in 1924 .
= = Presidency ( 1923 – 29 ) = =
= = = Succession to the presidency = = =
On August 2 , 1923 , President Harding died suddenly in San Francisco while on a speaking tour of the western United States . Vice President Coolidge was in Vermont visiting his family home , which had neither electricity nor a telephone , when he received word by messenger of Harding 's death . He dressed , said a prayer , and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled . His father , a notary public , administered the oath of office in the family 's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2 : 47 a.m. on August 3 , 1923 ; President Coolidge then went back to bed . He returned to Washington the next day , and was sworn in again by Justice Adolph A. Hoehling Jr. of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia , to forestall any questions about the authority of a notary public to administer the presidential oath .
= = First term , 1923 – 1925 = =
The nation initially did not know what to make of Coolidge , who had maintained a low profile in the Harding administration ; many had even expected him to be replaced on the ballot in 1924 . He appointed C. Bascom Slemp , a Virginia Congressman and experienced federal politician , to work jointly with Edward T. Clark , a Massachusetts Republican organizer whom he retained from his vice @-@ presidential staff , as Secretaries to the President ( a position equivalent to the modern White House Chief of Staff ) .
Although a few of Harding 's cabinet appointees were scandal @-@ tarred , Coolidge retained all of them , out of an ardent conviction that as successor to a deceased elected president he was obligated to retain Harding 's counselors and policies until the next election . ( He did replace Harding 's speechwriter Judson T. Welliver with Jordan A. Hulseberg , whom he felt would better reflect his more reserved personality . ) Coolidge strongly felt that those of Harding 's men under suspicion were entitled to every presumption of innocence , taking a characteristically methodical approach to the scandals , principally the Teapot Dome scandal , while others clamored for rapid punishment of those they presumed guilty . Coolidge felt the Senate investigations of the scandals would suffice ; this was affirmed by the resulting resignations of those involved . He did personally intervene in demanding the resignation of Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty after he refused to cooperate with the congressional probe . He then set about to confirm that no loose ends remained in the administration , arranging for a full briefing on the wrongdoing . Harry A. Slattery reviewed the facts with him , Harlan F. Stone analyzed the legal aspects for him and Senator William E. Borah assessed and presented the political factors .
Coolidge addressed Congress when it reconvened on December 6 , 1923 , giving a speech that supported many of Harding 's policies , including Harding 's formal budgeting process , the enforcement of immigration restrictions and arbitration of coal strikes ongoing in Pennsylvania . Coolidge 's speech was the first presidential speech to be broadcast over the radio . The Washington Naval Treaty was proclaimed just one month into Coolidge 's term , and was generally well received in the country . In May 1924 , the World War I veterans ' World War Adjusted Compensation Act or " Bonus Bill " was passed over his veto . Coolidge signed the Immigration Act later that year , which was aimed at restricting southern and eastern European immigration , but appended a signing statement expressing his unhappiness with the bill 's specific exclusion of Japanese immigrants . Just before the Republican Convention began , Coolidge signed into law the Revenue Act of 1924 , which reduced the top marginal tax rate from 58 % to 46 % , as well as personal income tax rates across the board , increased the estate tax and bolstered it with a new gift tax .
On June 2 , 1924 Coolidge signed the act granting citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States . By that time , two @-@ thirds of the people were already citizens , having gained it through marriage , military service ( veterans of World War I were granted citizenship in 1919 ) , or the land allotments that had earlier taken place .
= = = 1924 election = = =
The Republican Convention was held on June 10 – 12 , 1924 , in Cleveland , Ohio ; Coolidge was nominated on the first ballot . The convention nominated Frank Lowden of Illinois for vice president on the second ballot , but he declined ; former Brigadier General Charles G. Dawes was nominated on the third ballot and accepted .
The Democrats held their convention the next month in New York City . The convention soon deadlocked , and after 103 ballots , the delegates finally agreed on a compromise candidate , John W. Davis , with Charles W. Bryan nominated for vice president . The Democrats ' hopes were buoyed when Robert M. La Follette Sr. , a Republican Senator from Wisconsin , split from the GOP to form a new Progressive Party . Many believed that the split in the Republican party , like the one in 1912 , would allow a Democrat to win the presidency .
After the conventions and the death of his younger son Calvin , Coolidge became withdrawn ; he later said that " when he [ the son ] died , the power and glory of the Presidency went with him . " Even as he mourned , Coolidge ran his standard campaign , not mentioning his opponents by name or maligning them , and delivering speeches on his theory of government , including several that were broadcast over radio . It was the most subdued campaign since 1896 , partly because of Coolidge 's grief , but also because of his naturally non @-@ confrontational style . The other candidates campaigned in a more modern fashion , but despite the split in the Republican party , the results were similar to those of 1920 . Coolidge and Dawes won every state outside the South except Wisconsin , La Follette 's home state . Coolidge won the popular vote by 2 @.@ 5 million over his opponents ' combined total .
= = Second term , 1925 – 1929 = =
= = = Industry and trade = = =
During Coolidge 's presidency , the United States experienced a period of rapid economic growth known as the " Roaring Twenties . " He left the administration 's industrial policy in the hands of his activist Secretary of Commerce , Herbert Hoover , who energetically used government auspices to promote business efficiency and develop airlines and radio . Coolidge disdained regulation , and demonstrated this by appointing commissioners to the Federal Trade Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission who did little to restrict the activities of businesses under their jurisdiction . The regulatory state under Coolidge was , as one biographer described it , " thin to the point of invisibility . "
Coolidge 's economic policy has often been misquoted as " generally speaking , the business of the American people is business " ( full quotation at right ) . Some have criticized Coolidge as an adherent of the laissez @-@ faire ideology , which they claim led to the Great Depression . On the other hand , historian Robert Sobel offers some context based on Coolidge 's sense of federalism : " As Governor of Massachusetts , Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation , opposed child labor , imposed economic controls during World War I , favored safety measures in factories , and even worker representation on corporate boards . Did he support these measures while president ? No , because in the 1920s , such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments . "
= = = Taxation and government spending = = =
Coolidge 's taxation policy was that of his Secretary of the Treasury , Andrew Mellon , the ideal that " scientific taxation " — — lower taxes — — actually increase rather than decrease government receipts . Congress agreed , and the taxes were reduced in Coolidge 's term . In addition to these tax cuts , Coolidge proposed reductions in federal expenditures and retiring some of the federal debt . Coolidge 's ideas were shared by the Republicans in Congress , and in 1924 , Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1924 , which reduced income tax rates and eliminated all income taxation for some two million people . They reduced taxes again by passing the Revenue Acts of 1926 and 1928 , all the while continuing to keep spending down so as to reduce the overall federal debt . By 1927 , only the wealthiest 2 % of taxpayers paid any federal income tax . Federal spending remained flat during Coolidge 's administration , allowing one @-@ fourth of the federal debt to be retired in total . State and local governments saw considerable growth , however , surpassing the federal budget in 1927 .
= = = Opposition to farm subsidies = = =
Perhaps the most contentious issue of Coolidge 's presidency was relief for farmers . Some in Congress proposed a bill designed to fight falling agricultural prices by allowing the federal government to purchase crops to sell abroad at lower prices . Agriculture Secretary Henry C. Wallace and other administration officials favored the bill when it was introduced in 1924 , but rising prices convinced many in Congress that the bill was unnecessary , and it was defeated just before the elections that year . In 1926 , with farm prices falling once more , Senator Charles L. McNary and Representative Gilbert N. Haugen — both Republicans — proposed the McNary – Haugen Farm Relief Bill . The bill proposed a federal farm board that would purchase surplus production in high @-@ yield years and hold it ( when feasible ) for later sale or sell it abroad . Coolidge opposed McNary @-@ Haugen , declaring that agriculture must stand " on an independent business basis , " and said that " government control cannot be divorced from political control . " Instead of manipulating prices , he favored instead Herbert Hoover 's proposal to create profits by modernizing agriculture . Secretary Mellon wrote a letter denouncing the McNary @-@ Haugen measure as unsound and likely to cause inflation , and it was defeated .
After McNary @-@ Haugen 's defeat , Coolidge supported a less radical measure , the Curtis @-@ Crisp Act , which would have created a federal board to lend money to farm co @-@ operatives in times of surplus ; the bill did not pass . In February 1927 , Congress took up the McNary @-@ Haugen bill again , this time narrowly passing it , and Coolidge vetoed it . In his veto message , he expressed the belief that the bill would do nothing to help farmers , benefiting only exporters and expanding the federal bureaucracy . Congress did not override the veto , but it passed the bill again in May 1928 by an increased majority ; again , Coolidge vetoed it . " Farmers never have made much money , " said Coolidge , the Vermont farmer 's son . " I do not believe we can do much about it . "
= = = Flood control = = =
Coolidge has often been criticized for his actions during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 , the worst natural disaster to hit the Gulf Coast until Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . Although he did eventually name Secretary Hoover to a commission in charge of flood relief , scholars argue that Coolidge overall showed a lack of interest in federal flood control . Coolidge did not believe that personally visiting the region after the floods would accomplish anything , and that it would be seen as mere political grandstanding . He also did not want to incur the federal spending that flood control would require ; he believed property owners should bear much of the cost . On the other hand , Congress wanted a bill that would place the federal government completely in charge of flood mitigation . When Congress passed a compromise measure in 1928 , Coolidge declined to take credit for it and signed the bill in private on May 15 .
= = = Civil rights = = =
Coolidge spoke in favor of the civil rights of African @-@ Americans , saying in his first State of the Union address that the rights of the former were " just as sacred as those of any other citizen " under the U.S. Constitution and that it was a " public and a private duty to protect those rights . " He appointed no known members of the Ku Klux Klan to office ; indeed , the Klan lost most of its influence during his term . His administration commissioned studies to improve programs for Native Americans .
Coolidge repeatedly called for laws to prohibit lynching , saying in his 1923 State of the Union address that it was a " hideous crime " of which African @-@ Americans were " by no means the sole sufferers , " but consisted of the " majority of the victims . " However , most Congressional attempts to pass this legislation were filibustered by Southern Democrats . Coolidge appointed some African @-@ Americans to federal office ; he retained Harding 's choice of Walter L. Cohen of New Orleans , Louisiana , as the comptroller of customs and offered Cohen the post of minister to Liberia , which the businessman declined .
On June 2 , 1924 , Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act , which granted U.S. citizenship to all American Indians , while permitting them to retain tribal land and cultural rights . However , the act was unclear on whether the federal government or the tribal leaders retained tribal sovereignty . His administration appointed the Committee of One Hundred , a reform panel to examine federal institutions and programs dealing with Indian nations . This committee recommended that the government conduct an in @-@ depth investigation into reservation life ( health , education , economics , justice , civil rights , etc . ) . This was commissioned through the Department of Interior and conducted by the Brookings Institution , resulting in the groundbreaking Meriam Report of 1928 .
A few days later , on June 6 , 1924 , Coolidge delivered a commencement address at Washington , D.C. ' s Howard University , in which he thanked and commended African @-@ Americans for their rapid advances in education and their contributions to U.S. society over the years , as well as their eagerness to render their services as soldiers in World War I , all while being faced with discrimination and prejudices at home :
The propaganda of prejudice and hatred which sought to keep the colored men from supporting the national cause completely failed . The black man showed himself the same kind of citizen , moved by the same kind of patriotism , as the white man . They were tempted , but not one betrayed his country . ... They came home with many decorations and their conduct repeatedly won high commendation from both American and European commanders . ... No part of the community responded more willingly , more generously , more unqualifiedly , to the demand for special extraordinary exertion , than did the members of the Negro race . Whether in the military service , or in the vast mobilization of industrial resources which the war required , the Negro did his part precisely as did the white man . He drew no color line when patriotism made its call upon him . He gave precisely as his white fellow citizens gave , to the limit of resources and abilities , to help the general cause . Thus the American Negro established his right to the gratitude and appreciation which the Nation has been glad to accord .
In August 1924 , Coolidge responded to a letter from a New York man claiming that the United States was a " white man 's country " and that African @-@ Americans should therefore not be allowed to hold elected office . Echoing his June 1924 speech at Howard University , Coolidge refuted the man 's statement , saying that African @-@ Americans were " just as truly citizens " of the United States " as are any others , " and commended the service of black U.S. soldiers during World War I :
I was amazed to receive such a letter . During the war 500 @,@ 000 colored men and boys were called up under the draft , not one of whom sought to evade it . [ As president , I am ] one who feels a responsibility for living up to the traditions and maintaining the principles of the Republican Party . Our Constitution guarantees equal rights to all our citizens , without discrimination on account of race or color . I have taken my oath to support that Constitution . It is the source of your rights and my rights . I propose to regard it , and administer it , as the source of the rights of all the people , whatever their belief or race . A colored man is precisely as much entitled to submit his candidacy in a party primary , as is any other citizen . The decision must be made by the constituents to whom he offers himself , and by nobody else .
Speaking before a group of naturalized Americans of European background at the White House in October 1924 , Coolidge stressed tolerance of differences as an American value and thanked immigrants for their contributions to U.S. society , saying that they have " contributed much to making our country what it is . " He stated that although the diversity of peoples was a detrimental source of conflict and tension in Europe , it was peculiar for the United States that it was a " harmonious " benefit for the country . Coolidge further stated the United States should assist and help immigrants who come to the country , and urged immigrants to reject " race hatreds " and " prejudices " :
Among these I should place , first , the broadly tolerant attitude that has been a characteristic of this country . I use the word in its most inclusive sense , to cover tolerance of religious opinion , tolerance in politics , tolerance in social relationships ; in general , the liberal attitude of every citizen toward his fellows . ... As a Nation , our first duty must be to those who are already our inhabitants , whether native or immigrants . To them we owe an especial and a weighty obligation . They came to us with stout hearts and high hopes of bettering their estate . They have contributed much to making our country what it is . ... They cannot help other nations by bringing old world race prejudices and race hatreds into action here . In fact , they can best help other countries by scrupulously avoiding any such motives .
In December 1924 , Coolidge delivered his second State of the Union address , in which he commended African @-@ Americans for their advances , and stressed that their constitutional rights should be respected and protected :
These developments have brought about a very remarkable improvement in the condition of the negro race . Gradually , but surely , with the almost universal sympathy of those among whom they live , the colored people are working out their own destiny . I firmly believe that it is better for all concerned that they should be cheerfully accorded their full constitutional rights , that they should be protected from all of those impositions to which , from their position , they naturally fall a prey , especially from the crime of lynching and that they should receive every encouragement to become full partakers in all the blessings of our common American citizenship .
In a May 1926 speech delivered at Arlington to commemorate the U.S. military , Coolidge praised the linguistic , ethnic , and religious diversity of the U.S. population , citing it as an example of American exceptionalism . He spoke out against " race hatred " and " religious intolerance , " saying that engaging in such actions would be an " injury " and not a " benefit " to the country :
We are situated differently in this respect from any other country . All the other great powers have a comparatively homogeneous population , close kindred in race and blood and speech , and commonly little divided in religious beliefs . Our great Nation is made up of the strong and virile pioneering stock of nearly all the countries of the world . We have a variety of race and language and religious belief . ... race hatred , religious intolerance , and disregard of equal rights ... are ... a positive injury .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Although not an isolationist , Coolidge was reluctant to enter into foreign alliances . He considered the 1920 Republican victory as a rejection of the Wilsonian position that the United States should join the League of Nations . While not completely opposed to the idea , Coolidge believed the League , as then constituted , did not serve American interests , and he did not advocate membership . He spoke in favor of the United States joining the Permanent Court of International Justice ( World Court ) , provided that the nation would not be bound by advisory decisions . In 1926 , the Senate eventually approved joining the Court ( with reservations ) . The League of Nations accepted the reservations , but it suggested some modifications of its own . The Senate failed to act ; the United States never joined the World Court .
Coolidge 's primary initiative was the Kellogg – Briand Pact of 1928 , named for Coolidge 's Secretary of State , Frank B. Kellogg , and French foreign minister Aristide Briand . The treaty , ratified in 1929 , committed signatories — the United States , the United Kingdom , France , Germany , Italy , and Japan — to " renounce war , as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another . " The treaty did not achieve its intended result — the outlawry of war — but it did provide the founding principle for international law after World War II .
Coolidge continued the previous administration 's policy of withholding recognition of the Soviet Union . He also continued the United States ' support for the elected government of Mexico against the rebels there , lifting the arms embargo on that country . He sent Dwight Morrow to Mexico as the American ambassador .
The United States ' occupation of Nicaragua and Haiti continued under his administration , but Coolidge withdrew American troops from the Dominican Republic in 1924 . Coolidge led the U.S. delegation to the Sixth International Conference of American States , January 15 – 17 , 1928 , in Havana , Cuba . This was the only international trip Coolidge made during his presidency . There , he extend an olive branch to Latin American leaders embittered over America 's interventionist policies in Central America and the Caribbean . For 88 years he was the only sitting president to have visited Cuba , until Barack Obama did so in 2016 .
= = = 1928 election = = =
In the summer of 1927 , Coolidge vacationed in the Black Hills of South Dakota , where he engaged in horseback riding and fly fishing and attended rodeos . He made Custer State Park his " summer White House . " While on vacation , Coolidge surprisingly issued a terse statement that he would not seek a second full term as president : " I do not choose to run for President in 1928 . " After allowing the reporters to take that in , Coolidge elaborated . " If I take another term , I will be in the White House till 1933 … Ten years in Washington is longer than any other man has had it — too long ! " In his memoirs , Coolidge explained his decision not to run : " The Presidential office takes a heavy toll of those who occupy it and those who are dear to them . While we should not refuse to spend and be spent in the service of our country , it is hazardous to attempt what we feel is beyond our strength to accomplish . " After leaving office , he and Grace returned to Northampton , where he wrote his memoirs . The Republicans retained the White House in 1928 in the person of Coolidge 's Secretary of Commerce , Herbert Hoover . Coolidge had been reluctant to endorse Hoover as his successor ; on one occasion he remarked that " for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice — all of it bad . " Even so , Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the nomination of the popular commerce secretary .
= = = Cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
Coolidge appointed one justice to the Supreme Court of the United States , Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925 . Stone was Coolidge 's fellow Amherst alumnus , a Wall Street lawyer and conservative Republican . Stone was serving as dean of Columbia Law School when Coolidge appointed him to be attorney general in 1924 to restore the reputation tarnished by Harding 's Attorney General , Harry M. Daugherty . Stone proved to be a firm believer in judicial restraint and was regarded as one of the court 's three liberal justices who would often vote to uphold New Deal legislation . President Franklin D. Roosevelt later appointed Stone to be chief justice .
Coolidge nominated 17 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 61 judges to the United States district courts . He appointed judges to various specialty courts as well , including Genevieve R. Cline , who became the first woman named to the federal judiciary when Coolidge placed her on the United States Customs Court in 1928 . Coolidge also signed the Judiciary Act of 1925 into law , allowing the Supreme Court more discretion over its workload .
= = Retirement and death = =
After his presidency , Coolidge retired to the modest rented house on residential Massasoit Street in Northampton before moving to a more spacious home , " The Beeches . " He kept a Hacker runabout boat on the Connecticut River and was often observed on the water by local boating enthusiasts . During this period , he also served as chairman of the non @-@ partisan Railroad Commission , as honorary president of the American Foundation for the Blind , as a director of New York Life Insurance Company , as president of the American Antiquarian Society , and as a trustee of Amherst College . Coolidge received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Bates College in Lewiston , Maine .
Coolidge published his autobiography in 1929 and wrote a syndicated newspaper column , " Calvin Coolidge Says , " from 1930 to 1931 . Faced with looming defeat in the 1932 presidential election , some Republicans spoke of rejecting Herbert Hoover as their party 's nominee , and instead drafting Coolidge to run , but the former president made it clear that he was not interested in running again , and that he would publicly repudiate any effort to draft him , should it come about . Hoover was renominated , and Coolidge made several radio addresses in support of him . Hoover then lost the general election to Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt in a landslide .
He died suddenly from coronary thrombosis at " The Beeches , " at 12 : 45 p.m. , January 5 , 1933 . Shortly before his death , Coolidge confided to an old friend : " I feel I no longer fit in with these times . " Coolidge is buried beneath a simple headstone in Plymouth Notch Cemetery , Plymouth Notch , Vermont , where the nearby family home is maintained as one of the original buildings on the Calvin Coolidge Homestead District site . The State of Vermont dedicated a new visitors ' center nearby to mark Coolidge 's 100th birthday on July 4 , 1972 .
= = Radio , film , and commemorations = =
Despite his reputation as a quiet and even reclusive politician , Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while president . He made himself available to reporters , giving 520 press conferences , meeting with reporters more regularly than any president before or since . Coolidge 's second inauguration was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio . On December 6 , 1923 , he was the first president whose address to Congress was broadcast on radio . Coolidge signed the Radio Act of 1927 , which assigned regulation of radio to the newly created Federal Radio Commission . On August 11 , 1924 , Theodore W. Case , using the Phonofilm sound @-@ on @-@ film process he developed for Lee DeForest , filmed Coolidge on the White House lawn , making Coolidge the first president to appear in a sound film . The title of the DeForest film was President Coolidge , Taken on the White House Grounds . When Charles Lindbergh arrived in Washington on a U.S. navy ship after his celebrated 1927 trans @-@ Atlantic flight , President Coolidge welcomed him back to the U.S. and a sound @-@ on @-@ film record of the event exists . Coolidge was the only president to have his portrait on a coin during his lifetime , the Sesquicentennial of American Independence Half Dollar , minted in 1926 . After his death he also appeared on a postage stamp , pictured below .
= = Legacy = =
U.S. President Ronald W. Reagan regarded Coolidge as his favorite 20th @-@ century U.S. president because of Coolidge 's belief in a more limited U.S. federal government . Reagan cited Coolidge 's tough handling of striking Boston police when he fired striking air traffic controllers in 1981 . Coolidge 's reputation remains strong among most political conservatives .
The Coolidge effect , whereby males ( and to a lesser extent females ) exhibit renewed sexual interest if introduced to new receptive sexual partners , even after refusing sex from prior but still available sexual partners , is named after the former president . Behavioral endocrinologist Frank A. Beach first mentioned the term " Coolidge effect " in publication in 1955 , crediting one of his students with suggesting the term at a psychology conference . He attributed the neologism to :
an old joke about Calvin Coolidge when he was President … The President and Mrs. Coolidge were being shown ( separately ) around an experimental government farm . When [ Mrs. Coolidge ] came to the chicken yard she noticed that a rooster was mating very frequently . She asked the attendant how often that happened and was told , " Dozens of times each day . " Mrs. Coolidge said , " Tell that to the President when he comes by . " Upon being told , the President asked , " Same hen every time ? " The reply was , " Oh , no , Mr. President , a different hen every time . " President : " Tell that to Mrs. Coolidge . "
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= Edward Riou =
Edward Riou FRS ( 20 November 1762 – 2 April 1801 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the French Revolutionary Wars under several of the most distinguished naval officers of his age and won fame and honour for two incidents in particular .
Riou entered the navy at 12 years of age , and after a period spent in British and North American waters , served as a midshipman on Captain James Cook 's third and final voyage of discovery . Rising through the ranks , he saw service on a number of the navy 's stations , but also endured periods of unemployment . He received his first command in 1789 , the former frigate HMS Guardian , which was being used to transport stores and convicts to Australia . He had the misfortune to run his ship onto an iceberg , which nearly caused his ship to sink outright . After several attempts to stop the flooding into the damaged hull , most of the crew abandoned ship . Despite fully anticipating his death , Riou refused to leave his ship , and he and a few others were left to attempt the nearly impossible task of navigating the sinking ship several hundred leagues to land . After nine weeks at sea , and with continued labour and endurance , Riou successfully navigated his half @-@ sunk ship back to port , saving the lives of those who had elected to remain with him .
His feat earned him promotions and finally commands , but a period of ill @-@ health forced his temporary retirement from active service . Recovering quickly , he was given command of the new 38 @-@ gun HMS Amazon , and was assigned in 1801 to Sir Hyde Parker 's expedition to the Baltic . Riou worked closely with Vice @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson during the approach to the Battle of Copenhagen , earning Nelson 's trust and admiration . Nelson appointed Riou to command his frigate squadron during the battle , but when the engagement began badly for the British , Riou used his initiative to attack the Danish forts , despite being heavily outgunned . When Parker sent the signal to withdraw , Nelson ignored it and Riou felt he had no choice but to obey his commanding officer , despite his despair at what Nelson would think of retreat . As the Amazon swung away , she exposed her vulnerable stern to the Danish batteries . Riou was encouraging his men to the end when he was cut down by a round shot . Nelson , on learning of Riou 's death , called the loss ' irreparable ' . A monument was erected to his memory in St Paul 's Cathedral , while a poem commemorated the loss of the ' gallant , good Riou ' .
= = Family and early life = =
Riou was born at Mount Ephraim , near Faversham , Kent , on 20 November 1762 , the second son of Captain Stephen Riou of the Grenadier Guards , and his wife Dorothy . He embarked on a naval career at the age of 12 , joining Sir Thomas Pye 's flagship , the 90 @-@ gun HMS Barfleur at Portsmouth . His next ship was the 50 @-@ gun HMS Romney , flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral John Montagu on the Newfoundland station . Riou was rated midshipman by 1776 and joined Captain Charles Clerke 's HMS Discovery for a voyage to the Pacific under Captain James Cook aboard HMS Resolution . The expedition was Cook 's third voyage of discovery , and after his death at Hawaii Clerke took command , transferring to Resolution and bringing Midshipman Riou with him .
Riou took and passed his lieutenant 's examination on 19 October 1780 , shortly after the expedition 's return to Britain , and received his promotion on 28 October . His first appointment as lieutenant was to the 14 @-@ gun brig @-@ sloop HMS Scourge , which was sent to serve in the West Indies . Here Riou appears to have become ill , a common experience for naval officers serving in the tropics , but he survived to return to Britain and was discharged from his ship on 3 February 1782 and went into the Royal Naval Hospital at Haslar . He recovered his health and by April 1783 was back on active service , joining the Portsmouth guardship HMS Ganges . Discharging from the Ganges in June 1784 , he went on to half @-@ pay , which lasted for two years until he received another appointment , this time to the 50 @-@ gun HMS Salisbury in March 1786 . The Salisbury was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral John Elliot , who sailed to Newfoundland take up his post as Commodore @-@ Governor there . During this period in his life , Riou was described by a seaman aboard the Ganges as ' a strict disciplinarian with a fanatical regard for cleanliness ' . He was also noted to be a religious man , and an affectionate son and brother . A further period on half @-@ pay followed his discharge from the Salisbury in November 1788 , but meanwhile he had succeeded in attracting the attention of the Townsend family , and was able to use their patronage to secure an appointment to command HMS Guardian , in April 1789 .
= = Command of the Guardian = =
The Guardian was a former two @-@ decked 44 @-@ gun frigate , but had been armed en flûte and loaded with stores to be taken to the British colony at Botany Bay . In addition to these stores , consisting of seeds , plants , farm machinery and livestock with a total value of some £ 70 @,@ 000 , the Guardian was also to transport a number of convicts and their overseers . Aboard the Guardian was a young midshipman named Thomas Pitt , the son of politician Thomas Pitt , and nephew of Prime Minister William Pitt .
With over 300 people aboard his ship , Riou left Spithead on 8 September 1789 , and had an uneventful voyage to the Cape of Good Hope where he loaded more livestock and plants . While at the Cape , Riou met Lieutenant William Bligh , who had sailed with Riou on Cook 's third voyage during which Bligh had been the sailing master of Resolution . Bligh had arrived at the Cape from Timor , where he had landed after a 3 @,@ 618 mile voyage in an open boat following a mutiny aboard his ship , HMS Bounty . After completing his re @-@ provisioning , Riou sailed from the Cape in mid @-@ December , and picking up the Westerlies , began the second leg of his voyage to New South Wales . On Christmas Eve , twelve days after his departure from the Cape , a large iceberg was spotted , and Riou decided to use the ice to replenish his stocks of fresh water that were quickly being depleted by the need to supply the plants and animals he was transporting .
= = = Riou and the iceberg = = =
Riou positioned himself near the iceberg , and despatched boats to collect the ice . By the time the last boats had been recovered , night had fallen and a sudden fogbank descended , hiding the iceberg from view . Riou found himself in a dangerous situation . Somewhere to leeward lay a large mass of ice , concealed in the darkness and fog . He posted lookouts in the bows and rigging , and began to edge slowly forward . After sometime the danger seemed to be past , and the iceberg left behind , when at 9 o 'clock a strange pale glow was reported by the lookout in the bows . Riou ordered the helm to turn hard a starboard , turning into the wind as a wall of ice higher than the ship 's masts slid by along the side . It briefly appeared that the danger had been avoided , but as she passed by , the Guardian struck an underwater projection with a crash . Caught in a sudden gust of wind , the ship reared up and swung about , driving the stern into the ice , smashing away the rudder , shattering her stern frame and tearing a large gash in the hull . Despite the seriousness of the situation , Riou remained calm , using the sails to pull clear of the ice , and then taking stock of the damage .
Now clear of the immediate danger of the ice , Riou found himself in a desperate situation . There was two feet of water in the hold and more was rushing in , while the sea was rising and a gale had sprung up . The pumps were manned , but could not keep up with the influx of water , and by midnight there was 6 feet of water in the hold . At dawn on Christmas Day , an attempt was made to fother the hull , which involved lowering an oakum @-@ packed studding sail over the side to cover the gash in the hull and slow the flooding . This was temporarily successful and by 11 o 'clock the pumps had been able to reduce the water to a level of 19 inches . The respite was short @-@ lived , as the sail split under the pressure of the water and the water level began to rise again . A number of seaman requested permission to take to the ship 's boats . Riou convinced them to stay , but another attempt to fother the hull with another sail failed when the sail immediately ripped . By nightfall on 25 December , the water in the hold had risen to 7 feet , and the ship was rolling violently , allowing water to pour over the ship 's side . Riou ordered the stores , guns and livestock to be thrown overboard in an attempt to lighten the ship , but was injured when his hand was crushed by a falling cask while trying to clear the bread @-@ room . By morning the next day , the ship was settling by the stern , while the sails had been torn away in the gale . Again the seamen , this time joined by the convicts , requested to be allowed to take to the boats . Riou at last agreed to this , well aware that there were not enough boats for everyone , and announced ' As for me , I have determined to remain in the ship , and shall endeavour to make my presence useful as long as there is any occasion for it.'
= = = ' I have determined to remain in the ship ' = = =
While the boats were prepared , Riou wrote a letter to the Secretary to the Admiralty ;
Sir ,
If any part of the officers or crew of the Guardian should ever survive to get home , I have only to say their conduct after the fatal stroke against an island of ice was admirable and wonderful in everything that related to their duties considered either as private men or on his Majesty 's Service .
As there seems no possibility of my remaining many hours in this world , I beg leave to recommend to the consideration of the Admiralty a sister who if my conduct or service should be found deserving any memory their favour might be shown to her together with a widowed mother .
I am Sir remaining with great respect
Your ever Obedt & humble servt ,
E. Riou
Riou gave the note to Mr Clements , the master of the Guardian , who was given command of the launch . A total of 259 people chose to join the five boats , leaving Riou with sixty @-@ two people ; himself , three midshipmen , including Thomas Pitt , the surgeon 's mate , the boatswain , carpenter , three superintendents of convicts , a daughter of one of the superintendents , thirty seamen and boys and twenty @-@ one convicts . The Guardian was nearly awash by now with 16 feet of water in the hold , but a bumping noise on the deck attracted attention , and on investigation was found to be a number of casks that had broken free and were floating in the hold , trapped under the lower gundeck . Realising that this was providing extra buoyancy , Riou had the gun deck hatches sealed and caulked , while another sail was sent under the hull to control the flooding . Having now created a substitute hull out of his deck , Riou raised what little sail he could and began the long journey back to land , with the pumps being continuously manned .
For nine weeks Riou and his small crew navigated the Guardian , by now little more than a raft , across the 400 leagues to the Cape of Good Hope . The Cape of Good Hope was sighted on 21 February 1790 , and whalers were despatched from Table Bay to help the battered ship to safety . Riou ran her aground to prevent her sinking , but a gale struck the coast shortly afterwards , completing the wreck of the Guardian . The voyage was described by J. K. Laughton in the Dictionary of National Biography as ' almost without parallel ' . Those who remained with the Guardian were among the few survivors of the accident . Of the boats sent out on 25 December , only the launch with 15 people survived , having been rescued by a French merchant . The launch had witnessed the sinking of the jolly @-@ boat , before losing contact with the two cutters and the long @-@ boat . Riou arranged for the surviving convicts who had helped to save the ship to be pardoned for their good service .
= = Promotion = =
Riou returned to Britain and was met with popular acclaim for his feat . Acquitted of any blame for the loss of his ship , he was promoted to master and commander on 21 September 1790 , and advanced to post @-@ captain on 4 June 1791 . These promotions were for rank only , and he did not receive a command until after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars . Appointed to command the sixth rate HMS Rose in June 1793 , he served in the West Indies with Sir John Jervis and was active in the operations against Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1794 . He was moved to the 40 @-@ gun HMS Beaulieu in November 1794 , capturing a number of small French vessels before ill @-@ health forced him to be invalided home . In the meantime , he was appointed to the yacht HMS Princess Augusta , but his health improved and he was able to return to active service in June 1799 with an appointment to command the 38 @-@ gun HMS Amazon . He was active against French privateers , before being assigned to Sir Hyde Parker 's expedition to the Baltic in 1801 to compel the Danes to abandon the League of Armed Neutrality .
In May 1796 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
= = Riou in the Baltic = =
After the British force had surveyed the Danish positions around Copenhagen , a council of war was held between Parker , his second in command Vice @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson , and the other British captains . Riou was among those present . Riou had worked closely with Nelson and Captain Thomas Foley in the lead up to the attack , and Nelson duly appointed him commander of the frigates and smaller vessels , with the instruction to deploy his ships to support the main fleet . As the battle began , several of Nelson 's ships ran aground on shoals in the harbour , and a new plan of attack had to be improvised . As Nelson 's ships of the line engaged their Danish counterparts , Riou took his frigates in to harass the Tre Kroner forts and blockships . Despite being heavily outmatched and dangerously exposed , they exchanged fire for several hours . The ships suffered heavy casualties ; Riou was hit on the head by a splinter .
= = = ' What will Nelson think of us ? ' = = =
At 1 @.@ 15 pm Parker , waiting outside the harbour with the reserve , raised a signal ordering Nelson to withdraw . Nelson acknowledged the signal but ignored it , while Nelson 's second in command , Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Graves repeated the signal but did not obey it . Riou now found himself in a difficult position . Too junior an officer to risk disobeying a direct order , he reluctantly gave the order for his small squadron to withdraw . In doing so his ships were forced to turn their sterns to the Danish guns , leaving themselves open to heavy fire on their most vulnerable area . The withdrawal of HMS Alcmene and then HMS Blanche reduced the thick cloud of gun smoke that was helping to obscure the British ships , leaving the Amazon exposed to the full force of the Danish guns . Riou remained in action for a further half an hour before reluctantly giving the order to withdraw . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William Stuart , commanding the soldiers of the 48th Regiment recorded that Riou :
... was sitting on a gun , was encouraging his men , and had been wounded in the head by a splinter . He had expressed himself grieved at being thus obliged to retreat , and nobly observed , ' What will Nelson think of us ? ' His clerk was killed by his side ; and by another shot , several marines , while hauling on the main @-@ brace , shared the same fate . Riou then exclaimed , ' Come , then , by boys , let us all die together ! ' The words were scarcely uttered , when the fatal shot severed him in two .
Command of the Amazon devolved to her first lieutenant , Lieutenant John Quilliam , who completed the withdrawal .
= = Memorials = =
Nelson , who had not known him before this expedition , had conceived a great affection for Riou , and wrote ' In poor dear Riou the country has sustained an irreparable loss . ' The naval historian Sir Jahleel Brenton declared that he had all the qualities of a perfect officer .
Parliament commemorated his memory with a joint memorial ( shared with Cpt . James Robert Mosse ) in the crypt of St Paul 's Cathedral . The poet Thomas Campbell wrote The Battle of the Baltic , with the lines
Brave hearts ! To Britain 's pride ,
Once so faithful and so true ,
On the deck of fame that died
With the gallant , good Riou
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= Modern Vampires of the City =
Modern Vampires of the City is the third studio album by American indie rock band Vampire Weekend , released on May 14 , 2013 , by XL Recordings . After releasing their 2010 album Contra , the band toured and wrote new material during sound checks . Following a period in which the quartet pursued different musical projects , they regrouped and began work on their third record in 2011 . Working with no deadline in mind , the band brought in an outside record producer for the first time , Ariel Rechtshaid .
Recorded at a number of studios and locations , Modern Vampires of the City was an attempt to distance the band from the sound they became heavily associated with following their 2008 debut and Contra . Broadly experimental , the sound featured on the record is the result of a variety of unconventional recording assets , including pitch shifting . The cover art is a 1966 photograph by Neal Boenzi of the smoggiest day in New York City history , on which the air pollution killed at least 169 people .
Modern Vampires of the City debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming Vampire Weekend 's second consecutive number @-@ one album in the United States . It received widespread acclaim and was named the best record of 2013 by several publications , while finishing second in the annual Pazz & Jop critics poll . By December 2014 , the album had sold 505 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = Background and writing = =
The success of Vampire Weekend 's second album , Contra ( 2010 ) , established the group as " one of the past decade 's great indie @-@ rock success stories . " By the time the band wrapped their world tour for Contra , they realized they had not taken a break in nearly five years . During the break , the band members pursued individual projects : Baio performed DJ sets and scored the Bob Byington film Somebody Up There Likes Me , Batmanglij recorded solo material and produced tracks for Das Racist and spent time traveling India with three friends , and Koenig collaborated with Major Lazer . Koenig had broken up with his girlfriend shortly before the release of Contra and subsequently moved out of their shared apartment in New York . Feeling " weird and aimless " , Koenig attempted to stay in Los Angeles but he returned East after four months .
By the time the band eventually regrouped in 2011 , the quartet had amassed plenty of material and made sure to take their time making a new record . Koenig and Batmanglij met several times a week to write songs , some of which they 'd later scrap . The pair took a " writing retreat " to Martha 's Vineyard , where they bore down and composed several new tracks . Working with no deadline in mind , the band began work on Modern Vampires of the City .
= = Recording and production = =
The songs for Modern Vampires of the City were recorded at several locations , including Downtown Studios in New York City , Echo Park Back House and Vox Studios in Los Angeles , Slow Death Studios in Burbank , and the apartment of Rostam Batmanglij , Vampire Weekend 's multi @-@ instrumentalist and producer . Early drafts of the tracks " Obvious Bicycle " and " Worship You " were produced at OK Go frontman , Damian Kulash 's old house in Chicago , before being taken to an official studio to work on . Batmanglij and Ariel Rechtshaid , the album 's co @-@ producer , used a pair of mirrored solid state MacBooks with UAD @-@ 2 Satellite Firewire Cards so they could take their recordings anywhere and work on them from separate locations with maximum ease . The band credits Vox Studios with the defining special quality of the recordings , especially the use of their vintage analog tape machines , with Batmanglij remarking , " Much of the overall sound and approach to the album was being able to record the drums to tape on an old Ampex machine . " The band wanted a unique drum sound , and so they recorded in a room with high ceilings and had engineer David Schiffman use a " pretty non @-@ conventional drum miking setup " in which a pair of Neumann U 47s were used as over head mics with RCA 77dx ribbon mics between the Neumanns and the drum kit for added texture . Tape recordings of the drums were then heavily treated and manipulated with Ableton Live plug @-@ ins . Lastly , the band layered samples onto select portions of the drum recordings to accent or shape the finished tone .
Modern Vampires of the City was an attempt by the band to distance themselves from the sounds featured on their debut record and Contra . " Whenever we came up with something familiar sounding , it was rejected " , said Rechtshaid . Pitch shifting was a major component of recording the album . For tracks such as " Step " , drums were recorded on a Varispeed Tape deck set to a lower speed so that they would play back faster and more high pitched . Drummer Chris Tomson would then re @-@ record the drums playing to the sped @-@ up recording to get an uptempo live take . This second recording was then slowed back down to original speed to create an " underwater " effect . The effect is featured prominently on vocals as well . Ezra Koenig 's vocals were run through Eventide H949 and 910 on tracks such as " Diane Young " , with both the pitch and formant shifted changed to manipulate the sound of recorded vocals . Bass guitar was also recorded straight to tape " with a fairly ambient miking approach where the mic was three feet away from the cabinet " . Vocals were recorded with Soundelux U99 Microphones , in combination with 1176 Classic limiter plug @-@ in , Fairchild 670 Compressor and Elektro @-@ Mess @-@ Technik 140 Plate Reverb , giving the vocals a quality Batmanglij described as " buttery " . For guitar sounds , Batmanglij chose not to mic his guitar and instead plugged his Les Paul direct @-@ in to ProTools through a SansAmp Amp Emulation Pedal , a technique used by Jimmy Page .
The band 's main mission was to give each recording warmth , feeling that modern digital recordings lacked the sound quality of older records . In an attempt to make the recordings less harsh , the band and engineers used a spectrum analyzer , Sonnox SuprEsser and heavily automated EQs to edit out harsher , colder frequencies and soften the mix . With the entire band enlisted , the quartet painstakingly listened to the record several separate times using technology from standard commercial iPod earbuds to professional equipment to ensure the record sounded nice regardless of equipment the listener owned . Desiring to " check the relative warmth levels " , the engineers would " go in and perform surgery and automate EQs " in order to make the mixes listenable . The band felt the finished product was something of a third chapter and a continuation of material explored in their previous two efforts . " We thought these three albums should look like they belong together on a bookshelf " , said Batmanglij . " We realized that there are things connecting the songs across three albums , like an invisible hand was guiding us . It does feel like we 've been able to create three distinct worlds for each album , and yet have them be interconnected . "
The title was taken from a lyric in Junior Reid 's 1990 song " One Blood " . Koenig , a fan of the song , found the phrase " Modern Vampires of the City " humorous but also " haunting " as a title for their album . The cover art features an image taken by New York Times photographer Neal Boenzi , depicting a fog @-@ shrouded , dystopian @-@ like New York City . Boenzi took the photo atop the Empire State Building in November 1966 , when the city was plagued by a smog problem . Because of the subsequent rise in global air pollution , the band chose the photo believing it may have rendered " some kind of future " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Modern Vampires of the City is a departure from the percussive , African @-@ influenced indie pop of Contra . Batmanglij said that the album has a recurring tension that distinguishes it from the band 's previous albums : " Even if the songs are mostly in a major key , there ’ s something that ’ s hanging out there that ’ s a little bit dark . And I think that ’ s reflective of the world . " According to Heather Phares of Allmusic , the album eschews the eclectic music of Contra for " a less audacious production style and smaller instrumental palette : guitar , organ , harpsichord , and the occasional sample combine into a rarefied sound that suggests a more insular version of their debut " . She pointed to how the album is bookended by the stylistically narrow chamber pop on the songs " Obvious Bicycle " and " Young Lion " . " Step " was inspired by a lyric from Souls of Mischief 's 1993 song " Step to My Girl " , which sampled Grover Washington , Jr . ' s cover of Bread 's " Aubrey " . The vocal melody of the chorus interprets the melody of " Aubrey " so close that the band had to clear it as a sample . The chorus vocals were recorded in Ableton Live using the onboard microphone in Batmanglij 's MacBook Pro . Alexis Petridis viewed that some songs echo lesser known " musical tropes " from the band 's previous albums — a mock Irish folk influence is heard on " Unbelievers " , while " Step " features " Left Banke @-@ inspired baroque pop " .
Much of the lyrics were composed by Batmanglij and Koenig in Batmanglij 's apartment ( a former factory building in Brooklyn ) and at a rented cottage on Martha 's Vineyard . The lyrics explore more mature , world @-@ weary themes such as growing old and disillusionment with American foreign policy . The album eschews the theme of privileged youth from their first two albums in favor of characters with adult responsibilities and reflections on the passage of time . Faith and mortality are recurring themes on songs such as " Unbelievers " , " Worship You " , and " Everlasting Arms " . Koenig likened their first three albums to Brideshead Revisited : " The naïve joyous school days in the beginning . Then the expansion of the world , travel , seeing other places , learning a little bit more about how people live . And then the end is a little bit of growing up , starting to think more seriously about your life and your faith . If people could look at our three albums as a bildungsroman , I ’ d be O.K. with that . " According to Brice Ezell from PopMatters , Modern Vampires of the City is " very much an indie rock record " because of Koenig 's voice and diction , which reveals " the youth that he and his bandmates so often strive to shrug off . " Ezell asserts that , on songs such as " Unbelievers " , the " reckless abandon " expressed by the lyrics reveals " the group 's grasp on the genuine rebellion that indie rock ought to strive for . "
= = Release and reception = =
Modern Vampires of the City received widespread acclaim from critics when it was released on May 14 , 2013 , by XL Recordings . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 84 , based on 51 reviews . In The Independent , Simon Price called it Vampire Weekend 's " most cohesive and convincing effort yet " featuring their most accessible compositions , while Ryan Dombal from Pitchfork Media said the singing suited the music fluidly on songs that sounded more natural and dynamic than the band 's previous work . Alexis Petridis , lead critic for The Guardian , believed Vampire Weekend successfully avoided the gimmicky sounds of their previous albums and wrote more genuine lyrics dealing with mortality rather than " arch depictions of moneyed young Wasp lives " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Nathan Brackett said the album featured a particular spirit and songcraft evocative of urban life , while Robert Christgau appreciated how many twists the coming of age themes revealed . In his review for MSN Music , Christgau found the record similar to the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) because of how each lyric and musical element was " pleasurable in itself and aptly situated in the sturdy songs and tracks , so that the whole signifies without a hint of concept . "
In a less enthusiastic review , NME magazine 's John Calvert felt Vampire Weekend sacrificed " the sonic smarts that made them " on an otherwise " gorgeous album " . Greg Kot , writing for the Chicago Tribune , said the band occasionally missteps with attempts at ingenuity on songs such as " Ya Hey " and " Finger Back " . Slant Magazine 's Jesse Cataldo said the songs may be dense and wordy , although he also found them " immediately potent on a purely visceral level , striking a perfect balance that makes for what 's perhaps the best album of the year " .
In the first week Modern Vampires of the City was released , it debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 134 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was Vampire Weekend 's second consecutive number @-@ one record on the Billboard 200 , as well as the nineteenth independently @-@ distributed album to top the chart in the Nielsen SoundScan era ( 1991 – present ) . The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number three with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 805 copies in the United Kingdom , becoming the band 's third consecutive top @-@ twenty album there . By December 2014 , it had been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold 505 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = = Accolades = = =
Modern Vampires of the City appeared on many critics ' year @-@ end lists of 2013 's best albums . It finished second in voting for the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice . At the 2014 Grammy Awards , the record won in the category of Best Alternative Music Album . According to Acclaimed Music , it is the 218th most ranked record on lists of the greatest albums of all time .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ezra Koenig , except where noted . All music composed by Rostam Batmanglij and Koenig , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Vampire Weekend = = =
Ezra Koenig – lead vocals , piano on " Unbelievers "
Rostam Batmanglij – piano , guitars , banjo , vocal harmonies and backing vocals , drum and synth programming , keyboards , shaker , lead vocals on " Young Lion "
Chris Baio – bass
Chris Tomson – drums
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Ariel Rechtshaid – additional drum and synth programming on " Obvious Bicycle " , " Unbelievers " , " Diane Young " , and " Hudson " , additional bass on " Everlasting Arms " , production , engineering
Jeff Curtin – additional drums on " Diane Young " , engineering
Brendan Ryan – accordion on " Unbelievers "
Johnny Cuomo – flistle on " Unbelievers "
Danny T. Levin – trumpet on " Unbelievers " and " Hudson "
Elizabeth Lea – trombone on " Unbelievers " and " Hudson "
Seth Shafer – tuba on " Unbelievers " and " Hudson "
Adam Schatz – saxophone on " Diane Young "
Angel Deradoorian – backing vocals on " Obvious Bicycle " , " Worship You " and " Young Lion " , additional vocal arrangement
Fanny Franklin – backing vocals on " Finger Back "
= = Charts = =
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= Andean condor =
The Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ) is a South American bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae and is the only member of the genus Vultur . Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America , the Andean condor is the largest flying bird in the world by combined measurement of weight and wingspan . It has a maximum wingspan of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 10 ft 10 in ) exceeded only by the wingspans of four seabirds / water birds — the roughly 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) maximum of the wandering albatross , southern royal albatross , great white pelican and Dalmatian pelican .
It is a large black vulture with a ruff of white feathers surrounding the base of the neck and , especially in the male , large white patches on the wings . The head and neck are nearly featherless , and are a dull red color , which may flush and therefore change color in response to the bird 's emotional state . In the male , there is a wattle on the neck and a large , dark red comb or caruncle on the crown of the head . Unlike most birds of prey , the male is larger than the female .
The condor is primarily a scavenger , feeding on carrion . It prefers large carcasses , such as those of deer or cattle . It reaches sexual maturity at five or six years of age and nests at elevations of up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) , generally on inaccessible rock ledges . One or two eggs are usually laid . It is one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds , with a lifespan of over 70 years in some cases .
The Andean condor is a national symbol of Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru and plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the Andean regions . The Andean condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN . It is threatened by habitat loss and by secondary poisoning from carcasses killed by hunters . Captive breeding programs have been instituted in several countries .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The Andean condor was described by Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae and retains its original binomial name of Vultur gryphus . The Andean condor is sometimes called the Argentinean condor , Bolivian condor , Chilean condor , Colombian condor , Ecuadorian condor , or Peruvian condor after one of the nations to which it is native . The generic term Vultur is directly taken from the Latin vultur or voltur , which means " vulture " . Its specific epithet is derived from a variant of the Greek word γρυπός ( grupós , " hook @-@ nosed " ) . The word condor itself is derived from the Quechua kuntur .
The exact taxonomic placement of the Andean condor and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world and are not closely related . Just how different the two families are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead described them as incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible .
The Andean condor is the only accepted living species of its genus , Vultur . Unlike the California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) , which is known from extensive fossil remains and some additional ones of congeners , the fossil record of the Andean condor recovered to date is scant . Presumed Plio @-@ Pleistocene species of South American condors were later recognized to be not different from the present species , although one known only from a few rather small bones found in a Pliocene deposit of Tarija Department , Bolivia , may have been a smaller palaeosubspecies , V. gryphus patruus .
= = Description = =
Although it is on average about seven to eight cm shorter from beak to tail than the California condor , the Andean condor is larger in wingspan , which ranges from 270 to 320 cm ( 8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 6 in ) . It is also typically heavier , reaching a weight of 11 to 15 kg ( 24 to 33 lb ) for males and 8 to 11 kg ( 18 to 24 lb ) for females . Overall length can range from 100 to 130 cm ( 3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 3 in ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 75 @.@ 7 – 85 @.@ 2 cm ( 29 @.@ 8 – 33 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 33 – 38 cm ( 13 – 15 in ) and the tarsus is 11 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 in ) . Measurements are usually taken from specimens reared in captivity . The mean weight is 11 @.@ 3 kg ( 25 lb ) , with the males averaging about a kilogram more at 12 @.@ 5 kg ( 28 lb ) , the females a kilogram less at 10 @.@ 1 kg ( 22 lb ) . According to a recently published manual of avian body masses , the species possesses the heaviest average weight for any living flying bird or animal , ahead of competitors such as trumpeter swans ( Cygnus buccinator ) and Dalmatian pelicans ( Pelecanus crispus ) . However , another resources claims a mean species body mass of 10 @.@ 3 kg ( 23 lb ) for the Andean condor . The Andean condor is the largest living land bird capable of flight if measured in terms of average weight and wingspan , although male bustards of the largest species ( far more sexually dimorphic in size ) can weigh more at maximum . The mean wingspan is around 283 cm ( 9 ft 3 in ) and the wings have the largest surface area ( measured in square centimeters ) of any extant bird . Among living bird species , only the great albatrosses and the two largest species of pelican exceed the Andean condor in average and maximal wingspan .
The adult plumage is a uniform black , with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck and , especially in the male , large patches or bands of white on the wings which do not appear until the completion of the bird 's first moulting . The head and neck are red to blackish @-@ red and have few feathers . The head and neck are meticulously kept clean by the bird , and their baldness is an adaptation for hygiene , allowing the skin to be exposed to the sterilizing effects of dehydration and ultraviolet light at high altitudes . The crown of the head is flattened . In the male , the head is crowned with a dark red caruncle or comb , while the skin of his neck lies in folds , forming a wattle . The skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state , which serves to communicate between individuals . Juveniles have a grayish @-@ brown general coloration , blackish head and neck skin , and a brown ruff .
The middle toe is greatly elongated , and the hind one is only slightly developed , while the talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt . The feet are thus more adapted to walking , and are of little use as weapons or organs of prehension as in birds of prey and Old World vultures . The beak is hooked , and adapted to tear rotting meat . The irises of the male are brown , while those of the female are deep red . The eyelids lack eyelashes . Contrary to the usual rule for sexual dimorphism among birds of prey , the female is smaller than the male .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Andean condor is found in South America in the Andes , including the Santa Marta Mountains . In the north , its range begins in Venezuela and Colombia , where it is extremely rare , then continues south along the Andes in Ecuador , Peru , and Chile , through Bolivia and western Argentina to the Tierra del Fuego . In the early 19th century , the Andean condor bred from western Venezuela to Tierra del Fuego , along the entire chain of the Andes , but its range has been greatly reduced due to human activity . Its habitat is mainly composed of open grasslands and alpine areas up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in elevation . It prefers relatively open , non @-@ forested areas which allow it to spot carrion from the air , such as the páramo or rocky , mountainous areas in general . It occasionally ranges to lowlands in eastern Bolivia and southwestern Brazil , descends to lowland desert areas in Chile and Peru , and is found over southern @-@ beech forests in Patagonia .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The condor soars with its wings held horizontally and its primary feathers bent upwards at the tips . The lack of a large sternum to anchor its correspondingly large flight muscles physiologically identifies it as primarily being a soarer . It flaps its wings on rising from the ground , but after attaining a moderate elevation it flaps its wings very rarely , relying on thermals to stay aloft . Charles Darwin commented on having watched them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings . It prefers to roost on high places from which it can launch without major wing @-@ flapping effort . Andean condors are often seen soaring near rock cliffs , using the heat thermals to aid them in rising in the air .
Like other New World vultures , the Andean condor has the unusual habit of urohidrosis : it often empties its cloaca onto its legs and feet . A cooling effect through evaporation has been proposed as a reason for this behaviour , but it makes no sense in the cold Andean habitat of the bird . Because of this habit , their legs are often streaked with a white buildup of uric acid .
There is a well @-@ developed social structure within large groups of condors , with competition to determine a ' pecking order ' by body language , competitive play behavior , and vocalizations . Generally , mature males tend to be at the top of the pecking order , with post @-@ dispersal immature males tending to be near the bottom .
= = = Diet = = =
The Andean condor is a scavenger , feeding mainly on carrion . Wild condors inhabit large territories , often traveling more than 200 km ( 120 mi ) a day in search of carrion . In inland areas , they prefer large carcasses . Naturally , they feed on the largest carcasses available , which can include llamas ( Lama glama ) , alpacas ( Vicugna pacos ) , rheas ( Rhea ssp . ) , guanacos ( Lama guanicoe ) , deer and armadillos . However , most inland condors now live largely off of domestic animals , which are now more widespread in South America , such as cattle ( Bos primigenius taurus ) , horses ( Equus ferus caballus ) , donkeys ( Equus africanus asinus ) , mules , sheep ( Ovis aries ) , pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) , goats ( Capra aegagrus hircus ) and dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) . They also feed on the carcasses of introduced game species such as wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) , rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) , foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) and red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) . For condors who live around the coast , the diet consists mainly of beached carcasses of marine mammals , largely cetaceans . They will also raid the nests of smaller birds to feed on the eggs . Andean condors have been observed to do some hunting of small , live animals , such as rodents , birds and rabbits , which ( given their lack of powerful , grasping feet or developed hunting technique ) they usually kill by jabbing repeatedly with their bill . Coastal areas provide a constant food supply , and in particularly plentiful areas , some Andean condors limit their foraging area to several kilometers of beach @-@ front land . They locate carrion by spotting it or by following other scavengers , such as corvids or other vultures . It may follow New World vultures of the genus Cathartes — the turkey vulture ( C. aura ) , the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture ( C. burrovianus ) , and the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture ( C. melambrotus ) — to carcasses . The Cathartes vultures forage by smell , detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan , a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals . These smaller vultures cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor , and their interactions are often an example of mutual dependence between species . Black vultures ( Coragyps atratus ) , king vultures ( Sarcoramphus papa ) and even mammalian scavengers may sometimes track Cathartes vultures for carcasses but the condor is invariably dominant among the scavengers in its range . Andean condors are intermittent eaters in the wild , often going for a few days without eating , then gorging themselves on several pounds at once , sometimes to the point of being unable to lift off the ground . Because its feet and talons are not adapted to grasping , it must feed while on the ground . Like other carrion @-@ feeders , it plays an important role in its ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Sexual maturity and breeding behavior do not appear in the Andean condor until the bird is five or six years of age . It may live to be 50 plus , and it mates for life . During courtship displays , the skin of the male 's neck flushes , changing from dull red to bright yellow , and inflates . He approaches the female with neck outstretched , revealing the inflated neck and the chest patch , while hissing , then extends his wings and stands erect while clicking his tongue . Other courtship rituals include hissing and clucking while hopping with wings partially spread , and dancing . The Andean condor prefers to roost and breed at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 to 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . Its nest , which consists of a few sticks placed around the eggs , is created on inaccessible ledges of rock . However , in coastal areas of Peru , where there are few cliffs , some nests are simply partially shaded crannies scraped out against boulders on slopes . It deposits one or two bluish @-@ white eggs , weighing about 280 g ( 9 @.@ 9 oz ) and ranging from 75 to 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length , during the months of February and March every second year . The egg hatches after 54 to 58 days of incubation by both parents . If the chick or egg is lost or removed , another egg is laid to take its place . Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for hand @-@ rearing , causing the parents to lay a second egg , which they are generally allowed to raise .
The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents . They are able to fly after six months , but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until age two , when they are displaced by a new clutch . Healthy adults have no natural predators , but large birds of prey and mammalian predators , like foxes , may take eggs or hatchlings . Predation is relatively uncommon , since the vigilant parents often aggressively displace birds of prey who come near and the rocky , precipitous location of most nests are difficult for mammals to access .
= = = Longevity = = =
Being a slowly @-@ maturing bird with no known natural predators in adulthood , an Andean condor is quite a long @-@ lived bird . Longevity and mortality rates are not known to have been extensively studied in the wild . Some estimations of lifespans of wild birds has exceeded 50 years . In 1983 , the Guinness Book of World Records considered the longest @-@ lived bird of any species with a confirmed lifespan was an Andean condor that died after surviving 72 years in captivity , having been captured from the wild as a juvenile of undetermined age . Several species of parrot have been reported to live for perhaps over 100 years , but these ( at least in 1983 ) were not considered authenticated . Another early captive @-@ held specimen of condor reportedly lived for 71 years . However , these lifespans have been exceeded by a male , nicknamed " Thaao " , that was kept at Beardsley Zoo in Connecticut . Thaao was born in captivity in 1930 and died on January 26 , 2010 , making him 79 years of age . This would be the greatest verified age ever known for a bird .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Conservation status = = =
The Andean condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN . It was first placed on the United States Endangered Species list in 1970 , a status which is assigned to an animal that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range . Threats to its population include loss of habitat needed for foraging , secondary poisoning from animals killed by hunters and persecution . It is threatened mainly in the northern area of its range , and is extremely rare in Venezuela and Colombia , where it has undergone considerable declines in recent years . Because it is adapted to very low mortality and has correspondingly low reproductive rates , it is extremely vulnerable to human persecution , most of which stems from the fact that it is perceived as a threat by farmers due to alleged attacks on livestock . Education programs have been implemented by conservationists to dispel this misconception . Reintroduction programs using captive @-@ bred Andean condors , which release birds hatched in North American zoos into the wild to bolster populations , have been introduced in Argentina , Venezuela , and Colombia . The first captive @-@ bred Andean condors were released into the wild in 1989 . When raising condors , human contact is minimal ; chicks are fed with glove puppets which resemble adult Andean condors in order to prevent the chicks from imprinting on humans , which would endanger them upon release as they would not be wary of humans . The condors are kept in aviaries for three months prior to release , where they acclimatize to an environment similar to that which they will be released in . Released condors are tracked by satellite in order to observe their movements and to monitor whether they are still alive .
In response to the capture of all the wild individuals of the California condor , in 1988 the US Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean condors into the wild in California . Only females were released to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States . The experiment was a success , and all the Andean condors were recaptured and re @-@ released in South America before the reintroduction of the California condors took place .
= = = Role in culture = = =
The Andean condor is a national symbol of Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Peru and Venezuelan Andes states . It is the national bird of Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , and Ecuador . It plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the South American Andean regions , and has been represented in Andean art from c . 2500 BCE onward , and they are a part of indigenous Andean religions . In Andean mythology , the Andean condor was associated with the sun deity , and was believed to be the ruler of the upper world . The Andean condor is considered a symbol of power and health by many Andean cultures , and it was believed that the bones and organs of the Andean condor possessed medicinal powers , sometimes leading to the hunting and killing of condors to obtain its bones and organs . In some versions of Peruvian bullfighting , a condor is tied to the back of a bull , where it pecks at the animal as bullfighters fight it . The condor generally survives and is set free .
In Peru , they are occasionally shot , but more often revered and used for ceremonial purposes . The Yawar Fiesta is a celebration , the pinnacle of which is the tying of an Andean condor to the back of a bull , allowing the condor to kill the bull with its talons before being released . This ceremony is a symbolic representation of the power of the Andean peoples ( the condor ) over the Spanish ( the bull ) . There is also a ceremony known as the arranque del condor in which a live Andean condor is suspended from a frame and is punched to death by horsemen as they ride by .
The Andean condor is a popular figure on stamps in many countries , appearing on one for Ecuador in 1958 , Argentina in 1960 , Peru in 1973 , Bolivia in 1985 , Colombia in 1992 , Chile in 2001 , and Venezuela in 2004 . It has also appeared on the coins and banknotes of Colombia and Chile . The condor is featured in several coats of arms of Andean countries as a symbol of Andes mountains .
The Andean condor is depicted on the logo of Avianca and Aerolineas Argentinas , which are two of the largest airlines in South America .
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= New Jersey Route 92 =
Route 92 was a 6 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 8 km ) proposed branch of the New Jersey Turnpike that would have run from west to east , beginning at U.S. Route 1 just north of Ridge Road ( old CR 522 ) in South Brunswick Township , east along Route 32 , to Exit 8A in Monroe Township . Route 92 was also assigned in the 1953 renumbering and by the late 1950s it was named the Princeton – Hightstown Bypass , a freeway planned to connect the Somerset Freeway ( an unbuilt section of Interstate 95 ) in Montgomery Township ( near Skillman ) , with Route 33 in East Windsor Township ( east of Hightstown ) . In 1987 , the planned Route 92 was truncated to only run east from U.S. Route 1 near Kingston . New plans were announced in 1994 , this time running to US 1 near Princeton . After public hearings found opposition was still strong , the planned route was truncated to a much shorter bypass of Hightstown only and numbered Route 133 . Construction on the road , the first project awarded under New Jersey 's modified Design @-@ build program , began on September 20 , 1996 and was opened November 30 , 1999 .
The first plans for Route 92 's new alignment , running from Exit 8A of the New Jersey Turnpike ( rather than exit 8 ) west to U.S. Route 206 near Rocky Hill , were made in 1988 , using funds from the canceled Somerset Freeway . In 1992 , the plans were formally transferred to the New Jersey Turnpike Authority , which announced the new plans in 1994 , again dropping the segment west of US 1 . All but $ 6 @.@ 5 million of the $ 400 million project was reassigned in November 2005 to widen the Turnpike in southern New Jersey .
= = History = =
= = = Princeton – Hightstown alignment = = =
The first proposed alignments for a freeway from the borough of Princeton to the community of Hightstown originates in the designation of State Highway Route 31 @-@ A in 1938 by the New Jersey State Legislature . Construction commenced on the new route , building a new bridge over the Pennsylvania Railroad a year later . This new , 104 @.@ 00 feet ( 31 @.@ 70 m ) long bridge replaced the at @-@ grade crossing on Washington Road , which is now a dead @-@ end . When the state highway renumbering occurred on January 1 , 1953 , the new freeway proposals were designated as Route 92 . ( Route 31 @-@ A was decommissioned at that point , and repealed from state law in 1992 . ) The first assigned alignment of the Route 92 Freeway dates to the late 1950s , when the New Jersey State Highway Department as the Princeton @-@ Hightstown Bypass , a new freeway to connect the Somerset Freeway ( an unbuilt portion of Interstate 95 in the Montgomery Township community of Skillman ) eastward to a junction with Route 33 in the community of East Windsor Township ( east of Hightstown ) . This new freeway was to be constructed by the State Highway Department and maintained by the aforementioned corporation . By 1967 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation announced plans and although monetary issues stalled any forward movements , federal funding soon came in to help resume planning .
The highway was proposed and received opposition from the communities of Princeton and Plainsboro , who cited destruction of open space and wetlands , which would reduce the quality of local life . In 1982 , the Somerset Freeway was canceled as a project , and the $ 228 million ( 1982 USD ) that came with it was given around by a partnership , with the New Jersey Department of Transportation suggesting the Route 92 Freeway become one of the six projects to receive funding . Final designs for the freeway were underway in 1986 , amid controversy . As a result , the Department of Transportation dropped the section west of U.S. Route 1 in South Brunswick Township only a year later . After plans for Route 92 were realigned northward in 1988 , the Princeton @-@ Hightstown Bypass was revived in 1994 for construction of a new bypass of Hightstown . This new , 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) long freeway was designed under the Department of Transportation 's first modified design @-@ build program and construction commenced in 1996 . The contractors in hire for the project were the Schaivone Construction Group , who set a bid for $ 57 million ( 1996 USD ) . The new freeway , designated as Route 133 instead of Route 92 , was opened in November 1999 , ending the four @-@ decade fight to construction freeway around Hightstown . The delay occurred due to substantial erosion caused by the weakening Hurricane Floyd in 1999 .
= = = Turnpike Extension alignment = = =
In 1988 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation realigned the proposed Route 92 Freeway off the Princeton @-@ Hightstown Bypass to a route further north . This new alignment was to run from U.S. Route 206 near the community of Rocky Hill in Somerset County to Interchange 8A on the New Jersey Turnpike in Monroe Township in Middlesex County , using the alignment of Route 32 at its eastern terminus . The state cited that this new northerly alignment , funded by the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , would serve better needs of the people . In 1992 , the proposal for Route 92 was turned over to the New Jersey Turnpike Authority from the Department of Transportation , citing the cost was too elevated . Two years later , the Turnpike Authority released new plans for the Route 92 alignment , this time creating a 6 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 8 km ) limited @-@ access highway from U.S. Route 1 in South Brunswick Township to Interchange 8A in Monroe Township . This new highway was to cost the Turnpike Authority $ 300 million ( 1994 USD ) . The opposition to the freeway shifted northward , with South Brunswick residents complaining the divide of their community . The environmentalists also cried foul on the destruction of 33 acres ( 130 @,@ 000 m2 ) of wetlands and the encroachment on local open space . Giving their hands to these factors , the Environmental Protection Agency opposed this project twice during the 1990s , once in January 1997 and once in October 1998 . The state realigned the proposals to reduce the loss of wetlands , and also proposed the addition of 57 new acres ( 230 @,@ 000 m2 ) of wetlands . This proposal gained the support of the state 's Department of Environmental Protection , but not the federal .
In February 2000 , the Turnpike Authority gave in to the orders from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to have Route 92 undergo an environmental impact study , which could go up to two years , to help see if they should award the contract for construction . Opponents of the Route 92 project hailed this decision for the thought that the environmental impact statement ( EIS ) would back up their beliefs . Four months later , the Army Corps of Engineers held a meeting to decide what to take into account for the impact statement and held opinions from both the supporters and opponents of the freeway . Around this time , locals sent an editorial to News 12 New Jersey to say that Middlesex County Route 522 , already a four @-@ lane freeway , should become the primary freeway across the portion of Middlesex County . However , the Turnpike Authority replied citing that Route 522 would be inadequate to handle the amount of traffic by 2015 that Route 92 was to handle . In December 2003 , the Army Corps of Engineers approved the statement and although agencies still disagreed on the wetlands issues , held public hearings in 2004 .
In 2005 , the Turnpike Authority relocated most of the Route 92 funding to the widening of the New Jersey Turnpike through the southern and central portions of New Jersey . The remaining funds , $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( 2005 USD ) , left the project in limbo , and the Army Corps of Engineers released a final statement , finding no other alternative outside of a new alignment . On December 1 , 2006 , the New Jersey Turnpike Authority terminated its plans to build the spur from Ridge and 1 in South Brunswick to 8A in Monroe . Since most of the 92 funds had already been diverted to the Turnpike Authority 's main concern , it made more sense to cancel the spur due to lack of funding . The Authority 's main focus is widening the Turnpike between Exits 6 in Mansfield Township and 8A in Monroe Township in anticipation of increased traffic coming from the Pennsylvania Turnpike when modifications there are completed .
= = Proposed alignments = =
= = = Princeton – Hightstown Bypass = = =
The first alignment of the Route 92 Freeway , proposed in the 1950s , was to begin at an interchange with Interstate 95 , known as the Somerset Freeway in the community of Skillman ( in Montgomery Township ) . The route was supposed to head eastward , crossing an interchange with U.S. Route 206 in Montgomery Township before crossing over County Route 518 in Rocky Hill and interchanging with New Jersey Route 27 in Kingston . The route would then turn to the south and interchange with U.S. Route 1 and County Route 522 in the community of Monmouth Junction . From there , Route 92 would cross over the Pennsylvania Railroad to the north of New Jersey Route 64 in Plainsboro , turning to the southeast along the Millstone River . After crossing the Millstone , Route 92 was to interchange with County Route 535 in Cranbury before entering East Windsor , where it would interchange with U.S. Route 130 . From there , the route would meet the New Jersey Turnpike at Interchange 8 before reaching its eastern terminus at an interchange with New Jersey Route 33 in the Twin Rivers community in East Windsor .
= = = Turnpike Extension alignment ( post @-@ 1994 ) = = =
On the turnpike extension alignment proposed in 1994 , Route 92 was to begin at a trumpet interchange with U.S. Route 1 in South Brunswick . The interchange would have also served access to Schalks Crossing Road ( Middlesex CR 683 ) . The highway was to head to the southeast and cross under Perrine Road , which was proposed to have a brand new overpass and a westbound interchange . ( There was also to be an eastbound entrance ramp from Perrine Road . ) After curving to the east , Route 92 was to enter Plainsboro , cross the New Jersey Transit 's Northeast Corridor Line and Devil 's Brook , and then re @-@ enter South Brunswick . The route was to continue eastward , passing to the north of McCormack Lake and begin following Friendship Road until the intersection with Miller Road . Route 92 was to turn to the southeast along with Friendship Road and cross through a toll station . It would have entered a large interchange with U.S. Route 130 and an access route to Friendship Road . Route 92 's interchange with Route 130 was to be a cloverleaf interchange and from there , the highway was to follow current day Route 32 through Monroe Township . There , the highway was to continue southeastward , interchanging with local roads and continuing through an interchange with County Route 535 before merging into Interchange 8A with the New Jersey Turnpike , where Route 92 was to end .
= = Proposed interchanges = =
= = = Route 92 ( Princeton @-@ Hightstown ) = = =
= = = Route 92 ( post @-@ 1994 ) = = =
The entire route was in Middlesex County .
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= 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division , originally known as the 14th Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the United States Army , and a part of the 7th Infantry Division . The brigade was based at Fort Ord , California for most of its history .
Activated for service in World War I , the unit saw brief service in the conflict , but never fought as an entire unit . After the Korean War , it was reactivated as a brigade , and was returned to the United States where it saw action in Operation Just Cause and Operation Golden Pheasant . The brigade sent units to support 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division during the 1992 Los Angeles Riots . The 3rd Brigade was deactivated in 1993 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division was first constituted and activated in the regular army as the 14th Infantry Brigade on 6 December 1917 at Camp Wheeler , Georgia . One month later it organized and prepared for deployment to Europe to participate in World War I as a part of the American Expeditionary Force , along with the rest of the division . The 14th Infantry Brigade was one of two brigades assigned to the division headquarters , the other being the 13th Infantry Brigade . Serving within the brigade were the 64th Infantry Regiment and the 56th Infantry Regiment , bringing the total strength of the brigade to around 8 @,@ 000 men . Most of the brigade sailed to Europe aboard the SS Leviathan .
During its time in France , the brigade did not participate as a whole in any engagements , though its infantry and reconnaissance elements did engage German forces . On 11 October 1918 the 14th Brigade and 7th Division first came under shelling attacks . At Saint @-@ Mihiel the units also came under chemical attack . Elements of the 7th probed up toward Prény near the Moselle River , capturing positions and driving German forces out of the region . It was around this time that the division first received its shoulder sleeve insignia , which the 14th Brigade wore as a part of the division .
In early November , the 14th Brigade began readying itself for an attack on the Hindenburg Line with the division , which was part of the Second Army . The division launched a reconnaissance in force on the Voëvre Plain , but before it could begin a full assault , the Allies signed an Armistice ending hostilities . After 33 days on the front lines , the 7th Division suffered 1 @,@ 988 casualties . It was awarded one campaign streamer for Lorraine . The brigade performed occupation duties for the next year as it began preparations to return to the continental United States .
The 14th Brigade returned to the United States in late 1919 , and gradually demobilized at Camp George G. Meade , Maryland until 1921 . On 22 September of that year , the Headquarters Company , 7th Division was inactivated , and the 13th and 14th Brigades deactivated with it .
= = = Reorganization = = =
On 1 July 1940 , the 7th Infantry Division was reactivated at Camp Ord , California Under the command of Major General Joseph W. Stilwell . The Headquarters element , 13th and 14th Brigades did not reactivate , however , and the division was instead centered on three infantry regiments ; the 17th Infantry Regiment , the 32nd Infantry Regiment , and the 53rd Infantry Regiment . The 14th Brigade was not activated for the duration of the war .
= = = Post @-@ Korean War = = =
In the wake of the Korean War , between 1953 and 1971 , the 7th Infantry Division defended the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Its main garrison was Camp Casey , South Korea . During these occupation duties , the division saw a complete reorganization in compliance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan . In 1963 , the division 's former headquarters company grew into the 1st Brigade , 7th Infantry Division while the 13th Infantry Brigade became the 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . The 14th Infantry Brigade was redesignated at the 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . These renamed formations retained all of the lineage and campaign credits of their previous designations . On 2 April 1971 , the division and its brigades returned to the United States and inactivated at Fort Lewis , Washington .
In October 1974 the 7th and two brigades reactivated at their former garrison , Fort Ord ( a National Guard " roundout " brigade , the 41st , would periodically train with the division as its third brigade ) . The unit did not see any action in Vietnam or during the post war era , but was tasked to keep a close watch on South American developments . It trained at Fort Ord , Camp Roberts , and Fort Hunter Liggett . On 1 October 1985 the division redesignated as the 7th Infantry Division ( Light ) , organized again as a light infantry division . It was the first US division specially designed as such . The various battalions of the 17th , 31st , and 32nd Regiments moved from the division , replaced by battalions from other regiments , including battalions from the 21st Infantry Regiment , the 27th Infantry Regiment , and the 9th Infantry Regiment . The 27th Infantry and the 9th Infantry Regiment participated in Operation Golden Pheasant in Honduras . In 1989 the 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division participated in Operation Just Cause in Panama .
In 1991 the Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the closing of Fort Ord due to the escalating cost of living on the Central California coastline . By 1994 , the post was closed and the Division was to move to Fort Lewis , Washington . The 3rd Brigade 's 3rd Battalion , 17th Infantry Regiment and other assigned military police companies participated in one final mission in the United States before inactivation ; quelling the 1992 Los Angeles Riots , called Operation Garden Plot , in conjunction with the entire 2nd Brigade , 7th Division . In 1993 the division was slated to move to Fort Lewis , WA and instead inactivated at Fort Ord , CA as part of the post @-@ Cold War draw @-@ down of the US Army , but the 2nd and 3rd Brigades of the 7th inactivated at Ft . Ord in 1993 . The 1st Brigade relocated to Ft . Lewis and was later reflagged as the 2nd Brigade of the 2nd Infantry Division in 1994 , and the division headquarters formally inactivated on 16 June 1994 at Fort Lewis .
= = Honors = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Pressure system =
A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 870 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) and the highest recorded 1 @,@ 085 @.@ 7 hectopascals ( 32 @.@ 06 inHg ) . High- and low @-@ pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper @-@ level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiational cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather experienced locally . Low @-@ pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes through the day , whereas high @-@ pressure systems normally associated with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .
= = Low @-@ pressure system = =
A low @-@ pressure area , or " low " , is a region where the atmospheric pressure at sea level is below that of surrounding locations . Low @-@ pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low @-@ pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of atmospheric dynamics , areas of wind divergence aloft occur in two areas :
on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength , which extends through the troposphere )
ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which have smaller wavelengths
Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity .
Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large @-@ scale thermal lows over continents help create pressure gradients that drive monsoon circulations . Low @-@ pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When such an occurrence occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well @-@ defined circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern hemisphere or the southern hemisphere during November .
Atmospheric lift caused by low @-@ level wind convergence into the surface low brings clouds and potentially precipitation . The low @-@ pressure area 's cloudy skies act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation is less , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night , the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Around the world , low @-@ pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( in particular , in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low @-@ pressure weather systems are typically known as depressions . The lowest recorded non @-@ tornadic barometric pressure was 870 hectopascals ( 26 inHg ) , occurred in the Western Pacific during Typhoon Tip on 12 October 1979 .
= = High @-@ pressure system = =
High @-@ pressure systems are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence through the lower portion of the troposphere . In general , subsidence will dry out an air mass by adiabatic or compressional heating . Thus , high pressure typically brings clear skies . During the day , since no clouds are present to reflect sunlight , there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise . At night , the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation ( i.e. heat energy from the surface ) is not absorbed , giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . When surface winds become light , the subsidence produced directly under a high @-@ pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge , leading to widespread haze . If the low @-@ level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight , fog can form .
Strong but vertically shallow high @-@ pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses . The low , sharp temperature inversion can lead to areas of persistent stratocumulus or stratus cloud , known in colloquial terms as anticyclonic gloom . The type of weather brought about by an anticyclone depends on its origin . For example , extensions of the Azores high bubble pressure may bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter , as they are warmed at the base and will trap moisture as they move over the warmer oceans . High pressures that build to the north and extend southwards will often bring clear weather . This is due to being cooled at the base ( as opposed to warmed ) , which helps prevent clouds from forming . The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was 1 @,@ 085 @.@ 7 hectopascals ( 32 @.@ 06 inHg ) measured in Tonsontsengel , Mongolia on 19 December 2001 .
= = Surface weather maps = =
A surface weather analysis is a type of weather map that depicts positions for high- and low @-@ pressure areas , as well as various types of synoptic scale systems such as frontal zones . Isotherms can be drawn on these maps , which are lines of equal temperature . Isotherms are drawn normally as solid lines at a preferred temperature interval . They show temperature gradients , which can be useful in finding fronts , which are on the warm side of large temperature gradients . By plotting the freezing line , isotherms can be useful in determination of precipitation type . Mesoscale convective systems such as tropical cyclones , outflow boundaries and squall lines also are analyzed on surface weather analyses .
Isobaric analysis is performed on these maps , which involves the construction of lines of equal mean sea level pressure . The innermost closed lines indicate the positions of relative maxima and minima in the pressure field . The minima are called low @-@ pressure areas , and the maxima are called high @-@ pressure areas . A High is often shown as H , and a low is shown as L. Elongated areas of low pressure , or troughs , are sometimes plotted as thick , brown dashed lines down the trough axis . Isobars are commonly used to place surface boundaries from the horse latitudes poleward , while streamline analyses are used in the tropics . A streamline analysis is a series of arrows oriented parallel to wind , showing wind motion within a certain geographic area . Cs depict cyclonic flow or likely areas of low pressure , while As depict anticyclonic flow or likely positions of high @-@ pressure areas . An area of confluent streamlines shows the location of shearlines within the tropics and subtropics .
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= Diplodocus =
Diplodocus ( / dɪˈplɒdəkəs / , / daɪˈplɒdəkəs / , or / ˌdɪploʊˈdoʊkəs / ) is an extinct genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaurs whose fossils were first discovered in 1877 by S. W. Williston . The generic name , coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878 , is a neo @-@ Latin term derived from Greek διπλός ( diplos ) " double " and δοκός ( dokos ) " beam " , in reference to its double @-@ beamed chevron bones located in the underside of the tail . Chevron bones of this particular form were initially believed to be unique to Diplodocus ; however , since then they have been discovered in other members of the diplodocid family as well as in nondiplodocid sauropods , such as Mamenchisaurus . It is now common scientific opinion that Seismosaurus hallorum is a species of Diplodocus .
This genus of dinosaurs lived in what is now western North America at the end of the Jurassic period . Diplodocus is one of the more common dinosaur fossils found in the middle to upper Morrison Formation , between about 154 and 152 million years ago , during the late Kimmeridgian age . The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs , such as Apatosaurus , Barosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Brontosaurus , and Camarasaurus .
Diplodocus is among the most easily identifiable dinosaurs , with its typical sauropod shape , long neck and tail , and four sturdy legs . For many years , it was the longest dinosaur known . Its great size may have been a deterrent to the predators Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus : their remains have been found in the same strata , which suggests that they coexisted with Diplodocus .
= = Description = =
Among the best @-@ known sauropods , Diplodocus were very large , long @-@ necked , quadrupedal animals , with long , whip @-@ like tails . Their fore limbs were slightly shorter than their hind limbs , resulting in a largely horizontal posture . The skeletal structure of these long @-@ necked , long @-@ tailed animals supported by four sturdy legs have been compared with suspension bridges . In fact , Diplodocus carnegii is currently one of the longest dinosaurs known from a complete skeleton , with a total length of 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . Modern mass estimates for Diplodocus carnegii have tended to be in the 10 @-@ to @-@ 16 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 11 @-@ to @-@ 18 @-@ short @-@ ton ) range .
Diplodocus hallorum , known from partial remains , was even larger , and is estimated to have been the size of four elephants . When first described in 1991 , discoverer David Gillette calculated it may have been up to 52 m ( 171 ft ) long , making it the longest known dinosaur ( excluding those known from exceedingly poor remains , such as Amphicoelias ) . Some weight estimates of this time ranged as high as 113 tonnes ( 111 long tons ; 125 short tons ) . The estimated length was later revised downward to 33 @.@ 5 metres ( 110 ft ) and later on to 32 metres ( 105 ft ) based on findings that show that Gillette had originally misplaced vertebrae 12 – 19 as vertebrae 20 – 27 . The nearly complete Diplodocus carnegii skeleton at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , on which size estimates of D. hallorum are mainly based , also was found to have had its 13th tail vertebra come from another dinosaur , throwing off size estimates for D. hallorum even further . While dinosaurs such as Supersaurus were probably longer , fossil remains of these animals are only fragmentary .
Diplodocus had an extremely long tail , composed of about 80 caudal vertebrae , which are almost double the number some of the earlier sauropods had in their tails ( such as Shunosaurus with 43 ) , and far more than contemporaneous macronarians had ( such as Camarasaurus with 53 ) . Some speculation exists as to whether it may have had a defensive or noisemaking ( by cracking it like a coachwhip ) function . The tail may have served as a counterbalance for the neck . The middle part of the tail had ' double beams ' ( oddly shaped chevron bones on the underside , which gave Diplodocus its name ) . They may have provided support for the vertebrae , or perhaps prevented the blood vessels from being crushed if the animal 's heavy tail pressed against the ground . These ' double beams ' are also seen in some related dinosaurs .
Like other sauropods , the manus ( front " feet " ) of Diplodocus were highly modified , with the finger and hand bones arranged into a vertical column , horseshoe @-@ shaped in cross section . Diplodocus lacked claws on all but one digit of the front limb , and this claw was unusually large relative to other sauropods , flattened from side to side , and detached from the bones of the hand . The function of this unusually specialized claw is unknown .
No skull has ever been found that can be confidently said to belong to Diplodocus , though skulls of other diplodocids closely related to Diplodocus ( such as Galeamopus ) are well known . The skulls of diplodocids were very small compared with the size of these animals . Diplodocus had small , ' peg ' -like teeth that pointed forward and were only present in the anterior sections of the jaws . Its braincase was small . The neck was composed of at least 15 vertebrae and may have been held parallel to the ground and unable to be elevated much past horizontal .
The discovery of partial diplodocid skin impressions in 1990 showed that some species had narrow , pointed keratinous spines , much like those on an iguana and up to 18 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , on the " whiplash " portion of their tails , and possibly along the back and neck as well , as in hadrosaurids . The spines have been incorporated into many recent reconstructions of Diplodocus , notably Walking with Dinosaurs . However , the original description of the spines noted that the specimens in the Howe Quarry near Shell , Wyoming were associated with skeletal remains of an undescribed diplodocids " resembling Diplodocus and Barosaurus . " Specimens from this quarry have since been referred to Kaatedocus siberi and Barosaurus sp . , rather than Diplodocus .
= = Discovery and species = =
Several species of Diplodocus were described between 1878 and 1924 . The first skeleton was found at Cañon City , Colorado , by Benjamin Mudge and Samuel Wendell Williston in 1877 , and was named Diplodocus longus ( ' long double @-@ beam ' ) , by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878 . Although not the type species , D. carnegii is the most completely known and most famous species due to the large number of casts of its skeleton in museums around the world . Diplodocus remains have since been found in the Morrison Formation of the western U.S. States of Colorado , Utah , Montana , and Wyoming . Fossils of this animal are common , except for the skull , which has never been found with otherwise complete skeletons . D. hayi , known from a partial skeleton and skull discovered by William H. Utterback in 1902 near Sheridan , Wyoming , was described in 1924 . In 2015 , it was renamed as the separate genus Galeamopus , and several other Diplodocus specimens were referred to that genus , leaving no definite Diplodocus skulls known .
The two Morrison Formation sauropod genera Diplodocus and Barosaurus had very similar limb bones . In the past , many isolated limb bones were automatically attributed to Diplodocus , but may , in fact , have belonged to Barosaurus . Fossil remains of Diplodocus have been recovered from stratigraphic zone 5 of the Morrison Formation .
= = = Valid species = = =
D. carnegii ( also spelled D. carnegiei ) , named after Andrew Carnegie , is the best known , mainly due to a near @-@ complete skeleton ( specimen CM 84 ) collected by Jacob Wortman , of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania and described and named by John Bell Hatcher in 1901 . This was reconsidered as type @-@ species for Diplodocus .
D. hallorum , first described in 1991 by Gillette as Seismosaurus halli from a partial skeleton comprising vertebrae , pelvis and ribs , specimen NMMNH P @-@ 3690 , was found in 1979 . As the specific name honours two people , Jim and Ruth Hall , George Olshevsky later suggested to emend the name as S. hallorum , using the mandatory genitive plural ; Gillette then emended the name , which usage has been followed by others , including Carpenter ( 2006 ) . In 2004 , a presentation at the annual conference of the Geological Society of America made a case for Seismosaurus being a junior synonym of Diplodocus . This was followed by a much more detailed publication in 2006 , which not only renamed the species Diplodocus hallorum , but also speculated that it could prove to be the same as D. longus . The position that D. hallorum should be regarded as a specimen of D. longus was also taken by the authors of a redescription of Supersaurus , refuting a previous hypothesis that Seismosaurus and Supersaurus were the same . However , a 2015 analysis of diplodocid relationships noted that these opinions are based on the more complete referred specimens of D. longus . The authors of this analysis concluded that those specimens were indeed the same species as D. hallorum , but that D. longus itself was a nomen dubium .
= = = Nomina dubia ( doubtful species ) = = =
D. longus , the original type species , is known from two complete and several fragmentary caudal vertebrae from the Morrison Formation ( Felch Quarry ) of Colorado . Though several more complete specimens have been attributed to D. longus , detailed analysis has suggested that the original fossil lacks the necessary features to allow comparison with other specimens . For this reason , it has been considered a nomen dubium , which is not an ideal situation for the type species of a well @-@ known genus like Diplodocus . A petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature is currently being considered which proposes to make D. carnegii the new type species .
D. lacustris ( " of the lake " ) is a nomen dubium , named by Marsh in 1884 based on specimen YPM 1922 found by Arthur Lakes , consisting of the snout and upper jaw of a smaller animal from Morrison , Colorado . These remains are now believed to have been from an immature animal , rather than from a separate species . In 2015 , it was concluded that the specimen actually belonged to Camarasaurus .
= = Classification = =
Diplodocus is both the type genus of , and gives its name to , the Diplodocidae , the family to which it belongs . Members of this family , while still massive , are of a markedly more slender build than other sauropods , such as the titanosaurs and brachiosaurs . All are characterised by long necks and tails and a horizontal posture , with fore limbs shorter than hind limbs . Diplodocids flourished in the Late Jurassic of North America and possibly Africa .
A subfamily , the Diplodocinae , was erected to include Diplodocus and its closest relatives , including Barosaurus . More distantly related is the contemporaneous Apatosaurus , which is still considered a diplodocid , although not a diplodocine , as it is a member of the subfamily Apatosaurinae . The Portuguese Dinheirosaurus and the African Tornieria have also been identified as close relatives of Diplodocus by some authors . The Diplodocoidea comprise the diplodocids , as well as dicraeosaurids , rebbachisaurids , Suuwassea , Amphicoelias and possibly Haplocanthosaurus , and / or the nemegtosaurids . This clade is the sister group to Macronaria ( camarasaurids , brachiosaurids and titanosaurians ) .
Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) below :
= = Paleobiology = =
Due to a wealth of skeletal remains , Diplodocus is one of the best @-@ studied dinosaurs . Many aspects of its lifestyle have been subjects of various theories over the years . Comparisons between the scleral rings of diplodocines and modern birds and reptiles suggest that they may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
Marsh and then Hatcher assumed that the animal was aquatic , because of the position of its nasal openings at the apex of the cranium . Similar aquatic behavior was commonly depicted for other large sauropods , such as Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus . However , a 1951 study by Kenneth A. Kermack indicates that sauropods probably could not have breathed through their nostrils when the rest of the body was submerged , as the water pressure on the chest wall would be too great . Since the 1970s , general consensus has the sauropods as firmly terrestrial animals , browsing on trees , ferns , and bushes .
Scientists have debated as to how sauropods were able to breathe with their large body sizes and long necks , which would have increased the amount of dead space . They likely had an avian respiratory system , which is more efficient than a mammalian and reptilian system . Reconstructions of the neck and thorax of Diplodocus show great pneumaticity , which could have played a role in respiration as it does in birds .
= = = Posture = = =
The depiction of Diplodocus posture has changed considerably over the years . For instance , a classic 1910 reconstruction by Oliver P. Hay depicts two Diplodocus with splayed lizard @-@ like limbs on the banks of a river . Hay argued that Diplodocus had a sprawling , lizard @-@ like gait with widely splayed legs , and was supported by Gustav Tornier . However , this hypothesis was contested by William Jacob Holland , who demonstrated that a sprawling Diplodocus would have needed a trench through which to pull its belly . Finds of sauropod footprints in the 1930s eventually put Hay 's theory to rest .
Later , diplodocids were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air , allowing them to graze from tall trees . Studies using computer models have shown that neutral posture of the neck was horizontal , rather than vertical , and scientists such as Kent Stephens have used this to argue that sauropods including Diplodocus did not raise their heads much above shoulder level . A nuchal ligament may have held the neck in this position . However , a 2009 study found that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal , alert posture , and argued that the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown , unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from other animals . One of the sauropod models in this study was Diplodocus , which they found would have held its neck at about a 45 ° angle with the head pointed downwards in a resting posture .
As with the related genus Barosaurus , the very long neck of Diplodocus is the source of much controversy among scientists . A 1992 Columbia University study of diplodocid neck structure indicated that the longest necks would have required a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ ton heart — a tenth of the animal 's body weight . The study proposed that animals like these would have had rudimentary auxiliary ' hearts ' in their necks , whose only purpose was to pump blood up to the next ' heart ' . Some argue that the near @-@ horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain , as it would not be elevated .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Diplodocines have highly unusual teeth compared to other sauropods . The crowns are long and slender , and elliptical in cross @-@ section , while the apex forms a blunt , triangular point . The most prominent wear facet is on the apex , though unlike all other wear patterns observed within sauropods , diplodocine wear patterns are on the labial ( cheek ) side of both the upper and lower teeth . What this means is that Diplodocus and other diplodocids had a radically different feeding mechanism than other sauropods . Unilateral branch stripping is the most likely feeding behavior of Diplodocus , as it explains the unusual wear patterns of the teeth ( coming from tooth – food contact ) . In unilateral branch stripping , one tooth row would have been used to strip foliage from the stem , while the other would act as a guide and stabilizer . With the elongated preorbital ( in front of the eyes ) region of the skull , longer portions of stems could be stripped in a single action . Also , the palinal ( backwards ) motion of the lower jaws could have contributed two significant roles to feeding behaviour : 1 ) an increased gape , and 2 ) allowed fine adjustments of the relative positions of the tooth rows , creating a smooth stripping action .
Young et al . ( 2012 ) used biomechanical modelling to examine the performance of the diplodocine skull . It was concluded that the proposal that its dentition was used for bark @-@ stripping was not supported by the data , which showed that under that scenario , the skull and teeth would undergo extreme stresses . However , the hypotheses of branch @-@ stripping and / or precision biting were both shown to be biomechanically plausible feeding behaviors . Diplodocine teeth were also continually replaced throughout their lives , usually in less than 35 days , as was discovered by Michael D 'Emic et al . Within each tooth socket , as many as five replacement teeth were developing to replace the next one . Studies of the teeth also reveal that it preferred different vegetation from the other sauropods of the Morrison , such as Camarasaurus . This may have better allowed the various species of sauropods to exist without competition .
With a laterally and dorsoventrally flexible neck , and the possibility of using its tail and rearing up on its hind limbs ( tripodal ability ) , Diplodocus would have had the ability to browse at many levels ( low , medium , and high ) , up to around 10 m ( 33 ft ) from the ground . The neck 's range of movement would have also allowed the head to graze below the level of the body , leading some scientists to speculate on whether Diplodocus grazed on submerged water plants , from riverbanks . This concept of the feeding posture is supported by the relative lengths of front and hind limbs . Furthermore , its peg @-@ like teeth may have been used for eating soft water plants . However , Matthew Cobley et al . ( 2013 ) dispute this finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited neck movements . They state that the feeding ranges for sauropods like Diplodocus were smaller than previously believed and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation . As such , they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs . The conclusions of Cobley et al. were disputed in 2013 and 2014 by Mike Taylor , who analysed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus . Taylor found that the neck of Diplodocus was very flexible , and that Cobley et al. were incorrect in that flexibility as implied by bones is less than in reality .
In 2010 , Whitlock et al. described a juvenile skull at the time referred to Diplodocus ( CM 11255 ) that differed greatly from adult skulls of the same genus : its snout was not blunt , and the teeth were not confined to the front of the snout . These differences suggest that adults and juveniles were feeding differently . Such an ecological difference between adults and juveniles had not been previously observed in sauropodomorphs .
= = = Reproduction and growth = = =
While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feeding adaptation , it was also suggested that the oversized neck of Diplodocus and its relatives may have been primarily a sexual display , with any other feeding benefits coming second . However , a 2011 study refuted this idea in detail .
While no evidence indicates Diplodocus nesting habits , other sauropods , such as the titanosaurian Saltasaurus , have been associated with nesting sites . The titanosaurian nesting sites indicate that they may have laid their eggs communally over a large area in many shallow pits , each covered with vegetation . Diplodocus may have done the same . The documentary Walking with Dinosaurs portrayed a mother Diplodocus using an ovipositor to lay eggs , but it was pure speculation on the part of the documentary author . For Diplodocus and other sauropods , the size of clutches and individual eggs were surprisingly small for such large animals . This appears to have been an adaptation to predation pressures , as large eggs would require greater incubation time and thus would be at greater risk .
Based on a number of bone histology studies , Diplodocus , along with other sauropods , grew at a very fast rate , reaching sexual maturity at just over a decade , and continued to grow throughout their lives .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which , according to radiometric dating , ranges between 156 @.@ 3 million years old ( Ma ) at its base , and 146 @.@ 8 million years old at the top , which places it in the late Oxfordian , Kimmeridgian , and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period . This formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons . The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived , stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan , and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west . The deposits from their east @-@ facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands , lakes , river channels , and floodplains . This formation is similar in age to the Lourinha Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania . In 1877 , this formation became the center of the Bone Wars , a fossil @-@ collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope .
The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods Ceratosaurus , Koparion , Stokesosaurus , Ornitholestes , Allosaurus and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Dryosaurus , Othnielia , Gargoyleosaurus and Stegosaurus . Apatosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus . Allosaurus , which accounting for 70 to 75 % of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web . Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinha Formation ( mainly Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Torvosaurus , and Stegosaurus ) , or have a close counterpart ( Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan , Camptosaurus and Draconyx ) . Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles like Dorsetochelys , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as Hoplosuchus , and several species of pterosaur like Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus . Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common . The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of tree ferns , and ferns ( gallery forests ) , to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria @-@ like conifer Brachyphyllum .
= = In popular culture = =
Diplodocus has been a famous and much @-@ depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur . Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest dinosaur . However , the donation of many mounted skeletal casts by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the world at the beginning of the 20th century did much to familiarize it to people worldwide . Casts of Diplodocus skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide , including D. carnegii in a number of institutions .
This includes donations by Carnegie or his trust to :
The Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh ( original , unveiled in 1907 )
The Natural History Museum in London ( replica , unveiled on 12 May 1905 )
The Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin , Germany ( replica , unveiled in early May , 1908 )
The National Natural History Museum in Paris , France ( replica , unveiled on 15 June 1908 )
The Natural History Museum in Vienna , Austria ( replica , unveiled in 1909 )
The Museum for Paleontology and Geology in Bologna , Italy ( replica , unveiled in 1909 ) : Skulls from this cast ( i.e. , ' second @-@ generation ' ) are on display in museums in Milan and Naples .
The Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg , Russia ( replica , unveiled in 1910 )
The Museo de la Plata in La Plata near Buenos Aires , Argentina ( replica , unveiled in 1912 )
The National Natural History Museum in Madrid , Spain ( replica , unveiled in November 1913 )
The Museo de Paleontología in Mexico City ( replica , unveiled in 1930 )
The Paleontological Museum in Munich , Germany ( replica , donated in 1932 and still unmounted )
This project , along with its association with ' big science ' , philanthropism , and capitalism , drew much public attention in Europe . The German satirical weekly Kladderadatsch devoted a poem to the dinosaur :
... Auch ein viel älterer Herr noch muß
Den Wanderburschen spielen Er ist genannt Diplodocus ‚ und zählt zu den Fossilen Herr Carnegie verpackt ihn froh In riesengroße Archen Und schickt als Geschenk ihn so
An mehrere Monarchen ...
( Translation : ... But even a much older gent • Sees itself forced to wander • Goes by the name Diplodocus • And belongs among the fossils • Mr. Carnegie packs him joyfully • In giant arcs • And sends him as gift this way • To multiple monarchs ... ) " Le diplodocus " became a generic term for sauropods in French , much as " brontosaur " is in English .
D. longus is displayed the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt ( a skeleton made up of several specimens , donated in 1907 by the American Museum of Natural History ) , Germany . A mounted and more complete skeleton of D. longus is at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington , DC , while a mounted skeleton of D. hallorum ( formerly Seismosaurus ) , which may be the same as D. longus , can be found at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science .
Dance musician Diplo derived his name from the dinosaur .
Diplodocus has been a frequent subject in dinosaur films , both factual and fictional . It was featured in the second episode of the award @-@ winning BBC television series Walking with Dinosaurs . The episode " Time of the Titans " follows the life of a simulated Diplodocus 152 million years ago . In literature , James A. Michener 's book Centennial has a chapter devoted to Diplodocus , narrating the life and death of one individual .
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= INS Kursura ( S20 ) =
INS Kursura ( S20 ) was a Kalvari @-@ class diesel @-@ electric submarine of the Indian Navy . She was India 's fourth submarine . Kursura was commissioned on 18 December 1969 and was decommissioned on 27 February 2001 after 31 years of service . She participated in the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , where she played a key role in patrol missions . She later participated in naval exercises with other nations and made many goodwill visits to other countries .
After decommissioning , she was preserved as a museum for public access on Ramakrishna Mission Beach in Visakhapatnam . Kursura has the distinction of being one of the very few submarine museums to retain originality and has been called a " must @-@ visit destination " of Visakhapatnam . Despite being a decommissioned submarine , she still receives the navy 's " Dressing Ship " honour , which is usually awarded only to active ships .
= = Description = =
Kursura has a length of 91 @.@ 3 m ( 300 ft ) overall , a beam of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) and a draught of 6 m ( 20 ft ) . She displaces 1 @,@ 950 t ( 1 @,@ 919 long tons ) surfaced , 2 @,@ 475 t ( 2 @,@ 436 long tons ) submerged and has a maximum diving depth of 985 ft ( 300 m ) . The complement is about 75 , including 8 officers and 67 sailors .
The submarine has three shafts , each with a six @-@ blade propeller . She is powered by three Kolomna 2D42M diesel engines , each with 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) . She also has three electric motors , two of them with 1 @,@ 350 hp ( 1 @,@ 010 kW ) and one with 2 @,@ 700 hp ( 2 @,@ 000 kW ) . She can achieve a maximum speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) when on surface , 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) when submerged and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while snorkelling . She has a range of 20 @,@ 000 mi ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) at 8 kn ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) when surfaced and 380 mi ( 610 km ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) when submerged . There are 10 torpedo tubes to carry 22 Type 53 torpedoes . She could lay 44 mines instead of torpedoes . She also had a snoop tray and I @-@ Band radar for surface search .
= = Operational history = =
Kursura was commissioned on 18 December 1969 at Riga , Soviet Union . She was India 's fourth submarine . Kursura 's first commander was Commander A Auditto . She began her maiden voyage to India on 20 February 1970 . During her homecoming voyage , which lasted from February to April 1970 , she visited Göteborg , La Corunna , Takoradi and Mauritius . Kursura , along with sister boat INS Karanj , were made operational under the Indian Navy 's Western Naval Command , and reported to the Flag officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief Western Naval Command ( FOCINCWEST ) . They were ordered to patrol approaches to Pakistan 's Karachi harbour and Makran Coast , for which they established waiting stations and submarine havens .
In 1970 , Karanj was badly damaged after a collision with the destroyer Ranjit when she surfaced directly below the ship . As no drawings of the damaged portions of the boat were available with the Bombay Dockyard or the Indian Navy , it was decided to use Kursura , which was already docked at Bombay , as the design template for the metal work , and Karanj was repaired within months , in time to join the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 .
= = = Indo @-@ Pakistan War of 1971 = = =
During the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , Kursura operated in the Arabian Sea . She was given the patrol duties at two designated areas before the war started , but was ordered to operate under two restrictions : she was not to cross demarcated shipping corridors and she could attack a target only after positive identification . The aims of her patrol were to sink any Pakistani naval warships , to sink merchant shipping when specifically ordered , and to conduct general patrol and surveillance .
She started from her home port on 13 November 1971 and reached her patrol location by 18 November . She remained there until 25 November when she was shifted to a new patrol location and remained there until 30 November . On 30 November , she rendezvoused with Karanj at sea to transfer instructions and subsequently then left for Bombay and reached there by 4 December 1971 . During her patrols , she encountered fair weather and monitored a number of tankers and commercial aircraft flying on international routes . She was originally intended to lay mines but the plan was later cancelled .
= = = Later service = = =
Kursura was used for test firing the NSTL 58 torpedo in 1975 . She was laid off for many years to be cannibalised for spare parts for other submarines , but underwent a refit in the Soviet Union between September 1980 and April 1982 , and was made operational again in 1985 .
Along with INS Taragiri , she participated in the first anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) training exercise with the RSS Victory of Singapore off the coast of Port Blair between 21 – 24 February 1994 . She participated in the second ASW exercise with Singapore along with INS Dunagiri , RSS Valour and RSS Vigilance . She visited Singapore and Jakarta , Indonesia , in December 1994 on a good @-@ will visit .
After a service of 31 years and traversing 73 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 136 @,@ 100 km ; 84 @,@ 600 mi ) , she was decommissioned on 27 February 2001 . Despite being a decommissioned submarine , she still receives the navy 's " Dressing Ship " honour , which is usually only awarded to active ships .
= = Museum ship ( 2002 – present ) = =
After decommissioning , the ship was towed to Ramakrishna Mission Beach in Visakhapatnam and was established as a museum ship , which is the first submarine museum in South Asia . The idea of the boat 's conversion to a museum is credited to Admiral V Pasricha . Towing the submarine 600 metres to its final location took 18 months and cost ₹ 55 million . It was inaugurated by the chief minister of Andhra Pradesh Chandrababu Naidu on 9 August 2002 , and it was open to the public from 24 August 2002 . Six retired naval personnel serve as guides and another one as the curator .
Kursura has the distinction of being one of the very few submarine museums to retain originality . She has become a famous tourist attraction of the city and has been called a " must @-@ visit destination " of Visakhapatnam by The Hindu . Out of the ₹ 10 million revenue generated every year by the museum , ₹ 8 million is used for the submarine 's maintenance . During the first four months of the museum 's operation , it was visited by about 93 @,@ 000 people . Daily visitors usually range between 500 and 600 and shoot up to 1 @,@ 500 during the tourist season .
In September 2007 , Vice Admiral Carol M. Pottenger of the United States Navy visited the submarine when she wrote in the guestbook " What a fantastic experience . The Indian Navy should be very proud of this awesome display " . She said that the submarine was very well preserved and they did not have anything similar to it in the United States . A major overhaul was done in December 2007 to repair her hull 's corrosion . New steel plates were arranged at a cost of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 million . As of August 2008 , about 1 @.@ 5 million people had visited the museum , and in 2010 , she was visited by 270 @,@ 000 people .
= = Gallery = =
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= Pigeon photography =
Pigeon photography is an aerial photography technique invented in 1907 by the German apothecary Julius Neubronner , who also used pigeons to deliver medications . A homing pigeon was fitted with an aluminium breast harness to which a lightweight time @-@ delayed miniature camera could be attached . Neubronner 's German patent application was initially rejected , but was granted in December 1908 after he produced authenticated photographs taken by his pigeons . He publicized the technique at the 1909 Dresden International Photographic Exhibition , and sold some images as postcards at the Frankfurt International Aviation Exhibition and at the 1910 and 1911 Paris Air Shows .
Initially , the military potential of pigeon photography for aerial reconnaissance appeared attractive . Battlefield tests in the First World War provided encouraging results , but the ancillary technology of mobile dovecotes for messenger pigeons had the greatest impact . Owing to the rapid perfection of aviation during the war , military interest in pigeon photography faded and Neubronner abandoned his experiments . The idea was briefly resurrected in the 1930s by a Swiss clockmaker , and reportedly also by the German and French militaries . Although war pigeons were deployed extensively during the Second World War , it is unclear to what extent , if any , birds were involved in aerial reconnaissance . The United States Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) later developed a battery @-@ powered camera designed for espionage pigeon photography ; details of its use remain classified .
The construction of sufficiently small and light cameras with a timer mechanism , and the training and handling of the birds to carry the necessary loads , presented major challenges , as did the limited control over the pigeons ' position , orientation and speed when the photographs were being taken . In 2004 , the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) used miniature television cameras attached to falcons and goshawks to obtain live footage , and today some researchers , enthusiasts and artists similarly deploy crittercams with various species of animals .
= = Origins = =
The first aerial photographs were taken in 1858 by the balloonist Nadar ; in 1860 James Wallace Black took the oldest surviving aerial photographs , also from a balloon . As photographic techniques made further progress , at the end of the 19th century some pioneers placed cameras in unmanned flying objects . In the 1880s , Arthur Batut experimented with kite aerial photography . Many others followed him , and high @-@ quality photographs of Boston taken with this method by William Abner Eddy in 1896 became famous . Amedee Denisse equipped a rocket with a camera and a parachute in 1888 , and Alfred Nobel also used rocket photography in 1897 .
Homing pigeons were used extensively in the 19th and early 20th centuries , both for civil pigeon post and as war pigeons . In the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , the famous pigeon post of Paris carried up to 50 @,@ 000 microfilmed telegrams per pigeon flight from Tours into the besieged capital . Altogether 150 @,@ 000 individual private telegrams and state dispatches were delivered . In an 1889 experiment of the Imperial Russian Technical Society at Saint Petersburg , the chief of the Russian balloon corps took aerial photographs from a balloon and sent the developed collodion film negatives to the ground by pigeon post .
= = Julius Neubronner = =
In 1903 Julius Neubronner , an apothecary in the German town of Kronberg near Frankfurt , resumed a practice begun by his father half a century earlier and received prescriptions from a sanatorium in nearby Falkenstein via pigeon post . ( The pigeon post was discontinued after three years when the sanatorium was closed . ) He delivered urgent medications up to 75 grams ( 2 @.@ 6 oz ) by the same method , and positioned some of his pigeons with his wholesaler in Frankfurt to profit from faster deliveries himself . When one of his pigeons lost its orientation in fog and mysteriously arrived , well @-@ fed , four weeks late , Neubronner was inspired with the playful idea of equipping his pigeons with automatic cameras to trace their paths . This thought led him to merge his two hobbies into a new " double sport " combining carrier pigeon fancying with amateur photography . ( Neubronner later learned that his pigeon had been in the custody of a restaurant chef in Wiesbaden . )
After successfully testing a Ticka watch camera on a train and whilst riding a sled , Neubronner began the development of a light miniature camera that could be fitted to a pigeon 's breast by means of a harness and an aluminum cuirass . Using wooden camera models which weighed 30 to 75 grams ( 1 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 6 oz ) , the pigeons were carefully trained for their load . To take an aerial photograph , Neubronner carried a pigeon to a location up to about 100 kilometres ( 60 mi ) from its home , where it was equipped with a camera and released . The bird , keen to be relieved of its burden , would typically fly home on a direct route , at a height of 50 to 100 metres ( 160 to 330 ft ) . A pneumatic system in the camera controlled the time delay before a photograph was taken . To accommodate the burdened pigeon , the dovecote had a spacious , elastic landing board and a large entry hole .
According to Neubronner , there were a dozen different models of his camera . In 1907 he had sufficient success to apply for a patent . Initially his invention " Method of and Means for Taking Photographs of Landscapes from Above " was rejected by the German patent office as impossible , but after presentation of authenticated photographs the patent was granted in December 1908 . ( The rejection was based on a misconception about the carrying capacity of domestic pigeons . ) The technology became widely known through Neubronner 's participation in the 1909 International Photographic Exhibition in Dresden and the 1909 International Aviation Exhibition in Frankfurt . Spectators in Dresden could watch the arrival of the pigeons , and the aerial photographs they brought back were turned into postcards . Neubronner 's photographs won prizes in Dresden as well as at the 1910 and 1911 Paris Air Shows .
A photograph of Schlosshotel Kronberg ( then called Schloss Friedrichshof after its owner Kaiserin Friedrich ) became famous due to its accidental inclusion of the photographer 's wing tips . In a breach of copyright it was shown in German cinemas as part of the weekly newsreel in 1929 .
In a short book published in 1909 Neubronner described five camera models :
The " double camera " described in the patent had two lenses pointing in opposite directions ( forward / backward ) , each with a focal length of 40 mm . Operated by a single focal @-@ plane shutter , the camera could take two simultaneous glass plate exposures at a time determined by the pneumatic system .
A stereoscopic camera had similar characteristics , but both lenses pointed in the same direction .
One model was capable of transporting film and taking several exposures in a row .
One model had its lens fixed to a bag bellows . A scissor mechanism held the bellows in its expanded state until the photo was taken , but condensed it immediately afterwards . This allowed one exposure of size 6 cm × 9 cm on a photographic plate , at a focal length of 85 mm .
In a panoramic camera , the focal @-@ plane shutter was replaced by a rotation of 180 ° of the lens itself . This model was the basis for the Doppel @-@ Sport Panoramic Camera , which Neubronner tried to market around 1910 . It captured a panoramic view on 3 cm × 8 cm film . It never went into serial production , though .
In a 1920 pamphlet , Neubronner described his last model as weighing slightly more than 40 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 oz ) and being capable of taking 12 exposures . In 2007 , a researcher remarked that only little technical information is available about lenses , shutters and the speed of the photographic media , but reported that Neubronner obtained the film for his panoramic camera from ADOX . For this camera he estimated a film speed of ISO 25 / 15 ° – 40 / 17 ° and a shutter speed of 1 / 60 s – 1 / 100 s . The film was cut to the format 30 mm × 60 mm and bent into a concave shape to prevent unnecessary distortion due to the half @-@ circle movement of the lens .
In 1920 Neubronner found that ten years of hard work and considerable expenses had been rewarded only with his inclusion in encyclopedias and the satisfaction that an ancillary technology , the mobile dovecote ( described below ) , had proved its worth in the war . Neubronner 's panoramic camera is displayed at the German Museum of Technology in Berlin and the Deutsches Museum in Munich .
= = First World War = =
Neubronner 's invention was at least partially motivated by the prospect of military applications . At the time photographic aerial reconnaissance was possible but cumbersome , as it involved balloons , kites or rockets . The Wright brothers ' successful flight in 1903 presented new possibilities , and surveillance aircraft were introduced and perfected during the First World War . But pigeon @-@ based photography , despite its practical difficulties , promised to deliver complementary , detailed photographs taken from a lower height .
The Prussian War Ministry was interested , but some initial skepticism could only be overcome through a series of successful demonstrations . The pigeons proved relatively indifferent to explosions , but during battle a dovecote may need to be moved , and pigeons can take some time to orient to their new position . The problem of making carrier pigeons accept a displaced dovecote with only a minimum of retraining had been tackled with some success by the Italian army around 1880 ; the French artillery captain Reynaud solved it by raising the pigeons in an itinerant dovecote . There is no indication that Neubronner was aware of this work , but he knew there must be a solution as he had heard of an itinerant fairground worker who was also a pigeon fancier with a dovecote in his trailer . At the 1909 exhibitions in Dresden and Frankfurt he presented a small carriage that combined a darkroom with a mobile dovecote in flashy colors . In months of laborious work he trained young pigeons to return to the dovecote even after it was displaced .
In 1912 Neubronner completed his task ( set in 1909 ) of photographing the waterworks at Tegel using only his mobile dovecote . Almost 10 years of negotiations were scheduled to end in August 1914 with a practical test at a maneuver in Strasbourg , followed by the state 's acquisition of the invention . These plans were thwarted by the outbreak of the war . Neubronner had to provide all his pigeons and equipment to the military , which tested them in the battlefield with satisfactory results , but did not employ the technique more widely .
Instead , under the novel conditions of attrition warfare , war pigeons in their traditional role as pigeon post saw a renaissance . Neubronner 's mobile dovecote found its way to the Battle of Verdun , where it proved so advantageous that similar facilities were used on a larger scale in the Battle of the Somme . After the war , the War Ministry responded to Neubronner 's inquiry to the effect that the use of pigeons in aerial photography had no military value and further experiments were not justified .
The International Spy Museum in Washington D.C. has a small room dedicated to carrier pigeons and pigeon photography in the First World War .
= = Second World War = =
Despite the War Ministry 's position immediately after the First World War , in 1932 it was reported that the German army was training pigeons for photography , and that the German pigeon cameras were capable of 200 exposures per flight . In the same year , the French claimed that they had developed film cameras for pigeons as well as a method for having the birds released behind enemy lines by trained dogs .
Although war pigeons and mobile dovecotes were used extensively during the Second World War , it is unclear to what extent , if any , they were employed for aerial photography . According to a report in 1942 , the Soviet army discovered abandoned German trucks with pigeon cameras that could take photos in five @-@ minute intervals , as well as dogs trained to carry pigeons in baskets . On the allied side , as late as 1943 it was reported that the American Signal Corps was aware of the possibility of adopting the technique .
It is certain , however , that during the Second World War pigeon photography was introduced into German nurseries in toy form . From around 1935 the toy figures produced under the brand Elastolin , some of which show motifs from before 1918 with updated uniforms , began to include a signal corps soldier with a pigeon transport dog . The figurine represents a soldier in the act of releasing a pigeon that carries an oversized pigeon camera .
Thanks to research conducted by the Musée suisse de l 'appareil photographique at Vevey , much more is known about the pigeon cameras developed at about the same time by the Swiss clockmaker Christian Adrian Michel ( 1912 – 1980 ) in Walde . He was assigned to the Swiss Army 's carrier pigeons service in 1931 , and in 1933 he began work on adapting Neubronner 's panoramic camera to 16 mm film , and improving it with a mechanism to control the delay before the first exposure and to transport the film between exposures . Michel 's camera , patented in 1937 , weighed only 70 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) , and may have been one of the first to have a timer operated by clockwork .
Michel 's plan to sell his camera to the Swiss Army failed , as he was unable to find a manufacturer to produce it in quantity ; only about 100 of his cameras were constructed . After the outbreak of the Second World War Michel patented a shell and harness for the transport of items such as film rolls by carrier pigeon . Between 2002 and 2007 three of his cameras were auctioned by Christie 's in London .
The Musée suisse de l 'appareil photographique at Vevey holds around 1 @,@ 000 photographs taken for test purposes during the development of Michel 's camera . Most of the photos were taken with 16 mm orthopanchromatic Agfa film with a speed of ISO 8 / 10 ° . The exposed format was 10 mm × 34 mm . The quality was sufficient for a tenfold magnification . In the catalog of the 2007 exhibition Des pigeons photographes ? they are classified as test photos on the ground or from a window , human perspectives from the ground or from elevated points , aeroplane @-@ based aerial photographs , aerial photographs of relatively high altitude that were probably taken by pigeons released from a plane , and only a small number of typical pigeon photographs .
= = After the Second World War = =
The United States Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) developed a battery @-@ powered pigeon camera now on display in the CIA Museum 's virtual tour . According to the website , the details of the camera 's use are still classified . News reports suggest that the camera was used in the 1970s , that the pigeons were released from planes , and that it was a failure . In 1978 the Swiss magazine L 'Illustré printed an aerial photograph of a street in Basel , taken by a pigeon of Febo de Vries @-@ Baumann equipped with a camera with a hydraulic mechanism . In 2002 – 03 the performance artist and pigeon fancier Amos Latteier experimented with pigeon photography using Advanced Photo System ( APS ) and digital cameras and turned the results into " PowerPointillist " lecture performances in Portland , Oregon . In a 2008 film adaptation of Sleeping Beauty by the German director Arend Agthe , the prince invents pigeon photography and discovers Sleeping Beauty on a photo taken by a pigeon .
In the 1980s a small number of high @-@ quality replica Doppel @-@ Sport cameras were made by Rolf Oberländer . One was acquired in 1999 by the Swiss Camera Museum in Vevey .
Modern technology allows extension of the principle to video cameras . In the 2004 BBC program Animal Camera , Steve Leonard presented spectacular films taken by miniature television cameras attached to eagles , falcons and goshawks , transmitted to a nearby receiver by microwaves . The cameras have a weight of 28 grams ( 1 oz ) . Miniature digital audio players with built @-@ in video cameras can also be attached to pigeons . In 2009 researchers made news when a peer @-@ reviewed article discussed the insights they gained by attaching cameras to albatrosses . The lipstick @-@ sized cameras took a photo every 30 seconds . Cameras have also been attached to other animals , such as cats and dogs .
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= The History of the Fairchild Family =
The History of the Fairchild Family by Mary Martha Sherwood was a series of bestselling children 's books in nineteenth @-@ century Britain . The three volumes , published in 1818 , 1842 and 1847 , detail the lives of the Fairchild children . Part I , which was in print for over a century , focuses on Emily , Lucy and Henry 's realization of their " human depravity " ( original sin ) and their consequent need for redemption ; Parts II and III emphasize more worldly lessons such as etiquette and virtuous consumerism .
During the nineteenth century , The Fairchild Family was renowned for its realistic portrayal of childhood and its humor , but Sherwood 's book fell from favor as Britain became increasingly secularized and new fashions in children 's literature came to dominate the literary scene , represented by works such as Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland . In the twentieth century the books have most often been viewed as quintessential examples of the didactic style of children 's writing popular before Alice .
= = Publication history = =
Sherwood published the first part of The Fairchild Family in 1818 with the firm of John Hatchard in Piccadilly , thereby assuring it " social distinction " . Hatchard was associated with the Clapham Sect of evangelicals , which included Hannah More , and his customers were wealthy businessmen , gentry , and Members of Parliament . The book was popular , remaining in print until 1913 . Urged by her readers , her printer and her own desire to capitalize on Part I 's success , Sherwood published Parts II and III in 1842 and 1847 , respectively .
= = Structure of the text = =
The Fairchild Family , Part I tells the story of a family striving towards godliness and consists of a series of lessons taught by the Fairchild parents to their three children ( Emily , Lucy and Henry ) regarding not only the proper orientation of their souls towards Heaven but also proper earthly morality ( envy , greed , lying , disobedience , and fighting , for example , are immoral ) . The text incorporates a series of tract @-@ like stories into an overarching narrative in order to illustrate these moral lessons . The stories of the deaths of two neighborhood children , Charles Trueman and Miss Augusta Noble , for instance , help the Fairchild children to understand how and why they need to prepare their own hearts for salvation . The faithful and " true " Charles has a transcendent deathbed experience ( much like Charles Dickens 's Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop ( 1840 – 1 ) ) , suggesting that he was saved ; by contrast , the heedless and disobedient Augusta , who plays with candles , burns up and is presumably damned .
Parts II and III have a similar structure ; an overarching narrative of the Fairchild family is interspersed with inset moral tales . Both are noticeably less evangelical than Part I. Part II begins with the recognition by the Fairchild parents that their children have " a new and divine nature , which works against your evil natures , causing you to know when you have done wrong , and making you truly and deeply sorrowful when you have committed a sin . " Emily , Lucy and Henry have finally learned to discipline their own souls . Parts II and III focus to a greater extent on good breeding , virtuous consumption and one 's duty to the poor than does Part I. One of the most important lessons that the children learn , for instance , is respect for their elders . Moreover , the gibbet to which the children had been taken to observe a rotting corpse and instructed regarding the spiritual perils of sibling rivalry in Part I , has disappeared in Part II ; Henry and his father walk by the spot where it used to stand and note its absence .
In all three books , thematically @-@ relevant prayers and hymns by the likes of Philip Doddridge , Isaac Watts , Charles Wesley , William Cowper and Ann and Jane Taylor follow each chapter .
= = Themes = =
= = = Evangelicalism = = =
The theme that dominates The Fairchild Family , Part I is the evangelical need to recognize one 's innate " depravity " and prepare oneself for eternity . In this volume , the most important lessons in life are " faith , resignation , and implicit obedience to the will of God . " Sherwood articulates this theology in the very first pages of the book :
Mr. and Mrs. Fairchild loved and feared God , and had done so , by the mercy of God , ever since their younger days . They knew that their hearts were very bad , and that they could not be saved by any good thing they could do : on the contrary , that they were by nature fitted only for everlasting punishment : but they believed in the Lord Jesus Christ , and loved him for having died for them ; and they knew he would save them , because he saves all those who trust in him .
The book encourages its readers to adopt these beliefs not only through its stories but also through its prayers :
Hear , therefore , my prayer , O Lord , and send thy Holy Spirit to shew unto me the wickedness of my own heart ; that I may hate myself , and know , that , had I my deserts , I should now be living with the devil in hell . [ sic ]
But unlike previous allegorical literature with these themes , such as John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress ( 1678 ) , Sherwood domesticated her story — all of the actions in the children 's day @-@ to @-@ day lives are of supreme importance because they relate directly to their salvation . Emily , for example , succumbs to the temptation to eat some forbidden plums : “ no eye was looking at her , but the eye of God , who sees every thing we do , and knows even the secret thoughts of the heart ; but Emily , just at that moment , did not think of God . "
As Sherwood scholar M. Nancy Cutt argues , " the great overriding metaphor of all [ Sherwood 's ] work is the representation of divine order by the harmonious family relationship ( inevitably set in its own pastoral Eden ) . . . No writer made it clearer to her readers that the child who is dutiful within his family is blessed in the sight of God ; or stressed more firmly that family bonds are but the earthly and visible end of a spiritual bond running up to the very throne of God . " This is made clear in the Fairchild parents ' description of their own authority :
Whilst you are a little child , you must tell your sins to me ; and I will shew [ sic ] you the way by which only you may hope to overcome them : when you are bigger , and I and your papa are removed from you , then you must tell all your sins to God .
Children 's literature scholar Patricia Demers has referred to this connection between the family and the divine as the Romantic element in Sherwood 's writing , arguing that her " characters ’ zeal in finding and defining an earthly home prompts their almost automatic longing for a heavenly home . Sherwood 's is a consciously double vision , glimpsing the eternal in the natural , the sublime in the quotidian . "
All three parts of The Fairchild Family " taught the lessons of personal endurance , reliance on Providence , and acceptance of one 's earthly status . " Emphasizing individual experience and one 's personal relationship with God , they discouraged readers from attributing their successes or failures to " larger economic and political forces . " This is particularly true for the poor characters in the texts , such as the Truemans in the first volume and the beggar children , Jane and Edward , in the second volume .
= = = Victorianism = = =
Parts II and III reflect Sherwood 's changing values as well as those of the Victorian period . Significantly , the servants in Part I , " who are almost part of the family , are pushed aside in Part III by their gossiping , flattering counterparts in the fine manor @-@ house . " The second two volumes also outline narrower roles for each sex . In Part I Lucy and Emily learn to sew and keep house while Henry tends the garden and learns Latin , but in Part II , Henry 's scrapes involve letting loose a bull while the girls focus intently on how to make purchases in an economical yet fair fashion . The most extensive thematic change in the series , however , was the disappearance of its strident evangelicalism . Whereas all of the lessons in Part I highlight the children 's " human depravity " and encourage the reader to think in terms of the afterlife , in Parts II and III , other Victorian values such as " respectability " and filial obedience are brought to the fore . Children 's literature scholar Janis Dawson describes the difference in terms of parental indulgence ; in Parts II and III , the Fairchild parents employ softer disciplinary tactics than in Part I.
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Fairchild Family continued to be a bestseller despite the increasingly popular Wordsworthian image of childhood innocence and the sentimental picture of childhood presented in novels such as Charles Dickens 's Oliver Twist ( 1837 – 39 ) . One scholar has suggested that it " influenced Dickens 's depictions of Pip 's fears of the convict , the gibbet , and ' the horrible young man ' at the close of Chapter 1 " in Great Expectations ( 1860 – 61 ) . Children 's literature scholar Gillian Avery has argued that The Fairchild Family was " as much a part of English childhood as Alice was later to become . " As late as the 1900s , Lord Frederic Hamilton states that he attended a party at which each guest dressed up as a character from the book . Although the book was popular , some scraps of evidence have survived suggesting that readers did not always interpret it as Sherwood would have wanted . Lord Hamilton writes , for instance , that " there was plenty about eating and drinking ; one could always skip the prayers , and there were three or four very brightly written accounts of funerals in it . "
When the series was republished later in the century , the books were severely edited ; often Mr. Fairchild 's sermons were removed from Part I and the phrase " human depravity " was replaced with the word " naughtiness . " Many of the changes also served to further emphasize the authority of the parents : " as the religious framework was weakened or removed , the parent became the ultimate authority , and the Victorian cult of the family was reinforced in a way that Mrs. Sherwood had never intended . "
Although The Fairchild Family has gained a reputation in the twentieth century as an oppressively didactic book , in the early nineteenth century it was viewed as delightfully realistic . It was often described as humorous and Charlotte Yonge ( 1823 – 1901 ) , a critic who also wrote children 's literature , praised " the gusto with which [ Sherwood ] dwells on new dolls " and " the absolutely sensational naughtiness " of the children . Although twentieth @-@ century critics have tended to view the tale as harsh ( John Rowe Townsend described it as " unspeakably cruel " ) , often pointing to the Fairchilds ' visit to the gibbet , Cutt and others argue that the positive depiction of the nuclear family in the text , particularly Sherwood 's emphasis on parents ' responsibility to educate their own children , was an important part of the book 's appeal . She argues that Sherwood 's " influence , " via books such as the Fairchild Family , " upon the domestic pattern of Victorian life can hardly be overestimated . "
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= Celestial spheres =
The celestial spheres , or celestial orbs , were the fundamental entities of the cosmological models developed by Plato , Eudoxus , Aristotle , Ptolemy , Copernicus and others . In these celestial models the apparent motions of the fixed stars and the planets are accounted for by treating them as embedded in rotating spheres made of an aetherial , transparent fifth element ( quintessence ) , like jewels set in orbs . Since it was believed that the fixed stars did not change their positions relative to one another , it was argued that they must be on the surface of a single starry sphere .
In modern thought , the orbits of the planets are viewed as the paths of those planets through mostly empty space . Ancient and medieval thinkers , however , considered the celestial orbs to be thick spheres of rarefied matter nested one within the other , each one in complete contact with the sphere above it and the sphere below . When scholars applied Ptolemy 's epicycles , they presumed that each planetary sphere was exactly thick enough to accommodate them . By combining this nested sphere model with astronomical observations , scholars calculated what became generally accepted values at the time for the distances to the Sun ( about 4 million miles ) , to the other planets , and to the edge of the universe ( about 73 million miles ) . The nested sphere model 's distances to the Sun and planets differ significantly from modern measurements of the distances , and the size of the universe is now known to be inconceivably large and possibly infinite .
Albert Van Helden has suggested that from about 1250 until the 17th century , virtually all educated Europeans were familiar with the Ptolemaic model of " nesting spheres and the cosmic dimensions derived from it " . Even following the adoption of Copernicus 's heliocentric model of the universe , new versions of the celestial sphere model were introduced , with the planetary spheres following this sequence from the central Sun : Mercury , Venus , Earth @-@ Moon , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn .
= = History = =
= = = Early ideas of spheres and circles = = =
In Greek antiquity the ideas of celestial spheres and rings first appeared in the cosmology of Anaximander in the early 6th century BC . In his cosmology both the Sun and Moon are circular open vents in tubular rings of fire enclosed in tubes of condensed air ; these rings constitute the rims of rotating chariot @-@ like wheels pivoting on the Earth at their centre . The fixed stars are also open vents in such wheel rims , but there are so many such wheels for the stars that their contiguous rims all together form a continuous spherical shell encompassing the Earth . All these wheel rims had originally been formed out of an original sphere of fire wholly encompassing the Earth , which had disintegrated into many individual rings . Hence , in Anaximanders 's cosmogony , in the beginning was the sphere , out of which celestial rings were formed , from some of which the stellar sphere was in turn composed . As viewed from the Earth , the ring of the Sun was highest , that of the Moon was lower , and the sphere of the stars was lowest .
Following Anaximander , his pupil Anaximenes ( c . 585 – 528 / 4 ) held that the stars , Sun , Moon , and planets are all made of fire . But whilst the stars are fastened on a revolving crystal sphere like nails or studs , the Sun , Moon , and planets , and also the Earth , all just ride on air like leaves because of their breadth . And whilst the fixed stars are carried around in a complete circle by the stellar sphere , the Sun , Moon and planets do not revolve under the Earth between setting and rising again like the stars do , but rather on setting they go laterally around the Earth like a cap turning halfway around the head until they rise again . And unlike Anaximander , he relegated the fixed stars to the region most distant from the Earth . The most enduring feature of Anaximenes ' cosmos was its conception of the stars being fixed on a crystal sphere as in a rigid frame , which became a fundamental principle of cosmology down to Copernicus and Kepler .
After Anaximenes , Pythagoras , Xenophanes and Parmenides all held that the universe was spherical . And much later in the fourth century BC Plato 's Timaeus proposed that the body of the cosmos was made in the most perfect and uniform shape , that of a sphere containing the fixed stars . But it posited that the planets were spherical bodies set in rotating bands or rings rather than wheel rims as in Anaximander 's cosmology .
= = = Emergence of the planetary spheres = = =
Instead of bands , Plato 's student Eudoxus developed a planetary model using concentric spheres for all the planets , with three spheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets , thus making 26 spheres in all.Callippus modified this system , using five spheres for his models of the Sun , Moon , Mercury , Venus , and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn , thus making 33 spheres in all . Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres . Although the models of Eudoxus and Callippus qualitatively describe the major features of the motion of the planets , they fail to account exactly for these motions and therefore cannot provide quantitative predictions . Although historians of Greek science have traditionally considered these models to be merely geometrical representations , recent studies have proposed that they were also intended to be physically real or have withheld judgment , noting the limited evidence to resolve the question .
In his Metaphysics , Aristotle developed a physical cosmology of spheres , based on the mathematical models of Eudoxus . In Aristotle 's fully developed celestial model , the spherical Earth is at the centre of the universe and the planets are moved by either 47 or 55 interconnected spheres that form a unified planetary system , whereas in the models of Eudoxus and Callippus each planet 's individual set of spheres were not connected to those of the next planet . Aristotle says the exact number of spheres , and hence the number of movers , is to be determined by astronomical investigation , but he added additional spheres to those proposed by Eudoxus and Callippus , to counteract the motion of the outer spheres . Aristotle considers that these spheres are made of an unchanging fifth element , the aether . Each of these concentric spheres is moved by its own god — an unchanging divine unmoved mover , and who moves its sphere simply by virtue of being loved by it .
In his Almagest , the astronomer Ptolemy ( fl. ca . 150 AD ) developed geometrical predictive models of the motions of the stars and planets and extended them to a unified physical model of the cosmos in his Planetary hypotheses . By using eccentrics and epicycles , his geometrical model achieved greater mathematical detail and predictive accuracy than had been exhibited by earlier concentric spherical models of the cosmos . In Ptolemy 's physical model , each planet is contained in two or more spheres , but in Book 2 of his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy depicted thick circular slices rather than spheres as in its Book 1 . One sphere / slice is the deferent , with a centre offset somewhat from the Earth ; the other sphere / slice is an epicycle embedded in the deferent , with the planet embedded in the epicyclical sphere / slice . Ptolemy 's model of nesting spheres provided the general dimensions of the cosmos , the greatest distance of Saturn being 19 @,@ 865 times the radius of the Earth and the distance of the fixed stars being at least 20 @,@ 000 Earth radii .
The planetary spheres were arranged outwards from the spherical , stationary Earth at the centre of the universe in this order : the spheres of the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Sun , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . In more detailed models the seven planetary spheres contained other secondary spheres within them . The planetary spheres were followed by the stellar sphere containing the fixed stars ; other scholars added a ninth sphere to account for the precession of the equinoxes , a tenth to account for the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes , and even an eleventh to account for the changing obliquity of the ecliptic . In antiquity the order of the lower planets was not universally agreed . Plato and his followers ordered them Moon , Sun , Mercury , Venus , and then followed the standard model for the upper spheres . Others disagreed about the relative place of the spheres of Mercury and Venus : Ptolemy placed both of them beneath the Sun with Venus above Mercury , but noted others placed them both above the Sun ; some medieval thinkers , such as al @-@ Bitruji , placed the sphere of Venus above the Sun and that of Mercury below it .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Astronomical discussions = = = =
A series of astronomers , beginning with the Muslim astronomer al @-@ Farghãnī , used the Ptolemaic model of nesting spheres to compute distances to the stars and planetary spheres . Al @-@ Farghānī 's distance to the stars was 20 @,@ 110 Earth radii which , on the assumption that the radius of the Earth was 3 @,@ 250 miles , came to 65 @,@ 357 @,@ 500 miles . An introduction to Ptolemy 's Almagest , the Tashil al @-@ Majisti , believed to be written by Thābit ibn Qurra , presented minor variations of Ptolemy 's distances to the celestial spheres . In his Zij , Al @-@ Battānī presented independent calculations of the distances to the planets on the model of nesting spheres , which he thought was due to scholars writing after Ptolemy . His calculations yielded a distance of 19 @,@ 000 Earth radii to the stars .
Around the turn of the millennium , the Arabic astronomer and polymath Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( Alhacen ) presented a development of Ptolemy 's geocentric epicyclic models in terms of nested spheres . Despite the similarity of this concept to that of Ptolemy 's Planetary Hypotheses , al @-@ Haytham 's presentation differs in sufficient detail that it has been argued that it reflects an independent development of the concept . In chapters 15 – 16 of his Book of Optics , Ibn al @-@ Haytham also said that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter .
Near the end of the twelfth century , the Spanish Muslim astronomer al @-@ Bitrūjī ( Alpetragius ) sought to explain the complex motions of the planets without Ptolemy 's epicycles and eccentrics , using an Aristotelian framework of purely concentric spheres that moved with differing speeds from east to west . This model was much less accurate as a predictive astronomical model , but it was discussed by later European astronomers and philosophers .
In the thirteenth century the astronomer , al- ' Urḍi , proposed a radical change to Ptolemy 's system of nesting spheres . In his Kitāb al @-@ Hayáh , he recalculated the distance of the planets using parameters which he redetermined . Taking the distance of the Sun as 1 @,@ 266 Earth radii , he was forced to place the sphere of Venus above the sphere of the Sun ; as a further refinement , he added the planet 's diameters to the thickness of their spheres . As a consequence , his version of the nesting spheres model had the sphere of the stars at a distance of 140 @,@ 177 Earth radii .
About the same time , scholars in European universities began to address the implications of the rediscovered philosophy of Aristotle and astronomy of Ptolemy . Both astronomical scholars and popular writers considered the implications of the nested sphere model for the dimensions of the universe . Campanus of Novara 's introductory astronomical text , the Theorica planetarum , used the model of nesting spheres to compute the distances of the various planets from the Earth , which he gave as 22 @,@ 612 Earth radii or 73 @,@ 387 @,@ 747 100 / 660 miles . In his Opus Majus , Roger Bacon cited Al @-@ Farghānī 's distance to the stars of 20 @,@ 110 Earth radii , or 65 @,@ 357 @,@ 700 miles , from which he computed the circumference of the universe to be 410 @,@ 818 @,@ 517 3 / 7 miles . Clear evidence that this model was thought to represent physical reality is the accounts found in Bacon 's Opus Majus of the time needed to walk to the Moon and in the popular Middle English South English Legendary , that it would take 8 @,@ 000 years to reach the highest starry heaven . General understanding of the dimensions of the universe derived from the nested sphere model reached wider audiences through the presentations in Hebrew by Moses Maimonides , in French by Gossuin of Metz , and in Italian by Dante Alighieri .
= = = = Philosophical and theological discussions = = = =
Philosophers were less concerned with such mathematical calculations than with the nature of the celestial spheres , their relation to revealed accounts of created nature , and the causes of their motion .
Adi Setia describes the debate among Islamic scholars in the twelfth century , based on the commentary of Fakhr al @-@ Din al @-@ Razi about whether the celestial spheres are real , concrete physical bodies or " merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out … by the various stars and planets . " Setia points out that most of the learned , and the astronomers , said they were solid spheres " on which the stars turn … and this view is closer to the apparent sense of the Qur 'anic verses regarding the celestial orbits . " However , al @-@ Razi mentions that some , such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak , considered them to be abstract . Al @-@ Razi himself , was undecided , he said : " In truth , there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens except by authority [ of divine revelation or prophetic traditions ] . " Setia concludes : " Thus it seems that for al @-@ Razi ( and for others before and after him ) , astronomical models , whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens , are not founded on sound rational proofs , and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned . "
Christian and Muslim philosophers modified Ptolemy 's system to include an unmoved outermost region , the empyrean heaven , which came to be identified as the dwelling place of God and all the elect . Medieval Christians identified the sphere of stars with the Biblical firmament and sometimes posited an invisible layer of water above the firmament , to accord with Genesis . An outer sphere , inhabited by angels , appeared in some accounts .
Edward Grant , a historian of science , has provided evidence that medieval scholastic philosophers generally considered the celestial spheres to be solid in the sense of three @-@ dimensional or continuous , but most did not consider them solid in the sense of hard . The consensus was that the celestial spheres were made of some kind of continuous fluid .
Later in the century , the Islamic theologian Adud al @-@ Din al @-@ Iji ( 1281 – 1355 ) , under the influence of the Ash 'ari doctrine of occasionalism , which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God 's will rather than by natural causes , rejected philosophy and astronomy , and maintained that the celestial spheres were " imaginary things " and " more tenuous than a spider 's web " . Al @-@ Iji 's rejection of astronomy was , in turn , challenged by al @-@ Sharif al @-@ Jurjani ( 1339 – 1413 ) , who maintained that " even if they do not have an external reality , yet they are things that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [ exists ] in actuality " .
Medieval astronomers and philosophers developed diverse theories about the causes of the celestial spheres ' motions . They attempted to explain the spheres ' motions in terms of the materials of which they were thought to be made , external movers such as celestial intelligences , and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces . Most of these models were qualitative , although a few incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed , motive force and resistance . By the end of the Middle Ages , the common opinion in Europe was that celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences , identified with the angels of revelation . The outermost moving sphere , which moved with the daily motion affecting all subordinate spheres , was moved by an unmoved mover , the Prime Mover , who was identified with God . Each of the lower spheres was moved by a subordinate spiritual mover ( a replacement for Aristotle 's multiple divine movers ) , called an intelligence .
= = = Renaissance = = =
Early in the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus drastically reformed the model of astronomy by displacing the Earth from its central place in favour of the Sun , yet he called his great work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres ) . Although Copernicus does not treat the physical nature of the spheres in detail , his few allusions make it clear that , like many of his predecessors , he accepted non @-@ solid celestial spheres . Copernicus rejected the ninth and tenth spheres , placed the orb of the Moon around the Earth and moved the Sun from its orb to the center of the world . The planetary orbs circled the center of the world in the order Mercury , Venus , the great orb containing the Earth and the orb of the Moon , then the orbs of Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . Finally he retained the eighth starry sphere , which he held to be unmoving .
The English almanac maker , Thomas Digges , delineated the spheres of the new cosmological system in his Perfit Description of the Caelestiall Orbes … ( 1576 ) . Here he arranged the " orbes " in the new Copernican order , expanding one sphere to carry " the globe of mortalitye " , the Earth , the four elements , and the Moon ; and expanding the starry sphere infinitely upward to encompass all the stars , and also to serve as " the court of the Great God , the habitacle of the elect , and of the coelestiall angelles . "
In the course of the sixteenth century , a number of philosophers , theologians , and astronomers , among them Francesco Patrizi , Andrea Cisalpino , Peter Ramus , Robert Bellarmine , Giordano Bruno , Jerónimo Muñoz , Michael Neander , Jean Pena , and Christoph Rothmann , abandoned the concept of celestial spheres . Rothmann argued from the observations of the comet of 1585 that the lack of observed parallax indicated that the Comet was beyond Saturn , while the absence of observed refraction indicated the celestial region was of the same material as air , hence there were no planetary spheres .
Tycho Brahe 's investigations of a series of comets from 1577 to 1585 , aided by Rothmann 's discussion of the comet of 1585 and Michael Maestlin 's tabulated distances of the comet of 1577 , which passed through the planetary orbs , led Tycho to conclude that " the structure of the heavens was very fluid and simple . " Tycho opposed his view to that of " very many modern philosophers " who divided the heavens into " various orbs made of hard and impervious matter . " Edward Grant found relatively few believers in hard celestial spheres before Copernicus , and concluded that the idea first became common sometime between the publication of Copernicus 's De revolutionibus in 1542 and Tycho Brahe 's publication of his cometary research in 1588 .
In Johannes Kepler 's early Mysterium cosmographicum , he considered the distances of the planets , and the consequent gaps required between the planetary spheres implied by the Copernican system , which had been noted by his former teacher , Michael Maestlin . Kepler 's Platonic cosmology filled the large gaps with the five Platonic polyhedra , which accounted for the spheres ' measured astronomical distance . In his mature celestial physics , the spheres were regarded as the purely geometrical spatial regions containing each planetary orbit rather than as the rotating physical orbs of the earlier Aristotelian celestial physics . The eccentricity of each planet 's orbit thereby defined the lengths of the radii of the inner and outer limits of its celestial sphere and thus its thickness . In Kepler 's celestial mechanics the cause of planetary motion became the rotating Sun , itself rotated by its own motive soul . However , an immobile stellar sphere was a lasting remnant of physical celestial spheres in Kepler 's cosmology .
= = Literary and symbolic expressions = =
In Cicero 's Dream of Scipio , the elder Scipio Africanus describes an ascent through the celestial spheres , compared to which the Earth and the Roman Empire dwindle into insignificance . A commentary on the Dream of Scipio by the late Roman writer Macrobius , which included a discussion of the various schools of thought on the order of the spheres , did much to spread the idea of the celestial spheres through the Early Middle Ages .
Some late medieval figures noted that the celestial spheres ' physical order was inverse to their order on the spiritual plane , where God was at the center and the Earth at the periphery . Near the beginning of the fourteenth century Dante , in the Paradiso of his Divine Comedy , described God as a light at the center of the cosmos . Here the poet ascends beyond physical existence to the Empyrean Heaven , where he comes face to face with God himself and is granted understanding of both divine and human nature . Later in the century , the illuminator of Nicole Oresme 's Le livre du Ciel et du Monde , a translation of and commentary on Aristotle 's De caelo produced for Oresme 's patron , King Charles V , employed the same motif . He drew the spheres in the conventional order , with the Moon closest to the Earth and the stars highest , but the spheres were concave upwards , centered on God , rather than concave downwards , centered on the Earth . Below this figure Oresme quotes the Psalms that " The heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork . "
The late @-@ 16th @-@ century Portuguese epic The Lusiads vividly portrays the celestial spheres as a " great machine of the universe " constructed by God . The explorer Vasco da Gama is shown the celestial spheres in the form of a mechanical model . Contrary to Cicero 's representation , da Gama 's tour of the spheres begins with the Empyrean , then descends inward toward Earth , culminating in a survey of the domains and divisions of earthly kingdoms , thus magnifying the importance of human deeds in the divine plan .
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= Joseph Priestley House =
The Joseph Priestley House was the American home of 18th @-@ century British theologian , Dissenting clergyman , natural philosopher ( and discoverer of oxygen ) , educator , and political theorist Joseph Priestley ( 1733 – 1804 ) from 1798 until his death . Located in Northumberland , Pennsylvania , the house , which was designed by Priestley 's wife Mary , is Georgian with Federalist accents . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) operated it as a museum dedicated to Joseph Priestley from 1970 to August 2009 , when it closed due to low visitation and budget cuts . The house reopened in October 2009 , still owned by the PHMC but operated by the Friends of Joseph Priestley House ( FJPH ) .
Fleeing religious persecution and political turmoil in Britain , the Priestleys emigrated to the United States in 1794 seeking a peaceful life . Hoping to avoid the political troubles that had plagued them in Britain and the problems of urban life they saw in the United States , the Priestleys built a house in rural Pennsylvania . Nevertheless , political disputes and family troubles dogged Priestley during the last ten years of his life .
After the Priestleys died , their home remained in private hands until the turn of the 20th century , when George Gilbert Pond , a professor from what is now Pennsylvania State University , bought it and attempted to found the first Priestley museum . He died before he could complete the project and it was not until the 1960s that the house was first carefully restored by the PHMC and designated a National Historic Landmark . A second renovation was undertaken in the 1990s to return the home to the way it looked during Priestley 's time . The home has been a frequent place of celebration for the American Chemical Society ; they commemorated the centennial and bicentennial of the discovery of oxygen gas by Priestley as well as the 250th anniversary of Priestley 's birth .
= = Location = =
Following the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 63 ) and the forced migration of Native American tribes westward , German , Scots @-@ Irish , and other European immigrants settled in the central Susquehanna Valley , including in the area that would become Northumberland , Pennsylvania . Northumberland was laid out around a central village green in 1772 , on land originally purchased from the Iroquois by the Province of Pennsylvania in 1768 , as part of the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix . During the American Revolution , the village was evacuated as part of the Big Runaway in 1778 , and only finally resettled in 1784 . In 1794 , when the Priestleys moved there , it included Quaker and Wesleyan meeting houses , a brewery , two potteries , a potash manufacturer , a clock maker , a printer ( who issued a weekly newspaper ) , several stores , and approximately one hundred houses .
The Priestley property , purchased in 1794 at a total cost of £ 500 ( £ 51 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) from Reuben Haines , who had secured the patent to the land for Northumberland , comprised four lots of the original village plan ( numbers 29 – 32 ) . Currently , the house and grounds occupy 1 acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m ² ) at 472 Priestley Avenue . ( The address of the house was originally " North Way " , but the street was later renamed in honor of Joseph Priestley . ) This street forms the northwest boundary of the property ; the other boundaries are Hanover Avenue to the northeast , Wallis Street to the southwest , and the North Shore Railroad to the southeast . Beyond the railroad line is a baseball field , and beyond that lies the Susquehanna River , which was the original southeastern boundary of the property . The confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River with the main ( or North ) branch of the Susquehanna is a short distance southwest of the property , which is at an elevation of 456 feet ( 139 m ) .
The property 's original area was 2 acres ( 8 @,@ 000 m ² ) , but this was reduced by about half around 1830 when the Pennsylvania Canal ( North Branch Division ) was dug through the house 's front yard , between the house and river . On May 31 , 1860 , the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg Railroad opened with a train from Danville . This was the second railroad track in Northumberland , and ran behind the house . The canal closed in 1902 and was later filled in . The modern railroad line approximates the canal 's course through the front yard ; the track behind the house no longer exists .
= = Priestleys in America = =
= = = Emigration to Northumberland = = =
The last three years the Priestleys spent in Britain were a time of political upheaval and the persecution they experienced led to their eventual emigration to the United States . During the Birmingham Riots of 1791 , which began on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille in the wake of the conservative British reaction against the French revolution , the Priestleys ' home , Joseph 's church , and the homes of many other religious Dissenters were burned . The Priestleys fled Birmingham and attempted to live in London , but they could not escape the political turmoil . In 1794 , they joined the tide of 10 @,@ 000 emigrants who moved to America — it was the largest emigration from Europe to America until the end of the Napoleonic Wars . The Priestleys left Britain at the beginning of April on the Samson and arrived in New York City on June 4 , 1794 . Two of their three sons , Joseph , Jr . ( eldest ) and Harry ( youngest ) , had already emigrated to the United States in August 1793 , along with Joseph Priestley 's friend , the radical activist Thomas Cooper . Their middle son , William , had moved to America from France , probably early in 1793 , following the September massacres of the previous year .
Although Europeans knew Priestley best as a scientist ( he had discovered oxygen gas in 1774 ) , Americans knew him best as a defender of religious freedom and as an advocate for American independence . Immediately upon his arrival , he was fêted by various political factions vying to gain his support . Priestley declined their entreaties , however , hoping to avoid the political discord that had embroiled him in Britain . He wrote to John Adams that he " made it a rule to take no part whatever in the politics of a country in which I am a stranger , and in which I only wish to live undisturbed " . ( Priestley never became a citizen of the United States . ) He also turned down an opportunity to teach chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania at this time .
On their way to Northumberland , the Priestleys stopped in Philadelphia , where Joseph gave a series of sermons that helped promote the spread of Unitarianism . According to J. D. Bowers , who studied Priestley 's influence on Unitarianism in America , " [ f ] or a decade Priestley served as the inspiration and leading force in the spread of Unitarianism in America and the formation of numerous societies that followed his teachings on congregational formation , the education of youth , lay preaching , and espousing one 's faith in the presence of opposition from ( and to ) both the Protestant majority and a competing liberal faction . " Through Priestley 's influence , at least twelve congregations were founded in Maine , Massachusetts , New York , Vermont , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and Kentucky , including the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia and Northumberland 's Unitarian Universalist Congregation of the Susquehanna Valley . When he preached , Unitarians and non @-@ Unitarians flocked to hear him and his sermons were published throughout the country . During his years in America , Priestley became increasingly convinced that the Millennium was approaching . His close study of the Bible , together with the happenings in France , persuaded him that he would see Christ 's return .
While Priestley enjoyed preaching in Philadelphia , he could not afford the expense of living there ; he also disliked the city 's opulent Quakers and feared the yellow fever epidemic that had recently decimated the city . He considered settling in Germantown , which had better access to transportation and communication than Northumberland , but Mary preferred the country and wanted to be near her sons . Joseph considered splitting his time between Northumberland and Philadelphia , but this plan became impractical . Determined to ensure the future economic stability of his family , Priestley bought land and settled in Northumberland by July 1794 , which was " five days of rough travel " north of Philadelphia . There they hoped a larger community would eventually blossom .
= = = Settling in = = =
Priestley seems to have yearned for a more cosmopolitan community than Northumberland provided , writing to his sister that it was " seemingly almost out of the world " and complaining that he had to wait a week for news . He wrote to his friend John Vaughan : " We know but little more than we did when we left you of European affairs . " In the winter of 1794 – 95 , Priestley wrote to friends that his situation was very " distant from my original views " and " my time here is far from passing so agreeably as it did in England " , yet he was " very thankful for such an asylum " and he attempted " to make the best of my situation " . In his letters to friends back in Britain , Priestley consistently referred to himself as an exile and to England as his real home . Mary was happier with the couple 's situation and wrote to William Vaughan : " I am happy and thankful to meet with so sweet a situation and so peaceful a retreat as the place I now write from . Dr. Priestley also likes it and of his own choice intends to settle here , which is more than I hoped for at the time we came up ... This country is very delightful , the prospects of wood and water more beautiful than I have ever seen before and the people plain and decent in their manners . "
Priestley ’ s son Joseph Priestley Jr. was a leading member of a consortium that purchased 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of land along Loyalsock Creek ( between the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna River ) . Shortly thereafter , Thomas Cooper , a friend of Joseph Priestley 's , published a pamphlet in Britain titled Some Information Respecting America , meant to encourage others to settle in Pennsylvania and offering instructions on how to do so . It detailed a clear plan for establishing and financing a settlement . The French translation , Renseignemens sur l 'Amérique , was , according to one scholar , " carefully phrased in legal terminology " and " lucidly outline [ d ] an ambitious financial venture " . However , it is unclear whether Cooper 's scheme was related to the lands that the younger Priestleys had purchased .
Apparently technically unrelated to either of these schemes , but influenced by Cooper 's , poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth , full of idealism and angered at Priestley 's treatment in Birmingham , intended to emigrate to America and establish a utopian community which they called " Pantisocracy " ( derived from the Greek for " equal rule of all " ) . They assembled twelve couples who were interested not only in demanding physical labor but also in a life of the mind , but none of them had enough money to embark on the project , which required much capital . Therefore , the poets undertook a lecture tour of England to raise funds ; however , they never generated enough money and never emigrated . The utopia was not built and few immigrants arrived in Northumberland as a result of Cooper 's schemes .
After the failure of Cooper 's endeavor , Priestley attempted to convince other friends to move to Northumberland , particularly those he had made in America , but to no avail . Priestley wrote in his Memoirs that " the settlement was given up , but being here , and my wife and myself liking the place , I have determined to take up my residence here , though subject to many disadvantages . Philadelphia was excessively expensive , and this a comparatively cheap place ; and my sons , settling in the neighborhood , will be less exposed to temptation , and more likely to form habits of sobriety and industry . "
= = = Last years = = =
Priestley 's attempts to avoid political controversy in the United States failed . In 1794 , the journalist William Cobbett published Observations on the Emigration of Dr. Joseph Priestley , which falsely accused Priestley of stirring up rebellion in Britain , and attempted to undermine his scientific credibility . His political fortunes took an even worse turn when Cobbett obtained a set of letters sent to Priestley by the radical printer John Hurford Stone and the liberal novelist Helen Maria Williams . Cobbett published the letters in his newspaper , asserting that Priestley and his friends were fomenting a revolution . Priestley was eventually forced to defend himself in print .
Family matters also made Priestley 's time in America difficult . His youngest son Harry died on December 11 , 1795 , probably of malaria . Mary Priestley died on September 17 , 1796 ; she was already ill and never fully recovered after the shock of her son 's death . On September 19 of that year Joseph wrote : " This day I bury my wife .... she had taken much thought in planning the new house and now that it is far advanced and promises to be everything she wished , she is removed to another . " After dinner on Monday 14 April 1800 , various members of Priestley 's household fell ill , with symptoms of food poisoning , which prompted the Reading Advertiser to falsely accuse Priestley 's son William , of trying to poison them with arsenic .
Priestley continued the educational projects that had been important to him throughout his life , helping to establish a " Northumberland Academy " and donating his library to the fledging institution . He exchanged letters regarding the proper structure of a university with Thomas Jefferson , who used the advice when founding the University of Virginia . Jefferson and Priestley became close and when he had completed his General History of the Christian Church , he dedicated it to President Jefferson , writing that " it is now only that I can say I see nothing to fear from the hand of power , the government under which I live being for the first time truly favourable to me . " Of all of the religious works Priestley published in the United States , and there were many , it was his four @-@ volume General History that was the most important . Stretching from 475 CE to Priestley 's present , he tracked and explained what he saw as the history of Christianity and its " corruptions " , referencing his own An History of the Corruptions of Christianity ( 1772 – 74 ) . However , he ended it by praising American religious toleration .
Priestley attempted to continue his scientific investigations in America with the support of the American Philosophical Association . However , he was hampered by lack of news from Europe ; unaware of the latest scientific developments , Priestley was no longer on the forefront of discovery . Although the majority of his publications focused on defending the outmoded phlogiston theory against the " new chemistry " , he also did some original work on spontaneous generation and dreams . As Robert Schofield , Priestley 's major modern biographer , explains :
Priestley published more scientific items during his decade in the United States than during all his years in England : some 45 papers , not counting reprintings , and four pamphlets , not counting subsequent editions , but in general his science was now anticlimactic . Few of his papers contributed anything significantly new to the field of chemistry ; most were committed to combatting the new chemistry .
Despite Priestley 's reduced scientific importance , he stimulated an interest in chemistry in America .
By 1801 , Priestley had become so ill that he could no longer write or experiment effectively . On February 3 , 1804 , Joseph started a last experiment in his lab but was too weak to continue it . He went to a bed in his library , where he died three days later . He was buried in nearby Riverview Cemetery in Northumberland . Priestley 's epitaph reads :
Return unto thy rest , O my soul , for the
Lord hath dealt bountifully with thee .
I will lay me down in peace and sleep till
I awake in the morning of the resurrection .
= = Architecture and landscaping = =
Joseph and Mary lived with their son Joseph , Jr. and his family in a small house while theirs was being built . Mary Priestley was primarily responsible for the design of the couple 's new home and her family inheritance may have helped finance it , but she died before it was completed . By 1797 , Joseph 's laboratory was completed — the first part of the home to be finished . It was the first laboratory that " he had designed , built , and outfitted entirely himself " and was probably the first " scientifically @-@ equipped laboratory " in the United States . Joseph continued his scientific and scholarly work in his new laboratory , identifying carbon monoxide ( which he called " heavy inflammable air " ) . In 1798 Joseph Jr . , his wife , and their children moved into the new house with Joseph Priestley . The house also held Priestley 's library , which contained about 1600 volumes by his death in 1804 and was one of the largest in America at the time . The Priestley family held Unitarian church services in the drawing room and Joseph educated a group of young men until the local Northumberland Academy that he helped found was completed .
The house proper was completed in 1798 , with a Mr. Jones of Northumberland employed acting as master carpenter . Built in an 18th @-@ century Georgian style , the " balance and symmetry " of the architecture signaled " subdued elegance " . The house was accented with Federalist highlights , such as " the fanlights over the doors and the balustrades on the rooftop belvedere and main staircase " , marking it as distinctly American . Douglas R. McMinn , in the National Register of Historic Places nomination for the Northumberland Historic District , calls it a " mansion " that is " probably the finest example of the Federal style in the region " . As William N. Richardson , the site administrator for the Joseph Priestley House in the 1990s , notes , Priestley 's American home did not resemble his " high @-@ style Georgian town house " that was destroyed in Birmingham ; rather , it was " plain " and built in the " American vernacular " .
The house has a two @-@ and @-@ half story central section , which is 48 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 m ) by 43 feet ( 13 @.@ 1 m ) , and two one @-@ story wings on the north and south sides that are each 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) by 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . The first and second floors have a total area of 5 @,@ 052 square feet ( 469 m ² ) . The north wing was the laboratory and the south wing ( which had an attached woodshed ) was the summer kitchen . The cellar , first , and second floors of the central section are each divided into four rooms , with a central hall on the first and second floors ; the first floor also has an intersecting hall that leads to the laboratory . The attic has three rooms for servants and a larger room for storage . A paint analysis done in 1994 revealed that the house had no wall paper initially and that the walls and woodwork were painted " a brilliant white " .
The house is a frame structure , covered with white wooden clapboards , anchored to a stone foundation . The Priestleys built their home out of wood , dried in trenches on the site , because no stone or brick was available in the area . Joseph wrote a detailed description of the drying process , concluding : " A house constructed with such boards I prefer to one of brick and stone " . This may have prompted journalist William Cobbett to caustically label the house a " shed " in one of his political tirades against Joseph . The central section of the house has a slate gable roof with a railing @-@ enclosed deck . The house has " three internal gable end chimneys , one for the main kitchen " , and one each at the north and south ends of the central section .
The house faces the Susquehanna River , and both the front and rear doors are " sheltered by a shallow portico " . A circular carriage drive ( originally gravel , now concrete ) leads to the front door , which also has a fanlight . There are five windows on the second floor on both the front and rear sides of the house , with a dentil cornice above both sets of windows . The external details on the house also include a " frieze board with triglyphs " .
Originally , delightful panoramic views were visible from the home . It was built facing the Susquehanna River so that visitors arriving by boat could be welcomed by the family and because conventional 18th @-@ century aesthetic theory held that countryscapes were more beautiful than townscapes . Priestley built a high wall blocking the view of Northumberland and added a belvedere to the top of his house to more easily survey the landscape . His plantings were " a much scaled @-@ down version of the beautiful gardens " at Bowood , the estate of his former employer Lord Shelburne .
The lack of skilled craftspeople in Northumberland made the construction of the house difficult . For example , Richardson speculates that the main staircase was assembled from a kit . It is one step too short for the Northumberland hallway , but no extra step was added to finish off the symmetry of the stairwell , suggesting a dearth of skilled labor .
= = Ownership and museum = =
After the deaths of Mary and Joseph Priestley , Joseph Priestley , Jr. and his wife , Elizabeth Ryland , continued to live in the house until 1811 , at which time they emigrated to Britain and sold the home . The house passed through various hands during the 19th century . Judge Seth Chapman purchased the house from Joseph Priestley Jr. on May 13 , 1815 for US $ 6 @,@ 250 ( $ 80 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) . Chapman died on December 4 , 1835 , and Rev. James Kay , pastor of the Northumberland Unitarian congregation , and his family lived in the house next . James Kay died on September 22 , 1847 and his widow probably lived in the house until her October 2 , 1850 death . Charles H. Kay , son of James , had purchased the house in 1845 , a few years before his parents ' deaths . In April 1865 Charles Kay 's children sold the house to Henry R. Campbell for $ 2 @,@ 775 ( $ 42 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) . Florence Bingham purchased the house from Campbell for $ 5 @,@ 679 @.@ 53 on January 18 , 1868 ( $ 101 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and Bingham 's heirs sold it to T. Hugh Johnson for $ 2 @,@ 000 on October 7 , 1882 ( $ 49 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . Kate Scott bought the house for $ 3 @,@ 000 on April 11 , 1888 ( $ 79 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . In 1911 the last private resident moved out of the house , and it was sublet to the Pennsylvania Railroad for its workers ( a large railroad yard was built in Northumberland at this time ) . This led to a general decline in the house and its grounds .
Professor George Gilbert Pond was the first person to make a significant effort to establish a permanent Priestley museum at the Priestley House . After raising sufficient funds , he managed to purchase the home at auction for $ 6 @,@ 000 from Scott 's heirs on November 24 , 1919 ( $ 81 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) . Pond believed that construction of a new railroad line would destroy the house , and so intended to move it to Pennsylvania State College ( now Pennsylvania State University ) . However , he died on May 20 , 1920 before this plan could be enacted ; the planned rail line was never built and the house proved too fragile to move . The college established a memorial fund in Pond 's honor and retained the house as a museum , although Pond 's children did not formally transfer the house to the college until April 14 , 1932 . Some restoration of the house was done in the 1920s , and a small , brick building — intended as a fireproof museum for Priestley 's books and scientific apparatus — was built on the grounds and dedicated to Pond 's memory in 1926 . In 1941 the state legislature tried to have the State Historical Commission administer the house as a museum , but Governor Arthur James vetoed the plan for lack of funding .
On December 14 , 1955 , the college donated the house to the borough of Northumberland . From 1955 to 1959 the house served as both the borough hall for Northumberland and as a museum . The house proved too costly for the borough to maintain , and was acquired by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1961 . Eventually , in 1968 the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) began restoring it and in October 1970 the museum was opened to the public . The renovations included a restoration of the laboratory , a removal of ornamentation added in the Victorian era , a return of doorways to their original locations , and a return of the shutters " to their original locations inside the windows " . The PHMC was supported by " The Friends of the Joseph Priestley House " ( FJPH ) , who help with the visitor center , tours , special events , and outreach , as well as with clerical and museum work .
Between 1998 and 1999 a renovation that was " one of the most extensive changes in the homestead 's history " set out to " restore the grounds around the house to exactly the way it was when Priestley lived " there . This involved reconstructing exact replicas of the original carriage barn , hog sties , horse stalls , gardens , fences , and even the privy . These structures were based on T. Lambourne 's drawings of the house and grounds that had been discovered in 1983 , other records , and excavations . Priestley left no written description of his laboratory , but much is known of his experiments and late @-@ 18th @-@ century laboratories . Extensive research on the laboratory within the house was completed in 1996 , including excavations that revealed two underground ovens , as well as evidence of a primitive fume hood . The 1998 renovations also included work to restore the laboratory to a condition as close to its original state as possible .
After Joseph 's death , Thomas Cooper sold a collection of some of his friend 's apparatus and other personal belongings to Dickinson College in Carlisle , which exhibits it each year when presenting the school 's Priestley Award to a scientist who makes " discoveries which contribute to the welfare of mankind " . The house lost its original furnishings when Joseph Jr. and his family moved back to England . Since it is not known what was originally in the home , it is furnished and decorated with artifacts donated by descendants of the Priestleys and with ones similar to those listed in Priestley 's testament of what was lost in the fire at his Birmingham home . A number of items that belonged to Joseph and Mary during their lives both in Britain and America are on display throughout the house , including Joseph 's balance scales and microscope . Portraits , prints , maps , charts , and books have been carefully selected to replicate the Priestleys ' holdings . A bedroom on the second floor is dedicated to an exploration of the life of an 18th @-@ century woman .
On January 12 , 1965 , the Joseph Priestley House was designated a National Historic Landmark and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) on October 15 , 1966 . On August 1 , 1994 , the American Chemical Society named it the second National Historic Chemical Landmark ; the dedication ceremony was attended by 75 Priestley descendants . In 1988 , the Northumberland Historic District , including the Priestley House ( which it describes as a " gem " and one of the finest Federal style buildings in central Pennsylvania ) , was listed on the NRHP . The district includes one other building already on the NRHP : the Priestley @-@ Forsyth Memorial Library , which was built as an inn around 1820 and was owned by a great @-@ grandson of the Priestleys in the 1880s . Today it serves as Northumberland 's public library . The Joseph Priestley Memorial Chapel , which is a contributing structure in the historic district , was built in 1834 by his grandson , and is home to a Unitarian Universalist congregation that considers Priestley its founder .
Under the PHMC , the museum was open ten months a year , closing between early January and early March . In 2007 and 2008 the number of visitors held steady after recent declines . According to the PHMC , in fiscal 2007 – 08 " total visitation ... was 1 @,@ 705 with a paid visitation of 1 @,@ 100 generating $ 4 @,@ 125 in program revenue and 2 @,@ 406 recreational and non @-@ ticketed visitors " . The fiscal 2006 – 07 operations budget for the house and its two full @-@ time staff was $ 142 @,@ 901 , with $ 6 @,@ 900 ( five percent ) coming from FJPH and the rest from the state of Pennsylvania .
On March 4 , 2009 the PHMC released a report examining its 22 museums and historic sites and recommended discontinuing operations at six , including the Joseph Priestley House . The proposed closure of the Priestley House was based on " low visitation and limited potential for growth " . Despite public meetings , protest letters , and a general " public outcry " against closure , on August 14 , 2009 the state closed the Priestley House and three other PHMC museums indefinitely due to a lack of funding as part of an ongoing budget crisis . The sole remaining state employee at Priestley House was furloughed . That month the Friends of the Joseph Priestley House submitted a plan to the PHMC to operate the house on weekends from May to October with staffing provided by volunteers . The plan depended both on acquiring insurance for the volunteers , the house , and its contents , and on the state passing a budget .
On September 24 , 2009 the PHMC and officers of the FJPH signed an agreement to reopen the museum on Saturday and Sunday afternoons . The house reopened on October 3 , with volunteer staffing from the FJPH . The agreement can be renewed annually and lets FJPH " schedule programs , set fees and be in charge of all the business aspects of running the site " . On November 1 , there was a " grand reopening celebration " at the house with a dozen costumed volunteer guides and chemical demonstrations in Priestley 's laboratory . On November 7 , 2010 the brick Pond building was rededicated after an $ 85 @,@ 000 renovation , as part of the museum 's annual " Fall Heritage Day " . The restoration , which had been planned for years , was paid for by private donors and included " handicapped accessibility , new roofing , heating and air @-@ conditioning and new interior walls , ceilings and lighting " . The FJPH plan to install a timeline of Priestley 's scientific work and times in the Pond building , as well as a video about his laboratory techniques and impact today .
= = = American Chemical Society = = =
The American Chemical Society ( ACS ) has used the Joseph Priestley House as a place to mark special celebrations . On July 31 and August 1 , 1874 , " seventy @-@ seven chemists made a pilgrimage to the site to celebrate the centennial of chemistry " . The date was chosen to mark the hundredth anniversary of Priestley 's experiment producing oxygen by heating mercuric oxide with a magnifying lens and sunlight . These chemists came from 15 US states and the District of Columbia , Canada , and England , and their meeting at the house and a local school " is now recognized as the first National Chemistry Congress , and many ACS historians believe it led to ACS 's formation two years later on April 6 , 1876 " . On September 5 , 1926 , about 500 ACS members met again at the home to dedicate the small brick museum and to celebrate the meeting 50 years earlier ( two survivors of that first meeting were present ) .
Representatives of the ACS were present at the October 1970 dedication of the house as a museum . On April 25 , 1974 around 400 chemists from the ACS Middle Atlantic Regional Meeting in Scranton came to visit the home . The Priestley Medal , the highest and oldest honor awarded by the ACS , was awarded to Paul Flory at the house that day . ( A replica of the Priestley Medal is on display at the house . ) On August 1 , 1974 — what has been labeled the bicentennial of the discovery of oxygen — over 500 chemists attending the third Biennial Conference on Chemical Education at State College traveled to the house to celebrate " Oxygen Day " . In October 1976 , the ACS celebrated its own centennial with a celebration in Northumberland . A 100 @-@ plus piece replica of Priestley 's laboratory equipment , made by universities , corporations , and the Smithsonian Institution , was presented to the house for display . On April 13 , 1983 , ACS President Fred Basolo spoke at the house to celebrate Priestley 's 250th birthday and as part of a first day of issue ceremony for the United States Postal Service 's Joseph Priestley commemorative stamp . In 2001 the ACS again met at the house to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the society , and reenacted parts of the 1874 and 1926 celebrations , including a march to Priestley 's grave , at which each participant left a red rose .
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= Charter Oath =
The Charter Oath ( 五箇条の御誓文 , Gokajō no Goseimon , more literally , the Oath in Five Articles ) was promulgated at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on 7 April 1868 . The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji 's reign , setting the legal stage for Japan 's modernization . This also set up a process of urbanization as people of all classes were free to move jobs so people went to the city for better work . It remained influential , if less for governing than inspiring , throughout the Meiji era and into the twentieth century , and can be considered the first constitution of modern Japan .
= = Text = =
As the name implies , the text of the Oath consists of five clauses :
By this oath , we set up as our aim the establishment of the national weal on a broad basis and the framing of a constitution and laws .
Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by open discussion .
All classes , high and low , shall be united in vigorously carrying out the administration of affairs of state .
The common people , no less than the civil and military officials , shall all be allowed to pursue their own calling so that there may be no discontent .
Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of Nature .
Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule .
= = Origin and subsequent influence = =
The first draft of the Oath was written by junior councilor Yuri Kimimasa in January 1868 , containing progressive language that spoke to the frustrations that the radical but modestly born Meiji leaders had experienced in " service to hereditary incompetents . " Yuri 's language was moderated by his colleague Fukuoka Takachika in February to be " less alarming , " and Kido Takayoshi prepared the final form of the Oath , employing " language broad enough to embrace both readings . " The Oath was read aloud by Sanjō Sanetomi in the main ceremonial hall of the Kyoto Imperial Palace in the presence of the Emperor and more than 400 officials . After the reading , the nobles and daimyo present signed their names to a document praising the Oath , and swearing to do their utmost to uphold and implement it . Those not able to attend the formal reading afterwards visited the palace to sign their names , bringing the total number of signatures to 767 .
The purpose of the oath was both to issue a statement of policy to be followed by the post @-@ Tokugawa shogunate government in the Meiji period , and to offer hope of inclusion in the next regime to pro @-@ Tokugawa domains . This second motivation was especially important in the early stages of the Restoration as a means to keep domains from joining the Tokugawa remnant in the Boshin War . Later , military victory " made it safe to begin to push court nobles and daimyo figureheads out of the way . "
The promise of reform in the document initially went unfulfilled : in particular , a parliament with real power was not established until 1890 , and the Meiji oligarchy from Satsuma , Chōshū , Tosa and Hizen retained political and military control well into the 20th century . In general , the Oath was purposely phrased in broad terms to minimize resistance from the daimyo and to provide " a promise of gradualism and equity : "
" Deliberative councils " and " public discourse " were , after all , terms that had been applied to cooperation between lords of great domains . That " all classes " were to unite indicated that there would continue to be classes . Even " commoners " were to be treated decently by " civil and military " officers , the privileged ranks of the recent past . No one was likely to be in favor of the retention of " evil customs " ; a rather Confucian " Nature " would indicate the path to be chosen . Only in the promise to " seek knowledge throughout the world " was there a specific indication of change ; but here , too , late Tokugawa activists had deplored the irrationality of Japan 's two @-@ headed government as the only one in the world . Moreover the search would be selective and purposeful , designed to " strengthen the foundations of imperial rule .
The Oath was reiterated as the first article of the constitution promulgated in June 1868 , and the subsequent articles of that constitution expand the policies outlined in the Oath . Almost eighty years later , in the wake of the Second World War , Emperor Hirohito paid homage to the Oath and reaffirmed it as the basis of " national polity " in his Humanity Declaration . The ostensible purpose of the rescript was to appease the American occupiers with a renunciation of imperial divinity , but the emperor himself saw it as a statement of the existence of democracy in Meiji era .
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= Russian cruiser Admiral Makarov =
Admiral Makarov was the second of the four Bayan @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the mid @-@ 1900s . While initially assigned to the Baltic Fleet , the ship was detached to the Mediterranean several times before the start of World War I in 1914 . She was modified to lay mines shortly after the war began . Admiral Makarov laid mines herself during the war and provided cover for other ships laying minefields . The ship fought several inconclusive battles with German ships during the war , including the Battle of Åland Islands in mid – 1915 . She also defended Moon Sound during the German invasion of the Estonian islands in late 1917 . Admiral Makarov was decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design and description = =
Admiral Makarov was 449 @.@ 6 feet ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 57 @.@ 5 feet ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draught of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 750 long tons ( 7 @,@ 870 t ) . The ship had a crew of 568 officers and men . Admiral Makarov was named in honour of Admiral Stepan Makarov .
The ship had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a designed total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) intended to propel the cruiser at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . However , during sea trials , they developed 19 @,@ 320 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 410 kW ) and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 55 knots ( 41 @.@ 76 km / h ; 25 @.@ 95 mph ) . Steam for the engines was provided by 26 Belleville boilers . She could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 t ) of coal , although her range is unknown .
Admiral Makarov 's main armament consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre guns in single @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . Her eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . Anti @-@ torpedo boat defense was provided by twenty 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ calibre guns ; eight of these were mounted in casemates on the side of the hull and in the superstructure . The remaining guns were located above the six @-@ inch gun casemates in pivot mounts with gun shields . Admiral Makarov also mounted four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship also had two submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside .
The ship used Krupp armour throughout . Her waterline belt was 190 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) thick over her machinery spaces . Fore and aft , it reduced to 90 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) . The upper belt and the casemates were 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The armour deck was 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) thick ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) plate over two 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) plates . The gun turrets were protected by 132 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) of armour and the conning tower had sides 136 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Admiral Makarov was built by Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . The ship was laid down in April 1905 , and she was launched on 28 May 1906 . Admiral Makarov was completed in April 1908 . The ship sailed for the Baltic on 27 May and reached Tallinn , Estonia on 11 June where she was assigned to the Baltic Fleet . A few months later , she returned to the Mediterranean and provided assistance to the survivor of the Messina earthquake in December . The ship then rejoined the Baltic Fleet , but she was transferred back to Mediterranean in 1910 where she represented the Russian Empire , together with the battleship Tsesarevich , the armored cruiser Rurik , and the protected cruiser Bogatyr , at the coronation of Nicholas I of Montenegro in August 1910 . Admiral Makarov was back in the Baltic during 1911 and she made a port visit to Copenhagen in 1912 . The following year , the ship was one of a group of cruisers that visited Brest , France , the Isle of Portland in Great Britain , and Stavanger , Norway .
When World War I began , Admiral Makarov was assigned to the First Cruiser Brigade . On 17 August , the ship , together with the armored cruiser Gromoboi , encountered two German light cruisers and an auxiliary minelayer near the entrance to the Gulf of Finland en route to lay a minefield at the entrance . The Russian commander refused combat because he mistakenly thought that the Germans had two additional armored cruisers with them . Shortly afterward , Admiral Makarov was modified to carry mines . She laid her first mines in early December when she was one of a group of ships that mined the northern and western entrances to the Gulf of Danzig . The following month , she provided cover as other cruisers laid minefields in the western Baltic Sea , near Bornholm and Rügen Islands on the night of 12 January 1915 . On 13 February , the ship was en route to cover another minelaying sortie in the Gulf of Danzig , when Rurik ran aground in fog off Fårö Island . She was pulled off despite taking 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 400 t ) of water aboard , and Admiral Makarov escorted the damaged ship back home . Together with her sister Bayan and two protected cruisers , she fought a brief and inconclusive action with the light cruiser SMS München during the night of 6 / 7 May while covering a minelaying sortie off Libau .
On 2 July , the ship participated in the Battle of Åland Islands when intercepted and decoded wireless signals informed the Russians that a small German force was at sea to lay a minefield off the Åland Islands . Rear Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev was already at sea with Admiral Makarov , Bayan , Rurik , the protected cruisers Bogatyr and Oleg , and the destroyer Novik en route to bombard Memel . Rurik and Novik got separated from the others in fog , but the rest of the force encountered the light cruiser SMS Augsburg and a number of destroyers escorting the minelayer SMS Albatross . The Russians concentrated on Albatross , which was forced to run aground in Swedish territorial waters , while the faster Augsburg escaped to the south . The Russian cruisers were low on ammunition when they encountered two more German cruisers and broke off the action after exchanging fire .
When the German launched Operation Albion , the invasion of the Estonian islands of Saaremaa ( Ösel ) , Hiiumaa ( Dagö ) and Muhu ( Moon ) , on 11 October 1917 , Admiral Makarov was in Finland , although she was assigned to the naval forces defending the Gulf of Riga . The ship arrived in Moon Sound on 14 October and engaged German destroyers attempting to enter the Sound from the west until ordered to withdraw on 19 October .
The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have the ships based there interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Admiral Makarov was among the first group of ships that sailed on 25 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' . She was paid off upon arrival and did not participate in the Russian Civil War . The ship was sold for scrap in 1922 and broken up in Stettin .
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= Frank Macfarlane Burnet =
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet , OM AK KBE FRS FAA FRSNZ ( 3 September 1899 – 31 August 1985 ) , usually known as Macfarlane or Mac Burnet , was an Australian virologist best known for his contributions to immunology . He won the Nobel Prize in 1960 for predicting acquired immune tolerance and was best known for developing the theory of clonal selection .
Burnet received his Doctor of Medicine degree from the University of Melbourne in 1924 , and his PhD from the University of London in 1928 . He went on to conduct pioneering research in microbiology and immunology at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research , Melbourne , and served as director of the Institute from 1944 to 1965 . From 1965 until his retirement in 1978 , Burnet worked at the University of Melbourne . Throughout his career he played an active role in the development of public policy for the medical sciences in Australia and was a founding member of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) , and served as its president from 1965 to 1969 .
Burnet 's major achievements in microbiology included discovering the causative agents of Q @-@ fever and psittacosis ; developing assays for the isolation , culture and detection of influenza virus ; describing the recombination of influenza strains ; demonstrating that the myxomatosis virus does not cause disease in humans . Modern methods for producing influenza vaccines are still based on Burnet 's work improving virus growing processes in hen 's eggs .
Burnet was the most highly decorated and honoured scientist to have worked in Australia . For his contributions to Australian science , he was made the first Australian of the Year in 1960 , and in 1978 a Knight of the Order of Australia . He was recognised internationally for his achievements : in addition to the Nobel , he received the Lasker Award and the Royal and Copley Medal from the Royal Society , honorary doctorates , and distinguished service honours from the Commonwealth of Nations and Japan .
After a series of increasing health problems in his final years , Burnet died of cancer .
= = Early life = =
Burnet was born in Traralgon , Victoria ; his father , Frank Burnet , a Scottish emigrant to Australia , was the manager of the Traralgon branch of the Colonial Bank . His mother Hadassah Burnet ( née Mackay ) was the daughter of a middle @-@ class Scottish immigrant , and met his father when Frank was working in the town of Koroit . Frank was 36 , and 14 years older than Hadassah when they married in 1893 . The family was socially conservative Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestant . Frank Macfarlane Burnet was the second of seven children and from childhood was known as " Mac " . He had an older sister , two younger sisters and three younger brothers . The eldest daughter Doris had a mental disability that consumed most of Hadassah 's time and the family saw Doris 's condition as an unspoken stigma , discouraging the other children from inviting friends home , lest they come across the eldest daughter . From his early years in Traralgon , Mac enjoyed exploring the environment around him , particularly Traralgon Creek . He first attended a private school run by a single teacher before starting at the government primary school at the age of 7 . Mac was distant from his father — who liked to spend his free time fishing and playing golf — from a young age . He preferred bookish pursuits from a young age and was not enamoured of sport , and by the age of eight was old enough to analyse his father 's character ; Mac disapproved of Frank and saw him as a hypocrite who espoused moral principles and put on a facade of uprightedness , while associating with businessmen of dubious ethics . Hadassah was preoccupied with Doris , so Mac developed a rather solitary personality .
The Burnets moved to Terang in 1909 , when Frank was posted to be the bank manager there , having declined a post in London . Burnet was interested in the wildlife around the nearby lake ; he joined the Scouts in 1910 and enjoyed all outdoor activities . While living in Terang , he began to collect beetles and study biology . He read biology articles in the Chambers 's Encyclopaedia , which introduced him to the work of Charles Darwin . During his early teens , the family took annual holidays to Port Fairy , where Burnet spent his time observing and recording the behaviour of the wildlife . He was educated at Terang State School and attended Sunday school at the local church , where the priest encouraged him to pursue scholastic studies and awarded him a book on ants as a reward for his academic performance . He advised Frank to invest in Mac 's education and he won a full scholarship to board and study at Geelong College , one of Victoria 's most exclusive private schools . Starting there in 1913 , Burnet was the only boarder with a full scholarship . He did not enjoy his time there among the scions of the ruling upper class ; while most of his peers were brash and sports @-@ oriented , Burnet was bookish and not athletically inclined , and found his fellow students to be arrogant and boorish . During this period he kept his beetle @-@ collecting and disapproval of his peers a secret and mixed with his schoolmates out of necessity . Nevertheless , his academic prowess gained him privileges , and he graduated in 1916 , placing first in his school overall , and in history , English , chemistry and physics . The typical university path for a person of his social background was to pursue studies in theology , law or medicine . By this time , he was becoming disillusioned with religion and chose medicine . Due to World War I , military service was a possibility and he felt that a medical background would increase his chances of being given a non @-@ combat post .
= = Academic foundations = =
From 1918 , Burnet attended the University of Melbourne , where he lived in Ormond College on a residential scholarship . There , he read more of Darwin 's work and was influenced by the ideas of science and society in the writings of H. G. Wells . He enjoyed his time at university and spent much of his free time reading biology books in the library to feed his passion for scientific knowledge . He also had fleeting sporting success , holding down a position in Ormond 's First VIII rowing squad for a brief period . He continued to pursue his study of beetles in private , although his classmates found out and there was no loss in this as they viewed his hobby positively . Despite an ongoing shyness , Burnet got on well with staff and students at university . Burnet was self @-@ motivated and often skipped lectures to study at his own faster pace and pursue further knowledge in the library , and he came equal first in physics and chemistry in first year . The following year , 1918 , he became increasingly immersed in laboratory work , but he was also dogged by peer pressure to enlist in the military , which he saw as a distasteful prospect . However , this was averted by the end of the war . In 1919 , he was one of 12 high @-@ performing students selected for extra tuition , and he came equal first in third year physiology . He began clinical work in the same year , but found it somewhat unpleasant as he was interested in diagnosing the patient and had little interest in showing empathy towards them .
While at university , he became an agnostic ; he was sceptical of religious faith , which he regarded as " an effort to believe what common sense tells you isn 't true . " He was also disgusted by what he regarded as hypocritical conduct by religious adherents . Towards the later years of his undergraduate years , his unhappiness with religion began to dog him to a greater extent . He tried to become involved with communism for brief period but then resolved to devote himself to scientific research . The length of time required to study medicine had been reduced to five years to train doctors faster following the outbreak of World War I , and Burnet graduated with a Bachelor of Medicine and a Bachelor of Surgery in 1922 , ranking second in the final exams despite the death of his father a few weeks earlier . His fellow graduates included Ian Wark , Kate Campbell , Jean Macnamara , Rupert Willis and Roy Cameron , who became distinguished scientists in their own right .
He then did a ten @-@ month residency at Melbourne Hospital to gain experience before going into practice . The new graduates spent four months in the medicine ward , another four in surgery , and the remaining two in casualty . In the surgery ward he worked under John Gordon and Alan Newton , both well known surgeons . He enjoyed this period immensely and was disappointed when he had to do his medicine residency . However , he was soon engrossed in his work , having been inspired by the neurologist Richard Stawell , whom Burnet came to idolise . As a result of this he became intent on a career in clinical neurology , and he wrote a theoretical paper about testing sensory losses following peripheral nerve lesions , but his submission to the Clinical Report of the Melbourne Hospital was rejected . Burnet applied to be medical registrar as part of his clinical career path , but the medical superintendent of Melbourne Hospital , who was in charge of such appointments , deemed Burnet 's character and personality more suited to a laboratory research career , and asked Burnet to withdraw his application in return for the post of senior resident pathologist , which would become vacant in the following months . Burnet complied .
During the transition period he worked as a pathology registrar at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research and also prepared for his Doctor of Medicine examinations , late in 1923 . In 1923 he took up the post of senior resident pathologist at the Melbourne Hospital ; the laboratories were a part of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute . He conducted research into the agglutinin reactions in typhoid fever , leading to his first scientific publications . He decided to work full @-@ time on the antibody response in typhoid , even though he was technically supposed to pursuing pathology as part of his obligations to the hospital . Burnet came first in the Doctor of Medicine exams by a long distance , and his score was excluded from the scaling process so that the other students would not fail for being so far behind .
At the time , the Hall Institute was in the early stages of rapid expansion . The new director of the Institute , Charles Kellaway , wanted to increase the activities of the organisation to not only support hospital operations but have separate research groups in physiology , microbiology and biochemistry that would also do independent studies . He also hoped to raise the standards to make the Institute comparable to the world @-@ class operations in Europe and America . Kellaway took a liking to Burnet and saw him as the best young talent in the Institute with the ability to help raise it to world leading standards . However , he thought that Burnet would need experience working in a laboratory in England before he could lead his own research group on bacteriology in Australia . Burnet left Australia for England in 1925 and served as ship 's surgeon during his journey in exchange for a free fare . On arrival , he took a paid position assisting the curator of the National Collection of Type Cultures at the Lister Institute in London . Burnet prepared or maintained bacteria cultures for other researchers in the morning and was free to do his own experiments in the afternoon . During the latter half of 1926 , he experimented to see if Salmonella typhimurium was affected by bacteriophage .
He was awarded the Beit Memorial Fellowship by the Lister Institute in 1926 ; this gave him enough money for him to resign his curator position and he began full @-@ time research on bacteriophages . He injected mice with bacteriophage and observed their immunological reactions and believed bacteriophages to be viruses . For this work he received a Ph.D. from the University of London in 1928 under the direction of Professor J. D. Ledingham and was invited to write a chapter on bacteriophages for the Medical Research Council 's System of Bacteriology . He was also given an invitation to deliver a paper at the Royal Society of Medicine in 1927 on the link between O @-@ agglutinins and bacteriophage . Burnet began attending the Fabian Society functions and befriended some communists , although he refrained from joining them in overt left @-@ wing activism . He also spent his free time enjoying theatre , engaging in amateur archaeology and cycling through continental Europe .
While in London , Burnet became engaged to fellow Australian Edith Linda Marston Druce . She was a secondary school teacher and daughter of a barrister 's clerk and the pair had met in 1923 and had a few dates but did not keep in touch . Druce sought out Burnet while on a holiday in London and they quickly agreed to marriage although she had to return to Australia . They married in 1928 after he had completed his Ph.D. and returned to Australia , and had a son and two daughters . At the time , there was a vacancy for the Chair of Bacteriology at the University of London , and Ledingham was lobbying his colleagues to offer Burnet the post , but Burnet returned to Australia , partly because of Druce .
= = Walter and Eliza Hall Institute = =
= = = Virology and medicine = = =
When Burnet returned to Australia , he went back to the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute , where he was appointed assistant director by Kellaway . His first assignment was to investigate the " Bundaberg disaster " , in which 12 children had died after receiving a contaminated diphtheria vaccine . Kellaway was put in charge of a royal commission to investigate the matter and he put Burnet in charge of the laboratory investigations . He identified Staphylococcus aureus in the toxin @-@ antitoxin mixture that had been administered to the children ; it had been picked up from the skin of one of the children and then transmitted to the others in the injections . However , it turned out to be another toxin that had caused the children 's deaths ; this work on staphylococcal toxin piqued his interest in immunology . During this time , he continued to study bacteriophages , writing 32 papers on phages between 1924 and 1937 . In 1929 , Burnet and his graduate assistant Margot McKie wrote a paper suggesting that bacteriophages could exist as a stable non @-@ infectious form that multiplies with the bacterial host . Their pioneering description of lysogeny was not accepted until much later , and was crucial to the work of Max Delbrück , Alfred Hershey and Salvador Luria on the replication mechanism and genetics of viruses , for which they were awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine .
Between 1932 and 1933 , Burnet took leave of absence to undertake a fellowship at the National Institute for Medical Research in London . The Great Depression had resulted in Burnet 's salary being cut from 1000 to 750 pounds , and the National Institute had been given a large grant from the Rockefeller Foundation that allowed them to hire Burnet at 1000 pounds per annum . The National Institute 's Director Sir Henry Dale gained permission from Kellaway for the two @-@ year move ; Kellaway promised to hold Burnet 's job for him when he returned and felt that the experience would make Burnet — whom he saw as the Hall Institute 's brightest young scientist — better equipped to expand operations when he returned to Melbourne . Dale also paid for Burnet 's sister to travel to England to help look after her brother 's young children .
Significant breakthroughs in virology were made while he was there , including the isolation and first demonstration of the transmission of the influenza virus . His own research was on the canarypox virus , which he used in developing a chick embryo assay for the isolation and quantification of animal viruses . Dale offered Burnet a permanent position but he declined and returned to the Hall Institute . Following his productive work in London , the Rockefeller Institute agreed to fund a new virus research laboratory in Melbourne for Burnet . He brought back a set of viruses from the National Institute to begin the basis of research in Melbourne .
When Burnet returned to Australia , he continued his work on virology , including the epidemiology of herpes simplex . He was also involved in two projects that were not viral , the characterisation of the causative agents of psittacosis and Q fever . After finding that parrots and cockatoos were infected with psittacosis and were responsible for transmission , he lobbied the government for a ban in order to prevent human infection , but he was rebuffed and later came to agree with the government position that there was not much danger . During the time he worked on Q fever with Australian scientist E.H. Derrick , the causative organism of which was named Coxiella burnetii in Burnet 's honour , he became the first person to acquire the disease in the laboratory . His epidemiological studies of herpes and Q fever displayed an appreciation of the ecology of infectious disease that became a characteristic of his scientific method .
During World War II , Burnet 's research moved to influenza and scrub typhus . With the outbreak of war , Burnet was handed more responsibility and made acting director and had to oversee the move into a new building as Kellaway was seconded to the military in 1939 . Due to Kellaway , many of the infectious disease problems afflicting the military were referred to the institute . Fearing a repeat of the massive global influenza outbreak that occurred after World War I , Burnet focused the institute in the search for a vaccine . He first tested the vaccine on a group of medical students , and after a promising test on 107 army volunteers in February 1942 following a rise in infections , a large @-@ scale program was introduced two months later to inoculate all new recruits after an influenza A outbreak . In this trial , 20 @,@ 000 personnel were vaccinated , without success , and the scheme was abandoned . In 1942 , the investigations into scrub typhus accelerated after an exodus of researchers in that field from Malaya after the Japanese conquest of the area . However , this ended in tragedy when his collaborator Dora Lush accidentally injected herself and then died of the infection . Nevertheless , his work on immunisation had earned him international recognition by this time .
Burnet 's first book , Biological Aspects of Infectious Disease , was published in 1940 . It had wide influence and was translated into several languages . In 1942 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society , and in 1944 he travelled to Harvard University to deliver the Dunham Lectures . There he was offered a chair , but he refused and returned to Australia . This was attributed to his nationalistic tendencies , as well as his sense of loyalty to the Hall Institute . During his trip he also visited the US military facility at Fort Bragg , where he discussed his work on influenza with the scientists working there .
In 1944 , he was appointed director of the Institute when Kellaway was appointed director of the Wellcome Foundation . Although Kellaway had groomed Burnet to become a pivotal figure , he was hesitant as to whether Burnet would be at his most effective with a strategic leadership role . Kellaway thought that Burnet might not be suited to the post , and should have continued to focus purely on research for the time being . Burnet had similar doubts , particularly given his taciturn nature , but applied for the position anyway . Although he was not known for his social skills , his ability as a scientist and to impart ideas for investigation to his subordinates held his leadership and the institute in good stead . Unlike his predecessor , who valued a broad gamut of research activities , Burnet was of the opinion that the institute could not make a significant impact at global level in this way , and he pursued a policy of focusing all effort into one area at a time . Always a strong @-@ willed and rather isolated man , he became more single @-@ minded and less tolerant of criticism of his work and expected a more hierarchical structure and unquestioning obedience . According to biographer Sexton , he " displayed a kind of territorial protectiveness in relation to his own work " .
In 1944 , it was decided by the University of Melbourne that Burnet would be appointed a professor as part of a cooperative program so that university students could be experimentally trained at the institute , while the researchers engaged in some teaching . This was not a success , and there was much tension , as Burnet repeatedly expressed his opinion in public that university teaching and research should be kept separate , at one point leading to a series of open letters from university professors decrying his attitude . Burnet was also not interested in the politics of university funding , and his disengagement from administrative matters engendered resentment . On the other hand , Burnet was vigorous in obtaining funding for the Hall Institute from government bodies , resorting to the bluff of feigning interest in moving overseas to secure continued strong backing . However , he was criticised for being thrifty and refusing to invest in cutting edge equipment , despite the Hall Institute 's high standing in research circles . Colleagues believed that he was sceptical of modern technology and thought his outlook to be limiting .
In 1946 , he initiated the Clinical Research Unit to allow for closer cooperation with the clinical activities of the Royal Melbourne Hospital . Despite his known derisive views of clinical science as being inferior , he supported the work enthusiastically .
Under Burnet 's direction , scientists at the Institute made significant contributions to infectious disease research during a period that has been called the " golden age of virology " . Virologists including Alick Isaacs , Gordon Ada , John Cairns , Stephen Fazekas de St. Groth , and Frank Fenner made significant contributions on Murray Valley encephalitis , myxomatosis , poliomyelitis , poxviruses , herpes and influenza .
Burnet made significant contributions to influenza research ; he developed techniques to grow and study the virus , including hemagglutination assays . He worked on a live vaccine against influenza , but the vaccine was unsuccessful when tested during World War II . His interest in the influenza receptor led him to discover the neuraminidase that is secreted by Vibrio cholerae , which later provided the foundation for Alfred Gottschalk 's significant work on glycoproteins and the neuraminidase substrate , sialic acid . Between 1951 and 1956 , Burnet worked on the genetics of influenza . He examined the genetic control of virulence and demonstrated that the virus recombined at high frequency ; this observation was not fully appreciated until several years later , when the segmented genome of influenza was demonstrated .
= = = Immunology = = =
In 1957 , Burnet decided that research at the Institute should focus on immunology . Burnet reached the decision unilaterally , leaving many of the research staff disillusioned and feeling the action was arrogant ; for Burnet 's part he was comfortable with the decision as he thought it to be effective . Many virologists left the Institute and settled the Australian National University 's John Curtin School of Medical Research . After 1957 all new staff and students at the Institute worked on immunological problems ; Burnet was involved in work relating to autoimmune diseases and the graft @-@ versus @-@ host reaction , and increasingly in theoretical studies of immunology , immunological surveillance and cancer .
At the time , immunology was becoming more sophisticated , with the increasing role of molecular biology and biochemistry . Burnet was suspicious of the direction in which immunology was headed , and the increasing emphasis on technology and more intricate experiments , and colleagues felt that Burnet 's conservative attitude was a factor in his decision to turn the institute 's focus to immunology .
Burnet began to switch his focus to immunology in the 1940s . In 1941 he wrote a monograph called " The Production of Antibodies " , which was revised and reissued in 1949 with Frank Fenner as a co @-@ author . This book is seen as a key publication in immunology — it marks the move from the study of immunology as a chemical endeavour to a biological one . Importantly in this work , he introduced the concept of " self " and " non @-@ self " to immunology . The distinction between self and non @-@ self was an integral part of Burnet 's biological outlook , of his interest in the living organism in its totality , its activities , and interactions . Burnet regarded the " self " of the host body as being actively defined during its embryogenesis through complex interactions between immune cells and all the other cells and molecules within an embryo .
Using the concept of self , Burnet introduced a hypothesis about the situation where the body failed to make antibodies to its own components ( autoimmunity ) and by extension the idea of immune tolerance . He proposed that
if in embryonic life expendable cells from a genetically distinct race are implanted and established , no antibody response should develop against the foreign cell antigen when the animal takes on independent existence .
Burnet was , however , unable to prove this experimentally . Peter Medawar , Rupert E. Billingham and Leslie Brent did find support for Burnet 's hypothesis in 1953 when they showed that splenocytes could be engrafted by intravenous infusion into mice in utero or just after birth and that when these mice matured , they could accept skin and other tissues from the donor but not from any other mouse strain . Burnet and Medawar were co @-@ recipients of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work , as it provided the experimental basis for inducing immune tolerance , thereby allowing the transplantation of solid organs . Burnet and Medawar were able to coordinate their work effectively despite the rather different personalities and physical separation ; Burnet was taciturn whereas Medawar was a young and urbane Englishman , but they greatly respected one another .
However , later studies showed that cells or tissues transplanted before the immune system development of the recipient , such as in embryonic recipients , could be treated as foreign and trigger rejection , countering Burnet 's explanation for self tolerance . In contrast to the Burnet hypothesis of a special tolerance @-@ inducing period defined by the age of the animal , Joshua Lederberg proposed in 1959 , that it is the age of the lymphocyte that defines whether an antigen that is encountered will induce tolerance , with immature lymphocytes being tolerance @-@ sensitive . Lederberg 's concept is now known as central tolerance , and is widely accepted . It may also explain the success of some transplants given early in life and the failure to induce tolerance in other studies . Burnet noted that his contributions to immune tolerance were strictly theoretical :
My part in the discovery of acquired immunological tolerance was a very minor one — it was the formulation of an hypothesis that called for experiment .
Burnet was interested in how the body produces antibodies in response to antigens . The dominant idea in the literature through the 1940s was that the antigen acted as a template for antibody production , which was known as the " instructive " hypothesis . Burnet was not satisfied with this explanation , and in the second edition of " The Production of Antibodies " , he and Fenner advanced an indirect template theory which proposed that each antigen could influence the genome , thus effecting the production of antibodies . In 1956 he became interested in Niels Kaj Jerne 's natural selection hypothesis , which described a mechanism for immune response based on an earlier theory of Nobel @-@ winning immunologist Paul Ehrlich . Jerne proposed that the antigen bound to an antibody by chance and , that upon binding , more antibodies to that antigen would be produced . Burnet developed a model which he named clonal selection that expanded on and improved Jerne 's hypothesis . Burnet proposed that each lymphocyte bears on its surface specific immunoglobulins reflecting the specificity of the antibody that will later be synthesised once the cell is activated by an antigen . The antigen serves as a selective stimulus , causing preferential proliferation and differentiation of the clones that have receptors for that antigen .
In 1958 Gustav Nossal and Lederberg showed that one B cell always produces only one antibody , which was the first evidence for clonal selection theory . Burnet wrote further about the theory in his 1959 book The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity . His theory predicted almost all of the key features of the immune system as we understand it today , including autoimmune disease , immune tolerance and somatic hypermutation as a mechanism in antibody production . The clonal selection theory became one of the central concepts of immunology , and Burnet regarded his contributions to the theoretical understanding of the immune system as his greatest contribution to science , writing that he and Jerne should have received the Nobel for this work . Jerne was recognised for his contributions to the conceptualisation of the immune system when he was a co @-@ recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1984 .
There is some contention over Burnet 's publication of his version of the theory in the Australian Journal of Science in 1957 . Some commentators argue he published in an Australian journal to fast @-@ track his hypothesis and obtain priority for his theory over ideas that were published later that year in a paper written by David Talmage , which Burnet had read prior to its publication . In his paper Burnet cited Talmage 's review , and in a later interview , Talmage said he believed that Burnet " truthfully had developed the idea before he received my paper " . The theory is now sometimes known as Burnet 's clonal selection theory , which overlooks the contributions of Ehrlich , Jerne , Talmage , and the contributions of Lederberg , who conceptualised the genetics of clonal selection .
Burnet 's work on graft @-@ versus @-@ host was in collaboration with Lone Simonsen between 1960 and 1962 . Simonsen had shown in 1957 that when a chick embryo was inoculated intravenously with adult @-@ fowl blood , a graft @-@ versus @-@ host reaction occurred ; this was known as the Simonsen phenomenon . Their work in this system would later help to explain passenger leukocytes in transplantation . The last project he worked on at the Institute was a study with assistant Margaret Holmes of autoimmune disease in the New Zealand black mouse model ; this mouse has a high incidence of spontaneous autoimmune hemolytic anemia . They looked at the inheritance of autoimmune disease , and their use of immunosuppressive drug cyclophosphamide to treat the disease influenced the use of immunosuppressive drugs in human autoimmune disease .
In 1960 , Burnet scaled back his laboratory work , taking one day off per week to concentrate on writing . In 1963 , Autoimmune Diseases : Pathogenesis , Chemistry and Therapy , which he authored with Ian Mackay , was published . He also oversaw an expansion of the Hall Institute and secured funding from the Nuffield Foundation and the state government to build two further floors in the building and take over some of the space taken up by pathology department at the Royal Melbourne Hospital . Despite this , Burnet believed that a world class research body needed to be small enough that one person could effectively run it , and maintained tight control over its activities throughout his leadership . He determined the policies himself , and personally selected all of the research staff and students , relying on a small staff to enforce his plans .
He continued to be active in the laboratory until his retirement in 1965 , although his experimental time began to decrease as the operations became increasingly focused on immunology ; Burnet 's work in this area had been mostly theoretical . Gustav Nossal became the next director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute . Under Burnet 's leadership the Institute had become " probably the world 's best known research centre devoted to the study of immunology . " However , with the increasing sophistication in medical science and its reliance on more complicated technology , Burnet 's lone @-@ wolf approach became less compatible with the research environment , which required more collaboration . In his final years at the helm , Burnet allowed more technical modernisation during the transition period to Nossal 's leadership .
= = Public health and policy = =
From 1937 Burnet was involved in a variety of scientific and public policy bodies , starting with a position on a government advisory council on polio . After he became the director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute in 1944 , he was considered a public figure and overcame shyness to become a good public speaker . He recognised the importance of co @-@ operation with the media if the general public was to understand science and scientists , and his writings and lectures played an important part in the formulation of public attitudes and policy in Australia on a variety of biological topics . However , despite making many appearances on radio and television , he never became at ease with interviews and had to be selective with outreach engagements due to the many invitations he received , and tended to accept those that had the potential to promote the Institute . Over time , he began to increase his activism , as he felt more confident that he would be able to make an impact as his reputation grew , especially after winning the Nobel Prize , and even more so after his retirement from the directorship of the Institute . Although Burnet was not naturally outgoing , he saw it as the social responsibility of a scientific leader and scholar to publicly speak out and impart wisdom and foresight to the wider community .
Burnet served as a member or chairman of scientific committees , both in Australia and overseas . Between 1947 and 1953 , he was a member of the National Health and Medical Research Council 's Medical Research Advisory Committee . The committee advised on funding for medical research in Australia . During this same period ( 1947 – 52 ) , he was also a member of the Commonwealth government 's Defence Research and Development Policy Committee . Declassified files from this committee show that Burnet made the recommendation that Australia pursue development of chemical and biological weapons to target neighbouring countries ' food stocks and spread infectious diseases . His report was titled War from a Biological Angle . Between 1955 and 1959 , he was chairman of the Australian Radiation Advisory Committee ; he was concerned that Australians were being exposed to unnecessary medical and industrial radiation .
Internationally , Burnet was a chairman of the Papua New Guinea Medical Research Advisory Committee between 1962 and 1969 . At the time , Papua New Guinea was an Australian territory , and Burnet had first travelled there as his son was posted there . His role on the committee allowed him to explore his interest in human biology . He was particularly interested in kuru ( laughing sickness ) , and lobbied the Australian government to establish the Papua New Guinea Institute of Human Biology . Burnet later helped oversee the institute 's contribution to the Anglo @-@ Australian participation in the International Biological Programme in the Field of Human Adaptability .
Burnet served as first chair for the Commonwealth Foundation ( 1966 – 69 ) , a Commonwealth initiative to foster interaction between the member countries ' elite , and he was also active in the World Health Organization , serving on the Expert Advisory Panels on Virus Diseases and on Immunology between 1952 and 1969 and the World Health Organization Medical Research Advisory Committee between 1969 and 1973 .
In 1964 , he was appointed to sit on the University Council of Victoria 's third university Latrobe on an interim basis until the institution was formed in 1966 . He served until 1970 . He advocated a less hierarchical relationship between a professor and student , something seen as a move away from the English tradition prevalent in Australia towards and American model . He also called for the downgrading of the importance placed on the liberal arts . His ideas were too radical for his peers and he stepped down from the role in 1970 after none of his suggestions had made an impact .
Burnet was opposed to the use of nuclear power in Australia owing to the issues of nuclear proliferation . He later retracted his objections to uranium mining in Australia , feeling that nuclear power was necessary while other renewable energy sources were being developed . In the late 1960s and 1970s , he was also vocal in the anti @-@ smoking movement ; he was one of the first high @-@ profile figures in Australia to educate the public on the dangers of tobacco , and he appeared in a television advertisement criticising the ethics of tobacco advertising , and broadcasters for displaying such material . He and fellow activists were surprised that the commercial was allowed to run briefly , before being taken off air by the station , which only further generated attention for the anti @-@ smoking campaign . A former smoker , he had rejected the habit in the 1950s after several friends died . Burnet was also a critic of the Vietnam War and called for the creation of an international police force .
= = Later life = =
Following his resignation from the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute , Burnet was offered an office at the University of Melbourne in the School of Microbiology . While at the university , he wrote 13 books on a variety of topics including immunology , ageing and cancer , and human biology . He also wrote an autobiography entitled Changing Patterns : An Atypical Autobiography , which was released in 1968 . In all , he wrote a further 16 books after his retirement from the Hall Institute . He was known for his ability to write quickly , often without a final draft , and his ability to convey a message to readers from a wide spectrum of backgrounds , but he was himself sceptical that his opinions had much influence . In 1969 he published Cellular Immunology , considered his magnum opus on immunity , attempted to show how various phenomena could be predicted by the clonal selection theory . The following year , he wrote Immunological Surveillance , which expounded his established opinion that mammals could immunise themselves through their ability to detect foreign patterns in the body . He continued to maintain an intense and focused work schedule , often shunning others to keep up a heavy writing load .
He became president of the Australian Academy of Science in 1965 , having been a foundational fellow when the Academy was formed in 1954 . He had been offered the presidency in 1958 to replace the inaugural head Sir Mark Oliphant , but declined , although he served on the council and as vice president in 1961 – 63 . As president he was recognised by both government and the public as the leading scientist in Australia . His stature as a scientist gave him the gravitas to end policy disputes , and gave the Academy and its advocacy more credibility in the eyes of government and industry . As such his term was considered to be highly successful . Oliphant said that Burnet 's personal prestige was very important in the increased respect the AAS won and that he " made the biological sciences far more acceptable in Australia " .
He helped establish the Academy 's Science and Industry Forum , which was formed in the second year of his leadership in order to improve dialogue between researchers and industrialists . It investigated whether a national science policy should be formulated and led to the eventual creation of the Australian Science and Technology Council . He also laid the foundations of the Australian Biological Resources Study . When his presidency ended in 1969 , the Academy founded the Burnet Lecture and Medal , which is the Academy 's highest award for biological sciences .
As in many of his previous pursuits , Burnet set an ambitious agenda for himself but ran into difficulties . He saw the Academy as the peak lobby group of the scientific community and their main liaison with government and industry . He tried to lift its profile and use it to persuade the political and industrial leadership to invest more in science . He also wanted to use the Academy to increase the involvement of the eminent scientists of Australia in training and motivating the next generation , but these initiatives were not successful due to a lack of concrete method . Most controversially , he tried to change the membership criteria of the Academy . He wanted to stop the Royal Society from operating in Australia and accepting new Australian members . He reasoned that the Australian Academy would not be strong if the Royal Society would be able to compete with it , and he felt that if Australian scientists were allowed to possess membership of the both bodies , the more established Royal Society would make the Australian Academy look poor in comparison . Questions were raised over the existing dual members — such as Burnet — being able to maintain their status and the hypocrisy thereby entailed in Burnet 's nationalistic proposal , and it was defeated heavily .
In 1966 , Burnet accepted a nomination from Australia Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies to become the inaugural chairman of the Commonwealth Foundation , a body that aimed to increase the professional interchange between the various nations of the British Commonwealth . Burnet served in the role for three years and helped start it on a path of steady growth , although he was unable to use it as a personal platform to espouse the importance of human biology .
Burnet 's essays and books published in his later life caused contention within the scientific community and to the chagrin of his peers Burnet often made pessimistic proclamations about the future of science . In 1966 Burnet wrote an opinion article for The Lancet entitled " Men or Molecules ? " in which he questioned the usefulness of molecular biology , arguing that it had not and would not contribute anything of use to medicine and that manipulation of the genome as had been demonstrated in bacteria would do more harm to humans than good . Gustav Nossal subsequently described Burnet as " a biologist with a love @-@ hate affair with biochemistry , which led to a brief but damaging rejection of the worth of molecular biology . "
He delivered the inaugural Oscar Mendelsohn lecture in 1971 at Monash University and advocated policies for Australia such as population control , prevention of war , long @-@ term plans for the management of the environment and natural resources , Aboriginal land rights , socialism , recycling , advertising bans on socially harmful products , and more regulation of the environment . He angrily denounced French nuclear testing in the Pacific , and after consistently voting for the ruling Liberal Party coalition as it ruled for the past few decades , signed an open letter backing the opposition Labor Party of Gough Whitlam , which took power in 1972 . However , he soon spoke out against Whitlam 's lack of action against tobacco advertising and French nuclear tests . Burnet often found himself frustrated with the refusal of politicians to base policy on long @-@ term objectives , such as the sustainability of human life .
In 1971 – 72 , he wrote four books , most notably , Genes , Dreams and Realities , which caused great controversy due to its strident attacks on molecular biology , cellular biology , and claims that cancer and various other diseases were incurable and that it was pointless to try to do so . He also predicted that scientific progress would end soon .
Burnet spoke and wrote widely on the topic of human biology after his retirement , aiming to reach all strata of society . He courted the media as well as the scientific community , often leading to sensationalist or scientifically unrigorous report of his outspoken views . This often angered colleagues , who viewed him as abusing his stature to deliberately cause a stir . In 1966 Burnet presented the Boyer Lectures , focusing on human biology . He provided a conceptual framework for sustainable development ; 21 years later the definition provided by the Brundtland Commission was almost identical . In 1970 he revised an earlier book which was published as Dominant Mammal : the Biology of Human Destiny ; it was followed by Endurance of Life , which was published in 1978 . The books discuss aspects of human biology , a topic which Burnet wrote on extensively in his later years . In Dominant Mammal he argued that the roots of all human behaviour can be found in the behaviour of animals ; in Endurance he addressed issues of ageing , life , death and the future of mankind . The books strongly polarised the scientific community , and one reviewer described his ideas of sociobiology as " extreme " and giving " a dismal , unappealing view of humanity " . In Endurance of Life , he also called for society to accept euthanasia of ill older people , repeat violent criminals , and most controversially , abortion of pregnancies likely to result in disabled children , and infanticide of handicapped newborns . Knowing that there would be a strong backlash for such policies , he departed overseas for a two @-@ month lecture series at the time of the book launch . In his absence , he was strongly assailed in newspaper letters and some correspondents compared his stance on infanticide to that of Adolf Hitler . At the same time , he also changed his stance on nuclear power and advocated its use , and the reinvestment of revenue for research into solar power . This about face angered the environmental movement .
His first wife , Edith Linda Druce , died from lymphoid leukaemia in 1973 , after a four @-@ year struggle . During her final years , Burnet refused all offers of lectures overseas to spend more time nursing his ailing wife . For a period after this he became very lethargic and reclusive , numbed by his wife 's death . He then moved into Ormond College for company , and resumed beetle collecting , but for a year after her death , Burnet tried to alleviate his grief by writing mock letters to her once a week . Gradually he regained his enthusiasm and began writing again . In 1975 , he travelled to California to deliver a series of lectures . In 1976 he married Hazel G. Jenkins , a widowed former singer from a business family in her 70s who was working in the microbiology department as a librarian , and moved out of Ormond College .
In 1978 Burnet decided to officially retire ; in retirement he wrote two books . During this time , he missed his laboratory work , and he was constrained to social events and theorising . In 1982 , Burnet was one of three contributors to Challenge to Australia , writing about genetic issues and their impact on the nation 's impact . As a result of the success of the book , in early 1983 , Burnet was appointed to the 70 @-@ person Australian Advisory Council of Elders to offer counsel to policymakers , but the group folded after several members became too frail or died .
Burnet continued to travel and speak , but in the early 1980s , he and his wife became increasingly hampered by illness . Having surmised his illness two years earlier , in November 1984 he underwent surgery for colorectal cancer . He made plans to resume scientific meetings , but was then taken ill again , with significant pain in his thorax and legs . Secondary lesions were found in June 1985 and declared to be inoperable and terminal . A supporter of euthanasia , Burnet was unfazed by his imminent death , and he died on 31 August at his son 's home at Port Fairy after two months of illness . He was given a state funeral by the government of Australia ; many of his distinguished colleagues from the Hall Institute such as Nossal and Fenner were pall @-@ bearers , and he was buried near his paternal grandparents after a private family service at Tower Hill cemetery , near Port Fairy . Following his death he was honoured by the House of Representatives ; Prime Minister Bob Hawke took the highly unusual step of moving a condolence motion , an honour typically reserved for parliamentarians .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Burnet received extensive honours for his contributions to science and public life during his lifetime . He was knighted in the 1951 New Year Honours , received the Elizabeth II Coronation Medal in 1953 , and was appointed to the Order of Merit ( OM ) in the 1958 Queen 's Birthday Honours . In 1960 he was the first recipient of the honorary Australian of the Year award . He received a Gold and Silver Star from the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun in 1961 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in the 1969 New Year Honours , and received the Elizabeth II Jubilee Medal in 1977 . In 1978 he was made a Knight of the Order of Australia ( AK ) . He was only the fourth person to receive this honour .
He was a fellow or honorary member of 30 international Academies of Sciences . He received 10 honorary D.Sc. degrees from universities including Cambridge , Harvard and Oxford , an honorary M.D. degree from Hahnemann Medical College ( now part of Drexel University ) , an honorary Doctor of Medical Science from the Medical University of South Carolina and a LL.D. degree from the University of Melbourne . Including his Nobel , he received 19 medals or awards including the Royal Medal and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society and the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research ; he also received 33 international lectureships and 17 lectureships within Australia .
After his death , Australia 's largest communicable diseases research institute — the Macfarlane Burnet Centre for Medical Research was renamed in his honour . The Burnet Clinical Research Unit of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute was also named in his honour in 1986 . In 1975 his work on immunology was recognised by a 33 @-@ cent stamp released by Australia Post . Seven Australian medical scientists were commemorated in the issue of a set of four Australian stamps released in 1995 ; he appears on the 45 @-@ cent stamp with fellow University of Melbourne graduate Jean Macnamara . He also appears on a Dominican stamp that was issued in 1997 . The centenary of his birth was celebrated in Australia in 1999 ; a statue of him was erected in Franklin Street , Traralgon ; and several events were held in his honour including the release of a new edition of his biography by Oxford University Press .
Burnet biographer Christopher Sexton suggests that Burnet 's legacy is fourfold : ( 1 ) the scope and quality of his research ; ( 2 ) his nationalistic attitude which led him to stay in Australia , leading to the development of science in Australia and inspiring future generations of Australian scientists ; ( 3 ) his success establishing the reputation of Australian medical research worldwide ; and ( 4 ) his books , essays and other writings . In spite of his sometimes controversial ideas on science and humanity , Peter C. Doherty has noted that " Burnet 's reputation is secure in his achievements as an experimentalist , a theoretician and a leader of the Australian scientific community . "
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= Neath and Tennant Canal =
The Neath and Tennant Canals are two independent but linked canals in South Wales that are usually regarded as a single canal . The Neath Canal was opened from Glynneath to Melincryddan , to the south of Neath , in 1795 and extended to Giant 's Grave in 1799 , in order to provide better shipping facilities . With several small later extensions it reached its final destination at Briton Ferry . No traffic figures are available , but it was successful , as dividends of 16 per cent were paid on the shares . The canal was 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) long and included 19 locks .
The Tennant Canal was a development of the Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal , which was built across Crymlyn Bog to transport coal from a colliery on its northern edge to a creek on the River Neath called Red Jacket Pill . It closed after 20 years , but was enlarged and extended by George Tennant in 1818 , to provide a navigable link from the River Neath to the River Tawe at Swansea docks . In order to increase trade , he built an extension to Aberdulais basin , where it linked to the Neath Canal . The extension was built without an act of Parliament and there was a long delay while Tennant attempted to resolve a dispute with a landowner over the routing of the canal . Once opened , much of the Neath traffic used the Tennant Canal , as Swansea provided better facilities for transferring cargo to ships .
Use of the canals for navigation ceased in the 1930s , but they were retained as water channels to supply water to local industries and to Swansea docks . The first attempts at restoration began in 1974 with the formation of the Neath and Tennant Canals Society . The section north of Resolven was restored in the late 1980s , and the canal from Neath to Abergarwed has been restored more recently . This project involved the replacement of Ynysbwllog aqueduct , which carries the canal over the river Neath , with a new 35 @-@ yard ( 32 m ) plate girder structure , believed to be the longest single @-@ span aqueduct in Britain . Some obstacles remain to its complete restoration . In 2003 a feasibility study was published , suggesting that the canal could become part of a small network , if it was linked through Swansea docks to a restored Swansea Canal .
= = Neath Canal = =
Encouraged by the recent grant of an Act of Parliament to authorise the building of the Glamorganshire Canal , it was resolved at a meeting at the Ship & Castle public house in Neath on 12 July 1790 to build a canal from Pontneddfechan to Neath , and another from Neath to Giant 's Grave . Among those attending was Lord Vernon , who had already built a short canal near Giant 's Grave to connect the River Neath to furnaces at Penrhiwtyn . Thomas Dadford was asked to survey a course , and he was assisted by his father and brother . He proposed a route which required 22 locks , part of which was a conventional canal , while other parts used the River Neath . Dadford costed the project at £ 25 @,@ 716 , but in early 1791 Lord Vernon 's agent , Lewis Thomas , proposed two new cuts , and the idea of using the river was dropped soon afterwards .
The canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament passed on 6 June 1791 , which created The Company and Proprietors of the Neath Canal Navigation , who had powers to raise £ 25 @,@ 000 by the issue of shares , and an additional £ 10 @,@ 000 if necessary . As well as building the canal , the Canal Company could build inclined planes , railways or rollers if required , and could optionally use the bed of the River Neath . The canal was to run from Glynneath ( called Abernant at the time ) , which was not as far up the valley as Pontneddfechan , to Melincryddan Pill at Neath , where it would join the river . Thomas Dadford was employed as Engineer , and construction started from Neath , northwards towards Glynneath . The canal had reached the River Neath at Ynysbwllog by 1792 , when Dadford resigned to take up work on the Monmouthshire Canal . He was replaced by Thomas Sheasby , who failed to complete the canal by the November 1793 deadline given to him , and was arrested in 1794 for irregularities in the accounts of the Glamorganshire Canal . The canal company completed the building work by 1795 , using direct labour , although the lock into the river was never built . Rebuilding of locks and other improvements continued to be made for several years afterwards .
There was no immediate pressure to extend the canal to Giant 's Grave , as access to Neath for coastal vessels of up to 200 long tons ( 200 t ) had been improved in 1791 by the construction of the Neath Navigable Cut . However , a second Neath Canal Act was passed on 26 May 1798 , to authorise an extension of about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) to Giant 's Grave , where better facilities for transferring goods to seagoing vessels were available . Thomas Dadford again surveyed the route , but Edward Price from Gofilon acted as engineer . This part of the canal was financed by Lord Vernon , although he was also paid £ 600 for his Penrhiwtyn canal , which became part of the main line . The extension was completed on 29 July 1799 , and terminated at a basin close to Giant 's Grave Pill . Flood gates on the canal enabled water to be released into the pill to scour it of silt . The total cost of the project was about £ 40 @,@ 000 , which included 19 locks and a number of access tramways . Between 1815 and 1842 , additional docks and wharfs were built at Giant 's Grave , extending the canal slightly , and the canal was extended to Briton Ferry by the construction in 1832 of the Jersey Canal , which was about 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) long , and was built without an Act of Parliament by the Earl of Jersey . Another short extension was made around 1842 . The final length of the canal was 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) .
From the northern terminus , a tramway connected the canal to iron works at Aberdare and Hirwaun . This was built in 1803 , and included an incline just north of Glynneath , which was powered by a high @-@ pressure Trevithick steam engine . The Tappenden brothers had bought into the iron industry in 1802 , and built the tramway because of high tolls on the Glamorganshire Canal , but by 1814 they were bankrupt , and had no further connections with the canal .
= = = Operation = = =
Mineral resources near the top end of the canal included ironstone , which was normally extracted by scouring . This caused problems for the canal , as silt was deposited in the feeders and the top pounds . The Fox family , who were based at Neath Abbey , but who were scouring ironstone further up the valley , agreed to construct a new feeder in 1807 to mitigate the problem . Protests made to the Tappendens , who were scouring at Pen @-@ rhiw and Cwm Gwrelych , were less successful . As the pounds were silting up , the company took legal action in 1811 . The court found in their favour , recognising that the canal would soon be useless unless something was done .
Trade steadily grew . Three small private branches were built to serve the industries of the valley . Near the top of the canal , a branch was constructed in 1800 , which ran towards Maesmarchog , and was connected to collieries by nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of tramroad . At Aberclwyd , a branch built in 1817 served the Cnel Bach limekiln on the river bank . Below Neath , a 550 @-@ yard ( 500 m ) branch left the main line at Court Sart to connect to a tramroad serving the collieries at Eskyn . Although there are no figures for the tonnage carried , apart from a mention of 90 @,@ 000 tons of coal in 1810 , receipts increased from £ 2 @,@ 117 in 1800 to £ 6 @,@ 677 in 1830 . Subscribers had paid a total of £ 107 @.@ 50 for their shares , and dividends were paid from 1806 , rising from £ 2 in 1806 to £ 18 in 1840 . Based on the receipts , it has been estimated that some 200 @,@ 000 tons of coal were carried when trade was at its peak , supplemented by iron , ironstone and fire clay .
Facilities at Giant 's Grave improved , and included jetties to enable ships ' ballast to be landed and dumped , rather than being thrown overboard . This latter approach had caused problems at Newport for the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal , where ballast had been thrown into the river , and at Cardiff for the Glamorganshire Canal , where it had been thrown into the canal basin . Efforts were also made to improve the facilities at Neath . From 1818 , a Harbour Board was established , and banks of copper slag , marked with buoys , were used to confine the channel . This enabled ships of over 300 tons to reach Neath quays on spring tides , although on neap tides Giant 's Grave still had to be used . From 1824 , when the connection to the Tennant Canal opened , much of the trade crossed the river and passed down the western bank to the port of Swansea .
= = Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal = =
The Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal was built to connect Richard Jenkins ' colliery at Glan @-@ y @-@ wern with the River Neath at Trowman 's Hole , an inlet across the mud flats from the main channel of the river Neath , which was later known as Red Jacket Pill . Jenkins obtained a lease to build it from Lord Vernon on 14 August 1788 , but died on the same day . Edward Elton took over management of the colliery , and the canal was constructed by 1790 , although there was no actual connection to the river . At Red Jacket , cargos were transhipped from the small boats used on the canal to larger vessels in the pill , which was tidal . The canal remained in use for about 20 years . Elton became bankrupt and died in 1810 after which Lord Vernon , who had leased the land on which the canal was built to Elton , placed a distraint on the wharves at Red Jacket and on the barges and it became disused .
George Tennant incorporated the southern section into his Tennant Canal . The northern branch over the Crymlyn Bog was derelict by 1918 . It branches northwards in Crymlyn Burrows and terminates at the Crymlyn Bog nature reserve , now a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . The SSSI covers an area of 692 acres ( 280 ha ) , and has been designated because of the presence of fen and wet woodland habitats . It is also a RAMSAR site and a Special Area of Conservation . Rare flora and fauna include slender cottongrass , the fen raft spider , and groupings of rare and scarce invertebrates .
= = The Tennant Canal = =
George Tennant , born in 1765 and the son of a solicitor in Lancashire , moved to the area in 1816 , after he had bought the Rhydings estate . The Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal was unused at the time , following Lord Vernon 's distraint , but Tennant , who had no previous experience with canals , decided to lease it , enlarge it and extend it . He planned to make it suitable for barges of 30 to 35 long tons ( 30 to 36 t ) , which would gain access to the river Neath through a lock at Red Jacket . Where the canal turned northwards across Crymlyn Bog , he would extend it to the west , to terminate at a lock into the River Tawe , near Swansea harbour . He believed that Swansea docks would provide a better shipping point than Neath or Giant 's Grave , and hoped that the canal would encourage the development of the corridor through which it ran . He attempted to gain support for the scheme from local landowners , but when none was forthcoming , he decided to fund the project himself . Lord Vernon 's estate had been inherited by the Earl of Jersey in 1814 , and so Tennant leased the Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal from him .
Work started in 1817 , under the direction of the engineer William Kirkhouse , and the canal was completed by autumn 1818 , running from near the east pier on the River Tawe at Swansea to the River Neath at Red Jacket . The canal was built to a grander scale than originally intended , and could be navigated by barges of 50 to 60 long tons ( 51 to 61 t ) . The main line was 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long , and the 1 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) branch to Glan @-@ y @-@ wern was also reopened , for it supplied regular cargoes of coal . Other goods carried included timber , bark , fire @-@ bricks and sand , but the volume of goods carried was not enough to make a profit . He negotiated with the Neath Canal , who gave him permission to build a lock into the river from their canal , either at Giant 's Grave or Court Sart pill , but working canal boats across a tidal river would not have been ideal , and he did not build the lock .
Instead , he decided to build an extension to link up with the Neath Canal basin at Aberdulais . Again he sought support from local landowners , including Lord Jersey , Lord Dynevor and the Duke of Beaufort , but again none was forthcoming . He decided to build it as a private canal , without an Act of Parliament , and work started in 1821 . Engineering problems were experienced near Neath Abbey , where a 500 @-@ yard ( 460 m ) cutting was required through what appeared to be quicksand . Eventually , an inverted masonry arch had to be built to contain the canal and stop the sand collapsing . The lack of an Act to authorise the canal proved to be a problem in April 1821 , when L. W. Dillwyn refused permission for Tennant to cut through his land to pass under the Swansea road . In February 1822 , Dillwyn obtained an injunction against Tennant , who then attempted to change Dillwyn 's opinion by sending a stream of important people to argue his case . Finally , in the autumn , Tennant offered the Neath Canal terms for the use of the junction which were so favourable to them that they accepted . Dillwyn , who was a Neath Canal shareholder , was sent a conciliatory letter and eventually agreed to negotiate with Tennant , whom he described as " that terrible plague Mr. Tennant . " The final section included the only lock on the main line , which was followed by a 340 @-@ foot ( 100 m ) ten @-@ arched aqueduct across the River Neath , and the junction with the Neath Canal . The total length of the canal , when it was opened on 13 May 1824 , was 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) , and it had cost around £ 20 @,@ 000 , which did not include the price of the land or of the harbour at Port Tennant .
At the Swansea end , Tennant built a sea @-@ lock , so that boats could enter Fabian Bay , and named the area Port Tennant . His terminus was destroyed when the Prince of Wales Dock was constructed by the Swansea Harbour Trust in 1881 . It occupied all of the area which had been Fabian Bay , and so a lock was constructed to enable boats to reach tidal water by passing through the dock , and a wharf for the canal was constructed at the eastern end of the dock . Tennant 's wharf was again destroyed in 1898 , when the dock was extended . Wharfage was provided for the canal along the entire southern side of the extension , but no lock was built to allow canal boats to enter the dock , even though the Act of Parliament made provision for one . A new branch of the canal was built in 1909 , which included a lock into the newly constructed Kings Dock , where a lay @-@ by berth was provided on its north side .
Sometime before 1876 another branch was built along the south @-@ western edge of the Crymlyn Bog to transport coal from a mine at Tir @-@ isaf .
= = = Operation = = =
Prior to its opening , Tennant estimated that the canal would carry 99 @,@ 994 tons per year , and generate £ 7 @,@ 915 in income . Traffic built up , and by the 1830s , annual tonnage was around 90 @,@ 000 tons , but revenues were less than anticipated , and produced a profit of about £ 2 @,@ 500 per year . Initially , it was known as the Neath and Swansea Junction Canal , but by 1845 it had become known as the Tennant Canal . The water was 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep between Red Jacket and Aberdulais , and 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep from Red Jacket to Swansea harbour . This provided a large reservoir of water , which was used to scour the tidal basin at Port Tennant . Boats typically carried 25 tons , which allowed them to work on the Neath Canal as well . Several short branches were built , including one to the Vale of Neath Brewery which opened in 1839 and was privately funded by the brewery . In the same year , the Glan @-@ y @-@ wern Canal was dredged and re @-@ opened .
Goods carried were mainly coal and culm , but also included timber , iron ore , sand , slag and copper ore , with smaller amounts of foodstuffs and general merchandise . Establishment of industries at Port Tennant , which included Charles Lambert 's copperworks in the 1850s and a patent fuel works in the 1860s , resulted in increased traffic of coal , from both Glan @-@ y @-@ wern and Tir @-@ isaf collieries . Tir @-@ isaf was served by a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) branch built in 1863 by the Earl of Jersey , but leased to the Tennants . Traffic figures reached 225 @,@ 304 tons in 1866 , and then gradually declined after that , but this provided a steady revenue until 1895 . The river lock at Red Jacket had a chequered history . Once the line to Aberdulais basin had been opened , it was barely used , and Tennant thought about removing it in 1832 . However , it was back in use some time later , and was unused again in the 1880s , only to be rebuilt in 1898 .
= = Demise = =
The canals faced competition from the Vale of Neath Railway after 1851 , but remained profitable until the early 1880s , in the case of the Neath Canal , and the 1890s for the Tennant . An unusual aspect of the Tennant 's success was that tolls were maintained , although tonnage dropped . Most canals at this time made significant cuts to tolls in an attempt to remain competitive with the railways . After 1883 , the Neath Canal carried small amounts of silica and gunpowder , but traffic had virtually ceased by 1921 . Navigation on the Neath Canal came to an end in 1934 , and on the Tennant Canal soon afterwards . However , most of the infrastructure was maintained as the canals supplied water to local industries .
When the Glynneath bypass was built in the 1970s , the canal was culverted above Ysgwrfa lock , to allow the road to be straightened , and reduced in width beyond that , to allow the road to be widened . Above Pentremalwed lock , the road was built over the canal bed , and all traces have gone . This road was superseded by the A465 dual carriageway when it opened in 1996 , and has become the B4242 road . The part which covered the final section of the canal is no longer a road , although the dual carriageway runs over the site of the Glynneath basin .
At Port Tennant , the course of the canal has been covered over by railways , roads and other facilities of the port , but continues to supply water to the Prince of Wales dock through a large culvert , which helps to maintain water levels in the docks . The Tennant canal is still owned by the Coombe @-@ Tennant family .
= = Restoration = =
The canals are the subject of active restoration projects . Local interest resulted in the formation of the Neath and Tennant Canals Preservation Society in 1974 , to promote restoration of the canal , and carry out clearance and repairs using volunteers . In 2006 it was renamed the Neath and Tennant Canals Trust . They have worked alongside the two Canal companies , Neath Port Talbot Council , and a wide range of funders and bodies working for regeneration of the Neath valley , to enable significant sections of the canals to return to use .
= = = North @-@ eastern section = = =
From 1984 to 1990 the canal benefited from job creation schemes run by the Manpower Services Commission and Youth Training Scheme to work on the northern section from Resolven to Ysgwrfa . By 1990 there was 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of navigable canal , including 7 restored locks and a slipway at Resolven basin . It received a 1998 Europa Nostra award for the quality of the work , and a Civic Trust Award in 1992 . The £ 4 million project was jointly funded by the Welsh Office and the Prince of Wales Trust . The Rheola aqueduct in the middle of this section was refurbished by the Canals Society in 1990 . The stream that is now carried under the canal had previously been carried over it in a cast iron trough , but was diverted through a channel cut across the canal bed after high flows overtopped the trough . This required the construction of a new aqueduct , and once completed , the Canals Society launched their trip boat , named Thomas Dadford , on 12 July 1990 , to provide canal trips for the public . The Enfys also provided boat trips for the Enfys Trust from the Tŷ Banc former lock @-@ keepers cottage at Resolven , until 2008 .
= = = South @-@ western section = = =
In 1993 the stretch of canal from Abergarwed locks to Tyn @-@ yr @-@ Heol lock at Tonna was polluted when iron @-@ bearing water began discharging from a mine adit of the Ynysarwed coal mine . This turned the water orange , and deposited ferruginous sediment along the canal . A treatment plant and reedbeds were installed to clean the mine water , and this £ 1 @.@ 6 million project was commissioned in 1999 .
In 2000 the Thomas Dadford canal boat was transferred from the northern to the southern section , and began running boat trips from Neath town centre . Initially these could only run as far as Tonna . A £ 2 @.@ 7 million project involving staged draining of the polluted sections enabled the dredging and removal of 65 @,@ 000 tons of polluted sediment , and rebuilding of much of the infrastructure . This extended the navigable section north @-@ east past Aberdulais basin to Lock Machin , a stretch of 3 miles ( 5 km ) .
To extend the canal further to the north @-@ east , a £ 1 @.@ 6 million project was funded by the European Union Objective 1 project , the Welsh Assembly and Neath Port Talbot Council . This included complete replacement of the Ynysbwllog aqueduct , part of which had been washed away in a flood in 1979 . The commercial role of the canal at that time was to provide water to industries near Swansea , so the water flow had been maintained by replacing the missing arch with pipes . 20 years later a steel footbridge was built to reinstate the towpath . Finally , the canal itself was taken over a new aqueduct , completed in March 2008 . The 35 @-@ yard ( 32 m ) plate girder aqueduct is believed to be the longest single span aqueduct in the UK . It is 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide , and includes a footpath on both sides of the navigation channel . A new car park and slipway were provided from the B4242 , and the Clun locks were renovated , to give 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of navigable canal from central Neath to Abergarwen . Following improvements , the towpath between Briton Ferry and Tonna has become a cycle route , in conjunction with Sustrans , the sustainable transport charity .
= = = Plans = = =
Several obstacles remain before the canal restoration can be completed . To join the two navigable sections a new bridge would be needed where the canal is culverted under Commercial Road , and the infilled section to Abergarwed would need to be excavated . The original bridge at Commercial Road is buried beneath the new embankment , and so there is sufficient headroom available through the embankment without major alterations to the road level . Rebuilding of the two Abergarwed locks and Resolven lock would then create a single stretch of canal some 10 miles ( 16 km ) long . Extension to the south is blocked by a bridge at water level in Neath , but in 2009 Neath Port Talbot Council commissioned the Prince 's Foundation and British Petroleum to investigate options for the regeneration of the Canal Green area , between the river and the railway line , and the proposals suggested that it should be replaced by a lifting or bascule bridge .
The Tennant Canal presents few problems beyond that of the aqueduct below Aberdulais basin , which is a scheduled ancient monument , and rebuilding of the lock below that . Resolution of these issues would create around 20 miles ( 32 km ) of navigable canal .
At Briton Ferry , the canal ends under the M4 motorway at a scrapyard , but there are plans to refurbish Brunel 's Briton Ferry dock , just to the south , and a short extension to it would provide a good terminus . In Neath itself , a masterplan for the Canal Green area , developing both the river frontage and canal sides , has the potential to provide a canal basin and moorings for Neath .
At the opposite end , at Ysgwrfa , the final five locks before Glynneath have been severed by a realignment of the road and the construction of a culvert , but the road has carried a lot less traffic since the A465 bypass was opened , and could possibly be rerouted along its original course , where the bridge over the canal still exists . The Neath Canal Act has not been repealed , and so there is still a right of navigation along this section , which should ease the process of reinstating it . The terminus would then be near the Lamb and Flag public house , south of the final two locks , which are unlikely to be restored .
At Swansea , the Tennant Canal could be relinked to the Prince of Wales Dock , and hence to the River Tawe , which has become a large marina since the construction of a tidal barrage . This could then provide a link to a restored Swansea Canal . Associated British Ports , who run Swansea Docks , rejected the idea of a canal link in 1997 , but since then the Prince of Wales Dock has become the subject of a regeneration scheme , and a route for the canal has been reserved in the planning document . The feasibility of this scheme and a possible route was investigated in a report by the engineers W. S. Atkins published in 2003 . A report for Natural Resources Wales by Trilein Ltd. recommended a range of initiatives to better connect the urban areas of the city to the more rural east of the county , including Crymlyn Bog . The reconnection of the Tennant Canal to the Prince of Wales Dock was again outlined in that report .
= = Canals in popular culture = =
The opening of the Tennant Canal in 1824 inspired Elizabeth Davies , who owned a lollipop @-@ shop in Neath , to write a 19 @-@ verse poem , which was published by Filmer Fagg of Swansea .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Sanctus Real =
Sanctus Real is an American Christian rock band formed in Toledo , Ohio , in 1996 . The group is composed of Chris Rohman ( lead guitar ) , Mark Graalman ( drums ) , Jake Rye ( bass ) , Seth Huff ( guitar , keys ) , and Dustin Lolli ( lead vocals ) . The band is best known for their number one singles " Lead Me " , " Forgiven " , " Whatever You 're Doing " , " I 'm Not Alright " , " Don 't Give Up " , " We Need Each Other " , " Everything About You " , and " The Fight Song " . Since 2002 , they have released five albums through the Sparrow Records label .
On July 1 , 2015 , lead singer and co @-@ founder , Matt Hammitt , announced that he was leaving the band , effective the end of 2015 .
Sanctus Real formed in 1996 , and the band released three independent albums over five years . After signing with Sparrow Records in 2002 , the group released their major label debut , Say It Loud , at the end of the year . In June 2004 it was followed by Fight the Tide , which garnered a GMA Dove Award win in 2005 , and two singles that charted at number 1 on Christian radio , according to R & R magazine . The band 's third album , The Face of Love , was released in April 2006 . The single " I 'm Not Alright " received a GMA Dove Award nomination in 2007 .
Their fourth album , We Need Each Other ( 2008 ) , was recorded in late 2007 and released in February . It received a Grammy Award nomination and spawned the single " We Need Each Other " . Sanctus Real released their fifth studio album in March 2010 , titled Pieces of a Real Heart also receiving a Grammy nomination with Christian Billboard chart topping hits " Lead Me " and " Forgiven " . The band 's music incorporates a modern alternative rock style , and has evolved from power pop to a more melodic and guitar @-@ driven sound .
= = History = =
In 1996 , lead singer and guitarist Matt Hammitt met guitarist Chris Rohman while they were tenth graders attending Toledo Christian School in Ohio . They led youth worship at their school and church , and began writing their own music that year . Drummer Mark Graalman and bassist Matt Kollar soon joined , forming the band 's original line @-@ up . The group performed their first concert for several friends in the back of a warehouse in December 1996 . They released a six @-@ track demo tape in August 1997 , and a five @-@ track EP titled All This Talk of Aliens in January 1998 .
Sanctus Real 's full @-@ length studio album Message for the Masses was released on June 18 , 1999 , and shortly afterward , bassist Matt Kollar was replaced by Steve Goodrum . Following Message for the Masses , which was recorded in a garage , the band made plans to record tracks at a major studio . To earn money for the endeavor , Hammitt and Goodrum took telemarketing jobs for a few months , which were difficult and described by Hammitt as " the most dreadful [ jobs ] ever " . They recorded three songs with producer Skidd Mills in Memphis , Tennessee , and after winning a local radio contest , decided to record an entire independent album with Mills . It was completed in 2000 under the title Nothing to Lose , and the band attended 2001 's Gospel Music Week in Nashville to distribute copies of the project .
From 1996 to 2001 , Sanctus Real toured areas of the United States , and also sent demos to several Christian and mainstream record labels . After they received multiple recording contract offers in 2001 , the band decided to sign with Sparrow Records . Matt Hammitt said , " At that point , we really had to do some soul searching and figure out where it was we were supposed to be ... Ultimately , we knew we could relate to kids in the church . We are passionate about our faith ... [ and ] from our personal experience , we felt this was the place we were supposed to be . "
= = = Say It Loud = = =
Toward the end of 2002 , before releasing their first non @-@ independent album , Sanctus Real performed as an opening act on the Festival Con Dios tour . The band also guested on Bleach 's first headlining tour , the We Are Tomorrow tour , in December 2002 . Sanctus Real 's major label debut , Say It Loud , was then released in December 2002 , through Sparrow Records . The album was produced by former Grammatrain lead vocalist Pete Stewart . Sanctus Real began touring again in February 2003 as a guest band on the See Spot Rock Tour , with Relient K , the O.C. Supertones , Pillar and John Reuben .
= = = Fight the Tide = = =
The band recorded a cover of U2 's song " Beautiful Day " for the compilation album In the Name of Love : Artists United for Africa , which was released at the beginning of 2004 . The track reached number 1 on R & R magazine 's Christian rock chart in 2004 , becoming their first chart @-@ topping single . " Beautiful Day " also received a GMA Dove Award nomination for Modern Rock Song of the Year in 2004 .
In February 2004 , the band went back in studio to record their second album ; almost all of the tracks were written in the previous month . It was recorded in six weeks with producer Tedd T , and soon released under the title Fight the Tide in June 2004 . The lead single " Everything About You " was released in mid @-@ 2004 , and by September it had stayed at number 1 on R & R 's Christian rock chart for six consecutive weeks . The song was later featured on the X 2006 compilation album in 2005 . In September 2004 , Sanctus Real launched their first headlining tour , the Fight the Tide Tour . The tour featured guest bands Hawk Nelson , Seven Places and Ever Stays Red , and traveled through more than 25 cities .
After being nominated in late 2004 , Fight the Tide won the GMA Dove Award for " Modern Rock Album of the Year " in early 2005 . Released near the beginning of the year , " The Fight Song " was Sanctus Real 's next single , and in May 2005 it reached the top of R & R 's Christian rock chart , becoming the band 's third number 1 song . In April 2005 , bass player Steve Goodrum left the band and was replaced by Dan Gartley , a previous touring member of Relient K. Gartley played his first concert with Sanctus Real at the Agape Festival in May 2005 .
= = = The Face of Love = = =
Sanctus Real 's third main studio album , The Face of Love , was released in April 2006 . The album 's first single was " I 'm Not Alright " which became a number 1 song on Christian contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) , as reported by R & R magazine . It was also the third most played song of 2006 on Christian radio formats . In early 2007 , the band received two GMA Dove Award nominations : " Rock Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " for " I 'm Not Alright " and " Rock / Contemporary Album of the Year " for The Face of Love . Following the album 's release , Pete Prevost became the fifth member of Sanctus Real as an additional guitarist .
The album 's second single , " Don 't Give Up " , was released in the beginning of 2007 , and by May it became the band 's fifth number 1 track by placing at the top of R & R 's Christian CHR chart . At the end of 2006 they were named the most @-@ played artist of the year on R & R 's Christian CHR chart . The title track " The Face of Love " was also a radio single . Sanctus Real launched another headlining tour in April 2007 , The Face of Love tour , featuring Needtobreathe and This Beautiful Republic .
= = = We Need Each Other = = =
In August 2007 , Sanctus Real returned to the studio to record a fourth album , which was finished by the end of the year . In November 2007 , the album was originally slated for release under the title Turn on the Lights , the name of a track on the album . It was later changed to We Need Each Other , and was released in February 2008 , through Sparrow Records . The title track " We Need Each Other " was released earlier as the album 's lead single in November 2007 . The song stayed at number 1 on R & R 's Christian CHR chart for five consecutive weeks by February 2008 , and it was 2008 's eighth most @-@ played song of the year in the same format .
During early to mid @-@ 2008 , Sanctus Real guested on Third Day 's headlining tour , and that year they also appeared on an episode of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . Two more singles from We Need Each Other were released : " Whatever You 're Doing ( Something Heavenly ) " in early 2008 , and " Turn On the Lights " in August 2008 . Later in the year , the band launched their own two @-@ month We Need Each Other Tour in the United States , passing through 16 states and over 30 cities ; the tour featured guest appearances from VOTA , Tenth Avenue North and speaker Sammy Adebiyi . In 2009 , We Need Each Other received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Gospel Album .
= = = Pieces of a Real Heart = = =
In mid November 2009 , Matt Hammitt announced on Twitter that Sanctus Real finished recording their fifth album . The first radio single was titled " Forgiven " , and peaked at No. 6 on the Hot Christian Songs chart . On December 2 , 2009 , the band announced on Twitter and Facebook that they narrowed the final album name down to two options : A Million Hearts and Pieces of a Real Heart , and held a public vote for one hour . Shortly after , it was confirmed that the title Pieces of a Real Heart would be chosen . The album was released on March 9 , 2010 via Sparrow Records .
= = = Run = = =
The sixth studio album by the band was released on February 5 , 2013 , which was called Run , and the lead single from the album is " Promises " . Shortly after the album 's release , both Dan Gartley and Pete Prevost departed the band .
= = = The Dream = = =
Soon after Jake Rye and Seth Huff replaced Gartley and Prevost . The seventh studio album by the band , The Dream , was released on September 16 , 2014 . The first video from the album , " Lay It Down " , was released to YouTube June 24 , 2014 . The second lyric video , titled ' Same God ' , was released by the band on YouTube on October 21 , 2014 .
On July 1 , 2015 , it was made clear that Matt Hammitt , who had founded the band , was leaving in December .
= = = Greatest Hits : Best of Sanctus Real = = =
The Best of Sanctus Real was released on October 9 , 2015 via the Capitol Christian record label . It includes a selection of fourteen songs spanning the band 's previous seven albums and one new song written specifically for the release . It was announced earlier in year that this would be the final project with the band for lead singer , Matt Hammitt .
= = = Dustin Lolli : A new era = = =
The band changed their lead singer to Dustin Lolli in late 2015 , with the first release being an extended play , This Is Love , that was released on February 5 , 2016 , by the band themselves .
= = Touring = =
In April and May 2010 , Sanctus Real debuted the complete new album Pieces of a Real Heart while headlining the UNITED Spring 2010 Tour . Joining them on this 25 @-@ city nationwide tour was visionary and speaker David Nasser along with fellow artists Jonny Diaz and MIKESCHAIR . Sanctus Real announced they would be touring with Winter Jam 2012 on the eastern side of the United States . During their 2012 tour , their tour bus burned to the ground . Sanctus posted a photo on their Facebook page on June 3 , adding all people got off the bus , but their personal belongings were lost . Sanctus Real began The Run Tour in September 2013 and finished in November 2013 .
= = Musical style = =
Sanctus Real 's main genre is typically labeled as Christian rock and alternative CCM . Their first three independent albums were described by Allmusic as power pop . Say It Loud was characterized by increased guitars and a powerful modern rock style . Their second release , Fight the Tide , was described as " melodic power rock " with similarities to Foo Fighters , Jimmy Eat World , Switchfoot , U2 , and PFR . The band 's music on The Face of Love blended the styles from their previous two albums , evolving into less of a heavier rock sound . With We Need Each Other , lead singer Matt Hammitt noted that he " just pushed the limits of what I can do vocally " during some songs , " whether it be on a soft , kind of rustic sounding vocal or whether it be this overdriven , rock high @-@ range kind of vocal . "
= = Members = =
Current members
Chris Rohman – guitar ( 1997 – present )
Mark Graalman – drums ( 1996 – present )
Jake Rye - bass ( 2013 – present )
Seth Huff - keys / guitar ( 2013 – present )
Dustin Lolli - lead vocalist ( 2016 – present )
Former members
Matt Kollar – bass ( 1996 @-@ 1999 )
Steve Goodrum – bass ( 1999 – 2005 )
Michael Gee - Guitar ( 1996 – 97 )
Dan Gartley – bass and bells ( 2005 – 2013 )
Pete Prevost – guitar , banjo , piano ( 2006 – 2013 )
Matt Hammitt – lead vocalist , guitar ( 1996 – 2015 )
On July 1 , 2015 , Matt Hammitt announced that he was leaving the band , effective December 2015 .
On January 25 , 2016 , Dustin Lolli was announced as the new lead singer and a music video was released for the song " This Is Love " .
= = Awards = =
= = = GMA Dove Awards = = =
2004 : Modern Rock Song of the Year ( " Beautiful Day " ) – nominated
2005 : Modern Rock Album of the Year ( Fight the Tide ) – won
2007 : Rock / Contemporary Album of the Year ( The Face of Love ) – nominated
2007 : Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ( " I 'm Not Alright " ) – nominated
2011 : Song of the Year ( " Lead Me " ) – nominated
2011 : Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ( " Lead Me " ) – nominated
2011 : Rock / Contemporary Album of the Year ( Pieces of a Real Heart ) – nominated
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
2009 : Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Gospel Album ( We Need Each Other ) – nominated
2010 : Grammy Award nomination for Best Contemporary / Pop Gospel Album ( Pieces of a Real Heart ) – nominated
= = Discography = =
1998 : All This Talk of Aliens – independent
1999 : Message for the Masses – independent
2001 : Nothing to Lose – independent
2002 : Say It Loud – Sparrow
2004 : Fight the Tide – Sparrow
2006 : The Face of Love – Sparrow
2008 : We Need Each Other – Sparrow
2010 : Pieces of a Real Heart – Sparrow
2010 : Pieces of Our Past : The Sanctus Real Anthology - Sparrow
2013 : Run – Sparrow
2014 : The Dream - Sparrow
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= Themes in Minority Report =
The plot of the 2002 science fiction neo @-@ noir film Minority Report concerns itself with a number of themes . The film 's plot centers around a trio of psychics called " precogs " , who see future images called " previsions " of crimes yet to be committed . These images are processed by " Precrime " , a specialized police department , which apprehends the criminals based on the precogs foreknowledge . The cast includes Tom Cruise as Precrime officer John Anderton , Colin Farrell as Department of Justice agent Danny Witwer , Samantha Morton as the senior precog Agatha , and Max von Sydow as Anderton 's superior Lamar Burgess . The film is a combination of whodunit , thriller , and science fiction .
Spielberg has characterized the movie 's story as " fifty percent character and fifty percent very complicated storytelling with layers and layers of murder mystery and plot . " The film 's central theme is the question of free will vs. determinism . It examines whether free will can exist if the future is set and known in advance . It also concerns itself with the role of preventative government in protecting its citizenry , which was apt of the time of the picture 's given America 's debates over the government 's expanding powers after 9 / 11 .
Minority Report presents a future of increasing electronic surveillance , personalized advertising , and it analyzes the role of media in a future state where electronic advancements make its presence nearly boundless , the potential legality of an infallible prosecutor , and Spielberg 's repeated theme of the broken family . Spielberg 's analysis of the familial aspect was motivated by his own parent 's divorce when he was a child .
= = Free will vs. determinism = =
The main theme of Minority Report is the classic philosophical debate of free will vs. determinism . One of the main questions the film raises is whether the future is set or whether free will can alter the future . As critic C.A. Wolski commented , " At the outset , Minority Report ... promises to mine some deep subject matter , to do with : do we possess free will or are we predestined to our fate ? " However , there is also the added question of whether the precogs ' visions are correct . As reviewer James Berardinelli asked , " is the Precogs ' vision accurate , or has it in some way been tampered with ? Perhaps Anderton isn 't actually going to kill , but has been set up by a clever and knowledgeable criminal who wants him out of the way . " The precog Agatha also states that since Anderton knows his future , he can change it . However , the film also indicates that Anderton 's knowledge of the future may actually be the factor that causes Leo Crow 's death . Berardinelli describes this as the main paradox regarding free will vs. determinism in the film , " [ h ] ere 's the biggest one of all : Is it possible that the act of accusing someone of a murder could begin a chain of events that leads to the slaying . In Anderton 's situation , he runs because he is accused . The only reason he ends up in circumstances where he might be forced to kill is because he is a hunted man . Take away the accusation , and there would be no question of him committing a criminal act . The prediction drives the act – a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy . You can see the vicious circle , and it 's delicious ( if a little maddening ) to ponder . " Film scholar Dean A. Kowalski argues that in this scenario free will still exists , as the perpetrators control their actions , and the precogs visions are but the facts that resulted from their choices .
The central theme of the movie is discussed in the film 's fourth scene . Witwer discusses the PreCrime system with the division 's staff . He believes that its main " legalistic drawback " is that it " arrests individuals who have broken no laws . " Jad responds , " But they will ! " When Anderton later arrives upon this discussion , he acknowledges the paradox Witwer raises ; that the precogs prevent an event accepted as fact , but one which will never happen . To show him that people regularly use predetermination , Anderton picks up a wooden ball and rolls it toward Witwer , who catches it before it lands on the ground . When asked why he caught the ball , Witwer says " Because it was going to fall . " Anderton replies , " But it didn 't . " Then confidently tells him , " The fact that you prevented it from happening doesn 't change the fact that it was going to happen . " Kowalski feels this example is faulty in the sense that the ball has no free will ; it merely acts according to the laws of physics , but he acknowledges that if an individual were to have freely chosen to commit murder , then it would hold . Film scholar Stephen Mulhall points out that unlike the laws of physics which have a series of scientifically testable causal laws , Anderton merely has the visions of the precogs , whose psychic abilities are not fully explained by science .
Another quandary is that if the precogs visions are infallible then the future cannot be otherwise , while if they are incorrect people will be punished for crimes they will never commit . Kowalski contends that the precogs only attain knowledge of what he calls the " conditional future " . He cites as evidence two examples : the scene where Agatha steers Anderton through the mall by foreseeing dangerous events and helping him circumnavigate them , and a later scene where she tells Anderton and his ex @-@ wife what would have happened to their child if he had lived . In the first example , Agatha knows what Anderton will freely choose to do when presented with specific facts so she provides them to him , and , in the second , she knows what will have happened to the Anderton 's son based on specific scenarios throughout his life , in which she can see what he would have freely chosen to do , and what selections various people in his life would have freely made . According to Kowalski , the PreCrime unit therefore removes individuals from precise situations where they would freely choose to become a murderer .
Philosophy professor Michael Huemer says " that the only way the otherwise predetermined future seen by the precogs can be averted , we are led to believe , is by the influence of the precogs themselves . " He argues that their " knowledge of their would @-@ be future " enables them to make changes to prevent its occurrence . This means that Howard Marks , the arrested potential killer from the film 's opening scene , is destined to his fate and no action he could undertake would change it . Individuals with minority reports however , have a chance to change their futures according to Huemer , and since there was no minority report ( i.e. ; no possible alternative fate ) for Anderton , he could only change his future by having access to the precogs visions . Huemer compares the humans situation to that of a robot ; since a robot controls itself , but has a set number of programmed actions , its fate falls within those actions . It lacks free will in the sense that it cannot choose any action outside of its programming , even if one may exist . He also considers a decaying atom which has a 50 % chance of survival within the next hour , since the atom has no actions which it can undertake to change those odds , its fate is pure chance . Thus he believes a person needs a set of options , the knowledge of those options , and the ability to choose between them to have free will .
= = Political and legal = =
Spielberg said that the arrest of criminals before they have a chance to commit their crimes in the movie had some real @-@ world background in post @-@ 9 / 11 America , saying that " [ w ] e ’ re giving up some of our freedom so that the government can protect us . " The future world in Minority Report of retinal scans , robotic human inspectors , and intrusive , individualized , public advertising arrived in American theaters as the country was debating how much governmental intrusion into personal matters was necessary to ensure safety of its citizens . Spielberg said he would be against a PreCrime system if it were ever possible , as he believes that if it did exist , those in control of it would undoubtedly abuse its powers . Kowalski questions what the benevolent precogs in the film could become in the hands of those who trained their skills for political intrigue . Science fiction scholar Gary Westfahl asserts that in a political context , PreCrime may be seen " a metaphor for racial profiling , and one could view the liberation of the precogs as the end of a form of slavery . "
Kowalski feels the isolation of the precogs ensures that they see their visions merely as facts , and removes them from having to justify them . The precogs ' ignorance of the results of their visions prevents them from knowing the effectiveness of the program . He feels the PreCrime officers are thus more qualified to evaluate their efficacy " than the precogs themselves . " In the December 2003 edition of the academic journal Film Criticism , scholar Mark Garrett Cooper moved past that point by asserting that not only have the precogs " yet to fully understand " their visions , but that the process by which the images are interpreted makes it so that no one individual could understand them without the use of the apparatus . The machinery is so effective and precise according to Cooper however , that the " omnipresent system effectively makes capture more certain than the crime . " When the system targets Cruise , instead of fleeing , he remains in the vicinity in the belief that the system will , in its inexorable logic , correct itself . The apparatus is considered so infallible according to Cooper that Cruise knows once he is cleared by it , his life can immediately return to normal . In this respect , Cooper feels that " far from indicting a security state , the film legitimates one . " Gareth Higgins argues that " [ t ] he government is playing God , using an all @-@ seeing eye to prevent murder . "
The film presents a legal system where the PreCrime office gathers the images from the minds of the precogs then organizes them into a coherent order for display in front of a set of judges . The judges appear via video feeds , analyze the images , and according to Cooper , they view the images , listen to Anderton rattle off " a string of legalistic verbiage " , then give it a " pro forma ratification . " Thus the accused is never present , is not allowed a defense , and is convicted before he is aware he is on trial . The program is marketed in a similar basic fashion , as in its tag line : " It works . " Cooper says that in a typical American courtroom drama , the audience is treated as if it were the jury , but in this system , instead of desiring the hero be proven innocent , the audience seeks instead to have the guilt transferred from Anderton to Burgess . But to do so , Anderton has to disprove the system , which he does by proving the existence of the minority report . This renders the PreCrime justice system inoperable , as if there is doubt related not merely to the gathering of the images , or their ability to be interpreted , but their ability to be correct even in perfect circumstances , then the system of infallible guilt can not exist .
= = Media = =
Spielberg conceived of the idea of a future world permeated with intrusive capitalism and government surveillance after everyone at the " think tank summit " told him that " the right of privacy is a diminishing commodity " which will soon be thrown " right out the window . " According to film critic J. Hoberman , Minority Report " visualizes ( as well as demonstrates ) a future where the unconscious has been thoroughly colonized . " When the movie first appeared in theaters a common source of reviewers ' complaints was the film 's product placement , which they found intrusive . Film scholar Martin Hall says that the purpose of the advertisements Anderton runs into are " encouraging him to buy certain products and , by extension , affirm his place in society . " The personalized advertising is disconcerting partly because of the invasion of privacy , but also , argues Cooper , because it is cold , impersonalized , and insincere .
Cooper discusses how he feels Minority Report emphasizes the future importance over the control of imagery . According to him , the images captured from the precogs visions in the film bestow power on those who control their processing . He says the film warns viewers that those who control images must be carefully overseen so as to prevent the abuse of power , and that the film presents " governance as a problem of image arrangement . " The film also presents a future world where government probes use advanced media technology to monitor its citizenry . Cooper says the quandary arises when the film intimates that there were will be no way to escape the media industry 's omnipotence in the future , while at the same time defending " the need for image manipulating institutions . " He feels that this logically raises another issue in that the same concern could be leveled towards image @-@ makers such as DreamWorks , and he says the " film 's virtue lies in provoking this question . " He notes that the film 's tranquil ending concludes with the Andertons looking out into a peaceful exterior with only rain visible , and the precogs reading in their isolated , idyllic farm , and both families apparently free of electronic surveillance .
= = Self @-@ perception = =
Writing in the academic journal Rhizomes , scholar Martin Hall , while analyzing the movie , discusses the self @-@ perception an individual develops based on the views of those outside of themselves . The academician notes that when a child first comprehends the function of a mirror , they begin to develop the understanding that their perception of themselves is not self @-@ contained , and learn partly they are what they see in the mirror . He contrasts this to when Anderson discovers the precogs vision of his future self . At the beginning of the film , Anderton shows little concern for the precogs ; when Witwer feels pity for them , he responds : " It 's better if you don 't think of them as human . " Shortly thereafter , however , Anderton is shown in tears at his home , high on the hard drug neuroin while mourning the loss of his son . Agatha enters a similar period of self @-@ examination when she has visions of her mother 's death , and is informed they are merely " echoes " i.e. a faulty image in her memory . Anderton becomes flustered when he begins to interpret the images which show him about to commit murder and begins to frantically sort through , According to Hall he begins " searching for whatever possible versions of this representation are available to him , other than the one that represents him as a murderer . " Hall says that he is sorting through the images so feverishly , as he is convinced once they are sorted properly and understood , they will not show him to be the murderer , because he is convinced that he is not a murderer . He literally becomes obsessed with himself , seeking to resolve these images with put him at " discordance with his own reality . " Previously , at peace with himself , Hall says Anderton cannot accept the image he sees in the precogs visions . Unable to reconcile the two , Hall says that he is forced to decide that " it is likely that errors have occurred " in the PreCrime system .
When he escapes the building and enters the mall , Hall feels he is disturbed by advertisements calling to him by name not only because they will give away his presence , but also because they remind him of his lost place in society , and he begins " to see through the false consciousness his ( illusory ) previous position as fixed subject had allowed him . " Spielberg said that Anderton is being punished for his previous callous unconcern for anything but the effectiveness of the PreCrime program . " He 's dirtied by the fact that he doesn 't spend much time thinking about the moral consequences . It 's just like a sporting event almost — and then suddenly that whole sporting event makes him the soccer ball . " His doubts about his own future lead him to examine his previous life to better understand himself according to Hall . He runs through his role in the PreCrime system , and his son 's disappearance " to reconstruct his past . " After Leo Crow in fact kills himself , Anderton becomes healed , and later has " recreated himself as the subject he was previously through the knowledge that he is not a killer . " Although he has satisfactorily repaired his self @-@ image , Anderton is not the same person , as he not longer believes in the PreCrime system . Hall says that Burgess final dilemma ; namely , his desire to keep PreCrime running , his inability to bring himself to kill Anderton , and his desire to live , drives him to see his only suitable action to be suicide . " Burgess has been left truly alone by events , " argues Hall . " His wife fainted when she saw the images of the murder and Anderton has been the cause of this rupture . "
= = Broken family = =
I still carry my childhood along with me . I 'm old enough now to compartmentalise it - so I consciously try not to go too far back into my childhood , but the subconscious part of me still creates traces of it in Minority Report . Tom Cruise has suffered a tragic personal loss - he has lost his child and his wife has left him . It still reminds me of the divorce of my parents . As much as I try to get away from it I still can 't avoid it .
Minority Report also continues Spielberg 's tradition of depicting broken families . In Dick 's short story , Anderton is a childless , married man whose main motives are self @-@ preservation and preventing the disassembly of the PreCrime division . While he is also trying to save himself in the movie , his greater concern is uncovering the story behind his son 's disappearance . Spielberg would later transform his next science fiction film , War of the Worlds , from a story about a single man to one about a divorced father concerned with protecting his children . Buckland notes that the two tragic parent @-@ child relationships in the picture ( Agatha and Ann Lively , John and Sean Anderton ) have a common element . The movie has four shots of them submerged in water . Agatha 's face is shown in a close up shot , taken from directly above her , when she is submerged in her photon milk , nutrient bath . When photos of her mother 's submerged corpse are shown to her , the emphasized photograph is a similar image of her face taken from directly above . Anderton and his son are shown together in a pool flashback scene in which they have a contest to see who can hold their breath longest . John is underwater when his son is taken , and later in the apartment he is shown lying motionless , immersed in a filled bathtub , in a manner Buckland finds similar to the shots of Agatha and Ann . Buckland notes that co @-@ screenwriter Frank introduced the water theme , as he wrote Agatha and her mother 's back stories while adding the bathtub scene .
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= Scottish art =
Scottish art is the body of visual art made in what is now Scotland , or about Scottish subjects , since prehistoric times . It forms a distinctive tradition within European art , but the political union with England has led its partial subsumation in British art .
The earliest examples of art from what is now Scotland are highly decorated carved stone balls from the Neolithic period . From the Bronze Age there are examples of carvings , including the first representations of objects , and cup and ring marks . More extensive Scottish examples of patterned objects and gold work are found the Iron Age . Elaborately carved Pictish stones and impressive metalwork emerged in Scotland the early Middle Ages . The development of a common style of Insular art across Great Britain and Ireland influenced elaborate jewellery and illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells . Only isolated examples survive of native artwork from the late Middle Ages and of works created or strongly influenced by artists of Flemish origin . The influence of the Renaissance can be seen in stone carving and painting from the fifteenth century . In the sixteenth century the crown began to employ Flemish court painters who have left a portrait record of royalty . The Reformation removed a major source of patronage for art and limited the level of public display , but may have helped in the growth of secular domestic forms , particularly elaborate painting of roofs and walls . Although the loss of the court as a result of the Union of Crowns in 1603 removed another major source of patronage , the seventeenth century saw the emergence of the first significant native artists for whom names are extant , with figures such as George Jamesone and John Michael Wright .
In the eighteenth century Scotland began to produce artists that were significant internationally , all influenced by neoclassicism , such as Allan Ramsay , Gavin Hamilton , the brothers John and Alexander Runciman , Jacob More and David Allan . Towards the end of the century Romanticism began to influence artistic production , and can be seen in the portraits of artists such as Henry Raeburn . It also contributed to a tradition of Scottish landscape painting that focused on the Highlands , formulated by figures including Alexander Nasmyth . The Royal Scottish Academy of Art was created in 1826 , and major portrait painters of this period included Andrew Geddes and David Wilkie . William Dyce emerged as one of the most significant figures in art education in the United Kingdom . The beginnings of a Celtic Revival can be seen in the late nineteenth century and the art scene was dominated by the work of the Glasgow Boys and the Four , led Charles Rennie Mackintosh , who gained an international reputation for their combination of Celtic revival , Art and Crafts and Art Nouveau . The early twentieth century was dominated by the Scottish Colourists and the Edinburgh School . Modernism enjoyed popularity during this period , with William Johnstone helping to develop the concept of a Scottish Renaissance . In the post @-@ war period , major artists , including John Bellany and Alexander Moffat , pursued a strand of " Scottish realism " . Moffat 's influence can be seen in the work of the " new Glasgow Boys " from the late twentieth century . In the twenty @-@ first century Scotland has continued to produce successful and influential artists such as Douglas Gordon and Susan Philipsz .
Scotland possess significant collections of art , such as the National Gallery of Scotland and National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh and the Burrell Collection and Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum in Glasgow . Significant schools of art include the Edinburgh College of Art and the Glasgow School of Art . The major funding body with responsibility for the arts in Scotland is Creative Scotland . Support is also given by local councils and independent foundations .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric art = = =
The oldest known examples of art to survive from Scotland are carved stone balls , or petrospheres , that date from the late Neolithic era . They are a uniquely Scottish phenomenon , with over 425 known examples . Most are from modern Aberdeenshire , but a handful of examples are known from Iona , Skye , Harris , Uist , Lewis , Arran , Hawick , Wigtownshire and fifteen from Orkney , five of which were found at the Neolithic village of Skara Brae . Many functions have been suggested for these objects , most indicating that they were prestigious and powerful possessions . Their production may have continued into the Iron Age .
From the Bronze Age there are extensive examples of rock art . These include cup and ring marks , a central depression carved into stone , surrounded by rings , sometimes not completed . These are common elsewhere in Atlantic Europe and have been found on natural rocks and isolated stones across Scotland . The most elaborate sets of markings are in western Scotland , particularly in the Kilmartin district . The representations of an axe and a boat at the Ri Cruin Cairn in Kilmartin , and a boat pecked into Wemyss Cave , are believed to be the oldest known representations of real objects that survive in Scotland . Carved spirals have also been found on the cover stones of burial cists in Lanarkshire and Kincardine .
By the Iron Age , Scotland had been penetrated by the wider La Tène culture . The Torrs Pony @-@ cap and Horns are perhaps the most impressive of the relatively few finds of La Tène decoration from Scotland , and indicate links with Ireland and southern Britain . The Stirling torcs , found in 2009 , are a group of four gold torcs in different styles , dating from 300 BC and 100 BC Two demonstrate common styles found in Scotland and Ireland , but the other two indicate workmanship from what is now southern France and the Greek and Roman worlds .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
In the Early Middle Ages , four distinct linguistic and political groupings existed in what is now Scotland , each of which produced distinct material cultures . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the River Forth to Shetland . In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata , who had close links with Ireland , from where they brought with them the name Scots . In the south were the British ( Brythonic @-@ speaking ) descendants of the peoples of the Roman @-@ influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " , the most powerful and longest surviving of which was the Kingdom of Strathclyde . Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia ( later the northern part of Northumbria ) , which reached into what are now the Borders of Scotland in the south @-@ east .
Only fragments of artifacts survive from the Brythonic speaking kingdoms of southern Scotland . Pictish art can be seen in the extensive survival of carved Pictish stones , particularly in the north and east of the country . These display a variety of recurring images and patterns , as at Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno ( Angus ) . There are a few survivals of Pictish silver , notably a number of massive neck @-@ chains including the Whitecleuch Chain , and also the unique silver plaques from the cairn at Norrie 's Law . Irish @-@ Scots art from the kingdom of Dál Riata is much more difficult to identify , but may include items such as the Hunterston brooch , which with other items such as the Monymusk Reliquary , suggest that Dál Riata was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed . Early examples of Anglo @-@ Saxon art include metalwork , particularly bracelets , clasps and jewellery , that has survived in pagan burials and in exceptional items such as the intricately carved whalebone Franks Casket , thought to have been produced in Northumbria in the early eighth century , which combines pagan , classical and Christian motifs . After the Christian conversion of what is now Scotland in the seventh century , artistic styles in Northumbria interacted with those in Ireland and Scotland to become part of the common style historians have identified as insular or Hiberno @-@ Saxon .
Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland after the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles , and which became highly influential in continental Europe , contributing to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate penannular brooches , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved high crosses found most frequently in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created on Iona , the key location in Scotland for insular art . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life by Viking raids in the late eighth century . Later elaborate metal work has survived in buried hoards such as the St Ninian 's Isle Treasure and several finds from the Viking period .
In the High Middle Ages , Scotland adopted the Romanesque in the late twelfth century and retained and revived elements of its style after the Gothic style had become dominant from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and did not survive the effect of time and of the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors such as the sacrament houses at Deskford and Kinkell and the carvings of the seven deadly sins at Rosslyn Chapel . From the thirteenth century , there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies such as the elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Native craftsmanship can be seen in items such as the Bute mazer and the Savernake Horn , and more widely in the large number of high quality seals that survive from the mid thirteenth century onwards . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters , and occasional survivals such as the fifteenth @-@ century Doom painting at Guthrie . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards .
= = = European Renaissance = = =
Beginning in the fifteenth century , a number of works were produced in Scotland by artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone ; the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; and Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons , including the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described by D. H. Caldwell as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " . Records also indicate that Scottish palaces were adorned by rich tapestries , such as those that depicted scenes from the Iliad and Odyssey set up for James IV at Holyrood . Surviving stone and wood carvings , wall paintings and tapestries suggest the richness of sixteenth century royal art . At Stirling Castle , stone carvings on the royal palace from the reign of James V are taken from German patterns , and like the surviving carved oak portrait roundels from the King 's Presence Chamber , known as the Stirling Heads , they include contemporary , biblical and classical figures .
= = = Reformation = = =
During the sixteenth century , Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominantly Calvinist national Church of Scotland ( kirk ) , which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook . Scotland 's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Protestant iconoclasm , with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass , religious sculpture and paintings . The nature of the Scottish Reformation may have had wider effects , limiting the creation of a culture of public display and meaning that art was channelled into more austere forms of expression with an emphasis on private and domestic restraint .
The loss of ecclesiastical patronage created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists , who turned to secular patrons . One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls , with large numbers of private houses of burgesses , lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes , of which over a hundred examples survive . These include the ceiling at Prestongrange , undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr , Commendator of Newbattle , and the long gallery at Pinkie House , painted for Alexander Seaton , Earl of Dunfermline in 1621 . These were undertaken by unnamed Scottish artists using continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism , with elements that call on heraldry , piety , classical myths and allegory . The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century , but began to flourish after the Reformation . There were anonymous portraits of important individuals , including the Earl of Bothwell ( 1556 ) and George , fifth Earl of Seaton ( c . 1570s ) . James VI employed two Flemish artists , Arnold Bronckorst in the early 1580s and Adrian Vanson from around 1584 to 1602 , who have left us a visual record of the king and major figures at the court .
The Union of Crowns in 1603 removed a major source of artistic patronage in Scotland as James VI and his court moved to London . The result has been seen as a shift " from crown to castle " , as the nobility and local lairds became the major sources of patronage . The first significant native artist was George Jamesone of Aberdeen ( 1589 / 90 @-@ 1644 ) , who became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I and trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright ( 1617 – 94 ) . The growing importance of royal art can be seen in the post created in 1702 for George Ogilvie . The duties included " drawing pictures of our [ the Monarch 's ] person or of our successors or others of our royal family for the decorment of our houses and palaces " . However , from 1723 to 1823 the office was a sinecure held by members of the Abercrombie family , not necessarily connected with artistic ability .
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
= = = = Enlightenment period = = = =
Many painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans , such as the members of the Norie family , James ( 1684 – 1757 ) and his sons , who painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 68 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland , and were to varying degree influenced by forms of Neoclassicism . The influence of Italy was particularly significant , with over fifty Scottish artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 .
Ramsay studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh , where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility . After a second visit to Italy he moved to London in 1757 and from 1761 he was Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III . He now focused on royal portraits , often presented by the king to ambassadors and colonial governors . His work has been seen as anticipating the grand manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women are less formal and more intimate studies . Gavin Hamilton studied at the University of Glasgow and in Rome , and after a brief stay in London , primarily painting portraits of the British aristocracy , he returned to Rome for the rest of his life . He emerged as a pioneering neo @-@ classical painter of historical and mythical themes , including his depictions of scenes from Homer 's Iliad , as well as acting as an early archaeologist and antiquarian .
John and Alexander Runciman both gained reputations as painters of mythological and historical themes . They travelled to Italy , where John died in 1768 / 9 . Alexander returned home to gain a reputation as a landscape and portrait painter . His most widely known work , distributed in etchings , was mythological . More , having trained with the Nories , like his friend Ramsey , moved to Italy from 1773 and is chiefly known as a landscape painter . Allan travelled to Rome from 1764 to 1777 , where he studied with Hamilton . He produced historical and mythical scenes before moving to England , where he pursued portraiture . He then returned to Edinburgh in 1780 , became director and master of the Academy of Arts in 1786 . Here he produced his most famous work , with illustrations of themes from Scottish life , earning him the title of " the Scottish Hogarth " .
= = = = Romanticism = = = =
Scotland played a major part in the origins of the Romantic movement through the publication of James Macpherson 's Ossian cycle , which was proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , influencing Herder and Goethe . Ossian became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works were undertaken by Alexander Runciman and David Allan among others . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backwards and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , which were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , Jacob More 's series of four paintings " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Alexander Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the eighteenth century .
The effect of Romanticism can also be seen in the works of late eighteenth and early nineteenth @-@ century artists including Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) , Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) and John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . Raeburn was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland , born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 . He is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the tradition of Reynolds . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's painter and limner in 1823 , marking a return to the post being associated with the production of art . Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a large range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Art as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . The work of Knox continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Scott and he was also among the first artists to take a major interest in depicting the urban landscape of Glasgow .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
= = = = Painting = = = =
Andrew Geddes ( 1783 – 1844 ) and David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) were among the most successful portrait painters , with Wilkie succeeding Raeburn as Royal Limner in 1823 . Geddes produced some landscapes , but also portraits of Scottish subjects , including Wilkie and Scott , before he finally moved to London in 1831 . Wilkie worked mainly in London , and was most famous for his anecdotal paintings of Scottish and English life , including The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch in 1822 and for his flattering painting of the King George IV in Highland dress commemorating the royal visit to Scotland in 1823 that set off the international fashion for the kilt . After a tour of Europe he was more influenced by Renaissance and Baroque painting . David Roberts ( 1796 – 1864 ) became known for his prolific series of detailed lithograph prints of Egypt and the Near East that he produced during the 1840s from sketches he made during long tours of the region .
The tradition of highland landscape painting was continued by figures such as Horatio McCulloch ( 1806 – 67 ) , Joseph Farquharson ( 1846 – 1935 ) and William McTaggart ( 1835 – 1910 ) . McCulloch 's images of places including Glen Coe and Loch Lomond and the Trossachs , became parlour room panoramas that helped to define popular images of Scotland . This was helped by Queen Victoria 's declared affection for Scotland , signified by her adoption of Balmoral as a royal retreat . In this period a Scottish " grand tour " developed with large number of English artists , including Turner , flocking to the Highlands to paint and draw . From the 1870s Farquharson was a major figure in interpreting Scottish landscapes , specialising in snowscapes and sheep , and using a mobile heated studio in order to capture the conditions from life . In the same period McTaggart emerged as the leading Scottish landscape painter . He has been compared with John Constable and described as the " Scottish Impressionist " , with free brushwork often depicting stormy seas and moving clouds . The fashion for coastal painting in the later nineteenth century led to the establishment of artist colonies in places such as Pittenweem and Crail in Fife , Cockburnspath in the Borders , Cambuskenneth near Stirling on the River Forth and Kirkudbright in Dumfries and Galloway .
= = = = Sculpture = = = =
In the early decades of the century , sculpture commissions in Scotland were often given to English artists . Thomas Campbell ( c . 1790 – 1858 ) and Lawrence Macdonald ( 1799 – 1878 ) undertook work in Scotland , but worked for much of their careers in London and Rome . The first significant Scottish sculptor to pursue their career in Scotland was John Steell ( 1804 – 91 ) . His first work to gain significant public attention was his Alexander and Bucephasus ( 1832 ) . His 1832 design for a statue of Walter Scott was incorporated into the author 's memorial in Edinburgh . It marked the beginnings of a national school of sculpture based around major figures from Scottish culture and Scottish and British history . The tradition of Scottish sculpture was taken forward by artists such as Patrick Park ( 1811 – 55 ) , Alexander Handyside Ritchie ( 1804 – 70 ) and William Calder Marshall ( 1813 – 94 ) . This reached fruition in the next generation of sculptors including William Brodie ( 1815 – 81 ) , Amelia Hill ( 1820 – 1904 ) and Steell 's apprentice David Watson Stevenson ( 1842 – 1904 ) . Stevenson contributed the statue of William Wallace to the exterior of the Wallace Monument and many of the busts in the gallery of heroes inside . Public sculpture was boosted by the anniversary of Burns ' death in 1896 . Stevenson produced a statue of the poet in Leith . Hill produced one for Dumfries . John Steell produced a statue for Central Park in New York , versions of which were made for Dundee , London and Dunedin . Statues of Burns and Scott were produced in areas of Scottish settlement , particularly in North America and Australia .
= = = = Early photography = = = =
In the early nineteenth century Scottish scientists James Clerk Maxwell and David Brewster played a major part in the development of the techniques of photography . Pioneering photographers included chemist Robert Adamson ( 1821 – 48 ) and artist David Octavius Hill ( 1821 – 48 ) , who as Hill & Adamson formed the first photographic studio in Scotland at Rock House in Edinburgh in 1843 . Their output of around 3 @,@ 000 calotype images in four years are considered some of the first and finest artistic uses of photography . Other pioneers included Thomas Annan ( 1829 – 87 ) , who took portraits and landscapes , and whose photographs of the Glasgow slums were among the first to use the medium as a social record . His son James Craig Annan ( 1864 – 1946 ) popularised the work of Hill & Adamson in the US and worked with American photographic pioneer Alfred Stieglitz ( 1864 – 1946 ) . Both pioneered the more stable photogravure process . Other important figures included Thomas Keith ( 1827 – 95 ) , one of the first architectural photographers , George Washington Wilson ( 1823 – 93 ) , who pioneered instant photography and Clementina Hawarden ( 1822 – 65 ) , whose posed portraits were among the first in a tradition of female photography .
= = = = Influence of the Pre @-@ Raphaelites = = = =
David Scott 's ( 1806 – 49 ) most ambitious historical work was the triptych Sir William Wallace , Scottish Wars : the Spear and English War : the Bow ( 1843 ) . He also produced etchings for versions of Coleridge 's Ancient Mariner , Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress and J. P. Nichol 's Architecture of the Heavens ( 1850 ) . Because of this early death he was known to , and admired by , the Pre @-@ Raphaelite brotherhood mainly through his brother William Bell Scott ( 1811 – 90 ) , who became a close friend of founding member D. G. Rossetti . The London @-@ based Pre @-@ Raphaelites rejected the formalism of Mannerist painting after Raphael . Bell Scott was patronised by the Pre @-@ Raphaelite collector James Leathart . His most famous work , Iron and Coal was one of the most popular Victorian images and one of the few to fulfill the Pre @-@ Raphaelite ambition to depict the modern world .
The figure in Scottish art most associated with the Pre @-@ Raphaelites was the Aberdeen @-@ born William Dyce ( 1806 – 64 ) . Dyce befriended the young Pre @-@ Raphaelites in London and introduced their work to John Ruskin . His The Man of Sorrows and David in the Wilderness ( both 1860 ) , contain a Pre @-@ Raphaelite attention to detail , but puts the biblical subjects in a distinctly Scottish landscape , against the Pre @-@ Raphaelite precept of truth in all things . His Pegwell Bay : a Recollection of October 5th 1858 has been described as " the archetypal pre @-@ Raphaelite landscape " . Dyce became head of the School of Design in Edinburgh , and was then invited to London , to head the newly established Government School of Design , later to become the Royal College of Art , where his ideas formed the basis of the system of training and he was highly involved in the national organisation of art . Joseph Noel Paton ( 1821 – 1901 ) studied at the Royal Academy schools in London , where he became a friend of John Everett Millais and he subsequently followed him into Pre @-@ Raphaelitism , producing pictures that stressed detail and melodrama such as The Bludie Tryst ( 1855 ) . Also influenced by Millias was James Archer ( 1823 – 1904 ) and whose work included Summertime , Gloucestershire ( 1860 ) and who from 1861 began a series of Arthurian @-@ based paintings including La Morte d 'Arthur and Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere .
= = = = Arts and Crafts and the Celtic Revival = = = =
The beginnings of the Arts and Crafts movement in Scotland were in the stained glass revival of the 1850s , pioneered by James Ballantine ( 1808 – 77 ) . His major works included the great west window of Dunfermline Abbey and the scheme for St. Giles Cathedral , Edinburgh . In Glasgow it was pioneered by Daniel Cottier ( 1838 – 91 ) , who had probably studied with Ballantine , and was directly influenced by William Morris , Ford Madox Brown and John Ruskin . His key works included the Baptism of Christ in Paisley Abbey ( c . 1880 ) . His followers included Stephen Adam and his son of the same name . The Glasgow @-@ born designer and theorist Christopher Dresser ( 1834 – 1904 ) was one of the first , and most important , independent designers , a pivotal figure in the Aesthetic Movement and a major contributor to the allied Anglo @-@ Japanese movement .
The formation of the Edinburgh Social Union in 1885 , which included a number of significant figures in the Arts and Craft and Aesthetic movements , became part of an attempt to facilitate a Celtic Revival , similar to that taking place in contemporaneous Ireland , drawing on ancient myths and history to produce art in a modern idiom . Key figures were the philosopher , sociologist , town planner and writer Patrick Geddes ( 1854 – 1932 ) , the architect and designer Robert Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) and stained @-@ glass artist Douglas Strachan ( 1875 – 1950 ) . Geddes established an informal college of tenement flats for artists at Ramsay Garden on Castle Hill in Edinburgh in the 1890s .
Among the figures involved with the movement were Anna Traquair ( 1852 – 1936 ) , who was commissioned by the Union to paint murals in the Mortuary Chapel of the Hospital for Sick Children , Edinburgh ( 1885 – 86 and 1896 – 98 ) and also worked in metal , illumination , illustration , embroidery and book binding . The most significant exponent was Dundee @-@ born John Duncan ( 1866 – 1945 ) , who was also influenced by Italian Renaissance art and French Symbolism . Among his most influential works are his paintings of Celtic subjects Tristan and Iseult ( 1912 ) and St Bride ( 1913 ) . Other Dundee Symbolists included Stewart Carmichael ( 1879 – 1901 ) and George Dutch Davidson ( 1869 – 1950 ) . Duncan was a major contributor to Geddes ' magazine The Evergreen . Other major contributors included the Japanese @-@ influenced Robert Burns ( 1860 – 1941 ) , E. A. Hornel ( 1864 – 1933 ) and Duncan 's student Helen Hay ( fl . 1895 – 1953 ) .
= = = = Glasgow School = = = =
For the late nineteenth century developments in Scottish art are associated with the Glasgow School , a term that is used for a number of loose groups based around the city . The first and largest group , active from about 1880 , were the Glasgow Boys , including James Guthrie ( 1859 – 1930 ) , Joseph Crawhall ( 1861 – 1913 ) , George Henry ( 1858 – 1943 ) and E. A. Walton ( 1860 – 1922 ) . They reacted against the commercialism and sentimentality of earlier artists , particularly represented by the Royal Academy , were often influenced by French painting and incorporated elements of impressionism and realism , and have been credited with rejuvenating Scottish art , making Glasgow a major cultural centre . A slightly later grouping , active from about 1890 and known as " The Four " or the " Spook School " , was composed of acclaimed architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh ( 1868 – 1928 ) , his wife the painter and glass artist Margaret MacDonald ( 1865 – 1933 ) , her sister the artist Frances ( 1873 – 1921 ) , and her husband , the artist and teacher Herbert MacNair ( 1868 – 1955 ) . They produced a distinctive blend of influences , including the Celtic Revival , the Arts and Crafts Movement , and Japonisme , which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style .
= = = Early twentieth century = = =
= = = = Scottish Colourists = = = =
The next significant group of artists to emerge were the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s . The name was later given to four artists who knew each other and exhibited together , but did not form a cohesive group . All had spent time in France between 1900 and 1914 and all looked to Paris , particularly to the Fauvists , such as Monet , Matisse and Cézanne , whose techniques they combined with the painting traditions of Scotland . They were John Duncan Fergusson ( 1874 – 1961 ) , Francis Cadell ( 1883 – 1937 ) , Samuel Peploe ( 1871 – 1935 ) and Leslie Hunter ( 1877 – 1931 ) . They have been described as the first Scottish modern artists and were the major mechanism by which post @-@ impressionism reached Scotland .
= = = = Edinburgh School = = = =
The group of artists connected with Edinburgh , most of whom had studied at Edinburgh College of Art during or soon after the First World War , became known as the Edinburgh School . They were influenced by French painters and the St. Ives School and their art was characterised by use of vivid and often non @-@ naturalistic colour and the use of bold technique above form . Members included William Gillies ( 1898 – 1973 ) , who focused on landscapes and still life , John Maxwell ( 1905 – 62 ) who created both landscapes and studies of imaginative subjects , Adam Bruce Thomson ( 1885 – 1976 ) best known for his oil and water colour landscape paintings , particularly of the Highlands and Edinburgh , William Crozier ( 1893 – 1930 ) , whose landscapes were created with glowing colours , William Geissler ( 1894 @-@ 1963 ) , watercolourist of landscapes in Perthshire , East Lothian and Hampshire , William MacTaggart ( 1903 – 81 ) , noted for his landscapes of East Lothian , France and Norway and Anne Redpath ( 1895 – 1965 ) , best known for her two dimensional depictions of everyday objects .
= = = = Modernism and the Scottish Renaissance = = = =
Patrick Geddes coined the phrase Scottish Renaissance , arguing that technological development needed to paralleled in the arts . This ideas were taken up by a new generation , led by the poet Hugh MacDiarmid who argued for a synergy between science and art , the introduction of modernism into art and the creation of a distinctive national art . These ideas were expressed in art in the inter @-@ war period by figures including J. D. Fergusson , Stanley Cursiter ( 1887 – 1976 ) , William McCance ( 1894 – 1970 ) and William Johnstone ( 1897 – 1981 ) . Fergusson was one of the few British artists who could claim to have played a part in the creation of modernism . His interest in machine imagery can be seen in paintings such as Damaged Destroyer ( 1918 ) . Cursiter was influenced by the Celtic revival , post @-@ impressionism and Futurism , as can be seen in his Rain on Princess Street ( 1913 ) and Regatta ( 1913 ) . McCance 's early work was in a bold post @-@ impressionist style , but after World War I it became increasingly abstract and influenced by vorticism , as can be seen in Women on an Elevator ( 1925 ) and The Engineer and his Wife ( 1925 ) . Johnstone studied cubism , surrealism and new American art . He moved towards abstraction , attempting to utilise aspects of landscape , poetry and Celtic art . His most significant work , A Point in Time ( 1929 – 38 ) , has been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as " one of the most important Scottish pictures of the century " .
Other artists strongly influenced by modernism included James McIntosh Patrick ( 1907 – 98 ) and Edward Baird ( 1904 – 49 ) . Both trained in Glasgow , but spent most of their careers in and around their respective native cities of Dundee and Montrose . Both were influenced by surrealism and the work of Bruegel and focused on landscape , as can be seen in McIntosh Patrick 's Traquair House ( 1938 ) and more overtly in Baird 's The Birth of Venus ( 1934 ) . Before his success in painting McIntosh Patrick first gained a reputation as an etcher . Leading figures in the field in the inter @-@ war period included William Wilson ( 1905 – 72 ) and Ian Fleming ( 1906 – 94 ) .
= = = = New Scottish Group = = = =
The longest surviving member of the Scottish Colourists , J. D. Fergusson , returned to Scotland from France in 1939 , just before the outbreak of the Second World War , where he became a leading figure of a group of Glasgow artists . Members of Fergusson 's group formed the New Art Club in 1940 , in opposition to the established Glasgow Art Club . In 1942 they held the first exhibition of their own exhibiting society , the New Scottish Group , with Fergusson as its first president .
The group had no single style , but shared left @-@ wing tendencies and included artists strongly influenced by trends in contemporary continental art . Painters involved included Donald Bain ( 1904 – 79 ) , who was influenced by expressionism . William Crosbie ( 1915 – 99 ) was strongly influenced by surrealism . Marie de Banzie ( 1918 – 90 ) , was influenced by expressionism and particularity post @-@ expressionist Gauguin . Isabel Babianska ( born 1920 ) , was influenced by expressionist Chaim Soutine . Expressionism can also be seen as an influence on the work of Millie Frood ( 1900 – 88 ) , which included vivid colours and brushwork reminiscent of Van Gogh . Frood 's urban scenes contain an element of social commentary and realism , influenced by Polish refugees Josef Herman ( 1911 – 2000 ) , resident in Glasgow between 1940 and 1943 and Jankel Adler ( 1895 – 1949 ) who was in Kirkudbright from 1941 to 1943 . Also influenced by Herman were husband and wife Tom MacDonald ( 1914 – 85 ) and Bet Low ( born 1924 ) , who with painter William Senior ( born 1927 ) formed the Clyde Group , aimed at promoting political art . Their work included industrial and urban landscapes such as MacDonald 's Transport Depot ( 1944 – 45 ) and Bet Low 's Blochairn Steelworks ( c . 1946 ) .
= = Contemporary art = =
= = = Post @-@ War artists = = =
Notable post @-@ war artists included Robin Philipson ( 1916 – 92 ) , who was influenced by the Colourists , but also Pop Art and neo @-@ Romanticism . Robert MacBryde ( 1913 – 66 ) , Robert Colquhoun ( 1914 – 64 ) and Joan Eardley ( 1921 – 63 ) , were all graduates of the Glasgow School of Art . MacBryde and Colquhoun were influenced by neo @-@ Romanticism and the Cubism of Adler . The English @-@ born Eardley moved to Glasgow and explored the landscapes of Kincardineshire coast and created depictions of Glasgow tenements and children in the streets . Scottish artists that continued the tradition of landscape painting and joined the new generation of modernist artists of the highly influential St Ives School were Wilhelmina Barns @-@ Graham ( b . 1912 – 2004 ) , Margaret Mellis ( b . 1914 – 2009 ) .
Paris continued to be a major destination for Scottish artists , with William Gear ( 1916 – 97 ) and Stephen Gilbert ( 1910 – 2007 ) encountering the linear abstract painting of the avant @-@ garde COBRA group there in the 1940s . Their work was highly coloured and violent in execution . Also a visitor to Paris was Alan Davie ( born 1920 ) , who was influenced by jazz and Zen Buddhism and moved further into abstract expressionism . Ian Hamilton Finlay 's ( 1925 – 2006 ) work explored the boundaries between sculpture , print making , literature ( especially concrete poetry ) and landscape architecture . His most ambitious work , the garden of Little Sparta opened in 1960 .
= = = Scottish Realism and the Glasgow Pups = = =
John Bellany ( 1942 – 2013 ) , mainly focusing on the coastal communities of his birth , and Alexander Moffat ( born 1943 ) , who concentrated on portraiture , both grouped under the description of " Scottish realism " , were among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . The artists associated with Moffat and the Glasgow School of Art who came to prominence in the 1980s are sometimes known as the " new Glasgow Boys " , or " Glasgow pups " and included Steven Campbell ( 1953 – 2007 ) , Peter Howson ( born 1958 ) , Ken Currie ( born 1960 ) and Adrian Wiszniewski ( born 1958 ) . Their figurative work has a comic book @-@ like quality and puts an emphasis on social commentary . Campbell and Wiszniewski 's post @-@ modern painting adopts a whimsical approach to history . Campbell often employs figures reminiscent characters from 1930s novels confronted by the disorder and confusion of the real world , as in his Young Men in Search of Simplicity ( 1989 ) . Currie has revived historical painting devoted to the socialist history of Glasgow in a series of paintings for the People 's Palace in 1987 . Currie also approached the problems of historical painting through his series of prints The Saracen Heads ( 1988 ) .
= = = Contemporary sculpture = = =
While sculptors Eric Schilsky ( 1898 – 1974 ) and Hew Lorimer ( 1907 – 93 ) worked in the existing tradition of modelling and carving , sculptor and artist Eduardo Paolozzi ( 1924 – 2005 ) was a pioneer of pop art and in a varied career produced many works that examined juxtapositions between fantasy and the modern world . George Wyllie ( 1921 – 2012 ) , produced works of social and political commentary including the Straw Locomotive ( 1987 ) , an event which raised questions about the decline of heavy industry and the nature of colonialism . New sources of direct government arts funding encouraged greater experimentation among a new generation of sculptors that incorporated aspects of modernism , including Jake Harvey ( born 1948 ) , Doug Cocker ( born 1945 ) , Ainslie Yule ( born 1941 ) and Gavin Scobie ( 1940 – 2012 ) . In contrast Sandy Stoddart ( born 1959 ) works primarily on " nationalist " figurative sculpture in clay within the neoclassical tradition . He is best known for his civic monuments , including 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) bronze statues of the philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith , on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh .
= = = Photographic renaissance = = =
In the late twentieth century , photography in Scotland enjoyed a renaissance , encouraged by figures including Richard Hough ( 1945 – 85 ) who founded the Stills Gallery for photography in Edinburgh in 1977 and Murray Johnston ( 1949 – 90 ) , who was its director ( 1982 – 86 ) . Important practitioners in Scotland included the American Thomas Joshua Cooper ( born 1946 ) . More recent exponents who have received acclaim include Pradip Malde ( born 1957 ) , Maud Sulter ( 1960 – 2008 ) and Owen Logan ( born 1963 ) .
= = = Contemporary artists = = =
Since the 1990s , the most commercially successful artist has been Jack Vettriano ( born 1959 ) , whose work usually consists of figure compositions , with his most famous painting The Singing Butler ( 1992 ) , often cited as the best selling print in Britain . However , he has received little acclaim from critics . Contemporary artists emerging from Glasgow and Dundee include David Mach ( born 1960 ) , working in the medium of installation art , Richard Wright ( born 1960 ) , noted for his intricate wall paintings , James Lambie ( born 1965 ) who specialises in colourful sculptural installations and Susan Philipsz ( born 1965 ) who works in sound installations . A group that emerged from Glasgow in the early 1990s , and later described as " The Irascibles " , includes Roderick Buchanan ( born 1965 ) , who works in installations , film and photography , Douglas Gordon ( born 1966 ) working in video art , Christine Borland ( 1965 ) , whose work focuses on forensic science , and sculptor Martin Boyce ( born 1967 ) . In the generation of more recent artists Lucy McKenzie 's ( born 1977 ) painting is often sexually explicit , while Sandy Smith ( born 1983 ) has produced installation art that combines video and landscape art .
= = = Art museums and galleries = = =
Major art galleries in Edinburgh include the National Gallery of Scotland , which has a collection of national and international art . The National Museum of Scotland , was formed by the merger of the Royal Museum of Scotland and the National Museum of Antiquities and includes items from the decorative arts , ethnography and archaeology . The Scottish National Portrait Gallery has portraits of major national figures . The Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art , houses the national collection of twentieth @-@ century Scottish and international art . The Dean Gallery houses the Gallery of Modern Art 's collection of Dada and Surreal art . The Talbot Rice Gallery houses both old masters and contemporary Scottish works , and the Stills Gallery is the major gallery devoted to Scottish photography . Glasgow galleries include the Burrell Collection , housing the extensive and eclectic collection of art left to the city by shipping magnate Sir William Burrell . The Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum houses a collection of international art and products of the Glasgow School . The Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery houses sixty works by James McNeil Whistler and works by Mackintosh , as well as an international collection of masters from the seventeenth century onwards . Other major collections include the Aberdeen Art Gallery , which houses a major collection of British and international art and Dundee Contemporary Arts , which houses two contemporary art galleries .
= = = Art schools and colleges = = =
Scotland has had schools of art since the eighteenth century , many of which continue to exist in different forms today . Edinburgh College of Art developed from the Trustees Academy founded in the city in 1760 and was established in 1907 . After a long independent history , in 2011 it became part of the University of Edinburgh . Glasgow School of Art grew from the city 's School of Design , founded in 1845 . Grays School of Art in Aberdeen was founded in 1885 . Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design was founded in Dundee in 1909 . There are also smaller private institutions such as the Leith School of Art founded in a former Lutheran church in 1988 .
= = = Organisations = = =
Creative Scotland is the national agency for the development of the arts in Scotland . It superseded the Scottish Arts Council , which was formed in 1994 following a restructuring of the Arts Council of Great Britain , but had existed as an autonomous body since a royal charter of 1967 . In addition , some local authorities and private interests have also supported to the arts , although this has been more limited since local government reorganisation in 1996 . Independent arts foundations that promote the visual arts include the Royal Scottish Academy , founded in 1826 and granted a Royal Charter in 1837 .
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= Raphinae =
The Raphinae are a clade of extinct flightless birds formerly called didines or didine birds . They inhabited the Mascarene Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues , but became extinct through hunting by humans and predation by introduced non @-@ native mammals following human colonisation in the 17th century . Historically , many different groups have been named for both the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire , not all grouping them together . Most recently , it is considered that the two birds can be classified in Columbidae , often under the subfamily Raphinae . The first person to suggest a close affinity to the doves was Johannes Theodor Reinhardt , whose opinions were then supported by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville .
Recent extractions of DNA from the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire , as well as 37 species of doves , has found where in Columbidae the raphines should be placed . Surprisingly , raphines are not the most primitive columbid , instead they are grouped with the Nicobar pigeon as their closest relative , with other closely related birds being the crowned pigeons and tooth @-@ billed pigeon . A third raphine , Raphus solitarius , is now considered to be an ibis in the genus Threskiornis .
Both the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo are now extinct . A common threshold of the extinction of the dodo is 1662 , but some possible sightings had been made as late as 1688 . The last sighting with a description was in 1662 , but a statistical analysis by Roberts and Solow found that the extinction of the dodo was in 1693 . The Rodrigues solitaire was killed off later than the dodo . The IUCN uses an extinction date of 1778 for the solitaire , although a more probable date would be in the 1750s or 1760s . Both birds became extinct as a consequence of human hunting and the introduction of mammals that ate the birds and their eggs .
= = Classification = =
This clade is part of the order Columbiformes and contains the monotypic genera Pezophaps and Raphus . The former contains the species Pezophaps solitaria ( the Rodrigues solitaire ) , the latter the dodo , Raphus cucullatus . These birds reached an impressive size as a result of isolation on islands free of predators , in accordance with Foster 's rule .
= = = History of classification = = =
Historically , the dodo was assigned the genus Didus , now a junior synonym of Raphus . In 1848 , a new species within the now defunct genus Didus , D. nazarenus , was named by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville . To house their new species , as well as the other species known at the time , Strickland and Melville named the subfamily Didinae . In 1893 three species were assigned to the group Pezophaps solitarius , Didus ineptus , and the possible species Didus borbonicus . Today , only two raphine species are known , with Didus ineptus becoming a junior subjective synonym of Raphus cucullatus ; Didus ? borbonicus now classified as the ibis Threskiornis solitarius ; and Didus nazarenus being identified as synonymous with Pezophaps solitarius .
A suborder named in 1893 by Sharpe , Didi was defined as a group including only the massive birds , that were sister to Columbidae , from the Mascarene Islands of Mauritius , Réunion , and Rodrigues . Features grouping Didi with Columbidae were the angle of the mandible and the hook at the end of the beak .
In 1811 , Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger created a new family for the genus Didus . He named the family Inepti , and in it included only Didus ineptus , now a synonym of Raphus cucullatus . Illiger concluded that the dodo was related to ostriches and rheas , and so placed Inepti in the order Rasores , as the sister family to Gallinacei , Epollicati ( a defunct group including Turnix and Syrrhaptes ) , Columbini , and Crypturi .
In 1842 , Johannes Theodor Reinhardt proposed they were ground doves , based on studies of a dodo skull he had rediscovered in the royal Danish collection of Copenhagen . This view was met with ridicule , but later supported by Strickland and Melville , who suggested the common descent of the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo in 1848 , after dissecting the only known dodo specimen with soft tissue and comparing it with the few solitaire remains then available . Strickland stated that although not identical , these birds shared many distinguishing features in the leg bones , features which were otherwise known only in pigeons .
The raphines are sometimes separated as a distinct family Raphidae , and their affinities were for long uncertain . They were initially placed in the ratites due to their peculiar , flightlessness @-@ related apomorphies , and a relationship to the Rallidae has also been suggested . Osteological and molecular data , however , agrees that placement in the Columbidae is more appropriate . Many different affinities have historically been suggested for the dodo , including that it was a small ostrich , a rail , an albatross , or a vulture .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a dodo tarsal and a Rodrigues solitaire femur supported their close relationship and their placement within the family of pigeons and doves Columbidae . The genetic evidence was interpreted as suggesting the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon ( Caloenas nicobarica ) to be their closest living relative among 35 analyzed species of pigeons and doves , followed by the crowned pigeons ( genus Goura ) of New Guinea and the superficially dodo @-@ like tooth @-@ billed pigeon from Samoa . The genus of the latter is Didunculus ( " little dodo " ) , and it was called " dodlet " by Richard Owen . The following cladogram , from Shapiro and colleagues ( 2002 ) , shows the position of the dodo and solitaire within the pigeon and dove family .
A similar cladogram was published in 2007 , inverting the placement of Goura and Didunculus and including the pheasant pigeon and the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon at the base of the clade . Based on behavioural and morphological evidence , Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the Goura pigeons and others , in agreement with the genetic evidence . In 2014 , DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon ( Caloenas maculata ) was analysed , and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon , and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire .
For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own , the Raphidae ( formerly Dididae ) , because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved . Each was placed in its own monotypic family ( Raphidae and Pezophapidae , respectively ) , as it was thought that they had evolved their similar features independently . Osteological and molecular data has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae , and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily , Raphinae , in the family Columbidae .
The " Réunion solitaire " , long considered a third extinct didine bird , has turned out to be an ibis ; it is now known as Threskiornis solitarius .
= = = Divergence = = =
The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo diverged around the Paleogene @-@ Neogene boundary . The Mascarene Islands ( Mauritius , Réunion , and Rodrigues ) , are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old . Therefore , the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage . The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes . The DNA obtained from the Oxford specimen is degraded , and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains , so the age of the groups divergence from other pigeons still needs to be independently verified . The dodo lost the ability to fly owing to the lack of mammalian predators on Mauritius . Another large , flightless pigeon , the Viti Levu giant pigeon ( Natunaornis gigoura ) , was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji . It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire , and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons .
It has been estimated that the group containing the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire diverged from genera like Goura about 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . However , that estimate appears highly unlikely . It was estimated that the relatives of the two species moved to the island about 35 million years ago , when a land bridge between Nazareth ( Rodrigues ) or St. Brandon banks and Mauritius formed .
= = Description = =
Many of the skeletal features that distinguish the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire , its closest relative , from pigeons have been attributed to their flightlessness . The pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted pigeons to support the higher weight , and the pectoral region and the small wings were paedomorphic , meaning that they were underdeveloped and retained juvenile features . The skull , trunk and pelvic limbs were peramorphic , meaning that they changed considerably with age . The dodo shared several other traits with the Rodrigues solitaire , such as features of the skull , pelvis , and sternum , as well as their large size . It differed in other aspects , such as being more robust and shorter than the solitaire , having a larger skull and beak , a rounded skull roof , and smaller orbits . The dodo 's neck and legs were proportionally shorter , and it did not possess an equivalent to the knob present on the solitaire 's wrists .
As no complete dodo specimens exist , its external appearance , such as plumage and colouration , is hard to determine . Illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction ( 1598 – 1662 ) are the primary evidence for its external appearance . According to most representations , the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage , with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end . The head was grey and naked , the beak green , black and yellow , and the legs were stout and yellowish , with black claws . Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that they were very large birds , 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 feet ) tall , and possibly weighing up to 23 kilograms ( 51 lb ) . The higher weights have been attributed to birds in captivity ; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range 10 @.@ 6 – 21 @.@ 1 kg ( 23 – 47 lb ) . A later estimate gives an average weight as low as 10 @.@ 2 kg ( 22 lb ) . This has been questioned , and there is still some controversy . It has been suggested that the weight depended on the season , and that individuals were fat during cool seasons , but less so during hot . The bird was sexually dimorphic : males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks . The beak was up to 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in length and had a hooked point . A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous ( vaned feathers with barbs and quills ) rather than plumaceous ( downy ) and most similar to those of other pigeons .
The beak of the solitaire was slightly hooked , and its neck and legs were long . One observer described it as the size of a swan . The skull was 170 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) long , flattened at the top with the fore and hind parts elevated into two bony ridges structured with cancellous . A black band ( a contemporary description described it as a " frontlet " ) appeared on its head just behind the base of the beak . The plumage of the Rodrigues solitaire was described as grey and brown . Females were paler than males and had light @-@ coloured elevations on the lower neck . Sexual size dimorphism in the solitaire is perhaps the greatest in any neognath . One group , probably the males , were considerably larger than the other , measuring 90 cm ( 35 in ) in length and weighing up to 28 kg ( 62 lb ) , whereas the smaller group , probably females , were only 70 cm ( 28 in ) and weighed 17 kg ( 37 lb ) . This is only 60 % of the weight of a larger individual . Their weight may have varied substantially due to fat cycles , meaning that individuals were fat during cool seasons , but slim during hot seasons , and may have been as low as 21 kg ( 46 lb ) in the larger gender and 13 kg ( 29 lb ) in the smaller . Though male pigeons are usually larger than females , there is no direct evidence for the largest specimens actually being the males of the species , and this has only been assumed based on early works . Though the male was probably largest , this can only be confirmed by molecular sexing techniques , and not skeletal morphology alone .
= = Behaviour = =
Little is known of the behaviour of the dodo , as most contemporary descriptions are very brief . Based on weight estimates , it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 21 , and the female 17 . Studies of the cantilever strength of its leg bones indicate that it could run quite fast . Unlike the Rodrigues solitaire , there is no evidence that the dodo used its wings in intraspecific combat . Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures , it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison . The dodo may instead have used its large , hooked beak in territorial disputes . Since Mauritius received more rain and had a more stable climate than Rodrigues , there was probably less need for male dodos to fight over territory . The solitaire was therefore probably the more aggressive of the two .
Observations of the Rodrigues solitaire in life indicate that they were highly territorial . They presumably settled disputes by striking each other with their wings ; to aid this purpose , they used the knobs on their wrists . Fractures in their wing bones also indicate that they were used in combat . It has also been suggested that these fractures may instead have been the result of a hereditary bone disease rather than battle @-@ injuries . But in all extant birds where carpal spurs and knobs are present , these are used as weapons without exceptions . Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures , it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison with the Rodrigues solitaire . Since Rodrigues receives less rainfall and has more seasonal variation than Mauritius , which would have affected the availability of resources on the island , the solitaire would have more reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour . Several accounts state that they also defended themselves with a powerful bite .
= = Extinction = =
The last surviving raphine species , the Rodrigues solitaire , probably became extinct before 1778 . The dodo survived until 1662 or 1690 . The Rodrigues solitaire became extinct because of the introduction of feral cats and heavy hunting by the human population . Although the dodo became extinct earlier , the causes of extinction are related and involve the introduction of animals and hunting .
= = = Extinction of the dodo = = =
Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators , the dodo was entirely fearless of humans . This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors . The human population on Mauritius ( an area of 1 @,@ 860 km2 or 720 sq mi ) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century , but they introduced other animals , including dogs , pigs , cats , rats , and crab @-@ eating macaques , which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources . At the same time , humans destroyed the dodo 's forest habitat . The impact of these introduced animals , especially the pigs and macaques , on the dodo population is currently considered more severe than that of hunting . Rats would not have caused such a problem for the dodo , as they would have been used to dealing with local land crabs .
The latest definite sighting of dodos , on Amber Island in 1662 , may not necessarily have been the last members of the species . The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688 . Statistical analysis of these records by Roberts and Solow gives a new estimated extinction date of 1693 , with a 95 % confidence interval of 1688 – 1715 . The authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638 , the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s , and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave cannot be dismissed out of hand .
= = = Extinction of the Rodrigues solitaire = = =
Although the IUCN lists the Rodrigues solitaire as going extinct by 1778 , the species probably became extinct some time between the 1730s and 1760s ; the exact date is unknown . Its disappearance coincided with the tortoise trade between 1730 and 1750 , when traders burnt off vegetation , hunted solitaires , and released cats and pigs that preyed on eggs and chicks . In 1755 , Joseph @-@ François Charpentier de Cossigny attempted to obtain a live specimen , as he had been assured the Rodrigues solitaire still survived in remote areas of the island . After searching for 18 months and offering large rewards , he could find none . He noted that cats were blamed for decimating the species , but suspected that it was really due to hunting by humans . When he visited Rodrigues to observe the 1761 transit of Venus , Alexandre Guy Pingré encountered no solitaires , although he had been assured that they survived .
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= Taiwan High Speed Rail =
Taiwan High Speed Rail ( abbreviated THSR or HSR ) is a high @-@ speed rail line that runs approximately 345 km ( 214 mi ) ( actual length in operation is 348 @.@ 5 km ( 217 mi ) ) along the west coast of Taiwan , from the national capital Taipei to the southern city of Kaohsiung . With construction managed by a private company , Taiwan High Speed Rail Corporation ( THSRC ) , which also operates the line , the total cost of the project was US $ 18 billion . At the time it was built , this was one of the world 's largest privately funded rail construction schemes . The system is based primarily on Japan 's Shinkansen technology .
The line opened for service on 5 January 2007 , with trains running at a top speed of 300 km / h ( 186 mph ) from Nangang to Zuoying in as little as 105 minutes , reaching almost 90 % of Taiwan 's population . Most intermediate stations on the line lie outside the cities served ; however , a variety of transfer options , such as free shuttle buses , conventional rail , and metros have been constructed to facilitate transport connections .
Ridership initially fell short of forecasts , but grew from fewer than 40 @,@ 000 passengers per day in the first few months of operation to over 129 @,@ 000 passengers per day in June 2013 . The system carried its first 100 million passengers by August 2010 and over 200 million passengers had taken this system by December 2012 .
In the initial years of operation , THSRC accumulated debt due to high depreciation charges and interest , largely due to the financial structure set up for the private company . In 2009 , THSRC negotiated with the government to change the method of depreciation from depending on concessions on rights to ridership . At the same time , the government also started to help refinance THSRC 's loans to assist the company so it could remain operational and profitable .
= = History = =
Taiwan 's rapid economic growth during the latter half of the twentieth century led to saturation of highways , conventional rail , and air traffic systems in the western transport corridor , which threatened to impede further growth . The idea of a new high @-@ speed rail line arose in the 1970s , and informal planning began in 1980 . In 1987 the executive branch of Taiwan 's government , the Executive Yuan , instructed the Ministry of Transportation to launch a feasibility study for a high @-@ speed rail line in the western Taiwan corridor , which was completed in 1990 . The study found that in a comparison of potential solutions to traffic problems in the corridor , a high @-@ speed rail line would offer the highest transit volume , lowest land use , highest energy savings , and least pollution . In July 1990 the Preparation Office of High Speed Rail ( POHSR ) was established and a route was selected in 1991 . Plans for the THSR were subsequently approved by the Executive Yuan in June 1992 and by Taiwan 's legislature , the Legislative Yuan , in 1993 .
= = = Build @-@ Operate @-@ Transfer = = =
In November 1994 , Taiwan passed a law regarding the use of private finance in infrastructure projects , which also applied to the up @-@ to @-@ then state @-@ run THSR project . Consequently , in 1995 , POHSR was transformed into the Bureau of High Speed Rail ( BOHSR ) , which started to tender THSR as a build @-@ operate @-@ transfer ( BOT ) scheme in October 1996 .
The bidding process pitted Taiwan High Speed Rail Consortium ( THSRC ) against the Chunghwa High Speed Rail Consortium ( CHSRC ) . THSRC 's bid was based on the high @-@ speed technology platform of Eurotrain , a joint venture between GEC @-@ Alsthom , the main maker of the French TGV , and Siemens , the main maker of the German ICE , while CHSRC 's bid was based on Japanese Shinkansen technology supplied by Taiwan Shinkansen Consortium ( TSC ) , a joint venture of Japanese companies . THSRC , which submitted the lower bid and promised to build the line with zero net cost from the government , was chosen as preferred bidder in September 1997 . The group was renamed and formally established as the Taiwan High Speed Rail Corporation ( THSRC ) in May 1998 . THSRC and the government signed the BOT agreement on 23 July 1998 .
However , controversy arose during rolling @-@ stock selection . In May 1999 , as THSRC faced difficulties in raising capital , the government of Japan promised soft loans if THSRC switched to TSC . Although Eurotrain promised to match TSC 's financial offerings , the Eschede train disaster in combination with TSC offered the newer 700 Series Shinkansen , convinced THSRC to reopen core system bid , and ultimately resulting in TSC selected as the preferred rolling @-@ stock supplier in December 1999 . Although Eurotrain eventually conceded in the bid , in February 2001 it filed for a US $ 800 million damage claim against THSRC at the Singapore International Arbitration Centre . After a lengthy arbitration process , the court ruled in March 2004 that THSRC should pay a compensation for the US $ 32 @.@ 4 million Eurotrain spent on development and US $ 35 @.@ 7 million for unjust enrichment . THSRC agreed to pay US $ 65 million ( US $ 89 million with interest ) to Eurotrain in November 2004 .
= = Train and operation = =
= = = Train = = =
Taiwan High Speed Rail started operation with 30 THSR 700T trainsets supplied by a consortium led by Kawasaki Heavy Industries . In response to increasing ridership and new stations that would begin operation in 2015 , THSRC signed the contract for four new 700T trainsets with the Kawasaki consortium on May 2012 in Tokyo , Japan . The first ( TR 31 ) trainset was delivered to Taiwan on December 23 , 2012 ; the second ( TR 32 ) on January 21 , 2013 ; the third ( TR33 ) on January 25 , 2014 ; the fourth ( TR34 ) on August 12 , 2015 .
The THSR 700T trainset is based on the 700 Series Shinkansen trainset used by JR Central and JR West in Japan . This marked the first time Shinkansen technology was exported to a foreign country . Customization was focused on adapting to Taiwan 's climate and geography , and the nose shape was optimized for tunnels wider than those in Japan .
The maximum service speed of the trains was raised from the 700 Series Shinkansen 's 285 to 300 km / h ( 177 to 186 mph ) . The 12 cars of a 700T train are grouped in three traction units with three power cars and one trailer each , providing 10 @.@ 26 MW of power ; both end cars are trailers to avoid slip on powered bogies . The train is 304 m ( 997 ft ) long and has a mass of 503 t ( 554 short tons ) when empty . The trains have a passenger capacity of 989 seats in two classes : 66 seats in 2 + 2 configuration in the single Business Car and 923 seats in 2 + 3 configuration in the eleven Standard Cars . The per capita energy consumption of a fully loaded 700T train is 16 % of that of private cars and half that of buses ; carbon dioxide emissions are 11 % of private cars and a quarter that of buses .
= = = Operation = = =
As the first high speed railway system in Taiwan , THSRC started operation in 2007 with a lot of foreign talents including French and German train drivers and operation controllers in the Operation Control Center ( OCC ) . At the same time , THSRC also started to train local drivers and controllers . Since May 2008 , all controllers working in the OCC have been Taiwanese , and since October 2008 , all train drivers have been Taiwanese .
The OCC 's main responsibility is to maintain safe train operations . THSRC has 132 controllers ( July 2012 ) , of which about one quarter are female , working 24 hours per day and 365 days per year in the OCC . Requirements for becoming a Chief Controller ( 主任控制員 ) include experience in all nine OCC positions , 300 @-@ hours of on @-@ job @-@ training and to acquiring qualification .
THSRC has 144 drivers ( July 2012 ) , of which almost 10 % are female . All driver candidates must spend 8 months completing 1 @,@ 326 hours of professional training and pass the National Certification before they can drive the train . In addition , after becoming a certified high @-@ speed train driver , they undergo further on @-@ the @-@ job training at least three times each year in order to guarantee they can drive the train safely .
= = = Events = = =
Taiwan frequently faces multiple types of natural disasters including typhoons , earthquakes , heavy rainfall , floods and landslides . For this reason , a primary focus of THSRC 's infrastructure design was how to respond to natural disasters such as earthquakes and how to ensure safety for all passengers and trains in any emergency situation .
THSRC has established a system to respond to natural disasters and unexpected intrusion onto the right @-@ of @-@ way , called DWS ( Disaster Warning Systems ) . This system consists of a network of sensors installed along the rail route to detect unexpected situations such as earthquakes , strong winds , heavy rainfall , floods , landslides , and intrusions . In case of an unexpected situation , the DWS will send signals to the OCC ( Operation Control Center ) immediately ; it will also activate contingency measures to ensure the safety of the passengers and trains , including decelerating or stopping trains in the affected area .
The DWS has functioned successfully since its initial operation in 2007 . The most powerful earthquake that THSRC has experienced measured 6 @.@ 4 on the Richter Scale with an epicenter 17 km from Jiaxian , Kaohsiung that shook southern Taiwan on 4 March 2010 ( 甲仙地震 ) . One operating train was slightly derailed in Xinshi Tainan ( 台南新市 ) and six trains were stopped on the track . In spite of the temporary suspension of operations , there was no damage or casualties . All 2 @,@ 500 affected passengers were evacuated in two hours without injury . Service resumed the next day . Such a record was well noted , and provided valuable experience in operational safety to the global railway industry .
In April 2010 , it was reported that ground subsidence had been observed during construction on a 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) viaduct section in Yunlin County . The subsidence continued , reaching up to 55 cm ( 22 in ) over seven years . By 2010 subsidence had slowed , which was ascribed to the closure of some deep wells operating in the region . Although the situation was deemed safe with differential settlement between adjacent piers along the viaduct at only a sixth of the permissible level , the BOHSR urged the closure of more wells . On 25 July 2011 , the government announced plans to close almost 1 @,@ 000 wells in Changhua and Yunlin Counties , reducing the amount of water pumped from deep wells by 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 1 × 1011 kg ) by 2021 .
= = Service = =
According to THSR 's December 2013 timetable , there are 954 train services per week of operation , with operation times between 06 : 30 to 24 : 00 every day . Most southbound trains originate from Taipei station and most northbound trains originate from Zuoying ; however , a few trains operate just between Taipei and Taichung or between Taichung and Zuoying . Southbound trains are designated by odd train numbers , and northbound trains by even train numbers .
Each train consists of 1 Business Car ( car 6 ) and 11 Standard Cars ( including reserved seats and non @-@ reserved seats ) . Since July 2010 , non @-@ reserved seats are available in cars 10 through 12 ( some trains available in cars 9 through 12 ) . Car 7 of each train is fitted with 4 wheelchair accessible chairs and a disabled @-@ friendly restroom . Passengers can call THSR 's Customer Service Hot Line at ( Taiwan ) 4066 @-@ 3000 or visit any THSR station ticket window to reserve these seats .
By August 2012 , implementation of 4G WiMAX on @-@ board trains is expected to provide smooth wireless broadband services , making THSR the first high @-@ speed ground transportation system equipped with this service .
In 2012 , THSRC rated highly in the CommonWealth Magazine ( 天下雜誌 ) “ Golden Service Award survey ” ( 金牌服務大賞 ) , not only far outpacing all rivals in the " long @-@ distance land transport " category , but also taking the top spot in the overall rankings of 300 industries .
= = = Stop Patterns = = =
= = = Ticket fare and discount = = =
In 2013 , for a one @-@ way Taipei – Zuoying trip , a THSR Standard Car adult ticket is NT $ 1 @,@ 630 , which was about US $ 55 ; a Business Car ticket fare is NT $ 2 @,@ 140 , which was about US $ 72 . The cost of a non @-@ reserved seat is approximately 3 % less than the regular price . Business and standard car reserved ticket reservations are available 28 days prior to the date of departure ( including the departure day ) .
Senior citizens ( Taiwan citizens above 65 years of age ) , registered disabled persons plus one accompanying passenger ( Taiwan citizens only ) , and children ( passengers under 12 years of age ) are eligible for concession ( half price ) tickets .
A group discount is offered for groups of 11 or more . A group discount cannot be used in combination with other discount offers and does not include non @-@ reserved seats . Passengers eligible for multiple discounts can only choose one discount offer .
Since 1 July 2010 , a smart card system has provided frequent travelers with multi @-@ ride ( eight trips ) or periodic tickets . THSR 's contact @-@ less smart cards allow the cardholder to travel between specific stations within a given time period for a certain number of rides . The card is sold in either registered ( name @-@ bearing ) or non @-@ registered form . Only adult tickets are available in this format , and cannot be used for rides between Banqiao and Taipei .
After purchasing or adding value to a multi @-@ ride card , the card balance is valid for 45 days counted from the day of first use . The ticket is good for 8 rides . The multi @-@ ride card provides a discount of about 21 % off the full fare of a reserved Standard Seat . Non @-@ registered and registered multi @-@ ride tickets can be purchased at the ticket windows of all THSRC stations . Upon first purchase of a multi @-@ ride ticket , a card deposit fee of NT $ 100 is required ( refundable if the card is returned ) . The registered multi @-@ ride ticket is limited to personal use by the registered cardholder . Since November 2012 , an Early Bird discount of 35 % has been offered for a limited number of tickets sold no later than 8 days before the departure date . If the 35 % off tickets sell out before the deadline , tickets with a discount of 20 % off are offered . If these tickets sell out before the deadline , tickets with a discount of 10 % off are offered . If all early bird tickets are sold out , then full fare tickets are offered .
= = = Train frequency = = =
THSRC operates additional train services during national holidays . On 29 June 2011 , a proposal by THSRC to increase the maximum number of train services to 210 per day ( compared to the existing 175 per day ) passed an environmental impact assessment , increasing the number of possible services on " high @-@ load days " .
= = = Ridership = = =
Original estimates predicted a daily ridership of 180 @,@ 000 after launch , growing to 400 @,@ 000 by 2036 . In view of a 50 % drop in airline passengers in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis , forecasts were revised downwards . The final initial ridership estimate was 140 @,@ 000 passengers per day . Actual initial ridership did not match these projections . In September 2007 , six months after opening , THSRC carried 1 @.@ 5 million passengers monthly , translating to about 50 @,@ 000 passengers daily . In the second year , passenger numbers almost doubled . In the third year , average daily ridership continued to grow to 88 @,@ 000 passengers per day , jumping to over 120 @,@ 000 passengers per day in 2012 . ( updated to September 2012 ) Seat occupancy was around 45 % in the first three years , with a modest improvement achieved in 2009 , and reached 53 @.@ 91 % in 2012 . ( updated to September 2012 ) Punctuality is stable above 99 % .
The 10 @-@ millionth passenger was carried after 265 days of operation on 26 September 2007 , while the 100 @-@ millionth passenger was carried after 1 @,@ 307 days on 3 August 2010 , and 200 @-@ millionth by December 2012 . On 10 October 2011 , the Double Ten Day holiday , THSRC transported a single @-@ day record of 189 @,@ 386 passengers . On 5 February 2011 , the third day of Chinese New Year ’ s celebration , a new record of 190 @,@ 596 passengers was achieved . The next single @-@ day record was reached on 25 January 2012 , also the third day of Chinese New Year ’ s celebration , at 191 @,@ 989 passengers . The most recent record is 212 @,@ 000 passengers transported on 1 January 2013 .
The high @-@ speed trains have successfully out @-@ competed planes : by August 2008 , half of the air routes between Taipei and the country 's western cities had been discontinued , including all connections between cities with THSR stations except for a single daily connection between Taipei and Kaohsiung . Total domestic air traffic was expected to be halved from 2006 to 2008 , and actually fell from 8 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 million . In June 2012 , officials announced the discontinuation of the last remaining commercial flight between Taipei and Kaohsiung . The share for conventional rail between Taipei and Kaohsiung fell from 9 @.@ 71 % in 2006 to 2 @.@ 5 % in 2008 , while high @-@ speed rail became the most common mode of transport at 50 % of all trips by 2008 . The opening of THSR led to a 10 % reduction of traffic on the parallel expressway in 2007 . Despite cheaper ticket prices , long @-@ distance bus companies reported that passenger volumes had fallen by 20 to 30 percent by 2008 .
= = Infrastructure = =
Construction of the system took more than 2 @,@ 000 professional engineers from 20 countries and over 20 @,@ 000 foreign and domestic workers six years to complete . Construction work was broken into several specialized lots that were contracted separately . One group of contracts was for civil works , covering the construction of the superstructure of open line sections . Stations and depots were the subject of separate groups of construction lots . A fourth group of lots was for track work .
The Taiwan North @-@ South High Speed Rail Project was awarded the first prize for the “ Outstanding Civil Engineering Project Award ” by the Asian Civil Engineering Coordination Council ( ACECC ) in Sydney on 10 August 2010 . The project 's award indicates that Taiwan 's engineering standards are gaining international recognition , and THSRC , running through the northern and southern region of Taiwan , has overcome the problems of topography and other technical challenges .
In 2011 , the Public Construction Commission ( 公共工程委員會 ) organized an on @-@ line voting campaign that garnered over 330 @,@ 000 votes , to select the 100 best infrastructure projects ( 百大建設 ) in Taiwan to celebrate the centennial of the Republic ; Amongst all , Taiwan High Speed Rail top the list .
= = = Stations = = =
The construction of stations was contracted separately in 2001 and work started in May 2002 . The stations at Taipei and Banqiao are rent from TRA by THSRC . The Taoyuan , Hsinchu , Taichung , Chiayi , Tainan and Zuoying Stations are built in the first phase by THSRC . The second phase of the new stations planned for several years officially started in early 2013 . The construction of THSR new stations , Yunlin , Miaoli and Changhua , commenced on Jan.15 , January 28 and February @-@ 16 2013 . According to the plan , all the three stations could join the operation by the middle of 2015 . THSR also planned to extend its operation to Nangang , in the north part of Taipei City . The new THSR Nangang station is scheduled to join the operation in mid @-@ 2016 , which is a station refitted from an old TRA station .
The Parking facilities , station square , transport bus station , food and shopping service areas in each station were included in station design . Steel , glass , and reinforced concrete were used in the construction of all stations . Lighting systems for each station were contracted out to individual lighting designers . Stations were constructed with the possibility of connecting to future rapid transit or rail lines .
The construction contract between the THSR and the government consists of two parts : part one is the THSRC ’ s construction and operation of the High Speed Rail over the next 35 year ; part two is THSRC 's keeping the right of development of the areas around five stations for 50 years , including Taoyuan , Hsinchu , Taichung , Chiayi , and Tainan .
= = = = Taoyuan Station = = = =
The Taoyuan Station serves not only passengers arriving or leaving Taoyuan , but also travelers going in and out the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport . The entire station area is about 20 hectares . It is constituted by three buildings , namely the station itself , the operation center at northeast side and the parking tower at southwest side . The volume of the station is smaller than the other two buildings , but it is the focal point as it stands at the center of the site and provides most of the services and functions . Large pieces of glass screens and metal shoulder eaves extending horizontally , the station is lit and transparent . The specially designed lighting , the clear tempered glass , the insulating glass and the truss system have emphasized the functions of the space and brought a bright look of the building . The 6M high lobby in the ground floor is connected by the escalators coming up from the entrance hall and the platforms built underground .
= = = = Hsinchu Station = = = =
As the gateway of Hsinchu , a city nurturing high @-@ tech industries , Hsinchu Station integrates the images of high @-@ tech into its natural and cultural traits , and integrates global perspective into locality . The Hsinchu Station is an oval @-@ shaped space with a curved parallelogram roof . It is designed to respond to the sunlight and winds in Hsin @-@ Chu . The cladding of the roof is durable stainless steel . It keeps the maintenance easier and enhances the high @-@ tech image . The roof opens up over the platform and rail to avoid a piston effect and the style responds to the local environment . The station will be the new landmark of Hsinchu . Either gate can be the front gate or this symmetric building under the elevated railway . The lobby on the ground floor greets visitors entering or exiting the building . Entering the ticket gate , travelers can take escalators or stairs to the waiting areas on the second floor . Two waiting areas for passengers go to north and south respectively are connected by an air bridge . Two escalators and one stairway send passengers to the platforms . There are ten emergent exits around the platforms . To avoid causing directional confusion , two arch walls in the lobby are erected to break the symmetry . These two walls are designed by well- known artists with themes of “ The Past ” and “ The Future ” The past wall is designed by Taiwanese artist Tsai Ken . He stacked traditional building materials such as bricks , tiles , stones , wood and bamboo to present the Hakka culture of building . The Future wall is designed by Chinese American artist Shan @-@ Shan Sheng . She applied glass , a material used frequently in Hsin Chu for handcraft , to decorate the wall . A set of glass bar codes suggests how the future might be . Standing at the air bridge , one can clearly see the walls that connect our past to our future .
= = = = Taichung Station = = = =
Taichung Station has the biggest space of all THSR stations . It is located in Wu @-@ Ri ( 烏日 ) Village , 8 km from downtown . It is elevated . The development includes the High Speed Railway Station , Taiwan Railway Station , bus transit , parking lots , public squares , supporting facilities and the road system for the adjacent areas . The architectural image of the Taichung Station integrates the regional transit through middle Taiwan and a gateway to Taichung . It is the core of the future development and is to decide the image of the entire city . The planning sets out at three scales : regional , citywide and street @-@ level . The building group with vertical volume is designed in accordance with regional considerations ; the stations with the same structure are designed in accordance with city @-@ level concerns ; the supporting facilities are designed to respond to the street @-@ level needs of the site . In addition to the images and local elements applied in design , the capacity of the buildings , the nature of the space , the potential of the neighboring districts , the convenience of the traffic square , and the contrast of vertical and horizontal volumes of buildings that constitute the skyline are all considered . The horizontal volume of the station is due to the conditions of the site , functions and development regulations . Therefore , the contrast created by the vertical volumes of the supporting structures can characterize the space and enhance the image of the architecture in the surroundings . The images of the supporting facilities are suggestive , and the image of the stations is revealing . The three stories above ground are constructed of SRC , and the structure is shared by the building and the rails . A foyer , bus transit area , generator room , parking lot and taxi waiting lines are in the ground floor . The lobby , shops and staff offices are on the second floor . Train platforms are on the third floor .
= = = = Chiayi and Tainan Station = = = =
Both the Chiayi and Tainan stations are located on the Chia @-@ Nan Plain ( 嘉南平原 ) . The conditions of construction sites and the transportation needs of these two places are similar , but the architectural themes differ in order to reflect local characteristics . The oblique roof covering the eastern facade features a high @-@ tech image . The generator room is decorated with horizontal shutters that reflect a minimalist style . The columns and truss system in the station imitate trees ; as they extend toward the outside of the building , the artificial elements are integrated into nature . When night falls , the ceiling is lit with thousands of lights over the truss system , resembling a starry night over the branches of a forest . The pavement of the Chiayi Station ’ s front plaza reflects the natural landscape of the clouds enveloping Ah @-@ Li Mountain ( 阿里山 ) . The wall and the water feature design of the Tainan Station ’ s plaza reflect the old city fence and the An @-@ Ping Wharf ( 安平碼頭 ) . Chiayi Station is colored silver , gray and green to represent its well @-@ preserved surroundings . Tainan Station is colored reddish brown to represent its rich historical heritage . Art projects for Chiayi Station will respond to the natural landscape or the high @-@ tech images of the medical science park that will be constructed close by in the near future . Art projects for Tainan Station @-@ will respond to the city ’ s long history and to a bright future expected to be brought by the high @-@ tech industrial park nearby .
= = = = Zuoying Station = = = =
The Zuoying Station is located near Half Screen Mountain and Lotus Pond . The station not only provides travelers with safe , comfortable and convenient transportation but also serves as the gateway and landmark of this area . Extending from the station , the two plazas serve as the interface between the station and its surroundings , and the pedestrian walks around them are open to the public for various activities . The station and parking tower are the main architectural structures . They are the landmarks of Zuoying , and their scale meets the conditions of the environment . As the major public construction in the city , the station applies glass screens to frame Half @-@ Screen Mountain in the backdrop , a technique referred to as “ scenery @-@ borrowing . ” The glass screens are supported by a colonnade on the ground floor . As one of the architectural characteristics of southern Taiwan , the colonnade here can relieve the pressure the building might bring to the streets . The station structures include the station itself , parking tower , transformer power station , duty command center and the affiliated facilities . The structure of the station is designed to address the needs for convenient maintenance , high loading and large span .
= = = Stations transportation = = =
To improve local public transit connections to THSR stations , the TRA built two new spur lines branching off from its Western Line .
Shalun Line for Tainan opened on 2 January 2011 @,@
Liujia Line for Hsinchu opened on 11 November 2011 .
= = = Track = = =
Reflecting a design speed of 350 km / h ( 217 mph ) , track layout was designed with a minimum curve radius of 6 @,@ 250 m ( 20 @,@ 505 ft ) , track @-@ centre distance of 4 @,@ 500 mm ( 177 @.@ 2 in ) , right @-@ of @-@ way width of 18 m ( 59 ft ) , and a maximum gradient of 2 @.@ 5 % , except for 3 @.@ 5 % at one location . All but 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) of track is ballastless , combining slab track of Japanese manufacture on open line sections with switches from a German supplier . Track laying began in July 2003 . The line was electrified with the 25 kV / 60 Hz AC system . The signalling and train control system was laid out for bi @-@ directional operation according to European specifications . Each track section has a checkpoint , and an automatic control system ensures that trains are spaced at least 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) apart to prevent collisions .
After four months of delays , trial runs using the first THSR 700T trains began on 27 January 2005 , on the Tainan – Kaohsiung section . On 30 October 2005 , a day after a test run passed the planned top service speed of 300 km / h ( 186 mph ) , the targeted maximum test speed of 315 km / h ( 196 mph ) was achieved . The section between Banqiao ( Taipei ) and Zuoying ( Kaohsiung ) opened to the public on 5 January 2007 . The HSR platforms at Taipei Station opened on 2 March 2007 , bringing the entire line into operation .
= = = Civil works = = =
Most of the line is carried on superstructures . About 251 km ( 156 mi ) or 73 % of the line runs on viaducts , mostly precast pre @-@ stressed concrete box girder spans , the first of which was put in place in October 2001 . A 157 @,@ 317 m ( 97 @.@ 752 mi ) continuous section from Baguashan ( 八卦山 ) in Changhua County to Zuoying in Kaohsiung was the world 's longest elevated rail line section at the time of opening . Viaducts were designed to be earthquake resistant to allow for trains to stop safely during a seismic event and for repairable damage following a maximum design earthquake . Bridges built over known fault lines were designed to survive fault movements without catastrophic damage .
About 61 km ( 38 mi ) or 18 % of the line is in tunnels , including 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) of the TRUPO section in Taipei , as well as 48 tunnels with a total length of 46 @,@ 257 m ( 28 @.@ 743 mi ) on the other sections , the longest of which is Paghuashan Tunnel , at a finished length of 7 @,@ 364 m ( 24 @,@ 160 ft ) . Forty @-@ two of the tunnels included a total of 39 @,@ 050 m ( 24 @.@ 265 mi ) of mined sections , all of which were bored with the sequential excavation and support construction method , with excavated tunnel faces of 135 – 155 m2 ( 1 @,@ 450 – 1 @,@ 670 sq ft ) , between November 2000 and July 2003 . The finished interior cross @-@ sectional area of 90 m2 ( 970 sq ft ) , set according to wider European standards , provides space for two tracks with safety walkways .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Environmental mitigation measures in the line 's construction phase included the construction of animal bridges over the line , the planting and re @-@ planting of trees along the track as noise screens , and the purchase of farmland to create a preservation area for jacana birds ( 水雉 ) away from the line .
For more than 10 years , THSRC has been devoted to the preservation of the pheasant @-@ tailed jacana , a type of bird that is considered endangered in Taiwan . With NT $ 50 million invested , the first artificial habitat recovery project was completed in collaboration with the local government , country development organizations and non @-@ profit organizations . The pheasant @-@ tailed jacana population in Tainan , Taiwan , which at one point numbered less than 50 , has increased to over 300 . In 2007 , the recovery habitat was officially renamed “ Pheasant @-@ tailed Jacana Eco @-@ Educational Nature Park ” and since then , it has opened to the public . To educate students in matters concerning environmental protection , every year THSRC arranges for elementary and junior high school students to visit Pheasant @-@ tailed Jacana Eco @-@ Educational Nature Park ( 台南官田 — 水雉生態教育園區 ) , where they are able to learn about the beauty of Taiwan ’ s natural habitats .
The other story about the balance between THSR construction and the environment is the protection plan of “ 300 @-@ year @-@ old camphor tree and the temple ” ( 保護金山面老樹及伯公廟 ) in the Hsinchu City for more than 10 years . The tree and the temple are located on the main route of the THSR , and both of them faced removal because of railway construction . The temple - “ Local Land God Temple ” ( 伯公廟 ) established just beside the old tree is the belief center of the people there . In 1998 , THSRC adjusted the line and design to keep the tree and temple in their original place and cooperated with local government and people to protect the old tree and the temple until today . Afterwards , together with the local government , the Environment and the Resources Protection Committee , and cultural and historical authorities , THSRC drafted the Hsinchu Old Camphor Tree Medical Plan , which called for the repair of decayed branches as well as measures designed to maintain the long @-@ term growth and the health of the tree .
= = Financial = =
= = = Revenue and cost = = =
Most of THSRC 's revenue comes from ticket sales ; supplemental income comes from other activities such as advertising and renting spaces for standing shops and spots in plazas . Advertising spots on trains and station platforms have also been sold . Revenues grew along with ridership over the first three years , but ridership remained below expectations . In 2008 the second year of operation , revenues fell barely short of THSRC 's expectations a year earlier of a doubling of first @-@ year results .
The cost of running the trains and infrastructure , or cash operating costs , was initially over NT $ 1 billion a month , but was reduced to around NT $ 0 @.@ 85 – 0 @.@ 9 billion a month by 2008 . Revenues first exceeded this level , thus generating a positive operating cash flow , in the fourth month of operation ( April 2007 ) .
For THSRC , the over heavy accounting of the fixed cost of fixed assets like rolling stock and infrastructure ( depreciation ) is a significant non @-@ cash element of total operating costs . In its first two years of operation , THSRC applied straight @-@ line depreciation , distributing costs evenly over a period of 26 @.@ 5 years . As a result , the balance of operating revenues and costs ( operating income ) showed a high loss in the first year of operation , which was only reduced as revenues grew in the second year . The depreciation period set for THSRC reflected the length of the B.O.T. concession rather than the much longer lifespan of the infrastructure , and it is the factor for the operating loss . After adopting an activity depreciation method which is variable in time , THSRC posted its first operating profit for 2009 , the third year of operation . The company reported its first annual profit of NT $ 5 @.@ 78 billion for 2011 after five years of operation .
For the first time in its five @-@ year operation , the Company reported a net income of NT $ 5 @.@ 78 billion , with earnings per share of NT $ 0 @.@ 59 . Between 2010 and 2011 , revenues increased by 16 @.@ 65 % from NT $ 27 @.@ 64 billion to NT $ 32 @.@ 24 billion , with operating costs and expenses ( excluding depreciation and amortization ) rising by only 4 @.@ 98 % . Over the same period of time , gross profit totaled NT $ 12 @.@ 98 billion ( an increase of 30 @.@ 32 % ) , income from operations totaled NT $ 12 @.@ 06 billion ( an increase of 32 @.@ 93 % ) and EBITDA totaled NT $ 22 @.@ 73 billion ( an increase of 22 @.@ 34 % ) . 2011 gross profit , income from operation and EBITDA were all record highs . Since commencing operations in 2007 , THSRC has had a significant influence on Taiwan ’ s economy and on the lives of its people . In 2011 , the Company continued to pursue sustainable growth aligned with the interests of shareholders and society , achieving record profits even amid a challenging economic environment .
The interest cost is another major item of this company 's financing . In the first few years of operation , interest rates were well above market rates . Interest expense stood at around NT $ 1 @.@ 3 billion per month in April 2008 , when THSRC first achieved break @-@ even cash flow , with revenue and cash expenses ( which exclude depreciation ) both around NT $ 2 @.@ 1 billion . Interest rates fell in the first half of 2009 , reducing interest expenses and contributing to a reduced net loss .
In 2010 THSRC put through a new syndicate loan , which alleviated the company ’ s imminent financial burden . THSRC signed a NT $ 382 billion refinancing contract with a consortium of 8 domestic banks led by Bank of Taiwan in January , 2010 ; and utilized the new loan to pay off the previous syndicated loan which with higher interest . As of 30 June 2011 , the long @-@ term debts totaling NT $ 385 billion include NT $ 26 billion corporate bonds and NT $ 359 billion bank loans . In comparison with the terms and conditions of previous loans , the newly signed refinancing debts carried lower interest rates and longer tenors up to 22 years . The Company ’ s financial burden is therefore largely reduced .
= = = Financial and loan = = =
In cumulative figures , until July 2008 , depreciation and interest were equal to 95 % of THSRC 's accumulated debt . Both THSRC and a September 2009 government report identified an unreasonable financial structure and the resulting high interest rates and high depreciation charges as the main causes of negative financial performance , while the government assessed THSRC to have performed well in its core business , as measured by earnings before interest , taxes , depreciation and amortization ( EBITDA ) . To reduce its interest load , THSRC sought to revise its loan structure in 2008 and again in 2009 . To reduce depreciation costs by increasing the amortization time , THSRC requested an extension of its 35 @-@ year concession period .
By the summer of 2009 , THSRC 's cumulative losses were equivalent to two @-@ thirds of its equity capital . In response to global financial crisis and domestic economic recession , THSRC proposed to increase income and reduce expenditures in several aspects in the hope of raising operation performances . In February 2009 , THSRC announced to adjust train frequency , cut down salary payment by 10 ~ 20 % among management level , and measured to expand fare promotion to stimulate rider ship . While the media questioned whether the planned construction of three more intermediate stations and the extension to Nangang would be postponed , THSRC published press release on 26 September 2009 , stating that the company will comply with “ Taiwan High Speed . Rail Construction and Operation Contract ” , and the construction project of 3 intermediate stations , namely Miaoli , Changhua and Yunling will be initiated in July , 2012 , and is scheduled to start its operation from 2015 . By the time of completion , there will be a total of 12 stations along the THSRC operation route . The company was put under new management in September 2009 with the aim of turning around the company 's finances with government help in arranging refinancing of the loans .
The government took majority control of the company after the election of its new board on 10 November 2009 . In January 2010 , when accumulated losses already exceeded NT $ 70 billion , THSRC signed a government @-@ guaranteed refinancing deal in which eight government @-@ dominated banks provided NT $ 382 billion at lower interest rates and longer maturity . The government also approved the company 's new variable depreciation charge .
= = Incidents = =
On 12 April 2013 , suspicious luggage items were found inside the North bound train No. 616 toilet when it was heading towards THSR Hsinchu Station . The train was stopped at THSR Taoyuan Station and all of the passengers were evacuated . Later , it was determined the luggage contained an unidentified liquid in cans , alarm clock and white particulate matter . The items were dismantled by the bomb squad and taken for further investigation . Two KMT legislators , Hsu Hsin @-@ ying and Lu Shiow @-@ yen , were on board .
The train master on No. 616 received complaints from passengers at about 9 : 10am that the women ’ s toilet in cabin No. 11 contained two pieces of luggage which emitted a strange odor . THSRC informed the High Speed Rail Police Division , which later boarded the train when it stopped at Hsinchu station . The traffic control center decided to evacuate passengers after the train stopped at Taoyuan station at 9 : 45 am . More than 600 people were asked to disembark and continue their journey on another train . All passengers affected by the incident would be given a coupon allowing them to purchase a high @-@ speed ticket for their next journey at half price , even though the train company was not to blame for the incident .
Two bomber suspects were arrested in a hotel in Zhongshan City , Guangdong Province , China on 15 April and repatriated to Taiwan on 17 April 2013 .
Part of the tracks near Tainan were badly damaged during the earthquake on 6 February 2016 . All high @-@ speed rail services south of Chiayi Station were suspended until 7 February 2016 .
= = Public relation = =
= = = THSR Camp = = =
Since beginning operation , THSRC has planned a series of “ THSR Camp ” events together with the Railway Cultural Society of Taiwan , the National Chiao Tung University Railway Research Society and the China Youth Corps . Between 2009 and 2011 , 42 “ THSR Camp ” events have been organized , which include college / university , senior high school / vocational high school , junior high school , and elementary school students . Lectures are given at these gatherings to impart information about high @-@ speed rail in order to give pupils a better understanding of THSRC .
= = = Ride THSR and Join the Book Exhibition for Free = = =
In order to promote a national reading culture , since 2009 , THSRC have organized the “ Ride THSR and Join the Book Exhibition for Free ” event . Since then , THSRC have offered more than 39 @,@ 000 passengers free admission to the Taipei International Book Exhibition ( TIBE ) , which is held in February of each year . In 2012 , the “ THSR Reading Train ” was launched . This year ’ s TIBE spokesperson , singer Crowd Lu , read the classic novel “ The Old Man and the Sea ” for children aboard the train , allowing these students from remote areas to experience both the joy of reading and the marvel of high @-@ speed rail travel .
= = = One Word Maxim – “ Trustworthiness ” Exhibition = = =
In May 2011 , THSRC co @-@ organized the “ One Word Maxim – Trustworthiness ” exhibition together with renowned calligrapher Dong Yang @-@ zi at the THSR Taichung Station . On public display was an enormous 2 meter tall by 3 meter wide calligraphy sculpture created by Ms. Dong using naturally weathered wood from Taiwan . This is the first calligraphy sculpture in Taiwan that allows the spirit of calligraphy and the connotation of words to transcend the constraints of the writing brush , and its cultural and artistic significance enriched Taichung Station as well as the journeys of passengers transiting through the station .
= = = Resplendent Spring Starlight – International A Cappella Performance at THSR = = =
In 2010 , THSRC sponsored the Taiwan Choral Music Center ( TCMC ) to organize the “ Taiwan International A Cappella Festival , ” which featured performances by musical groups at THSR stations . The performances were well received by passengers , with fans even forming groups to catch a glimpse of the musicians at various stations . In 2011 , THSRC once again sponsored TCMC , this time to hold the “ 2011 Spring Performance – Resplendent Stars Spring Concert , ” which gave THSR passengers the opportunity to view live performances by prominent international musical groups .
= = = ROC Centennial – Love at THSR = = =
Owing to their unique architecture and design , THSR stations have become local scenic destinations , and they are also popular backdrops for wedding photos . To mark the ROC Centennial , THSRC organized the “ ROC Centennial – Love at THSR ” event which awarded unique gifts to selected couples taking wedding photos at 6 THSR stations – Taoyuan , Hsinchu , Taichung , Chiayi , Tainan and Zuoying .
= = = Visits = = =
In an effort to allow the general public to gain a deeper understanding about THSR , THSRC provides station tour guides who educate visitors about its operation and service . In addition , professional organizations are also permitted to visit the depots and OMC ( Operational Management Center ) to gain hands @-@ on knowledge about THSR . In 2011 , THSRC received 281 groups with a total of 10 @,@ 700 people . It also continues to actively conduct experience sharing with its fellow railway transportation operators to enhance the quality of public transportation and create better planning , design and service . By engaging with industry peers , THSRC can pinpoint areas of improvement , with the continual aim of providing high @-@ quality services to its passengers .
= = = Deliver Love with THSR to Remote Village Children = = =
Since 2010 , along with World Vision Taiwan , THSRC has offered a tuition assistance program to underprivileged children . The company invited passengers to support philanthropic effort , and raised over NT $ 23 million which was used to help 7 @,@ 200 underprivileged students pay their tuition fees .
= = = Corporate Social Responsibility ( CSR ) = = =
This event creating a sustainable and reliable relationship with the general public is a significant part of THSRC ’ s corporate vision and an important foundation of environmental and social sustainability . Therefore , it will continue making efforts to establish a good partnership with the general public as well as with the stakeholders , customers , employees , suppliers , communities and the government . To create greater value for each of these parties , it will move forward with its philosophy of “ Go Extra Mile ” to improve their lives through the provision of environmentally friendly high @-@ speed rail services , which play a central role in connecting the entire western corridor of Taiwan . Since operation in 2007 , THSRC has been dedicated to CSR initiatives , emphasizing environmental protection and giving support to all members of the communities served by THSRC . THSRC also published the first CSR Report in 2009 , which gave all stakeholders a better understanding of its CSR objectives and activities , and in 2011 , we received the 20th Annual Enterprises Environmental Protection Award , sponsored by the Environmental Protection Administration of Taiwan .
= = = THSRC Smile Program = = =
In cooperation with various nonprofit organizations , since 2008 the company has organized the THSRC Smile Program , which offers minority groups and families the chance to experience the comfort and convenience of high @-@ speed rail rides . THSRC Smile Program gave its first ride on 23 January 2008 to children , social workers and parents from the Fushan branch of the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families . As of the end of 2011 , 12 @,@ 231 people in total , comprising 229 underprivileged groups and families , have participated in the THSRC Smile Program .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The “ National Geographic ” website chose travel by high speed rail in western Taiwan as the “ Best Winter Trip 2013 ” . The first film to feature THSR prominently was the 2007 Taiwanese movie Summer 's Tail , directed by Cheng Wen @-@ Tang . A group of teenagers , one of whom is the son of a Japanese engineer working on the high @-@ speed railway , hang out at a vacant lot under the elevated tracks of THSR in Liuying , Tainan . In Leg 10 of Season 12 of the internationally aired reality television game show The Amazing Race , which was watched by 11 @.@ 65 million Americans , competing teams travelled from Taipei to Taichung and back on the THSR .
Railfan : Taiwan High Speed Rail , a train simulator video game developed jointly by the Taiwanese company Actainment and the Japanese company Ongakukan on the basis of the latter 's Train Simulator series , was the first Taiwanese game for Sony Computer Entertainment 's PlayStation 3 system . The game features real video and was made with the help of THSRC 's European train drivers . It was first released in a Chinese / English language version in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Singapore , in July 2007 , with the Japanese version released in November 2007 .
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= 108 St Georges Terrace =
108 St Georges Terrace or South32 Tower ( formerly known as Bankwest Tower , the Bond Tower and the R & I Tower ) is a 50 @-@ storey office tower in Perth , Western Australia . Completed in 1988 , the building measures 214 metres ( 702 ft ) to its roof and 247 metres ( 810 ft ) to the tip of its communications antenna . It was the tallest building in Perth from its completion in 1988 until 1992 when it was overtaken in height by Central Park . As of 2012 , it remains the third @-@ tallest building in the city . The concrete tower has a distinctive profile , with a triangular plan .
The site occupied by the tower was home to the Palace Hotel , and organised opposition was formed to try to save that building from demolition to make way for an office tower . The site was subsequently acquired by businessman Alan Bond and the tower was approved and constructed in a plan that would retain much of the Palace Hotel . The tower then remained the headquarters of Bond 's companies until their collapse . The tower has also been the headquarters of Western Australia 's state bank , Bankwest ( formerly known as the R & I Bank ) , between its completion and 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ 1978 = = =
The tower 's prime location at the corner of William Street and St Georges Terrace was the site of the first licensed premises in Perth from the 1830s . The then @-@ opulent Palace Hotel opened on this corner in 1897 during the days of the Western Australian gold rush , and developed a " colourful " history , hosting numerous celebrities of the time . The plot was purchased by the Commonwealth Banking Corporation , which announced in 1972 that it planned to redevelop the site as high @-@ rise offices . During the 1950s and 1960s , many of Perth 's older buildings had been demolished to make way for modern developments , which led to wide criticism of the Perth City Council for approving such redevelopments . In this atmosphere , wide public protest resulted and a lobby group of concerned citizens calling themselves " The Palace Guards " worked to save the historic building . This outcry led to condemnation of the plans and heritage listing of the property by the National Trust , and forced the Commonwealth Bank to ask the Federal Government to take the property off its hands . The property was subsequently purchased from the Commonwealth Bank by businessman Alan Bond in 1978 along with the adjacent Terrace Arcade .
= = = Bond Corporation and construction : 1978 – 1988 = = =
In 1980 , Bond unveiled new plans for the redevelopment of the site . These plans made some effort at preservation of the Palace Hotel , by retaining the facade and main foyer area of the building . However , the construction of the modern office tower at the site 's north @-@ eastern corner required demolition of Terrace Arcade , the eastern accommodation wing and the hotel 's renowned dining room . The rationale given for the works required was that extensive renovations to the Palace Hotel in 1915 and the 1930s had weakened its structure significantly , as well as problems controlling white ants in the structure . The development exceeded the acceptable plot ratio in the town planning scheme , however the Perth City Council pre @-@ approved the plans nonetheless , on the condition that Bond Corporation kept the Palace Hotel operating as a hotel .
Demolition of parts of the site commenced in August 1981 , and by August 1983 construction had completed on the tower 's foundation and three levels of underground parking . However , there were continuing doubts about the viability of the building , slowing the pace of the development . This changed on 7 September 1984 when R & I Bank Chairman David Fischer signed a joint venture agreement over the development with Austmark International , a subsidiary of Bond Corporation . The bank , which was at the time wholly owned by the Government of Western Australia , consulted then @-@ Premier Brian Burke in deciding whether to invest in the project .
Following the investment in the project by the bank , the developers successfully sought modification of the original planning approval by the Perth City Council to allow the use of the Palace Hotel as a bank , rather than remaining as a public hotel . With this permission , construction of the development by Multiplex proceeded , and floor space was leased rapidly ; by October 1985 only four floors of the building remained for lease and it was expected to be fully let before completion . With construction finally proceeding once more , the Palace Hotel closed in June 1986 . In April 1987 , while the tower was still under construction , five men were arrested after illegally entering the site and parachuting from the top of the tower in the early hours of the morning . Construction proceeded at the rate of about one floor every eight to ten days .
The construction of the tower took three years to complete , with the first occupants moving into the tower in July 1988 . The tower was officially opened in October 1989 . Construction of the building cost A $ 120 million , up from the 1984 estimates of $ 100 million . Upon its completion , the building was the 55th @-@ tallest building in the world , the third @-@ tallest in Australia and the tallest in Perth ( overtaking St Martins Tower ) . It was also the eighth @-@ tallest concrete skyscraper in the world . However , at this time there were already plans to build a taller building on the site of the former David Jones department store between Hay Street and St Georges Terrace , which became Central Park .
= = = After completion : 1988 – 2012 = = =
The top three floors of the building were occupied by Alan Bond 's private investment company Dallhold Investments , which owned a majority stake in Bond Corporation . In November 1987 , Alan Bond bought the Vincent van Gogh painting Irises and unveiled it in a purpose @-@ built secure art gallery on the 49th floor of the tower on 23 December 1988 . Amidst a worsening financial situation for the Bond companies , Bond Corporation sold its half share in the building to R & I Bank for $ 108 million , making R & I Bank its outright owner . In 1991 amid the collapse of the Bond empire , Bond shifted his offices out of the tower , leaving the top three floors vacant . These floors then remained vacant for almost a decade .
From when it opened , the tower was referred to as both the Bond Tower and the R & I Tower , owing to the presence of both logos on the building 's exterior . The Bond Corporation logos were later removed from the tower , and by the end of 1994 , the signage on the building was updated to match the new name and logo of its owner and head tenant , Bankwest .
Bankwest sold the building in November 1994 for $ 146 million to Jetcloud Pty Ltd , which was majority owned by the AMP Society . However , Bankwest retained the head lease over the building , and in 2000 the Bank occupied around 20 floors in the building . In 2002 , Valad purchased a half @-@ share in the tower for $ 92 @.@ 5 million , which it then sold to Stockland in early 2007 . Meanwhile , Multiplex acquired its half @-@ stake in the tower from its merger with Ronin Property Group which was proposed in late 2004 . Brookfield Multiplex put its half share in the building up for sale in early 2008 , however an offer for the tower by Luke Saraceni fell through and the half share in the tower was taken off the property market .
Bankwest announced in 2006 that it would not renew its occupancy lease , instead moving to a new tower proposed for Raine Square . Due to delays with the Raine Square development , the Bank was forced in November 2009 to seek a 5 @-@ year renewal of its lease in the Bankwest Tower , the remainder of which will be taken on by Raine Square property developer Saracen Properties . Saracen Properties announced in May 2009 that they would not seek to renew their lease , and would vacate at the termination of their lease in November 2009 . It was also revealed that the 50th floor office space once occupied by Alan Bond was still in the same condition as when he left in 1991 , with Bond 's former chair , desk and boardroom table available as part of the lease .
It was announced in January 2015 that base metal and mining company South32 would sign 10 ½ -year lease for 8 @,@ 300 square metres ( 89 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of office space , starting from May 2015 . The company also took up the naming and rooftop signage rights for the tower .
= = Design = =
The tower was designed by architects Cameron Chisholm Nicol . The major parameter given to them in the planning of the building was that " all office areas should face the excellent views that exist of the Swan River " . Working within this brief , they selected a triangular cross @-@ section of the tower because it lent " itself to open plan office layouts " by allowing natural light to reach most parts of the working floors . Also , the stepped front of the building maximised the number of corner offices on each floor . The eastern and northern sides of the building are slip @-@ formed concrete shear walls , and have fewer windows . These sides house the services of the building , including the lift shafts and stairwells . Some difficulty was encountered in the design stage with how to execute the diagonal slopes forming the top of these walls alongside the top five floors of the building , since a standard concrete pour was not possible . Instead , reinforced concrete panels were prefabricated elsewhere and subsequently attached to the structure .
The floor plates of the tower are constructed from conventional reinforced concrete beams and slabs . The building 's 14 passenger lifts are divided into three zones : low @-@ rise ( floors G @-@ 17 ) , mid @-@ rise ( 18 – 29 ) and high @-@ rise ( 30 – 51 ) , thought to be the first building in Australia to use such a configuration .
The foyer of the tower was originally planned to be an open @-@ air forecourt between the building and the remains of the Palace Hotel , however extensive aeroelastic wind testing of the structure by the Institute of Environmental Sciences at Murdoch University forced this area to be covered with a glass canopy . Mocks of the curtain walls to be used in the tower were also tested to 1 @.@ 5 times the proof load to ensure they could withstand cyclone @-@ force weather and seismic shocks . The building is clad with green @-@ tinted double @-@ pane glass on windows , with the service core and structure of the building covered with aluminium sheeting skin coated with a light grey fluoropolymer paint .
Upon completion , the mass of the building above ground was 66 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 146 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) . The building rests upon 43 belled concrete and steel piles , of average length 30 metres ( 98 ft ) , which go " through 3 layers of swamp " to solid siltstone bedrock . These piles range in diameter from 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) to 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 ft 6 in ) . The basement of the building has a depth of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , and has a 0 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 1 ft 8 in ) thick diaphragm wall to prevent water ingress .
While the building was under construction , on 21 September 1987 the Perth City Council approved the addition of a 48 @-@ metre ( 157 ft ) spire to the top of the tower to house television and radio antennas , microwave antennas , navigation lights and surveillance cameras . However , when asked about the surveillance cameras , the R & I Bank 's development spokesman Terry Pilbeam denied any knowledge about what any cameras would be used for . The spire was also approved by the Department of Transport and Communications , which said the spire would cause no air traffic problems , and the spire was added to the building upon completion .
= = Gallery = =
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= Olvir Rosta =
Olvir Rosta ( Old Norse : Ölvir Rósta , and Ölvir Þorljótsson ) , also known as Aulver Rosta , is a character within the mediaeval Orkneyinga saga , who is purported to have lived during the early 12th century . His Old Norse byname , rósta , means " brawl " , " riot " . His name , and byname , appear variously in English secondary sources .
Ölvir appears in the saga as the son of Þorljót , and Steinnvör ' the Stout ' . The mother of Steinnvör is Frakökk , who has been described as one of the great villains of the entire saga . One of Frakökk 's sisters , Helga , is the concubine of Earl Hákon Pálsson . Part of the saga relates of how the Earldom of Orkney is for a time jointly run by half @-@ brothers — Haraldr Hákonsson and Páll Hákonsson , who are both sons of Earl Hákon . With the death of Earl Haraldr , son of Helga , Frakökk 's family falls out of favour , and are forced to leave Orkney . In time , Frakökk conspire with the father of Earl Rögnvaldr , and agrees to a plan to take the Orkney by force and split it with Earl Rögnvaldr . She and Ölvir eventually make their way to the Suðreyjar , and may their return in a bid to win half of the earldom . However , their small fleet of ships are defeated in battle against Earl Páll . The saga also tells of how Ölvir kills an Orkney chieftain who fought against him during the sea @-@ battle — by burning the man to death within his house . The chieftain 's vengeful son later tracks down Ölvir and Frakökk , at their own home in Sutherland . After a short battle behind their homestead , Ölvir 's men are routed and Frakökk is burned to death within her house ; Ölvir flees from the scene , making for the Suðreyjar , and is not heard from again .
Ölvir has also been associated with several places in Sutherland , some of which may bear his name . It has been proposed that Ölvir Rosta may be an ancestor of either one of two Scottish clans from the Outer Hebridean island of Lewis . In 1962 a runestone was uncovered in the Inner Hebrides which bore the name Ölvir . It has been suggested that the men mentioned on this stone were family relations of Ölvir .
= = Background = =
Ölvir Rósta , is a character in the mediaeval Orkneyinga saga . His name in Old Norse is Ölvir rósta . The 17th @-@ century Icelandic historian Þormóður Torfason , who wrote Latin histories which covered events the Northern Isles and north @-@ east of Scotland , rendered Ölvir 's name as Aulver Rosta . Ölvir 's byname , rósta , means " brawl " , " riot " . Both his name and byname are represented various ways in English secondary sources . The saga describes him as " the tallest of men , and strong in limb , exceedingly overbearing , and a great fighter " .
The Orkneyinga saga states that Ölvir was the son of Þorljót , from Rekavík . The 19th @-@ century historian Joseph Anderson was of the opinion that Rekavík likely refers to Rackwick on the island of Hoy , Orkney ; or possibly , but less likely , to Rackwick on the island of Westray , Orkney . The saga states that Ölvir 's mother was Þorljót 's wife , Steinnvör ' the Stout ' . Ölvir 's parents had several other children in the saga : sons Magnús , Ormr , Moddan , Eindriði ; and daughter Auðhildr . Steinnvör 's mother is given as Frakökk ; her father was Frakökk 's husband , Ljótr ' Villain ' , from Sutherland . The saga states that Frakökk was a daughter of Moddan , a wealthy and noble farmer from i Dali , " Dale " . According to 21st @-@ century historian Gareth Williams , this probably refers to a dale within the " Dales of Caithness " . The 21st @-@ century historian Barbara Crawford stated that the Dales of Caithness refer to " that part of Caithness which includes the river valleys running down towards the Pentland Firth " . The saga records that another daughter of Moddan 's was Helga , who was the concubine of the Orcadian earl , Hákon Pálsson , and the mother of the earl 's son , Earl Haraldr Hákonsson . According to the saga , Frakökk 's brothers included : Engus ' the Generous ' ; and Earl Óttarr , from Thurso , who is described as " a man worthy of honour " . The saga declares that the descendants of Moddan " were high @-@ born and thought a lot of themselves " , and Williams suggested that they could be related to a powerful dynasty in the Irish Sea zone that included an Óttarr who seized control of the Kingdom of Dublin in 1142 . Williams noted that Frakökk appears as one of the great villains of the Orkneyinga saga . Williams noted that while some of Moddan 's descendants had legitimate claims for the earldom , Frakökk did not — however , she made a claim on behalf of her descendants , specifically Ölvir .
Williams was of the opinion that the power base of Moddan , and his son Earl Óttarr , was in Caithness and Sutherland , not in Orkney . The saga states that Frakökk held lands , which according to Williams , were located near the modern town of Helmsdale , Sutherland . Williams noted that the saga specifically states that Frakökk 's husband was from Sutherland. and in consequence , Williams considered that these lands probably passed to her through her marriage . The size of these lands is unknown . Crawford suggested that they covered most of Sutherland : that after the Frakökk 's death , and the departure of Ölvir , the lands were inherited by her relative Eiríkr ' Stay @-@ brail ' ( see illustrated family tree ) , and in turn by his son , before passing into the possession of the de Moravia family . In Williams ' opinion , Crawford may have exaggerated the extent of these lands somewhat . Williams observed that another base of power for Frakökk and Ölvir may have been the Suðreyjar ( " Southern Islands " ) — which can include both the Hebrides , and the Isle of Man . The saga states at one point , Frakökk and Ölvir travelled to the Suðreyjar to gather ships and men ; later the Suðreyjar are the destination of Ölvir in his last appearance in the saga . Williams noted that the Suðreyjar appear many times in the sagas as a target for raids , and conquests , for Orcadian earls ; as well as being the source for attacks on the earldom itself . Williams also noted that it is possible that saga 's association of Frakökk and Ölvir with the Suðreyjar may be a red @-@ herring . He stated that " if there was an Orcadian tradition of the Suðreyjar as a haunt of ne ’ er @-@ do @-@ wells , this would provide an alternative explanation for the references within Orkneyinga saga , including those to do with Moddan 's family " . Even so , Williams considered that the saga seems to imply that the family had dynastic connections with important individuals of the Suðreyjar , including ' Óláfr ' Titbit ' , King of Mann and the Isles .
= = Orkneyinga saga = =
The main source for the life of Ölvir is the Orkneyinga saga , which was compiled sometime around 1200 by an unknown Icelander . The saga is thought to have been based upon poetry , oral tradition , and other written material . The original version ended with the death of Sveinn Ásleifarson ( who is portrayed as an enemy of Ölvir and Frakökk ) . The saga is considered to become more accurate as events approach the writer 's own time . In the late 14th century , the saga was revised and edited and included in the Icelandic Flateyarbók . The saga can be summed up as an account of the lives of many of the earls of Orkney , from the 9th to 13th centuries . According to research fellow Ian Beuermann , the saga is useful not for the specific events it describes , but rather for the ability to learn of " the ideas shaping the texts during the periods of composition or revision " . For example , it is possible that even one of the main characters of the saga , Sveinn Ásleifarson , never existed ; or at least it is quite possible that the historical Sveinn was different from the saga 's portrayal of him . Another source which mentions Ölvir is Þormóður Torfason 's 17th @-@ century history of Orkney , which follows the Orkneyinga saga .
= = = Frakökk , and Helga , forced out of Orkney by Earl Páll = = =
The Orkneyinga saga relates how after the death of Earl Hákon Pálsson , his sons , Haraldr Hákonsson , and Páll Hákonsson , divided the earldom between themselves . However , the half @-@ brothers soon began to disagree with one another , and their vassals divided into competing factions . The saga relates how one day Frakökk , and her sister Helga ( mother of Earl Haraldr ) , were sewing a snow @-@ white garment embroidered with gold . This garment was enchanted , and the two sisters had intended it for Earl Haraldr 's half @-@ brother , Earl Páll . Unfortunately for the sisters , Earl Haraldr noticed the beautiful garment and , despite their protestations , put the garment on and soon after died . The saga states that Earl Páll immediately took control of his deceased half @-@ brother 's possessions , and that he was highly suspicious of the two sisters . In consequence , Frakökk and Helga were no longer welcome in the earldom , and they left for Caithness , and from there move to Sutherland where Frakökk had an estate . In time , several of Frakökk 's descendants were brought up in Sutherland — including her daughter , Steinnvör ' the Stout ' , and grandson , Ölvir .
= = = Alliance with Earl Rögnvaldr against Earl Páll = = =
The saga relates of how , during an earlier time , Kali Kolsson assisted Haraldr Gille in being recognised as an illegitimate son of the deceased Norwegian king , Magnús ' Barefoot ' . In consequence , the reigning king , Sigurðr Magnússon , was Haraldr Gille 's half @-@ brother . The Norwegian king , appointed Kali as an earl of one half of Orkney , and also had Kali 's name changed to Rögnvaldr ( after a prominent earl from the past ) . On the death of Sigurðr , his son , Magnús Sigurðarson , succeeded to the kingdom . When Haraldr Gille learned of Sigurðr 's death he gathered his supporters and successfully underwent an ordeal to prove his paternity , and was accepted as king of one half of the kingdom . For three years the joint @-@ kings maintained an uneasy peace with one another , but on the fourth year hostilities finally broke out . A battle was fought where the vastly outnumbered Haraldr Gille was defeated ; in consequence he fled to the protection of the King of Denmark . The following Yule @-@ tide , Haraldr Gille returned to Norway , captured Magnús and maimed him . Haraldr Gille then became king of the entire kingdom . That spring , in recognition for Rögnvaldr 's assistance , the king renewed the grant of islands and the title of earl to Rögnvaldr . James Gray , who summarised the events depicted within the saga , dated the death of Sigurðr Magnússon to the year 1126 ; he dated the capture and mutilation of Magnús Sigurðarson to 1135 .
According to the saga , sometime after Haraldr Gille 's victory over Magnús Sigurðarson , Earl Rögnvaldr 's father , Kolr , sent messengers to Earl Páll , demanding that Earl Páll hand over the lands which the Norwegian king had granted to Earl Rögnvaldr . When Earl Páll refused this , Kolr 's messengers proceeded to Caithness , where Frakökk lived . The messengers related to Frakökk of Kolr 's proposal — that if she and Ölvir were to defeat Earl Páll , half of the earldom would be theirs . Frakökk agreed to the plan , saying that she would attack in mid @-@ summer ; she promised that during upcoming winter she would gather forces from her kinsmen , friends , and connections in Scotland and the Suðreyjar for the task . The next winter Earl Rögnvaldr and two of his chiefs , Sölmundr and Jón , gathered a force of men and about five or six ships for their expedition . The following summer their forces sailed from Norway to Shetland , where they were well received by the local bondsmen . Meanwhile , Frakökk and Ölvir assembled a small fleet of twelve ships in the Suðreyjar — although the saga describes the ships as small and poorly manned . At the middle of summer , Frakökk and Ölvir sailed for Orkney to fulfil their pledge of wresting the earldom from Earl Páll .
= = = Sea @-@ battle against Earl Páll = = =
According to the Orkneyinga saga , when Earl Páll herd of Earl Rögnvaldr 's arrival in Shetland , he held council and decided to immediately gather forces and attack Earl Rögnvaldr before he could be reinforced by the incoming men he knew were coming from the Suðreyjar . That night Earl Páll was joined by five chieftains , with four ships — this brings his total forces to five ships . The fleet sailed to Rousay , where they arrive at sunset . During the night the force is further strengthened by arriving men . In the morning , as the fleet is about to set out for Shetland to meet Earl Rögnvaldr , about ten or twelve ships were spotted coming from the Pentland Firth . Earl Páll and his men were certain these ships were those of Frakökk and Ölvir ; in consequence , the earl ordered the fleet to intercept . The saga states that when Ölvir 's ships were east of Tankerness , they then sailed west from Mulls Head , Deerness . By this time , Earl Páll was further strengthened by a chieftain from Tankerness . The earl then ordered his ships to be bound together , and for a bondi to gather stones for the upcoming battle . When the earl and his troops have fully prepared themselves , the saga states that Ölvir 's forces made their attack .
Although the saga states that the forces of Ölvir were superior in numbers to those of Earl Páll , it also notes that Ölvir 's ships were smaller . Ölvir brought his own ship up next to the earl 's , where the fighting was the fiercest . One of the earl 's chieftains , Ólafr Hrólfsson , attacked Ölvir 's smallest ships , and cleared three of them in a short time . Ölvir urged his men forward and was the first to board Earl Páll 's own ship . When he spotted Earl Páll , Ölvir threw a spear at him , and although it was blocked by a shield , the force of the blow knocked the earl onto the deck . With the fall of Earl Páll , a great shout goes up ; but just at that moment , one of the earl 's best men , Sveinn ' Breastrope ' , hurled a large stone at Ölvir , hitting him square in the chest and knocked him overboard . Although Ölvir 's men dragged him from the water , it was unclear to the battlers whether he lived or not . Ölvir 's disheartened men were driven off the earl 's ship , and began to withdraw . Ölvir eventually recovered his wits , but was unable to rally his troops — the battle was lost . Earl Páll pursued Ölvir 's fleeing fleet into the Pentland Firth , before giving up the chase . Five of Ölvir 's ships were left behind , and were captured and manned by the forces loyal to Earl Páll . The earl is later further strengthened by two longships , and his forces swells to twelve ships . The next day , Earl Páll sailed to Shetland , where he destroyed Earl Rögnvaldr 's fleet . Although , Earl Rögnvaldr 's forces remained on Shetland itself , Earl Páll successfully held onto the earldom . Gray stated that these battles were fought in the year 1136 .
= = = Burning of Óláfr Hrólfsson = = =
The Orkneyinga saga states that three days before Yule , Ölvir , and his band of men , arrived in Duncansby . Williams stated that the farm of Duncansby , located near the Dales of Caithness , was then in hands of an Orkney chieftain , Óláfr Hrólfsson . Joshua Prescott stated that Óláfr appears to have been Earl Páll 's main supporter in Caithness ; according to Williams , Óláfr appears to have held these lands directly from the Earls of Orkney , rather than as a family possession . The saga relates of how at Duncansby , Ölvir and his party surprised Óláfr within his own house . They then set fire to the house , and burn Óláfr to death within . Ölvir and his men took all the movable property they could get their hands on , before leaving the scene . When Earl Páll heard of what has happened , he takes @-@ in the slain chieftain 's son , Sveinn Óláfsson . With the death of his father , Sveinn Óláfsson becomes known as Sveinn Ásleifarson — after his mother . Such house @-@ burnings — in which individuals are burnt to death , or slain as they flee the fire — are found throughout the sagas as a part of blood feuds . The saga states that some time later , Sveinn , who has spent time in the Suðreyjar and Atholl , returned to Orkney . On his way , Sveinn he stopped at Thurso , where his accomplice , Ljótólfr , negotiated a truce between Sveinn and Frakökk 's brother , Earl Óttarr . The earl paid Sveinn compensation for the death of Óláfr , and promised his friendship . In return , Sveinn promised to aid Earl Óttarr 's relative , Erlendr Haraldsson , in a possible bid for the earldom of Orkney .
= = = Defeat of Ölvir , and the burning of Frakökk = = =
The saga states that some time later , Sveinn approached Earl Rögnvaldr , and asked the earl for men and ships to take vengeance upon Ölvir and Frakökk who were involved in the burning of his father . The earl consented to this request , and gave Sveinn two ships . Sveinn travelled south to Borgarfiörd , and then west to the trading place of Dúfeyrar . According to Anderson , Borgarfiörd may refer to the Moray Firth ; and Dúfeyrar likely refers to the shore in the parish of Duffus , on the coast of Moray . The saga states that from Dúfeyrar , Sveinn travelled to Ekkialsbakki , and from there went to Atholl , where he met Earl Maddaðr . Anderson stated that Ekkialsbakki , in this case , likely refers to the coast on the Moray Firth , next to Atholl ; The 19th @-@ century historian William Forbes Skene agreed with this , specifically locating it to Findhorn , where ships could enter an estuary and follow a route into Atholl . However , Hermann Pálsson and Paul Geoffrey Edwards , in their 1981 translation of the saga , identified the town of Banff with Dúfeyrar , and the River Oykel with Ekkialsbakki .
The saga then relates how the Earl Maddaðr gave Sveinn guides , and how Sveinn travelled through the interior of the country — over mountains , and through woods , away from inhabited areas — until he came upon Strath Helmsdale , near where Ölvir and Frakökk lived . Williams stated that since the saga records that Sveinn approached the area by land , the site of Ölvir and Frakökk 's estate was probably located somewhere in the dale of Helmsdale — not where the modern village is situated on the coast . Williams also noted that this area was quite remote from Orkney , and that it may have been outside of the control of the earldom . The saga states that Ölvir and Frakökk had spies on the lookout ; however , because of the route taken by Sveinn , they were unaware of his presence until Svienn occupied a certain slope behind their homestead . The saga states that Ölvir and sixty of his men confronted Sveinn , although Þormóður Torfason 's account of the incident gives forty . After a short clash , the saga states that , Ölvir 's men soon gave way , and many were killed in the ensuing rout . Ölvir survived the clash , and fled up Helmsdale river . Meanwhile , Sveinn and his men continued on towards the houses . The area was plundered , and the houses were burnt to the ground with their inmates still inside — and in this way Frakökk perished . The saga states that Sveinn and his men committed many ravages in Sutherland before returning home . Upon reaching the river , Ölvir fled through the mountains , and is last heard making for the Suðreyjar ; he is not mentioned again within the Orkneyinga saga . Later on within the saga , another of Frakökk 's grandsons , Þórbjörn ' Clerk ' , who is a brother @-@ in @-@ law and close friend of Sveinn , has two of Sveinn 's men killed for their part in the burning .
While the saga records that Frakökk was killed to avenge the burning of Óláfr , recently scholars Angelo Forte , Richard Oram , and Frederick Pedersen , stated that her fate was actually sealed by her support of Erlendr Haraldsson 's bid for the earldom , over the claim of Haraldr Maddaðarson . Haraldr was the son of Earl Maddaðr , and Margrét Hákonardóttir ( married in about 1134 ) . Margrét was a niece of Frakökk , and Earl Maddaðr was possibly a cousin of the David I. The union between Earl Maddaðr and Margrét benefited the Scottish Crown by increasing Scottish influence in the north at the expense of Norwegian influence . Also , in the 1120s and 1130s , David I had faced challenges to his authority . A large part of the support for these challengers came from Moray and Ross — these lands were directly between the northern lands of Caithness and Orkney , and David 's strength to the south . According to the Forte , Oram , and Pedersen , the prospect of having the son of one his northern supporters as the earl of Caithness was too good for the king to pass up — especially since Haraldr was still a minor , and would thus be under the direction of an appointed tutor . As it turned out , the installation of Haraldr as an earl of Orkney and Caithness was a triumph for the Scottish Crown : in the 1140s , Sutherland and Caithness were further integrated into the kingdom , and the Norwegian influence in Orkney was neutralised .
= = = = Locations associated with Ölvir , Frakökk , and Sveinn = = = =
Several writers have noted a place which is said to be the location of the burning . The CANMORE website states that a supposed castle in which Frakökk was burned may be located at grid reference NC8728 , near Kinbrace , within the parish of Kildonan . In 1769 , Thomas Pennant noted the episode of the burning , and stated that certain ruins at Kinbrace were called " Cairn Shuin " ; and that these were the remnants of the homestead that Sveinn burnt . Rev. Sage , in his account of the parish in the ( Old ) Statistical Account of Scotland , noted the ruins mentioned by Pennant ; he called them " Cairn @-@ Suin " , and translated this to " Old Cairns " . Sage , however noted Þormóður Torfason 's account of the burning , and suggested that a possibly more accuarate etymology is " Suenes Field " . Pennant stated that " though the ruins are great , yet no man can tell of what kind they were ; that is , whether round like Pictish houses , or not " . According to the CANMORE website , Pennant may have been referring to any of the chambered cairns in the area . The site of the supposed castle was visited by the Ordnance Survey in 1961 , but no evidence of it was found . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Alexander Pope noted " Carn Suin " , and stated that nearby there were certain ruins called " Shu Carn Aulver " . Pope also stated that to the south @-@ west of this location there was a part of Helmsdale river called " Avin Aulver " . Another location he connected with Ölvir was a hill , in the forest of " Sletie " , called " Craggan Aulver " .
= = Speculation of Scottish descendants = =
According to Williams , it is possible that after Sveinn defeated Ölvir and Frakökk , Ölvir may have fled to kinsmen of his in the Suðreyjar . Williams suggested that the blood feud between the families may be a reason for Sveinn 's military activities in the Hebrides and the Isle of Mann , afterwards ; although Sveinn had other interests in the area , since he is stated to have married the window of a Manx king . In the late 19th century , antiquary F.W.L. Thomas speculated that the memory of Ölvir may have been preserved in the Hebrides . Thomas stated that within the mythological history of the Outer Hebridean island of Lewis , the island clan of Macaulays were said to be the descendants of a man named Amhlaebh , who was one of the twelve sons , or near relations , of a man named Oliver , among whom Lewis was divided . This Oliver was said to have been the eldest son of the Norse king who was given the Isles and Highlands by a son of Kenneth MacAlpin , for his assistance in driving his own brother from Scotland . Thomas speculated that Oliver could represent Ölvir Rósta ; meaning that he was the progenitor of the Macaulays .
It has also been suggested that Ölvir may be an ancestor of the MacLeods . Until quite recently , it was commonly believed by historians that the eponymous ancestor of the MacLeods , Leod , was the son of Olaf the Black , King of Mann and the Isles . In the late 20th century , William Matheson proposed that the MacLeods descended in the male line from Ölvir Rósta , rather than Olaf the Black . Matheson proposed that , within several Gaelic pedigrees which record ancestors of Leod , the great @-@ grandfather of Leod has Gaelic names which very likely represent the Old Norse name Ölvir . These Gaelic names are considered to equate to other Gaelic names found within the early bardic poetry of the MacLeods . About a century before , Thomas had noted the similarity in these names , when discussing Ölvir , but he did not pursue a specific link between Ölvir and the MacLeods . Matheson speculated that Leod 's great @-@ grandfather would have flourished at roughly the same time as when Ölvir is said to have fled to the Suðreyjar . Matheson noted that Leod 's name is derived from the Old Norse name Ljótr : a name which Matheson considered to be rare in Scandinavia and Iceland , and even more so in Scotland . In consequence , he considered it significant that Ölvir 's maternal grandfather ( Ljótr ' Villain ' ) also had this name . When comparing the relevant Gaelic pedigrees , Matheson noted that they were inconsistent in the generations preceding Leod 's great @-@ grandfather . In lieu of this , Matheson proposed that these inconsistencies may show that the Leod 's great @-@ grandfather was a newcomer to the Hebrides , like Ölvir .
Later , historian W.D.H. Sellar noted Matheson 's proposed link between the MacLeods and Ölvir , but commented that the evidence Matheson used was entirely circumstantial . Sellar was of the opinion that Ölvir was not such a rare name as Matheson had previously thought . Sellar also noted that the genealogy and family of Ölvir , recorded in the Orkneyinga saga , has no similarity with the line recorded in the Gaelic genealogies concerning the ancestry of Leod . Matheson 's association of Ölvir to the Macleods was also attacked by clan historian Alick Morrison . Morrison commented that the name Ljotr was also not as rare as Matheson had proposed . Morrison noted that , in the previous century , Thomas had considered another saga character to be an eponymous ancestor of the MacLeods — this character was Ljótólfr ( mentioned earlier in the article ) , who would have lived on Lewis about a century before Leod 's time . In fact , Morrison did not consider Ölvir 's name — and the singled @-@ out Gaelic names — to be anything but other forms of Óláfr . However , Óláfr and Ölvir are considered by others to be quite different names , with separate origins . Morrison , and Sellar , also noted that the bynames of Ölvir , and Leod 's great @-@ grandfather , do not appear to match up — in three of the relevant Gaelic pedigrees , the byname of Leod 's great @-@ grandfather appears as snoice , snaige , and snáithe . Thomas considered these bynames to mean " hewer " ; although , both Matheson and Sellar disagreed with this translation . Morrison considered these to equate to snaith , " white " ; ' however , Sellar noted that Morrison gave no further explanation for this assertion . Sellar , himself , proposed that the byname may be not be Gaelic , but Norse in origin . He suggested that it may refer to some sort of deformity to the man 's nose ; another suggestion forwarded to him was that it may refer to a cleft palate . Later , A.P. MacLeod noted that the Gaelic snatha — which has a secondary meaning of " grief " , and " trouble " — may be a nominative form of the genitive snaithe , and thus may equate to Ölvir 's byname .
= = Hebridean runes : possible family connections = =
In 1962 , on the Inner Hebridean island of Iona , close to Reilig Odhrain grid reference NM22SE10 , a fragment of a carved stone bearing the runic inscription of a man named Ölvir was found . It is one of only three examples of rune @-@ stones found in the west of Scotland . The fragment is about half the size of the original stone , which would have measured 1 @.@ 11 by 0 @.@ 77 metres ( 3 @.@ 6 by 2 @.@ 5 ft ) . The stone is decorated with a crude knotted cross ; the runes are located on the side , along the border . At the end of the inscription there are a few runes missing , due to the corner having been broken off . The full inscription translates into English : " Kali , son of Ölvir , laid this stone over Fugl his brother " . These three men do not appear in any other sources , and it is unknown who they were . In the 1980s , Norwegian runologist Aslak Liestøl proposed that the stone is evidence that the two brothers were Scandinavian speakers , who were members of a leading family in the district , who had the social status to be buried near Reilig Odhrain . The runic inscriptions , and artwork , suggests that the stone dates to the late 10th century , or 11th century .
Liestøl suggested that the three men were somehow related to Ölvir . Liestøl noted that three names were those of characters in the Orkneyinga saga , which all had connections with the Hebrides . Kali was the original name of Earl Rögnvaldr , whom Ölvir fought for . The earl was named after his grandfather , Kali Sæbjörnarson , who according to the saga , accompanied Magnús ' Barefoot ' to the Hebrides , and died there of wounds he received on Anglesey . According to Liestøl , the name Fugl , in a West Norse context , is only found on this inscription and of a minor character in the saga . This character was the son of Ljótólfr , from Lewis , who negotiated a truce between Sveinn Ásleifarson and Earl Óttarr . In 1922 , historian Alan Orr Anderson noted that the mediaeval Chronicle of Man records that Fogolt , sheriff of Man , died in 1183 , and Anderson stated that it is possible that Ljótólfr 's son was the mentioned sheriff . Concerning the name Ljótólfr , Liestøl also noted that the saga names Ölvir 's father Þorljót , and his maternal @-@ grandfather Ljótr . He concluded that the men mentioned on the stone likely lived around the year 1000 , about four to six generations before their namesakes in the saga . In consequence , Liestøl suggested that Kali Sæbjörnarson would have been a contemporary of the children of the rune @-@ stone 's Kali Ölvisson . The stone , among many others , is housed in the museum at Iona Abbey .
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= G. Wayne Clough =
Gerald Wayne Clough ( born September 24 , 1941 ) is President Emeritus of the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) and former Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution . A graduate of Georgia Tech in civil engineering , he was the first alumnus to serve as President of the Institute .
Clough was president of Georgia Tech from 1994 to 2008 , when he oversaw dramatic changes in the institute , including $ 1 billion in new construction , increased retention and graduation rates , a higher nationwide ranking and a much larger student body . His administration championed programs which encouraged undergraduate research , offered international experiences , and made college more affordable for low @-@ income students .
The Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons , which officially opened its doors in August 2011 , is named in his honor . Clough has garnered many other awards and honors , including the title of President Emeritus , two Norman Medals , eight honorary degrees , and membership in the National Science Board .
= = Personal life and education = =
Clough was born on September 24 , 1941 in Douglas , Georgia , the youngest of three children born to Daniel and Bessie ( née Johnson ) Clough . Clough 's parents ran the local ice and coal plant . After electricity spread to south Georgia , the family moved to Chattanooga , Tennessee , where Clough attended City High School . Clough also met his future wife , Anne Olivia Robinson , during this time . They have two children , Eliza and Matthew .
Clough entered Georgia Tech in 1959 and earned a bachelor 's degree in civil engineering in 1964 . While an undergraduate at Georgia Tech , Clough participated in the cooperative education program , and was , against his wishes , a surveyor for a railroad company . Clough was a member of Georgia Tech 's chapter of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity , and lived in their fraternity house on North Avenue for half a year . Clough originally planned to receive only a bachelor 's degree ; however , the faculty encouraged him to pursue a graduate degree , so he continued his education and received his master 's degree in civil engineering in 1965 . In 1969 , Clough received a Ph.D. in civil engineering from the University of California , Berkeley with the thesis " Finite element analyses of soil @-@ structures interaction in U @-@ frame locks " .
= = Research = =
After earning his doctorate , Clough began his academic career as an assistant professor at Duke University in 1969 . He joined the faculty at Stanford University in 1974 first as an associate professor and then later as full professor . In 1982 , he joined the faculty of Virginia Tech as a professor of civil engineering and served as head of their Department of Civil Engineering for seven years . In 1990 , Clough became dean of the Virginia Tech College of Engineering . Clough continued his research and instruction of graduate students at Virginia Tech in addition to his administrative responsibilities . Clough 's research focused on geotechnical engineering , including earthquake studies , numerical analysis , soil structure interaction , in @-@ situ testing , and underground openings . In 1993 , he became provost and vice president for academic affairs at the University of Washington . Clough cofounded the United States Universities Council of Geotechnical Engineering Research ( USUCGER ) , and served as the organization 's first president during 1993 .
= = President of Georgia Tech = =
On September 1 , 1994 , Clough became the first Georgia Tech alumnus to serve as the President of the Institute , succeeding John Patrick Crecine , and was in office during the 1996 Summer Olympics . In 1998 , he separated the Ivan Allen College of Management , Policy , and International Affairs into the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts and the College of Management , which he returned to independent status . This separation was a major organizational change that built upon the large ( and controversial ) reorganization of the institute by Clough 's predecessor .
During his tenure , research expenditures increased from $ 212 million to $ 425 million , computers became required for all students , and enrollment increased from 13 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 students . Tech also received the Hesburgh Award for support of undergraduate teaching and learning , and the Institute 's U.S. News & World Report rankings steadily improved .
Clough 's tenure was especially focused on a dramatic expansion of the Institute ; more than $ 1 billion was spent on projects to expand or improve the campus . These projects included the completion of several west campus dorms , the manufacturing complex , 10th and Home , Technology Square , The Biomedical Complex , the Student Center renovation , the expanded 5th Street Bridge , the Aquatic Center 's renovation into the Georgia Tech Campus Recreation Center , a new Health Center , the Klaus Advanced Computing Building , and the Nanotechnology Research Center .
Clough also spearheaded research opportunities for undergraduate students , later known as the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program ( UROP ) , the creation of an International Plan , and the creation of a fund to make Georgia Tech more affordable for low @-@ income students ( the G. Wayne Clough Georgia Tech Promise Program ) . The students of Georgia Tech affectionately dubbed him " Funk Masta G. Wayne " during his presidency due to the expansion and growth he encouraged in urban Atlanta , and he was generally known to have a warm and friendly disposition and a distinctive beard .
In 2006 , members of Georgia Tech 's college Republican club sued Georgia Tech , aided by the Alliance Defense Fund , in a case known as Sklar v. Clough that lasted until April 2008 . The largest result of this case was a change to Georgia Tech 's Student Code of Conduct and Community Guide removing penalties for harassing or discriminating against other students . Clough stepped down after almost fourteen years as President on July 1 , 2008 , which he previously announced in an email to students and staff on March 15 , 2008 .
= = Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution = =
On January 1 , 2008 , the Smithsonian named a search committee for the position of Secretary . Clough 's primary competition for the position was Acting Secretary Cristián Samper , who had replaced Secretary Lawrence M. Small after Small 's resignation in 2007 . The Smithsonian 's board of regents , whose duties include electing the Smithsonian 's secretary , took at least two votes in the Lawyers ' Lounge at the U.S. Supreme Court to arrive at their decision .
Clough was elected the 12th Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution ; he was notified via a phone call with regents chairman Roger W. Sant on the afternoon of March 14 , 2008 . This decision was announced publicly at a press conference held at the Smithsonian Castle on March 15 , 2008 . Clough assumed office on July 1 , 2008 and was officially installed in an academic ceremony on January 26 , 2009 . His starting salary as Secretary was $ 490 @,@ 000 , a pay cut from his final compensation package at Georgia Tech ( $ 551 @,@ 186 ) and significantly lower than his predecessor , Lawrence Small 's annual salary of $ 900 @,@ 000 .
Since Clough assumed office , he has made plans to digitize the Museum 's collections , and offer more intensive K @-@ 12 educational programming . In November 2008 , for the first time , the Smithsonian opened a board meeting to the public . Clough has made efforts to improve the Smithsonian 's facilities and long @-@ term planning , as well as plans to reorganize and cut back on staff and budget . In February 2012 , Clough 's travel expenses were probed by senator Charles E. Grassley , despite increased controls ; Clough 's travel must be approved by the Smithsonian 's chief financial officer as part of the reforms enacted in the wake of alleged abuses by Secretary Small .
On November 30 , 2010 , Secretary Clough made the decision to remove the David Wojnarowicz video " A Fire in My Belly " from the National Portrait Gallery 's " Hide / Seek : Difference and Desire in American Portraiture " exhibition . The video artwork was perceived by some to be anti @-@ Christian and Clough believed it detracted from the entirety of the exhibition , which he said was " to be a powerful exhibit about the contributions of gay and lesbian artists " and not about " religious iconography " and " desecration " . This decision was widely criticized , but Clough responded that he was protecting the Smithsonian 's larger educational mission . After the controversy , the Smithsonian 's board of regents appointed an outside panel to examine the decision to remove the work from the exhibition ; the panel recommended that art not be removed from shows that have already opened .
On September 18 , 2013 , after six years as Secretary , Clough announced his retirement , which would be effective October 2014 . In announcing his retirement , he said , " When I became Secretary in 2008 , I believed strongly that the Smithsonian had enormous untapped potential , especially in digital technology , to reach millions of people and serve as a resource for those who cannot visit Washington . I am confident that with our initiatives underway in bioconservation , education , digitization and fundraising , this is the right time to announce my plans for next fall so that an orderly transition can begin . "
= = Honors and awards = =
Clough has earned numerous awards and honors during his career . In his early career , he earned two Norman Medals , the State of the Art Award , and the Karl von Terzaghi Lectureship in 1994 . Clough has also earned a George Westinghouse Award from the American Society for Engineering Education . He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1990 for his research into soil structure interaction problems and served as a chair of one of its summits in 2004 , The Engineer of 2020 : Visions of Engineering in the New Century .
In 2001 , President George W. Bush appointed him to the President 's Council of Science and Technology . In 2004 , Bush appointed him a member of the National Science Board , which oversees the National Science Foundation and provides advice to Congress and the president on issues of science and technology . Also in 2004 , the American Society of Civil Engineers presented him with the Outstanding Projects and Leaders award for his contribution to education , and the University of California , Berkeley College of Engineering honored him with one of the four Distinguished Engineering Alumni Awards .
In 2008 , Clough was made an honorary member of the ANAK Society , Georgia Tech 's oldest known secret society and honor society . In October 2008 , the National Academy of Engineering presented Clough with the Arthur M. Bueche Award for leadership in science , technology , and engineering policy . In February 2009 , he received the Joseph M. Pettit Alumni Distinguished Service Award that recognizes a lifetime of leadership , achievement and service to Georgia Tech ; and in March 2009 , he was inducted into the Technology Hall of Fame of Georgia .
Clough has received eight honorary Doctor of Science degrees . In 2011 , he received an honorary degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ; in 2010 , he received honorary degrees from Oglethorpe University in Atlanta ; University of Maryland , Baltimore County ; and Williams College in Williamstown . He had previously received honorary doctorates from Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Florida Southern College and the University of South Carolina . In April 2010 , he was named a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
During the ground breaking ceremony for the G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons building held in 2010 , President Bud Peterson and University System of Georgia Chancellor Erroll B. Davis Jr. presented to Clough a proclamation declaring him President Emeritus of the Georgia Institute of Technology . In 2011 , Georgia Tech opened the G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons building named in honor of his commitment to undergraduate students ; it was dedicated on Clough 's birthday , September 24 , 2011 . In May 2011 , he was awarded the 2011 Foreign Policy Association Medal .
In 2012 , he was elevated to National Honor Member of Chi Epsilon national civil engineering honor society .
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= The Dark Knight Rises =
The Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 British @-@ American superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan , who co @-@ wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan , and the story with David S. Goyer . Featuring the DC Comics character Batman , the film is the final installment in Nolan 's Batman film trilogy , and the sequel to Batman Begins ( 2005 ) and The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) . Christian Bale reprises the lead role of Bruce Wayne / Batman , with a returning cast of allies : Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth , Gary Oldman as James Gordon , and Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox . The film introduces Selina Kyle ( Anne Hathaway ) , and Bane ( Tom Hardy ) . Eight years after the events of The Dark Knight , merciless revolutionary Bane forces an older Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save Gotham City from nuclear destruction .
Christopher Nolan was hesitant about returning to the series for a second time , but agreed after developing a story with his brother and Goyer that he felt would conclude the series on a satisfactory note . Nolan drew inspiration from Bane 's comic book debut in the 1993 " Knightfall " storyline , the 1986 series The Dark Knight Returns , and the 1999 storyline " No Man 's Land " . Filming took place in locations including Jodhpur , London , Nottingham , Glasgow , Los Angeles , New York City , Newark , and Pittsburgh . Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras for much of the filming , including the first six minutes of the film , to optimize the quality of the picture . A vehicle variation of the Batplane and Batcopter termed the " Bat " , an underground prison set , and a new Batcave set were created specifically for the film . As with The Dark Knight , viral marketing campaigns began early during production . When filming concluded , Warner Bros. refocused its campaign : developing promotional websites , releasing the first six minutes of the film , screening theatrical trailers , and sending out information regarding the film 's plot .
The Dark Knight Rises premiered in New York City on July 16 , 2012 . The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on July 19 , 2012 , and in North America and the United Kingdom on July 20 , 2012 . It received positive reviews from critics , many of whom named it one of the best films of 2012 . Like its predecessor , the film grossed over $ 1 billion worldwide at the box office , making it the second film in the Batman film series to earn $ 1 billion . It is currently the 16th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time , the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 , and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing superhero film of all time .
= = Plot = =
Eight years after the death of district attorney Harvey Dent , the Dent Act grants the Gotham City Police Department powers which nearly eradicate organized crime . Police Commissioner James Gordon feels increasingly guilty for covering up the crimes committed by Dent , who was turned into a murderer by the Joker . He writes a resignation speech confessing the truth but decides not to use it .
Bruce Wayne has become a recluse , broken by the death of his childhood sweetheart Rachel Dawes and has retired as the vigilante Batman after taking the blame for Dent 's crimes , as well as Dent 's death . Cat burglar Selina Kyle obtains Wayne 's fingerprints from his home and kidnaps congressman Byron Gilley . She sells the fingerprints to Phillip Stryver , an assistant to Wayne 's business rival John Daggett . In return , she requests her payment : a " clean slate " that can wipe all traces of a person from the internet .
Stryver double @-@ crosses Kyle , but she uses Gilley 's phone to alert the police to their location . Gordon and the police arrive to find the congressman , and then pursue Stryver 's men into the sewers while Selina flees . The police attempt to follow them into the sewers , but the men that enter the sewers are killed , and Gordon is captured , while the rest of the police are assailed down by sniper fire .
The assailants drag Gordon to Bane , a masked mercenary , who has him searched and finds his resignation speech . Gordon escapes and is found by John Blake , a patrol officer . Gordon promotes Blake to detective , with Blake reporting directly to him . Bane and multiple accomplices attack the Gotham Stock Exchange , using Bruce 's fingerprints in a transaction that leaves Wayne bankrupt . Wayne 's butler Alfred Pennyworth reveals that Rachel had intended to marry Dent before she died . Alfred then resigns in an attempt to convince Bruce to move on from being Batman .
Wayne Enterprises is losing profits after Wayne discontinued his fusion reactor project when he learned that the core could be weaponized . Fearing that Daggett , Bane 's employer , would gain access to the reactor , Wayne asks Wayne Enterprises board member Miranda Tate to take over his company . Kyle agrees to take Batman to Bane but instead leads him into Bane 's trap . Bane reveals that he intends to fulfill Ra 's al Ghul 's mission to destroy Gotham with the League of Shadows remnant . He engages Batman and delivers a crippling blow to his back , before taking him to a foreign , well @-@ like prison where escape is virtually impossible . There , the inmates tell Wayne the story of Ra 's al Ghul 's child , born in the prison and cared for by a fellow prisoner before escaping — the only prisoner to have ever done so . Wayne assumes the child to be Bane .
Bane lures Gotham police underground and traps them there . He kills Mayor Anthony Garcia and forces Dr. Leonid Pavel , a Russian nuclear physicist he kidnapped from Uzbekistan six months prior , to convert the reactor core into a nuclear bomb . Bane uses the bomb to hold the city hostage and isolate Gotham from the world . Using Gordon 's stolen speech , Bane reveals the cover @-@ up of Dent 's crimes and releases the prisoners of Blackgate Penitentiary , initiating anarchy . The wealthy and powerful have their property expropriated , are dragged from their homes , and are given show trials presided over by Dr. Jonathan Crane , where all are sentenced to death .
After spending months recovering and re @-@ training , Wayne escapes from the prison . He enlists Kyle , Blake , Tate , Gordon , and Lucius Fox to help stop the bomb 's detonation . He hands the Batpod to Kyle , tasking her with helping people evacuate and saving herself . She asks him to come along , leaving Gotham to its fate , but he refuses . While the police and Bane 's forces clash , Batman overpowers Bane . He interrogates Bane for the bomb 's trigger , but Tate intervenes and stabs him . She reveals herself to be Talia al Ghul , Ra 's al Ghul 's daughter . Bane is her protector , who aided her escape from the prison . She uses the detonator , but Gordon has successfully approached the bomb and blocks her signal , preventing remote detonation . Talia leaves to find the bomb while Bane prepares to kill Batman , but Kyle returns on the Batpod and saves Batman by killing Bane . Batman and Kyle pursue Talia , hoping to bring the bomb back to the reactor chamber where it can be stabilized . Talia 's truck crashes , but she remotely floods and destroys the reactor chamber before dying . With no way to stop the detonation , Batman uses the Bat to haul the bomb over the bay , where it detonates .
In the aftermath , Batman is presumed dead and is honored as a hero . With Wayne also presumed dead , Wayne Manor becomes an orphanage , and his remaining estate is left to Alfred . Fox discovers that Wayne had fixed the Bat 's autopilot and Gordon finds the Bat @-@ Signal refurbished . Alfred finds that Wayne is alive and well , together with Selina , while visiting Florence . Blake resigns from the police force and , following Wayne 's instructions , discovers the Batcave and its contents .
= = Cast = =
Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman :
A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld . Nolan has stated that , due to the eight @-@ year gap between The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises , " he 's an older Bruce Wayne ; he 's not in a great state . " Bale employed a martial arts discipline called the Keysi Fighting Method , now modified for Bruce 's current state and Bane 's style . Bale has stated that The Dark Knight Rises will be his final Batman film . Bale acknowledged that Batman is " not a healthy individual , this is somebody that is doing good , but he 's right on the verge of doing bad " . Bale clarifies that " He doesn 't want to forget [ his parents ' deaths ] . He wants to maintain that anger he felt at that injustice " . Bale felt bittersweet about leaving the franchise , saying that it was like " saying goodbye to an old friend . "
Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth :
Bruce 's trusted butler and confidant , who acts as a father figure to Bruce but is unable to accept Bruce 's desire to revive his Batman persona , even resigning from his position to impress the seriousness of his position upon him . Christopher Nolan emphasized the emotional bond between Alfred and Bruce , stressing its importance in the previous films and predicting that the relationship will be strained as it never has before .
Gary Oldman as Commissioner James Gordon :
The Commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department , and one of the city 's few honest police officers . Oldman described the character 's work in cleaning up Gotham City as having left him world @-@ weary and slightly bored , likening Gordon to a soldier who leaps at the chance to be on the front lines . His life has taken a turn for the worse since The Dark Knight ; his wife has left him and taken their children , and the mayor is planning to dismiss him from his job . Gordon feels guilty over his role in covering up Harvey Dent 's crimes and is prepared to resign from his position as Commissioner over it , but then senses that Gotham is about to come under threat .
Anne Hathaway as Selina Kyle / Catwoman :
A professional cat burglar , grifter , and femme fatale who establishes a playful , teasing relationship with Bruce that " takes some of the somberness away from his character " , and pursues a " clean slate " ( a computer program rumored to be able to erase a person 's criminal history ) when she crosses paths with both Bruce and Batman . Hathaway auditioned not knowing what role she was being considered for . Hathaway described the role as being the most physically demanding she had ever played , and confessed that while she thought of herself as being fit she had to redouble her efforts in the gym to keep up with the demands of the role . Hathaway trained extensively in martial arts for the role , and looked to Hedy Lamarr — who was the inspiration for Catwoman 's character — in developing her performance .
Tom Hardy as Bane :
A mysterious and physically imposing revolutionary who was excommunicated from the League of Shadows and portrays himself as a " liberator of pain " . He is desperate to continue Ra 's al Ghul 's legacy by destroying Gotham . The character was chosen by Christopher Nolan because of his desire to see Batman tested on both a physical and mental level . According to costume designer Lindy Hemming , the character wears a mask that supplies him with an analgesic gas to relieve pain he suffers from an injury sustained " early in his story " . Hardy intended to portray the character as " more menacing " than Robert Swenson 's version of the character in Joel Schumacher 's Batman & Robin and that in order to do so , his portrayal entailed creating a contradiction between his voice and body . Hardy gained 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) for the role , increasing his weight to 198 pounds ( 90 kg ) . Hardy based Bane 's voice on several influences , which include Bartley Gorman as well as a desire to honor the character 's intellect and Caribbean heritage . Bane claims that his revolution 's enemies are the rich and the corrupt , who he contends are oppressing " the people " . Political theorist and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek sees Bane as fighting " structural injustice " , while likening him to a modern day Che Guevara who is counter @-@ intuitively driven to violence out of a sense of love .
Marion Cotillard as Miranda Tate / Talia al Ghul :
A recently promoted member of the Wayne Enterprises executive board who encourages a still @-@ grieving Bruce to rejoin with society and continue his father 's philanthropic works , but is later revealed to be the daughter of Ra 's al Ghul.Joey King as Young Talia al Ghul
Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt as Sgt. John Blake :
A young police officer whose instincts lead him to believe that there is trouble on the horizon and is promoted to detective by Gordon when the elder cop saw something of himself within the younger . Blake represents the idealism that Gordon and Bruce Wayne once held , but soon lost in their battle against crime in the city . The film reveals his legal name to be Robin John Blake , an homage to Batman 's sidekick in the comics , Robin .
Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox :
The CEO and later Executive President of Wayne Enterprises , who runs the company on Bruce 's behalf and serves as his armorer for the Batsuit , providing him with high @-@ tech equipment and discreetly developing cutting @-@ edge technology and weaponry , even as Wayne Enterprises starts losing money .
Matthew Modine as Deputy Commissioner Peter Foley :
Gordon 's second @-@ in @-@ command that disdains Batman .
Ben Mendelsohn as John Daggett :
A rival billionaire socialite who employs Bane in his plan to take control of Wayne Enterprises .
Burn Gorman as Philip Stryver :
The Executive Vice President of Daggett Enterprises , who acts as Daggett 's assistant during Bane 's reign of terror .
Alon Abutbul as Dr. Leonid Pavel :
A Russian nuclear physician who is kidnapped from Uzbekistan by Bane and forced to convert the new Wayne Enterprises reactor core into a bomb .
Juno Temple as Jen :
Selina 's friend and accomplice .
Daniel Sunjata as Capt. Mark Jones :
A U.S. Special Ops officer who leads a task force into Gotham to assist Gordon and the GCPD in freeing the city from Bane 's rule .
Chris Ellis as Father Reilly :
A priest at the orphanage that Blake grew up in .
Nestor Carbonell as Mayor Anthony Garcia :
The 48 @-@ year @-@ old mayor of Gotham , who is killed by Bane at the ruined football game .
Brett Cullen as Byron Gilley :
A U.S. congressman who is kidnapped on Harvey Dent Day by Catwoman .
Liam Neeson as Ra 's al Ghul :
The recent leader of the League of Shadows , who briefly appears to the imprisoned Bruce in a hallucination . Neeson stated that he was unaware of his role or if he would actually be in the movie , due to its secrecy.Josh Pence as young Ra 's al Ghul : scenes set thirty years before the events of Batman Begins .
Cillian Murphy reprises his role as Dr. Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow from the previous films . Other cast members include Aidan Gillen as CIA agent Bill Wilson ; Rob Brown and Desmond Harrington as police officers ; Josh Stewart as Bane 's right @-@ hand man Barsad , Christopher Judge as one of Bane 's henchmen , Noel Gugliemi as Bane 's exile compeller and Tom Conti as a prisoner . William Devane portrays the President of the United States . Aaron Eckhart expressed enthusiasm in returning for a sequel if asked , although he later stated Nolan verified that his character , Harvey Dent / Two @-@ Face , is dead , and only archive footage of Eckhart from The Dark Knight appears in the film .
Several members of the Pittsburgh Steelers have cameo appearances as members of the fictional Gotham Rogues football team in the film , including Ben Roethlisberger , Hines Ward , Troy Polamalu , Willie Colon , Maurkice Pouncey , Mike Wallace , Heath Miller , Aaron Smith , Ryan Clark , James Farrior , LaMarr Woodley , and Casey Hampton , and former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher as the head coach of the Rogues . Pittsburgh mayor Luke Ravenstahl , a kicker in college , appears as the kicker for the Rogues ' opponents , the Rapid City Monuments . In 2008 , the Rooney family sold a minority stake in the team to Thomas Tull , the CEO and president of Legendary Pictures , which produced The Dark Knight Rises . United States Senator Patrick Leahy , who had made a cameo appearance in The Dark Knight , returned in The Dark Knight Rises , as a Wayne Enterprises board member . Thomas Lennon , who had appeared as a doctor in Memento , once again plays a doctor . India Wadsworth plays the wife of Ra 's al Ghul and the mother of Talia .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Warner Bros. president of production Jeff Robinov had hoped a third film would be released in 2011 or 2012 . Nolan wanted the story for the third installment to keep him emotionally invested . " On a more superficial level , I have to ask the question , " he reasoned , " how many good third movies in a franchise can people name ? " Nolan said that he never even thought a third film was possible in the foreword for his book The Art and Making of the Dark Knight Trilogy . Nolan only agreed to a third film on the basis of finding a worthwhile story , fearing that he would become bored halfway through production if he discovered the film to be unnecessary . By December 2008 , Nolan completed a rough story outline , before he committed himself to Inception . Later in December , Alan F. Horn confirmed that while discussions with Nolan about a third film were ongoing , no casting had been done , and Horn denied all such rumors . Before Nolan confirmed his involvement , Gary Oldman had said he was confident Nolan would return .
Following the success of the Joker in The Dark Knight , studio executives wished for the Riddler to be included as the primary villain as he was considered a similar character and encouraged the casting of Leonardo DiCaprio . However , Nolan wanted the antagonist to be vastly different from the previous incarnations and committed to using Bane instead , citing the need for a character with a physical presence within the film . He was initially unfamiliar with the character 's back @-@ story , but pointed out the appeal of an archetype , labelling it as " the extreme of some type of villainy " . When comparing the choice of Bane with the Joker , Nolan highlighted the Joker as an example of " diabolical , chaotic anarchy and has a devilish sense of humor " , juxtaposing him against Bane , whom he likened to " a classic movie monster [ ... ] with a terrific brain . " Nolan has said that his draft of the script was inspired by Charles Dickens ' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities , which centers around the French Revolution . This homage to Dickens was briefly illustrated by having Bane inconspicuously finger knit paracord in the film , symbolizing his literary character Madame Defarge , and more overtly by Commissioner Gordon 's eulogy for Bruce Wayne at the end of the film , which is taken directly from the classic book .
It was not until February 9 , 2010 , that it was announced that Nolan had " cracked " the story of a sequel to The Dark Knight and was committed to return to the project . Shortly afterward , it was announced David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan were working on a screenplay . Goyer would leave the project during pre @-@ production to begin work on Man of Steel ; Jonathan continued writing the script based on the story by his brother Chris and Goyer . Chris Nolan said that his brother 's original draft was about 400 pages . The film 's storyline has been compared with the Batman comic book series ' story arc " Knightfall " ( 1993 ) , which showcased Bane ; the mini @-@ series The Dark Knight Returns ( 1986 ) , in which Batman returns to Gotham City after a ten @-@ year absence ; and the story arc " No Man 's Land " ( 1999 ) , which depicts a Gotham cut off from the rest of the world and overrun by gangs . The nickname " the Dark Knight " was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in a story written by Bill Finger . Nolan confirmed the Joker would not return in the third film , and dismissed rumors that he considered using unused footage of Heath Ledger from The Dark Knight . The Dark Knight Rises reunited Nolan with many of his past collaborators , including cinematographer Wally Pfister , production designer Nathan Crowley , editor Lee Smith , costume designer Lindy Hemming , special effects supervisors Paul Franklin and Chris Corbould , and composer Hans Zimmer .
= = = Filming = = =
During location scouting in December 2010 , Nolan began searching for locations such as India , Romania , and Michigan . According to the Romania Insider , Nolan was interested in Bucharest 's historical centers , Edgar Quinet Street , the Palace of the Parliament , and the Turda salt mine . The film had an estimated budget of $ 250 – 300 million , coming down to about $ 230 million after tax credits . Nolan elected not to film in 3 @-@ D , but instead stated that he intended to focus on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format . The Dark Knight Rises featured over an hour of footage shot in IMAX ( by comparison , The Dark Knight contained 28 minutes ) . Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice @-@ President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues . Wally Pfister had expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX , but because of the considerable noise made by IMAX cameras , 35mm and 70mm cameras had to be used for shooting the film 's dialogue scenes , as dialogue had to be dubbed when shot with IMAX cameras . Chairman and president of the IMAX Corporation Greg Foster stated that IMAX planned to run the film in its theatres for two months , despite only being contractually committed to run the film for two weeks . Nolan also bypassed the use of a digital intermediate for the film , resulting in less manipulation of the filmed image and higher film resolution .
Filming was scheduled to start in May and conclude in November 2011 . Principal photography commenced on May 6 , 2011 , in Jodhpur , India at the Mehrangarh Fort before moving to Pittsburgh , where it operated under the working title Magnus Rex to reduce the visibility of the production . Shooting locations within the city included Heinz Field , the site of an American football game , with members of the Pittsburgh Steelers playing the Gotham Rogues football team . More than 11 @,@ 000 extras were used to depict the shot sequence . Filming in Pittsburgh also took place at the Mellon Institute and Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University . A letter sent out to residents and business owners detailing road closures revealed that the streets of the city would be featured " as the start of [ the ] film " . 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operators were told to expect an increase in calls related to gunshots and explosions in the film 's production . The Pittsburgh leg of production wrapped after three weeks on August 21 , 2011 . The next portion of the filming began in Los Angeles in late August and finished up on October 23 after nine weeks of filming . New York and New Jersey were the next places of filming . The Trump Tower replaced the Richard J. Daley Center as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises . In November 2011 , shooting shifted to Newark , New Jersey . Newark City Hall and Military Park were among the locations used for filming . Other shooting locations include London and Glasgow , the latter of which was used for " additional exterior filming " . Principal photography concluded on November 14 , 2011 . The external waterfall scene at the end of the film was shot at Sgwd Henrhyd falls , on the edge of the Brecon Beacons National Park in Wales .
Production photos from filming in Pittsburgh showed a second Tumbler chassis after the first was destroyed , indicating that a new Batmobile would be in the film , following the destruction of the first in The Dark Knight . Further set photos revealed a " new vehicle " being transported to Wabash Tunnel , prompting speculation as to its nature . In June 2011 , Autoblog confirmed the presence of the new Lamborghini Aventador on the film set .
Several accidents occurred during the production of the film . While filming at Wollaton Hall , Nottingham , a tractor @-@ trailer crashed into the main entrance , though no one was injured . A stuntman parachutist later crashed through the roof of a home in Cairngorm Gliding Club , Feshiebridge in Scotland , and became wedged there after a failed landing during a skydiving stunt ; he was not seriously injured . While filming scenes in Pittsburgh , Hathaway 's stunt double crashed into an IMAX camera while filming a sequence that required her to ride a Batpod down a flight of stairs during a riot . There were no injuries , but the camera was destroyed . A second accident took place in Pittsburgh when the truck carrying the then @-@ unidentified vehicle later termed " the Bat " went off @-@ course and crashed into a lighting array , damaging the model of the aircraft . Production was delayed while the model was repaired .
Shortly before Christmas of 2011 , Christopher Nolan invited several prominent directors , including Edgar Wright , Michael Bay , Bryan Singer , Jon Favreau , Eli Roth , Duncan Jones and Stephen Daldry , to Universal CityWalk 's IMAX theatre for a private screening of the first six minutes of The Dark Knight Rises , which had been shot on IMAX film and edited from the original camera negative . Nolan , feeling that the use of film stock in cinema is currently being phased out due to the introduction of digital cinematography and projection , used this screening to make a case for the continued use of film , which he asserts still offers superior image quality to any digital format , and warned the filmmakers that unless they continued to assert their choice to use film in their productions , they may eventually lose it as an option . Nolan explained ; " I wanted to give them a chance to see the potential , because I think IMAX is the best film format that was ever invented . It 's the gold standard and what any other technology has to match up to , but none have , in my opinion . The message I wanted to put out there was that no one is taking anyone 's digital cameras away . But if we want film to continue as an option , and someone is working on a big studio movie with the resources and the power to insist [ on ] film , they should say so . I felt as if I didn 't say anything , and then we started to lose that option , it would be a shame . When I look at a digitally acquired and projected image , it looks inferior against an original negative anamorphic print or an IMAX one . "
= = = Design = = =
= = = = Costume design = = = =
Costume designer Lindy Hemming explained that Bane uses a mask to inhale an analgesic gas , which , in director Christopher Nolan 's words , " keeps his pain just below the threshold so he can function . " In designing Bane 's costume , Hemming needed it to look " like an amalgam of all sorts of bits and pieces he cobbled together , as he passed through some very remote places . We made parts of his vest , for example , from fragments of an old military tent . His clothes are militaristic , but are not in any way a uniform . " Hemming also designed Bane 's mask to look " animalistic " . Costume effects supervisor Graham Churchyard created a three @-@ dimensional model of actor Tom Hardy 's face and skull to design the mask , allowing the mask to perfectly conform to the contours of Hardy 's face . Hemming personally designed Bane 's coat , which she admitted took two years to complete . Taking inspiration from a Swedish army jacket and a frock coat from the French Revolution , it was designed to make Bane look like equal parts dictatorial and revolutionary . The design was difficult as Hemming struggled to find a tailor in Los Angeles who could work with shearling .
The Batsuit consisted of 110 separate pieces , each of which had to be replicated dozens of times over the course of the production . The base layer was made of a polyester mesh that is utilized by the military and high @-@ tech sports manufacturers because of its breathability and moisture @-@ wicking properties . Molded pieces of flexible urethane were then attached to the mesh , to form the overall body armor plating . Carbon fiber panels were placed inside the sections on the legs , chest and abdomen . The cowl was sculpted from a cast of Bale 's face and head to become a perfect fit for Christian Bale . The suit remained unchanged for the film since The Dark Knight .
In creating Selina Kyle 's catsuit , two layers of material were used , with the outer layer being polyurethane coated spandex , embossed with a hexagonal pattern . The catsuit also consisted of elbow @-@ length gloves , a utility belt , and thigh @-@ high boots with spike heels .
= = = = Production design = = = =
Concept artist Tully Summers commented on Nolan 's style of cinematography when asked about the difference between his designs for this film and fantasy @-@ based designs for Men in Black 3 : " The difference for me was Christopher Nolan 's visual style . One of the things that makes his Batman movies so compelling is their tone of plausibility . He will often prefer a raw , grittier design over one that is very sleek and product design pretty . It 's sort of a practical military aesthetic . This stuff is made to work , not impress shoppers . The Dark Knight Rises is a war film . " Producer Emma Thomas stated this Batman film has a different visual aesthetic from the first two Nolan @-@ directed features , explaining that " it 's meant to be winter in Gotham , so that right there is going to lend a whole different look to the film . "
The film introduces a vehicle that has been compared with the Batplane and the Batcopter , dubbed " the Bat " . In designing the Bat , Nathan Crowley approached it as if it were an actual military project , emphasising the need for it to " fit into the same family " as the Tumbler and the Batpod . The final version of the Bat takes its design cues from the Harrier Jump Jet , Bell Boeing V @-@ 22 Osprey and the Boeing AH @-@ 64 Apache . Chris Corbould described the Bat 's size and shape as presenting a major challenge for filming given Christopher Nolan 's emphasis on practical effects over computer @-@ generated imagery . In order to make the Bat " fly " , it was variously supported by wires , suspended from cranes and helicopters , and mounted on a purpose @-@ built vehicle with hydraulic controls to simulate movement .
When designing the Batcave set , Crowley and fellow production designer Kevin Kavanaugh hit upon the idea of flooding the Batcave and having Batman 's equipment , the Batsuit and a supercomputer rise from the water . Another set was designed at Cardington as an " underground prison " , a rough @-@ hewn labyrinth of stone cells in a vast abyss with a 120 foot ( 37 m ) vertical shaft leading to the surface . Exteriors above the prison were filmed in Jodhpur , India , chosen because the " forbidding landscape added to the desolation " .
= = = Music = = =
In an interview in October 2010 , composer Hans Zimmer confirmed that he would be returning to score The Dark Knight Rises . James Newton Howard was offered to return and write the score with Zimmer as he did for Batman Begins and The Dark Knight , but he chose not to because he noted that the chemistry established between Zimmer and Nolan during the making of Inception would make him seem like a " third wheel " . Zimmer included several cues from the earlier scores , but explains that he wanted to go in a " completely different direction " for Bane 's theme . While the theme accompanying Selina Kyle is deliberately ambiguous , the musical thread spanning throughout the trilogy was composed exclusively for Bruce Wayne .
The film features a prevalent Moroccan chant of the phrase deshi basara ( proper transliteration : Tījī basara ’ ah ) ( Arabic : تيجي بسرعة ) , which translates to " rise up " ( literally : " come quickly " ) . In November 2011 , Zimmer crowdsourced online audio recordings of the chant to be used in the film 's score . When asked about the chant for clarification , Zimmer said , " The chant became a very complicated thing because I wanted hundreds of thousands of voices , and it 's not so easy to get hundreds of thousands of voices . So , we tweeted and we posted on the internet , for people who wanted to be part of it . It seemed like an interesting thing . We 've created this world , over these last two movies , and somehow I think the audience and the fans have been part of this world . We do keep them in mind . "
= = Marketing = =
The official website launched in May 2011 , introducing a viral marketing campaign similar to the one used to promote The Dark Knight . The website streamed an encrypted audio file described by users as chanting . Users decrypted the audio to the Twitter hashtag , " # TheFireRises " . Warner Bros. removed a pixel from the webpage for every tweet using the hashtag . The website revealed the first official image of Bane .
In July 2011 , a teaser trailer leaked online before its official release with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . The studio released the teaser three days after the leak . The trailer received mixed responses ; Stephen Spencer Davis of Slate wrote it successfully built hype , while Kofi Outlaw of ScreenRant showed disappointment , claiming it was more of an " announcement trailer " than an actual teaser trailer . Outlaw criticized the quality , writing that a scene depicting Commissioner Gordon in a hospital bed was overly dramatic , had " hammy " dialogue , and was difficult to understand due to Gordon 's labored breathing . Outlaw wrote that the sweeping shot of Gotham City had poor CGI and was too reminiscent of the Inception trailer . The theatrical trailer leaked online , like the teaser trailer , before being released the following week attached to theatrical prints of Sherlock Holmes : A Game of Shadows . Critics noted political undertones with dialogue foreshadowing the theme of income inequality and an " Occupy Gotham " campaign within the world of the story . Receiving more than 12 @.@ 5 million views in the first 24 hours after its release , the trailer set the record for most combined downloads from iTunes , beating the previous record held by The Avengers . However , the second trailer for The Avengers again set the record with 13 @.@ 7 million downloads . Warner Bros. attached a second theatrical trailer for The Dark Knight Rises to theatrical prints of The Avengers . An " unnamed " Warner Brothers executive clarified that " We see this placement as a good strategic decision . We always want our trailers to be seen with films that people want to see — and a lot of people will be going to The Avengers ! " The executive also commented that the trailer will " provide the best potential exposure for TDKR . " Warner Bros. released the trailer online on April 30 , 2012 , approximately four days before they attached it to theatrical prints of The Avengers .
Continuing a method used with The Dark Knight whereby the opening sequence of the film was attached to IMAX prints of I Am Legend seven months before release , a six @-@ minute prologue of The Dark Knight Rises was attached to 70mm IMAX prints of Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol , again approximately seven months before release . Critical reaction to the prologue was positive , with one critic commenting that " no one gets to make a film on this kind of scale anymore . Except for Christopher Nolan , " though a round @-@ up of reviews highlighted the way many critics found Tom Hardy 's dialogue very difficult to hear . Addressing the issue in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Nolan said " I think when people see the film , things will come into focus . Bane is very complex and very interesting and when people see the finished film people will be very entertained by him . "
Viral marketing campaigns for the film continued as magazine companies Empire and Wired received " CIA documents " concerning a " Dr. Leonid Pavel " , with its mugshot connected to actor Alon Abutbul . According to the first document , Pavel is a missing Russian nuclear physicist , while the second document appears to be an edited transcript of a conversation discussing the handover of Dr. Pavel to the CIA by Georgian separatists , but with most of the conversation redacted . These were later shown to be plot elements of the six @-@ minute prologue . The official Twitter account later linked to another censored document , this time , referencing " Operation Early Bird " . A website of the same name was discovered , revealing a countdown timer . When the countdown finished , the site presented a map showing all available theaters that would be screening the film 's prologue earlier than its release . Various websites received a package that included a cylinder map of " strike zones " , and a " fire rises " T @-@ shirt . In April 2012 , the film 's official website was updated with a " dossier " on a suspect named " John Doe " also known as " the Batman " for an arrest , with a list of several accusations . The premise of the campaign starts when the mayor of Gotham City " redoubles " the effort to capture Batman and anyone supporting his return in preparation for the upcoming " Harvey Dent Day " . The site also includes an extensive list of real @-@ world locations where " graffiti related to movement in support of the vigilante 's return " is located . For each tweet of a specific location marked on the list , a frame of the second theatrical trailer for the film was released on a separate website .
In January 2012 , six months prior to the film 's release , tickets for midnight IMAX showings in New York , San Francisco , and Los Angeles went on sale and sold out immediately . Purchased tickets surfaced for sale online for over $ 100 , compared with their original price of $ 17 @.@ 50 .
At the American International Toy Fair , Mattel unveiled figures for Batman , Bane , and Catwoman , and Batman 's flying vehicle , the Bat . The Mattel figures were also released in the " Movie Masters " line , featuring more highly detailed and articulated presentation , and Quiktek versions that feature interchangeable accessories . Lego released building sets and mini @-@ figures based on the film and incorporating other DC Comic characters . Additionally , Funko released a series of plush toys , Mezco Toyz released vinyl figures , and Hornby released the Batman Tumbler car . Other partners include Jakks Pacific , who created novelty and large @-@ scale figures and plush toys , and PPW Toys , who created a Batman themed Mr. Potato Head . Various clothing items including shoes , T @-@ shirts , hats and wallets were also produced .
A video game of the same name was released on the same day as the release of the film for the iOS and Android devices for promoting the movie . The game features an open world with primary focus on stealth and combat . The combat system of the game is inspired from Arkham Asylum and Arkham City . It takes place in Gotham City , with a somewhat similar but still significantly different plot from that of the movie . IGN gave it a mediocre score of 5 @.@ 5 / 10 .
The film novelization , written by author Greg Cox and published by Titan Books , was released alongside the film on July 24 , 2012 .
Warner Bros. partnered with Mountain Dew to do a cross @-@ promotion that included a special paint scheme on the number 88 Chevrolet Impala owned by Hendrick Motorsports and driven by Dale Earnhardt , Jr. in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . On June 17 , 2012 , the car won the 2012 Quicken Loans 400 at Michigan International Speedway . On July 4 , 2012 , the studio signed a deal with Formula One team Lotus F1 to have the film 's logos appear on the Lotus E20s driven by Kimi Räikkönen and Romain Grosjean at the 2012 British Grand Prix . Räikkönen and Grosjean went on to finish the race in fifth and sixth place respectively . Warner Bros. had previously followed a similar promotion at the 2008 British Grand Prix , when the now @-@ defunct Toyota F1 carried a livery to promote The Dark Knight .
Two digital comic books entitled Batman Origins and The Dark Knight : Prologue were released exclusively for Nokia Lumia devices . A special movie application has also been released , featuring trailers , wallpapers , movie schedules and Batman trivias . Limited editions of the Lumia 710 , Lumia 800 and Lumia 900 were also released featuring a laser @-@ etched Batman logo .
= = Shooting in Aurora , Colorado = =
On July 20 , 2012 , during a midnight showing of The Dark Knight Rises at the Century 16 cinema in Aurora , Colorado , a gunman wearing a gas mask opened fire inside the theater , killing 12 people and injuring 58 others . Police responding to the shooting apprehended a suspect later identified as 24 @-@ year @-@ old James Eagan Holmes shortly after arriving on the scene . Initial reports stated that Holmes identified himself as " the Joker " at the time of his arrest .
Warner Bros. cancelled the Paris , Mexico , and Japan premieres of The Dark Knight Rises , and suspended the film 's marketing campaign in Finland . Several broadcast networks also suspended television ads for the film in the United States . The trailer for Gangster Squad , another Warner Bros. movie included in the screening of The Dark Knight Rises , was removed as it contains a scene which shows gangsters shooting submachine guns at moviegoers through the screen , similar to the shooting in Aurora .
Director Christopher Nolan released a public statement calling the shooting " unbearably savage " . Other stars of the film released statements expressing their condolences , with star Christian Bale paying a personal visit to the survivors and the memorial in Aurora .
= = Release = =
On July 6 , 2012 , Warner Bros. held a special IMAX screening of The Dark Knight Rises for more than one hundred reporters and critics . However , technical issues with the computer device synchronizing the sound and picture forced the studio to postpone the screening by a day . The film later premiered on July 16 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City , New York , followed by a European premiere on July 18 at Leicester Square in London , England . The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on July 19 , and was later released in North America and the United Kingdom on July 20 .
= = = Reception = = =
While The Dark Knight Rises received early generally favorable reviews from critics , the later reception was more mixed . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave The Dark Knight Rises a score of 87 % based on 327 reviews and a rating average of 8 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " The Dark Knight Rises is an ambitious , thoughtful , and potent action film that concludes Christopher Nolan 's franchise in spectacular fashion . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted score of 78 out of 100 , based on 45 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an A grade .
The Telegraph granted the film a maximum score of five stars , stating that it is " a superhero film without a superhero , " comparing it with The Godfather Part II and praising Hardy 's performance as well as the film 's intricate plot and narrative . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film was " potent , persuasive and hypnotic " and that it was " more than an exceptional superhero movie , it is masterful filmmaking by any standard . " The Playlists Todd Gilchrist wrote " A cinematic , cultural and personal triumph , The Dark Knight Rises is emotionally inspiring , aesthetically significant and critically important for America itself – as a mirror of both sober reflection and resilient hope . " IGN gave it a 9 out of 10 , noting similarities in tone and theme to Batman Begins over the trilogy 's second installment The Dark Knight , but also describing Bane as " that bit less interesting to watch " than Ledger 's Joker , despite praising his " menacing voice " and " body language @-@ driven performance " . The Guardian scored the film four out of five stars , calling it a film of " granite , monolithic intensity " , yet also calling it a " hammy , portentous affair " . Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon writes " if The Dark Knight Rises is a fascist film , it 's a great fascist film , and arguably the biggest , darkest , most thrilling and disturbing and utterly balls @-@ out spectacle ever created for the screen " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three out of four stars , stating " the film begins slowly with a murky plot and too many new characters , but builds to a sensational climax . " Film critic Richard Roeper gave the film an " A " , calling it " a majestic , gorgeous , brutal and richly satisfying epic " , and citing the final scenes of the picture as " the best five minutes of any film this year . " The London Film Review gave the film a B and said " Nolan 's film is a reminder that superheroes aren 't merely a frivolous distraction , but an embodiment of our best selves . " The film was crowned by Forbes as the best modern comic book superhero adaption on screen , outranking both its main summer blockbuster competitor , Marvel 's The Avengers , and the trilogy 's previous installment The Dark Knight . In 2014 , Empire ranked The Dark Knight Rises the 72nd greatest film ever made on their list of " The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time " as voted by the magazine 's readers .
The Daily Mail 's Chris Tookey said that the film was bloated and overly long , and criticized the sombre tone and lack of humor , despite praising the film 's visually @-@ impressive set pieces . CNN 's Tom Charity said the film was a " disappointingly clunky and bombastic conclusion to a superior series " and called it Nolan 's worst film . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker says that the " story is dense , overlong , and studded with references that will make sense only to those intimate with Nolan 's previous excursions into Batmanhood " .
In reaction to fan backlash to some of the negative reviews , Rotten Tomatoes chose to disable user commentary for the film leading up to its release . Some fans had threatened violence against critics while others threatened to take down the websites of movie critics who had given the film a negative review .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
Writing in Salon , David Sirota , a progressive political commentator compared The Dark Knight Rises and the game Call of Duty to 1980s popular culture reflecting the political period of the time , accusing them of perpetuating a conservative agenda : " Just as so many 1980s pop culture products reflected the spirit of the Reagan Revolution 's conservative backlash , we are now seeing two blockbuster , genre @-@ shaping products not @-@ so @-@ subtly reflect the Tea Party 's rhetorical backlash to the powerful Occupy Wall Street zeitgeist . " An article in Variety reported Chuck Dixon , the co @-@ creator of the Bane character , as saying that Bane is " far more akin to an Occupy Wall Street type if you 're looking to cast him politically . " Catherine Shoard of the center @-@ left British publication The Guardian claimed the film " is a quite audaciously capitalist vision , radically conservative , radically vigilante , that advances a serious , stirring proposal that the wish @-@ fulfilment of the wealthy is to be championed if they say they want to do good . " In contrast , liberal commentator Jonathan Chait opined in New York that " What passes for a right @-@ wing movie these days is The Dark Knight Rises , which submits the rather modest premise that , irritating though the rich may be , actually killing them and taking all their stuff might be excessive . " Writing in USA Today , Bryan Alexander called Bane " the ultimate occupier " and reported that Christian Bale was amazed that the script had " foreseen " the Occupy movement .
Nolan has denied the film criticizes the Occupy movement and insists that none of his Batman films are intended to be political : " I 've had as many conversations with people who have seen the film the other way round . We throw a lot of things against the wall to see if it sticks . We put a lot of interesting questions in the air , but that 's simply a backdrop for the story . What we 're really trying to do is show the cracks of society , show the conflicts that somebody would try to wedge open . We 're going to get wildly different interpretations of what the film is supporting and not supporting , but it 's not doing any of those things . It 's just telling a story . If you 're saying , ' Have you made a film that 's supposed to be criticizing the Occupy Wall Street movement ? ' – well , obviously , that 's not true . "
Alternatively , politically @-@ conservative commentator Rush Limbaugh alleged that the film was biased against 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney due to Bane 's name being a homophone for Bain Capital , the financial service company Romney used to head , despite the fact that the character has existed as a major Batman foe since 1993 . In response , Nolan said that the comments were " bizarre " , while Dixon and Freeman said that the comments were " ridiculous " . Democratic adviser Christopher Lehane has noted the similarities between the narratives of the film and the presidential campaign .
= = = = Accolades = = = =
= = = = Box office = = = =
Hours before the midnight release , several box office analysts suggested as much as a $ 198 million domestic opening weekend . However , in the wake of the mass shooting during a midnight screening of the film , Warner Bros. decided to not report further box office figures for the movie until Monday , July 23 , 2012 . As a result , other distributors also delayed the release of their official estimates as well . The shooting is also speculated to have hurt the ticket sales as E ! Online reported that a North Carolina audience member had stated that " this theater was kinda empty " . Some reports released on July 21 , 2012 said that rival studios estimated that the film grossed $ 75 million to $ 77 million on its opening day . Warner Brothers shortly after released a statement to ABC News stating that they delayed the release of their estimates for the opening day total of the film " out of respect for the victims and their families , " and added " Warner Bros. Pictures will not be reporting box office numbers for The Dark Knight Rises throughout the weekend . Box office numbers will be released on Monday . "
Worldwide
The Dark Knight Rises earned $ 448 million in North America , and $ 636 million in other countries , summing up to a worldwide total of $ 1 billion . Worldwide , it is the sixteenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time and the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 . It had a worldwide opening weekend of $ 248 @.@ 9 million . The film set a worldwide IMAX opening @-@ weekend record with $ 23 @.@ 8 million ( overtaken by Avengers : Age of Ultron ) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $ 50 million in IMAX theatres . IMAX CEO Richard L. Gelfond explained this by claiming , " Audiences are clearly seeking out and embracing the film the way it was meant to be seen – in IMAX . " On the 2012 Labor Day weekend , it became the third film distributed by Warner Bros. and the thirteenth film in cinematic history to cross the $ 1 billion mark . The film also became the second movie ( after Avatar ) to reach $ 100 million in worldwide IMAX grosses .
North America
The Dark Knight Rises opened on Friday , July 20 , 2012 . It earned an estimated $ 30 @.@ 6 million in midnight showings , which was the second @-@ highest midnight gross behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( $ 43 @.@ 5 million ) . It did , however , set an IMAX midnight @-@ gross record with $ 2 @.@ 3 million ( overtaken by Avengers : Age of Ultron ) . The film made $ 75 @.@ 8 million during its opening day , achieving , at the time , the third @-@ highest single and opening day tally of all time . On July 23 , 2012 , it was announced that the film grossed $ 160 @.@ 9 million for its debut weekend , which was the third @-@ highest opening weekend ever , at the time , behind Marvel 's The Avengers ( $ 207 @.@ 4 million ) and Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( $ 169 @.@ 2 million ) . However , it did set an opening @-@ weekend record for a 2D film ( previously held by The Dark Knight ) and an IMAX opening @-@ weekend record with $ 19 @.@ 0 million ( previously held by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . The film also held the top spot at the box office for its second and third weekends . In North America , it is the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film , the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing 2012 film , as well as the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing superhero film and film based on comics . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 50 million tickets in the US .
Markets outside North America
Outside North America , the film opened with $ 88 @.@ 0 million from 7 @,@ 173 theaters in just 17 markets . It was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends . Its three largest markets are the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 90 @.@ 3 million ) , where it is the highest @-@ grossing superhero film , China ( $ 52 @.@ 8 million ) and Australia ( $ 44 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The Dark Knight Rises was released on November 28 , 2012 in Hong Kong and New Zealand . On December 3 , it was released in the United Kingdom , and on December 4 , it was released in the United States . It is available on Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and as a Digital download . Coinciding with the release of this film , a box set of The Dark Knight trilogy was released .
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= Petlyakov Pe @-@ 8 =
The Petlyakov Pe @-@ 8 was a Soviet heavy bomber designed before World War II , and the only four @-@ engine bomber the USSR built during the war . Produced in limited numbers , it was used to bomb Berlin in August 1941 . It was also used for so @-@ called " morale raids " designed to raise the spirit of the Soviet people by exposing Axis vulnerabilities . Its primary mission , however , was to attack German airfields , rail yards and other rear @-@ area facilities at night , although one was used to fly the People 's Commissar of Foreign Affairs ( Foreign Minister ) Vyacheslav Molotov from Moscow to the United States in 1942 .
Originally designated the TB @-@ 7 , the aircraft was renamed the Pe @-@ 8 after its primary designer , Vladimir Petlyakov , died in a plane crash in 1942 . Supply problems complicated the aircraft 's production and the Pe @-@ 8s also had engine problems . As Soviet morale boosters , they were also high @-@ value targets for the Luftwaffe 's fighter pilots . The loss rate of these aircraft , whether from mechanical failure , friendly fire , or combat , doubled between 1942 and 1944 .
By the end of the war , most of the surviving aircraft had been withdrawn from combat units . After the war , some were modified as transports for important officials , and a few others were used in various Soviet testing programs . Some supported the Soviet Arctic operations until the late 1950s .
= = Design and development = =
Development of the Pe @-@ 8 began in July 1934 , when the Soviet Air Forces ( VVS ) issued requirements for an aircraft to replace the obsolete and cumbersome Tupolev TB @-@ 3 heavy bomber . These requirements specified a bomber that could carry 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) of bombs 4 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed greater than 440 km / h ( 270 mph ) at an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 32 @,@ 808 ft ) , figures that were twice the range , speed and service ceiling of the TB @-@ 3 . The task was assigned to the Tupolev Design Bureau ( OKB ) where Andrei Tupolev handed the work to a team led by Vladimir Petlyakov and the project received the internal bureau designation of ANT @-@ 42 . The resulting aircraft , a four @-@ engined , mid @-@ wing cantilever monoplane , was initially designated as the TB @-@ 7 ( Russian : Тяжёлый Бомбардировщик , Tyazholy Bombardirovschik — Heavy Bomber ) by the VVS and owed more to the streamlined design of the Tupolev SB than to the block @-@ like design of the TB @-@ 3 .
The bomber was built mainly of duralumin , with two steel spars in the wings , although the ailerons were fabric @-@ covered . The pear @-@ shaped monocoque fuselage required the pilots to sit in tandem , offset to the left . In the prototype , space for a fifth engine , an auxiliary Klimov M @-@ 100 , was reserved inside the fuselage , in a fairing above the wing spars and behind the pilots . It was intended to drive a supercharger that supplied pressurized air to the Mikulin AM @-@ 34FRN engines , with the installation designated ATsN @-@ 2 ( Russian : Agregat tsentral 'novo nadduva — Central Supercharging Unit ) . Subsequent models omitted the internal engine , and provided seating for a flight engineer and radio operator , behind and below the pilots . The bombardier sat in the nose and manned a turret armed with a 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon that covered a 120 ° cone ahead . A prominent chin gondola , nicknamed the ' beard ' , protruded beneath the nose . The dorsal gunner sat at the rear of the ATsN fairing with a sliding hood covering a 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine gun and another ShKAS mounted in a ventral hatch . The tail gunner had a powered turret with a ShVAK and , most unusually , there were manually operated ShVAK cannon mounted at the rear of each inner engine nacelle . Crewmen had access to these positions through the wing or by a trapdoor in the upper wing surface . The large internal bomb bay racks held up to 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) of bombs ; external racks held a single 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) FAB @-@ 500 ( Fugasnaya AviaBomba - high explosive bomb ) bomb under each wing .
The maiden flight of the unarmed prototype , piloted by M. M. Gromov and without the ATsN installation , occurred at Khodynka Aerodrome on 27 December 1936 . After successful initial trials , the ATsN system was installed for the State acceptance trials in August 1937 and the AM @-@ 34RNB engines were fitted during the tests . Gromov reported that the rudder was ineffective and that the outer engines overheated . Subsequent wind tunnel testing identified a problem with the aerodynamics of the radiators and nacelles . To solve this problem , the outer engines ' radiators were moved into deep ducts under the inner nacelles and the rudder was enlarged and redesigned with a smooth skin .
Construction of a second prototype began in April 1936 , incorporating lessons from the first aircraft and feedback from the VVS . Designers widened the fuselage by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) ; the ' beard ' was also widened and the tail section was modified to lessen resistance and improve rudder function . A reconfigured control system included an autopilot and the engineers redesigned portions of the electrical system . The engines were changed to the more powerful AM @-@ 34FRNVs and a redesigned undercarriage was fitted to the airframe . Two additional fuel tanks increased the craft 's range . The defensive and offensive armament was revised , and the bomber 's weaponry expanded to twin ShKAS guns in the nose , nacelle and tail turrets and a dorsal turret with a ShVAK ; this design eliminated the ventral gun . The bomb bay was modified to allow for a single 5 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) FAB @-@ 5000 bomb to be carried and provisions were added to carry VAP @-@ 500 or VAP @-@ 1000 poison gas dispensers under the wings .
The arrests of both Tupolev and Petlyakov in October 1937 , during the Great Purge , disrupted the program and the second prototype did not make its first flight until 26 July 1938 . Although this prototype served as the basis for the series aircraft , further modifications were made to the armament . New weaponry included a retractable ShVAK in the MV @-@ 6 dorsal turret , another ShVAK in a KEB tail turret and a 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) Berezin UBT machine gun in each ShU barbette in each inner engine nacelle . Another fuel tank further increased the range , and the ' beard ' was removed entirely , replaced by a more streamlined nose . Authorization for production was slow for several reasons , including the Great Purge , but also due to the scarcity of resources , and a shortage of workers . Although production facilities in the Kazan Factory No. 124 were ready as early as 1937 , the order to begin was not given until 1939 .
= = = Manufacture and supply problems = = =
Engine supply problems complicated the construction of the aircraft . Production of the ATsN superchargers could not be organized in any systematic way and only the first four Pe @-@ 8s were equipped with them . Factory No. 124 shut down its Pe @-@ 8 production line at the beginning of 1940 while alternative engines were evaluated . Somewhere in the massive Soviet chain of command , the decision was made to proceed without the superchargers . The unavailability of the Klimov M @-@ 100 engine of the ATsN @-@ 2 installation required a design change , although this modification allowed a commander and radio operator to be carried in its place . Then , to compound the problem further , the production of AM @-@ 34FRNV engines ended in the second half of 1939 . Only two or four Pe @-@ 8s were equipped with them . Eighteen of the aircraft produced by the end of 1940 were fitted with AM @-@ 35A engines .
In 1940 , six aircraft without engines were fitted with Mikulin AM @-@ 35A engines , while VVS officials evaluated both the Charomskiy ACh @-@ 30 and Charomskiy M @-@ 40 aircraft Diesel engines . At least nine Pe @-@ 8s were fitted with Diesel engines in 1941 , but neither the ACh @-@ 30 nor the M @-@ 40 were entirely satisfactory , despite greatly increasing the range of the aircraft . All surviving Pe @-@ 8s were re @-@ engined with AM @-@ 35As by the end of 1941 . Production continued slowly at Factory No. 124 ; most of the factory 's resources were devoted to the higher @-@ priority Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 , a successful light bomber . At this time , most of these aircraft , re @-@ designated as the Pe @-@ 8 after Petlyakov was killed in a Pe @-@ 2 crash on 12 January 1942 , were built with out @-@ of @-@ production AM @-@ 35A engines .
The 1 @,@ 380 @-@ kW ( 1 @,@ 850 @-@ hp ) Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82 radial engine was proposed as a replacement to alleviate the shortage of engines and this modification went into production in late 1942 . The exhaust arrangements of the ASh @-@ 82 were not compatible with the gun turrets in the rear of the engine nacelles and the guns were removed , reducing the aircraft 's defensive capability . At the end of 1943 , the nose turret was deleted in favor of a manually operated ShKAS machine gun in a more streamlined nose . This version of the aircraft proved to have much the same range as the diesel @-@ engined versions , but reliability was greatly improved . Production of the Pe @-@ 8s totaled 93 .
The last Pe @-@ 8s were completed in 1944 as Pe @-@ 8ONs ( Russian : Osobovo Naznacheniya — Special Mission ) with Charomskiy ACh @-@ 30B engines and a fillet at the base of the vertical stabilizer . These were special VIP transports with a seating capacity of twelve and a cargo capacity of 1 @,@ 200 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 646 lb ) . Sources disagree if the armament was removed and , if it was , whether partly or entirely .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Wartime use = = =
When Operation Barbarossa began on 22 June 1941 , only the 2nd Squadron of the 14th Heavy Bomber Regiment ( Russian : Tyazholy Bombardirovochnyy Avia Polk — TBAP ) , based at Boryspil was equipped with Pe @-@ 8s , but was not ready for combat . Two of its nine Pe @-@ 8s were destroyed by German air strikes shortly after the war began , before the Pe @-@ 8s were withdrawn out of reach of German bombers to Kazan . Stalin ordered that the squadron be reformed into a regiment , and that it strike targets deep inside German territory . Theoretically , this tactic would boost Soviet morale by demonstrating the vulnerability of the enemy . The squadron was re @-@ designated on 29 June as the 412th TBAP and began training for long @-@ range missions . On or about 27 July it was again renamed , this time as the 432nd TBAP . On the evening of 10 August , eight M @-@ 40 @-@ engined Pe @-@ 8s of the 432nd TBAP , accompanied by Yermolaev Yer @-@ 2s of the 420th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment ( DBAP ) , attempted to bomb Berlin from Pushkino Airfield near Leningrad . One heavily loaded Pe @-@ 8 crashed immediately upon take off , after it lost an engine . Only four managed to reach Berlin , or its outskirts , and of those , only two returned to their base . The others landed elsewhere or crash @-@ landed in Finland and Estonia . The aircraft of the commander of the 81st Long @-@ Range Bomber Division , Combrig Mikhail Vodopianov , to which both regiments belonged , was attacked mistakenly by Polikarpov I @-@ 16s from Soviet Naval Aviation over the Baltic Sea and lost an engine ; later , before he could reach Berlin , German flak punctured a fuel tank . He crash @-@ landed his aircraft in southern Estonia . Five more Pe @-@ 8s were lost during the operation , largely due to the unreliability of the M @-@ 40s . Seven Pe @-@ 8s were lost during the month of August alone , rendering the regiment ineffective . During this period , the surviving aircraft were re @-@ equipped with AM @-@ 35As , which gave them a shorter range , but a more reliable engine .
By 1 October 1941 , the regiment mustered fourteen Pe @-@ 8s after having been replenished by new aircraft from the factory . It spent the rest of the year conducting night raids on Berlin , Königsberg , Danzig and as well as German @-@ occupied cities in the Soviet Union . The regiment was re @-@ designated as the 746th Separate Long @-@ Range Aviation Regiment ( Russian : Otdel 'nyy Avia Polk Dahl 'nevo Deystviya — OAPDD ) on 3 December . No aircraft were reported on hand two days later after this designation , but eleven were on strength on 18 March 1942 . During the winter of 1941 – 42 , the regiment was assigned the destruction of a railroad bridge over the Volga River , near Kalinin . In April 1942 , one aircraft flew diplomatic personnel and mail on a non @-@ stop flight from Moscow to Great Britain . This was a test run for a flight carrying Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov and his delegation from Moscow to London and then to Washington , D.C. and back , for negotiations to open a second front against Nazi Germany ( 19 May – 13 June 1942 ) . The flight crossed German @-@ controlled airspace on the return trip without incident . From August 1941 to May 1942 , the regiment flew 226 sorties and dropped 606 tonnes ( 596 long tons ; 668 short tons ) of bombs . In the course of these missions , they lost 14 bombers , five in combat , and the rest from engine malfunction . The regiment received 17 Pe @-@ 8s as replacements . Sixteen aircraft were on hand on 1 May 1942 , but the number had only increased to seventeen two months later ; the regiment was losing aircraft almost as fast as they were being replaced .
The 890th Long @-@ Range Aviation Regiment ( Russian : Avia Polk Dahl 'nevo Deystviya — APDD ) was formed on 15 June 1942 and both regiments were used to bomb German @-@ held transportation centers of , among others , Orel , Bryansk , Kursk and Poltava . The pace of activity increased and the regiments flew as many missions in August as they had in the first ten months of the war . By the eve of the Soviet counterattack at Stalingrad , Operation Uranus , on 8 November the regiments had fourteen Pe @-@ 8s on hand . Under the command of the 45th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Division ( Russian : Dal 'nebombardirovochnaya Aviatsionnaya Diviziya — DBAD ) , they did not participate in the Stalingrad air attacks .
In 1943 , from the division 's primary airfield at Kratovo , southeast of Moscow , the regiments bombed transportation centers , airfields and troop concentrations . The railroad yard at Gomel was a favorite target and the regiment dropped approximately 606 tonnes ( 596 long tons ; 668 short tons ) of bombs there between February and September 1943 . It is not clear if these sorties were made by Pe @-@ 8s alone or in combination with other aircraft . In addition , the regiment dropped the first FAB @-@ 5000 bomb on Königsberg in April 1943 , continuing the pin @-@ prick attacks against targets deep in the German rear . In May 1943 , efforts shifted to disrupt the German concentration of forces for the Battle of Kursk . In one sortie , the 109 bombers of the 45th DBAD struck the rail junction at Orsha during the evening of 4 May , most of which were not Pe @-@ 8s ; the German High Command reported the destruction of 300 rail wagons and three ammunition trains .
By 1 July , the regiment had 18 Pe @-@ 8s for deployment during the early phase of the Battle of Kursk . The long @-@ range aviation units continued to attack targets in the German rear areas at night , supporting the Soviet ground offensive in the Orel Bulge , called Operation Kutuzov , that began on 12 July . The Germans had transferred the nightfighters of the Fourth Group of Nightfighter Wing 5 ( IV . / Nachtjagdgeschwader 5 ) , flying a mix of Junkers Ju 88 and Dornier Do 217 aircraft , to counter the Soviet raids near the Orel area . Initially , the night fighters were ineffective against the Soviet raids , until the deployment of their ground radar " eyes " . Once the Germans had use of their radar , after the night of 17 – 18 July , Soviet losses increased sharply . Although the Germans flew only fourteen sorties that night , they claimed eight kills . On the night of 20 – 21 July , Captain ( Hauptmann ) Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein , commander of IV . / NJG 5 , shot down three himself . The exhaust plume of the ASh @-@ 82 engine may have been a contributing factor ; the engines lacked flame dampening exhausts , making their plume visible from a distance . Despite its losses , the 746th was re @-@ designated as the 25th Long @-@ Range Guards Aviation Regiment ( GAPDD ) on 18 September 1943 in recognition of its achievements .
= = = Removal from combat = = =
The loss of Pe @-@ 8s to all causes — mechanical , combat , friendly fire — had steadily increased from one aircraft per 103 flights in 1942 to one per 46 sorties in 1944 . Despite the losses , production kept pace with need . The number of aircraft belonging to the 45th DBAD continued to rise ; 20 were on hand on 1 January 1944 and 30 on 1 June . The Pe @-@ 8s flew 276 sorties in 1944 against such targets as Helsinki , Tallinn and Pskov . Aviation historian Yefim Gordon maintains that the Pe @-@ 8 flew its last mission on the night of 1 – 2 August 1944 , but the Statistical Digest of the VVS contradicts this claim , showing 31 Pe @-@ 8s assigned to 45th DBAD on 1 January 1945 and 32 on hand on 10 May 1945 . However , during this period the 45th DBAD only had three regiments , none of which used the Pe @-@ 8 as their primary aircraft , so while the 45th DBAD may have had Pe @-@ 8s , these may not have been in use as the primary combat aircraft .
The 890th began to fly Lend @-@ Lease B @-@ 25 Mitchells in the spring of 1944 and was itself re @-@ designated as the 890th Bomber Aviation Regiment on 26 December 1944 . The 362nd APDD was formed in early 1944 with four Pe @-@ 8s received from the other two regiments , but these were returned in the spring of 1944 , when the regiment began to convert to the Lend @-@ Lease Mitchells .
= = = Post @-@ war use = = =
After the war , the Pe @-@ 8 was used extensively as a testbed for trials involving Soviet derivatives of the German V @-@ 1 flying bomb and it was designated as the Pe @-@ 8LL for prototype piston engine trials . It was also used as a mother ship for the experimental rocket @-@ engined Bisnovat 5 in 1948 – 49 . Aeroflot received several of the surviving Pe @-@ 8s for polar exploration . Their military equipment removed , they had additional fuel tanks installed , were painted orange , and had their engines upgraded to either ASh @-@ 82FNs or Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73s . One landed at the North Pole in 1954 and others helped to monitor the drift ice stations NP @-@ 2 , NP @-@ 3 and NP @-@ 4 during the late 1950s .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Forces
= = Specifications ( Pe @-@ 8 / AM @-@ 35A ) = =
Data from Gordon , Soviet Airpower in World War 2 , p . 398
General characteristics
Crew : Eleven
Length : 23 @.@ 2 m ( 76 ft ¼ in )
Wingspan : 39 @.@ 13 m ( 128 ft 4 in )
Height : 6 @.@ 20 m ( 20 ft 4 in )
Wing area : 188 @.@ 66 m ² ( 2 @,@ 030 @.@ 7 ft ² )
Empty weight : 18 @,@ 571 kg ( 40 @,@ 941 lb )
Loaded weight : 27 @,@ 000 kg ( 59 @,@ 400 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 35 @,@ 000 kg ( 77 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Mikulin AM @-@ 35A liquid @-@ cooled V12 engine , 999 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 443 km / h ( 275 @.@ 2 mph )
Range : 3 @,@ 700 km ( 2 @,@ 299 mi )
Service ceiling : 9 @,@ 300 m ( 30 @,@ 504 ft )
Rate of climb : 5 @.@ 9 m / s ( 1 @,@ 154 ft / min )
Wing loading : 143 kg / m ² ( 29 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 140 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 2 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : 2 x 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannons ( dorsal and tail turrets )
2 x 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) UBT machine guns ( engine nacelles )
2 x 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine guns ( nose turret )
Bombs : Up to 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb )
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= Wage reform in the Soviet Union , 1956 – 62 =
During the Khrushchev era , especially from 1956 through 1962 , the Soviet Union attempted to implement major wage reforms intended to move Soviet industrial workers away from the mindset of overfulfilling quotas that had characterised the Soviet economy during the preceding Stalinist period and toward a more efficient financial incentive .
Throughout the Stalinist period , most Soviet workers had been paid for their work based on a piece @-@ rate system . Thus their individual wages were directly tied to the amount of work they produced . This policy was intended to encourage workers to toil and therefore increase production as much as possible . The piece @-@ rate system led to the growth of bureaucracy and contributed to significant inefficiencies in Soviet industry . In addition , factory managers frequently manipulated the personal production quotas given to workers to prevent workers ' wages from falling too low .
The wage reforms sought to remove these wage practices and offer an efficient financial incentive to Soviet workers by standardising wages and reducing the dependence on overtime or bonus payments . However , industrial managers were often unwilling to take actions that would effectively reduce workers ' wages and frequently ignored the directives they were given , continuing to pay workers high overtime rates . Industrial materials were frequently in short supply , and production needed to be carried out as quickly as possible once materials were available — a practice known as " storming " . The prevalence of storming meant that the ability to offer bonus payments was vital to the everyday operation of Soviet industry , and as a result the reforms ultimately failed to create a more efficient system .
= = Background = =
= = = Existing system = = =
During the period of Stalinism , the Soviet Union attempted to achieve economic growth through increased industrial production . In 1927 – 28 , the sum total of Soviet production of capital goods amounted to 6 billion rubles , but by 1932 , annual production increased to 23 @.@ 1 billion rubles . Factories and industrial enterprises were actively encouraged to " achieve at whatever cost " , with a strong emphasis placed on overfulfilling stated targets so as to produce as much as possible . For example , the slogan for the first Five @-@ Year Plan , " The Five @-@ Year Plan In Four Years ! " , called on workers to fulfill the state 's objectives a year earlier than planned .
Frantically rushed production was very common in Soviet industry , and in particular a process known as " storming " ( Russian : штурмовщина , pronounced shturmovshchina ) was endemic ; it involved crash programs in which factories tried to undertake all their monthly production quota in a very short space of time . This was usually the result of a lack of industrial materials that left factories without the resources to complete production until new supplies arrived at the end of the month . Workers then worked as many hours as possible to meet monthly quotas in time ; this exhausted them and left them unable to work at the beginning of the next month ( although lack of raw materials meant there would have been very little for them to produce at this point anyway ) .
To encourage individual workers to work hard and produce as much as they possibly could , most workers in Soviet industry were paid on a piece @-@ rate ; their wage payments depended upon how much work they personally completed . Soviet workers were given individual quotas for the amount of work they should personally deliver and would earn a basic wage ( stavka ) by fulfilling 100 percent of their quota . The wage rate for work would grow as production over this level increased . If a worker produced 120 percent of his own personal quota for the month ( for example , if he was supposed to produce 1 @,@ 000 items , but actually produced 1 @,@ 200 ) he would receive his basic wage for the first 100 percent , a higher rate for the first 10 percent of over production and an even higher rate for the next 10 percent . Soviet authorities hoped that this would encourage a Stakhanovite spirit of overfulfillment of quotas among the Soviet workforce . In 1956 , approximately 75 percent of Soviet workers were paid under such a piece @-@ rate system , so the majority of Soviet workers could significantly boost their earnings by increasing their output .
Average wage rates in the Soviet Union were published relatively rarely . Some academics in the West believed this was because the Soviet government wanted to conceal low average earnings . Alec Nove wrote in 1966 ( when wage statistics were published for the first time since the Second World War ) that the lack of transparency surrounding average wages was intended to prevent Soviet workers from discovering the huge disparities that existed between wages in different sectors of the Soviet economy .
= = = Problems = = =
The piece @-@ rate approach to wages had been introduced in the first Five @-@ Year Plan in 1928 and had changed very little since then . In practice the piece @-@ rate system led to many inefficiencies in Soviet industry . One issue was the vast bureaucracy that was involved in administering wage payments . Each Soviet ministry or government department would set its own rates and wage scales for work in the factories or enterprises for which they were responsible . Within one ministry there could be great variation in pay rates for jobs requiring largely identical responsibilities and skills , based on what the factory was producing , the location of the factory and other factors that Moscow considered important . Basing payments on these central directives often led to long and costly processes in the calculation of wages . Historian Donald Filtzer wrote of one 1930s machinist who in one month completed 1 @,@ 424 individual pieces of work . Amongst these had been 484 differing tasks , all of which had been assigned a basic individual payment rate of between 3 and 50 kopeks each ( 1 ruble was equal to 100 kopeks ) . To calculate this worker 's wage , his employer had to process 2 @,@ 885 documents which had required some 8 @,@ 500 signatures on 8 kilograms of paper , costing the factory 309 rubles , a fifth of what they would pay the worker , whose total earnings for the labour amounted to 1 @,@ 389 rubles .
Time workers — workers who were paid for the time they spent working rather than by how much they individually produced — also received bonuses based on performance . Factory managers , who did not want these workers to lose out to their piece @-@ rate colleagues , often manipulated output figures to ensure that they would ( on paper ) overfulfill their targets and therefore receive their bonuses . Typically , managers were loath to see their employees ' wages fall too low , so they frequently kept quotas deliberately low , or offered ways for workers to manipulate their work outputs to achieve a higher bonus . They generally did this to ensure that their factory could run smoothly , rather than out of concern for the workers ' personal welfare . The erratic and seemingly arbitrary way that quotas had been set across different industries led to a high level of uncompleted production in industries where it was more difficult to overfulfill production quotas . Managers therefore tried to keep quotas deliberately low to attract workers to their factories to ensure their factories were able to meet their targets .
Even without managerial manipulation , quotas were very often low and easy to overfulfill . Quotas had been lowered during the Second World War so that new workers would be able to fulfill their output expectations ; in industries such as engineering , it was common for workers to double their basic pay through bonuses .
= = Reform = =
After the death of Stalin , the Soviet Union went through a process of moving away from Stalinist policies known as de @-@ Stalinization . The purpose of de @-@ Stalinization included not only ending the use of terror and the Gulag system that had existed under Stalin , but also reforming the economic policies of the Soviet Union . In the 1950s , the Soviet economy had begun to fall behind schedule in the output of several key materials including coal , iron and cement , and worker productivity was not growing at the rate expected . In May 1955 , Pravda ( the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Communist Party ) announced that a State Committee on Labour and Wages had been formed to investigate changes to wages and a centralised system of wage adjustments . In July 1955 , Soviet Premier Nikolai Bulganin spoke of the need for Soviet industry to end outdated work quotas and reform wages , so that the Soviet Union could better incentivise workers and reduce labour turnover . The subsequent sixth Five @-@ Year Plan for 1956 to 1960 included calls for a reform of wages . The reforms had several objectives , the most important of which was to create a more consistent system of incentives for workers . It was also hoped that the reforms would help to reduce the levels of waste and misallocation of labour that were frequently found in Soviet industry .
= = = Provisions = = =
The Sixth Five Year Plan made several key changes to Soviet workers ' wages . Firstly , basic wages were increased so that there would be less pressure to overfulfill quotas , and therefore less pressure to manipulate or distort results . Wage increases were restricted to the lowest paid jobs , as Nikita Khrushchev sought to be seen as the " friend to the underdog " . It was also hoped that wage rises for lower paid jobs would encourage more women to enter industry and that freezes on higher paid jobs would deter people from leaving employment .
Secondly , quotas were raised to limit the ability of workers to overfulfill targets . In the case of time workers , this was sometimes done by keeping quotas the same but reducing hours ; for example , coal miners saw their working day shortened to six hours . Some rises were very steep ; in the case of engineering enterprises , quotas were raised by 65 percent .
The number of wage rates and wage scales was drastically reduced ; this not only cut bureaucracy , but also ensured that workers would be more eager to take on a wider range of tasks . Time workers , for example , would be paid the same regardless of which task they carried out during their shift . This allowed managers to better distribute labour and reduce the frequency of bottlenecks occurring in production . They could do this because workers would be paid a similar rate no matter what they undertook , so it became easier to move workers between tasks .
A major change was made in the way overfulfillment was rewarded . Progressive piece @-@ rates , where rates increased as outputs grew , were ended , and workers were paid a one @-@ off bonus upon overachieving a quota . Where bonus rates were retained for each percentage of overfulfillment , they were capped . For example , in engineering , bonuses could not exceed 20 percent of their normal earnings .
Lastly , workers whose tasks were considered too important to be paid on a piece @-@ rate basis were moved to a time @-@ rate method . This was largely done in consideration of safety grounds and usually applied to those conducting maintenance or the repair of equipment .
= = Successes = =
The reform 's clearest effect was to reduce the proportion of Soviet industrial labour that was paid by piece @-@ rate , and by August 1962 , 60 @.@ 5 percent of Soviet workers were paid by piece @-@ rate , down from the 1956 level of 75 percent . Around half of those who remained on piece @-@ rates would continue to receive some kind of bonus payment , but the progressive piece @-@ rate bonuses were mostly eliminated , with only 0 @.@ 5 percent of workers continuing to receive them in 1962 . Workers who were taken off piece @-@ rate payments were then paid an hourly rate or received a salary .
By 1961 , workers ' basic wages had risen to an average of about 73 percent of their total earnings ; piece @-@ rate workers saw an average of 71 percent and time workers 76 percent of their earnings as their basic wage . There was also a reduction in the overall level of quota overfulfillment — with quotas raised , many could not meet their own personal quota . The proportion of workers who achieved 100 percent or less of their quota varied from as low as 5 @.@ 1 percent in iron and steel industries , to 31 @.@ 4 percent in coal mining . Across Soviet industry , the average level of quota fulfillment fell from 169 percent before the reform , to 120 percent in October 1963 .
Overall wages rose much more slowly throughout the period than planned : wages across the entire state ( not only industrial wages ) rose by 22 @.@ 9 percent between 1959 and 1965 , against a plan for growth of 26 percent . Wage rises during the reform were made up for by increases in industrial productivity . For example , in the RSFSR ( Russia ) wages rose by 7 percent between 1959 and 1962 , whilst productivity increased by some 20 percent .
The wage reform was linked to a program that reduced the length of the overall working week in the Soviet Union , and in 1958 , the working week was reduced from 48 hours to 41 . This was to apply to all Soviet workers , and by 1961 , 40 million Soviet workers ( approximately two thirds of the workforce ) were working a 41 @-@ hour week . It was planned to decrease this further to 40 hours in 1962 , but this was eventually not carried out . Khrushchev had stated a longer @-@ term aim of giving Soviet workers the shortest working hours in the world , aiming for a 30- to 35 @-@ hour week by 1968 . He had spoken previously of the reduction of working hours as a basic goal of a communist movement and had hoped that communism would eventually achieve a working day of 3 – 4 hours .
= = Failures = =
Whilst the reform did remove some of the peculiarities of the Stalinist era , the overall impact of program created additional problems for the Soviet worker . In many areas , large variations in wages continued to exist . In engineering , for example , factory managers often ignored wage directives to try to encourage workers into roles that had lost much of their attraction after basic wages were cut to match pay throughout an area . Managers would therefore offer higher wages to new trainees . This had the effect of encouraging some to take a high @-@ paid training position and then leave for a new training position upon qualification . In coal mining , managers had long held the ability to vary wages based on local considerations , such as geological factors or hazard levels , and after the reform they continued to vary wages through manipulation of quotas or rates to protect workers ' wages . A further problem with a centrally directed bonus system was that it encouraged factories to continue producing well established , more familiar products because it was far easier to overfulfill targets on familiar products than to start work on new items .
Sometimes in areas where the new wages were applied , factories would struggle to recruit workers for important tasks because the reform had given a low pay grade to a task that was considered to require a lower level of skill . For example , machine @-@ tool operation was given a low pay grade , and at one factory in Kotlyakov some 30 machine @-@ tools sat unused as factory managers were unable to recruit workers to operate them .
In other instances , managers deliberately used the reforms as an opportunity to cut wages , exaggerating wage cuts made by the ministries so that they would be able to cut back on overall expenditure . In one case , a manager of a concrete factory was sentenced to eight months corrective labour after being found guilty of using the reforms as a pretext to extract unpaid overtime from workers .
= = Results = =
Overall , the wage reform failed to create a stable and predictable incentives system . Filtzer wrote that wider issues in Soviet industry and relations between managers and workers are important in understanding the failure . Filtzer noted a myriad of issues in Soviet production that had meant a more formal bonus system was unworkable in the Soviet Union : irregular availability of supplies that were often of variable quality , an irrational division of labour and a reliance on " storming " that made it difficult to motivate workers through a more conventional payments system . In such cases , it was vital to have the ability to offer additional overtime payments and even use bribes or " palm @-@ greasing " to incentivise workers to meet monthly quotas on time .
Filtzer also stated that because Soviet workers were unable to organise against their superiors in the same way that their counterparts in the West could ( for example by forming an independent trade union or joining a political party in opposition to the ruling Communist Party of the Soviet Union ) they had undergone a process of " hyper individualisation " , a process that had been heavily influenced by the overall incentive process . This had led to a situation where workers who could not count on a Western @-@ style meritocracy ( where they might expect to find their pay and conditions improve with promotions ) would instead have to rely on the decisions of managers to give bonuses and overtime payments if they wanted to increase their wages . Because managers needed to be able to give rewards and bonuses at their own discretion , sticking to a centrally directed system of wages was very difficult .
In terms of labour process theory — the attempt to understand the relationship between management control , worker skill and wages in industrial workplaces — Filtzer emphasised the continuing absence of control by Soviet workers over their own labour process . The Soviet elite would not radically change the labour process by democratising it and introducing truly equal wages for everyone in society , but nor could they generate the culture of consumerism that in the West was used to help explain the wage and skill structure . In these circumstances , attempts to coordinate production quotas , wages and expected levels of worker effort failed and continued to fail into the 1980s . The wage reform of 1956 – 1962 was a failure , as it could neither fix nor improve the economic conflict between workers and the elite in the Soviet Union . On the shop floor , workers continued to directly bargain with low @-@ level management over effort , wages and what " skill " they would exert . In particular , Filtzer notes that Soviet workers were constantly forced into a position of exerting more skill than was officially called for in plans or quotas . This was because Soviet workers often had to find their own ways of working around problems that made their efforts difficult , such as building their own tools to carry out tasks that could not be performed with the tools provided , or by devising entirely new production processes of their own when existing processes were not suitable . This was a condition only seen to such an extent in the West in industries that were insulated from market forces . Because this was common in Soviet industry , workers and managers in the Soviet Union had many reasons to work together in the setting of wages , quotas and skill expectations , even after the wage reform . Filtzer wrote that Mikhail Gorbachev attempted a very similar series of wage reforms in 1986 ( Perestroika ) , which ultimately failed and had to be replaced with a decentralised system in 1991 .
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= Prince George of Denmark =
Prince George of Denmark and Norway , Duke of Cumberland ( Danish : Jørgen ; 2 April 1653 – 28 October 1708 ) , was the husband of Queen Anne , who reigned over Great Britain from 1702 .
His marriage to Anne was arranged in the early 1680s with a view to developing an Anglo @-@ Danish alliance to contain Dutch maritime power . As a result , George was unpopular with his Dutch brother @-@ in @-@ law William of Orange , who was married to Anne 's elder sister , Mary . William and Mary became joint monarchs of Britain , with Anne as their heiress presumptive , in 1689 after the " Glorious Revolution " deposed James II and VII , the father of both Anne and Mary .
William excluded George from active military service , and neither George nor Anne wielded any great influence until after the deaths of William and Mary , when Anne became queen . During his wife 's reign , George occasionally used his influence in support of his wife , even when privately disagreeing with her views . He had an easy @-@ going manner and little interest in politics ; his appointment as Lord High Admiral in 1702 was largely honorary .
Anne 's seventeen pregnancies by George resulted in twelve miscarriages or stillbirths , four infant deaths , and a chronically sick son , William , who died at the age of eleven . Despite the history of their children , George and Anne 's marriage was a strong one . George died aged 55 from a recurring and chronic lung disease and was buried in Westminster Abbey .
= = Early life = =
George was born in Copenhagen Castle , and was the younger son of King Frederick III of Denmark and Norway and Sophie Amalie of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . His mother was the sister of Ernest Augustus , Duke of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg , later Elector of Hanover . From 1661 , his governor was Otto Grote , later Hanoverian minister to Denmark . Grote was " more courtier and statesman than educator " and when he left for the Hanoverian court in 1665 , he was replaced by the more effective Christen Lodberg . George received military training , and undertook a Grand Tour of Europe , spending eight months in 1668 – 69 in France and mid @-@ 1669 in England . His father died in 1670 , while George was in Italy , and George 's elder brother , Christian V , inherited the Danish throne . George returned home through Germany . He travelled through Germany again in 1672 – 73 , to visit two of his sisters , Anna Sophia and Wilhelmine Ernestine , who were married to the electoral princes of Saxony and the Palatinate .
In 1674 , George was a candidate for the Polish elective throne , for which he was backed by King Louis XIV of France . George 's staunch Lutheranism was a barrier to election in Roman Catholic Poland , and John Sobieski was chosen instead . In 1677 , George served with distinction with his elder brother Christian in the Scanian War against Sweden . His brother was captured by the Swedes at the Battle of Landskrona , and George " cut his way through the enemies ' numbers , and rescued him at the imminent danger of his own life . "
As a Protestant , George was considered a suitable partner for the niece of King Charles II of England , Lady Anne . Although they were distantly related ( second cousins once removed ; they were both descended from King Frederick II of Denmark ) , they had never met . George was hosted by Charles II in London in 1669 , but Anne had been in France at the time of George 's visit . Both Denmark and Britain were Protestant countries , and Louis XIV was keen on an Anglo @-@ Danish alliance to contain the power of the Dutch Republic . Anne 's uncle Laurence Hyde , 1st Earl of Rochester , and the English Secretary of State for the Northern Department , Robert Spencer , 2nd Earl of Sunderland , negotiated a marriage treaty with the Danes in secret , to prevent the plans leaking to the Dutch . Anne 's father , James , Duke of York , welcomed the marriage because it diminished the influence of his other son @-@ in @-@ law , Dutch Stadtholder William III of Orange , who was naturally unhappy with the match .
= = Marriage = =
George and Anne were married on 28 July 1683 in the Chapel Royal at St James 's Palace , London , by Henry Compton , Bishop of London . The guests included King Charles II , Queen Catherine , and the Duke and Duchess of York . Anne was voted a parliamentary allowance of £ 20 @,@ 000 a year , while George received £ 10 @,@ 000 a year from his Danish estates , although payments from Denmark were often late or incomplete . King Charles gave them a set of buildings in the Palace of Whitehall known as the Cockpit ( near the site of what is now Downing Street in Westminster ) as their London residence .
George was not ambitious , and hoped to live a quiet life of domesticity with his wife . He wrote to a friend : " We talk here of going to tea , of going to Winchester , and everything else except sitting still all summer , which was the height of my ambition . God send me a quiet life somewhere , for I shall not be long able to bear this perpetual motion . "
Within months of the marriage , Anne was pregnant but the baby , a girl , was stillborn in May . Anne recovered at the spa town of Tunbridge Wells , and over the next two years , she gave birth to two daughters in quick succession , Mary and Anne Sophia . In early 1687 , within a matter of days , George and his two young daughters caught smallpox , and Anne suffered another miscarriage . George recovered , but both his daughters died . Lady Russell wrote that George and Anne had " taken [ the deaths ] very heavily . The first relief of that sorrow proceeded from the threatening of a greater , the Prince being so ill of a fever . I never heard any relation more moving than that of seeing them together . Sometimes they wept , sometimes they mourned in words ; then sat silent , hand in hand ; he sick in bed , and she the carefullest nurse to him that can be imagined . " He returned to Denmark for a two @-@ month visit in mid @-@ 1687 , while Anne remained in England . Later that year , after his return , Anne gave birth to another dead child , this time a son .
In February 1685 , King Charles II died without legitimate issue , and George 's father @-@ in @-@ law , the Roman Catholic Duke of York , became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland . George was appointed to the Privy Council and invited to attend Cabinet meetings , although he had no power to alter or affect decisions . William of Orange refused to attend James 's coronation largely because George would take precedence over him . Although they were both sons @-@ in @-@ law of King James , George was also the son and brother of a king and so outranked William , who was an elected stadtholder of a republic .
Anne 's older sister Mary had moved to the Netherlands after her marriage to William of Orange . Protestant opposition to James was therefore increasingly focused around Anne and George instead of Mary , who was heiress presumptive . The social and political grouping centred on George and Anne was known as the " Cockpit Circle " after their London residence . On 5 November 1688 , William invaded England in an action , known as the " Glorious Revolution " , which ultimately deposed King James . George was forewarned by the Danish envoy in London , Frederick Gersdorff , that William was assembling an invasion fleet . George informed Gersdorff that James 's army was disaffected , and as a result he would refuse any command under James , but only serve as an uncommissioned volunteer . Gersdorff 's alternative plan to evacuate George and Anne to Denmark was rejected by George . George accompanied the King 's troops to Salisbury in mid @-@ November , but other nobles and their soldiers soon deserted James for William . At each defection , George apparently exclaimed , " Est @-@ il possible ? " ( Is it possible ? ) . He abandoned James on 24 November , and sided with William . " So ' Est @-@ il possible ' is gone too " , James supposedly remarked . In his memoirs , James dismissed George 's defection as trivial , saying the loss of one good trooper was of more consequence , but Gersdorff claimed the defection greatly perturbed the King . The defection of George and other nobles was instrumental in whittling away the King 's support . In December , James fled to France , and early the following year William and Mary were declared joint monarchs , with Anne as heiress presumptive . In early April 1689 , William assented to a bill naturalizing George as an English subject , and George was created Duke of Cumberland , Earl of Kendal and Baron of Okingham ( Wokingham ) by the new monarchs . He took his seat in the House of Lords on 20 April 1689 , being introduced by the Dukes of Somerset and Ormonde .
= = Duke of Cumberland = =
The mistrust between George and William was set aside during the revolution of 1688 – 89 but dogged relations during the latter 's reign . George held mortgages on Femern , Tremsbüttel and Steinhorst , Schleswig @-@ Holstein , which he surrendered to the Duke of Holstein as part of the peace of Altona of 1689 negotiated by William between Denmark and Sweden . William agreed to pay George interest and the capital in compensation , but George remained unpaid . During the military campaign against James 's supporters in Ireland , George accompanied the Williamite troops at his own expense , but was excluded from command , and was even refused permission to travel in his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's coach . Snubbed from the army by William , George sought to join the navy , without rank , but was again thwarted by his brother @-@ in @-@ law . When William 's Dutch guards failed to salute George , Anne assumed they were acting under orders . George and Anne retired from court . Some degree of reconciliation was achieved following Queen Mary 's sudden and unexpected death from smallpox in 1694 , which made Anne heiress apparent . In November 1699 , William finally recommended that Parliament pay the mortgage debt to George , and in early 1700 , the debt was honoured .
By 1700 , Anne had been pregnant at least seventeen times ; twelve times , she miscarried or gave birth to stillborn children , and two of their five children born alive died within a day . The only one of the couple 's children to survive infancy — Prince William , Duke of Gloucester — died in July 1700 at the age of 11 . With Gloucester 's death , Anne was the only person in the line of succession to the throne , as established by the " Glorious Revolution " . To extend the line and secure the Protestant succession , Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which designated William and Anne 's nearest Protestant cousins , the House of Hanover , as the next in line after Anne .
George did not play a senior role in government until his wife Anne succeeded as queen on William 's death in 1702 . George was the chief mourner at William 's funeral . Anne appointed him generalissimo of all English military forces on 17 April , and Lord High Admiral , the official but nominal head of the Royal Navy , on 20 May . Actual power at the Admiralty was held by George Churchill , whose elder brother was John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough , a great friend of Anne 's and the captain @-@ general of English land forces . Prince George had known the Churchills for years : another brother Charles Churchill , had been one of his gentlemen of the bedchamber in Denmark , and Marlborough had accompanied George on his journey from Denmark to England for his marriage to Anne in 1683 . His secretary in the 1680s was Colonel Edward Griffith , brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Duchess of Marlborough , who was Anne 's close confidante and friend . George followed William III as Captain @-@ General of the Honourable Artillery Company , and was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . Anne failed , however , in her attempts to persuade the States General of the Netherlands to elect her husband captain @-@ general of all Dutch forces , to maintain the unified command of the Maritime Powers that William had held .
Anne obtained a parliamentary allowance of £ 100 @,@ 000 a year for George in the event of her death . The bill sped through the House of Commons easily but it was only narrowly passed by the House of Lords . Marlborough supported the bill , but one of the lords against was Marlborough 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Spencer , 3rd Earl of Sunderland . Marlborough dissuaded her from asking Parliament to make " her dearly loved husband King Consort " .
Generally , during her reign , Anne and her husband spent the winter at Kensington and St James 's Palaces , and the summer at Windsor Castle or Hampton Court Palace , where the air was fresher . George had recurrent asthma , and the cleaner air in the country was better for his breathing . They visited the spa town of Bath , Somerset , in mid @-@ 1702 , on the advice of George 's doctors , and again in mid @-@ 1703 . They occasionally visited Newmarket , Suffolk , to view the horse racing . On one visit , Anne bought George a horse , Leeds , for the vast sum of a thousand guineas .
At the end of 1702 , the Occasional Conformity Bill was introduced to Parliament . The bill aimed to disqualify Protestant Dissenters from public office by closing a loophole in the Test Acts , legislation that restricted public office to Anglican conformists . The existing law permitted nonconformists to take office if they took Anglican communion once a year . Anne was in favour of the measure , and forced George to vote for the bill in the House of Lords , even though , being a practising Lutheran , he was an occasional conformist himself . As he cast his vote , he reportedly told an opponent of the bill , " My heart is vid you " [ sic ] . The bill did not gather sufficient parliamentary support and was eventually dropped . The following year , the bill was revived , but Anne withheld support , fearing its reintroduction was a deliberate pretence to cause a quarrel between the two main political groups : the Tories ( who supported the bill ) and the Whigs ( who opposed it ) . Once again it failed . George never became a member of the Church of England , which was headed by his wife throughout her reign . He remained Lutheran even after her accession , and had his own personal chapel .
In the first years of Anne 's reign , the Whigs gained more power and influence at the expense of the Tories . In his capacity as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports , George held influence in parliamentary boroughs on the south coast of England , which he used to support Whig candidates in the general election of 1705 . In that year 's election for Speaker of the House of Commons , George and Anne supported a Whig candidate , John Smith . George instructed his secretary , George Clarke , who was a Member of Parliament , to vote for Smith , but Clarke refused , instead supporting the Tory candidate William Bromley . Clarke was sacked , and Smith was elected .
= = Illness and death = =
In March and April 1706 , George was seriously ill . There was blood in his sputum , but he seemed to recover , although he was too ill to attend a thanksgiving service at St Paul 's Cathedral in June for a British victory in the Battle of Ramillies . He missed another thanksgiving service in May 1707 , to celebrate the union of England and Scotland , as he was recuperating at Hampton Court .
The Scilly naval disaster of 1707 , in which a fleet commanded by Sir Cloudesley Shovell foundered , highlighted mismanagement at the Admiralty , for which George was nominally responsible . Pressure grew to replace Admiral Churchill with someone more dynamic . By October 1708 , five powerful politicians , known as the Whig Junto — Lords Somers , Halifax , Orford , Wharton and Sunderland — were clamouring for the removal of both Prince George and Churchill . Marlborough wrote to his brother telling him to resign , but Churchill refused , protected by Prince George .
Amid the political pressure , George was on his deathbed , suffering from severe asthma and dropsy . He died at 1 : 30 p.m. on 28 October 1708 at Kensington Palace . The Queen was devastated . James Brydges wrote to General Cadogan , " His death has flung the Queen into an unspeakable grief . She never left him till he was dead , but continued kissing him the very moment his breath went out of his body , and ' twas with a great deal of difficulty my Lady Marlborough prevailed upon her to leave him . " Anne wrote to her nephew , Frederick IV of Denmark , " the loss of such a husband , who loved me so dearly and so devotedly , is too crushing for me to be able to bear it as I ought . " Anne was desperate to stay at Kensington with the body of her husband , but under pressure from the Duchess of Marlborough , she reluctantly left Kensington for St James 's Palace . Anne resented the Duchess 's intrusive actions , which included removing a portrait of George from the Queen 's bedchamber and then refusing to return it in the belief that it was natural " to avoid seeing of papers or anything that belonged to one that one loved when they were just dead " . Anne and the Duchess had been very close , but their friendship had become strained over political differences . The immediate aftermath of George 's death damaged their relationship further . He was buried privately at midnight on 13 November in Westminster Abbey .
= = Legacy = =
Anne refused initially to appoint a new Lord High Admiral , and insisted on carrying out the duties of the office herself , without appointing a member of the government to take George 's place . She burst into tears on the first occasion she was brought papers to sign in George 's stead . Undeterred , the Junto demanded the appointment of Lord Orford , a member of the Junto and one of Prince George 's leading critics , as First Lord of the Admiralty . Admiral Churchill retired , and Anne appointed the moderate Tory Lord Pembroke to lead the Admiralty , instead of a Whig . The Junto Whigs Somers and Wharton , however , were appointed to the Cabinet in Pembroke 's vacated posts of Lord President of the Council and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . The Whigs were still dissatisfied , and continued to pressure Pembroke and the Queen . Pembroke resigned after less than a year in office . Another month of arguments followed before the Queen finally consented to put Orford in control of the Admiralty as First Lord in November 1709 .
= = = Personal traits and portrayal = = =
Charles II , Anne 's uncle , famously said of Prince George , " I have tried him drunk , and I have tried him sober and there is nothing in him " . He was quiet and self @-@ effacing . John Macky thought him " of a familiar , easy disposition with a good sound understanding but modest in showing it ... very fat , loves news , his bottle & the Queen . " In making fun of George 's asthma , Lord Mulgrave said the Prince was forced to breathe hard in case people mistook him for dead and buried him . By the time of Queen Victoria , George had a reputation as a dullard , and was the target of disdain . Victoria hoped her own husband , Prince Albert , would never fill the " subordinate part played by the very stupid and insignificant husband of Queen Anne " . In the 1930s , Winston Churchill said he " mattered very little " , except to Anne .
He had little impact on the running of the navy , but he was interested enough in navigation and welfare at sea to sponsor the publication of John Flamsteed 's Observations in 1704 . He was not one of the most colourful political characters of his day — he was content to spend his time building model ships — but he was a loyal and supportive husband to Queen Anne . Their marriage was a devoted , loving and faithful one , though beset by personal tragedy .
The previous husband of a British queen regnant , William of Orange , had become king , refusing to take a subordinate rank to Mary . William and Mary had exemplified the traditional gender roles of seventeenth @-@ century Europe : Mary was the dutiful wife and William held the power . George and Anne , however , reversed the roles : George was the dutiful husband and it was Anne who exercised the royal prerogatives . William had assumed incorrectly that George would use his marriage to Anne as a means of building a separate power base in Britain , but George never challenged his wife 's authority and never strove to accrue influence . Anne occasionally used the image of wifely virtue to escape unpalatable situations by claiming , as a woman , she knew " nothing except what the prince tells me " , but it was an artifice . Husbands had a legal right to their wife 's property , and it was argued that it was unnatural and against the church 's teachings for a man to be subject to his wife . George made no such claim or demand ; he was content to remain a prince and duke . " I am her Majesty 's subject " , he said , " I shall do naught but what she commands me . " In the words of historian Anne Somerset , " the fact that Prince George was widely regarded as a nonentity helped reconcile people to his anomalous status , and so , almost by accident , George achieved a major advance for feminism . " Winston Churchill wrote that he " was a fine @-@ looking man , tall , blond , and good @-@ natured ... He was neither clever nor learned — a simple , normal man without envy or ambition , and disposed by remarkable appetite and thirst for all the pleasures of the table . Charles 's well @-@ known verdict ... does not do justice to the homely virtues and unfailing good @-@ humour of his staid and trustworthy character . "
The Prince of Denmark 's March by Jeremiah Clarke was written in his honour , and Prince George 's County , Maryland , was named after him in 1696 . Portraits by Sir Godfrey Kneller are at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich , Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfriesshire , and ( in a double portrait with George Clarke ) All Souls College , Oxford . Portraits in Denmark include one by Willem Wissing in the Reedtz @-@ Thott collection and one by Karel van Mander in the national collection at Frederiksborg Palace .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles = = =
2 April 1653 – 10 April 1689 : His Royal Highness Prince George of Denmark and Norway
10 April 1689 – 28 October 1708 : His Royal Highness Prince George of Denmark and Norway , Duke of Cumberland
= = = Honours = = =
R af E : Knight of the Elephant , from birth
KG : Knight of the Garter , 1 January 1684
= = = Arms = = =
The royal coat of arms of Denmark with a label of three points Argent , each with three Ermine points . The whole surmounted by a crown of a prince of Denmark . His crest was " out of a coronet Or , a demi @-@ lion rampant guardant Azure , crowned of the first " .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
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= History of Bristol =
Bristol is a city with a population of nearly half a million people in south west England , situated between Somerset and Gloucestershire on the tidal River Avon . It has been amongst the country 's largest and most economically and culturally important cities for eight centuries . The Bristol area has been settled since the Stone Age and there is evidence of Roman occupation . A mint was established in the Saxon burgh of Brycgstow by the 10th century and the town rose to prominence in the Norman era , gaining a charter and county status in 1373 . The change in the form of the name ' Bristol ' is due to the local pronunciation of ' ow ' as ' ol ' .
Maritime connections to Wales , Ireland , Iceland , western France , Spain Portugal brought a steady increase in trade in wool , fish , wine and grain during the Middle Ages . Bristol became a city in 1542 and trade across the Atlantic developed . The city was captured by Royalist troops and then recaptured for Parliament during the English Civil War . During the 17th and 18th centuries the transatlantic slave trade and the Industrial Revolution brought further prosperity . Edmund Burke , MP for Bristol , supported the American Revolution and free trade . Prominent reformers such as Mary Carpenter and Hannah More campaigned against the slave trade .
The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the construction of a floating harbour , advances in shipbuilding and further industrialisation with the growth of the glass , paper , soap and chemical industries aided by the establishment of Bristol as the terminus of the Great Western Railway by I. K. Brunel . In the early 20th century , Bristol was in the forefront of aircraft manufacture and the city had become an important financial centre and high technology hub by the beginning of the 21st century .
= = Pre @-@ Norman = =
= = = Palaeolithic and Iron age = = =
There is evidence of settlement in the Bristol area from the palaeolithic era , with 60 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old archaeological finds at Shirehampton and St Annes . Stone tools made from flint , chert , sandstone and quartzite have been found in terraces of the River Avon , most notably in the neighbourhoods of Shirehampton and Pill . There are Iron Age hill forts near the city , at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down on either side of the Avon Gorge , and at Kingsweston , near Henbury . Bristol was at that time part of the territory of the Dobunni . Evidence of Iron Age farmsteads has been found at excavations throughout Bristol , including a settlement at Filwood . There are also indications of seasonal occupation of the salt marshes at Hallen on the Severn estuary .
= = = Roman era = = =
During the Roman era there was a settlement named Abona at the present Sea Mills ; this was important enough to feature in the 3rd @-@ century Antonine Itinerary which documents towns and distances in the Roman empire , and was connected to Bath by a road . Archaeological excavations at Abona have found a street pattern , shops , cemeteries and wharves , indicating that the town served as a port . Another settlement at what is now Inns Court , Filwood , had possibly developed from earlier Iron Age farmsteads . There were also isolated villas and small settlements throughout the area , notably Kings Weston Roman Villa and another at Brislington .
= = = Saxon era = = =
A minster was founded in the 8th century at Westbury on Trym and is mentioned in a charter of 804 . In 946 an outlaw named Leof killed Edmund I in a brawl at a feast in the royal palace at Pucklechurch , which lies about six miles from Bristol . The town of Bristol was founded on a low hill between the rivers Frome and Avon at some time before the early 11th century . The main evidence for this is a coin of Aethelred issued c . 1010 . This shows that the settlement must have been a market town and the name Brycg stowe indicates " place by the bridge " . It is believed that the Bristol L ( the tendency for the local accent to add a letter L to the end of some words ) is what changed the name Brycg stowe to the current name Bristol .
It appears that St Peter 's church , the remains of which stand in modern Castle Park , may have been another minster , possibly with 8th @-@ century origins . By the time of Domesday the church held three hides of land , which was a sizeable holding for a mere parish church . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that in 1052 Harold Godwinson took ship to Brycgstow and later in 1062 he took ships from the town to subdue the forces of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn of Wales , indicating the status of the town as a port .
Brycg stowe was a major centre for the Anglo @-@ Saxon slave trade . Men , women and children captured in Wales or northern England were traded through Bristol to Dublin as slaves . From there the Viking rulers of Dublin would sell them on throughout the known world . The Saxon bishop of Worcester , Wulfstan , whose diocese included Bristol , preached against the trade regularly and eventually it was forbidden by the crown , though it carried on in secret for many years .
= = Middle Ages = =
= = = Norman era = = =
At some time after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey was erected on the present site of Castle Park . Bristol was held by Geoffrey de Montbray , Bishop of Countances , one of the knights who accompanied William the Conqueror . William ordered stone castles to be built so it is likely that the first parts of Bristol Castle were built by Geoffrey in his reign . After the Conqueror 's death ( 1087 ) , Geoffrey joined the rebellion against William Rufus . Using Bristol as his headquarters , he burned Bath and ravaged Somerset before submitting to Rufus . He eventually returned to Normandy and died at Coutances in 1093 .
Rufus created the Honour of Gloucester , which included Bristol , from his mother Queen Matilda 's estates and granted it to Robert Fitzhamon . Fitzhamon enlarged and strengthened Bristol castle and in the latter years of the 11th century conquered and subdued much of south and west Wales . His daughter Mabel was married in 1114 to Henry I 's bastard son Robert of Caen . Her dowry was a large part of her father 's Gloucestershire and Welsh estate and Robert of Caen became the first Earl of Gloucester , c . 1122 . He is believed to have been responsible for completing Bristol castle .
In 1135 Henry I died and the Earl of Gloucester rallied to the support of his sister Matilda against Stephen of Blois who had seized the throne on Henry 's death . Stephen attempted to lay siege to Robert at Bristol in 1138 but gave up the attempt as the castle appeared impregnable . When Stephen was captured in 1141 he was imprisoned in the castle , but when Robert was captured by Stephen 's forces , Matilda was forced to exchange Stephen for Robert . Her son Henry , later to become Henry II of England , was kept safe in the castle , guarded and educated by his uncle Robert . The castle was later taken into royal hands , and Henry III spent lavishly on it , adding a barbican before the main west gate , a gate tower , and magnificent hall .
The Earl of Gloucester had founded the Benedictine priory of St James in 1137 . In 1140 St Augustine 's Abbey was founded by Robert Fitzharding , a wealthy Bristolian who had loyally supported the Earl and Matilda in the war . As a reward for this support he would later be made Lord of Berkeley . The abbey was a monastery of Augustinian canons . In 1148 the abbey church was dedicated by the bishops of Exeter , Llandaff , and St. Asaph , and during Fitzharding 's lifetime the abbey also built the chapter house and gatehouse .
In 1172 , following the subjugation of the Pale in Ireland , Henry II gave Bristolians the right to reside in and trade from Dublin . A surviving Jewish ritual bath or mikveh , Jacob 's Well , indicates that there was a small Jewish community in the city in the early Middle Ages .
= = = Later middle ages = = =
By the 13th century Bristol had become a busy port . Woollen cloth became its main export during the fourteenth to fifteenth century , while wine from Gascony and Bordeaux , was the principal import . In addition the town conducted an extensive trade with the Anglo @-@ Irish ports of southern Ireland , such as Waterford and Cork , as well as with Portugal . From about 1420 @-@ 1480 the port also traded with Iceland , from which it imported a type of freeze @-@ dried cod called ' stockfish ' . In 1147 Bristol men and ships had assisted in the Siege of Lisbon , which led to that city 's recapture from the Moors . A stone bridge was built across the Avon , c . 1247 and between the years of 1240 and 1247 a Great Ditch was constructed in St Augustine 's Marsh to straighten out the course of the River Frome and provide more space for berthing ships .
Redcliffe and Bedminster were incorporated into the city in 1373 . Edward III proclaimed " that the town of Bristol with its suburbs and precincts shall henceforth be separate from the counties of Gloucester and Somerset and be in all things exempt both by land by sea , and that it should be a county by itself , to be called the county of Bristol in perpetuity , " This meant that disputes could be settled in courts in Bristol rather than at Gloucester , or at Ilminster for areas south of the Avon which had been part of Somerset . The city walls extended into Redcliffe and across the eastern part of the march which now became the Town Marsh . The major surviving part of the walls is visible adjacent to the only remaining gateway under the tower of the Church of St John the Baptist .
By the mid @-@ 14th century Bristol is considered to have been England 's third @-@ largest town ( after London and York ) , with an estimated 15 – 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants on the eve of the Black Death of 1348 – 49 . The plague inflicted a prolonged demographic setback , with the population estimated at between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 during the 15th and 16th centuries .
One of the first great merchants of Bristol was William Canynge . Born c . 1399 , he was five times mayor of the town and twice represented it as an MP . He is said to have owned ten ships and employed over 800 sailors . In later life he became a priest and spent a considerable part of his fortune in rebuilding St Mary Redcliffe church , which had been severely damaged by lightning in 1446 .
The end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 meant that Britain , and thus Bristol , lost its access to Gascon wines and so imports of Spanish and Portuguese wines increased . Imports from Ireland included fish , hides and cloth ( probably linen ) . Exports to Ireland included broadcloth , foodstuffs , clothing and metals .
= = = Exploration = = =
In 1497 Bristol was the starting point for John Cabot 's voyage of exploration to North America . For many years Bristol merchants had bought freeze @-@ dried cod , called stockfish , from Iceland for consumption in England . However the Hanseatic League , which was trying to control North Atlantic trade at this time , sought to cut off supplies to English merchants . It has often been suggested that this drove Bristol 's merchants to look West for new sources of cod fish . On the other hand , while Bristol merchants did largely abandon Iceland in the late @-@ 15th century , Hull merchants continued to trade there . Moreover , recent research has shown that England 's fisheries off Iceland actually grew significantly from the 1490s , albeit the center for this activity shifted from Bristol to East Anglia . This makes it hard to sustain the argument that Bristol merchants were somehow ' pushed out ' of Iceland .
In 1481 two local men , Thomas Croft and John Jay , sent off ships looking for the mythical island of Hy @-@ Brasil . There was no mention of the island being discovered but Croft was prosecuted for illegal exports of salt , on the grounds that , as a customs officer , he should not have engaged in trade . Professor David Beers Quinn , whose theories form the basis for a variety of popular histories , suggested that the explorers may have discovered the Grand Banks off Newfoundland , waters rich in cod .
John Cabot was sponsored by Henry VII on his voyage in 1497 , looking for a new route to the Orient . Having discovered North America instead , on his return Cabot spoke of the great quantities of cod to be found near the new land . In 1498 Cabot set sail again from Bristol with an expedition of five ships . Whether he returned from this voyage is uncertain – although recent research conducted at the University of Bristol , suggests that he might .
From 1499 to 1508 a number of other expeditions were launched from Bristol to the ' New found land ' , the earliest being undertaken by William Weston . One of these , led by John Cabot 's son , Sebastian Cabot , explored down the coast of North America until he was ‘ almost in the latitude of Gibraltar ’ and ‘ almost the longitude of Cuba ’ . This would suggest that he reached as far as the Chesapeake , close to what is now Washington D.C.
= = Early modern = =
= = = Tudor and Stuart periods = = =
Bristol was made a city in 1542 , with the former Abbey of St Augustine becoming Bristol Cathedral , following the Dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry VIII . The Dissolution also saw the surrender to the king of all of Bristol 's friaries and monastic hospitals , together with St James ' Priory , St Mary Magdalen nunnery , a Cistercian abbey at Kingswood and the College at Westbury on Trym . In the case of the friaries at Greyfriars and Whitefriars , the priors had fled before the arrival of the royal commissioners , and at Whitefriars a succession of departing priors had plundered the friary of its valuables . Although the commissioners had not been able to point to as much religious malpractice in Bristol as elsewhere , there is no record of Bristolians raising any objections to the royal seizures . In 1541 Bristol 's civic leaders took the opportunity of buying up lands and properties formerly belonging to St Mark 's Hospital , St Mary Magdalen , Greyfriars and Whitefriars for a total of a thousand pounds . Bristol thereby became the only municipality in the country which has its own chapel , at St Mark 's .
Bristol Grammar School was established in 1532 by the Thorne family and in 1596 John Carr established Queen Elizabeth 's Hospital , a bluecoat school charged with ' the education of poor children and orphans ' .
Trade continued to grow : by the mid @-@ 16th century imports from Europe included , wine , olive oil , iron , figs and other dried fruits and dyes ; exports included cloth ( both cotton and wool ) , lead and hides . Many of the city 's leading merchants were involved in smuggling at this time , illicitly exporting goods like foodstuffs and leather , while under @-@ declaring imports of wine .
In 1574 Elizabeth I visited the city during her Royal Progress through the western counties . The city burgesses spent over one thousand pounds on preparations and entertainments , most of which was raised by special rate assessments . In 1577 the explorer Martin Frobisher arrived in the city with two ships and samples of ore , which proved to be worthless . He also brought , according to Latimer " three savages , doubtless Esqiumaux , clothed in deerskins , but all of them died within a month of their arrival . "
Bristol sent three ships to the Royal Navy fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588 , and also supplied two levies of men to the defending land forces . Despite appeals to the Privy Council no reimbursement was made for these supplies . The corporation also had to repair the walls and gates of the city . The castle had fallen into disuse in the late Tudor era , but the City authorities had no control over royal property and the precincts became a refuge for lawbreakers .
= = = English Civil War = = =
In 1630 the city corporation bought the castle and when the First English Civil War broke out in 1642 , the city took the Parliamentary side and partly restored the fortifications . However Royalist troops under the command of Prince Rupert captured Bristol on 26 July 1643 , in the process causing extensive damage to both town and castle . The Royalist forces captured large amounts of booty and also eight armed merchant vessels which became the nucleus of the Royalist fleet . Workshops in the city became arms factories , providing muskets for the Royalist army .
In the summer of 1645 , Royalist forces were defeated by the New Model Army at the Battle of Langport , in Somerset . Following further victories at Bridgwater and Sherborne , Sir Thomas Fairfax marched on Bristol . Prince Rupert returned to organise the defence of the city . The Parliamentary forces besieged the city and after three weeks attacked , eventually forcing Rupert to surrender on 10 September . The First Civil War ended the following year . There were no further military actions in Bristol during the second and third civil wars . In 1656 , Oliver Cromwell ordered the destruction of the castle .
= = = Slave trade = = =
William de la Founte , a wealthy Bristol merchant has been identified as the first recorded English slave traders . Of Gascon origin , in 1480 he was one of the four venturers granted a licence " to trade in any parts " . Renewed growth came with the 17th @-@ century rise of England 's American colonies and the rapid 18th @-@ century expansion of Bristol 's part in the " Triangular trade " in Africans taken for slavery in the Americas . Over 2 @,@ 000 slaving voyages were made by Bristol ships between the late 17th century and abolition in 1807 , carrying an estimated half a million people from Africa to the Americas in brutal conditions . Average profits per voyage were seventy percent and more than fifteen per cent of the Africans transported died or were murdered on the Middle Passage . Some slaves were brought to Bristol , from the Caribbean ; notable amongst these were Scipio Africanus , buried at Henbury and Pero Jones brought to Bristol by slave trader and plantation owner John Pinney .
The slave trade and the consequent demand for cheap brass ware for export to Africa caused a boom in the copper and brass manufacturing industries of the Avon valley , which in turn encouraged the progress of the Industrial Revolution in the area . Prominent manufacturers such as Abraham Darby and William Champion developed extensive works between Conham and Keynsham which used ores from the Mendips and coal from the North Somerset coalfield . Water power from tributaries of the Avon drove the hammers in the brass batteries , until the development of steam power in the later 18th century . Glass , soap , sugar , paper and chemical industries also developed along the Avon valley .
Edmund Burke was elected as Whig Member of Parliament for Bristol in 1774 and campaigned for free trade , Catholic emancipation and the rights of the American colonists , but he angered his merchant sponsors with his detestation of the slave trade and lost the seat in 1780 .
Anti @-@ slavery campaigners , inspired by Non @-@ conformist preachers such as John Wesley , started some of the earliest campaigns against the practice . Prominent local opponents of both the trade and the institution of slavery itself included Anne Yearsley , Hannah More , Harry Gandey , Mary Carpenter , Robert Southey , William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge . The campaign itself proved to be the beginning of movements for reform and women 's emancipation .
= = 18th and 19th centuries = =
The Bristol Corporation of the Poor was established at the end of the 17th century and a workhouse , to provide work for the poor and shelter for those needing charity , was established , adjacent to the Bridewell . John Wesley founded the very first Methodist Chapel , The New Room in Broadmead in 1739 , which is still in use in the 21st century . Wesley had come to Bristol at the invitation of George Whitfield . He preached in the open air to miners and brickworkers in Kingswood and Hanham .
Bristol Bridge , the only way of crossing the river without using a ferry , was rebuilt between 1764 and 1768 . The earlier medieval bridge was too narrow and congested to cope with the amount of traffic that needed to use it . A toll was charged to pay for the works , and when , in 1793 , the toll was extended for a further period of time the Bristol Bridge Riot ensued . 11 people were killed and 45 injured , making it one of the worst riots of the 18th century .
Competition from Liverpool from 1760 , the disruption of maritime commerce through war with France ( 1793 ) and the abolition of the slave trade ( 1807 ) contributed to the city 's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of the North and Midlands . The cotton industry failed to develop in the city ; sugar , brass and glass production went into decline . Abraham Darby left Bristol for Coalbrookdale when his advanced ideas for iron production received no backing from local investors . Buchanan and Cossons cite " a certain complacency and inertia [ from the prominent mercantile families ] which was a serious handicap in the adjustment to new conditions in the Industrial Revolution period . "
The long passage up the heavily tidal Avon Gorge , which had made the port highly secure during the Middle Ages , had become a liability which the construction of a new " Floating Harbour " ( designed by William Jessop ) in 1804 – 09 failed to overcome . Nevertheless , Bristol 's population ( 61 @,@ 000 in 1801 ) grew fivefold during the 19th century , supported by growing commerce . It was particularly associated with the leading engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London , two pioneering Bristol @-@ built steamships , the SS Great Western and the SS Great Britain , and the Clifton Suspension Bridge .
The new middle class , led by those who agitated against the slave trade , in the city began to engage in charitable works . Notable were Mary Carpenter , who founded ragged schools and reformatories , and George Müller who founded an orphanage in 1836 . Badminton School was started in Badminton House , Clifton in 1858 and Clifton College was established in 1862 . University College , the predecessor of the University of Bristol , was founded in 1876 and the former Merchant Venturers Navigation School became the Merchant Venturers College in 1894 . This later formed the nucleus of Bristol Polytechnic , which in turn became the University of the West of England .
The Bristol Riots of 1831 took place after the House of Lords rejected the second Reform Bill . Local magistrate Sir Charles Wetherall , a strong opponent of the Bill , visited Bristol to open the new Assize Courts and an angry mob chased him to the Mansion House in Queen Square . The Reform Act was passed in 1832 and the city boundaries were expanded for the first time since 1373 to include " Clifton , the parishes of St. James , St. Paul , St. Philip , and parts of the parishes of Bedminster and Westbury " .
Bristol lies on one of the UK 's lesser coalfields , and from the 17th century collieries opened in Bristol , and what is now North Somerset and South Gloucestershire . Though these prompted the construction of the Somerset Coal Canal , and the formation of the Bristol Miners ' Association , it was difficult to make mining profitable , and the mines closed after nationalisation .
At the end of the 19th century the main industries were tobacco and cigarette manufacture , led by the dominant W.D. & H.O. Wills company , paper and engineering . The port facilities were migrating downstream to Avonmouth and new industrial complexes were founded there .
= = Modern history = =
The British and Colonial Aeroplane Company , which later became the Bristol Aeroplane Company , then part of the British Aircraft Company and finally BAE Systems , was founded by Sir George White , owner of Bristol Tramways in 1910 . During World War I production of the Bristol Scout and the Bristol F.2 Fighter established the reputation of the company . The main base at Filton is still a prominent manufacturing site for BAE Systems in the 21st century . The Bristol Aeroplane Company 's engine department became a subsidiary company Bristol Aero Engines , then Bristol Siddeley Engines ; and were bought by Rolls @-@ Royce Limited in 1966 , to become Rolls @-@ Royce plc which is still based at Filton . Shipbuilding in the city docks , predominately by Charles Hill & Sons , formerly Hilhouse , remained important until the 1970s . Other prominent industries included chocolate manufacturers J. S. Fry & Sons and wine and sherry importers John Harvey & Sons .
Bristol City F.C. ( formed in 1897 ) joined the Football League in 1901 and became runners up in the First Division in 1906 and losing FA Cup finalists in 1909 . Rivals Bristol Rovers F.C. ( formed in 1883 ) joined the league in 1920 . Gloucestershire County Cricket Club was formed in 1870 and have been runners up in the County Championship many times since .
Bristol City Council built over 15 @,@ 000 houses between 1919 and 1939 , enabling clearance of some of the worst slums in the city centre . The new estates were at Southmead , Knowle , Filwood Park , Sea Mills and Horfield . The city boundaries were extended to north and south to accommodate this growth . In 1926 , the Portway , a new road along the Avon Gorge built at a cost of around £ 800 @,@ 000 , was opened linking the floating harbour to the expanding docks at Avonmouth .
As the location of aircraft manufacture and a major port , Bristol was a target of bombing during the Bristol Blitz of World War II . Bristol 's city centre also suffered severe damage , especially in November and December 1940 , when the Broadmead area was flattened , and Hitler claimed to have destroyed the city . The original central area , near the bridge and castle , is still a park featuring two bombed out churches and some fragments of the castle . Slightly to the north , the Broadmead shopping centre and Cabot Circus were built over bomb @-@ damaged areas .
As with other British cities , there was immigration from various Commonwealth countries in the post war years , which did lead to some racist tension . In 1963 , a colour bar operated by Bristol Omnibus Company , which at that time refused to employ Black or Asian bus crews , was successfully challenged in the Bristol Bus Boycott , which was considered to have been instrumental in the eventual passage of the Race Relations Act 1968 . In 1980 a police raid on a cafe in St Paul 's sparked the St Pauls riot , which highlighted the alienation of the city 's ethnic minorities .
Bristol aviation continued to develop in post war years . The Bristol Brabazon was a large trans @-@ Atlantic airliner built in the late 1940s , based on developments in heavy bombers during the World War , but it received no sales orders and never went into production . Concorde , the first supersonic airliner was built in the 1960s , first flying in 1969 . The aircraft never achieved commercial success , but its development did lay the foundation for the successful Airbus series of airliners , parts of which are produced at Filton in the 21st century .
In the 1980s the financial services sector became a major employer in the city and surrounding areas , such as the business parks on the northern fringe of what was now referred to as Greater Bristol or the Bristol Urban Area comprising the city , Easton @-@ in @-@ Gordano , Frampton Cottrell and Winterbourne , Kingswood , Mangotsfield and Stoke Gifford . High technology companies such as IBM , Hewlett Packard , Toshiba , and Orange , along with creative and media enterprises become significant local employers as traditional manufacturing industries declined .
Like much of British post @-@ war planning , regeneration of Bristol city centre was characterised by large , cheap tower blocks , brutalist architecture and expansion of roads . Since the 1990s this trend has been reversed , with the closure of some main roads and the regeneration of the Broadmead shopping centre . In 2006 one of the city centre 's tallest post @-@ war blocks was torn down . Social housing tower blocks have also been demolished to be replaced by low rise homes .
The removal of the docks to Avonmouth , seven miles ( 11 km ) downstream from the city centre , relieved congestion in the central zone of Bristol and allowed substantial redevelopment of the old central dock area ( the Floating Harbour ) in the late 20th century . The deep @-@ water Royal Portbury Dock was developed opposite Avonmouth Docks in the 1970s and following privatisation of the Port of Bristol has become financially successful .
At one time the continued existence of the old central docks was in jeopardy as it was seen merely as derelict industry rather than an asset to be developed for public use . Since the 1980s millions of pounds have been spent regenerating the harbourside . 1999 saw the redevelopment of the city centre and the construction of Pero 's footbridge ; which now links the At @-@ Bristol science centre at Canon 's Marsh , opened in 2000 , with other Bristol tourist attractions . Private investors are also constructing studio apartment buildings . The regeneration of the Canon 's Marsh area is expected to cost £ 240 million . Crest Nicholson were the lead developers constructing 450 new flats , homes and waterside offices , under the guidance of The Harbourside Sponsors ’ Group which is a partnership between the City Council , developers , businesses , and public funders .
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= Thomas Hinde =
Doctor Thomas Hinde ( July 10 , 1737 – September 28 , 1828 ) was Northern Kentucky 's first physician , a member of the British Royal Navy , an American Revolutionary , personal physician to Patrick Henry , and treated General Wolfe when he died in Quebec , Canada .
= = Overview = =
Thomas Hinde is the patriarch of the Hinde family in the United States , and many of his children , grandchildren , and other descendants became prominent historical figures . His youngest son , Thomas S. Hinde , was a notable Methodist minister and businessman , Charles T. Hinde , his grandson , was a shipping magnate , and Edmund C. Hinde , another grandson , was an adventurer . The Kavanaugh and Southgate branches of his family held elected office and positions of leadership in the Methodist church .
As personal physician to Patrick Henry , Hinde played a critical role in the American Revolutionary War through his vaccinations against smallpox and treatment of wounded soldiers . For his service he received a large land grant in Kentucky , where he moved with his family . Hinde was northern Kentucky 's first physician , and a memorial was erected in Campbell County , Kentucky to honor his services to the state . He died in 1828 aged 91 , which was unusually old for the time . According to Otto Juettner in 1909 , who was a famous medical doctor and medical historian , Hinde " never wrote a line in his life . " His life has been described as being like a " romance " , and he was called a " patriarch " to the American medical profession .
= = Early life = =
Hinde was born in Oxfordshire , England , in July 1737 . He received a classical education in Oxfordshire and , after completing his studies , was sent to London , England to study medicine . He studied physics and surgery under Dr Thomas Brooke at Saint Thomas Hospital in London and , at the age of nineteen , was presented to the Company of Surgeons for a licence . Shortly after , he was commissioned as a Surgeons ' Mate in the Royal Navy and sailed for America with the forces commanded by General Amherst . After landing in New York on June 10 , 1757 , he spent time at Halifax and Louisbourg . Hinde spent the winter of 1758 in Halifax and assisted Amherst with the reduction of Louisburg . He was attached to the ship which bore the commander in chief , General James Wolfe , on his way to Quebec .
= = Death of General Wolfe = =
Wolfe died in Hinde 's arms during the 1759 Battle of Quebec of the Seven Years ' War . According to one source , Hinde 's relationship with General Wolfe and his experiences in Quebec were some of the most " cherished " experiences of his life . A painting of the death shows Dr Hinde feeling the pulse of the wounded Wolfe . It is an oil on canvas of the Enlightenment period . Benjamin West , who painted it , made a nearly identical painting of the same scene for King George III in 1771 . After Wolfe 's death , Hinde remained in the British Navy and was present for the reduction of Bell 'isle . Shortly after , Hinde was promoted and remained as a physician for a warship after the peace of 1763 . He eventually resigned his commission .
The Death of General Wolfe is currently in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada , the Royal Ontario Museum ( Canadiana art collection ) , and the William L. Clements Library at the University of Michigan .
= = After Quebec = =
After the fall of Quebec , Hinde returned briefly to England . Peace with France was reached in 1763 , and Hinde then returned to Virginia and settled . He formed a close friendship with an unnamed Virginian who persuaded him to settle in a place called Hobbs Hole in Essex County , Virginia and practice medicine . Another source states that an aged physician in Virginia wrote to Dr Thomas Brooke , Hinde 's mentor , asking Brooke to send a young physician to assist him in his practice . Brooke reportedly choose Hinde and " earnestly advised " him to " avail himself of the situation which was offered " . Hinde accepted , but moved soon after to settle in Newton , now in West Virginia , where he met his wife . After their wedding Hinde moved again and settled in Hanover County , Virginia .
= = Physician to Patrick Henry = =
In 1765 , after he settled in Virginia , Hinde became acquainted with Patrick Henry one of the founding fathers of the United States , Samuel Davis , and Lord Dunmore . Two years later he married Mary T. Hubbard , settled near Henry , and became his family physician . His association with Henry and settlement in Virginia helped Hinde become acquainted with many of the leading members of society during the period . When Hinde first met Hubbard , he found her to " possess a great flow of animal spirits , full of humor , gay and lively inner temperament and disposition , with strong powers of mind , and at the same time active and sociable " . The couple married on September 24 , 1767 . According to a biography written by George Coles in 1857 , Henry 's statesmanlike eloquence and political principles made a strong impression on Hinde and shifted him from being a staunch royalist to a " sturdy republican " .
Hinde took an active part in the American Revolutionary War serving as a surgeon with Patrick and in various campaigns and battles . At the time of the 1775 Gunpowder Incident , Hinde was Chief Surgeon for Patrick Henry . His involvement in it was the turning point that led him to embrace the cause of the oppressed colonies against Lord Dunmore and the English royalty . The Gunpowder Incident was a conflict early in the American Revolutionary War , between Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia , and militia led by Henry . Hinde originally planned to take a front @-@ line post in Henry 's regiment , but when Henry was elected Governor , Hinde was instead appointed to inoculate all members of the continental service . Because of insufficient funds in the continental army , Hinde was forced to cover the costs of inoculations , which " seriously impaired his private fortune " . One source states that Hinde amputated limbs during the war by the " cart @-@ load " . After the war , Hinde continued to live in Hanover County for many years , primarily practicing medicine .
= = Military land grant = =
After the American Revolutionary War , Hinde moved his family from Virginia to Kentucky , having received a large land grant for his services in the war . One source describes the land grant as follows :
At the close of the war , having drawn no part of his salary , and from his great skill as a surgeon having endeared himself to the Virginians , in settling up his accounts he was presented with a land warrant , to be located in lands selected in Kentucky , leaving a blank within the warrant for the number of acres to filled by Dr Hinde himself . The blank was filled with twenty thousand , and placed in the hands of Patrick Henry to select and locate the lands .
For undisclosed reasons , Henry was unable to complete the land grant to Hinde due to surveying difficulties , who then used his nephew Hubbard Taylor to go to Kentucky , find the location , and complete the transaction . Hinde gave Taylor half of the lands for this service . The land was in Clark County , Kentucky , between Winchester and Lexington .
= = Conversion to Methodism = =
During his early years in England , Hinde was a member of the Church of England , but he abandoned the church as an adult and had become a Deist . One biographer stated that for a time Hinde " took pride and pleasure in ridiculing Christianity " . In later years , however , his religious views " underwent a radical change " .
In 1798 , Methodist ministers arrived in Hinde 's neighborhood and began to convert people . Susanna , one of Hinde 's daughters , converted , causing distress to the family . Hinde banished her from his home , and she went to live with her aunt forty miles away . However , this failed because the aunt had already converted , and Hinde 's wife converted soon after . Hinde became convinced that the disorder was in their heads , and treated them with medical procedures of the day , such as a " blistering plaster to the whole length of the spine , which he left on for several days " . Drake states that , through this " measure of violence , he hoped to deter her from further attendance at places of public worship " . The procedures were painful , but his wife stated afterwards that " it was a punishment , but I never was so happy in all my life " . Hinde later felt guilt for having banished his daughter and performed medical operations on his wife , and he converted to Methodism . His daughter returned home and his wife began attending Methodist gatherings regularly . Two of his daughters married traveling preachers , and another daughter converted to Methodism too . By the end of his life , Hinde was a devout Methodist . According to one account :
At another time he was taking a morning walk and met Gen. James Taylor , a relative by marriage , who said , ' Good @-@ morning , doctor ; where are you going ? ' ' I am going to heaven ; where are you going , general ? ' The general , at that time , had some doubts about whether his road led to the same country , and made no reply ; but it is hoped he found the way to everlasting life before he left the world.'
One of Hinde 's grandchildren states that Hinde built " little houses of sticks and wood " where he would pray . The grandchildren called them " Grandpa 's prayer @-@ houses " . Hinde could be heard praying from a " considerable distance " .
= = Family = =
Hinde married Mary Todd Hubbard , the daughter of Benjamin Hubbard , an English merchant , and they were married for 61 years . They had eight children that lived to adulthood . His daughter Ann Winston Hinde married Richard Southgate on July 30 , 1799 , in Newport , Kentucky . Hinde and his family were members of the Grace Methodist Episcopal Church in Newport , Kentucky .
One of Hinde 's sons was Thomas S. Hinde , who was a cofounder of Mount Carmel , Illinois , and became a well @-@ respected Methodist minister . Hinde 's grandson Captain Charles T. Hinde was a successful businessman and riverboat captain . Charles was one of the principal investors in the Hotel del Coronado in San Diego , California , and inspired Frederick Hinde Zimmerman , Dr Hinde 's great @-@ grandson , to build the Grand Rapids Hotel in Mount Carmel , Illinois .
In his later life , Hinde lived with his daughter Mary McKinney of Newport , Kentucky .
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= Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom =
The Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom occurred after Portuguese traders arrived at the rival Kotte Kingdom in the southwest of modern Sri Lanka in 1505 . Many kings of Jaffna , such as Cankili I , initially confronted the Portuguese in their attempts at converting the locals to Roman Catholicism , but eventually made peace with them .
By 1591 , the king of Jaffna Ethirimanna Cinkam was installed by the Portuguese . Although he was nominally a client , he resisted missionary activities and helped the interior Kandyan kingdom in its quest to get military help from South India . Eventually , a usurper named Cankili II , resisted Portuguese overlordship only to find himself ousted and hanged by Phillippe de Oliveira in 1619 . The subsequent rule by the Portuguese saw the population convert to Roman Catholicism . The population also decreased due to excessive taxation , as most people fled the core areas of the former kingdom .
= = Initial contact = =
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka in 1505 ; their initial forays were against the southwestern coastal Kotte kingdom , which enjoyed a lucrative monopoly on the spice trade , which was also of interest to the Portuguese . The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons , which included their interference in Roman Catholic missionary activities ( which was assumed to be supporting Portuguese interests ) , the lucrative markets and strategic benefits of Jaffna 's Vannimai chieftaincies , and their support of anti @-@ Portuguese factions within the Kotte kingdom , such as the chieftains from Sitawaka . By the late 16th century , Portuguese influence strengthened in the courts of the Kandyan and Kotte kingdoms and some of Jaffna 's Vannimai chieftaincies were subdued by these kings . The Jaffna kingdom functioned as a logistical base for the Kandyan kingdom , located in the central highlands without access to any seaports . They gained access to the seaports of Trincomalee and Batticaloa in the east , but the Jaffna peninsula proved more convenient as an entry port for military aid arriving from South India . Furthermore , it was feared by the Portuguese that ( due to its strategic location ) the Jaffna kingdom might become a beachhead for Dutch landings . It was king Cankili I who resisted contacts with the Portuguese , and even massacred six to seven hundred Parava Catholics in the island of Mannar . These Catholics had been brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries extending to Puttalam from the Jaffna kings .
= = Client state = =
The first expedition , led by Viceroy Dom Constantino de Bragança in 1560 , failed to subdue the kingdom but captured Mannar Island . Although the circumstances are unclear , by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute to the Portuguese of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash . In 1591 , during the second expedition , led by André Furtado de Mendonça , King Puvirasa Pandaram was killed and his son Ethirimanna Cinkam was installed as the monarch . This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom of action and monopoly in elephant export to the Portuguese , which the incumbent king , however , resisted . He helped the Kandyan kingdom under kings Vimaladharmasuriya I and Senarat ( 1604 – 35 ) during the period 1593 – 1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese . He , however , maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overtly provoking the Portuguese .
= = End of the Kingdom = =
With the death of Pararasasekaran in 1617 , Cankili II , an usurper , took control of the throne after killing the regent nominated by the Ethirimanna Cinkam . Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship , Cankili II invited military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks and allowed corsairs from Malabar to use a base in Neduntivu , hence posing a threat to Portuguese shipping routes through the Palk Strait . By June 1619 , there were two Portuguese expeditions : a naval expedition that was repulsed by the Malabari corsairs led by Varunakulattān Khem Nayak , and a land expedition by Phillippe de Oliveira and his army of 5000 , which was able to defeat Cankili . Cankili , along with every surviving member of the royal family , was captured and taken to Goa , where he was hanged . The remaining captives were asked to become monks or nuns in the holy orders , and as most obliged , their celibacy avoided the production of further claimants to the Jaffna throne . Although the Portuguese attempted to eliminate the Jaffna royal family through celibacy , a number of families of Sri Lankan Tamil origin claim descent from the royal family today .
= = Portuguese and the Kandyan kingdom = =
According to the Description of the Isle of Ceylon ( Amsterdam 1672 ) by the Dutch Rev. Phillipus Baldeus , who travelled in Sri Lanka in the 17th century. the Kingdom of Jaffnapattnum consisted of the Jaffna Peninsula , the Islands off Jaffna and the Island of Mannar . But in dealing with the limitations of the kingdom , Queirós , an historian of Portuguese origin , says :
" This modest kingdom is not confined to the little district of Jaffnapatnam because to it are also added the neighboring lands and those of the Vanni which is said to be name of the lordship which they held before we obtained pocession of them , separated from the proceeding by a salty river and connected only in the extremity or isthamus of Pachalapali within which the lands of Baligamo , Bedamarache and Pachalapali forming that peninsula and outside of it stretch the lands of Vanni . Crosswise , from the side of Mannar to that of Triquillemele , being separated also from the country of Mantota in the jurisdiction of Captain of Mannar by the river Paragali ; which ( lands ) ends in the river of the Cross in the midst of the lands of Vanni and of others which stretch as far as Triquillemele which according to the map appears to be a large tract of country " .
which indicated the kings of the kingdom just prior to capitulation to the Portuguese had jurisdiction over an area corresponding to the modern Northern Province of Sri Lanka and parts of the northern half of the eastern province and that the Portuguese claimed these based on their conquest .
At the time , the mainland south of Elephant Pass was claimed by the King of Kandy , Senerat ; he and his troops were consistently harassing the Portuguese in the Jaffna Peninsula . His wife 's two sons , Vijayapala and Kumarasinghe , were also married to princesses from Jaffna . After the fall of Jaffna to the Portuguese , Senarat dispatched a 10 @,@ 000 strong army to Jaffna under the command of Mudaliyar Attapattu . The Portuguese withdrew and the Kandyan army occupied Jaffna . The Portuguese General Constantino de Sá de Noronha later attacked with reinforcements from Colombo and defeated Mudaliyar Attapattu 's army and seized Jaffna . According to Portuguese and Dutch publications , the last battle for Jaffna was fought between the King of Kandyan kingdom and the Portuguese , and the Europeans seized Jaffna from the Kandyan king . Following Portuguese defeat by the Dutch , the Jaffna Mannar islands and most of Jaffna 's Vannimai lands had been reincoporated into the Tamil Coylot Wannees Country by the 18th century .
= = Consequences = =
Over the next forty years , starting from 1619 until the Dutch capture of Jaffna fort in 1658 , there were three rebellions against Portuguese rule . Two were led by Migapulle Arachchi , during that period , Portuguese destroyed every Hindu temple and the Saraswathy Mahal library in Nallur , the royal repository of all literary output of the kingdom . Due to excessive taxation , population decreased and many people moved to Ramanathapuram in India and the Vanni Districts further south . External commerce was negatively impacted , though elephants , Jaffna 's principal export , were traded for saltpetre with various kingdoms in India and sent to Lisbon . Thus , decline in trade made it difficult to pay for essential imports , and such items ceased to be imported . In the words of Fernão De Queirós , the principal chronicler of Portuguese colonial exploits in Sri Lanka , the people of Jaffna were " reduced to the uttermost misery " during the Portuguese colonial era .
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= North @-@ Western Area Command ( RAAF ) =
North @-@ Western Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . Its wartime sphere of operations included the Northern Territory , adjacent portions of Queensland and Western Australia , and the Dutch East Indies . The command was formed in January 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War , from the western part of Northern Area Command , which had covered all of northern Australia and Papua . Headquartered at Darwin , North @-@ Western Area Command was initially responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries .
In the official history of the RAAF in the Pacific theatre , George Odgers described the North @-@ Western Area Campaign as " almost entirely an air war , with raid and counter @-@ raid " . From 1943 , North @-@ Western Area Command 's role became increasingly offensive in nature , as the Allies began to advance in New Guinea and the Dutch East Indies . The command continued to operate following the end of the war , its boundaries being reduced to Australian territory . In February 1954 , its responsibilities were subsumed by the RAAF 's newly established functional command @-@ and @-@ control system ; the headquarters was disbanded the following year .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
North @-@ Western Area Command was formed at RAAF Station Darwin , Northern Territory , on 15 January 1942 , taking over the western portion of what was Northern Area Command . Northern Area had been established on 8 May 1941 as one of the RAAF 's four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones , and covered northern New South Wales , Queensland , the Northern Territory , and Papua . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary .
The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 was the catalyst for Northern Area being split into North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) and North @-@ Eastern Area ( NEA ) , to counter distinct Japanese threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively . NWA 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Douglas Wilson . His senior air staff officer was Group Captain Frederick Scherger . Staff numbered 137 , including twenty @-@ four officers . In early February 1942 , Air Commodore George Jones , soon to be appointed Chief of the Air Staff , inspected NWA and found the morale and serviceability of its combat units — Nos. 2 , 12 and 13 Squadrons — to be lacking .
= = = = 1942 – 43 : Raids and counter @-@ raids = = = =
On 19 February 1942 , NWA 's complement of aircraft included seventeen Lockheed Hudson light bombers of Nos. 2 and 13 Squadrons based at Darwin and Daly Waters , fourteen obsolescent CAC Wirraway fighters of No. 12 Squadron based at Darwin and Batchelor , and ten P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) that were transitting through Darwin to Java . Half of the Hudsons were without crews , five of the Wirraways were out of service , and the Kittyhawk pilots were considered inexperienced . In Wilson 's absence at ABDA Command Headquarters in Java , Scherger was acting AOC . Just before 10 am , Darwin suffered its first air raid by the Japanese , a force of 188 aircraft that bombed the harbour and town . A further attack by fifty @-@ four bombers , directed mainly at the RAAF airfield , followed at around midday . The raids on 19 February destroyed civil and military infrastructure , twenty @-@ three aircraft and ten ships , and killed approximately 250 people . As well , 278 RAAF personnel deserted Darwin in an exodus that became known as the " Adelaide River Stakes " . " There was " , in Scherger 's words , " an awful panic and a lot of men simply went bush " . The Kittyhawks and anti @-@ aircraft gunners were credited with shooting down five Japanese aircraft and probably destroying five others .
In the wake of the disaster , NWA headquarters moved to a bush camp south of the RAAF Station , and the senior leadership was changed . Wilson and Scherger were posted out , the latter in spite of being praised for his actions during the attack by the Federal government 's commission of inquiry . Air Commodore Frank Bladin took over as AOC on 25 March , his initial objectives being to restore morale and deal with the perceived threat of an imminent invasion , tasks complicated by poor communications , transport and early warning systems . Proceeding to instigate more intense combat training and construct new satellite airfields with which to disperse his forces , Bladin became , in the words of Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " the RAAF 's outstanding area commander of the war " , and the first Australian in the Pacific theatre to be decorated by the Americans when he was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry after personally leading a raid by USAAF B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses on Celebes in the Dutch East Indies . Despite northern Australia 's obvious vulnerability to attack , NWA was without a garrison of interceptors until the arrival in March and April of three squadrons of USAAF Kittyhawks comprising the 49th Pursuit Group ( soon redesignated the 49th Fighter Group ) under the command of Colonel Paul Wurtsmith . The Darwin area would suffer a total sixty @-@ four air raids between February 1942 and November 1943 .
As of 20 April 1942 , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) . NWA 's boundaries were finetuned in August : as well as covering the Northern Territory , the command took responsibility for the portion of Western Australia north of a line drawn south @-@ east from Yampi Sound to the Northern Territory border , and part of Queensland adjacent to the Barkly Tableland . The 49th Fighter Group flew its final sorties in August and transferred to New Guinea the following month , having claimed seventy @-@ nine Japanese aircraft destroyed for the loss of twenty @-@ one Kittyhawks . NWA 's two Hudson squadrons had meanwhile conducted unescorted bombing missions against Japanese bases and shipping in the Timor and Arafura Seas , and in support of Sparrow Force on Timor . Three RAAF fighter squadrons — Nos. 76 and 77 equipped with Kittyhawks and No. 31 equipped with Bristol Beaufighters — arrived in September and October . September also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA . Bostock exercised overall control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold administrative authority over Australian units . Bladin 's remit was to defend the Northern Territory , the northern coast of Western Australia , and the Torres Strait , protecting the flank of General Douglas MacArthur 's offensives in New Guinea . Bostock was to coordinate operations when they involved more than one area command , for instance when the fighter squadrons of both NWA and NEA were required to repulse a major attack .
By December 1942 , NWA 's flying units included six RAAF squadrons operating mainly Kittyhawks , Beaufighters , Hudsons , and Vultee Vengeance dive bombers , as well as No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit , which flew a mix of Wirraways , Brewster Buffalos , P @-@ 38 Lightnings and P @-@ 43 Lancers and continued to operate out of the Darwin area ( as No. 87 Squadron from September 1944 ) for the duration of the war . These units were soon augmented by one squadron each of Dutch East Indies B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers and USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers , with which NWA was able to conduct heavier strikes against Japanese forces north of Australia . Also in December , No. 34 ( Transport ) Squadron , which had been formed under NWA 's control in Darwin four days after the first air raid , divested its aircraft to the newly formed No. 6 Communications Unit , which remained in the Northern Territory until disbanding shortly after the end of hostilities . No. 44 RDF Wing was formed under NWA at Adelaide River on 14 December . It was responsible for the radar stations that acted as an early warning system for Japanese attacks . The wing coordinated air defence in the region with No. 5 Fighter Sector Headquarters . As the raids continued into 1943 , Bladin placed his bombers inland and his fighters close to the coast , where they could intercept the attackers . No. 61 ( Works ) Wing was responsible for airfield construction squadrons and their associated support units . According to historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark , NWA was " one of the few areas where the RAAF was free to run its own show " in World War II . Bladin often employed his own judgement in selecting targets for offensive strikes , as detailed directives from superior headquarters were not always forthcoming . On 27 February , acting on intercepted radio transmissions , he launched a raid on Penfui airfield near Koepang , destroying or damaging twenty @-@ two Japanese bombers that had been destined to make a major raid on Darwin .
To help protect northern Australia from ongoing air attack , three squadrons of Supermarine Spitfire fighters were transferred from the United Kingdom and became operational in March 1943 as No. 1 Fighter Wing under Group Captain Allan Walters . A major engagement over Darwin on 2 May resulted in the loss of five Spitfires during combat , and several others in forced landings owing to fuel starvation or engine failure , for the destruction of one Japanese bomber and five fighters . Bladin immediately ordered a retaliatory Beaufighter strike led by Wing Commander Charles Read against Penfui airfield , on the assumption ( correct as it happened ) that this was where the Japanese raiders were based ; four enemy aircraft were destroyed on the ground . Between March and May 1943 , the number of sorties flown by NWA 's combat squadrons rose from 211 to 469 . The Allies claimed a total of forty @-@ six Japanese aircraft destroyed for the loss of thirty of their own on operations , seventeen to enemy action and thirteen from other causes . On 17 June , under the command of Group Captain Clive Caldwell , No. 1 Wing recorded NWA 's most successful interception to date , claiming fourteen Japanese raiders destroyed and ten damaged , for the loss of two Spitfires . The same month , the USAAF 's 380th Bombardment Group , consisting of four squadrons of Liberators , came under NWA 's control , enhancing its strategic strike capability . By this time , NWA headquarters staff numbered 385 , including ninety @-@ six officers .
= = = = 1943 – 45 : Offensive operations = = = =
Bladin handed over NWA to Air Vice Marshal Adrian Cole in July 1943 . Cole reported that the command was " well organised , keen and in good shape " , but considered its air defence capability inadequate , recommending augmentation by long @-@ range fighters such as Lightnings . He nevertheless had to make do with the three Spitfire squadrons of No. 1 Wing , and the possibility of calling on the USAAF 's Fifth Air Force for reinforcements as necessary . Having started out as a primarily defensive command , by mid @-@ 1943 NWA was able to support Allied advances in New Guinea . During August and September , Cole reduced regular reconnaissance missions to " increase bombing activity to the limit " , following a request from MacArthur to provide all available support for Allied assaults on Lae – Nadzab ; NWA Liberators , Hudsons , Beaufighters and PBY Catalinas carried out raids to destroy Japanese bases and aircraft , and divert enemy forces from Allied columns . No. 79 Wing was established under the aegis of NWA at Batchelor on 30 November 1943 . Consisting of four attack squadrons flying Bristol Beauforts , Mitchells and Beaufighters , it was commanded by Group Captain Charles Eaton .
By December 1943 , the character of the air war in northern Australia had changed markedly , as the Japanese were no longer able to mount air raids against Darwin ; rather than merely securing NWA , Cole was keen to adopt an offensive strategy in the Dutch East Indies . According to David Horner , " In the sense that he had to plan and conduct his own campaign , the AOC Northwestern Area was one of the RAAF 's few operational level commanders , even if the campaign was somewhat static and limited " . During March – April 1944 , NWA had thirteen squadrons under its control , including those of No. 79 Wing , and supported amphibious operations against Hollandia and Aitape . In May , its aircraft bombed Surabaya as part of Operation Transom . Under NWA 's direction , No. 79 Wing took part in the Allied attack on Noemfoor in June – July ; sorties by all NWA aircraft in July totalled 704 . No. 79 Wing was subsequently earmarked for transfer from NWA to Northern Command ( formerly No. 9 Operational Group ) in Papua New Guinea , to undertake operations against the Japanese in New Britain . No. 1 Wing received two fresh British squadrons of Spitfires in July , to replace two that had been transferred to No. 80 Wing , which had formed in Darwin for a planned assault on Selaru that did not eventuate . No. 44 Wing was disbanded on 22 August 1944 , and its radar stations divested to other units in the area . The same month , No. 61 Wing departed the Northern Territory for Morotai Island , where it later came under the control of the RAAF 's main mobile strike force , First Tactical Air Force .
In September 1944 , Cole handed NWA over to Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth . At this stage of the war , the Allies were advancing north and the tempo of operations in the Darwin area had decreased . Charlesworth raised concerns regarding No. 80 Wing , warning higher command that its morale would drop if it was not either given a more active role in the war or transferred to southern Australia for rest . By October , the wing had received orders to depart NWA for Morotai to join the First Tactical Air Force ; this left NWA with twelve squadrons at its disposal , including one Liberator unit and three other Spitfire squadrons . In the meantime , NWA supported the assault on Leyte with attacks on enemy ports , oil facilities , and shipping in the Dutch East Indies using Beaufighters , Mitchells , and Liberators . These operations continued through November and December . By then , NWA headquarters staff numbered 651 , including 156 officers .
The same month Charlesworth assumed command , No. 76 Wing arrived from Cairns , Queensland , to coordinate and control minelaying operations in NWA by three Catalina squadrons . The Catalinas mined Manila Bay in December 1944 , to support the Allied landing at Mindoro . No. 82 ( Heavy Bomber ) Wing — the RAAF 's first — became operational under NWA 's control at Fenton Airfield on 11 January 1945 . Comprising two Liberator squadrons , the wing replaced the USAAF 's 380th Group when the latter was transferred to the Fifth Air Force in the Philippines . The Liberators of No. 82 Wing sank seven Japanese ships in the Dutch East Indies during March . On 6 April , all of its available aircraft joined Mitchells of No. 79 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . Anti @-@ aircraft fire and attacks by enemy fighters resulted in the loss of two Liberators ; Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the following day .
Another squadron of Liberators was added to No. 82 Wing 's strength in late @-@ April 1945 . The bombers attacked targets in Java in the lead @-@ up to Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan , which commenced on 1 May . During this and the two subsequent Oboe operations , the invasions of Labuan and Balikpapan , NWA was responsible for mining operations , convoy escort , aerial reconnaissance , and attacks on Japanese bases and troops . No. 76 Wing 's Catalinas mined harbours as far north as Hong Kong and the Gulf of Hainan , China . By July , NWA had been denuded of much of its offensive capability as Nos. 79 and 82 Wings had been transferred to the First Tactical Air Force in Morotai . No. 85 Wing was formed the same month under NWA 's control ; it comprised two Liberator squadrons but only one became operational before the end of the Pacific War .
= = = Post @-@ war activity and disbandment = = =
Following the end of the war in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . The Liberator and Catalina squadrons were mainly used for repatriating Australian prisoners of war . No. 76 and 85 Wings were disbanded at Darwin in November . Darwin would subsequently function mainly as a transit centre and a base for peacetime exercises , rather than as a permanent station for flying squadrons . Charlesworth continued to serve as AOC NWA until January 1946 , when Group Captain Frank Headlam , formerly NWA 's senior administrative staff officer , took over as officer commanding ( OC ) . Headlam remained in command until October , by which time the headquarters staff numbered 108 , including twenty @-@ three officers .
In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The Federal government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place ( although NWA no longer covered the Dutch East Indies ) .
Between October 1949 and February 1950 , NWA hosted its largest exercise since the war when No. 82 Wing Avro Lincolns , specially modified with advanced radar and other instrumentation , flew into and out of Darwin as part of Operation Cumulative , a joint program with the Royal Air Force gathering long @-@ range navigation and bombing data for use in potential air campaigns against the Soviet Union . Wing Commander Glen Cooper served as OC NWA from September 1952 to December 1953 . Commencing in October 1953 , the RAAF was reorganised from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system into one based on function . In February 1954 , the newly constituted functional organisations — Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands — assumed control of all Air Force operations , training and maintenance from North @-@ Western Area Command . NWA headquarters remained in existence , but only as one of Home Command 's " remote control points " . The headquarters was finally disbanded on 29 June 1955 .
= = Orders of battle = =
= = = April 1942 = = =
As at April 1942 , NWA controlled the following squadrons :
No. 2 Squadron , equipped with Hudson general @-@ reconnaissance bombers , based at Daly Waters
No. 12 Squadron , equipped with Wirraway general @-@ purpose aircraft , based at Batchelor
No. 13 Squadron , equipped with Hudsons , based at Daly Waters
No. 34 Squadron , equipped with Dragon and Anson transports , based at Daly Waters
49th Group USAAF
7th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Kittyhawk fighters , based at Batchelor
8th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Kittyhawks , based at Darwin
9th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Kittyhawks , based at Darwin
= = = April 1943 = = =
As at April 1943 , NWA controlled the following squadrons :
No. 1 Wing
No. 54 Squadron RAF , equipped with Spitfire fighters , based at Darwin
No. 452 Squadron , equipped with Spitfires , based at Strauss
No. 457 Squadron , equipped with Spitfires , based at Livingstone
No. 2 Squadron , equipped with Hudsons , based at Hughes
No. 12 Squadron , equipped with Vengeance dive bombers , based at Batchelor
No. 13 Squadron , equipped with Hudsons , based at Hughes
No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , equipped with Mitchell medium bombers , based at McDonald
No. 31 Squadron , equipped with Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters , based at Coomalie
No. 319 Squadron USAAF , equipped with Liberator heavy bombers , based at Fenton
= = = April 1944 = = =
As at April 1944 , NWA controlled the following squadrons :
No. 1 Wing
No. 54 Squadron RAF , equipped with Spitfires , based at Darwin
No. 452 Squadron , equipped with Spitfires , based at Strauss
No. 457 Squadron , equipped with Spitfires , based at Livingstone
No. 43 Squadron , equipped with Catalina long @-@ range minelayers , based in Darwin Harbour
No. 83 Squadron , equipped with Boomerang fighters , based at Gove
No. 79 Wing
No. 1 Squadron , equipped with Beaufort general @-@ reconnaissance bombers , based at Gould
No. 2 Squadron , equipped with Beauforts , based at Hughes
No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , equipped with Mitchells , based at Batchelor
No. 31 Squadron , equipped with Beaufighters , based at Coomalie
380th Group USAAF
528th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Liberators , based at Fenton
529th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Liberators , based at Long
530th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Liberators , based at Fenton
531th Squadron USAAF , equipped with Liberators , based at Long
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= Lightning Bolt ( Pearl Jam album ) =
Lightning Bolt is the tenth studio album by the American rock band Pearl Jam . Produced by long @-@ time Pearl Jam collaborator Brendan O 'Brien , the album was released in the United States on October 15 , 2013 , through the band 's own Monkeywrench Records , with Republic Records handling the international release .
The band began composing new songs in 2011 , and had the album 's first recording sessions in early 2012 before the musicians decided to take a break . As all the band members got into side projects afterwards , work on Lightning Bolt only resumed in March 2013 . The music for Lightning Bolt has a harder rock sound with longer songs to contrast predecessor Backspacer ( 2009 ) , and the lyrics convey singer Eddie Vedder 's feelings on aging and mortality .
Preceded by a promotional campaign focusing on Pearl Jam 's website and social network profiles and two moderately successful singles , " Mind Your Manners " and " Sirens " , Lightning Bolt was well received by critics , who considered the album an effective return to the band 's old sound , and topped the charts in the United States , Canada , and Australia .
= = Production = =
Soon after completing Backspacer in 2009 , Pearl Jam and producer Brendan O 'Brien intended to soon repeat the experience given that according to O 'Brien " we had a really good time doing it . " . In 2011 , amidst preparations for the documentary Pearl Jam Twenty and its accompanying tour , the band recorded some tracks with O 'Brien at Los Angeles ' Henson Recording Studios , with the song " Olé " being issued as a free download . O 'Brien considered that the studio helped the band get to a " submarine mentality , and everybody going into the ship together " , and bassist Jeff Ament added that working outside the band 's hometown Seattle led the musicians to work more efficiently .
After some time developing demos , the musicians returned to Henson in March 2012 , recording seven songs before the band decided to take a break , as according to guitarist Mike McCready " we had to take some time to figure out what we wanted to do . " Guitarist Stone Gossard added that despite the bandmembers thinking that after the productive sessions the album was nearing completion , eventually they considered the tracks " didn ’ t feel strong enough for a record . Work on the album resumed only in March 2013 as the bandmembers regrouped with new compositions , mostly done separatedly in each member 's home studio — though McCready at times worked along with drummer Matt Cameron — before the group reunited to finish the songs together . O 'Brien attributed the long break to the band 's busy schedule , as the musicians got into side projects after putting the Pearl Jam album on hold : singer Eddie Vedder started a solo tour , drummer Matt Cameron returned to Soundgarden , guitarist Stone Gossard rejoined side project Brad , Ament recorded solo album While My Heart Beats and started the project RNDM , and McCready formed the group Walking Papers while also taking part in a partial reunion of Mad Season . Vedder still considered that all the diversions helped Pearl Jam to have " more importance placed on the records " and focusing on making the best album possible . Like with previous records the songs had their first recordings with all the musicians playing together , though O 'Brien added that with Lightning Bolt " we don ’ t keep as much of [ the live recordings ] as we used to . " Guest musicians include O 'Brien himself at the keyboards , long time keyboardist Boom Gaspar , and violinist Ann Marie Calhoun . After six weeks of new recording sessions , the album was mixed in Seattle at the band 's desire , with the process taking place in Studio X.
= = Composition = =
In contrast to the short tracks of Backspacer , Lightning Bolt features longer songs , and a more experimental sound that McCready declared to aim for " a logical extension of what Backspacer was " . Stone Gossard added that the band being more comfortable with the composing and recording process lead to " a slight return to some of the more sort of peculiar things we did , say , between No Code and Binaural . " McCready said that " there 's a Pink Floyd vibe to some of it , there 's a punk rock edge to other stuff " , with the lead singles " Mind Your Manners " and " Sirens " being inspired by the Dead Kennedys and a concert in Roger Waters ' The Wall Live , respectively . Neil Young was noted as an influence in " Yellow Moon " . O 'Brien considered the track listing to have " a lot of drama " from the intensity of the musicians ' work , but that the band itself were united and enjoying themselves during the creation process . According to Gossard , the album 's simpler arrangements , " sussed out " songwriting and less production than in Backspacer made for songs that were easier to learn and play live . One of the tracks , " Sleeping by Myself " , had been previously featured in Vedder 's 2011 solo album Ukulele Songs . O 'Brien suggested the re @-@ recording as he thought that the composition was " a Pearl Jam song as far as I ’ m concerned . " Another , " Pendulum " , was originally composed during the Backspacer sessions .
While writing the lyrics to Lightning Bolt , Vedder tried to be less cryptic in expressing his feelings compared to the " word games " of previous Pearl Jam albums . The songs discuss lasting relationships , bad faith ( " Getaway , " " Mind Your Manners " ) , the state of the world ( " Infallible " ) and life 's transience ( " Pendulum " ) , which Vedder summed up as " the same mysteries that I ’ ve been trying to unravel for a few decades now . " Gossard explained that the reflective tone was indicative of the bandmembers ' age : " [ At ] 40 @-@ something , almost 50 @-@ something , you 're looking at life through your kids ' eyes , through the filter of relationships that are 20 or 30 years long , through the filter of your parents getting older and the passing of friends and relatives @-@ relationships and all that they encompass , the difficulties of them and the sacrifices you make in them and also the joy they bring you . " Vedder at first was afraid of writing songs about mortality , but relented given he felt that " death is everywhere " and writing about death would help " getting through it " , as " living to the day you die , and being cognizant of the end , you might lead a more appreciative life " . One of the compositions about the theme was " Future Days " , which discusses the loss of Vedder 's friend Dennis Flemion , who accidentally drowned in 2012 . The concernment in the songs also owed to Vedder being a father , as the singer detailed that " It ’ s going to be their world and what is their future ? It feels like there is a lot that can be lost in the next 50 years if people don ’ t pay attention . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Pearl Jam 's website and social network pages were extensively used to create expectations create excitement for their upcoming album , with two countdown clocks being posted on the band 's website . The first was revealed on July 1 , 2013 , and once it hit zero one week later , the site had an announcement of a 24 date two @-@ leg tour in North America from October 11 , 2013 , through December 6 , 2013 . After the tour was revealed , the PearlJam.com countdown clock reset , showing a new countdown which was set to end on July 11 , 2013 , and afterwards lead to news of the band 's tenth studio album Lightning Bolt being released on October 15 , 2013 . On the same day the band revealed lead single " Mind Your Manners " through digital download , radio airplay and an audio @-@ only YouTube video . The track had heavy airplay on rock radios , debuting at 12th on the Billboard Rock Airplay charts , and with 14 @,@ 000 downloads reached number 14 at Rock Digital Songs and 12 on the Alternative Rock Tracks charts . An official Pearl Jam app was made available on iTunes on July 25 , 2013 , and through the final week of August , the band 's Twitter revealed Lightning Bolt 's track list through the artwork made by designer Don Pendleton for each track . " Mind Your Manners " was played live for the first time at their show in London , Ontario on July 16 , 2013 . Three days later the band debuted two more songs , " Lightning Bolt " and " Future Days " , at their show at Wrigley Field . On August 23 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Mind Your Manners " , directed by Danny Clinch .
On September 18 , 2013 , the band released Lightning Bolt 's second single , " Sirens " , and put online a short documentary directed by Danny Clinch where the bandmembers discussed the new album with friends Carrie Brownstein , Judd Apatow , Mark Richards and Steve Gleason . Ament suggested the concept of the video inspired by the Vanity Fair Comedy Issue , thinking it would be a variant on traditional press interviews . On September 23 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Sirens " , also directed by Clinch . A special listening party with fans was held by Sirius XM at Seattle 's Studio X eleven days before the album 's release . Monkeywrench Records and Republic Records sent the album 's title track , " Lightning Bolt " to mainstream rock and modern rock radio on March 4 , 2014 as the album 's third single .
Pearl Jam released the album through Monkeywrench Records / Republic Records in conjunction with Universal Music Group in the United States . The album also saw release through the band 's official website , independent record stores and online retailers . It was made available to stream for free for a limited time on iTunes on October 7 , 2013 , in the run up to the official release . The band promoted the release of the album with a week @-@ long programme of shows on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , which included live performances of " Sirens " and the title track " Lightning Bolt " . Pearl Jam also licensed the songs of Lightning Bolt along with 36 other tracks from their catalog to Fox Sports for the network 's coverage of the 2013 World Series .
= = = Lightning Bolt Tour = = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with shows in North America in 2013 before a tour of Oceania in January 2014 . The band headlined the Voodoo Music + Arts Experience on November 1 , 2013 . The shows in Oceania were part of the Big Day Out festival . On November 15 , 2013 , drummer Matt Cameron announced that he would not be touring with Soundgarden in 2014 , due to prior commitments promoting Lightning Bolt . On December 13 , 2013 , the band announced an eleven @-@ date European leg starting on June 16 , 2014 . In May 2014 , the band announced a ten @-@ date tour of the American Midwest starting on October 1 , 2014 , to coincide with two appearances at the Austin City Limits Music Festival . To conclude the tour , the band played at the annual Bridge School Benefit in Mountain View , California . In March 2015 the band announced a nine @-@ date tour of Latin America , scheduled to start in November .
= = = Packaging = = =
The artwork for Lightning Bolt was made by Don Pendleton , who is best known as a skateboard graphic artist . Ament bought some of Pendleton 's paintings " in 2008 or 2009 " and later asked the artist to do a logo for their upcoming album , which would later develop into all the illustrations . The bassist then kept in contact with Pendleton to guide his work , sending him the song lyrics , some sketches he had done and an unmastered copy of the album . The intention was to " make something that was a total package " , according to Pendleton , who said that there was an attempt to bring back " these classic LPs in the days where you would read the lyrics . You related the band to the imagery to the song to the lyrics . " Pendleton tried to " keep it iconic with some symbols but also really heavy with archetypes " , given the body of images could be used consistently with all of the promotion . While some of the graphics evolved directly from Ament 's sketches , Pendleton took some inspiration from his past work , such as a series of skateboards he painted " based around icons and logos " , and the very first image sent to Ament , an eye with a lightning bolt which Pendleton made back in 2006 for a failed project , that evolved into the album cover . Said cover was painted by hand as Pendleton wanted " something so geometric that there would be some flaws in it , especially compared to the vector / computer stuff " . Republic Records art designer Joe Spix then handled the presentation , with particular detail in the vinyl packaging . Pendleton also painted Ament 's bass , Pearl Jam @-@ themed shirts for Volcom , and posters for the Barclays Center concerts in October 2013 . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015 , the album won the award for Best Recording Package .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , Lightning Bolt was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 33 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars , stating that the band seemed more settled and comfortable while " accentuating the big riffs and bigger emotions , crafting songs without a worry as to whether they 're hip or not and , most importantly , enjoying the deep @-@ rooted , nervy arena rock that is uniquely their own . " Jim Farber of the New York Daily News gave the album four out of five stars , commenting that while " some key sounds and sensibilities " and uplifting lyrics were unlike Pearl Jam 's earlier style , the music in Lightning Bolt marked a return to the " thick @-@ bottomed rhythms , hard @-@ nosed guitars and darkened tone of classic Pearl Jam " compared to predecessor Backspacer . Cole Waterman of PopMatters gave the album an eight out of ten , praising " Pearl Jam thriving in their persona , building on what worked in the past without trying to copy it while adding new elements to the mix " and feeling that despite " the closing songs get [ ting ] monotonous in their united balladry " , " Future Days ” was a good album closer , comparing it to Tom Waits .
Dom Lawson of The Guardian gave the album three out of five stars , describing it as " a sturdy return to great form " . Tom Willmott of The Independent gave the album three out of five stars , considering Lightning Bolt to " offer a broad range of styles " and praising the rock @-@ focused tracks . Will Hermes of Rolling Stone gave the album three and a half stars out of five , saying that Eddie Vedder 's earnest lyrics and vocals made for compelling tracks , and that the musicians " overthink , overemote and overreach — fruitfully " . Josh Modell of The A.V. Club gave the album a B + , complaining about the excessive length and " a couple too many songs that revisit the past without any fresh insight " while feeling that " the album still feels fresher and more relevant than the world at large might expect at this point . " Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe considered the album to showcase that Pearl Jam " has plenty of spark left " , comparing it to both the " dense eclecticism " of the band 's own Vitalogy ( 1994 ) , and " The Who ’ s solidity of purpose " .
Some reviewers still felt that Lightning Bolt was not up to the standards set by the band 's previous work . Blue Sullivan of Slant Magazine gave the album three out of five stars , saying that the album had a " familiar spark " and was dragged down by " Pearl Jam 's antiseptic ' 70s @-@ album @-@ rock @-@ radio conservatism , along with frontman Eddie Vedder 's ham @-@ fisted lyrics " , ultimately concluding that " Lightning Bolt is no masterwork . Years removed from the raw emotion and desperate appetites of youth , Pearl Jam has slipped into alt @-@ rock elder statesmanship as one would a comfortable old sweater . " Rob Harvilla of Spin gave the album a six out of ten , describing it as " far from an implosion , far from spectacular " , criticizing the focus on calm songs and considering that Backspacer " barked louder and bit harder overall . " In his 5 @.@ 0 out of 10 review for Pitchfork Media , Stuart Berman also had a negative reaction to what he described as " centerpiece ballads [ that ] tread on odious Lite @-@ FM territory and forcefully tip the scales from poignant to maudlin " . Philip Cosores of Paste gave the album a 4 @.@ 0 out of 10 , saying " The album does grow on the listener , as Vedder 's voice and the band 's seeming ambivalence to all musical trends and developments outside of them is strangely comforting . And maybe some of these songs will come alive when performed , but there is not a single one to love in the set . Essentially , the cruise control is running onward with disregard for all the maintenance and repairs that an engine needs , and the result is the worst album of their career . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam 's fifth studio album to have debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 166 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In its second week the album sold 46 @,@ 000 copies holding the number two position on the chart . The album also debuted at number one in Canada , selling 23 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and becoming the band 's second consecutive album to debut at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . In Australia , Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam 's eighth chart @-@ topper at the ARIA Charts . Lightning Bolt debuted at second at the UK Albums Chart , being Pearl Jam 's highest charting album in the United Kingdom since 1993 's Vs .. The album also topped the music charts in Belgium , Ireland , Croatia and Portugal , and held the second spot in the Netherlands , Italy , New Zealand , Norway and Switzerland .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , all music composed by Vedder , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Pearl Jam
Jeff Ament – bass , background vocals , bowed guitar and keyboard on " Pendulum "
Matt Cameron – drums , background vocals
Stone Gossard – guitar , background vocals , bongo drums on " Pendulum "
Mike McCready – guitar , background vocals , six string bass on " My Father 's Son "
Eddie Vedder – lead vocals , guitar , ukulele on " Sleeping By Myself "
Additional personnel
Ann Marie Calhoun – strings
Boom Gaspar – piano , keyboards
Brendan O 'Brien – piano on " Future Days " , mixing , production
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Mind of a Man =
Mind of a Man is a game show broadcast by Game Show Network , with DeRay Davis as host . On each episode , two female contestants attempt to figure out what men believe about marriage , dating , work , and other subjects . Similar to Family Feud , the questions have previously been answered by a survey of one hundred men . Over the course of four rounds , a celebrity panel consisting of two men and a woman helps the contestants by offering their opinions about the correct answers to the surveys . The winner advances to the bonus round , which features a top prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 .
The series , green @-@ lit on August 16 , 2013 , began airing on January 8 , 2014 and concluded on May 14 , 2014 . Critical reception for the series was mixed , with one writer calling it " a lot of fun " while another arguing the premise to be " low @-@ minded . "
= = Gameplay = =
In the first round , the contestants are asked to predict the most popular answer to each of three questions . Each question has three multiple choice options , and was asked to a group of 100 men . The panel is allowed to offer their opinion on the correct answer while the contestants submit their answers on their tablet computers . Each correct prediction is worth $ 200 .
The second round plays almost exactly the same as the first round ; however , the questions were asked to men who belong to a specific group ( e.g. , married men , African @-@ American men , or men under the age of 25 ) . Each correct prediction is worth $ 300 . The last question of Round 2 is designated as the " VIP " question , which is focused on one specific group of men and asked to a special guest related to the question . When the VIP question is about a specific man , before the question is asked , the panel is allowed 30 seconds to " interrogate " the VIP about their background , personal preferences , etc . , and then the question is played out as normal , with the VIP giving his answer verbally after the contestants give their prediction . Actor Ted Lange ( most well known for his role on The Love Boat ) appeared in some episodes as the show 's bartender and was often the man who was previously asked the VIP question .
In the third round ( entitled " The Male Order " ) , each contestant , starting with the current leader ( or the winner of a pre @-@ show coin toss , in case of a tie ) , is given one question , and may choose any panelist to assist them on the question . For the Male Order question , the contestant is asked to rank the three answers from most popular to least popular . Although the panelist will give their opinion as to the correct ranking , the contestant has the final decision . The contestant picks up $ 100 for one answer correctly ranked , or $ 500 for all three .
The fourth round is titled the " Men 's High Five " and is an open @-@ ended question asked to 200 men . The top five answers are placed on the board in a random order , and the panel again gives their opinion on what would be the most popular answer . If the score going into this question is tied , each contestant is allowed to select one answer , with the winner of the pre @-@ show coin toss deciding who makes the first selection . If one contestant has the lead , that contestant goes first and is given a selection ; her opponent is then allowed one provided the first contestant did not pick the most popular answer . If the most popular answer has not yet been revealed , the first contestant is given one more selection . The contestant who selects the highest @-@ ranked answer wins the game , keeps her money , and plays the bonus round .
= = = Bonus Round = = =
For this round ( entitled the " $ 10 @,@ 000 Tag Team Round " ) , the contestant chooses one panelist to assist her . The host reads a series of pairs of related items , and each member of the team , in turn , tries to determine which answer was more popular . If , between the contestant and the panelist , a total of seven correct answers are given within 30 seconds , the contestant 's winnings are increased to $ 10 @,@ 000 ; if not , the contestant wins an additional $ 300 for every correct answer given .
= = Production = =
The series originally appeared during GSN 's New York City upfront presentation on April 9 , 2013 . On August 16 , 2013 , GSN announced that the network had ordered forty episodes of Mind of a Man , and officially announced Davis as host on September 25 .
The series premiered January 8 , 2014 . The final episode aired on May 14 , 2014 ; while GSN did not renew the show for a second season , the series was pitched for syndication in the 2015 − 16 season .
= = Reception = =
Mind of a Man garnered mixed reception from critics . Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times argued that the questions were " frivolous " and previewed the series as being " vacuous but often amusing . " The Washington Post 's Marc Silver called the series " low @-@ minded " and claimed that after watching an episode , his " mind need [ ed ] to go take a shower . " Acting rather neutral , Hank Stuever , also from The Washington Post , argued that the series ' title " sound [ s ] like the premise for an SNL sketch . " Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment , however , was pleased with the series , calling it " a lot of fun " and deeming Davis a " great host . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The series premiere on January 8 , 2014 , garnered average ratings , with the premiere episode earning 497 @,@ 000 total viewers and 112 @,@ 000 viewers among adults 18 − 49 ; GSN debuted the series that night with four consecutive episodes , which averaged around 407 @,@ 000 viewers during the two @-@ hour programming stack .
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= Underneath the Stars ( song ) =
" Underneath the Stars " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . The romance song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , for her fifth studio album , Daydream ( 1995 ) . It was released on April 5 , 1996 through Columbia Records , as the sixth and final single from the album , and as a B @-@ side to " Forever " in Australia . The R & B @-@ influenced song , which has been considered by Carey as one of her personal favorites , features a soft melody and retro @-@ style melody , and had music critics drawing comparisons to earlier works from one of her vocal inspirations , Minnie Riperton .
" Underneath the Stars " received a limited number of pressings in the United States , and failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 . However , the song did manage to chart at number sixty @-@ nine on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs airplay component chart . Critically , it was considered one of the best songs on Daydream by music reviewers . A music video was shot for " Underneath the Stars " in Europe , but the video remains unreleased . The song was performed throughout the Daydream World Tour and the performance at the Tokyo Dome was later included on a rare DVD titled " Mariah Carey Live In Japan . "
= = Background = =
Throughout 1993 , Carey began conceptualizing Music Box ( 1993 ) , which became the highest selling album of Carey 's career . For her past two albums , Carey 's creative choices were heavily controlled by her label Columbia Records , as well as her husband and CEO of the company , Tommy Mottola . Carey 's previous effort , Emotions ( 1991 ) , drew influence from 1950s , 60s , and 70s balladry , gospel , R & B and soul music , and failed to achieve the same success matched by her debut album . Following its tepid commercial performance , Columbia aimed for Music Box to be a vehicle for very commercial singles that could garner strong radio airplay . The album was formed as a pop record , and more mainstream than anything on Emotions . Music Box went on to sell over 32 million copies worldwide , and earned its place among the best @-@ selling albums of all time . Due to the album 's success , Columbia allowed Carey more control over the music she recorded for Daydream ( 1995 ) .
Before Carey knew or began searching for the direction she wanted the album to follow , Carey already had the idea and melody for " Underneath the Stars , " and felt that it would fit into the album no matter what the eventual sound would be . As such , it became the first song Carey wrote and recorded for the album , and served as a sort of tribute to the music which she grew up listening to , as well as one of her main vocal inspirations , Minnie Riperton . " Underneath the Stars " was the first song Carey recorded for her fifth studio album , Daydream ( 1995 ) . The song was eventually chosen as the sixth and final single from the album , and was released on April 5 , 1996 through Columbia Records . In Australia , the song was released as a b @-@ side to Carey 's previous single , " Forever " ( 1996 ) .
= = Controversy = =
Throughout 1998 , Carey was compiling songs for her first compilation album , # 1 's . The album , alongside " Underneath the Stars " and " Breakdown " , led to a publicized conflict with Columbia Records . Carey wanted to include the two songs on the album , and felt that a greatest hits record should reflect on her most personal and favorite songs , not her most commercial . Sony on the other hand , wanted to release an album that featured her U.S. number one singles , void of any new material . To accompany her thirteen number ones , Carey recorded four new songs . She felt that not including any new material would result in cheating her fans . While compromised , Carey often expressed distaste towards the album 's song selection , expressing her disappointment in the omission of her " favorite songs . "
For this reason , Sony titled the album # 1 's , as Carey felt the need to express the album 's true content , a collection of her number one hits . In December 2001 , Columbia released the album Greatest Hits , which featured Carey 's number one singles alongside songs she said " needed to be really heard , " such as " Underneath the Stars " and " Forever . " In an interview with MTV , Carey made the following statement regarding the album . " There 's a lot of songs that I 'm happy are gonna see the light of day . I think people are going to like this Greatest Hits because there are songs on it that were not necessarily singles . "
= = Composition = =
" Underneath the Stars " features a " ' 70s soul vibe , " courtesy of the use of a Rhodes piano , as well as synthetic record scratches , in order to the give the song an authentic aged sound . The song also incorporates Carey 's usage of double voice , in which she sings the verses in a lower octave , and then sings the crescendo and climax in a higher register over it . Carey felt the additions were simple steps taken to further display a contemporary R & B groove , and pay homage to the style of Minnie Riperton , who was one of Carey 's biggest vocal influences growing up . According to author Chris Nickson , the song has a soft sound , and " a lot of texture " and bass , showing a more creative side to Carey . While reviewing Daydream , Stephen Holden from The New York Times described the song 's double voice , as well as its lyrical content : " ' Underneath the Stars , ' in which all the voices are Ms. Carey 's , achieves the same dissolving synergy between a lyric and entwining vocal lines as she sings : " Beautifully and bittersweetly / You were fading into me . "
= = Reception = =
While not commercially released , " Underneath the Stars " has been lauded with a widespread acclaim , becoming one of the album 's best @-@ received tracks , with music critics complimenting its instrumentation and vocals . Rolling Stone stated that , " Afanasieff cowrote his one of strongest tunes yet , the sweet , bouncy ' Underneath the Stars . ' " Chris Nickson , author of Mariah Carey Revisited : Her Story ( 1998 ) , said the song was as " strong as any slow jam released in the nineties , and one that would find a lot of flavor late at night with dancers . " Chris Dickinson from St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch called the song one of Carey 's best compositions , and wrote " it easily evokes a languid dreamy sensuality with its throbbing bass @-@ line and synthetic record scratches . " Writer and journalist Christopher John Farley from Time described " Underneath the Stars " as " cool and blissfully nostalgic , " while Cheo H. Coker called it " dynamic but subtle . " The song received a limited number of pressings in the United States , where it charted weakly on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , peaking at number sixty @-@ nine .
= = Music video and live performances = =
On February 11 , 2012 , Carey revealed through her Twitter account that a music video for the song was actually recorded . Filming sessions occurred in Netherlands , England and France ; Carey commented , however , that it " never got released & I don 't know where it is ! " Due to its limited release and chart performance , " Underneath the Stars " was only performed during Carey 's Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) . During the shows in Japan , Carey featured the song as the tenth track on the set @-@ list . Appearing on stage wearing a long black evening gown , Carey discussed the song 's composition and development with the audience , prior to its recital . The live performance from the Tokyo Dome on March 7 , 1996 was recorded and released on a rare DVD titled " Mariah Carey Live In Japan . " The song has recently been performed in 2012 in Carey 's performances in Austria in April and Morocco in May . She often performs portions of the song a cappella in between songs during engagements off screen .
= = Track listing = =
CD single and 12 " Vinyl
" Underneath the Stars " — 3 : 33
" Underneath the Stars " ( Drifiting Re @-@ Mix ) — 4 : 00
" Underneath the Stars " ( Drifiting Re @-@ Mix W / O Rap ) — 4 : 00
AUS CD single
" Forever " — 4 : 01
" Underneath The Stars " — 3 : 33
" Forever " ( Live ) — 4 : 12
" Make It Happen " ( Live ) — 4 : 43
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Daydream liner notes .
Mariah Carey – vocals , songwriting , producer
Walter Afanasieff – songwriting , producer , mixing
Herb Powers – mastering
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= Russian battleship Imperator Aleksandr III =
Imperator Aleksandr III ( Emperor Alexander III ) was the third , and last , ship of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts of the Imperial Russian Navy . She was begun before World War I , completed in 1917 and saw service with the Black Sea Fleet . She was renamed Volia or Volya ( Russian : Вóля , Freedom ) before her completion and then General Alekseyev ( Russian : Генерал Алексеев ) in 1920 . The ship did not take part in operations during World War I because her sister ships were given a higher priority for completion . She was delivered in 1917 , but the disruptions of the February Revolution rendered the Black Sea Fleet ineffective and she saw no combat .
Volia was surrendered to the Germans in 1918 , but they were forced to turn her over to the British by the terms of the Armistice . The British turned her over to the White Russians in 1919 and they used her to help evacuate the Crimea in 1920 . She was interned in Bizerte by the French and ultimately scrapped by them in 1936 to pay her docking fees . Her guns were put into storage and were later used by the Germans and Finns for coastal artillery during World War II . The Finns and the Soviets continued to use them throughout the Cold War .
= = Description = =
Imperator Aleksandr III was 168 meters ( 551 ft ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 27 @.@ 43 meters ( 90 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 36 meters ( 27 @.@ 4 ft ) . Her displacement was 23 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 200 long tons ; 26 @,@ 000 short tons ) at load , 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 22 @,@ 600 t ( 22 @,@ 200 long tons ; 24 @,@ 900 short tons ) . Imperatritsa Mariya had proved to be very bow heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . Imperator Aleksandr III 's forward pair of 130 mm guns were removed before she was completed in an attempt to compensate for her trim .
Imperator Aleksandr III was fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines imported from John Brown & Company of the United Kingdom . They were designed for a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced 27 @,@ 270 shp ( 20 @,@ 340 kW ) on trials . 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 257 psi ) . Her designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her maximum coal capacity was 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 727 t ) plus 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 040 km ; 1 @,@ 890 mi ) at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . All of her electrical power was generated by three Curtis 360 @-@ kilowatt main turbo generators and two 200 @-@ kilowatt auxiliary units .
The ship 's main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ calibre guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) B7 Pattern 1913 55 @-@ calibre guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , five guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four clustered around the rear turret . She was fitted with four 38 @-@ calibre 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) ' Lender ' anti @-@ aircraft guns , two each mounted on the roof of the fore and aft turrets . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted , two tubes on each broadside abaft the forward magazine .
= = Service = =
Imperator Aleksandr III was built by the Russud Shipyard at Nikolayev . She was laid down on 30 October 1911 , but this was just a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized or the contract signed . She suffered from a number of delays during construction . First the method of fastening the armour to its supports was changed and the armour plates were locked together by a type of mortise and tenon joint to better distribute the shock of an impact based on the full @-@ scale armour trials conducted using the hulk of the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Chesma in 1913 . This added almost 500 long tons ( 508 t ) of weight to the ship and raised her cost by 220 @,@ 000 rubles . Then her priority was reduced after the start of World War I to concentrate efforts on her more advanced sister ships to complete them more quickly . She was not expected to be finished before 1916 , but her British @-@ built turbines were also delayed . Imperator Aleksandr III was launched on 15 April 1914 , but did not arrive at Sevastopol for fitting out until 17 July 1917 , by which time the ship had been renamed Volia ( Freedom ) . She conducted her sea trials over the next several months . By this time the Black Sea Fleet was totally ineffective as a result of the political situation after the February Revolution and Volia did not see any combat .
Volia sailed from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk on 1 May 1918 to avoid capture by advancing German troops . While at Novorossiysk she received an order to scuttle on 19 June 1918 , but the majority of the crew ( 933 versus 640 ) refused to do so and decided to return to Sevastopol . Upon arrival she was disarmed and only guards were left on board , but the Germans took control on 1 October . The ship made a brief cruise with a German crew on 15 October , but her guns were still inoperable . Less than a month later the Germans were forced to turn her over to the British on 24 November in accordance with the Armistice when a party from the light cruiser HMS Canterbury took charge of her . A month later she was sailed for the port of İzmit , on the Sea of Marmara , by a crew from the pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Agamemnon , which also escorted her .
On 29 October 1919 she was sailed back to Sevastopol by a crew from HMS Iron Duke and turned over to the White Russians on 1 November . They renamed her General Alekseyev and carried out shore bombardments with only three of her of twelve guns operable . With the collapse of the White Russian armies in Southern Russia in 1920 , the ship helped to evacuate the Whites from the Crimea to Bizerte , where she was interned with the rest of Wrangel 's fleet . The French decided not to sell her back to the Soviet Union and she was sold for scrap in the late 1920s to pay her docking costs although she was not actually broken up until 1936 .
The ship 's guns were placed into storage in Bizerte . In January 1940 France gave them to Finland , after refusing to sell seven to the Finns in the summer of 1939 . Of the twelve main guns , eight made it to Finland , while four were seized by Germany when it invaded Norway in April 1940 and captured them on board the SS Nina in Narvik harbor . The Germans emplaced all four guns , after rebuilding them to accept German ammunition , in armoured turrets in ' Batterie Mirus ' on Guernsey . The Finns used four guns in coastal artillery positions at Isosaari and Mäkiluoto . Two other guns were used to repair Soviet TM @-@ 3 @-@ 12 railway guns abandoned at Hanko when the Soviets evacuated in 1941 . After the war these handed over to the Soviet Union , where they were kept operational until the 1990s . The remaining two guns were kept as spares for the others , one of which was used to replace one gun damaged during tests with ' super charges ' in the 1970s . One gun turret is now a memorial at Isosaari while the remaining spare barrel is preserved at the Finnish Coast Artillery Museum at Kuivasaari .
The Nina also carried some of the General Alekseyev 's 13 @-@ cm guns . Several of these were used at the fort at Tangane on the island of Rugsundøy . They engaged the British light cruiser HMS Kenya , reportedly scoring one hit on the cruiser , during Operation Archery in 1941 , but saw no other combat during the war .
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= Brazilian monitor Alagoas =
The Brazilian monitor Alagoas was the third ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Alagoas participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Upper Uruguay ( Portuguese : Alto Uruguai ) Flotilla after the war . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 . The ship was scrapped in 1900 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Alagoas carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The 70 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . It had a maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . Most unusually the gun 's Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Alagoas was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 29 October 1867 and completed in November 1867 . She arrived on the Paraná River in January 1868 , although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá . On 19 February 1868 , six Brazilian ironclads , including Alagoas , steamed past Humaitá at night . Alagoas and her two sister ships , Rio Grande and Pará were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . The cable tying Alagoas to Bahia was severed by Paraguayan shells and the monitor drifted down below the guns . The commander of the Alagoas was ordered not to attempt to pass the guns during daylight , but disregarded this order and successfully rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron upstream of the fortifications . Both Alagoas , which had taken an estimated 200 hits , and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking . Alagoas was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid @-@ March . Accompanied by Tamandaré , Alagoas bombarded and destroyed the Paraguayan artillery battery at Timbó , upstream of Humanitá , on 23 March . The monitor bombarded artillery positions defending the Tebicuary River in July and again in August .
On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort , south of Asunción , in company with Brasil , Silvado , Pará and her sister Ceará .
After the war Alagoas was assigned to the newly formed Alto Uruguai Flotilla , based at Itaqui . In the 1880s the ship 's armament was reinforced with a pair of 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) machine guns . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and joined the rebels in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 . Her engines had been removed by this point and she had to be towed into position to fire on the government forts . She was scrapped in 1900 .
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= Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem ( video game ) =
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem is an action game exclusive to the PlayStation Portable , developed by Rebellion Developments and published by Sierra Entertainment . It was released in November 2007 in North America and Europe , and December 2007 in Australia . It is part of the Alien vs. Predator franchise , an amalgamation of the Alien and Predator franchises . Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem is a tie @-@ in to the film of the same title , which was released shortly after the game .
The game 's plot is loosely based on the film , as players take the role of the film 's primary Predator . After the events of the first film of the Alien vs. Predator franchise , the Predator has been charged by his society to hunt down and destroy any trace of Alien activity taking place in a small American town , in order to avoid its detection by humanity .
The game received negative reviews from critics and was described as another entry in a long line of poorly developed movie tie @-@ ins . Reviewers enjoyed the opportunity to play as a Predator , but complained that the game was too easy and not rewarding , particularly the simple artificial intelligence of enemies . The visuals and audio of the game were also considered of poor quality .
= = Gameplay = =
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure game . The single @-@ player campaign is composed of 15 missions and features the Predator from the film . The player has access to Predator weapons as seen in movies and other sources in the franchise , including claws and a shoulder @-@ mounted energy cannon . New weapons from the corresponding film include an energy pistol .
The player character also has stealth camouflage and several vision modes that allow him to see in the dark , such as infrared vision . Health is represented by a segmented life bar that regenerates after a successful kill , and an energy bar is also available to provide power for the Predator 's weapons . In addition to destroying Aliens , the Predator must eradicate other traces of their presence , including facehugger husks . Aliens , husks , humans , and other potential targets are all represented by icons on a heads @-@ up display . The game 's camera is manipulated by pressing the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) ' s triggers , and the Predator can " lock on " to opponents using a first @-@ person view to target them with his ranged weapons .
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem uses a system of " honor points " to award points to players for actions considered honorable for Predators . For instance , " tagging " an enemy in first @-@ person mode before killing it adds points , while killing humans reduces points . Honor points are used at the end of each mission to upgrade the Predator 's weapons and equipment . In addition to the campaign , a single @-@ player mode called " Skirmish " is available , in which players have five minutes to dispose of as many Aliens as possible in one of the game 's maps . Skirmish can also be played in a cooperative setting with one other player using the PSP 's " ad @-@ hoc " local wireless mode .
= = Plot = =
The protagonist predator has come to Earth in response to a distress signal from a comrade 's ship . Upon his arrival in the small Colorado town of Gunnison , he learns that Aliens have begun terrorizing the local populace . His mission is to destroy the Aliens and remove any trace of their activity . After reaching his comrades ' ship and erasing its traces from Earth , the Predator 's only mission is to exterminate all Aliens in the vicinity .
The Predator travels through rural and urban areas of Gunnison , fighting more Aliens along the way , and occasionally being harassed by human soldiers and civilians . Finally , the main Alien lair is found in a hospital , where several mines are set by the Predator to bring the Hive down . The game concludes with the final fight against an attacking helicopter and the hospital 's destruction . Suddenly , the Alien Queen is seen appearing out of the hospital 's rubble , only to be destroyed , along with the entire town , by a nuclear warhead , while the Predator successfully leaves Earth .
= = Development = =
Alien vs. Predator began as a franchise in February 1990 , when Dark Horse Comics published a comic book featuring Aliens from the Alien series of films in battle against the title characters of Predator . Both franchises are owned by Twentieth Century Fox . In November 1990 , Fox released Predator 2 , and one of the final scenes in the film showed an Alien skull inside a trophy case aboard a Predator ship . Fox began licensing merchandise for the new franchise , including comic books and video games . In 1993 , the first Aliens vs. Predator video game was released ; Alien vs Predator for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System .
British independent game studio Rebellion Developments became involved with the franchise in 1994 with the release of Alien vs Predator for the Atari Jaguar , described by 1UP.com as " probably the only good Jaguar game ever made " . Rebellion later developed an enhanced remake of the game for the PC , which was the first PC game to require a video card and went on to win a BAFTA award . The first feature film in the franchise , Alien vs. Predator , was released in 2004 and did not include a tie @-@ in video game . In August 2007 , Sierra Entertainment announced that the company had partnered with Fox to produce a video game corresponding with the sequel film Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem . Rebellion was identified as the game 's developer . The company , while not strictly handheld @-@ focused , has a reputation in the industry for developing PSP games .
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem was developed exclusively for the PSP . Regarding PSP exclusivity , Rebellion lead designer Tim Jones explained " It was basically a matter of logistics . We have a strong heritage with the PSP and have done a number of successful titles such as Star Wars Battlefront : Renegade Squadron " . Rebellion decided to forego the first @-@ person shooter format of their earlier Alien vs. Predator games and instead focused on a third @-@ person perspective , with the player taking the role of a lone Predator . Unlike previous Rebellion Alien vs. Predator titles , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem does not permit players to take the role of Aliens or human Marines . The company used a game engine of its own creation , and Hal Zabie , associate producer at Sierra Entertainment , said " ... the challenge was to deliver high quality graphics while not sacrificing game performance and this is something that Rebellion achieved and will be noticed by players right away . "
Rebellion was given materials from the film 's production , including footage and the full script , in order to recreate the feel of the film and lend authenticity to the game . The game 's plot is loosely based on the film 's , with the player character working to remove traces of Alien and Predator presence in a small American town . Despite similarities to the movie , the ending is different and the game does not feature the " predalien " , a Predator @-@ Alien hybrid introduced in Alien vs. Predator . The directors of the film , the Brothers Strause , are fans of Rebellion 's PC Aliens vs. Predator game and worked with the studio to develop Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem 's premise . In an interview with IGN , Rebellion 's Tim Jones said " Fox is very protective of their franchise and take [ sic ] great care to make sure it is treated properly . We had to work within strict confines to remain consistent with the movie and everything we did had to be approved by the studio . " The game 's system of honor points was considered crucial by Rebellion , who felt that the Predators , despite being the " bad guys " , were characterized by a strict code of honor .
" AvP Requiem PSP is set in Gunnison , the same small town as seen in the movie . The player assumes the role of the new elite Predator from the film . While many of the locations , weapons , and scenarios are nearly identical to the film , the game designers were given the freedom to make the best game possible , which meant at times rearranging some of the story elements and action set pieces . "
Sierra described the game 's development as challenging because portable consoles lack the processing power of larger machines . Rebellion complained about the PSP 's lack of a second analog thumbstick , stating that it made creating a usable control scheme challenging . They also stated that because the game 's protagonist preferred to work alone , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem would not contain a multiplayer cooperative mode for the single @-@ player campaign , but a " Survival Mode " minigame would be available where two players could work together to fight Aliens . The game had a relatively short development cycle , and was made in less time than the movie .
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem was released on November 13 , 2007 in North America , over a month ahead of the film 's December 25 opening . It was released on November 30 in Europe and December 6 in Australia .
= = Reception = =
Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem received mostly negative reviews among gaming publications . It was considered a poor movie tie @-@ in , an analysis typical of such games . Reviewers specifically said the game wasn 't " bad " , just not " good " — IGN , for instance , said " AVP doesn 't suck , but that isn 't to say it 's good . " GameSpot 's reviewer said " Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem isn 't a terrible game ; it 's just really mediocre . " Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson described the game by referencing a colleague 's review of Miami Vice : The Game , a previous Rebellion PSP title , which stated " [ Miami Vice : The Game is ] one of those games that 's not bad , but nor is it ever that good . " The week before the movie 's release , Requiem was listed at # 5 on GameFly 's most @-@ rented PSP titles list .
One critique was the game 's difficulty level , which was described as too easy . Gameplanet called it " shockingly easy " and claimed that upgrades gained through the honor system made the protagonist invincible rather than stronger . Eurogamer noted that " furiously button mashing " was generally sufficient to kill most of the game 's enemies .
" Although it 's true that a game 's difficulty is hardly the sole indicator of its overall quality , every other part of the game is far too mired in blandness to prevent you from drifting off under the spell of mindlessly simple gameplay . "
The artificial intelligence of the game 's enemies , the Aliens , was regarded as lacking , and one reviewer noted that their blood was not acidic , a defining characteristic of the creatures from the films . Several reviewers did praise the game 's representation of the Predator , however , especially in the early levels .
The game 's graphics and audio were not well @-@ received , with IGN commenting " There 's never a moment that makes you step back and say wow . The textures are muted , the Predator looks alright , but everything is pretty forgettable . "
Reviewers also took the opportunity to mock the franchise itself , with Eurogamer suggesting that the series be made into a sitcom . Regarding the multiplayer , IGN 's Greg Miller said " This mode was so boring I made up my own story . I was the Mommy Predator and Ryan from the IGN News Team was the Daddy Predator . We were protecting our children -- the cars in the large empty lot we were running around -- from the aliens " . 1UP 's Patrick Klepek said " Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem fails to capitalize on its gaming heritage , instead falling prey to the same substandard licensed schlock we 're used to from the films . "
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= The Child ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" The Child " is the first episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 27th episode overall . It was originally released on November 21 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The story was originally written by Jaron Summers and Jon Povill for the cancelled late 1970s series Star Trek : Phase II . Due to the tight deadlines caused by the 1988 Writers Guild of America Strike , the producers of The Next Generation searched the records of that earlier television project , resulting in the script being amended by show runner Maurice Hurley .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , ship 's Counsellor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) becomes pregnant by an alien entity and gives birth to a mysterious child . This causes problems for the Enterprise , which is transporting dangerous plague strains . The child 's presence on the ship begins to endanger the crew due to the effects on a virus sample being transported by the ship . It sacrifices its physical body , turning into an energy being , telling Troi why it visited before departing .
Being the first episode of the second season , " The Child " was the first episode to feature Diana Muldaur as Doctor Katherine Pulaski and Whoopi Goldberg as Guinan . Director Rob Bowman was allowed to use additional camera equipment to improve the style of filming , resulting in a change to the opening shot of the episode . It was watched by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , but critics held a negative opinion of the episode saying that there was no ongoing effect to Troi . Further criticism also compared the means of the character 's pregnancy to rape , and that the reactions of the other crew were irrational .
= = Plot = =
The new Chief Medical Officer , Dr. Katherine Pulaski ( Diana Muldaur ) , is brought aboard the Enterprise as it prepares to travel to Aucdet IX in order to take on dangerous virus samples , which will be carried to a Starfleet Medical station in order to devise a cure for a plague epidemic in the Rachelis System . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) meets her in the Ten Forward lounge , as well as the ship 's new bartender , Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) . On leaving the starbase , a ball of energy passes through the hull and enters the ship unnoticed , eventually settling into ship 's counselor Deanna Troi 's ( Marina Sirtis ) quarters . The next day , Pulaski finds that Troi is pregnant ; the foetus is developing at an accelerated rate and will be fully developed in 36 hours . Troi does not know who the father is , but is aware of a " presence " entering her body the night before . Though the senior staff debate terminating the pregnancy , Troi decides she will carry the child to term .
While the Enterprise arrives at Aucdet IX and begins to transport the samples into a highly secure storage vessel , Troi gives birth to an apparently normal boy , whom she names Ian Andrew after her father . Ian continues to develop rapidly ; within a day , he appears as a four @-@ year @-@ old child with corresponding mental faculties . Troi , Picard and Pulaski observe Ian ( Zachary Benjamin ) purposely putting himself in harm 's way , seemingly just for the experience . When asked if he is ready to explain who or what he is , though , Ian responds " not yet . " Having completed the transfer of the virus samples , the Enterprise heads for Starfleet Medical , but the crew finds one of the plague strains is growing inexplicably ; should it continue growing , it will rupture the storage vessel and result in the catastrophic exposure of all on board .
They discover that an unknown source of Eichner radiation is causing the growth . Separately , Ian ( R.J. Williams ) , now appearing as an eight @-@ year @-@ old , confides to Troi that he is the source of the crew 's problems and will have to leave . Troi realizes Ian is dying and calls for medical assistance . As Pulaski tries to keep Ian alive , Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) scans him and discovers that he is the source of radiation . Ian dies in Troi 's arms , and turns into a ball of energy , which settles into Troi 's hands , communicating telepathically with her for a moment , then leaves the ship . The lifeform told her that he wished to experience childhood and living among the crew . With Ian gone , the plague sample returns to normal and the crew continues on to Starfleet Medical .
= = Production = =
= = = Phase II = = =
The origins of an episode based on a female crew member becoming pregnant first materialised in Gene Roddenberry 's initial pitch for Star Trek : The Original Series . Entitled " Infection " , the episode was described as " A female crew member is discovered to be pregnant , and the growing realization it could be the larvae of an alien , using her body like some insects plant their eggs in other living insects . " A similar idea was created for the Star Trek : Phase II television series in the late 1970s . Jaron Summers pitched a premise for " The Child " in a meeting with Jon Povill , Roddenberry 's assistant , and producer Harold Livingston . Povill suggested changes in the meeting , and Summers subsequently submitted a revised draft treatment . Livingston asked Povill to re @-@ write it , who did a complete re @-@ write in the space of a week . Livingston was subsequently so impressed with his efforts that he demanded Roddenberry make him story editor . Roddenberry refused , until Livingston threatened to quit if Povill didn 't get the job . This changed Roddenberry 's mind but Livingston found that it seriously damaged their working relationship .
The story would have seen the Deltan , Ilia ( Persis Khambatta ) , becoming pregnant by an alien entity as the ship passes near a nebula . She gives birth to a baby girl , who she names Irska . The Enterprise suffers multiple near @-@ disasters , which are each resolved by the intervention of the child . Meanwhile the ship 's hull is slowly dissolving and the vessel will break apart in a matter of hours . The new Vulcan science officer Xon ( David Gautreaux ) mind melds with the child and discovers that it needs to be transported directly into a bright light which had been pursuing the Enterprise . This procedure is completed and as the child enters the light , it transforms into a higher life form . The episode ends with the crew musing that Ilia acted as the being 's first womb and the Enterprise was the second . The series was cancelled as it went into initial production for the pilot , " In Thy Image " , with that being rewritten as Star Trek : The Motion Picture . The script for the Phase II version of " The Child " was later reprinted in full in Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens ' 1997 book Star Trek : Phase II : The Lost Series . Povill and Summers adapted the script for use in the fan @-@ series Star Trek : Phase II , also known as Star Trek : New Voyages . Povill also directed the episode .
= = = The Next Generation = = =
In response to the success of the first season , Paramount Television increased the budget per episode for Star Trek : The Next Generation , but also changed the financing structure so that funds could be carried over from episode to episode . But due to the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike , the work on the second season was delayed and the length of it overall was reduced . The producers sought to go into production immediately upon the strike being lifted , so they studied the story ideas put forward as part of Phase II . " The Child " was held up as one possibility , with the position of Ilia in the story changed to become Troi . Sirtis praised this development , as she felt she had been overlooked during the first season due to the presence of both Gates McFadden and Denise Crosby .
Show runner Maurice Hurley later admitted that he had never looked at the Phase II script , while executive producer Rick Berman later explained that the writers did not have as much time to redevelop the script due to the restricted time @-@ scale imposed by the strike . Despite this , director Rob Bowman wanted to give the fans of the show a good episode to start the second season , the idea of which Berman agreed with . So Bowman said that his direction " went a bit further " than he would normally , in order to compensate for the script difficulties . He was allowed to use additional cameras and equipment to improve the style of filming , including the opening shot of the episode .
Making their first appearances in The Next Generation in " The Child " were Diana Muldaur as Doctor Katherine Pulaski , and Whoopi Goldberg as Guinan . Muldaur had previously appeared in episodes of The Original Series as other characters , and had been written in to replace Gates McFadden as Beverly Crusher . Officially McFadden had chosen to leave as she didn 't like her character development , the same reason given for Crosby departing during the first season . However , she had actually been fired by Hurley . It had been intended for Pulaski to bring more of a Doctor Leonard McCoy vibe to the series . Meanwhile , Academy Award winner Goldberg had been actively pursuing a role on the show as Nichelle Nichols ' portrayal of Uhura in The Original Series had inspired her to become an actress . Her agent was initially ignored by the producers as they did not believe that she wanted to be on the show , until Goldberg called them herself . Her character , was named after Mary " Texas " Guinan , a prohibition @-@ era speakeasy owner .
= = Reception = =
" The Child " was released in broadcast syndication on November 18 , 1988 . It was watched by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , the highest for the series since the first season episode " Too Short a Season " , broadcast on February 14 of the same year . Dennis McCarthy 's composition for this episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series in 1989 , but lost to Joel Rosenbaum for an episode of Falcon Crest .
The episode was described as " uneven " and an " inauspicious start to the second season " by James Van Hise and Hal Schuster in their book The Complete Trek : The Next Generation . While the duo praised the addition of Muldaur and Goldberg , the lack of a follow @-@ up to the episode was criticised as they felt that the events should have had some type of lasting effect on Troi . It was suggested that either she would want to have a child , or she would be wary of them in general due to the impact of the loss of Ian . Keith DeCandido pointed out several changes at the start of this season in " The Child " that would recur throughout the rest of the run of The Next Generation in his review for Tor.com. These included moving Geordi La Forge to become chief engineer , placing Miles O 'Brien as transporter chief and Riker growing a beard . However , he criticised that Worf calling for Troi to have an abortion was never mentioned again , but added that it was discussed in a non @-@ canon novel , A Rock and a Hard Place by Peter David .
James Hunt , in his review for Den of Geek , was surprised that no @-@ one in the episode reacted to Troi undergoing what he saw as a form of rape . He also felt that her eagerness to have the child could have been a type of mind control , but none of the crew seem to consider that as a possibility . He said that the crew failed to act rationally for the sake of the plot , which was one of his pet peeves in television , adding that you could " Replace any main character in this episode with a parsnip and the outcome will be unchanged . " Hunt also described the introduction of new elements as " clunky " , feigning " wonder " that " someone doesn 't say ' Nice facial hair , beardo ' to Riker because that 's the level of subtlety they go for . " Zack Handlen , in reviewing the episode for the A.V. Club gave it a score of D + , criticising the passive nature of Troi and equated her pregnancy to rape . The entire life of the child was presented as a " joyous life experience " , and Handlen described the lack of issues in a three @-@ day pregnancy as " bunk " . He felt that the episode would have been better served by concentrating on the hard science fiction concept of the plasma plague , which was only used as a macguffin .
The first home media release of " The Child " was on VHS cassette , appearing on August 25 , 1994 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season two DVD box set , released in on May 7 , 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season two Blu @-@ ray set on December 4 , 2012 .
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= Free Expression Policy Project =
The Free Expression Policy Project ( FEPP ) is an organization devoted to assisting researchers with assembling information related to freedom of speech , media democracy , and copyright , and advocating for these issues . Civil liberties lawyer Marjorie Heins founded the nonprofit organization in 2000 . Based in Manhattan , New York , it was initially associated with the National Coalition Against Censorship , and subsequently operated as part of the Democracy Program of the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University Law School .
The FEPP conducted a survey in 2001 which revealed that online monitoring software , including Net Nanny , SurfWatch , and Cybersitter , cast too broad a net and often blocked legitimate educational websites in their attempts to censor material from youths . In 2003 , the organization assisted 33 academics in filing a friend @-@ of @-@ the @-@ court brief challenging a law which restricted the sale of violent video games to minors . In coordination with the Brennan Center for Justice , the FEPP released a public policy report in 2006 on the inefficiency of Internet filtering ; the report concluded that freedom of expression was harmed by such online censorship activity . In 2007 , the FEPP became an independent organization .
The New Walford Guide to Reference Resources praised the FEPP website for its links to resources on freedom of expression and censorship . FEPP has been characterized by the Austin American @-@ Statesman as a think tank devoted to researching the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . The Denver Post described the organization as a censorship watchdog organization , and a separate article from the same newspaper called it a left @-@ of @-@ center politically aligned group , which advocated for both intellectual freedom and artistic freedom .
= = History = =
The Free Expression Policy Project was founded by Marjorie Heins , who became its initial director . It was formed as a nonprofit organization . Founded in 2000 , the organization formed with goals of assisting researchers with assembling information related to freedom of speech , media democracy , and copyright , and advocating for these issues . It started as an outgrowth of the National Coalition Against Censorship . Prior to founding the organization , Heins served as director of the Art Censorship Project at the American Civil Liberties Union . The FEPP monitors incidents of censorship against artists , and is based in Manhattan , New York .
A 2001 survey conducted by the organization found that popular online filters including Net Nanny , SurfWatch , and Cybersitter had significant problems , and blocked legitimate websites , including the website of US Congressman Richard Armey because his site included his nickname , " Dick " . The University of Kansas Archie R. Dykes Medical Library was blocked by SurfWatch because the word " dykes " appeared on the site . In 2003 , Stephanie Greist served as communications director for the Free Expression Policy Project .
In 2003 , the Free Expression Policy Project assisted 33 academics specializing in journalism , with filing a friend @-@ of @-@ the @-@ court brief challenging a law which restricted the sale of violent video games to youths . In 2004 the organization operated at the National Coalition Against Censorship . In 2005 the organization was part of the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University Law School . Within the Brennan Center for Justice , the FEPP operated through the Democracy Program at the law school . In 2006 the organization , in collaboration with the Brennan Center for Justice , released a report on the inefficiency of Internet filtering . The 87 @-@ page report concluded that academic @-@ based censorship of material on the Internet was far too broad and harmed free expression of ideas . The FEPP became independent from both the National Coalition Against Censorship and the Brennan Center for Justice in 2007 .
= = Analysis = =
The New Walford Guide to Reference Resources praised the FEPP website for its links to other websites about freedom of expression and censorship . Austin American @-@ Statesman described the Free Expression Policy Project as a think tank dedicated to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . A 2002 article in The Denver Post called the FEPP a watchdog organization which monitored censorship . In a 2004 article , The Denver Post characterized the organization as a think tank from the left @-@ of @-@ center political alignment , which advocated for both intellectual freedom and artistic freedom . The New York Times called the FEPP an organization which was critical of censorship of depictions of violence in the media .
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= Captain Jack ( Billy Joel song ) =
" Captain Jack " is a song by Billy Joel featured on his 1973 album Piano Man with a live version on his 1981 album Songs in the Attic .
It is considered by some to be the most important and pivotal of his early compositions because his performance of the song at an April 15 , 1972 live radio concert at Sigma Studios on WMMR in Philadelphia , and the subsequent airplay this live version received on the station , brought him to the attention of major record labels , including Columbia , with whom he would sign a recording contract in 1973 .
= = Composition = =
Joel wrote " Captain Jack " in late 1971 , while sitting in his apartment in Oyster Bay , Long Island , looking out the window , trying to find inspiration for a song . Across the street was a housing project , and he observed suburban teenagers going into the project and obtaining heroin from a dealer known as " Captain Jack " . " It 's about coming out of the New York suburbs , " Joel told John Kalodner in 1974 . " But in my travels I have seen a lot of the same suburb all over the country . The song is sort of brutal , but sometimes it is good to be brutal and offend people — it keeps them on their toes . "
The song , according to Joel , is an anti @-@ drug song . He says , " What 's so horrible about an affluent young white teenager 's life that he 's got to shoot heroin ? It 's really a song about what I consider to be a pathetic loser kind of lifestyle . I 've been accused of , ' Oh , this song promotes drug use and masturbation . ' No , no , no . Listen to the song . This guy is a loser . " In writing about the song in the liner notes of his Songs in the Attic album , Joel once again emphasized the point : " ... so many friends shoveled under the Long Island dirt . The miracle of modern chemistry killed them if Vietnam didn 't . "
= = Pre @-@ release = =
To promote his debut album , Cold Spring Harbor , Joel undertook a tour that lasted through most of the spring and into the early summer of 1972 . One of the people who noticed and liked the LP was the music director of Philadelphia radio station WMMR @-@ FM , Dennis Wilen . He arranged to have Joel perform a concert for radio @-@ station listeners who won tickets . On Saturday night , April 15 , 1972 , Joel performed an hour @-@ long concert in front of these contest winners at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia . Joel and his touring band from 1971 @-@ 1972 ( Larry Russell on bass guitar , Al Hertzberg on lead guitar , Rhys Clark on drums ) performed 12 songs , seven from Cold Spring Harbor and five songs he had not yet recorded . Some of the songs were later recorded for the Piano Man LP , including " The Ballad of Billy The Kid " , " Travelin ' Prayer " , and " Captain Jack " .
" Captain Jack " was immediately embraced by WMMR 's audience . For the next year and a half , the station kept its live version of the song in regular rotation . Listeners called in , wanting to know where they could find the song and on what album it appeared . The song was such a big hit in Philadelphia that several New York radio stations got their own tape copies and began to play it as well . Though Columbia Records ' then @-@ president , Clive Davis , first noticed Joel at the Mar y Sol festival in Puerto Rico on Easter Sunday , April 2 , 1972 , the constant airplay of Joel 's unreleased song kept the label 's attention . Columbia Records did their best to track Joel down . After turning down a record deal from Atlantic Records , Joel signed with Columbia in the spring of 1973 .
= = Release and reaction = =
" Captain Jack " was one of the 10 songs recorded in Los Angeles for Joel 's Columbia debut , Piano Man . It quickly became a staple of FM rock stations after the album 's release in November 1973 . This song , along with the songs " Piano Man " and " The Entertainer " , were the songs that Joel was best known for before the release of The Stranger in 1977 .
Reception for the song was mostly positive . Jack Breschard of Rolling Stone called it one of Joel 's " best efforts " . Ira Mayer called it Joel 's " signature piece , " and Stephen Holden said the song , a " centerpiece " of the album , " compelled attention for [ its ] despairing portraits of urban fringe life , despite [ the ] underlying shallowness . " Holden also believed that the song had a Bob Dylan feel to it . " As with so many rock stars , one of his most important early influences was Bob Dylan – in fact , ' Piano Man ' and ' Captain Jack , ' two of his more ambitious early tunes , as well as the more recent and better ' She 's Always a Woman , ' are practically keyboard parodies of Dylan critiques , " Holden says . Author Hank Bordowitz called " Captain Jack " " as bleak a portrait of growing up in the affluent suburbs as anything before L.A. punk hit nearly a decade later " . Stuart Levine of Variety called the song " lyrically expansive " and " dark . " Ron Rosenbaum of Slate , in a very negative review of Joel 's work , criticized " Captain Jack , " summarizing the song as , " Loser dresses up in poseur clothes and masturbates and shoots up heroin and is an all @-@ around phony in the eyes of the songwriter who is so , so superior to him . "
Joel made his first television appearance in the wake of the release of Piano Man , on the syndicated Don Kirshner 's Rock Concert program , in a performance recorded live in Chicago in March 1974 . " Captain Jack " was one of the three songs that were broadcast . In keeping with U.S. broadcast television standards of the time , Joel was forced to alter the lyrics slightly . Instead of singing the line " You just sit at home and masturbate " , he sang , " You just sit at home and la la la " . Kirshner recalled , " I knew he was going to be a big star , and so did he . "
By 1980 , " Captain Jack " had mostly disappeared from Joel 's concert setlists . Nevertheless , he always played it in Philadelphia , because he never forgot the role the song and the city played in his early career . A version recorded at The Spectrum in July 1980 was used on his live album , Songs in the Attic . Joel wrote , " ' Captain Jack ' plays with much more power and conviction when a roaring Philadelphia audience sets off a kind of internal explosion and the adrenaline screams through our veins ... When we play ' Captain Jack ' , we are actually committing an act of pure brutality . " Timothy White of Rolling Stone did not like this version , calling it " grating " .
The song entered the news again in 2000 when it was mistakenly used during Hillary Clinton 's announcement that she would be campaigning for U.S. Senate . According to an NPR report on worst campaign songs , a staffer notes that the playing of " Captain Jack " was a mistake . It was played from the Billy Joel compilation CD Greatest Hits Volume 1 , and the song intended to be played was " New York State of Mind " , which was track five on the CD . The Clinton staffer inadvertently played track two , which was " Captain Jack " . Her presumed opponent , Rudolph Giuliani , who ended up not running for the Senate , criticized the song 's use because of its alleged glorification of drugs . Giuliani even read the lyrics to the song in a live press conference . Joel replied in a statement , " There are a lot of important issues facing the voters in this Senate race . Is a politician 's interpretation of a song I wrote nearly 30 years ago an issue to the voters of New York state ? I do not think so . "
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= Jan Matejko =
Jan Alojzy Matejko ( Polish pronunciation ) ( also known as Jan Mateyko ; June 24 , 1838 – November 1 , 1893 ) was a Polish painter known for paintings of notable historical Polish political and military events . His works include large oil on canvas paintings like Rejtan ( 1866 ) , Union of Lublin ( 1869 ) or Battle of Grunwald ( 1878 ) , numerous portraits , a gallery of Polish kings , and murals in St. Mary 's Basilica , Kraków . He is counted among the most famous Polish painters .
Matejko spent most of his life in Kraków . His teachers at the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts included Wojciech Korneli Stattler and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz . Later , he became a director at this institution , which eventually was renamed the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts . A number of his students became prominent painters themselves , including Maurycy Gottlieb , Jacek Malczewski , Józef Mehoffer and Stanisław Wyspiański .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Matejko was born on June 24 , 1838 , in the Free City of Kraków . His father , Franciszek Ksawery Matejko ( Czech : František Xaver Matějka ) ( born 1789 or January 13 , 1793 , died October 26 , 1860 ) , a Czech from the village of Roudnice , was a graduate of the Hradec Králové school who later became a tutor and music teacher . He first worked for the Wodzicki family in Kościelniki , Poland , then moved to Kraków , where he married the half @-@ German , half @-@ Polish Joanna Karolina Rossberg ( Rozberg ) . Jan was the ninth child of eleven that his parents had . He grew up in a kamienica building on Floriańska Street . After the death of his mother in 1845 , Jan and his siblings were cared for by his maternal aunt , Anna Zamojska .
At a young age he witnessed the Kraków revolution of 1846 and the 1848 siege of Kraków by the Austrians , the two events which ended the existence of the Free City of Kraków . His two older brothers served in them under General Józef Bem ; one died and the other was forced into exile . He attended St. Ann 's High School , which he dropped out of in 1851 because of poor results . From his earliest days Matejko showed artistic talent , but he had great difficulty with other subjects . He never mastered a foreign language . Despite that and because of his exceptional talent he studied at the School of Fine Arts in Kraków from 1852 to 1858 . His teachers included Wojciech Korneli Stattler and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz . He selected historical painting as his specialization , and finished his first major work , Tsars Shuyski before Zygmunt III ( Carowie Szujscy przed Zygmuntem III ) , in 1853 ( he would return to this topic in a year before his death , in 1892 ) . During this time , he began exhibiting historical paintings at the Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts ( starting with 1855 ) . His seminal project for his graduation in 1858 was Sigismund I the Old ennobles the professors of the Jagiellonian University ( Zygmunt I nadaje szlachectwo profesorom Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego ) .
Following his graduation , Matejko received a scholarship to study under Hermann Anschütz at the Academy of Fine Arts , Munich in 1859 . Next year he also received a scholarship to study at Academy of Fine Arts Vienna , but after a few days and a major quarrel with Christian Ruben , Matejko returned to Kraków . There he opened a studio at his family house at Floriańska Street . It would however be years before he would gain commercial success ; for a time he was the proverbial " starving artist " , who celebrated when he sold a canvas ( the Tsars Shuyski ... ) for five gulden .
In 1860 Matejko issued an illustrated album , Clothing in Poland ( Ubiory w Polsce ) , a project reflecting his intense interest in historical records of all kinds and his desire to promote such interest among the Polish people in an effort to intensify their patriotic feelings . His financial situation improved with the sale of two paintings , Death of Wapowski during the crowining of Henry Valois ( Zabicie Wapowskiego w czasie koronacji Henryka Walezego , 1861 ) and Jan Kochanowski mourning his daughter Urszulka ( Jan Kochanowski nad zwłokami Urszulki , 1862 ) , which settled his debts . In 1862 he finished a painting , Stańczyk . ; initially received without much applaud , in time it would become known as one of Matejko 's most famous masterpieces . In Matejko 's art style , it visibly marks a transition from simply illustrating history to being the artist 's philosophical and moral commentary of it .
During the January Uprising of 1863 , in which he did not participate because of poor health , Matejko gave financial support , donating most of his savings to the cause , and personally transported arms to the insurgents ' camp . His Skarga 's Sermon ( Kazanie Skargi ) , finished in May 1864 , was displayed in the gallery of the Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts , which gained him much publicity . On 5 November that year , in recognition for his contributions to recreating historical themes , he became a member of the Kraków Scientific Society ( Towarzystwo Naukowe Krakowskie ) . Soon afterward , on 21 November , he married Teodora Giebultowska , with whom he would have five children : Beata , Helena , Tadeusz , Jerzy and Regina . Helena , his daughter , also an artist , helped victims in World War I and was awarded the Cross of Independence by president Stanisław Wojciechowski .
= = = Rise to fame = = =
At that time Matejko started to gain international recognition . In 1865 Matejko 's painting Skarga 's Sermon was awarded a gold medal at the yearly Paris salon ; soon afterwards Count Maurycy Potocki bought it for 10 @,@ 000 guldens . In 1867 , his painting Rejtan was awarded a gold medal at the World Exhibition in Paris and acquired by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria for 50 @,@ 000 franks . His next major painting was the Union of Lublin ( Unia Lubelska ) , created in the years 1867 @-@ 1869 . Once again applauded in Paris , it yielded Matejko a Cross of the French Légion d 'honneur . It was purchased by the Sejm of Galicia . Union ... was followed by Stefan Batory at Pskov ( Stefan Batory pod Pskowem ) , finished in 1871 . In 1872 he visited Istanbul in the Ottoman Empire , and upon his return to Kraków he finished Astronomer Copernicus , or Conversations with God ( Astronom Kopernik , czyli rozmowa z Bogiem ) , which was acquired by the Jagiellonian University . From the 1870s he was aided in many tasks by a secretary , Marian Gorzkowski , who would become his " right hand " , his closest friend , a model for a number of paintings , and an author of memoirs about Matejko .
In 1872 during an exhibition in Prague he was offered a directorship of Academy of Fine Arts , Prague , and soon afterwards , a similar position at the Kraków 's School of Fine Arts . He accepted the Kraków 's offer , and was for many years the principal ( rector ) of the Academy of Fine Arts . In 1874 he finished Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta ( The Hanging of the Sigismund bell ) . In 1878 he finished another masterpiece , Battle of Grunwald . That year he received an " honorary grand gold " medal in Paris , and the city council of Kraków presented him with a ceremonial scepter , a symbol of his " royal status in fine arts " . In year 1879 he finished working on Rok 1863 - Polonia ( Year 1863 - Polonia ) , his take on the contemporary January Uprising . Begun in 1864 , a year after the Uprising he himself lived through and where he lost a number of friends and family members , Matejko abandoned work on this canvas until prince Władysław Czartoryski became interested in acquiring it ; it is still considered unfinished .
Years 1880 @-@ 1882 marked his work on another large painting , Prussian Tribute ( Hołd Pruski ) . Matejko gifted this painting to " the Polish nation " , and it earned him honorary citizenship of Kraków ; one of the squares in the city was also named Matejko Square . In 1883 he finished Sobieski at Vienna ( Sobieski pod Wiedniem ) . Sobieski ... was gifted to Pope Leo XIII as a " gift of the Polish nation " and Matejko who was one of the members of the group delivering it received a Knight Commander with Star Order of Pius IX . At that time he also became a vocal spokesman in a number of political issues , publishing letters on issues such as Polish @-@ Russian relations . Another arena he was very engaged in were efforts to protect and reconstruct various historical monuments in the city of Kraków . In 1886 he finished a painting focusing not on Polish , but on French history : Virgin of Orléans , portraying Joan of Arc . Next year Matejko received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy , honoris causa , from the Jagiellonian University , and the Austrian Litteris et Artibus . In 1888 he finished Batte of Racławice ( Bitwa pod Racławicami ) . In 1888 @-@ 1899 , to justify his new academic title , he published a cycle of twelve sketches with an accompanying commentary , History of civilization in Poland ( Dzieje Cywilizacji w Polsce ) . From 1890 to 1892 he published another cycle of sketches , this time of Polish kings ( Poczet królów i książąt polskich - Fellowship of the kings and princes of Poland ) , which over the years became so popular they are seen as their canon portrayals . 1891 saw him finishing Constitution of the 3 May ( Konstytucja 3 Maja ) . He then began composing another large painting , Oaths of Jan Kazimierz ( Śluby Jana Kazimierza ) , but it remained unfinished due to his death . In 1892 , a year before his death , he finished a Self @-@ portrait ( Autoportret ) .
Suffering from a peptic ulcer , on 30 October 1893 he suffered from internal bleeding , and died in Kraków on November 1 that year . His funeral on November 5 drew large crowds , and his death was mentioned in at least thirty two European newspapers . He was buried in the Kraków 's Rakowicki Cemetery .
= = Significance , style and themes = =
He is counted among the most famous Polish painters , described as " Poland 's greatest historical painter " and " a cult figure to the nation at large ... [ already ] by the time of his death . " . His style was praised for being " colourful , detailed and imaginative " . He succeeded in propagating Polish history , and reminding the world about Poland , while his country remained partitioned and without any independent political representation . His works , disseminated in thousands of reproductions , have become almost standard illustrations of many key events in Polish history . His 1860 illustrated album Ubiory w Polsce ( Clothing in Poland ) is seen as a valuable historical reference . Critics of his work have pointed to his use of traditional painting style ( " antiquarian realism " , " theatrical effects " ) . At exhibitions abroad the nuanced historical context of his works would be often lost on foreign audiences . Occasionally his paintings would cause controversy ; for example Rejtan offended a number of prominent members of Polish nobility , who saw the painting as an indictment of their entire social class . His paintings were subject to censorship in the Russian Empire , and Nazi Germany planned to destroy Battle of Grunwald and the Prussian Homage , which the Nazi authorities considered offensive to the German view of history ( those paintings were among many that the Germans planned to purposefully destroy in their war on Polish culture ; both were however successfully hidden by the members of Poland resistance ) .
Many of his works are dedicated to famous events in Polish history . Matejko was focusing on major themes in Polish history and using historical sources to paint events in minute historical detail . His earliest paintings are simple historical paintings with no hidden messages . The later ones , starting with the painting Stańczyk ( 1862 ) , are intended to inspire the viewers with a patriotic message . Stańczyk focuses on the court jester , portrayed as a symbol of country 's conscience , sitting in a chair in the background of a party - a sole figure reflecting on the war , ignored by the joyful crowd .
In addition to history paintings Matejko made also numerous portraits . Among others : portraits of Jagiellonian University rectors Józef Szujski and Stanisław Tarnowski , and numerous portraits of family and friends , including Wife in the wedding dress ( " Żona w sukni ślubnej " ) ( 1865 , destroyed by his wife during a quarrel and recreated in 1879 ) and a self @-@ portrait ( 1892 ) . Altogether Matejko authored 320 oil paintings and several thousands drawings and watercolors . He also designed the polychrome in St. Mary 's Basilica , Kraków ( 1889 – 1891 ) .
His paintings are on display in numerous Polish museums ; including the National Museum in Warsaw , National Museum in Kraków , National Museum in Poznań and National Museum in Wrocław . National Museum in Kraków has a branch dedicated to Matejko - House of Jan Matejko ( Dom Jana Matejki ) located in his former studio and family house at Floriańska Street , opened in 1898 . Another museum dedicated to Matejko , Dworek Jana Matejki , opened in Krzesławice ( where Matejo acquired a manor ) in 1865 .
Over 80 painters have been Matejko 's students at some point , many influenced during his tenure as the director of the Kraków School of Fine Arts , and are referred to as members of " Matejko School " . Prominent among them are Maurycy Gottlieb , Ephraim Moses Lilien , Jacek Malczewski , Józef Mehoffer , Antoni Piotrowski , Witold Pruszkowski , Leon Wyczółkowski , and Stanisław Wyspiański .
= = Selected works = =
Following is the list of Matejko 's selected works , in a chronological order .
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= Aerodramus =
Aerodramus is a genus of small , dark , cave @-@ nesting birds in the Collocaliini tribe of the swift family . Its members are confined to tropical and subtropical regions in southern Asia , Oceania and northeastern Australia . Many of its members were formerly classified in Collocalia , but were first placed in a separate genus by American ornithologist Harry Church Oberholser in 1906 .
This is a taxonomically difficult group of very similar species . Echolocation , DNA sequencing and parasitic lice have all been used to establish relationships , but some problems , such as the placement of the Papuan swiftlet are not fully resolved . These swiftlets can pose major identification problems where several species occur .
What distinguishes Aerodramus swiftlets from other swifts , and indeed almost all other birds , is their ability to use a simple but effective form of echolocation . This enables them to navigate within the breeding and roosting caves .
The nests of Aerodramus swiftlets are constructed with saliva as a major component . In two species , saliva is the only material used , and the nests are collected for the famous Chinese delicacy ' bird 's nest soup ' , the over @-@ collection of which puts pressure on the swiftlet populations .
= = Distribution = =
The range of these swiftlets is confined to tropical southern Asia , Oceania , northeastern Australia and the Indian Ocean , with the greatest diversity in Southeast Asia , Indonesia and Papua New Guinea . Several of the species are restricted to small islands , and their limited range can make them vulnerable , like the Seychelles , Whitehead 's and Guam swiftlets . The Mangaia swiftlet is a recently extinct species known only from fossils .
= = Description = =
Aerodramus swiftlets are in many respects typical swifts , having narrow wings for fast flight , and a wide gape and small reduced beak surrounded by bristles for catching insects in flight . They have dull plumage which is mainly in shades of black , brown , and grey . Members of this genus typically have dark brown upper wings and upper body , sometimes with a paler rump , light brown underparts , a paler throat , and brownish @-@ white under @-@ wings with dark brown " armpits " . Males and female plumages are similar in appearance , as is that of the juvenile , for those species for which it has been described ; in some species the juvenile shows pale fringes to the flight feathers .
The legs , as with many swifts , are very short , preventing the birds from perching , but allowing them to cling to vertical surfaces . The flight is mainly gliding due to very long primary feathers and small breast muscles . Aerodramus swiftlets , depending on species , weigh 8 – 35 grammes ( 0 @.@ 28 – 1 @.@ 23 oz ) and are 9 – 16 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 – 1 @.@ 23 in ) long . These swiftlets are very similar , and where several species occur , such as Borneo , New Guinea and the Philippines , may not be separable in the field .
= = Behaviour = =
Aerodramus swiftlets are aerial insectivores , which take prey like flies on the wing . They roost and breed in caves ; during the day they leave the caves to forage for food , and return to roost at night . They are monogamous and both partners take part in caring for the nestlings . Males perform aerial displays to attract females and mating occurs at the nest . The breeding season overlaps the wet season , which corresponds to an increased insect population .
Clutch size depends on the location and the food source , but generally Aerodramus swiftlets lay one or two eggs . The eggs are a dull white , and are laid every other day . Many , if not all , species are colonial nesters ; some build their nests in high , dark corners on cave walls .
Most Aerodramus swiftlets live in the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific region and do not migrate . These birds usually remain in one cave or other roosting / nesting site . Examples of cave sites include the Niah Caves and Gunung Mulu National Park , which are both located in Sarawak , Malaysian Borneo .
Characteristics of behaviour , such as what materials apart from saliva the nests contain , can be used to differentiate between certain species of Aerodramus .
= = Echolocation = =
The genus Aerodramus is of special interest due to its use of echolocation . The swiftlets use this technique to navigate in darkness through the chasms and shafts of the caves where they breed and roost at night . Apart from swiftlets , the only other avian species to use echolocation is the unrelated oilbird .
The Aerodramus swiftlets ' echolocating double clicks are within the normal human hearing range and up to 3 milliseconds apart , with the interval becoming shorter in darker locations . Unlike the rest of the genus ( for those species which have been studied ) , the Atiu swiftlet , Aerodramus sawtelli , and the black @-@ nest swiftlet , A. maximus , emit only single clicks . Interestingly , the former species also uses echolocation outside its caves .
The use of echolocation was once used to separate Aerodramus from the other non @-@ echolocating cave swiftlet genera Collocalia and Hydrochous ( virtually nothing is known about Schoutedenapus ) . However , recently , the pygmy swiftlet , Collocalia troglodytes , was discovered making similar clicking noises both inside and outside its roosting cave .
It has recently been determined that the echolocation vocalizations do not agree with evolutionary relationship between swiftlet species as suggested by DNA sequence comparison . This suggests that as in bats , echolocation sounds , once present , adapt rapidly and independently to the particular species ' acoustic environment .
A study suggested that the echolocation subunits were mainly located in the central nervous system , while the subunits in the vocal apparatus were already present and capable of use before echolocation even evolved . This study supports the hypothesis of independent evolution of echolocation in Aerodramus and Collocalia , with the subsequent evolution of complex behaviour needed to complement the physical echolocation system , or just possibly that the vocal apparatus @-@ parts of the echolocation system might even be inherited from some prehistoric nocturnal ancestor .
It has been suggested that the giant or waterfall swiftlet , Hydrochous gigas , which cannot echolocate , may be descended from an echolocating ancestor .
= = Saliva nests = =
The intricately constructed saliva nests of this swiftlet genus , which in some species contain no other material , are collected to make the delicacy bird 's nest soup . They therefore command extremely high prices .
Authentic bird 's nest soup is made from the nests of the edible @-@ nest swiftlet ( or white @-@ nest swiftlet ) , Aerodramus fuciphagus , and the black @-@ nest swiftlet , Aerodramus maximus . Instead of incorporating twigs , feathers and straw like others in the genus , these two swiftlets make their nest only from strands of their gummy saliva , which harden when exposed to air . Once the nests are harvested , they are cleaned and sold to restaurants . Over the past twenty years , the high demand for the nests of these Aerodramus species has had an adverse effect on their populations . The Niah caves population of black @-@ nest swiftlets plunged from around 1 @.@ 5 million pairs in 1959 to 150 @,@ 000 – 298 @,@ 000 pairs in the early 1990s through over @-@ harvesting .
Early authors had doubts about the material used to make the nest , with whale and fish sperm and sea foam being proposed as the basis for construction . Even in the 1830s , when the use of saliva had been fairly well established , it was believed that it was only a cement to bind a sea plant which provided the bulk of the gelatinous material of the nest .
= = Lice = =
As with other taxonomically difficult groups , ectoparasites can give information on relationships . A study of swiftlet parasites in northern Borneo involved transferring lice between closely related swiftlet species . The survival of lice in most of these transfers was significantly reduced in proportion to the mean difference in feather barb size between the donor and recipient species of hosts . Thus , adaptation to a particular resource on the body of the host appears to govern the specificity of swiftlet lice . In transfers where lice survived , the lice moved to different areas on the body of the host where the mean barb diameter of the feathers on which the lice occurred had the required value .
= = Papuan swiftlet = =
The Papuan swiftlet , Aerodramus papuensis , has three toes instead of the usual four in this group . It has the ability to echolocate , but whereas other previously studied species use echolocation primarily while flying in their caves , the Papuan swiftlet appears to be nocturnal or crepuscular and uses echolocation while active outside at night . It uses single , not double , clicks . DNA sequence data provides strong support for a basal relationship between A. papuensis and other Aerodramus taxa and suggest that this species and the waterfall swift Hydrochous gigas , are sister taxa , a relationship that would indicate paraphyly of the genus Aerodramus .
= = Species in taxonomic order = =
Seychelles swiftlet , Aerodramus elaphrus
Mascarene swiftlet , Aerodramus francicus
Indian swiftlet , Aerodramus unicolor
Philippine swiftlet , Aerodramus mearnsi
Moluccan swiftlet group
Halmahera swiftlet , Aerodramus infuscatus
Sulawesi swiftlet , Aerodramus sororum
Seram swiftlet , Aerodramus ceramensis
Mountain swiftlet , Aerodramus hirundinaceus
White @-@ rumped swiftlet , Aerodramus spodiopygius
Australian swiftlet , Aerodramus terraereginae
Himalayan swiftlet , Aerodramus brevirostris
Indochinese swiftlet , Aerodramus rogersi ( sometimes included in A. brevirostris )
Volcano swiftlet , Aerodramus vulcanorum
Whitehead 's swiftlet , Aerodramus whiteheadi
Bare @-@ legged swiftlet , Aerodramus nuditarsus
Mayr 's swiftlet , Aerodramus orientalis
Palawan swiftlet , Aerodramus palawanensis
Mossy @-@ nest swiftlet , Aerodramus salangana ( sometimes included in A. vanikorensis )
Uniform swiftlet , Aerodramus vanikorensis
Ameline swiftlet , Aerodramus ( vanikorensis ) amelis
Palau swiftlet , Aerodramus pelewensis
Mariana swiftlet , Aerodramus bartschi
Island swiftlet , Aerodramus inquietus
Mangaia swiftlet , Aerodramus manuoi ( prehistoric extinction )
Atiu swiftlet , Aerodramus sawtelli
Tahiti swiftlet , Aerodramus leucophaeus
Marquesan swiftlet , Aerodramus ocistus
Black @-@ nest swiftlet , Aerodramus maximus
Edible @-@ nest swiftlet , Aerodramus fuciphagus
Brown @-@ rumped swiftlet , Aerodramus ( fuciphagus ) vestitus
Germain 's swiftlet , Aerodramus germani
Three @-@ toed swiftlet , Aerodramus papuensis
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= Streatham portrait =
The " Streatham " portrait is an oil painting on panel from the 1590s believed to be a later copy of a portrait of the English noblewoman Lady Jane Grey dating to her lifetime ( 1536 / 1537 – 54 ) . It shows a three @-@ quarter @-@ length depiction of a young woman in Tudor @-@ period dress holding a prayer book , with the faded inscription " Lady Jayne " or " Lady Iayne " in the upper @-@ left corner . It is in poor condition and damaged , as if it has been attacked . Although of historical interest , it is generally considered to be of poor artistic quality . As of January 2015 the portrait is in Room 3 of the National Portrait Gallery in London .
The work is thought to have been completed as part of a set of paintings of Protestant martyrs . It was in the possession of a collector in Streatham , London , by the early 20th century . In December 2005 the portrait was examined by the art dealer Christopher Foley . He saw it as an accurate , though poorly executed , reproduction of a contemporary painting of Jane , had it verified and on that basis negotiated its sale . The work was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in London for a rumoured £ 100 @,@ 000 . The historian David Starkey was highly critical of the sale and challenged Foley 's identifications .
= = Background = =
Lady Jane Grey was the great @-@ granddaughter of Henry VII through his youngest daughter Mary Tudor , and first cousin once removed to his grandson , King Edward VI . After Edward 's death , a Protestant faction proclaimed her queen over Henry VIII 's daughters , hoping to prevent the Catholic Mary Tudor from taking the throne . Two weeks after the death of her brother , Mary , with the support of the English people , claimed the throne , which Jane relinquished only nine days after being installed . She and her husband , Lord Guildford Dudley , were imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of high treason . Jane 's trial was conducted in November , but her sentence of death was suspended . In February 1554 , Jane 's father Henry , who had been pardoned , participated in Wyatt 's rebellion . On 12 February , Mary had Jane , then aged 16 , and her husband beheaded ; Jane 's father suffered the same fate two days later .
Jane was a devout Protestant during the English Reformation , when the Church of England violently rejected the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church . Known for her piety and education , she corresponded with Protestant leaders in Continental Europe , such as Heinrich Bullinger . A modest person who dressed plainly , her last words before her execution are reported as " Lord , into thy hands I commend my spirit ! " Jane 's execution by a Catholic queen made her into what the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography terms a " Protestant martyr " , and by the end of the century Jane had become , in the words of the historian Eric Ives , " a Protestant icon " . Depictions of Jane in the 16th and 17th centuries , such as in John Foxe 's Actes and Monuments ( 1563 ) , published after Protestant Elizabeth took the throne , " presented [ Jane ] as primarily a figure in a national narrative about an elect nation possessed of a pure Protestant faith which had risen supreme over Catholic Europe " .
Jane was long thought to be the only 16th @-@ century English monarch without a surviving contemporary portrait ; one was documented in a 1590 inventory , but is now considered lost . Some identified as her were later deemed to be of other sitters , such as one of Catherine Parr , the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII , which was identified as Lady Jane Grey until 1996 . Other works , such as The Execution of Lady Jane Grey ( 1833 ) by Paul Delaroche , were painted years or centuries after her death . As a result , Cynthia Zarin of The New Yorker writes , " the blank where [ Jane 's ] face should be has made it that much easier for succeeding generations to imprint their political and personal fantasies on her " .
= = Description = =
The three @-@ quarter @-@ length portrait measures 85 @.@ 6 cm × 60 @.@ 3 cm ( 33 @.@ 7 in × 23 @.@ 7 in ) , and is painted with oil on Baltic oak . A faded inscription , reading " Lady Jayne " or " Lady Iayne " , is in the upper @-@ left corner , above the woman 's shoulders . The sitter is described by art critic Charlotte Higgins as a slender and " demure , pious young woman " , and has been tentatively identified as Lady Jane Grey . Ives notes a familial resemblance between the sitter and Grey 's sisters , Catherine and Mary , which " may give conjectural support " to the identification of Grey .
The subject wears an opulent red gown with turned @-@ back trumpet sleeves and a partlet with standing collar ; the latter is embroidered with a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis pattern , the heraldic emblem of French royalty . The design on her underskirt shows a pattern variously identified as strawberries , gilliflowers , Scots thistles or pinks ; the last of these was an emblem of the Grey family . A French hood on her head covers most of her red hair . She wears numerous pieces of jewellery , including a necklace finished with medallions and pearls ; these indicate a person of high social and economic status , which is reinforced by the silk and velvet of her gown . The sitter is not , however , wearing a wedding ring , suggesting she was not yet married . Instead she is holding a prayer book . This type of costume was popular during the Tudor period , particularly in the 1550s , and the accuracy of its depiction has been used to advance the portrait 's authenticity as a depiction of Jane Grey .
The independent historian J. Stephan Edwards writes , however , that the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis give him pause as , before June 1553 , Jane " would have had no right to the French heraldic emblems " as she was not yet an heir to the throne . After the discovery of an inscribed portrait of Catherine Parr , in 2014 Edwards published a tentative identification of said painting as the original on which the Streatham portrait was based . He wrote that the Parr painting had been " adapted to ' become ' Jane Grey in the absence of an accessible authentic portrait " in the Streatham portrait and similar , supporting this with an analysis of the similar styles of dress and the jewellery ( including a necklace of festooned pearls ) .
Reception of the painting as a work of art has been predominantly negative . The historian David Starkey described it as an " appallingly bad picture " , a sentiment which the art dealer Christopher Foley echoed . Tarnya Cooper of the National Portrait Gallery gave less sharp criticism , stating " it 's a paint @-@ by @-@ number , labored copy " , and " its value is as a historical document rather than a work of art " . Zarin describes the painting as looking bleached in comparison with other portraits of monarchs , with " the flat face of a paper doll " . Edwards writes " the quality might be described as naive , primitive , or even folk art " .
= = History = =
= = = Production and early history = = =
The portrait is undated and unattributed . It is thought to have been completed in the 1590s , some forty years after Jane 's death , probably as a copy of a lost portrait contemporaneous with Jane ; dendrochronology dates the wood panel to c . 1593 .
Another strikingly similar portrait , depicting a woman also credited as Jane – although the costume differs slightly – was once owned by Richard Monckton Milnes , 1st Baron Houghton , but is now in an undisclosed private collection . Owing to similarities between the two works , Edwards suggests they are both copies of a lost original , perhaps completed by the same studio . A third copy , once owned by the English costume designer Herbert Norris , is known through records , although its whereabouts are unknown .
The Streatham portrait may have been part of a collection of Protestant martyr paintings . Damage to the painting 's mouth and eyes suggests that it was vandalised , possibly by a Catholic partisan ; as the seventeen scratches did not splinter the paint , this attack was probably not long after the portrait 's completion . Owing to the painting 's crudeness , Foley suggests that it was hurriedly completed for Jane 's family from an original that " had to be destroyed because it would have been too dangerous to own once Mary became queen " .
= = = Discovery = = =
The portrait was in the possession of a family in Streatham , London , by the 20th century . They had long believed the portrait was of Jane , and since 1923 had tried to convince others of its authenticity , without success . It was passed from generation to generation . In December 2005 , Sir John Guinness informed Foley of the family and their portrait . Foley visited the owner , hoping " to go shut the fellow up " , but upon seeing the work on an easel in their attic " knew it was right " for the period .
The identity of the sitter has been debated since the panel 's discovery . Foley has identified at least four Jane Greys among the English nobility at the time of the portrait . However , owing to " the ages and marital status of the other candidates " , Lady Jane Grey was the only viable choice ; the others were too young , already married and using a different surname , or had lost their title . Starkey was more reserved , arguing " there isn 't that over @-@ the @-@ top quality you get with royal portraits of the period , where the sitters look as though they 've just come back from Asprey " , and that there was no documentation of Jane owning the jewellery seen in the portrait .
After the discovery , Libby Sheldon of University College London conducted several tests to verify the painting 's age , including spectroscopy and laser microscopy . The age of the inscription was taken into consideration , and found to be contemporaneous with the rest of the painting . Pigments , including a type of yellow pigment rarely found after 1600 , were appropriate for the 16th century . Dendrochronological analysis later showed that the work was too late to be a life portrait of Jane , but did not rule out the possibility of reproduction .
= = = National Portrait Gallery = = =
The painting was purchased in 2006 by the National Portrait Gallery , London , with funds raised through their 150th anniversary gala , after more than nine months ' consideration . The cost was rumoured to be more than £ 100 @,@ 000 , though Zarin gives a price of £ 95 @,@ 000 . The acquisition was criticised by Starkey , who said , " if the National Portrait Gallery has public money to burn , then so be it ... [ the decision ] depends on mere hearsay and tradition , and it is not good enough " . Foley countered , " The evidence has been supported by people who know far more about the science of painting than David Starkey . I don 't know what his problem is – is it because he didn 't find it ? "
Privately Starkey acted on behalf of the Philip Mould Gallery and examined another portrait thought to be Jane , held by the Yale Center for British Art . This 2 @-@ centimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) miniature had been identified as Elizabeth I during a 1983 exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum ; Starkey , however , was " 90 per cent certain " it depicted Jane . After the March 2007 exhibition Lost Faces , when the miniature was displayed after a recent resurgence of interest in Jane , Foley published a lengthy letter challenging Starkey 's judgement . He cited the sitter 's brooch and emblem as indicative that she was not Jane Grey .
The Streatham portrait bears the accession number of NPG 6804 and is considered part of the gallery 's primary collection . From January 2007 until early 2010 it was displayed in the Tudor Gallery . Beginning in early 2013 , the painting was hung in Room 2 of the gallery 's regional outpost at Montacute House in Somerset , part of an exhibition of Tudor @-@ era portraits .
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= Wipeout ( video game ) =
Wipeout ( stylised as wipE 'out " ) is a 1995 futuristic racing game developed and published by Psygnosis . It is the first game in the Wipeout series and is set in the year 2052 . It was originally released in 1995 for PlayStation and PCs running MS @-@ DOS , and in 1996 for Sega Saturn , being a launch title for the PlayStation in Europe and North America . It has since been re @-@ released as a downloadable game for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2007 .
Set in the year 2052 , players compete in the F3600 anti @-@ gravity racing league , piloting one of a selection of craft in races on several different tracks around the world . Unique at the time , Wipeout was noted for its futuristic setting , weapons designed to both stall and destroy enemy opponents and its marketing campaign which was designed by Keith Hopwood and The Designers Republic . The game featured music from CoLD SToRAGE , Leftfield , The Chemical Brothers and Orbital . The game was critically acclaimed upon release ; critics praised the game for its originality and its vast " unique techno soundtrack " . However , it was criticised for its in @-@ game physics . Wipeout managed to spawn several sequels to critical acclaim .
= = Gameplay = =
Wipeout is a racing game that is set in the year 2052 , where players compete in the F3600 anti @-@ gravity racing league . The game allows the player to pilot one of a selection of craft in races on several different tracks . There are four different racing teams to choose from , and two ships for each team . Each ship with its own distinct characteristics of acceleration , top speed , mass , and turning radius . By piloting their craft over power @-@ up pads found on the tracks , the player can pick up various weapons and power @-@ ups such as shields , turbo boosts , mines , shock waves , rockets , or missiles . The power @-@ ups allow the player to either protect their own craft or disrupt the competitors ' craft .
There are seven race tracks in the game total , six of them located in futuristic versions of countries including Canada , Germany , Greenland , United States , China and Japan . After all tracks have been completed on the highest difficulty , a hidden track set on Mars is unlocked . Multiplayer mode is only available in the PlayStation version of the game , and features the option of having a competitive two player mode throughout the seven tracks , with the usual six remaining AI competitors .
= = Development and release = =
Wipeout was developed and published by Liverpudlian developer Psygnosis ( later known as SCE Studio Liverpool ) , with production starting in the second half of 1994 . The marketing and artwork of the game was designed by Keith Hopwood and The Designers Republic in Sheffield . Aimed at a fashionable , club @-@ going , music @-@ buying audience , Keith Hopwood and The Designers Republic created art for the game 's packaging , in @-@ game branding , and other promotional materials . An early beta version of Wipeout appeared in the teen cult film Hackers ( 1995 ) , in which both protagonists were playing the game in a nightclub . Shortly after the film 's release , Sony expressed some interest Psygnosis on the basis of their " impressive work it had done with 3D graphics " . In September 1995 Sony Computer Entertainment purchased Psygnosis and later renamed SCE Studio Liverpool in 2000 .
The game 's vehicle designs were based on Matrix Marauders , a 3D grid @-@ based strategy game whose concept was developed by Psygnosis employee Jim Bowers and released for the Amiga in 1994 . Nick Burcombe , the game 's future designer , was inspired to create a racing game using the same types of ' anti @-@ gravity ' vehicles from his experience with Powerdrome and F @-@ Zero . The name " Wipeout " was given to the game during a pub conversation , and was inspired by the instrumental song Wipe Out by The Surfaris . Designing the game 's tracks proved to be difficult due to the lack of draw distance possible on the system . Players received completely random weapons , resembling Super Mario Kart in their capability to stall rather than destroy opponents .
Wipeout gained a significant amount of controversy upon its initial release . A marketing campaign created and launched by Keith Hopwood and The Designers Republic included an infamous promotional poster , featuring a bloodstained Radio 1 DJ Sara Cox , which was accused by some of depicting a drug @-@ overdose . The poster branded Wipeout " a dangerous game " , with Wipeout 's designer Nick Burcome suggesting that the " E " in Wipeout stood for ecstasy .
Wipeout was first released alongside the PlayStation in Europe in September 1995 . It was the PlayStation 's best @-@ selling launch title in Europe . Two months later in November 1995 , it was released in the United States . The game went to number one in the all format charts , with over 1 @.@ 5 million units of the franchise having been sold to date throughout Europe and North America . Wipeout was ported to the Sega Saturn in 1996 , however because the company behind the PlayStation , Sony , owned the applicable rights to most of the PlayStation version 's soundtrack , new music was recorded for the Saturn version by Psygnosis 's in @-@ house music team , CoLD SToRAGE .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's electronica soundtrack was mostly composed by Welsh video game music composer Tim Wright under the alias CoLD SToRAGE . Music tracks were licensed from non @-@ mainstream electronica acts to create an original soundtrack album titled Wipeout that was released to promote the game in 1996 . This music album featured a selection which contrasted against the music included within the game , with CoLD SToRAGE being the most notable omission given his prevalence within both Wipeout and numerous successors . Additional songs featured in Wipeout are from Leftfield , The Chemical Brothers , and Orbital and were included in the PAL version of the PlayStation game , while the Saturn version included three songs by Rob Lord and Mark Bandola .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , the game was critically acclaimed . IGN staff praised the game for its originality and unique techno soundtrack , but criticised the difficulty with manoeuvring the vehicles and also the difficulty of the game itself , stating that " there aren 't nearly enough competitors " and that the player would have " [ pulled ] ahead of the other racers with no problem " . Edge cited that it was hard to criticise " such a beautifully realised and well @-@ produced game which [ exploited ] the PlayStation ’ s power so well " , but did show similar concerns over the game 's longevity regarding its " reliance on track @-@ based power @-@ ups " that would " limit Wipeout ’ s lifespan " in comparison to Super Mario Kart . GamePro gave the PlayStation version a rave review , predicting that " Wipeout 's taut action and grueling courses will lure many diehard racing fans to this new system . " They particularly praised the challenging gameplay and precision controls . They said the fact that multiplayer is only through the PlayStation Link Cable is the game 's one major flaw , since the PlayStation still had a low installed base at this point and thus this would not be an option for most players . Maximum opined that of all the games in the PlayStation 's European launch lineup , " not one title can match up to the awesome nature of Psygnosis ' WipeOut . It 's an amazing spectacle to behold , it sounds absolutely fantastic and it 's the best playing racing game yet beheld on a next generation super console . " Making particular note of the lack of pop @-@ up , the coherent style and concept , the soundtrack , the unlockable Rapier mode , and the PAL optimization , they gave it their " Maximum Game of the Month " award .
The later Saturn version also received generally positive reviews , though most critics agreed that it was not as good as the PlayStation version . In Sega Saturn Magazine , Rad Automatic praised the large number of tracks and the distinctive flavour of each one , and remarked that the gameplay is very easy to get into but provides more than enough challenge . He criticised it as not being as good as the PlayStation version , though he noted that none of the shortcomings impact the gameplay . The four reviewers from Electronic Gaming Monthly similarly praised the number and variety of tracks along with the strong challenge the game presented , and were much more approving of the graphics than Sega Saturn Magazine , describing them as " vibrant " and " gorgeous " . Both Air Hendrix of GamePro and a reviewer for Maximum argued that the Saturn version is noticeably not as polished as the PlayStation version but still excellent in absolute terms , making it a pointless purchase for PlayStation owners but recommended for Saturn @-@ only players .
= = = Legacy = = =
The game 's initial success led to Psygnosis developing several sequels which would later become part of the Wipeout franchise . A direct sequel , Wipeout 2097 , was released for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn in 1996 , which was met with positive reviews , especially aimed towards the vastly improved game engine and new physics the game offered . A Nintendo 64 spin @-@ off , Wipeout 64 , was released in 1998 and was met with considerable praise from critics , but was noted to be too similar to the original Wipeout . After the release of Wipeout in 1995 , the awareness of the underground techno community in England was significantly boosted , with critics praising the vast " unique techno soundtrack " the game offered .
Wipeout has been described as being synonymous with Sony 's debut gaming hardware and as an early showcase for 3D graphics in console gaming . It has since been re @-@ released as a downloadable game for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2007 .
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= Shoot ' em up =
Shoot ' em up ( also known as shmup or STG ) is a subgenre of the shooter genre of video games . In a shoot ' em up , the player character engages in a lone assault , often in a spacecraft or aircraft , shooting large numbers of enemies while dodging their attacks . There is no consensus as to which design elements compose a shoot ' em up . Some restrict the definition to games featuring spacecraft and certain types of character movement ; others allow a broader definition including characters on foot and a variety of perspectives . Shoot ' em ups call for fast reactions and for the player to memorize levels and enemy attack patterns . " Bullet hell " games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles .
The genre 's origins can be traced back to Spacewar ! , one of the earliest computer games , developed in 1962 and eventually released in amusement arcades in the early 1970s . However , Tomohiro Nishikado , creator of Space Invaders , is generally credited with inventing the genre . Space Invaders premiered in Japanese arcades in 1978 . Shoot ' em ups were popular throughout the 1980s and early 1990s . In the mid @-@ 1990s , shoot ' em ups became a niche genre based on design conventions established in the 1980s , and increasingly catered to specialist enthusiasts , particularly in Japan .
= = Definition = =
A " shoot ' em up " , also known as a " shmup " or " STG " ( the common Japanese abbreviation for " shooting games " ) , is a game in which the protagonist combats a large number of enemies by shooting at them while dodging their fire . The controlling player must rely primarily on reaction times to succeed . Beyond this , critics differ on exactly which design elements constitute a shoot ' em up . Some restrict the genre to games featuring some kind of craft , using fixed or scrolling movement . Others widen the scope to include games featuring such protagonists as robots or humans on foot , as well as including games featuring " on @-@ rails " ( or " into the screen " ) and " run and gun " movement . Mark Wolf restricts the definition to games featuring multiple antagonists ( " ' em " being short for " them " ) , calling games featuring one @-@ on @-@ one shooting " combat games " . Formerly , critics described any game where the primary design element was shooting as a " shoot ' em up " , but later shoot ' em ups became a specific , inward @-@ looking genre based on design conventions established in those shooting games of the 1980s .
= = = Common elements = = =
Shoot ' em ups are a subgenre of shooter game , in turn a type of action game . These games are usually viewed from a top @-@ down or side @-@ view perspective , and players must use ranged weapons to take action at a distance . The player 's avatar is typically a vehicle under constant attack . Thus , the player 's goal is to shoot as quickly as possible anything that moves or threatens him . In some games , the player 's character can withstand some damage ; in others , a single hit will result in his destruction . The main skills required in shoot ' em ups are fast reactions and memorising enemy attack patterns . Some games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and the player has to memorise their patterns to survive . These games belong to one of the fastest @-@ paced video game genres .
Large numbers of enemy characters are typically featured . These enemies may behave in a certain way dependent on their type , or attack in formations that the player can learn to predict . The basic gameplay tends to be straightforward and many games offset this with boss battles and a variety of weapons . Shoot ' em ups rarely have realistic physics . Characters can instantly change direction with no inertia , and projectiles move in a straight line at constant speeds . The player 's character can collect " power @-@ ups " which may afford the character greater protection , an " extra life " , or upgraded weaponry . Different weapons are often suited to different enemies , but these games seldom keep track of ammunition . As such , players tend to fire indiscriminately , and their weapons only damage legitimate targets .
= = Types = =
Shoot ' em ups are categorized by design elements , particularly viewpoint and movement :
Fixed shooters ( such as Space Invaders ) restrict the protagonist to a single axis of motion , enemies attack in a single direction ( such as descending from the top of the screen ) , and each level is contained within a single screen . These games are sometimes called " gallery shooters " . Atari 's Centipede is a hybrid , in that the player can move freely , but that movement is constrained to a small area at the bottom of the screen , and the game otherwise meets the fixed shooter definition .
Rail shooters limit the player to moving around the screen while the game follows a specific route ; these games often feature an " into the screen " viewpoint , with which the action is seen from behind the player character , and moves " into the screen " , while the player retains control over dodging . Examples include Captain Skyhawk ( 1990 ) , Panzer Dragoon ( 1995 ) , Star Fox 64 ( 1997 ) , and Sin and Punishment ( 2000 ) . Light @-@ Gun games that are " on @-@ rails " are not in the shoot @-@ em @-@ up category but the FPS category , and the term has also been applied to scripted events in first @-@ person shooters such as Call of Duty .
Tube shooters feature craft flying through an abstract tube . Technically , most tube shooters are also fixed shooters , because the player is still constrained to left / right movement , but it 's mapped to the shape of the tube .
Scrolling shooters include vertical or horizontal scrolling games .
Vertically scrolling shooters : In a vertically scrolling shoot ' em up ( or " vertical scroller " ) , the action is viewed from above and scrolls up ( or very occasionally down ) the screen .
Horizontally scrolling shooters : In a " horizontal shooter " or " side @-@ scrolling shooter " , in which the action is viewed side @-@ on and scrolls horizontally .
Isometrically scrolling shooters : A small number of scrolling shooters , such as Sega 's Zaxxon , feature an isometric point of view .
Multidirectional shooters feature 360 degree movement where the protagonist may rotate and move in any direction . Multidirectional shooters with one joystick for movement and one joystick for firing in any direction independent of movement are called " twin @-@ stick shooters . "
Bullet hell ( 弾幕 , danmaku , literally " barrage " or " bullet curtain " ) is a shoot ' em up in which the entire screen is often almost completely filled with enemy bullets . This type is also known as " curtain fire " , " manic shooters " or " maniac shooters " . This style of game originated in the mid @-@ 1990s , and is an offshoot of scrolling shooters .
Cute ' em ups feature brightly coloured graphics depicting surreal settings and enemies . Newer , particularly Japanese , cute ' em ups may employ overtly sexual characters and innuendo . Cute ' em ups tend to have unusual , oftentimes completely bizarre opponents for the player to fight , with the Parodius franchise being an example .
Run and gun ( or " run ' n ' gun " ) describes a shoot ' em up in which the protagonist fights on foot , perhaps with the ability to jump . Run and gun games may use side scrolling , vertical scrolling or isometric viewpoints and may feature multidirectional movement .
Arena based shooters or area based shooters take place in a single screen , e.g. Robotron .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and rise = = =
The genre 's exact origins are a matter of some confusion . Video game journalist Brian Ashcraft pinpoints Spacewar ! ( one of the very earliest computer games ) as the first shoot ' em up , but the later Space Invaders is more frequently cited as the " first " or " original " in the genre . Spacewar ! was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961 , for the amusement of the developers ; it was , however , remade four times as an arcade game in the early to mid @-@ 1970s . The game featured combat between two spacecraft .
However , it was not until 1978 's seminal Space Invaders , created by Nishikado at Japan 's Taito Corporation , that the shooter genre became prolific . Space Invaders pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing rate of speed . The game used alien creatures inspired by The War of the Worlds ( by H. G. Wells ) because the developers were unable to render the movement of aircraft ; in turn , the aliens replaced human enemies because of moral concerns ( regarding the portrayal of killing humans ) on the part of Taito Corporation . As with subsequent shoot ' em ups of the time , the game was set in space as the available technology only permitted a black background . The game also introduced the idea of giving the player a number of " lives " . Space Invaders was a massive commercial success , causing a coin shortage in Japan , and gaining mainstream popularity in America . It popularised a more interactive style of gameplay with the enemies responding to the player @-@ controlled cannon 's movement , and it was the first video game to popularise the concept of achieving a high score , being the first to save the player 's score . The aliens of Space Invaders return fire at the protagonist , making them the first arcade game targets to do so . It set the template for the shoot ' em up genre , and has influenced most shooting games released since then .
= = = Golden age and refinement = = =
In 1979 , Namco 's Galaxian — " the granddaddy of all top @-@ down shooters " , according to IGN — was released . Its use of colour graphics and individualised antagonists were considered " strong evolutionary concepts " among space ship games . That same year saw the release of SNK 's debut shoot ' em up Ozma Wars , notable for being the first action game to feature a supply of energy , resembling a life bar , a mechanic that has now become common in the majority of modern action games . It also featured vertically scrolling backgrounds and enemies .
In 1981 , Defender established scrolling in shoot ' em ups , offering horizontally extended levels . Unlike most later games in the genre , the player could move in either direction . The game 's use of scrolling helped remove design limitations associated with the screen , and though the game 's minimap feature had been introduced before , Defender integrated it into the gameplay in a more essential manner . Konami 's Scramble , released in 1981 , is a side @-@ scrolling shooter with forced scrolling . It was the first scrolling shooter to offer multiple , distinct levels . Atari 's Tempest , released in 1981 , is one of the earliest tube shooters and an early attempt to incorporate a 3D perspective into shooter games . Tempest ultimately went on to influence major rail shooters .
Vertical scrolling shooters emerged around the same time . Namco 's Xevious , released in 1982 , is frequently cited as the first vertical scrolling shooter and , although it was in fact preceded by several other games of that type , it is considered one of the most influential . Xevious is also the first to convincingly portray realistic landscapes as opposed to purely science fiction settings . While Asteroids ( 1979 ) allowed the player to rotate the game 's spacecraft , 1982 's highly acclaimed Robotron : 2084 was most influential on subsequent multi @-@ directional shooters .
Sega 's Space Harrier , a rail shooter released in 1985 , broke new ground graphically and its wide variety of settings across multiple levels gave players more to aim for than high scores . 1985 also saw the release of Konami 's Gradius , which gave the player greater control over the choice of weaponry , thus introducing another element of strategy . The game also introduced the need for the player to memorise levels in order to achieve any measure of success . Gradius , with its iconic protagonist , defined the side @-@ scrolling shoot ' em up and spawned a series spanning several sequels . The following year saw the emergence of one of Sega 's forefront series with its game Fantasy Zone . The game received acclaim for its surreal graphics and setting and the protagonist , Opa @-@ Opa , was for a time considered Sega 's mascot . The game borrowed Defender 's device of allowing the player to control the direction of flight and along with the earlier TwinBee ( 1985 ) , is an early archetype of the " cute ' em up " subgenre . R @-@ Type , an acclaimed side @-@ scrolling shoot ' em up , was released in 1987 by Irem , employing slower paced scrolling than usual , with difficult levels calling for methodical strategies . 1990 's Raiden was the beginning of another acclaimed and enduring series to emerge from this period .
Shoot ' em ups such as SNK 's Ikari Warriors ( 1986 ) featuring characters on foot , rather than spacecraft , became popular in the mid @-@ 1980s in the wake of action movies such as Rambo : First Blood Part II . The origins of this type go back to Berzerk by Stern Electronics , released in 1980 . Taito 's Front Line ( 1982 ) established the upwards @-@ scrolling formula later popularized by Commando , in 1985 . Commando also drew comparisons to Rambo and indeed contemporary critics considered military themes and protagonists similar to Rambo or Schwarzenegger prerequisites for a shoot ' em up , as opposed to an action @-@ adventure game . In 1986 , Arsys Software released WiBArm , a shooter that switched between a 2D side @-@ scrolling view in outdoor areas to a fully 3D polygonal third @-@ person perspective inside buildings , while bosses were fought in an arena @-@ style 2D battle , with the game featuring a variety of weapons and equipment . In 1987 , Square 's 3 @-@ D WorldRunner was an early stereoscopic 3 @-@ D shooter played from a third @-@ person perspective , followed later that year by its sequel JJ , and the following year by Space Harrier 3 @-@ D which used the SegaScope 3 @-@ D shutter glasses . That same year , Sega 's Thunder Blade switched between both a top @-@ down view and a third @-@ person view , and introduced the use of force feedback , where the joystick vibrates . Also in 1987 , Konami created Contra as an coin @-@ op arcade game that was particularly acclaimed for its multi @-@ directional aiming and two player cooperative gameplay . However , by the early 1990s and the popularity of 16 @-@ bit consoles , the scrolling shooter genre was overcrowded , with developers struggling to make their games stand out ( one exception being the inventive Gunstar Heroes , by Treasure ) .
= = = Bullet hell and niche appeal = = =
A new type of shoot ' em up emerged in the early 1990s : variously termed " bullet hell " , " manic shooters " , " maniac shooters " and danmaku ( 弾幕 , " barrage " ) , these games required the player to dodge overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and called for still more consistent reactions from players . Bullet hell games arose from the need for 2D shoot ' em up developers to compete with the emerging popularity of 3D games : huge numbers of missiles on screen were intended to impress players . Toaplan 's Batsugun ( 1993 ) provided the prototypical template for this new breed , with Cave ( formed by former employees of Toaplan , including Batsugun 's main creator Tsuneki Ikeda , after the latter company collapsed ) inventing the type proper with 1995 's DonPachi . Manic shooter games marked another point where the shoot ' em up genre began to cater to more dedicated players . Games such as Gradius had been more difficult than Space Invaders or Xevious , but bullet hell games were yet more inward @-@ looking and aimed at dedicated fans of the genre looking for greater challenges . While shooter games featuring protagonists on foot largely moved to 3D @-@ based genres , popular , long @-@ running series such as Contra and Metal Slug continued to receive new sequels . Rail shooters have rarely been released in the new millennium , with only Rez and Panzer Dragoon Orta achieving cult recognition .
Treasure 's shoot ' em up , Radiant Silvergun ( 1998 ) , introduced an element of narrative to the genre . It was lavished with critical acclaim for its refined design , though it was not released outside Japan and remains a much sought after collectors ' item . Its successor Ikaruga ( 2001 ) featured improved graphics and was again acclaimed as one of the best games in the genre . Both Radiant Silvergun and Ikaruga were later released on Xbox Live Arcade . The Touhou Project series spans nineteen years and twenty @-@ four games as of 2015 and was listed in the Guinness World Records in October 2010 for being the " most prolific fan @-@ made shooter series " . The genre has undergone something of a resurgence with the release of the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and Wii online services , while in Japan arcade shoot ' em ups retain a deep @-@ rooted niche popularity . Geometry Wars : Retro Evolved was released on Xbox Live Arcade in 2005 and in particular stood out from the various re @-@ releases and casual games available on the service . The PC has also seen its share of dōjin shoot ' em ups like Crimzon Clover , Jamestown : Legend of the Lost Colony , and the eXceed series . However , despite the genre 's continued appeal to an enthusiastic niche of players , shoot ' em up developers are increasingly embattled financially by the power of home consoles and their attendant genres .
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= Speed Grapher =
Speed Grapher ( スピードグラファー , Supīdo Gurafā ) is a 2005 anime series created by Gonzo . The series ran for 24 episodes from April to October 2005 on TV Asahi . It tells the story of former war photographer , Tatsumi Saiga and his quest to save Kagura Tennōzu from Chōji Suitengu and the members of a fetish club , the Roppongi Club . In 2006 , the series was licensed for release in North America by Funimation Entertainment and aired on the Independent Film Channel between March 7 and August 15 , 2008 .
The series was adapted into a manga by Tomozo . Originally serialized by MediaWorks in Monthly Dengeki Comic GAO ! , it was released to three tankōbon between September 2005 and September 2006 . The manga series was then licensed to Chuang Yi , who released the three volumes in English and Chinese in Singapore , and later to Tokyopop , who released the first two volumes in North America in September and December 2008 . A light novel was also created and was written by Minoru Niki . It was published by Hayakawa Publishing and released on July 21 , 2005 .
= = Plot = =
Speed Grapher follows the exploits of former war photographer Tatsumi Saiga , who investigates a secret fetish club for the ultra @-@ wealthy called the Roppongi Club . He tries to photograph the club 's " goddess , " a 15 @-@ year @-@ old , exploited girl named Kagura , but is discovered . As he is about to be killed , Kagura kisses him , granting him the ability to destroy anything he photographs . Saiga soon discovers that Kagura 's body fluids , like her saliva , in combination with a certain " virus " , can give people bizarre abilities relating to their secret desires , fetishes , and obsessions . Club members strive for the honor of becoming " gifted " via Kagura 's power . Saiga soon becomes entangled in this secret underground society and the powerful and corrupt Tennōzu Group mega @-@ corporation that operates it . He attempts to free Kagura , a move that puts the two of them on the run from the Tennōzu Group and blood @-@ thirsty members of the club with bizarre and often horrifying special powers .
Saiga and Suitengu engage in a game of cat and mouse ; Saiga and Kagura manage to evade capture several times before Suitengu himself attacks Saiga , severely injuring him , and takes Kagura captive . To take over Tennōzu Group , Suitengu murders its president , Shinsen Tennōzu , who also is Kagura 's mother . Kagura inherits the group , so Suitengu marries her and takes legal control of it . Saiga , having recovered from his wounds , interrupts the wedding and rescues Kagura . Together , they attempt to leave Japan but are enticed back by the prospect of defeating Suitengu once and for all . The plan , however , ends up being a trap set up by Prime Minister Kamiya , Seiji Ochiai and other Cabinet members as a way to control Suitengu and take control over the club . But , Suitengu knew of their betrayal and after trapping all the Cabinet members , the police superintendent and other members of government inside the club , he went to Kamiya 's mansion to exact his revenge against him . He then took away Kagura from Saiga by promising not to kill Saiga if Kagura comes with him willingly . Saiga and his policewoman friend Hibari Ginza make one final attack on Suitengu 's stronghold — the main building of Tennōzu Group . In addition , a group of politicians from around the world fire missiles at Tokyo to kill Suitengu . Saiga and Suitengu battle , but Saiga is unable to defeat Suitengu before going blind from overusing his power . Suitengu spares Saiga 's life , and , in a final act of defiance , destroys all the money he gathered before being killed by the missiles . The world collapses into a financial crisis , but Saiga and Kagura finally reunite , no longer under threat of attack .
= = Media = =
= = = Anime = = =
The episodes of Speed Grapher are directed by Kunihisa Sugishima , animated by Gonzo , and produced by TV Asahi . They initially aired on TV Asahi between April 8 , 2005 and September 30 , 2005 in Japan . It was then released to twelve DVD compilations , each containing two episodes , between July 2005 and June 2006 by Sony Pictures Entertainment .
The North American adaptation was licensed to Funimation , who released it to DVD and on iTunes . The six DVD compilations , containing four episodes each , were released to Region 1 between July 2006 and March 2007 . Several " Limited Edition " DVDs were also released on the same dates as the regular DVDs . On March 11 , 2008 , a box set was released . Speed Grapher aired on the Independent Film Channel between March 7 and August 15 , 2008 . On September 28 , 2006 , Madman Entertainment revealed that it had received a license to distribute Speed Grapher to Australia and New Zealand . Madman released the first DVD volume with a collector 's box on October 11 , 2006 . A box release , with all six DVD compilations , was released on March 19 , 2008 . In the United Kingdom , Speed Grapher was licensed to MVM Films , who released six DVD compilations between April 16 , 2007 and February 4 , 2008 . Speed Grapher was also aired internationally by Animax . In Latin America , Animax aired the series in Brazil , Argentina , Venezuela , and Mexico . Future showings are also planned in Asia .
= = = Manga = = =
Based directly on the anime , a manga series , also entitled Speed Grapher , was released in Japan by MediaWorks and was originally serialized in Monthly Dengeki Comic GAO ! . Illustrated by Tomozo , the series was collected into three tankōbon , which were released between September 2005 and September 2006 .
The series was licensed to Chuang Yi in Singapore , who released all three volumes of the manga in English on December 11 , 2007 , July 22 , 2008 , and November 2009 respectively . Chuang Yi also released the series in Chinese . The Speed Grapher manga received another English release by Tokyopop in North America , who released the first two volumes on September 16 , 2008 and December 2 , 2008 respectively . The third volume was set to be released on March 10 , 2009 , but was cancelled shortly beforehand . In Germany , the manga was licensed to Carlson Comics , who released all three volumes .
= = = Light novel = = =
A light novel version of Speed Grapher , written by Minoru Niki , was also released . Hayakawa Publishing released it on July 21 , 2005 . The novel was also licensed to Tokyopop in North America and was set to be released on November 11 , 2008 , but was cancelled alongside volume three of the manga .
= = = Music = = =
A drama CD was released in Japan on September 22 , 2005 by King Records . In addition , " Break the Cocoon , " the second ending theme by Yoriko , has been released as a single . The other pieces of theme music , " Girls on Film " by Duran Duran was placed on the Japanese edition . Funimation was unable to obtain legal rights to use Duran Duran 's theme so they re @-@ edited the opening with an in house recording of their own theme song . " Hill of Poppies " ( ひなげしの丘 , Hinageshi no Oka ) by Shione Yukawa , and " Shutter Speed " by Shinkichi Mitsumune , which were never released in an album related to Speed Grapher .
= = Reception = =
Speed Grapher received mixed reviews from critics . Zac Bertschy and Theron Martin of Anime News Network both found the animation to be sub @-@ par when compared to other Gonzo releases . In addition , Zac found the storyline to be " totally silly " and strange though it was possibly very entertaining because of its uniqueness . Theron found that later episodes felt " more natural " and cited the characters to be part of this improvement , though the animation was " still second @-@ class ( at best ) . " Compared to the Japanese release , Theron Martin greatly preferred the English dubs , noting that " the English dialogue has more punch and better flow than the drier and sometimes awkwardly @-@ worded Japanese . " Tasha Robinson of Sci Fi Weekly found Speed Grapher to have a " rich feel that 's mirrored in the lovely visuals " and a complicated storyline . She also commented that " Its dry , serious central plotline is also clearly aimed at viewers who value sophisticated , drawn @-@ out serial stories over instant gratification . " D. F. Smith of IGN disliked the storyline , though for different reasons . He felt that the series was " trying way too hard to push the content envelope " and that the characters were not likable . However , in contrast to the Anime News Network reviewers , he found the art and animation to be a " first @-@ rate job . "
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= Argon =
Argon is a chemical element with symbol Ar and atomic number 18 . It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas . Argon is the third most abundant gas in the Earth 's atmosphere , at 0 @.@ 934 % ( 9340 ppmv ) more than twice as abundant as water vapor ( which averages about 4000 ppmv , but varies greatly ) , 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide ( 400 ppmv ) , and more than 500 times as abundant as neon ( 18 ppmv ) . Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earth 's crust , comprising 0 @.@ 00015 % of the crust .
Nearly all of the argon in Earth 's atmosphere is radiogenic argon @-@ 40 , derived from the decay of potassium @-@ 40 in the Earth 's crust . In the universe , argon @-@ 36 is by far the most common argon isotope , being the preferred argon isotope produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas .
The name " argon " is derived from the Greek word ἀργόν , neuter singular form of ἀργός meaning " lazy " or " inactive " , as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions . The complete octet ( eight electrons ) in the outer atomic shell makes argon stable and resistant to bonding with other elements . Its triple point temperature of 83 @.@ 8058 K is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990 .
Argon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air . Argon is mostly used as an inert shielding gas in welding and other high @-@ temperature industrial processes where ordinarily unreactive substances become reactive ; for example , an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning . Argon is also used in incandescent , fluorescent lighting , and other gas discharge tubes . Argon makes a distinctive blue @-@ green gas laser . Argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters .
= = Characteristics = =
Argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen , and is 2 @.@ 5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen . Argon is colorless , odorless , nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid , liquid , and gas . Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature .
Although argon is a noble gas , it can form some compounds . Argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) , a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below 17 K , has been demonstrated . Although the neutral ground @-@ state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF , argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of argon are trapped in a lattice of water molecules . Ions , such as ArH + , and excited state complexes , such as ArF , have been demonstrated . Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized .
= = History = =
Argon ( ’ αργόν , neuter singular form of ’ αργός , Greek meaning " inactive " , in reference to its chemical inactivity ) was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785 . Argon was first isolated from air 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen , carbon dioxide , water , and nitrogen from a sample of clean air . They had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was one @-@ half percent lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere . The difference was slight , but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months . They concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen . Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall and W. N. Hartley . Each observed new lines in the color spectrum of air that did not match known elements . Argon was the first noble gas to be discovered . Until 1957 , the symbol for argon was " A " , but now is " Ar " .
= = Occurrence = =
Argon constitutes 0 @.@ 934 % by volume and 1 @.@ 288 % by mass of the Earth 's atmosphere , and air is the primary industrial source of purified argon products . Argon is isolated from air by fractionation , most commonly by cryogenic fractional distillation , a process that also produces purified nitrogen , oxygen , neon , krypton and xenon . The Earth 's crust and seawater contain 1 @.@ 2 ppm and 0 @.@ 45 ppm of argon , respectively .
= = Isotopes = =
The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are 40Ar ( 99 @.@ 6 % ) , 36Ar ( 0 @.@ 34 % ) , and 38Ar ( 0 @.@ 06 % ) . Naturally occurring 40K , with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 25 × 109 years , decays to stable 40Ar ( 11 @.@ 2 % ) by electron capture or positron emission , and also to stable 40Ca ( 88 @.@ 8 % ) via beta decay . These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by K @-@ Ar dating .
In the Earth 's atmosphere , 39Ar is made by cosmic ray activity , primarily with 40Ar . In the subsurface environment , it is also produced through neutron capture by 39K or alpha emission by calcium . 37Ar is created from the neutron capture by 40Ca followed by an alpha particle emission as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions . It has a half @-@ life of 35 days .
Between locations in the Solar System , the isotopic composition of argon varies greatly . Where the major source of argon is the decay of 40K in rocks , 40Ar will be the dominant isotope , as it is on Earth . Argon produced directly by stellar nucleosynthesis , is dominated by the alpha process nuclide , 36Ar . Correspondingly , solar argon contains 84 @.@ 6 % 36Ar ( according to solar wind measurements ) , and the ratio of the three isotopes 36Ar : 38Ar : 40Ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is 8400 : 1600 : 1 . This contrasts with the abundance of primordial 36Ar in Earth 's atmosphere , which is only 31 @.@ 5 ppmv ( = 9340 ppmv × 0 @.@ 337 % ) , comparable with that of neon ( 18 @.@ 18 ppmv ) on Earth and with interplanetary gasses , measured by probes .
The Martian atmosphere contains 1 @.@ 6 % of 40Ar and 5 ppm of 36Ar . The Mariner probe fly @-@ by of the planet Mercury in 1973 found that Mercury has a very thin atmosphere with 70 % argon , believed to result from radioactive decay of materials in the planet crust . In 2005 , the Huygens probe discovered the presence of exclusively 40Ar on Titan , the largest moon of Saturn .
The predominance of radiogenic 40Ar is the reason the standard atomic weight of terrestrial argon is greater than that of the next element , potassium , a fact that was puzzling when argon was discovered . Mendeleev positioned the elements on his periodic table in order of atomic weight , but the inertness of argon suggested a placement before the reactive alkali metal . Henry Moseley later solved this problem by showing that the periodic table is actually arranged in order of atomic number . ( See History of the periodic table ) .
= = Compounds = =
Argon 's complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells . This full outer energy level makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements . Before 1962 , argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and unable to form compounds ; however , compounds of the heavier noble gases have since been synthesized . In August 2000 , the first argon compound was formed by researchers at the University of Helsinki . By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride with caesium iodide , argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) was formed . It is stable up to 40 kelvin ( − 233 ° C ) . The metastable ArCF2 +
2 dication , which is valence isoelectronic with carbonyl fluoride and phosgene , was observed in 2010 . Argon @-@ 36 , in the form of argon hydride ( argonium ) ions , has been detected in cosmic dust associated with the Crab Nebula supernova ; this was the first noble @-@ gas molecule detected in outer space .
Solid argon hydride ( Ar ( H2 ) 2 ) has the same crystal structure as the MgZn2 Laves phase . It forms at pressures between 4 @.@ 3 and 220 GPa , though Raman measurements suggest that the H2 molecules in Ar ( H2 ) 2 dissociate above 175 GPa .
= = Production = =
= = = Industrial = = =
Argon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air in a cryogenic air separation unit ; a process that separates liquid nitrogen , which boils at 77 @.@ 3 K , from argon , which boils at 87 @.@ 3 K , and liquid oxygen , which boils at 90 @.@ 2 K. About 700 @,@ 000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year .
= = = In radioactive decays = = =
40Ar , the most abundant isotope of argon , is produced by the decay of 40K with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 25 × 109 years by electron capture or positron emission . Because of this , it is used in potassium @-@ argon dating to determine the age of rocks .
= = Applications = =
Argon has several desirable properties :
Argon is chemically inert gas .
Argon is the cheapest alternative when nitrogen is not sufficiently inert .
Argon has low thermal conductivity .
Argon has electronic properties ( ionization and / or the emission spectrum ) desirable for some applications .
Other noble gases would be equally suitable for most of these applications , but argon is by far the cheapest . Argon is inexpensive since it occurs naturally in air and is readily obtained as a byproduct of cryogenic air separation in the production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen : the primary constituents of air are used on a large industrial scale . The other noble gases ( except helium ) are produced this way as well , but argon is the most plentiful by far . The bulk of argon applications arise simply because it is inert and relatively cheap .
= = = Industrial processes = = =
Argon is used in some high @-@ temperature industrial processes where ordinarily non @-@ reactive substances become reactive . For example , an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning .
For some of these processes , the presence of nitrogen or oxygen gases might cause defects within the material . Argon is used in some types of arc welding such as gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding , as well as in the processing of titanium and other reactive elements . An argon atmosphere is also used for growing crystals of silicon and germanium .
Argon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds , either for mass culling following disease outbreaks , or as a means of slaughter more humane than the electric bath . Argon is denser than air and displaces oxygen close to the ground during gassing . Its non @-@ reactive nature makes it suitable in a food product , and since it replaces oxygen within the dead bird , argon also enhances shelf life .
Argon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where valuable equipment may be damaged by water or foam .
= = = Scientific research = = =
Liquid argon is used as the target for neutrino experiments and direct dark matter searches . The interaction between the hypothetical WIMP particle and an argon nucleus produces scintillation light that is detected by photomultiplier tubes . Two @-@ phase detectors containing argon gas are used to detect the ionized electrons produced during the WIMP @-@ nucleus scattering . As with most other liquefied noble gases , argon has a high scintillation light yield ( c . 51 photons / keV ) , is transparent to its own scintillation light , and is relatively easy to purify . Compared to xenon , argon is cheaper and has a distinct scintillation time profile which allows the separation of electronic recoils from nuclear recoils . On the other hand , its intrinsic beta @-@ ray background is larger due to 39Ar contamination , unless one uses argon from underground sources , which has much less 39Ar contamination . Most of the argon in the Earth ’ s atmosphere was produced by electron capture of long @-@ lived 40K ( 40K + e − → 40Ar + ν ) present in natural potassium within the earth . The 39Ar activity in the atmosphere is maintained by cosmogenic production through 40Ar ( n , 2n ) 39Ar and similar reactions . The half @-@ life of 39Ar is only 269 years . As a result , the underground Ar , shielded by rock and water , has much less 39Ar contamination . Dark matter detectors currently operating with liquid argon include DarkSide , WArP , ArDM , microCLEAN and DEAP . Neutrino experiments include ICARUS and MicroBooNE , both of which use high purity liquid argon in a time projection chamber for fine grained three @-@ dimensional imaging of neutrino interactions .
= = = Preservative = = =
Argon is used to displace oxygen- and moisture @-@ containing air in packaging material to extend the shelf @-@ lives of the contents ( argon has the European food additive code of E938 ) . Aerial oxidation , hydrolysis , and other chemical reactions that degrade the products are retarded or prevented entirely . High @-@ purity chemicals and pharmaceuticals are sometimes packed and sealed in argon .
In winemaking , argon is used in a variety of activities to provide a barrier against oxygen at the liquid 's surface , which can spoil wine by fueling both microbial metabolism ( as with acetic acid bacteria ) and standard redox chemistry .
Argon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans for such products as varnish , polyurethane , and paint , and to displace air when preparing a container for storage after opening .
Since 2002 , the American National Archives stores important national documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution within argon @-@ filled cases to inhibit their degradation . Argon is preferable to the helium that had been used in the preceding five decades , because helium gas escapes through the intermolecular pores in most containers and must be regularly replaced .
= = = Laboratory equipment = = =
Argon may be used as the inert gas within Schlenk lines and gloveboxes . Argon is preferred to less expensive nitrogen in cases where nitrogen may react with the reagents or apparatus .
Argon may be used as the carrier gas in gas chromatography and in electrospray ionization mass spectrometry ; it is the gas of choice for the plasma used in ICP spectroscopy . Argon is preferred for the sputter coating of specimens for scanning electron microscopy . Argon gas is also commonly used for sputter deposition of thin films as in microelectronics and for wafer cleaning in microfabrication .
= = = Medical use = = =
Cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquid argon to destroy tissue such as cancer cells . It is used in a procedure called " argon enhanced coagulation " , a form of argon plasma beam electrosurgery . The procedure carries a risk of producing gas embolism and has resulted in the death of at least one patient .
Blue argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries , destroy tumors , and correct eye defects .
Argon has also been used experimentally to replace nitrogen in the breathing or decompression mix known as Argox , to speed the elimination of dissolved nitrogen from the blood .
= = = Lighting = = =
Incandescent lights are filled with argon , to preserve the filaments at high temperature from oxidation . It is used for the specific way it ionizes and emits light , such as in plasma globes and calorimetry in experimental particle physics . Gas @-@ discharge lamps filled with pure argon provide lilac / violet light ; with argon and some mercury , blue light . Argon is also used for blue and green argon @-@ ion lasers .
= = = Miscellaneous uses = = =
Argon is used for thermal insulation in energy efficient windows . Argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate a dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity .
Argon is used as a propellant in the development of the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket ( VASIMR ) . Compressed argon gas is allowed to expand , to cool the seeker heads of the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missile and other missiles that use cooled thermal seeker heads . The gas is stored at high pressure .
Argon @-@ 39 , with a half @-@ life of 269 years , has been used for a number of applications , primarily ice core and ground water dating . Also , potassium @-@ argon dating is used to date igneous rocks .
Argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent to simulate hypoxic conditions . On August 31 , 2014 the World Anti Doping Agency ( WADA ) added argon and xenon to the list of prohibited substances and methods , although at this time there is no reliable test for abuse .
= = Safety = =
Although argon is non @-@ toxic , it is 38 % denser than air and therefore considered a dangerous asphyxiant in closed areas . It is difficult to detect because it is colorless , odorless , and tasteless . A 1994 incident in which a man was asphyxiated after entering an argon @-@ filled section of oil pipe under construction in Alaska highlights the dangers of argon tank leakage in confined spaces , and emphasizes the need for proper use , storage and handling .
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= New York State Route 31E =
New York State Route 31E ( NY 31E ) is a 5 @.@ 29 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 51 km ) state highway located in western New York in the United States . It serves as a northerly alternate route of NY 31 between the village of Middleport in eastern Niagara County and the nearby village of Medina in Orleans County . NY 31E connects to NY 31 at each end by way of a short overlap with NY 271 in Middleport . Most of NY 31E parallels the Erie Canal , and parts of the route run adjacent to the waterway . Outside of the two villages at each end , NY 31E traverses mostly rural areas of the towns of Royalton and Ridgeway .
The origins of the route date back to 1914 when its routing was included as part of a spur route of Route 30 , a cross @-@ state , unsigned legislative route . The spur route was eliminated in 1921 , and the road went unnumbered until 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it became part of NY 3 . Most of NY 3 west of Rochester was replaced by NY 31 in the mid @-@ 1930s , and NY 31 was realigned onto its present , more southerly alignment between Middleport and Medina in 1949 . Its former canalside alignment became NY 31E at this time . Most of NY 31E is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , two sections in Niagara County and Medina are locally maintained .
= = Route description = =
NY 31E begins at an intersection with NY 31 in the village of Middleport in eastern Niagara County . The route heads north as Main Street , overlapping with NY 271 ( which also begins at NY 31 ) through the mostly residential village . Just south of the Erie Canal , NY 31E and NY 271 enter Middleport 's small business district , centered on the junction of Main and State Streets . Here , NY 31E and NY 271 split , with NY 31E following State Street eastward through the eastern portion of the community . Along this stretch , the route serves Royalton – Hartland High School and Royalton @-@ Hartland Middle School before exiting Middleport and entering a slightly more open area of the town of Royalton . NY 31E runs past undeveloped land to the north and a smattering of homes to the south on its way into the Orleans County town of Shelby New York | Ridgeway ] ] .
East of the county line , NY 31E becomes Telegraph Road and continues across increasingly less developed areas of Ridgeway . The Erie Canal is visible from most of this section of NY 31E , and about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the highway runs directly alongside the waterway , which curves several times between Middleport and Medina . The two separate at the small hamlet of Shelby Basin , where the route follows a more southerly alignment into a more populated area . Not far to the east is the village of Medina , where NY 31E changes names to West Center Street . The route heads east across the residential western half of the village , passing Prospect Avenue ( former NY 63 ) on its way into Medina 's business district . NY 31E passes the village 's post office and enter the Main Street Historic District , where NY 31E terminates at NY 31 and NY 63 .
Maintenance along the route varies by location . From the Niagara – Orleans county line to the Medina village line , NY 31E is maintained by NYSDOT . All of the route within Niagara County , excluding the state @-@ maintained overlap with NY 271 in Middleport , is county @-@ maintained as the unsigned County Route 143 ( CR 143 ) . In Medina , NY 31E is entirely maintained by the village , though between the village line and Prospect Avenue ( former NY 63 ) , it was NYSDOT @-@ maintained for 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) to its terminus at NY 31 until 2010 .
= = History = =
In 1914 , the New York State Legislature added two spur routes to Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Niagara Falls in western Niagara County to Rouses Point in Clinton County via Medina . The first of these began at Route 30 ( modern NY 63 ) and followed what is now NY 31E west to Middleport , from where it continued toward Lockport on current NY 31 . On March 1 , 1921 , most of Route 30 's Medina – Lockport spur route was supplanted by an extended Route 20 . The lone exception was from Medina to Middleport , where Route 20 utilized modern NY 31 instead . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , all of legislative Route 20 west of Rochester became part of NY 3 .
NY 3 remained on what is now NY 31 between Middleport and Medina until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was realigned between the two villages to use what is now NY 31E . U.S. Route 104 was assigned to all of Ridge Road c . 1935 , replacing then @-@ NY 31 west of Rochester . As a result , NY 31 was shifted southward onto most of NY 3 from Niagara Falls to Rochester , including between Middleport and Medina . NY 31 was realigned on January 1 , 1949 , to follow its current alignment between the two villages . The former routing of NY 31 was redesignated as NY 31E , a northerly alternate route of NY 31 .
The alignment of NY 31E has not changed since that time ; however , ownership of parts of the route has changed hands over the years . Until 1998 , NY 31E was state @-@ maintained from its western terminus in Middleport to the Medina village line . On October 1 , 1998 , ownership and maintenance of NY 31E between NY 271 in Middleport and the Niagara – Orleans county line was transferred from the state to Niagara County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . This section of the route was subsequently co @-@ designated , but not signed , as CR 143 by Niagara County .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Franck Ribéry =
Franck Henry Pierre Ribéry ( French pronunciation : [ fʁɑ ̃ k ʁi.be.ʁi ] ) ( born 7 April 1983 ) is a French professional footballer who plays for German club Bayern Munich . He is a former France national team player . He primarily plays as a winger , preferably on the left side although being right @-@ footed , and is known for pace , energy , skill and precise passing . Ribéry is described as a player who is fast , tricky and an excellent dribbler , who has great control with the ball at his feet . Since joining Bayern , he has been recognised on the world stage as one of the best French players of his generation . The previous talisman of the French national team , Zinedine Zidane , has called Ribéry the " jewel of French football " .
Ribéry 's career began in 1989 as a youth player for local hometown club Conti Boulogne . He left the club after seven years to join professional outfit Lille , but departed the club after three years after having difficulties adjusting . In 1999 , Ribéry joined US Boulogne , where he played for two years . After spending two more years in the amateur divisions with two different clubs ( Alès and Brest ) , in 2004 , Ribéry earned a move to Ligue 1 club FC Metz . After six months with the club , Ribéry moved to Turkey in January 2005 to join Galatasaray , where he won the Turkish Cup . After six months at Galatasaray , he departed the club in controversial fashion in order to return to France to join Marseille . Ribéry spent two seasons at the club , helping the Marseillais reach the final of the Coupe de France in back @-@ to @-@ back seasons . In 2007 , Ribéry joined German club Bayern Munich for a then club @-@ record fee of € 25 million . With Bayern , he has won six Bundesliga titles , five DFB @-@ Pokal , one UEFA Champions League and one FIFA Club World Cup , which include four doubles and one treble . His form for Bayern in the club 's 2012 – 13 treble winning season saw him nominated alongside Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo on the three @-@ man shortlist for the 2013 FIFA Ballon d 'Or .
Between 2006 and 2014 , Ribéry represented the France national football team 81 times . Ribéry has represented his nation at two FIFA World Cups ( 2006 , 2010 ) and two UEFA European Football Championships ( 2008 , 2012 ) . He made his international debut in May 2006 against Mexico . At the 2006 World Cup , Ribéry scored his first international goal against Spain and played in the final match against Italy .
Individually , Ribéry is a three @-@ time winner of the French Player of the Year award and has also won the German Footballer of the Year becoming the first player to hold both honours . He has also been named to the UEFA Team of the Year and declared the Young Player of the Year in France . In 2013 , Ribéry won the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award . In 2013 , he was also ranked fourth in The Guardian 's list of the best players in the world .
= = Beginnings = =
Ribéry was born on 7 April 1983 in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and raised in a low @-@ income neighbourhood on the fringes of the city . When he was two years old , he and his family were involved in a car accident in his hometown , colliding with a lorry . Ribéry suffered serious facial injuries that resulted in more than one hundred stitches and which left two long scars down the right side of his face , and another across his brows . Prior to joining Stade Brestois in 2003 , he worked as a construction worker with his father , which Ribéry referred to as a " learning experience " .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Ribéry began his football career at age six playing in the youth section of amateur club FC Conti de Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . After a seven @-@ year stay , in 1996 , he joined professional outfit Lille , who were playing in the second division . While at Lille , Ribéry excelled athletically , but developed academic and behavioural problems , which led to Lille releasing him . In 2012 , during a press conference ahead of Bayern Munich 's Champions League tie against his former club Lille , Ribéry explained that he was released from the Lille academy after suffering a broken elbow and that Lille officials had previously wanted to drop him from the academy for being " too small " .
After leaving Lille , Ribéry returned to his hometown joining the biggest club in the city , US Boulogne . After spending a year in the reserves , he was promoted to the senior team . Ribéry only made four appearances in his debut season as Boulogne , who were playing in the CFA , the fourth division of French football , earned promotion to third @-@ tier Championnat National . In his second season with the club , Ribéry appeared in 25 league matches converting five goals . Although Boulogne finished 17th , which meant a return to the fourth division , Ribéry 's solid performances earned him a move to fellow National club Olympique Alès . In his only season at the club , Ribéry made 18 appearances scoring only one goal .
Following the season , despite finishing safe , Alès were relegated to the Division d 'Honneur , the sixth division of French football , by the DNCG after the club declared bankruptcy . The resulting news led to Ribéry signing with Stade Brest , another Championnat National club . At Brest , Ribéry established himself as a premier player in the league appearing in 35 league matches scoring three goals . Ribéry 's performance and the team as a whole led to the club finishing second in the league , thus earning promotion to Ligue 2 .
Despite his success with Brest , Ribéry sought to play in Ligue 1 , the top division of French football . His dream came to fruition when Metz 's manager Jean Fernandez took a liking to him and recruited him on a free transfer . Ribéry only spent half a season at Metz , but impressed earning the UNFP Player of the Month in August 2004 . He scored his only league goal for Metz on 6 November in the team 's 1 – 1 draw with Toulouse . His stellar play on the right side of midfield led to Metz supporters comparing him to Robert Pirès , a former Metz legend . After negotiations on an extension ended in a stalemate , in January 2005 , Ribéry relocated to Turkey . There he joined Galatasaray on an initial loan deal ; the Istanbul @-@ based outfit had the right to pay Metz € 2 million to make the move permanent .
= = = Galatasaray = = =
At Galatasaray , Ribéry was brought in by manager Gheorghe Hagi and appeared in 14 league matches as the club finished in third @-@ place position . While playing for the club , Galatasaray supporters nicknamed him " Ferraribery " , in reference to his quick acceleration with the ball at his feet and also " Scarface " due to a large scar located on the right side of his face . In the Turkish Cup , Ribéry was instrumental in the club 's 5 – 1 thrashing of rivals Fenerbahçe in the competition 's ultimate match . He scored the opening goal in the 16th minute and also assisted on another goal . Ribéry was later substituted in the 52nd minute with Galatasaray leading 3 – 1 . The trophy was Ribéry 's first major honour .
= = = Move to Marseille and CAS ruling = = =
On 15 June 2005 , Ribéry announced that he would be returning to France joining Ligue 1 club Marseille on a five @-@ year contract , plus reuniting with former manager Jean Fernandez . The move was considered surprising to Galatasaray as Ribéry had three years remaining on his contract after the club paid Metz € 2 million to make the loan move permanent on 30 March . Ribéry argued that he had not been paid his wages by the club and asked FIFA , the sport 's governing body , to invalidate his contract . He also confirmed that , at one point during the season , he was threatened with a baseball bat by his former agent and a Galatasaray director . A day after announcing his move , Galatasaray officials and manager Eric Gerets blasted the player for betraying the club and also announced their intent to ask FIFA to probe the situation .
In July 2005 , FIFA ruled in favour of Ribéry and dismissed Galatasaray 's claims of the player being at fault . In response , the Turkish club announced their decision to challenge FIFA 's ruling by appealing to the international Court of Arbitration for Sport . On 25 April 2007 , their appeal was dismissed by the court , who declared in a statement that Ribéry had terminated his contract with the Turkish club at the end of the 2004 – 05 season on just grounds , and that Galatasaray was therefore not entitled to any compensation . Galatasaray had sought € 10 million in compensation from Marseille .
= = = = 2005 – 06 season = = = =
Upon his arrival , Ribéry was handed the number 7 shirt and made his debut on 30 July 2005 in a 2 – 0 defeat to Bordeaux collecting a yellow card . On 17 September , he scored his first goal for the club in their 2 – 1 victory over Troyes . Two weeks later , Ribéry netted goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches in victories over his former club Metz and Nice . On 19 November , Ribéry scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 1 win over Nantes . The goal , scored from almost 35 metres ( 1 @,@ 400 in ) out , was later voted the goal of the season by supporters .
In the Coupe de France , Ribéry performed well scoring a double against Le Havre and scoring the opening goal in Marseille 's 3 – 1 semi @-@ final victory over Rennes . The win pushed Marseille through to the 2006 final , where they faced Le Classique rivals Paris Saint @-@ Germain , which merited Ribéry his second consecutive cup final appearance . Unfortunately , Marseille faltered losing 2 – 1 to the Parisian club . In Europe , Ribéry scored two goals in the UEFA Intertoto Cup against Italian club Lazio and Spanish outfit Deportivo de La Coruña . In the UEFA Cup , he scored one goal converting it in the second leg of Marseille 's Round of 32 tie with Premier League club Bolton Wanderers . Ribéry was later named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Young Player of the Year .
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
Following Ribéry 's success internationally at the 2006 FIFA World Cup , a bidding war occurred in order to obtain his services with English club Arsenal initially offering € 15 million for the player . However , Arsenal would be trumped by Spanish club Real Madrid , who offered € 30 million for the Frenchman , according to Marseille directors . Rivals Olympique Lyonnais also sought Ribéry 's services , with president Pape Diouf accusing Jean @-@ Michel Aulas of tapping @-@ up Ribéry after it was discovered that the Lyon chairman visited the France national team and Ribéry himself during the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Diouf later threatened to report Aulas to the Ligue de Football Professionnel ( LFP ) for his actions . He went as far as to accuse Ribéry 's former agent , Bruno Heiderscheid , of badly advising the player . Marseille continued to declare him off @-@ limits with nearly four years remaining on Ribéry 's contract . On 11 August 2006 , Ribéry confirmed his intention to remain with the club for the 2006 – 07 season .
Ribéry 's now heightened popularity saw increased speculation from writers and supporters that Marseille would finally win their first league title since the 1991 – 92 season . He began the 2006 – 07 campaign on a high note , scoring in the club 's second match of the season against Auxerre in a 3 – 0 victory . On 11 November 2006 , Ribéry suffered a serious groin injury in Marseille 's 1 – 0 loss to Lille . The resulting injury meant Ribéry was out for a number of weeks , returning following the winter break . On his return in January , Ribéry netted two goals in another win over Auxerre . The following month , Ribéry suffered a fractured foot in a match against Toulouse . The injury required him to miss four league matches , as well as a Coupe de France match . In April 2007 , Ribéry finished the league season by scoring in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks against Sochaux in a 4 – 2 win and Monaco in another victory .
In the Coupe de France , Marseille again reached the final with Ribéry , for the second straight season , putting them there scoring the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 0 semi @-@ final win over Nantes . In the final , Marseille were heavy favourites over Sochaux , a team they had completely dominated just 12 days prior . However , Sochaux recorded an upset victory defeating Marseille 5 – 4 on penalties after the match ended 2 – 2 following extra time . Ribéry 's final match with Marseille was a 1 – 0 win over Sedan on the final match day of the season . The victory secured second place for Marseille and was their best finish since finishing runner @-@ up to Bordeaux during the 1998 – 99 season . Following the season , Ribéry was awarded the French Player of the Year by French sports publication France Football . The honor ended the four @-@ year reign of Thierry Henry .
= = = Bayern Munich = = =
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
On 7 June 2007 , German club Bayern Munich announced that they had reached an agreement with Marseille for the transfer of Ribéry , with the player agreeing to a four @-@ year deal and Bayern paying Marseille a then club @-@ record € 25 million . Ribéry was given the number 7 shirt , which was freed up due to the retirement of midfielder Mehmet Scholl at the end of the previous season . He made his team debut one month later , scoring twice in an 18 – 0 friendly drubbing of Munich youth side FT Gern . Ribéry made his competitive debut for Bayern on 21 July 2007 against Werder Bremen in the first round of the Premiere Ligapokal , scoring twice and also assisting on another in a 4 – 1 victory . In the semifinals , he netted an early goal in a 2 – 0 win over defending champions VfB Stuttgart . Due to an injury , Ribéry was unable to play in the final , which Bayern won .
Ribéry scored his first league goal for the club on 18 August in a 4 – 0 triumph over Bremen converting a penalty in the 31st minute . He went scoreless in the league for almost two months before scoring a goal and providing the assist on Bayern 's other goal in a 2 – 1 win over VfL Bochum . A month later , Ribéry recorded this feat again , providing the assist on the opening goal scored by Miroslav Klose and scoring the game winning goal in a 2 – 1 win over VfL Wolfsburg . In the German Cup , he recorded two goals and provided four assists in five matches Bayern contested . He netted his first goal in the competition on 27 February 2008 in Bayern 's win over inner @-@ city rivals 1860 Munich , with Ribéry converting the lone goal , a penalty , in the final minute of extra time . In the semi @-@ finals , Ribéry scored the opening goal in Bayern 's 2 – 0 win over Wolfsburg , which resulted in the club qualifying for the final against Borussia Dortmund . In the DFB @-@ Pokal final , Ribéry assisted on Luca Toni 's opener in the 11th minute in a match Bayern won 2 – 1 , thus claiming their 14th cup title .
In the UEFA Cup , Bayern reached the semi @-@ finals , with Ribéry scoring three goals in the competition , including one in the Germans ' comeback win over Spanish club Getafe in the quarter @-@ finals . In total , Ribéry appeared in 46 matches scoring 16 goals and assisting on 17 goals as Bayern won the league and cup double . For his efforts , on 8 June 2008 , Ribéry was named the 2007 – 08 German Footballer of the Year . He was also named French Player of the Year for the second consecutive season .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
Due to tearing ligaments in his ankle at Euro 2008 , Ribéry began the season with Bayern on 24 September 2008 in a DFB @-@ Pokal match against 1 . FC Nürnberg , appearing as a substitute in the 65th minute . He made his league debut three days later and , after a month of play , scored his first goal of the season in Bayern 's 4 – 2 comeback win over VfL Wolfsburg . Following the match , Ribéry scored in five @-@ straight league matches , with the club going undefeated in that span . On 10 December , Ribéry capped the 2008 portion of the season by scoring a goal and providing assists on the other two in Bayern 's 3 – 2 victory over Lyon in the Champions League . For his performances throughout 2008 , Ribéry finished third behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi for the Onze d 'Or . He was shortlisted by the French magazine France Football for the 2008 Ballon d 'Or award , won by Cristiano Ronaldo .
Ribéry 's 2009 debut saw Bayern earn a 5 – 1 German Cup win over VfB Stuttgart , with the player scoring and also providing an assist . On 24 February 2009 , he scored a double in the club 's 5 – 0 win over Sporting CP in the first leg of their Round of 16 clash . Bayern were later eliminated 5 – 1 on aggregate by Spanish champions Barcelona in the next round , with Ribéry scoring a consolation goal in the second leg in a 1 – 1 draw at the Allianz . In the league , Bayern failed to defend their Bundesliga title , despite suffering defeat only twice in their final 13 matches , losing out to Wolfsburg . Ribéry ended the season with 36 total appearances scoring 14 goals and providing 19 assists .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
Following the 2008 – 09 season , constant speculation began to surface regarding Ribéry 's availability on the transfer market . Despite Bayern president Uli Hoeneß , executive Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge and new manager Louis van Gaal declaring that Ribéry would not be sold , numerous media outlets declared that English clubs Chelsea and Manchester United , Spanish clubs Barcelona and Real Madrid , and Italian outfit Inter Milan had strong interest in the player , with many of the clubs willing to offer as much as € 65 million for his services . In order to quell the interest , Hoeneß declared that Ribéry would leave for nothing less than € 100 million .
Ribéry began the 2009 – 10 season struggling with tendonitis in his left knee , but was healthy enough to start the season scoring his first goal in a 5 – 1 victory against rivals Borussia Dortmund , converting a free kick . The goal was notable in part due to Ribéry 's celebration afterward ; following his conversion , Ribéry ran across the field eluding several celebratory teammates and enthusiastically jumped into his manager Louis van Gaal 's awaiting arms . The mutual show of admiration ended speculation by the media of the two having a poor relationship . In early October , the tendinitis began to affect his play , which resulted in Ribéry missing the rest of the year , as well as France 's World Cup playoff tie with the Republic of Ireland .
On 23 January 2010 , Ribéry returned to the team , making an appearance as a substitute in the club 's 3 – 2 league win over Werder Bremen . Ribéry 's first goal of the new year came on 10 February scoring in Bayern 's 6 – 2 DFB @-@ Pokal victory over SpVgg Greuther Fürth . On 31 March , he scored the equalizing goal in Bayern 's 2 – 1 first leg win over English club Manchester United in the Champions League quarter @-@ finals after converting a free kick , which deflected off of striker Wayne Rooney before going into the net . In the club 's ensuing match , Ribéry scored the opening goal in the team 's 2 – 1 victory over Schalke 04 .
On 20 April , Ribéry was sent off by referee Roberto Rosetti in the club 's first leg Champions League semi @-@ final against Lyon after being adjudged to have committed serious foul play on Lyon striker Lisandro López . The expulsion resulted in Ribéry missing the second leg in Lyon , which Bayern won to advance to the UEFA Champions League final . On 28 April , Ribéry was handed a three @-@ match suspension by UEFA 's Control and Disciplinary Body for assault . The suspension meant that Ribéry would miss the final . Following the ruling , Bayern Munich announced their intent to appeal the suspension . On 5 May , the club 's appeal was heard by the UEFA Appeals Body , which upheld Ribéry 's ban meaning he would not only miss the final on 22 May , but also the next UEFA club competition fixture for which he is eligible . Immediately after the ruling , however , Bayern responded by announcing their intention of appealing to the Court of Arbitration for Sport .
On 15 May , Ribéry scored the third goal in Bayern 's 4 – 0 win over Werder Bremen in the 2009 – 10 edition of the DFB @-@ Pokal final . Two days later , Ribéry 's appeal was heard by the Court of Arbitration for Sport and was dismissed meaning he was officially ruled out of the UEFA Champions League final against Inter Milan on 22 May . Bayern Munich lost the match 2 – 0 . On 20 May , it was announced by German newspaper Bild that Ribéry had agreed to a new five @-@ year contract with Bayern Munich and would sign the contract upon his arrival in Madrid to watch his teammates contest the Champions League final . On 23 May , the day after the final , the club officially confirmed the agreement . The new tied Ribéry to the club until 2015 and , though there is uncertainty regarding the annual salary , it has been speculated that the new deal pays him an annual salary of € 10 million a year , the highest annual salary ever awarded to a player in the club 's history .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Ribéry began the 2010 – 11 season healthy for the first time since his debut season with the club . He was among the first World Cup players to arrive to pre @-@ season training and made his season debut on 16 August 2010 in Bayern 's 4 – 0 victory over Germania Windeck in the first round of the DFB @-@ Pokal . In the match , Ribéry scored his first goal of the season . Four days later , he assisted on the game @-@ winning goal , scored by Bastian Schweinsteiger , in the team 's opening league match against VfL Wolfsburg . On 21 September , Ribéry was forced to leave the team 's 2 – 1 win over 1899 Hoffenheim after suffering an ankle injury . The injury was discovered to be serious and Ribéry was ruled out for four weeks .
Despite the initial diagnosis , Ribéry missed two months and returned to the team on 14 November in a league match against 1 . FC Nürnberg . A week later , Ribéry was criticized by manager Louis van Gaal for his performance in a friendly match against SpVgg Unterhaching , which was organized to help Ribéry and other injured first @-@ team players regain full fitness . Though Van Gaal was disappointed in several of his players ' performances , he singled out Ribéry , stating , " he [ Ribéry ] didn 't make any effort and showed no commitment . " Ribéry did , however , remain in contention to appear in the team 's next league match against Bayer Leverkusen . He subsequently appeared in the match as a substitute in the 61st minute . On 8 December , Ribéry scored a double in a 3 – 0 victory over Swiss club Basel in the Champions League .
On 15 January , in Bayern 's first league match following the winter break against Wolfsburg , Ribéry suffered a lower leg injury in the first half as a result of a tackle by Brazilian midfielder Josué . Initial media reports described the injury as serious with Ribéry possibly having to undergo surgery to repair torn ligaments . After further medical analysis , however , the injury was only reduced to a sprain and Ribéry subsequently missed two weeks . He returned to the team on 5 February in a league match against 1 . FC Köln . On 12 February , Ribéry assisted on two goals in a 4 – 0 win over 1899 Hoffenheim .
Following the team 's 3 – 1 league win over Mainz 05 on 19 February , Ribéry embarked on a streak in which he charted a statistical output in Bayern 's next five league matches . On 26 February , he assisted on the team 's only goal in its 3 – 1 defeat against rivals Borussia Dortmund . In the next match , against Hannover 96 , he repeated his feat from the previous match assisted on an Arjen Robben goal in another defeat . On 12 March , Ribéry had arguably his best performance of the season after scoring a goal and providing three assists in a 6 – 0 hammering of Hamburger SV . In Bayern 's following match against SC Freiburg , he assisted on the team 's opening goal , scored by Mario Gómez , and then netted the game @-@ winning goal two minutes from time in a 2 – 1 win . Against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 2 April , Ribéry assisted on the only goal of the match , which was converted by Robben . The streak ended in the team 's 1 – 1 draw with 1 . FC Nürnberg on 11 April . Six days later , Ribéry scored the final goal in a 5 – 1 sweeping of Bayer Leverkusen .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Ribéry suffered an ankle injury during a pre @-@ season training session , which resulted in the player being carried from the training ground by members of the club 's medical team . Despite the player himself fearing he may have torn ligaments in the ankle , after an examination , club doctors revealed that the injury was not as serious as first thought , and Ribéry missed only one competitive match , a 3 – 0 DFP @-@ Pokal away win over Eintracht Braunschweig on 1 August 2011 . Ribéry made his season debut a week later in Bayern 's opening league match of the season , playing the entire match in a 1 – 0 loss to Borussia Mönchengladbach . In the following week , he assisted on the game @-@ winning goal , scored by Luiz Gustavo , in a win over VfL Wolfsburg . Ribéry scored his first goal of the campaign in the team 's next league match against Hamburger SV . Bayern won the match 5 – 0 . Following the international break , on 10 September , he scored a double and assisted on a goal in a 7 – 0 home victory over SC Freiburg . A week later , Ribéry assisted on both team goals in a shutout win over Schalke 04 .
Following the October international break , Ribéry manufactured another statistical output after scoring and assisting on two goals in a 4 – 0 win over Hertha BSC . On 29 October , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 1 win over FC Augsburg . In the UEFA Champions League , Ribéry scored his first goal in the competition on 22 November against Spanish club Villarreal in the group stage . He scored one goal in each half to give Bayern a 3 – 1 win , which allowed the club progression to the UEFA Champions League knockout phase . On 3 December , Ribéry scored another set of goals in a 4 – 1 win against Werder Bremen . The league win re @-@ inserted Bayern back into first @-@ place position in the league after momentarily losing the spot in late November . After failing to score a goal in two months , on 8 February 2012 Ribéry scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 0 win over VfB Stuttgart in the quarter @-@ finals of the DFB @-@ Pokal . The goal resulted in Ribéry scoring in every official competition Bayern Munich has participated in since he joined the club in 2007 .
On 26 February , Ribéry scored two goals in a shutout win over Schalke 04 . Two weeks later , in a 7 – 1 thrashing of 1899 Hoffenheim , he scored another goal and assisted on goals scored by Toni Kroos , Arjen Robben and Mario Gómez . In the semi @-@ finals of the DFB @-@ Pokal , Ribéry scored the second goal in the team 's 4 – 2 extra time win over Borussia Mönchengladbach . The win took Bayern Munich to its 18th German Cup final . On 17 April , Ribéry scored Bayern 's opening goal in its 2 – 1 first leg victory over Spanish club Real Madrid in the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League . Two days after the match , it was reported by German publication Sport Bild that Ribéry was involved in a dressing room fight during half @-@ time of the Madrid match with Arjen Robben . The report stated that " a clear @-@ the @-@ air meeting was held " and Ribéry was " said to have apologized and accepted a fine for his actions " . In the team 's ensuing match against Werder Bremen , Ribéry appeared as a substitute and scored the game @-@ winning goal in the 90th minute . On 12 May 2012 , Ribéry scored in the 2012 DFB @-@ Pokal final , as Bayern lost 5 – 2 against rivals Borussia Dortmund . In extra time of the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final , he was subbed out after sustaining an injury from a tackle by Didier Drogba . Bayern eventually lost in a penalty shootout .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
Ribéry started the 2012 – 13 season by winning the 2012 DFL @-@ Supercup against Borussia Dortmund on 12 August 2012 . In 2013 , Ribéry won the Champions League with Bayern Munich in an all @-@ German final against Dortmund . He completed the continental treble with Bayern after also winning the 2013 Bundesliga and 2013 DFB @-@ Pokal against VfB Stuttgart . Ribéry also had the most assists with 15 in the 2013 Bundesliga .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
In August 2013 , Ribéry won the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award . On 13 January 2014 , he placed third in the 2013 FIFA Ballon d 'Or , behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi . On 25 March , he scored in a 3 – 1 win over Hertha BSC as Bayern were confirmed as Bundesliga champions .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Ribéry scored his 100th goal for Bayern on 6 December 2014 . The goal happened in his 287th competitive match for Bayern .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
On 2 December 2015 , Ribéry trained with the first team for the first time since his injury in March 2015 .
= = International career = =
Prior to representing the senior team , Ribéry was ever present with the France under @-@ 21 team earning his first selection on 3 September 2004 in a 1 – 0 victory over Israel in qualifying for the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Ribéry scored his first under @-@ 21 goal five days later in a 1 – 0 friendly win over Slovakia . On 15 November 2005 , he scored an important goal against England during the qualification playoffs as France defeated them 3 – 2 on aggregate to advance to the finals . Ribéry , however , missed the competition after earning selection to coach Raymond Domenech 's pre @-@ World Cup squad . In total with the under @-@ 21s , Ribéry made 13 appearances scoring two goals .
Ribéry earned his first cap with the senior team in a 1 – 0 victory over Mexico on 27 May 2006 appearing as a substitute in the 74th minute for striker David Trezeguet . His solid performances in the friendly matches ahead of the 2006 FIFA World Cup led to his inclusion in the team for the competition . Ribéry appeared in all seven matches France contested , starting six . On 27 June , he scored France 's opening goal in the team 's 3 – 1 Round of 16 win over Spain after receiving a through ball from Patrick Vieira , which allowed the winger to dribble past an oncoming Iker Casillas and shoot into the empty net . He played in the final where France lost to Italy on penalties . Ribéry 's only shot on goal came in extra time and he was later replaced by Trezeguet .
Following the retirement of Zinedine Zidane , it was expected that Ribéry would succeed him and become the national team 's talisman . He went scoreless for almost a year and a half before converting a penalty shot against England on 26 March 2008 at the Stade de France . Following the goal , Ribéry paid tribute to legendary French commentator Thierry Gilardi , who had died a day earlier . At Euro 2008 , France performed below expectations , with Ribéry appearing in all three group stage matches as France suffered early elimination . On 17 June 2008 , in the team 's final group stage match against Italy , Ribéry ruptured a ligament in his left ankle in just the 8th minute of play . Ribéry returned to the team on 11 October 2008 in a FIFA World Cup qualification match against Romania , scoring the team 's opening goal in a 2 – 2 draw . On 28 March 2009 , Ribéry scored the lone goal away to Lithuania . Three days later , he completed this feat again , this time at the Stade de France , netting the winner in the 75th minute following service from André @-@ Pierre Gignac .
On 11 May 2010 , Ribéry was named to Domenech 's 30 @-@ man preliminary squad to participate in the 2010 World Cup and his second World Cup overall . He was later named to the 23 @-@ man team to compete in the competition . Ribéry appeared in all three group stage matches . Following the team 's opening match against Uruguay , Ribéry was criticised for his performance by former international Just Fontaine , who questioned Ribéry 's leadership ability . It was later reported by the media that Ribéry and striker Nicolas Anelka purposely " froze @-@ out " midfielder Yoann Gourcuff . Anelka was later dismissed from the team after reportedly having a dispute in which obscenities were passed , with Domenech during half @-@ time of the team 's 2 – 0 loss to Mexico .
On 20 June , an emotional Ribéry appeared alongside Domenech on TF1 's football show Téléfoot to dispel rumors associated with the team and to also apologize to supporters for the national team 's performance over the past two years , stating , " We [ France ] are suffering at the moment , " and , " I would like to say sorry to the whole country . " The following day , the team boycotted a training session in response to Anelka 's expulsion and , on 21 June , returned to training without incident . In the team 's final group stage match against the hosts South Africa , Ribéry assisted on the team 's only goal of the competition , scored by Florent Malouda . France , however , lost the match 2 – 1 , which resulted in the team 's elimination from the competition . On 6 August , Ribéry was one of five players summoned to attend a hearing held by the Disciplinary Committee of the French Football Federation ( FFF ) in response to the team 's strike held at the World Cup . On 17 August , he received a three @-@ match international ban for his part in the incident . Ribéry did not attend the hearing due to his parent club 's objection .
On 17 March 2011 , Ribéry was called up to the national team by new manager Laurent Blanc for the first time since the 2010 World Cup . He had been eligible to return to the team since October 2010 after serving his three @-@ match suspension , but due to injuries , Ribéry missed three call @-@ ups . On 21 March , after arriving to Clairefontaine ahead of the team 's matches against Luxembourg and Croatia , Ribéry attended a personal press conference in which he apologized for his behavior overall during the 2010 calendar year . He made his return to the team on 25 March in the team 's match against Luxembourg and responded by assisting on the team 's second goal , scored by Yoann Gourcuff , in its 2 – 0 win . In his first match at the Stade de France since his participation at the World Cup , against Croatia , Ribéry appeared as a substitute and was subject to jeers from some section of supporters , though other parts of the stadium chanted his name .
After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , on 29 May 2012 , Ribéry was named to the squad to participate in the competition . Two days prior , he scored his first goal for France in over three years in a 3 – 2 friendly comeback win over Iceland . On 31 May , Ribéry scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 0 win against Serbia . Four days later , he capped off the trio of lead @-@ in friendly matches ahead of the European Championship by scoring the opening goal in a 4 – 0 shutout win over Estonia .
Ribéry was included in France 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup , but on 6 June , coach Didier Deschamps confirmed that he would miss the tournament through injury . Shortly afterwards , in August 2014 Ribéry retired from international football . He cited the reasons for his retirement as " purely personal " .
= = Style of play and personality = =
Ribéry primarily plays as a winger and is described as a player who is " fast , tricky , and an excellent dribbler who has great control with the ball at his feet " . Despite being predominantly right @-@ footed and utilized as a right @-@ sided midfielder during his development years in France , since establishing himself as an international and at Bayern Munich , Ribéry has personally admitted that his preference is to play on the left wing , even going as far as to state , " My place is on the left " when asked at a February 2010 media session while on international duty . Although he is often played on the left wing domestically , Ribéry has struggled to establish himself as a left winger at the international level with France due to the presence of left @-@ footed dominant players such as Florent Malouda . Ribéry has declared that he is best utilized on the left side because " that is where I am most free and I am the best in my head " . Playing on the left also allows Ribéry to use his " bursts of acceleration and weaving runs " to effectively cut inside , which gives him the options of either shooting or delivering a decisive pass . Ribéry is also capable of playing in the center of the field as an attacking midfielder , where his vision and playmaking skills are best exhibited . Despite predominantly playing on the wing , he has averaged double @-@ digits in assists every year beginning with his final season at Marseille .
Ribéry has been described as a provocateur on the field of play , with UEFA describing him as " a crowd @-@ pleaser – one of those rare breed of footballer capable of enjoying his talents while expressing them " . During the 2006 World Cup , he was mentored by national team playmaker Zinedine Zidane . While boasting him as " the jewel of French football " , Zidane has also praised Ribéry as a person , declaring , " Franck just loves life . He 's the kind of player that makes an impression every time he plays . He ’ s bound to become an important figure in the world of football . "
Ribéry 's on @-@ field personality is often matched off @-@ field as he is often referred to as a " joker " and " prankster " by club and international teammates . The midfielder has stated that humour is very important , admitting , " It 's important to always be smiling , to wake up and feel good . We ( footballers ) have a great job , we like what we do and we have fun . " His more notable stunts include driving a tractor on field during one of his last matches with Marseille ; in his debut season with Bayern , emptying a bucket of water over former club goalkeeper Oliver Kahn from the roof of the club 's training centre ; and , during the 2008 – 09 winter break , commandeering the team bus while in Dubai and crashing it .
Ribéry , however , has struggled with injuries . Since his first season at Bayern in which he appeared in 46 of the club 's 54 competitive matches , Ribéry has struggled with minor and serious injuries that has resulted in the player failing to appear in over 40 matches in subsequent seasons ; the midfielder passed the 40 @-@ match barrier in the 2011 – 12 season after failing to in the previous three seasons . Ahead of the 2008 – 09 season , he tore ligaments in one of his ankles while on international duty and , during the 2009 – 10 season , struggled with tendinitis in his left knee . In the next season , Ribéry suffered an ankle injury , which resulted in the midfielder missing two months , despite the initial diagnosis ruling him out for four weeks . He later suffered a similar ankle injury at the start of the 2011 – 12 season . Ribéry , himself , has admitted that injuries have led to most of his five @-@ year career at Bayern being difficult , stating in July 2011 , " The last two years ( 2009 – 10 and 2010 – 11 seasons ) have been more difficult , partly because I kept picking up injuries . The important thing for me now is to avoid any more injuries " .
= = Personal life = =
Ribéry 's younger brothers François and Steven are also football players . François played for many amateur clubs in France , among others for Bayonne in the Championnat National . Steven plays for Bayern reserves team .
Ribéry 's wife , Wahiba , is a French national of Algerian descent and the couple have two daughters named Hiziya and Shahinez and two sons named Salif and Mohammed . Ribéry is a convert to Islam and , following his conversion , adopted the name Bilal Yusuf Mohammed .
= = = Commercial promotions = = =
Since establishing himself as an international , Ribéry has been involved in numerous promotional campaigns . He is sponsored by American sportswear company Nike and regularly wears Nike Mercurial Vapors . He appeared in several television advertisements for Nike and , during the 2007 – 08 Bundesliga season , starred in a one @-@ off television show called The Franck Ribéry Show , which aired on Direct 8 in France . The show , sponsored by Nike , acted as a variety show with Ribéry appearing in several sketches . Ribéry features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series . For the 2008 – 09 season , he appeared on the French cover of FIFA 09 alongside international teammate Karim Benzema , and was the ninth @-@ highest rated player in FIFA 15 .
On 25 May 2010 , a 27 by 30 metres ( 89 ft × 98 ft ) billboard of Ribéry was officially unveiled in his home city of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer ahead of the 2010 World Cup . The billboard paid tribute to a similar billboard that was erected for Zinedine Zidane in his home city of Marseille during his career . The construction of the billboard was initially suspended due to possible image ramifications associated with Ribéry 's alleged relationship with an underage prostitute .
However , the Regional Council of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region , which initially opposed the billboard , agreed to allow construction of the billboard . The billboard was a project of Ribéry 's sponsor Nike and was on display for the duration of the 2010 World Cup . More recently , he was one of several international superstars featured in Nike 's " The Last Game " , a five @-@ minute animated ad made during the run @-@ up to the 2014 World Cup that went viral .
He appeared in the music video for " Même pas fatigué ! ! ! " by Magic System and Khaled . The single released in 2009 stayed seven weeks at number one in SNEP French Singles Chart .
= = = Controversies = = =
On 18 April 2010 , it was first reported by French television service M6 that four members of the French national team were being investigated for their roles as clients of a prostitution ring that was being operated inside of a Paris nightclub , with some of the women possibly being underage . The report also stated that two of the players were already questioned as witnesses by judge André Dando and a group of magistrates . The report described the two players as being one who " is a major player in a big foreign club " and that the other " plays in the championship of France Ligue 1 " . Later that day , the players were discovered to be Ribéry and Sidney Govou . During his interview with Dando , Ribéry reportedly admitted to having had a relationship with a prostitute , but did not know that she was a minor at the time the relationship began .
On 29 April 2010 , the country 's Secretary of State for Sports Rama Yade , after refusing to publicly comment on the case in its infancy , declared that any player placed under investigation should not represent the France national team . The following day , a judicial source confirmed that Ribéry would not be placed under official investigation , if at all , before the start of the 2010 World Cup . On 20 July , Ribéry was questioned by Paris police and , following questioning , was indicted by judge Dando on the charge of " solicitation of a minor prostitute " . In November 2011 , prosecutors asked for the cases against Ribéry and Benzema to be dropped , saying that the players were not aware that the escort , identified as Zahia Dehar , was 16 years old when they had paid to have sex with her .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics accurate as of 21 May 2016 .
1 . ^ Includes the French league cup , German League Cup , German Super Cup , UEFA Super Cup , and FIFA Club World Cup .
= = = International = = =
Correct as of 15 October 2013 .
= = = International goals = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Galatasaray
Turkish Cup : 2004 – 05
Marseille
UEFA Intertoto Cup : 2005
Bayern Munich
Bundesliga : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
DFB @-@ Pokal : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
DFB @-@ Ligapokal : 2007
DFL @-@ Supercup : 2010 , 2012
UEFA Champions League : 2012 – 13
UEFA Super Cup : 2013
FIFA Club World Cup : 2013
= = = International = = =
France
FIFA World Cup Runner @-@ up : 2006
= = = Individual = = =
Ligue 1 Player of the Month : August 2004 , October 2005 , November 2005 , April 2006
Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year : 2006
Ligue 1 Goal of the Year : 2006
Ligue 1 Team of the Year : 2006
Etoile d 'Or : 2006
Onze de Bronze : 2006 , 2008
French Player of the Year : 2007 , 2008 , 2013
German Footballer of the Year : 2008
ESM Team of the Year : 2007 – 08 , 2012 – 13
UEFA Team of the Year : 2008 , 2013
UEFA Best Player in Europe Award : 2012 – 13
UEFA Super Cup Man of the match : 2013
kicker Bundesliga Team of the Season : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14
Bundesliga top assists : 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
Bundesliga Player of the Year : 2012 – 13
The kicker Man of the Year : 2013
Globe Soccer Best Footballer of the Year : 2013
FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball : 2013
FIFA Club World Cup Most Valuable Player of the Final : 2013
FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2013
FIFA Ballon d 'Or : Third place 2013
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= Jimmy McAleer =
James Robert " Loafer " McAleer ( July 10 , 1864 – April 29 , 1931 ) was an American center fielder , manager , and stockholder in Major League Baseball who assisted in establishing the American League . He spent most of his 13 @-@ season playing career with the Cleveland Spiders , and went on to manage the Cleveland Blues , St. Louis Browns , and Washington Senators . Shortly before his retirement , he became a major shareholder in the Boston Red Sox .
His career ended abruptly . During his brief tenure as co @-@ owner of the Red Sox , McAleer quarreled with longtime friend and colleague Ban Johnson , president of the American League . In the wake of this disagreement , he sold off his shares in the Red Sox and broke off his relationship with Major League Baseball .
McAleer 's rift with Johnson , along with his sudden retirement , damaged his professional reputation , and he received little recognition for his contributions to baseball . Today , he is most often remembered for initiating the customary request that the President of the United States throw out the first ball of the season .
= = Early years = =
McAleer was born in Youngstown , Ohio , an industrial center located near the border of western Pennsylvania . His father , Owen McAleer , died at a young age , leaving McAleer 's mother , Mary , to support three children . The family lived on the city 's west side , where the McAleer children were raised to value the concept of formal education . McAleer attended local public schools and graduated from Rayen High School . In later years , all three of the McAleer brothers moved on to successful careers , and the oldest , Owen McAleer , Jr . , served for a time as mayor of Los Angeles .
A " strapping six @-@ foot 175 @-@ pound outfielder , " McAleer won early recognition for his physical speed . He became involved with a Youngstown minor league baseball club in 1882 , remaining with the team until 1884 . In 1885 , McAleer joined another minor league organization in Charleston , South Carolina ; and in 1887 , he played for a team based in Memphis , Tennessee . His skill as a center fielder was recognized in 1888 , while he was playing for a club in Milwaukee , Wisconsin .
Although his primary focus was organized sports , McAleer was also drawn to the field of entertainment . During one season of his minor league career , he became part @-@ owner of the DeHaven Comedy Company , a theatrical road troupe that was organized in Youngstown . His interest in show business remained a constant , and in later years McAleer developed a strong friendship with Broadway composer and performer George M. Cohan .
= = Playing career = =
On April 24 , 1889 , McAleer broke into the Major Leagues in Cleveland , Ohio , where he established a reputation as a graceful outfielder . In 1891 , when Patsy Tebeau became manager of the Cleveland Spiders , the club became known for its aggressive tactics . Tebeau encouraged players to block and hold runners , while he himself openly challenged and harassed officials . In 1896 , the Cleveland manager was jailed for attacking an umpire who " decided it was too dark to continue a game " . On June 27 , 1896 , McAleer was among several Cleveland players to be fined by a Louisville ( Kentucky ) judge for their role in the incident . Later that year , the club 's notoriety prompted other National League teams to propose a boycott of Cleveland , " until the Spiders mended their ways . " McAleer 's periodic displays of temper were in keeping with this rowdy environment . During an August 18 , 1891 game with the Cincinnati Reds , Reds player Arlie Latham tripped McAleer as he rounded third base ; McAleer responded by chasing Latham around the field , while brandishing his bat .
At the same time , McAleer proved a strong performer . A later newspaper account described him as an outstanding outfielder who was " blessed with excellent speed " . The article noted that McAleer 's skills as a sprinter helped him steal 51 bases in one year and 41 in another . According to some accounts , he was " the first centerfielder to take his eyes off a fly ball , run to the spot where it fell to earth , and catch it " . Less proficient as a hitter , McAleer accumulated a lifetime batting average of .253 . During his career , the league 's batting ( pitchers removed ) average for players with the same home field was .284 . On April 24 , 1894 , he assisted in Cleveland 's 1 – 0 victory over Cincinnati with a single in the ninth that drove home Buck Ewing , who had doubled . Along with teammates Cy Young , Jesse Burkett , John Clarkson , and Charles Zimmer , McAleer also participated in the Spiders ' victory over the Baltimore Orioles in the 1895 Temple Cup , a post @-@ season series between first and second @-@ place teams of the National League . The Spiders placed second to the Orioles at the close of both the 1895 and 1896 seasons . McAleer 's performance came in spite of a serious injury he received during a game held in Philadelphia on August 24 , 1895 , when he collided with a fence . Furthermore , he balanced his achievements in sports with a foray into politics in his hometown of Youngstown . During the summer of 1895 , McAleer was promoted in the local media as a mayoral candidate , first as a Republican , and then as an independent . Further research is required to determine the depth of his involvement in politics .
In 1898 , when the Spiders ' owners purchased the St. Louis Browns franchise , McAleer opted to stay in Cleveland , taking a brief hiatus from baseball until the Cleveland Blues franchise joined the newly formed American League ( AL ) . During his two @-@ year absence , the Spiders lost many of their more experienced players . In 1899 , the team won 20 games and lost 134 , which is still percentage @-@ wise the worst season record in Major League history . As baseball historian Bill James noted , the Spiders were forced to cancel home games due to poor attendance and " turned the last two months of the season into a long road trip " . After a full year out of baseball in 1899 , McAleer was back in a Cleveland uniform in 1900 , in a new league , as player @-@ manager of the Cleveland Lake Shores of the fledgling American League , then a minor league . McAleer 's subsequent career as a major league manager ( 1901 – 11 ) overlapped with his playing career ( 1882 – 1907 ) . Although he did not play professionally between 1903 and 1906 , McAleer played in his last Major League game on July 8 , 1907 .
= = Managing career = =
= = = Cleveland Lake Shores / Blues = = =
In 1900 , McAleer became player @-@ manager of the Cleveland Lake Shores ( a predecessor of the Cleveland Indians ) and continued with the franchise in 1901 , when the American League became a major league and the club was renamed as the Blues , a name borrowed from a team that had participated in the National League during the 1870s and 1880s . The Blues made their major league debut on April 24 , 1901 , with an 8 – 2 loss to the Chicago White Sox . Two other league games were canceled due to inclement weather , and the contest between the Blues and White Sox served as the inaugural game of the AL .
In July of that year , McAleer presided over the Blues ' upset 6 – 1 loss to the Detroit Tigers . Although the Tigers ' manager , Tommy Burns , agreed to forfeit the game for fear that the umpire , Joe Cantillon , would be injured by an angry crowd , McAleer agreed to play the Tigers using a reserve umpire . The Blues eventually closed the season with a 54 – 82 record , placing seventh in the eight @-@ team American League .
McAleer , however , contributed little to this outcome . In 1901 , he played in only three games with the Blues . The AL , established in 1900 by Ban Johnson , former president of the Western League , was by this time in direct competition with the well @-@ established National League ( NL ) . McAleer , a close friend of Johnson and his associate , Charles Comiskey , played a significant role in the new league 's development , recruiting scores of experienced players from the NL .
= = = St. Louis Browns = = =
As manager of the Browns , McAleer lured players such as Hall of Famers Jesse Burkett and Bobby Wallace . In 1902 , the Browns took second place in the league , with a record of 78 wins and 58 losses . Between 1903 and 1907 , however , the team never ranked higher than fifth or sixth place in the AL . Then , in 1908 , the club rebounded , finishing just six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half games out of first place , with a record of 83 wins and 69 losses , landing at fourth in the AL . The Browns ended the 1909 season , however , with a record of 61 – 89 , earning seventh place . McAleer was fired at the close of the season . Browns owner Robert L. Hedges , a Cincinnati carriage maker , replaced the " affable " McAleer with the " crustier " Jack O 'Connor , who was expelled from the league in 1910 for seeking to influence the outcome of the annual batting championship .
= = = Washington Senators = = =
On September 22 , 1909 , McAleer went on to manage the Washington Senators ( popularly known as the " Nationals " ) , a team that had ceased to be competitive since the death of star hitter Ed Delahanty six years earlier . The team fared little better under McAleer 's management , finishing with a lackluster 66 – 85 record ( seventh place ) at the close of the 1910 season . The high point of the season was a game in which McAleer initiated what became a baseball tradition . On April 14 , 1910 , he asked visiting President William Howard Taft to throw out the first ball of a season opener . President Taft , an ardent fan of the game , readily agreed . Baseball historians Donald Dewey and Nicholas Acocella noted that the game " almost put an end to the career " of U.S. Vice President James S. Sherman , who " took a foul ball off the bat of Frank Baker directly in the head " . This contest also featured a one @-@ hit performance by pitcher Walter Johnson , who led the Senators to a 3 – 0 victory over the Philadelphia Athletics .
= = Executive career = =
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
Toward the close of the 1911 season , McAleer announced his resignation as manager of the Senators . In 1912 , he became a major stockholder in the Boston Red Sox , purchasing a half @-@ interest in the team . That year , the Red Sox " cruised to the pennant with 105 victories " .
By the time the Red Sox entered the sixth game of the 1912 World Series , the team had secured a 3 – 1 lead over the New York Giants . ( The second game of the Series ended in a tie . ) Then , McAleer pressured the team 's manager , Jake Stahl , to hand the ball to unseasoned pitcher Buck O 'Brien for the " clincher " . McAleer 's recommendation was apparently part of a strategy to ensure that the seventh game of the Series would be played at Boston 's new Fenway Park . Although the Red Sox 's loss to the Giants ( at 5 – 2 ) guaranteed that the Series would conclude in Boston , the incident created conflict between McAleer and Stahl . Subsequent press releases suggesting that Stahl would replace McAleer as club president exacerbated these tensions .
In the seventh game of the Series , the Red Sox opened Fenway Park with a 7 – 6 victory over the Giants . The team suffered a public relations fiasco , however , when a Red Sox shareholder sold seats at the stadium that had been reserved for the club 's most ardent fans , the " Royal Rooters " . Finding themselves without seats , the Royal Rooters , led by Boston Mayor John " Honey Fitz " Fitzgerald , marched around the stadium in protest . A riot ensued , and in the aftermath of the disturbance , only 17 @,@ 000 Boston residents showed up for the final game . Nevertheless , the Red Sox emerged as victors , with a final score of 4 – 3 and one tied game .
Following the Series victory over the Giants , McAleer returned to his hometown to celebrate the event . A brass band met him at Youngstown 's train depot , and a parade and fireworks display were held in his honor . The Youngstown Daily Vindicator reported : " As the auto bearing Mr. McAleer turned into West Federal Street , hundreds of sticks of red fire were burning at Central Square , while the quiet atmosphere was occasionally punctured by the explosion of a bomb " . This was the last time he would publicly greet residents of his hometown as a figure in professional baseball .
= = = Downfall = = =
McAleer 's tenure as part @-@ owner of the Red Sox came to a swift end . On July 15 , 1913 , McAleer became involved in a dispute with the AL president , Ban Johnson , when McAleer forced the resignation of Red Sox manager Jake Stahl , one of Johnson 's closest friends . While McAleer claimed that he released Stahl because of a foot injury preventing Stahl from serving as a player @-@ manager , rumors suggested that the two men had strong personal differences . Following a bitter quarrel with Johnson , McAleer sold his holdings in the Red Sox . His feud with Johnson turned out to be a lifelong affair , despite efforts taken by their mutual friend , Charles Comiskey , to smooth over the rift . While McAleer never publicly discussed the disagreement that spurred his retirement , he supposedly relayed his version of events to Frank B. Ward , a sports reporter with The Youngstown Daily Vindicator , with the understanding that the details remain confidential until McAleer 's death .
Although other sources tell a different story , Ward wrote that McAleer termed his " break " with Johnson as the result of a " betrayal " of trust . McAleer indicated that his controlling interest in the Red Sox entitled him to make all major decisions regarding the organization , Ward wrote . This view of McAleer 's powers , however , was not shared by the club 's manager , Stahl , the article added . To further complicate matters , Stahl 's father @-@ in @-@ law , a Chicago @-@ based banker , was reportedly a shareholder in the Red Sox . After one particularly heated exchange between Stahl and McAleer at the close of the 1912 season , Stahl went to Chicago to confer with Johnson . The article indicated that , after this meeting , Johnson sent McAleer a " sternly worded " letter , which may have been designed to preserve his relationship with Stahl and Stahl 's father @-@ in @-@ law . According to the article , Johnson later confided to McAleer that he owed Stahl 's father @-@ in @-@ law money and therefore felt obliged to take Stahl 's side in the dispute . McAleer , however , took the admonition from Johnson as a betrayal of their friendship , refused to accept Johnson 's explanations , and promptly retired , Ward wrote . This version of events is largely corroborated by the early research of baseball historian David Fleitz .
Baseball historians Dewey and Acocella , however , described a markedly different scenario in which Johnson secretly sold off McAleer 's shares while McAleer was away on a 1913 world tour with Comiskey , New York Giants manager John McGraw , and members of the Red Sox team . According to this account , McAleer 's conflict with Stahl was followed up by his involvement in a feud between two pairs of players – Tris Speaker and Joe " Smoky Joe " Wood , on one side , and Heinie Wagner and Bill Carrigan , on the other . The conflict had a " religious dimension " and was described in the press as " pitting Masons against members of the Knights of Columbus " . McAleer evidently supported Wagner and Carrigan , the Catholic players in the dispute . These back @-@ to @-@ back incidents involving individuals associated with the Red Sox team " reinforced Johnson 's belief that the club president was the source of all the trouble " , Dewey and Acocella wrote . In his recent book , The Irish in Baseball , David Fleitz observed that McAleer 's abrupt dismissal was typical of Johnson , " who had a history of ending relationships when they no longer benefited him personally " .
= = Personal life = =
Relatively little is known about McAleer 's private life . Research suggests that he was married three times , with his first marriage ( to Hannah McAleer ) taking place in the early 20th century . At some point , he married the former Anna Durbin , a native of Trenton , New Jersey . The couple had no children . According to her obituary , Anna McAleer was her husband 's " constant companion " during his " active career as a baseball magnate " . When the couple settled in Youngstown in 1913 , she participated in charity work and joined the Altar and Rosary Society at St. Columba 's Church , where she attended religious services . In 1930 , Anna McAleer died suddenly at an apartment the couple shared on the north side of Youngstown . James McAleer , who discovered his wife 's body after returning from a walk , was " overcome " . McAleer had recently been released from a local hospital following an appendicectomy ; he was quickly readmitted following his wife 's death .
A few months later , McAleer married a Youngstown woman , Georgianna Rudge , a graduate of the Juilliard School of Music who was almost 23 years her husband 's junior . Ultimately , Georgianna McAleer survived her husband by more than five decades . By the time of James McAleer 's second marriage , his health was in decline . He was hospitalized within a few months of the wedding .
= = Final years = =
McAleer returned to Youngstown , where he spent his last years . Active in the community , McAleer served on the city 's original draft board , which had been authorized under Ohio Governor James M. Cox during World War I. In retirement , the former baseball manager maintained friendships with celebrities including George M. Cohan and King Alfonso XIII of Spain . McAleer became acquainted with the Spanish monarch during a European tour with the Red Sox in the winter of 1912 – 13 .
His final years were marked by poor health . Several weeks before his death , McAleer was admitted to a local hospital , where his health reportedly improved . This account , however , differs from that of baseball historian David Fleitz , who suggested that McAleer had been diagnosed with cancer in the early 1930s . In any event , McAleer died suddenly on April 29 , 1931 , shortly after being released from the hospital . He was 66 years old . After private funeral services at Orr 's funeral home , McAleer 's remains were interred at Oak Hill Cemetery , on Youngstown 's near south side . Apart from his widow , he left behind two brothers , J.C. McAleer of Austintown , Ohio , and Owen McAleer of Los Angeles . Other survivors included two nephews , Captain Charlies McAleer , an officer in the U.S. Army , and James McAleer of Los Angeles .
Rumors persist that McAleer 's death was the result of a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound to the head . While his name is included on some lists of Major League Baseball players who committed suicide , contemporary newspaper accounts indicated that McAleer died of natural causes .
New research by the baseball historian , David Fleitz , has provided a copy of McAleer 's death certificate where a " self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound " is listed as the cause of death .
= = Legacy = =
McAleer 's hometown newspaper , The Youngstown Daily Vindicator , eulogized the ex @-@ Major Leaguer in the following terms : " Forceful and resourceful , but always retiring when there was talk of his share in the development of baseball , James R. McAleer died within a matter of weeks after the passing of Byron Bancroft Johnson , his chief partner in the forming of the American League , and the man with whom he ' broke ' , which break brought about his retirement " .
The article praised McAleer for assisting the careers of other baseball figures . In 1905 , during his tenure as manager of the St. Louis Browns , McAleer helped future Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans secure a position with the American League , writing a personal letter to Johnson on Evans ' behalf . Meanwhile , McAleer served as a contact for another Youngstown resident , John " Bonesetter " Reese , the Welsh @-@ born " baseball doctor " who worked with players such as Cy Young , Ty Cobb , Rogers Hornsby , Walter Johnson , and John McGraw .
McAleer 's contributions to the game failed to win him a place in the Baseball Hall of Fame , however . In 1936 , during the first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame , he received just one vote in the balloting for 19th @-@ century figures . Nevertheless , McAleer received an unofficial endorsement from Hall of Fame second baseman Nap Lajoie , who described McAleer as " one of the best ever " . McAleer 's obituary in The New York Times suggested that he was " one of the fastest outfielders the major leagues ever produced " . In 2003 , Bill James described McAleer as " the best defensive outfielder of the 1890s " . More recently , baseball historian David Fleitz observed , " this brilliant defensive outfielder was a smart , clever , and ambitious man who helped to create two of the original eight franchises of the American League " .
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= Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 =
Gott ist mein König ( God is my King ) , BWV 71 , is a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach written in Mühlhausen when the composer was 23 years old . Unusually for an early cantata by Bach , the date of first performance is known : at the inauguration of a new town council on 4 February 1708 .
The text is compiled mainly from biblical sources , three different sections from Psalm 74 and several other verses . In addition , one stanza from Johann Heermann 's hymn " O Gott , du frommer Gott " is sung simultaneously with corresponding biblical text , and free poetry by an unknown poet of Bach 's time which relates to the political occasion . The cantata in seven movements is scored festively with a Baroque instrumental ensemble including trumpets and timpani , " four separate instrumental ' choirs ' , set against a vocal consort of four singers , an optional Capelle of ripienists and an organ " . Stylistically it shares features with Bach 's other early cantatas .
Bach , then organist in Mühlhausen 's church Divi Blasii , led the performance on 4 February 1708 in the town 's main church , the Marienkirche . Although the cantata was planned to be performed only twice , it was printed the same year , the first of his works to be printed and the only cantata extant in print that was printed in Bach 's lifetime .
= = History and words = =
From 1707 to 1708 , Bach was the organist at one of Mühlhausen 's principal churches , Divi Blasii , dedicated to St Blaise , where he composed some of his earliest surviving cantatas . One or two early cantatas , for example Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich , BWV 150 , may have been written at Arnstadt , his previous residence , for a performance at Mühlhausen . He composed Gott ist mein König for a church service that was held annually to celebrate the inauguration of a new town council .
The librettist is unknown ; it has been speculated that the text was written by Georg Christian Eilmar , minister of Marienkirche , who had earlier prompted the composition of Bach 's cantata Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 . It has also been thought that Bach himself may have assembled the text , although the suggestion is unlikely since Bach 's musical setting of the final part of the text departs from its bi @-@ strophic form . There is no evidence either way to indicate the authorship of the cantata 's text . Along with other early cantatas , Gott ist mein König is of a pre @-@ Neumeister character , not featuring the combination of recitative and arias found in later cantatas .
The service was held on 4 February 1708 in the Marienkirche , the town 's largest church . The score indicates that Bach deployed his musicians in different locations in the building . He composed another cantata for the occasion the following year , but it is lost .
= = = Theme = = =
The text centres on Psalm 74 , with additional material drawn from the 2 Samuel , Genesis , and Deuteronomy . Unusual for Bach 's early cantatas , some contemporary unknown poet added free text that makes reference to the " new regiment " of office bearers and the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany , Joseph I , as Mühlhausen was an Imperial free city , thus subject immediately to the emperor .
There are three quotations from Psalm 74 ( Psalms 74 ) :
Verse 12 : " Gott ist mein König von Alters her , der alle Hülffe thut , so auf Erden geschicht . " ( " God is my Sovereign since ancient days , who all salvation brings which on earth may be found . " – ASV version : " Yet God is my King of old , Working salvation in the midst of the earth . " )
Verses 16 – 17 : " Tag und Nacht ist dein . Du machest , daß beyde Sonn und Gestirn ihren gewissen Lauf haben . Du setzest einem jeglichen Lande seine Gräntze . " ( " Day and night are Yours . You have seen to it that both sun and planets have their certain courses . You set borders to every land . " – ASV : " The day is thine , the night also is thine : Thou hast prepared the light and the sun . Thou hast set all the borders of the earth . " )
Verse 19 : " Du wollest dem Feinde nicht geben die Seele deiner Turteltauben . " ( " You would not give the soul of Your turtledove to the enemy . " – ASV : " Oh deliver not the soul of thy turtle @-@ dove unto the wild beast . " )
It has been suggested that these themes include a number of distinct allusions of relevance to the inhabitants of Mühlhausen . First , the reference to Psalm 74 in general , and the inclusion of verse 19 in the cantata may be making an oblique reference , accessible to contemporary audiences , to the fire of May 1707 which had destroyed parts of the city . The importance of " borders " may be an allusion to the threat to the city 's independence posed by the military campaigns of Charles XII .
Movement 2 combines three texts , two biblical verses and stanza 6 from Johann Heermann 's hymn " O Gott , du frommer Gott " , which all make reference to old age . An older view suggested this was likely a reference to the septuagenarian Conrad Meckbach , a member of the city council who was connected to Bach . More recent research lead to thinking that it likely refers to Adolf Strecker , the former mayor who had just left office aged 83 years , since " details of his public and private life match extremely well with the texts chosen for the cantata , and it seems likely that hearers would have recognized Strecker in them " .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements . He scored the vocal parts for four soloists : soprano , alto , tenor and bass . The choral writing is in four parts , and the work can be sung with just four singers , the so @-@ called OVPP approach . Some performances deploy more singers in the choral sections . The use of a larger choir is partly a question of balance with the relatively large instrumental forces , but there is also supporting evidence for the use of more than four singers in the score , where a marking implies that Bach envisaged the option of a vocal ensemble that is separate from the four soloists .
This was Bach 's first cantata for festive orchestra , including trumpets and timpani . The instruments are divided into four spatially separated " choirs " , placing the work in the polychoral tradition associated with composers such as Heinrich Schütz . The instruments required for the Baroque instrumental ensemble are three trumpets ( Tr ) , timpani ( Ti ) , two recorders ( Fl ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , organ obbligato ( Org ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , viola da gamba ( Vg ) and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
With short movements that flow into each other , the cantata shows typical characteristics of traditional 17th @-@ century cantatas . Unlike other early cantatas , it has no instrumental introduction . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 and performed this cantata in the Mühlhausen church where Bach was organist , notes :
No other work of his is laid out on such a grand scale in terms of its deployment of four separate instrumental ' choirs ' , set against a vocal consort of four singers , an optional Capelle of ripienists and an organ .
A model for such " theatrical splendour " were oratorios by Dieterich Buxtehude , performed in Bach 's presence at the Lübeck in 1705 .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus , Gott ist mein König von altersher ( God is my King from long ago ) , is based on Psalm 74 : 12 . It begins with a chord in C major from the instruments . The first line is repeated separationg sections and as a summary at the end , accompanied always by a trumpet fanfare .
= = = 2 = = =
An aria for tenor , Ich bin nun achtzig Jahr , warum soll dein Knecht sich mehr beschweren ? ( I am now eighty years old , why shall Your servant burden himself any more ? ) is complimented by a hymn , sung simultaneously by the soprano , Soll ich auf dieser Welt mein Leben höher bringen ( Should I upon this earth carry my life farther ) . All texts deal with old age . The section begins with the image of a descending continuo line . The tenor melody expresses sadness about the condition of old age . The chorale tune , sung with embellishments is not the most usual one for the hymn , possibly chosen to match the theme .
= = = 3 = = =
Another choral movement , Dein Alter sei wie deine Jugend , und Gott ist mit dir in allem , das du tust ( May your old age be like your youth , and God is with you in everything that you do ) sets more biblical passages , assuring that God is with people both old and young . It is set as a permutation fuge .
= = = 4 = = =
A bass arioso sets two more verses from the psalm , Tag und Nacht ist dein ( Day and night are Yours ) . In ternary form , the outer sections are a sarabande , dealing with day and night , while the middle section describes light and sun , with joyful motif in the continuo and word @-@ painting in the voice .
= = = 5 = = =
An alto aria , Durch mächtige Kraft erhältst du unsre Grenzen ( Through powerful strength You maintain our borders ) is based on contemporary poetry . Set in C major with the trumpets and timpani as the only obbligato instruments , it is in two sections : the first in triple time marked Vivace corresponds to God 's power and glory , while the second in common time is a prayer for peace on Earth .
= = = 6 = = =
Another psalm verse is again set as a chorus , Du wollest dem Feinde nicht geben die Seele deiner Turteltauben ( You would not give the soul of Your turtledove to the enemy ) . The voices are set in homophony on a cello in ondulating motion . Gardiner notes that it is very personal setting , " is a movement of extraordinary reticence , delicacy and the utmost tonal subtlety " . He notes an upward semitone as a feature to express both yearningand the sound of the turtledove . The instruments are grouped to achieve in subtle colour : recorders and cello , reeds , and strings .
= = = 7 = = =
The last chorus Das neue Regiment ( The new regime ) expresses wishes for peace and well @-@ being under the new council .
= = Importance = =
Gott ist mein König is a significant early work of Bach . It differs from the other extant cantatas from Bach 's time in Mühlhausen by its elaborate instrumentation . It was so positively received that it was the first of Bach 's works to be printed ( paid for by the city council ) ; it is the only cantata to have been printed in his lifetime , at least in a version which has survived to this day . The printing is all the more remarkable as Gott ist mein König appears to have been intended for not more than one repeat performance , and a new piece was commissioned the following year . Bach was commissioned to compose another cantata for the following year 's council inauguration ; there is evidence that the piece was composed and even printed , but no copies are known to survive .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; green background indicates vocalists with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances .
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= Ashley Smith inquest =
The Ashley Smith inquest was an Ontario coroner 's inquest into the death of Ashley Smith , a teenager who died by self @-@ inflicted strangulation on 19 October 2007 while under suicide watch in custody at the Grand Valley Institution for Women . Despite guards watching her on video monitors , Smith was able to strangle herself with a strip of cloth , and it was 45 minutes before guards or supervisors entered her cell and confirmed her death . The warden and deputy warden were fired after the incident ; although the four guards and supervisors in immediate contact with Smith were initially charged with negligent homicide , those charges were withdrawn a year later . Smith 's family brought a lawsuit against the Correctional Service of Canada ( CSC ) for negligence ; this lawsuit was settled out of court in May 2011 .
The CBC documentary news program The Fifth Estate produced two separate episodes on the life and death of Ashley Smith . The documentaries describe the circumstances leading up to her death , as well as some disagreement inside the Correctional Service of Canada . The Fifth Estate claims " Corrections Canada filed an unprecedented publication ban on all exhibits presented at the coroner 's inquest into her death . "
The inquest was frequently interrupted by multiple legal challenges and a change of coroner , before finally being terminated as a mistrial on 30 September 2011 ; a new inquest into Smith 's death began on 19 September 2012 . On 2 December 2013 , the presiding coroner instructed the jury to begin their deliberations with respect to a verdict on Smith 's death .
On 19 December 2013 , the coroner 's jury returned a verdict of homicide in the case of Ashley Smith , and provided dozens of recommendations to the presiding judge .
= = Early life = =
Ashley Smith ( born 29 January 1988 , New Brunswick , Canada ) was adopted when she was 5 days old , and according to her adoptive parents , Coralee Smith and Herbert Gober , had a normal childhood in Moncton , New Brunswick . Between the ages of 13 @-@ 14 , her parents noted distinct behavioural changes in the child ; by age 15 she had been before juvenile court 14 times for various minor offences such as throwing crabapples at a mailman , trespassing , and causing a disturbance . In March 2002 , Smith was assessed by a psychologist who found no evidence of mental illness . However , her behavioural problems continued and she was suspended from school multiple times in the fall of 2002 . In March 2003 , after multiple court appearances , Smith was admitted to the Pierre Caissie Centre for assessment . She was diagnosed with ADHD , learning disorder , borderline personality disorder and narcissistic personality traits . She was discharged several days early from the Centre for unruly and disruptive behaviour and returned to the New Brunswick Youth Centre ( NBYC ) . Smith was remanded to the NBYC multiple times over the next 3 years ; during this time she was involved in more than 800 reported incidents and at least 150 attempts to physically harm herself .
On 29 January 2006 , Ashley Smith turned 18 ; on 29 July a motion was made under the Youth Criminal Justice Act to transfer her to an adult facility . Smith hired a lawyer to fight the transfer , but was unsuccessful . On 5 October 2006 , Smith was transferred to the Saint John Regional Correctional Centre ( SJRCC ) . Due to her behaviour at SJRCC , Smith spent most of her time there in segregation ; she was tasered twice and pepper @-@ sprayed once . On 31 October 2006 , Smith was transferred to the Nova Institution for Women in Nova Scotia ( a federal institution ) . Through 2007 , Smith was transferred a total of 17 times among the following 8 institutions during 11 months in federal custody :
Nova Institution for Women , Truro , Nova Scotia
Joliette Institution , Joliette , Quebec
Regional Psychiatric Centre , Prairies , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan
L 'Institut Philippe @-@ Pinel de Montréal , Montreal , Quebec
Grand Valley Institution for Women , Kitchener , Ontario
Grand River Hospital , Kitchener , Ontario
Regional Mental Health Care St. Thomas , St. Thomas , Ontario
Central Nova Correctional Facility , Dartmouth , Nova Scotia
= = Death = =
While at Grand Valley Institution for Women in Kitchener , Ontario , on 16 October 2007 , Smith requested to be transferred to a psychiatric facility ; she was placed on a formal suicide watch on 18 October . In the early hours of 19 October , Smith was videotaped placing a ligature around her neck , an act of self @-@ harm she had committed several times before . Guards did not enter her cell to intervene , and 45 minutes passed before she was examined and pronounced dead .
On 25 October 2007 , three guards and a supervisor at the Grand Valley Institution for Women were charged with criminal negligence causing death in relation to Smith 's suicide ; the warden and deputy warden were fired . The criminal charges were later dropped . On 8 October 2009 , Smith 's family launched a wrongful death lawsuit against the Correctional Service of Canada , demanding C $ 11 million in damages ; the suit was eventually settled out of court in May 2011 for an undisclosed amount .
= = Documentaries by The Fifth Estate = =
= = = Out of Control = = =
On 8 January 2010 , CBC News Network 's The Fifth Estate broadcast a documentary about the case titled Out of Control . In the documentary , reporter Hana Gartner describes Smith as a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old placed in a youth facility for one month in 2003 after throwing crabapples at the mailman . Smith was placed in solitary confinement after disruptive behaviour on her first day . Her initial one @-@ month sentence would last almost four years , entirely in isolation , until her death in 2007 . Often violent and unpredictable , her behaviours and the force required to intervene were always filmed and recorded , then listed on daily logs . Behaviour that Smith exhibited included many attempts at choking herself into unconsciousness ; guards responding were often attacked by Smith , sometimes with weapons she had manufactured and concealed .
The frequent " use of force " reports required to document responses became a source of concern for facility officials . According to an internal document obtained and partially read aloud by Gartner , eventually Corrections Canada administrators instructed guards and supervisors not to respond to self @-@ strangling attempts by Smith , " to ignore her , even if she was choking herself " . CSC officials kept transferring her to other facilities , preventing the implementation of a Canadian law requiring mandatory review of prisoners kept in isolation for more than sixty days .
After Smith 's death , and the firing of both wardens and four directly involved officers , the four officers were charged with negligent homicide . The spokesman for the union for the four guards alleged the guards were " scapegoated " by senior management : " There was daily direction given right from the highest levels of management all the way to the front line staff , and we 're not talking once or twice , we 're talking everyday , repeatedly , ' you are not to go in the cell ; this is your orders ' [ sic ] " . The union 's spokesman relayed his organization 's stance that the guards ' prosecution was part of a cover @-@ up by those in CSC management .
At the conclusion of the documentary , Smith 's mother raised the question of responsibility : " Who gave that order , Hana ? ... Who gave the order to keep that child , we 're talking about a child in the youth centre , segregated that length of time ? Who gave the order ' don 't intervene ' if she 's still breathing ? " The four guards saw the charges against them dropped and were reinstated to their positions ; they declined to talk to The Fifth Estate . The Corrections Service of Canada viewed the case as closed , and while the current minister did talk to Hana Gartner , CSC refused any interviews with the reporter , while a lawsuit was pending .
= = = Behind the Wall = = =
A second documentary titled Behind the Wall was first broadcast on 12 November 2010 , and looks at the case of another similar detainee , while probing more closely at a four @-@ month period in Ashley Smith 's detention while at the Regional Psychiatric Centre , Prairies , Saskatoon . The program also depicts the two @-@ year conflict between The Fifth Estate and CSC to broadcast more footage of the last days of Ashley Smith .
= = Inquests = =
= = = 2011 inquest = = =
The first coroner 's inquest into Smith 's suicide began in May 2011 . The inquest , initially led by deputy chief coroner Dr. Bonita Porter , was controversial ; it was originally scheduled to begin in November 2010 , but was delayed by a legal challenge by the Smith family . As a result of this challenge , the scope of the inquest was broadened to cover the entire 11 @-@ month period of Smith 's incarceration under the federal Correctional Service . Further , a panel of judges with the Ontario Divisional Court ruled in May 2011 that Dr. Porter should not have excluded video evidence of Smith 's forced sedation at the Joliette Institution in Quebec . On 21 June 2011 , the proceedings of the inquest were suspended until 12 September ; the reason for the delay was apparently to allow the proceedings to be webcast . In late June 2011 , Dr. Porter was replaced as the presiding coroner , apparently due to her impending retirement in November 2011 ; the replacement presiding coroner was Dr. John R. Carlisle . The sudden and unexpected replacement led Smith 's family to formally accuse the chief coroner of interfering in the inquest with no legal basis ; Dr. Porter had apparently indicated that she would deliver three outstanding rulings in July , days before the announcement of her replacement . The inquest resumed briefly on 12 September , only to be suspended once again until 19 September , when the Smith family lawyer challenged the right of the new coroner to continue the inquest , and called for a mistrial . On 30 September 2011 , the Ontario Coroner 's Office formally terminated the inquest and dismissed the jury .
= = = 2012 inquest = = =
A second inquest began on 20 September 2012 , opening with a hearing for those who wished to apply for standing at the proceedings . Dr. John Carlisle continued as presiding coroner , and in a lengthy ruling released on 25 September 2012 , granted standing at the inquest to Smith 's family , prison authorities , inmate advocacy groups , and a group of current and former mental @-@ health patients known as the Empowerment Council . Dr. Carlisle further widened the scope of the inquest to include the effects of long @-@ term solitary confinement , repeated transfers between institutions across the country , the role of mental health care and the management of Smith as an inmate by prison authorities , and all youth @-@ custody issues arising from Smith 's death .
Motion hearings for the inquest took place on 23 – 24 October 2012 . Lawyers for the Correctional Service of Canada filed a motion to seal video materials and documents related to Smith 's forced restraint and sedation while incarcerated in the Quebec prison facility ; when the motion was denied by the presiding coroner , the government lawyers requested a temporary injunction to stay the inquest proceedings through Ontario Divisional Court . This motion was also denied and the video and documentary material were made available to the inquest , which subsequently proceeded as planned .
Additionally , three doctors involved in Smith 's treatment during her incarceration challenged the expansion of the inquest to include events that took place outside the province of Ontario . Presiding Coroner Dr. Carlisle dismissed this motion at the same time as that of the Correctional Service of Canada motion , but subsequently granted the out @-@ of @-@ province doctors standing at the inquest when they agreed to testify voluntarily at the inquest proceedings .
Formal hearings for the inquest began on 13 January 2013 , and were expected to last between 6 months and a year . The jury of five women were expected to be presented with over 100 witnesses and 8000 documents in the course of the inquest .
On 22 January 2013 , the jurors were shown prison guard Valentino Burnett 's 45 @-@ minute video of Smith tying her neck , asphyxiating , and the guards discovery and response . When questioned about their response , Valentino admitted that " in a perfect world " , the guards would have intervened to save Smith .
On 2 December 2013 , after more than a year of testimony and over 12 @,@ 000 pages of evidence , the presiding coroner instructed the jury to begin their deliberations , and requested they come back with a verdict in Smith 's death and recommendations on means to prevent a recurrence of such an event .
On 19 December 2013 , the coroner 's jury returned a verdict of homicide in the Ashley Smith case , indicating the actions of others contributed to her death but stopping short of a finding of criminal or civil liability . The jury additionally provided 104 recommendations to the presiding coroner , most of which were intended to suggest ways in which the Canadian Correctional System could better serve female inmates and inmates suffering from mental illness . The jury specifically recommended that indefinite solitary confinement should be banned .
= = Political impact = =
In November 2012 , the Ashley Smith case began to have a visible impact on Canadian federal politics . After the public release of video material depicting Smith 's treatment while incarcerated , interim leader of the federal Liberal Party Bob Rae raised the matter in Parliament during Question Period , asking why the government was attempting to restrict the scope of the inquiry through the Corrections Canada legal challenge . Prime Minister Stephen Harper responded that the government would not interfere with the inquest , and Public Safety Minister Vic Toews later indicated that Corrections Canada officials had been directed to cooperate with the inquest . However , Toews later appeared to contradict the official government stance and drew significant criticism from the opposition Liberal and NDP Members of Parliament when he suggested that Smith was " not the victim " in the case . On 8 November , Rae called for a formal public inquiry into Smith 's treatment while incarcerated , and additionally into the treatment of mentally ill offenders by the Canadian prison system , after concluding publicly that the government would not release all the information it held relating to the Smith case .
Subsequent to the release of the inquest verdict on 19 December 2013 , the current Minister of Public Safety , Steven Blaney , stated that he had asked his officials to carefully review the jury 's recommendations .
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= 1918 flu pandemic =
The 1918 flu pandemic ( January 1918 – December 1920 ) was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic , the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus . It infected 500 million people across the world , including remote Pacific islands and the Arctic , and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million ( three to five percent of the world 's population ) , making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history .
Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early twentieth century . A considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic , specifically the year 1918 . Life expectancy dropped by about 12 years .
Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile , elderly , or already weakened patients ; in contrast , the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults . Modern research , using virus taken from the bodies of frozen victims , has concluded that the virus kills through a cytokine storm ( overreaction of the body 's immune system ) . The strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body , whereas the weaker immune systems of children and middle @-@ aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups .
Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the pandemic 's geographic origin . It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s .
To maintain morale , wartime censors minimized early reports of illness and mortality in Germany , Britain , France , and the United States ; but papers were free to report the epidemic 's effects in neutral Spain ( such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII ) , creating a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit — thus the pandemic 's nickname Spanish flu . In Spain , a different nickname was adopted , the Naples Soldier ( Soldado de Nápoles ) , which came from a musical operetta ( zarzuela ) titled La canción del olvido ( The Song of Forgetting ) , which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave . Federico Romero , one of the librettists , quipped that the play 's most popular musical number , Naples Soldier , was as catchy as the flu .
= = History = =
= = = Hypotheses about source = = =
Investigative work by a British team led by virologist John Oxford of St Bartholomew 's Hospital and the Royal London Hospital identified a major troop staging and hospital camp in Étaples , France , as almost certainly being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic . A significant precursor virus , harbored in birds , mutated to pigs that were kept near the front .
Earlier hypotheses of the epidemic 's origin have varied . Some hypothesized the flu originated in East Asia . Dr. C. Hannoun , leading expert of the 1918 flu for the Institut Pasteur , asserted the former virus was likely to have come from China , mutating in the United States near Boston and spreading to Brest , France , Europe 's battlefields , Europe , and the world using Allied soldiers and sailors as main spreaders . He considered several other hypotheses of origin , such as Spain , Kansas , and Brest , as being possible , but not likely . Historian Alfred W. Crosby speculated the flu originated in Kansas . Popular writer John Barry echoed Crosby in describing Haskell County , Kansas , as the likely point of origin .
Political scientist Andrew Price @-@ Smith published data from the Austrian archives suggesting the influenza had earlier origins , beginning in Austria in the spring of 1917 .
Historian Mark Humphries of Canada 's Memorial University of Newfoundland states that newly unearthed records confirm that one of the side stories of the war , the mobilization of 96 @,@ 000 Chinese laborers to work behind the British and French lines on World War I 's western front , may have been the source of the pandemic . In the new report , Humphries finds archival evidence that a respiratory illness that struck northern China in November 1917 was identified a year later by Chinese health officials as identical to the Spanish flu .
A scientific investigation published in 2016 found no evidence that the 1918 virus was imported to Europe from Chinese and Southeast Asian soldiers and workers . In fact , there is evidence that the virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and potentially years before the 1918 pandemic .
= = = Spread = = =
When an infected person sneezes or coughs more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by . The close quarters and massive troop movements of World War I hastened the pandemic and probably both increased transmission and augmented mutation ; the war may also have increased the lethality of the virus . Some speculate the soldiers ' immune systems were weakened by malnourishment , as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks , increasing their susceptibility .
A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of this flu was increased travel . Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers , sailors , and civilian travelers to spread the disease .
In the United States , the disease was first observed in Haskell County , Kansas , in January 1918 , prompting local doctor Loring Miner to warn the U.S. Public Health Service 's academic journal . On 4 March 1918 , company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley , Kansas . By noon on 11 March 1918 , over 100 soldiers were in the hospital . Within days , 522 men at the camp had reported sick . By 11 March 1918 the virus had reached Queens , New York . Failure to take preventative measures in March / April was later criticised .
In August 1918 , a more virulent strain appeared simultaneously in Brest , France ; in Freetown , Sierra Leone ; and in the U.S. in Boston , Massachusetts . The Allies of World War I came to call it the Spanish flu , primarily because the pandemic received greater press attention after it moved from France to Spain in November 1918 . Spain was not involved in the war and had not imposed wartime censorship .
= = Mortality = =
= = = Around the globe = = =
The global mortality rate from the 1918 / 1919 pandemic is not known , but an estimated 10 % to 20 % of those who were infected died . With about a third of the world population infected , this case @-@ fatality ratio means 3 % to 6 % of the entire global population died . Influenza may have killed as many as 25 million people in its first 25 weeks . Older estimates say it killed 40 – 50 million people , while current estimates say 50 @-@ 100 million people worldwide were killed .
This pandemic has been described as " the greatest medical holocaust in history " and may have killed more people than the Black Death . It is said that this flu killed more people in 24 weeks than AIDS has killed in 24 years , more in a year than the Black Death killed in a century .
The disease killed in every corner of the globe . As many as 17 million died in India , about 5 % of the population . The death toll in India 's British @-@ ruled districts alone was 13 @.@ 88 million .
In Japan , of the 23 million people who were affected , 390 @,@ 000 died . In the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , 1 @.@ 5 million were assumed to have died among 30 million inhabitants . In Tahiti 13 % of the population died during only a month . Similarly , in Samoa 22 % of the population of 38 @,@ 000 died within two months .
In the U.S. about 28 % of the population suffered , and 500 @,@ 000 to 675 @,@ 000 died . Native American tribes were particularly hard hit . In the Four Corners area alone , 3 @,@ 293 deaths were registered among Native Americans . Entire village communities perished in Alaska . In Canada 50 @,@ 000 died . In Brazil 300 @,@ 000 died , including president Rodrigues Alves . In Britain , as many as 250 @,@ 000 died ; in France , more than 400 @,@ 000 . In West Africa an influenza epidemic killed at least 100 @,@ 000 people in Ghana . Tafari Makonnen ( the future Haile Selassie , Emperor of Ethiopia ) was one of the first Ethiopians who contracted influenza but survived , although many of his family 's subjects did not ; estimates for the fatalities in the capital city , Addis Ababa , range from 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 , or higher . In British Somaliland one official estimated that 7 % of the native population died .
This huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50 % and the extreme severity of the symptoms , suspected to be caused by cytokine storms . Symptoms in 1918 were so unusual that initially influenza was misdiagnosed as dengue , cholera , or typhoid . One observer wrote , " One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes , especially from the nose , stomach , and intestine . Bleeding from the ears and petechial hemorrhages in the skin also occurred " . The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia , a secondary infection caused by influenza , but the virus also killed people directly , by causing massive hemorrhages and edema in the lung .
The unusually severe disease killed up to 20 % of those infected , as opposed to the usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0 @.@ 1 % .
= = = Patterns of fatality = = =
An unusual feature of this pandemic was that it mostly killed young adults . In 1918 – 1919 , 99 % of pandemic influenza deaths in the US occurred in people under 65 , and nearly half in young adults 20 to 40 years old . In 1920 the mortality rate among people under 65 had decreased six @-@ fold to half the mortality rate of people over 65 , but still 92 % of deaths occurred in people under 65 . This is noteworthy , since influenza is normally most deadly to weak individuals , such as infants ( under age two ) , the very old ( over age 70 ) , and the immunocompromised . In 1918 , older adults may have had partial protection caused by exposure to the 1889 – 1890 flu pandemic , known as the Russian flu . According to historian John M. Barry , the most vulnerable of all – " those most likely , of the most likely " , to die – were pregnant women . He reported that in thirteen studies of hospitalized women in the pandemic , the death rate ranged from 23 % to 71 % . Of the pregnant women who survived childbirth , over one @-@ quarter ( 26 % ) lost the child .
Another oddity was that the outbreak was widespread in the summer and autumn ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) ; influenza is usually worse in winter .
Modern analysis has shown the virus to be particularly deadly because it triggers a cytokine storm , which ravages the stronger immune system of young adults .
In fast @-@ progressing cases , mortality was primarily from pneumonia , by virus @-@ induced pulmonary consolidation . Slower @-@ progressing cases featured secondary bacterial pneumonias , and there may have been neural involvement that led to mental disorders in some cases . Some deaths resulted from malnourishment .
A study conducted by He et al. used a mechanistic modelling approach to study the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic . They tried to study the factors that underlie variability in temporal patterns , and the patterns of mortality and morbidity . Their analysis suggests that temporal variations in transmission rate provide the best explanation and the variation in transmission required to generate these three waves is within biologically plausible values .
Another study by He et al. used a simple epidemic model , to incorporate three factors including : school opening and closing , temperature changes over the course of the outbreak , and human behavioral changes in response to the outbreak to infer the cause of the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic . Their modelling results showed that all three factors are important but human behavioral responses showed the largest effects .
= = = Deadly second wave = = =
The second wave of the 1918 pandemic was much deadlier than the first . The first wave had resembled typical flu epidemics ; those most at risk were the sick and elderly , while younger , healthier people recovered easily . But in August , when the second wave began in France , Sierra Leone and the United States , the virus had mutated to a much deadlier form .
This increased severity has been attributed to the circumstances of the First World War . In civilian life , natural selection favours a mild strain . Those who get very ill stay home , and those mildly ill continue with their lives , preferentially spreading the mild strain . In the trenches , natural selection was reversed . Soldiers with a mild strain stayed where they were , while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals , spreading the deadlier virus . The second wave began and the flu quickly spread around the world again . Consequently , during modern pandemics health officials pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval ( looking for deadlier strains of the virus ) .
The fact that most of those who recovered from first @-@ wave infections were now immune showed that it must have been the same strain of flu . This was most dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen , which escaped with a combined mortality rate of just 0 @.@ 29 % ( 0 @.@ 02 % in the first wave and 0 @.@ 27 % in the second wave ) because of exposure to the less @-@ lethal first wave . On the rest of the population it was far more deadly now ; the most vulnerable people were those like the soldiers in the trenches – young previously healthy adults .
= = = Devastated communities = = =
Even in areas where mortality was low , so many were incapacitated that much of everyday life was hampered . Some communities closed all stores or required customers to leave orders outside . There were reports that the health @-@ care workers could not tend the sick nor the gravediggers bury the dead because they too were ill . Mass graves were dug by steam shovel and bodies buried without coffins in many places .
Several Pacific island territories were particularly hard @-@ hit . The pandemic reached them from New Zealand , which was too slow to implement measures to prevent ships carrying the flu from leaving its ports . From New Zealand , the flu reached Tonga ( killing 8 % of the population ) , Nauru ( 16 % ) and Fiji ( 5 % , 9 @,@ 000 people ) .
Worst affected was German Samoa , today the independent state of Samoa , which had been occupied by New Zealand in 1914 . A crippling 90 % of the population was infected ; 30 % of adult men , 22 % of adult women and 10 % of children died . By contrast , the flu was kept away from American Samoa when Governor John Martin Poyer imposed a blockade . In New Zealand itself , 8 @,@ 573 deaths were attributed to the 1918 pandemic influenza , resulting in a total population fatality rate of 0 @.@ 74 % .
= = = Less @-@ affected areas = = =
In Japan , 257 @,@ 363 deaths were attributed to influenza by July 1919 , giving an estimated 0 @.@ 425 % mortality rate , much lower than nearly all other Asian countries for which data are available . The Japanese government severely restricted maritime travel to and from the home islands when the pandemic struck .
In the Pacific , American Samoa and the French colony of New Caledonia also succeeded in preventing even a single death from influenza through effective quarantines . In Australia , nearly 12 @,@ 000 perished .
By the end of the pandemic , only one major region on Earth had not reported an outbreak : the isolated island of Marajó , in Brazil 's Amazon River Delta .
= = = Aspirin poisoning = = =
In a 2009 paper published in the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases , Karen Starko proposed that aspirin poisoning had contributed substantially to the fatalities . She based this on the reported symptoms in those dying from the flu , as reported in the post mortem reports still available , and also the timing of the big " death spike " in October 1918 which happened right after the Surgeon General of the United States Army , and the Journal of the American Medical Association both recommended very large doses of 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 31 @.@ 2 g of aspirin per day . Starko also suggests that the wave of aspirin poisonings was due to a " perfect storm " of events : Bayer 's patent on aspirin expired , so that many companies rushed in to make a profit and greatly increased the supply ; this coincided with the flu pandemic ; and the symptoms of aspirin poisoning were not known at the time .
As an explanation for the universally high mortality rate , this hypothesis was questioned in a letter to the journal published in April 2010 by Andrew Noymer and Daisy Carreon of the University of California , Irvine , and Niall Johnson of the Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care . They questioned this universal applicability given the high mortality rate in countries such as India , where there was little or no access to aspirin at the time . They concluded that " the salicylate [ aspirin ] poisoning hypothesis [ was ] difficult to sustain as the primary explanation for the unusual virulence of the 1918 – 1919 influenza pandemic " .
But they overlooked that inexpensive aspirin had become available in India and other places after October 1918 , when the Bayer patent expired . In responding , Starko pointed to anecdotal evidence of aspirin over @-@ prescription in India and argued that even if aspirin over @-@ prescription had not contributed to the high Indian mortality rate , it could still have been a major factor for other high rates in areas where other exacerbating factors present in India played less of a role .
= = = End of the pandemic = = =
After the lethal second wave struck in late 1918 , new cases dropped abruptly – almost to nothing after the peak in the second wave . In Philadelphia , for example , 4 @,@ 597 people died in the week ending 16 October , but by 11 November , influenza had almost disappeared from the city . One explanation for the rapid decline of the lethality of the disease is that doctors simply got better at preventing and treating the pneumonia that developed after the victims had contracted the virus , although John Barry stated in his book that researchers have found no evidence to support this .
Another theory holds that the 1918 virus mutated extremely rapidly to a less lethal strain . This is a common occurrence with influenza viruses : there is a tendency for pathogenic viruses to become less lethal with time , as the hosts of more dangerous strains tend to die out .
= = Legacy = =
Academic Andrew Price @-@ Smith has made the argument that the virus helped tip the balance of power in the later days of the war towards the Allied cause . He provides data that the viral waves hit the Central Powers before they hit the Allied powers , and that both morbidity and mortality in Germany and Austria were considerably higher than in Britain and France .
In the United States , Britain and other countries , despite the relatively high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic in 1918 – 1919 , the Spanish flu began to fade from public awareness over the decades until the arrival of news about bird flu and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s . This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a " forgotten pandemic " .
Various theories of why the Spanish flu was " forgotten " include the rapid pace of the pandemic , which killed most of its victims in the United States , for example , within a period of less than nine months , resulting in limited media coverage . The general population was familiar with patterns of pandemic disease in the late 19th and early 20th centuries : typhoid , yellow fever , diphtheria , and cholera all occurred near the same time . These outbreaks probably lessened the significance of the influenza pandemic for the public . In some areas , the flu was not reported on , the only mention being that of advertisements for medicines claiming to cure it .
In addition , the outbreak coincided with the deaths and media focus on the First World War . Another explanation involves the age group affected by the disease . The majority of fatalities , from both the war and the epidemic , were among young adults . The deaths caused by the flu may have been overlooked due to the large numbers of deaths of young men in the war or as a result of injuries . When people read the obituaries , they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side . Particularly in Europe , where the war 's toll was extremely high , the flu may not have had a great , separate , psychological impact , or may have seemed a mere extension of the war 's tragedies .
The duration of the pandemic and the war could have also played a role . The disease would usually only affect a certain area for a month before leaving , while the war , which most had initially expected to end quickly , had lasted for four years by the time the pandemic struck . This left little time for the disease to have a significant impact on the economy .
One final issue that the 1918 Spanish flu outbreak had on the world was the effects on the global economy . Many businesses in the entertainment and service industries suffered losses in revenue , but the health care industry reported profit gains .
Historian Nancy Bristow has argued that the pandemic , when combined with the increasing number of women attending college , contributed to the success of women in the field of nursing . This was due in part to the failure of medical doctors , who were predominantly men , to contain and prevent the illness . Nursing staff , who were predominantly women , felt more inclined to celebrate the success of their patient care and less inclined to identify the spread of the disease with their own work .
In Spain , sources from the period explicitly linked the Spanish flu to the cultural figure of Don Juan . The nickname for the flu , the " Naples Soldier , " was adopted from Federico Romero and Guillermo Fernández Shaw 's operetta , The Song of Forgetting ( La canción del olvido ) , the protagonist of which is a stock Don Juan type . Davis has argued the Spanish flu @-@ Don Juan connection served a cognitive function , allowing Spaniards to make sense of their epidemic experience by interpreting it through a familiar template — the Don Juan story .
= = Spanish flu research = =
The origin of the Spanish flu pandemic , and the relationship between the near @-@ simultaneous outbreaks in humans and swine , have been controversial . One hypothesis is that the virus strain originated at Fort Riley , Kansas , in viruses in poultry and swine which the fort bred for food ; the soldiers were then sent from Fort Riley around the world , where they spread the disease . Similarities between a reconstruction of the virus and avian viruses , combined with the human pandemic preceding the first reports of influenza in swine , led researchers to conclude the influenza virus jumped directly from birds to humans , and swine caught the disease from humans .
Others have disagreed , and more recent research has suggested the strain may have originated in a nonhuman , mammalian species . An estimated date for its appearance in mammalian hosts has been put at the period 1882 – 1913 . This ancestor virus diverged about 1913 – 1915 into two clades ( or biological groups ) , which gave rise to the classical swine and human H1N1 influenza lineages . The last common ancestor of human strains dates to between February 1917 and April 1918 . Because pigs are more readily infected with avian influenza viruses than are humans , they were suggested as the original recipients of the virus , passing the virus to humans sometime between 1913 and 1918 .
An effort to recreate the 1918 flu strain ( a subtype of avian strain H1N1 ) was a collaboration among the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology , Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory and Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City . The effort resulted in the announcement ( on 5 October 2005 ) that the group had successfully determined the virus 's genetic sequence , using historic tissue samples recovered by pathologist Johan Hultin from a female flu victim buried in the Alaskan permafrost and samples preserved from American soldiers .
On 18 January 2007 , Kobasa & et al . ( 2007 ) reported that monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis ) infected with the recreated strain exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic , and died from a cytokine storm — an overreaction of the immune system . This may explain why the 1918 flu had its surprising effect on younger , healthier people , as a person with a stronger immune system would potentially have a stronger overreaction .
On 16 September 2008 , the body of British politician and diplomat Sir Mark Sykes was exhumed to study the RNA of the flu virus in efforts to understand the genetic structure of modern H5N1 bird flu . Sykes had been buried in 1919 in a lead coffin which scientists hoped to have helped preserve the virus . However , the coffin was found to be split because of the weight of soil over it , and the cadaver was badly decomposed . Nonetheless , samples of lung and brain tissue were taken through the split , with the coffin remaining in situ in the grave during this process .
In December 2008 , research by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin linked the presence of three specific genes ( termed PA , PB1 , and PB2 ) and a nucleoprotein derived from 1918 flu samples to the ability of the flu virus to invade the lungs and cause pneumonia . The combination triggered similar symptoms in animal testing .
In June 2010 , a team at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine reported the 2009 flu pandemic vaccine provided some cross @-@ protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain .
One of the few things known for certain about the influenza in 1918 and for some years after was that it was , out of the laboratory , exclusively a disease of human beings .
In 2013 , AIR 's Research and Modeling Group " characterizes the historic 1918 pandemic and estimates the effects of a similar pandemic occurring today using the AIR Pandemic Flu Model " . In the model , " a modern day " Spanish flu " event would result in additional life insurance losses of between USD 15 @.@ 3 – 27 @.@ 8 billion in the United States alone " with 188 @,@ 000 – 337 @,@ 000 deaths in the United States .
= = In popular culture = =
The 2011 film Contagion and the 2013 film World War Z make reference to the pandemic .
The television show Resurrection uses the pandemic , in the episode " Afflictions " that aired on November 2 , 2014 , as the explanation for why many of the Returned were getting sick and disappearing .
In season four of British drama Upstairs , Downstairs , Hazel Bellamy dies of Spanish flu in 1918 , after her husband James Bellamy survives injuries in the " Great War " ( World War I ) . Her funeral takes place on 11 November , the day the war ends .
In season two of British drama Downton Abbey , Lavinia Swire dies of the Spanish flu in April 1919 , after her fiancé Matthew Crawley recovers from injuries and temporary paralysis from the Great War .
Twentieth @-@ century fiction includes at least three novels with the flu pandemic as a major theme : Katherine Anne Porter 's Pale Horse , Pale Rider , Thomas Mullen 's The Last Town on Earth , and Thomas Wolfe 's Look Homeward , Angel .
In the play 1918 by Horton Foote , the presence and threat of the flu ( and the tragedy it ultimately causes ) is a major element of the plot . The 1979 play was made into a film ( 1918 flu pandemic at the Internet Movie Database ) , released in 1985 , which was subsequently edited for broadcast by PBS as the last part of the miniseries " The Story of A Marriage " .
= = Gallery = =
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