The judge also read a sworn statement from Abaton's former producer, who stated that she had not known about the incident. She was aware that an ambulance was called that evening, but learned about the reasons for that only later, during the police investigation. The court further heard that Lamb of God had sent a list of security demands to the concert venue, including that barriers should be placed 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) from the stage. Promoter Tomáš Fiala testified that although this was not the case, the band had not expressed any concerns to him either before or after the concert.


Randy Blythe was called again to the stand that day. The judge first alerted him that he had the right to remain silent and can deny answering his questions. The judge went again through the Blythe's testimony and, with a view to the previous witness statements, asked Blythe whether he insists that it was Milan Pořádek whom Blythe threw off the stage. Blythe responded by saying: "To the best of my knowledge, it was Milan Pořádek who was coming up [on stage] every time."


Also that day, expert medical witness Michal Pogoši took the stand. According to The Prague Post, Pogoši testified that Nosek's cause of death was pneumonia resulting from a blow to the brainstem. Pogoši added that the "mortality rate from this kind of injury is around 40 percent, and that doctors couldn't have done more to save the patient." Nosek was initially taken to a nearby hospital less than a kilometer from the venue, where the initial diagnosis took place. Since this hospital did not have a specialized neurology department, Nosek was transferred to another hospital after the diagnosis. There, Nosek underwent two operations, first to tend to the injury and second to reduce pressure on brain by removing some bone.


Finally, defense asked for adjournment as a key witness fell ill. The court decided to continue with the hearings the next day, after which the hearings would be adjourned until March 4, 2013, in order to hear the defense's witness. Blythe committed to return when the trial resumed.


=== Day 4 of the trial ===


On February 7, 2013, only one witness took the stand before the hearing was adjourned. Lukáš Havlena contacted the defense after reading about the trial in newspapers because he "didn 't like the description of the situation" by the previous witnesses. He said he did not think Blythe was aggressive that night, and that fans should realize any aggressive behavior displayed onstage is just part of the show. He also said that each time somebody got on the stage, Blythe demonstrated that they were not allowed there. Havlena testified that he saw how a fan tried to reach the stage three times and that as he was preparing to stage dive, somebody aided his fall from behind. He had not seen anybody fall directly on the ground. Havlena had trouble recalling details from the show, as he had visited multiple concerts on other dates in Abaton, and thus could not describe, among other things, the position of the guardrail.


=== Day 5 of the trial ===


The trial resumed on March 4, 2013 with testimonies from expert witnesses in the fields of criminal psychology (Tereza Soukupová, appointed by the court) and psychiatry (Alena Gayová, appointed by the defense). Blythe returned to attend the hearings in person, even though the presiding judge had told him that at this point they may be undertaken in his absence. The two expert witnesses agreed that Blythe is not aggressive; nevertheless, he may have issues with controlling his emotions under stress. The court further heard testimonies from two eyewitnesses. One of them was a bodyguard who was present at the concert but did not see the fall. He testified that when by the exit, he saw two men taking a third man out of the building to fresh air. He said that he was told by them that the person fell off the stage. The ambulance arrived 5 – 10 minutes later.


Another eyewitness was a fan, Alena Rozsívalová, who testified that she saw Blythe shove Nosek, saying "[h] e climbed onto the stage, and when he tried to stand up, Blythe shoved him." According to her, the shove was strong enough for Nosek to fall behind the front row of the fans into a place where no fans were staying at the moment. She testified that Nosek fell backwards. Another attendee of the concert who took the stand that day did not recall seeing any fall by the end of the concert.


=== Day 6 of the trial ===


A defense-appointed expert witness in the field of biomechanics testified on March 5 that Nosek could not turn 180 degrees during the fall and that should he be falling forward, he could not have sustained an injury to the back of his head. He further said that if Nosek fell over the first row of the fans, he must have been not only pushed, but must have jumped himself. The State Attorney immediately attacked this testimony, claiming that the expert witness omitted the conditions at the place and time, as well as some of the eyewitness testimonies, according to which Nosek fell onto his back from the beginning and did not turn during the fall. The presiding judge agreed with the State Attorney on some of his points.


In his closing speech, the State Attorney asked the court to incarcerate Blythe for 5 years, claiming that "even children in the kindergarten are aware that a fall from height may lead to an injury."


A Nosek family representative said that based on the witness testimonies, the family did not believe that Blythe was solely responsible. He continued that he would not be substantiating the requested amount, as no money could replace the loss the family has suffered. He further added that Daniel had died on his father's birthday, and his mother has consequently become a psychiatry patient unable to work.


In his closing word, Blythe said that he did not wish to avoid any responsibility and that if he felt guilty he would have pleaded so. He further commented that in case of acquittal, measures would be undertaken to avoid anything similar from happening at Lamb of God concerts again.


=== First instance verdict ===


On March 5, 2013, the court delivered a verdict, according to which Blythe was not criminally liable for Nosek's death, even though he had the moral responsibility for it. Consequently, the court dismissed the damages claim and ordered the return of Blythe's bail.


The court held that it was proven that Blythe had thrown Nosek off the stage. However, Blythe, due to his nearsightedness, could have mistaken Nosek for the other fan who had repeatedly gotten over the guardrail. According to the court, the largest part of the blame lies with the promoters and security members. Judge Kubovec further reproached Blythe for not having met with the Nosek family.


The State Attorney announced that he would appeal the verdict.


=== Appeals verdict ===


The State Attorney's appeal was heard by a panel of three judges of the Prague High Court, chaired by judge Jiří Lněnička. The hearing took place in Blythe's absence. Blythe's acquittal was upheld by the panel on June 5, 2013.


The verdict may have been appealed by the Supreme State Attorney (SSA) to the Supreme Court. As the appeal hasn 't been lodged by SSA within two months of the delivery of written second instance verdict, it has become final.


In 2015 Blythe demanded ca CZK 15 millions for damages but the Municipal Court for Prague 2 dismissed the suit.


== Reaction ==


In reaction to the arrest and detention, a fan created a petition at the official White House petition site. By the time Blythe was released on bail, it gathered over 27,500 signatures.


On July 7, 2012, there was a vigil organized in Lamb of God's hometown of Richmond, Virginia, by a friend of Blythe's. At the event, Gwar (who are also from Richmond) frontman Dave Brockie said: “ I don ’ t think it was right for him to be arrested. I don ’ t think it was right for him to be locked up .... This stuff could have all been worked out diplomatically or legally before he got there. ” In addition to Brockie, other notable figures in heavy metal, such as Tom Araya and David Draiman, have also come out in support of Blythe.


In a post to his blog, Blythe explained that he met the Nosek family in private after the trial, and promised them to be "a spokesperson for safer shows". He emphasized that the family never attacked him and "just wanted to know the truth of what had happened to their son".


= U.S. Route 2 in Michigan =


US Highway 2 (US 2) is a component of the United States Numbered Highway System that connects Everett, Washington, to the Upper Peninsula (UP) of the US state of Michigan, with a separate segment that runs from Rouses Point, New York, to Houlton, Maine. In Michigan, the highway runs through the UP in two segments as a part of the state trunkline highway system, entering the state at Ironwood and ending at St. Ignace; in between, US 2 briefly traverses the state of Wisconsin. As one of the major transportation arteries in the UP, US 2 is a major conduit for traffic through the state and neighboring northern Midwest states. Two sections of the roadway are included as part of the Great Lakes Circle Tours, and other segments are listed as state-designated Pure Michigan Byways. There are several memorial highway designations and historic bridges along US 2 that date to the 1910s and 1920s. The highway runs through rural sections of the UP, passing through two national and two state forests in the process.


The route of what became US 2 was used as part of two Indian trails before European settlers came to the UP, and as part of the Michigan segments of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway and the King's International Highway auto trails in the early 20th century. The state later included these trails as part of M ‑ 12 when the first state highway trunklines were designated in 1919. Most of M ‑ 12 was redesignated as part of US 2 when the US Highway System was created on November 11, 1926. Since the 1930s, several changes have reshaped the highway's routing through the UP. One such alteration eventually created a business loop that connected across the state line with Hurley, Wisconsin, and others pushed an originally inland routing of US 2 closer to the Lake Michigan shoreline. With the creation of the Interstate Highway System, part of US 2 was rerouted to coincide with the new Interstate 75 (I ‑ 75), though in the 1980s, the U.S. Highway was truncated and removed from the I ‑ 75 freeway, resulting in today's basic form.


== Route description ==


According to a 2006 regional planning committee report, US 2 is a key highway for Michigan, providing its main western gateway. The roadway plays "an important role in the transportation of goods across the northern tier of states in the Midwest", and is listed on the National Highway System (NHS) for its entire length. The NHS is a network of roadways important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. Together with M ‑ 28, US 2 is part of a pair of primary trunklines that bridge the eastern and western sides of the UP. The 305.151 miles (491.093 km) of roadway in Michigan is divided into a 109.177-mile (175.703 km) western segment and a 195.974-mile (315.390 km) eastern segment, interrupted by a section that runs for 14.460 miles (23.271 km) in the state of Wisconsin.


=== Western segment ===


US 2 enters Michigan from Wisconsin for the first time north of downtown Hurley, Wisconsin, and Ironwood, Michigan, over the state line that runs along the Montreal River. The highway crosses the river into Gogebic County and passes a welcome center on the way into a commercial district north of downtown. Running along Cloverland Drive, US 2 meets its only business route in Michigan at Douglas Boulevard. The business route was previously a full loop that ran west through downtown Ironwood and crossed the border into Hurley and back to the main highway. The Wisconsin Department of Transportation has removed the signage on their side of the border, which reduced the loop to a business spur that ends at the state line. US 2 continues eastward through UP woodlands to the city of Bessemer. While bypassing the community of Ramsay, the highway crosses a branch of the Black River. The roadway enters Wakefield on the south side of Sunday Lake, meeting M ‑ 28 at a stoplight in town. As the US Highway leaves Wakefield, it turns southeasterly through the Ottawa National Forest, crossing Jackson Creek and two branches of the Presque Isle River. US 2 and M ‑ 64 merge and run concurrently over the second branch of the Presque Isle in the community of Marenisco. This concurrency has the lowest traffic volume along the entire length of the highway within the state; in 2010 the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) recorded a daily average usage along the stretch of 770 vehicles, compared to the overall average of 5,188 vehicles for the highway. At the end of the concurrency, M ‑ 64 turns northerly to run along Lake Gogebic.


The highway continues parallel to the state line from the Marensico area through the national forest toward Watersmeet. That unincorporated community is the home of the Watersmeet High School Nimrods, the basketball team featured on a series of ESPN commercials and a documentary series on the Sundance Channel. The area is also where the waters meet; the rolling hills drain to Lake Superior via the Ontonagon River, to Lake Michigan via the Brule and Menominee rivers, or to the Gulf of Mexico via the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers. Also located in the area are the Sylvania Wilderness, and the Lac Vieux Desert Indian Reservation, which includes the Lac Vieux Desert Casino and Resort. The highway travels southeasterly from Watersmeet around the many lakes and streams in the area and crosses into rural Iron County. US 2 intersects Federal Forest Highway 16 (FFH 16) near Golden Lake in Stambaugh Township in the middle of the national forest. The trunkline then runs along the Iron River as it approaches the city of the same name and meets M ‑ 73. In town, US 2 intersects M ‑ 189 before crossing the river and turning northeast out of the city.


US 2 leaves the Ottawa National Forest at Iron River, and the highway continues eastward through forest lands near several small lakes to Crystal Falls, the county seat of Iron County. On the west side of town, US 2 meets US 141; the two highways run concurrently along Crystal Avenue. The combined highway turns south onto 5th Street and meets M ‑ 69's eastern terminus at the intersection between 5th Street and Superior Avenue next to the county courthouse at the top of the hill. US 2 / US 141 runs south out of Crystal Falls to the west of, and parallel to, the Paint River. The roadway passes Railroad, Kennedy and Stager lakes and leaves the state of Michigan at the Brule River, crossing into Florence County, Wisconsin for about 14 miles (23 km).


=== Eastern segment ===


US 2 / US 141 re-enters Michigan where it crosses the Menominee River and subsequently meets M ‑ 95 in Breitung Township north of Iron Mountain and Kingsford. The highways merge in a triple concurrency and run south on Stephenson Avenue into Iron Mountain along the west side of Lake Antoine, parallel to a branch line of the Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad (ELS Railroad). The road crosses through a retail corridor and over a flooded pit of the Chapin Mine. In downtown Iron Mountain at Ludington Street, M ‑ 95 turns west off Stephenson Avenue to run across town to Kingsford. US 2 / US 141 exits downtown and turns east along a second retail corridor near the Midtown Mall. The highway re-enters Breitung Township where US 141 separates to the south to re-enter Wisconsin. US 2 continues eastward parallel to a branch of the Canadian National Railway (CN Railway). Both road and rail travel through the community of Quinnesec, where they pass near the largest paper mill in the UP. The trunkline runs along the main street of Norway, where the highway meets the eastern terminus of US 8. Then US 2 continues east through rural Dickinson County to Vulcan, passing north of Hanbury Lake through the Copper Country State Forest, before crossing the Sturgeon River in Loretto and passing into Menominee County.


In Menominee County, the environment takes on a more agricultural character along US 2. The highway passes through the edge of the community of Hermansville before entering Powers. US 2 comes to a three-way intersection and turns northeast merging onto US 41. The concurrent highway runs from Powers through the communities of Wilson and Spaulding on the south side of the CN Railway. At Harris, the trunkline enters the Hannahville Indian Community. Harris is on the Menominee County side of the reservation, but as the highway continues east, it crosses over to Bark River on the Delta County side. The county line in between not only separates the two communities, but also serves as the boundary between the Central and Eastern time zones. East of Bark River, the highway crosses the community's namesake waterway before intersecting the eastern terminus of M ‑ 69. The roadway crosses the Ford River prior to turning due east into the outskirts of Escanaba.


US 2 / US 41 widens to four lanes along Ludington Street, which forms the east – west axis of the Escanaba street grid. Near downtown, the highway meets M ‑ 35, which runs along the city's north – south axis, Lincoln Avenue. The trunklines merge and run north, bypassing the traditional central business district for a different business corridor. Lincoln Avenue runs north carrying four lanes of traffic past the Upper Peninsula State Fairgrounds, site of one of the two state fairs for the state of Michigan, the only state to have twin fairs. US 2 / US 41 / M ‑ 35 continues north on Lincoln Avenue past the campus of Bay de Noc Community College. The four-lane highway crosses the Escanaba River just upstream from its mouth near the large Mead Paper Mill and shifts to run immediately next to Little Bay de Noc. The section here carried the highest traffic counts along all of US 2 in the state: an average of 23,977 vehicles used this segment of roadway daily in 2011.


The road turns inland again, and US 2 / US 41 / M ‑ 35 passes to the west of downtown Gladstone. The highway through here is an expressway, four lanes divided by a central median and no driveway access. Unlike a freeway, the expressway has standard intersections and not interchanges. The highway intersects the eastern terminus of County Road 426 (CR 426) and crosses the ELS Railroad south of the stoplight for 4th Avenue North, where M ‑ 35 separates from the US Highways and turns to the northwest. The expressway continues north parallel to the CN Railway, crossing the Days River. Through this area, the trunkline carries a speed limit of 65 mph (105 km / h) for car traffic. This is the only road in the UP with a speed limit higher than 55 mph (89 km / h) besides I-75, which has a speed limit of 70 mph (110 km / h). The expressway segment runs around the upper end of Little Bay de Noc before ending at Rapid River. In this location, US 41 separates to the north, and US 2 returns to an easterly track as a two-lane road, crossing the Rapid and Whitefish rivers and turning southeast around the head of the bay. As US 2 crosses southern Delta County, it passes through the western unit of the Hiawatha National Forest. Near Garden Corners, the highway runs along the shore of Big Bay de Noc. After the intersection with the northern terminus of M ‑ 183, US 2 turns inland cutting across the base of the Garden Peninsula and enters Schoolcraft County.


As the highway approaches Thompson, US 2 leaves the western unit of the Hiawatha National Forest and enters the Lake Superior State Forest. The roadway runs along Lake Michigan to Manistique, crossing the Manistique River. The trunkline turns inland approaching Gulliver and then turns north-northeast to Blaney Park. The community there is a former logging town-turned-resort at the southern terminus of M ‑ 77; the resort was active from the late 1920s but declined by the 1980s. From Blaney Park, US 2 turns due east and crosses into Mackinac County west of Gould City. Where it intersects a former routing, the main highway crosses the CN Railway one last time and runs to the south of Engadine to follow the Lake Michigan shoreline through Naubinway. After passing the community of Epoufette, US 2 crosses the Cut River Bridge, 147 feet (45 m) over the Cut River. The highway crosses into the eastern unit of the Hiawatha National Forest near Brevort, running between Lake Michigan and Brevort Lake in the process. The road continues along the Lake Michigan shoreline, passing Mystery Spot near Gros Cap and turning inland immediately west of St. Ignace. The US 2 designation ends at the highway's partial cloverleaf interchange with I ‑ 75. The roadway continues easterly into downtown St. Ignace as Business Loop I ‑ 75 (BL I ‑ 75).


== History ==


=== Indian trail through auto trails ===


In 1701, the first transportation routes through what became the state of Michigan were the lakes, rivers and Indian trails. Two of these trails followed parts of the future US 2. The Sault – Green Bay Trail roughly followed the Lake Michigan shoreline routing of US 2 between Escanaba and St. Ignace. The Mackinac Trail connected St. Ignace with Sault Ste. Marie.


In the age of the auto trail, the roads that later formed US 2 through the UP were given a few different highway names. When the original roadways between Ironwood and Iron River were completed in late 1915, the Upper Peninsula Development Bureau (UPDB) named the area Cloverland and the highway the Cloverland Trail. Later the name was extended over the highway to Escanaba, and to all highways in the area in the early 1920s; the name was phased out by the UPDB completely in 1927. The roadways were also used for the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway, named for former US president Theodore Roosevelt after his death in 1919. Overall, this highway ran from Portland, Oregon, to Portland, Maine, by way of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario. Through the UP, the southern branch followed the immediate predecessors to US 2, including the section through Florence County, Wisconsin.


The Great Lakes Automobile Route was established in 1917 by the UPDB. A predecessor of the Great Lakes Circle Tours by seventy years, the route followed "a circular journey along the banks of lakes Michigan and Superior and Green Bay ..." This route followed the modern US 2 from Ironwood to the M ‑ 94 junction in Manistique, using the modern M ‑ 69 and M ‑ 95 to stay in Michigan. Branches of the route followed US 41 and M ‑ 35 between Powers and Escanaba. The route was originally intended to entice motorists to drive around Lake Michigan. The name fell out of use before its first anniversary because of World War I.


One Canadian auto trail was routed through the UP as well. In 1920, the King's International Highway linked Vancouver, British Columbia, to Halifax, Nova Scotia, but there was no highway to carry it around the north side of Lake Superior. Motorists had to ship their cars by boat between Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, and Thunder Bay or enter the United States to continue along the auto trail. The routings varied on the maps of the time, but its basic route used US 2 through the UP from Ironwood to Sault Ste. Marie until a highway north of Lake Superior was opened in 1960; by that time, the auto trail had taken on the Trans-Canada Highway name.


=== State trunkline ===


The first state trunkline highway designated along the path of the modern US 2 was M ‑ 12, a designation that was in use by July 1, 1919, between Ironwood and Sault Ste. Marie. The first roadside park in the country was created by Herbert Larson near what is now US 2 near Iron River in 1919 – 20, although other sources state that the first was a picnic table alongside US 16 (Grand River Avenue) in 1929 south of Saranac. When the US Highway System was created on November 11, 1926, US 2 partially replaced M-12. Between Crystal Falls and Iron Mountain, US 2 was routed through Florence, Wisconsin. The former routing of M ‑ 12 from Crystal Falls to Sagola became a new M ‑ 69 when the former M ‑ 69 became US 102 (now US 141). M ‑ 12 from Sagola south to Iron Mountain was made a part of an extended M ‑ 45, which is now M ‑ 95. By the next year, M ‑ 48 was added along US 2 from Rexton to Garnet as part of a larger extension.


The first changes to the routing of US 2 itself were made in 1930 with a bypass of downtown Escanaba. A larger rerouting was completed in 1933 between Rogers Park and Sault Ste. Marie. The new routing followed Mackinac Trail instead of turning east to Cedarville and north to Sault Ste. Marie; the former routing was given the M ‑ 121 designation. Another realignment in the Iron Mountain area shifted US 2 / US 141 to a new bridge over the Menominee River between 1932 and 1934. Downtown Ironwood was bypassed in 1934, and the former route was initially designated M ‑ 54.


The Michigan State Highway Department (MSHD) changed the routings and designations of the highways around Cooks, Thompson and Manistique in the mid-1930s. The agency rerouted US 2 between Cooks and M ‑ 149 in Thompson, turning the old road back to county control. The section between M ‑ 149 and M ‑ 125 was redesignated as an extension of M ‑ 149 to Thompson, and M ‑ 125 was replaced by a further extension of M ‑ 149. The last change was to route US 2 along its current alignment in the area, completing the changes on August 2, 1936.


The MSHD started construction in 1936 on a new road that rerouted US 2 into St. Ignace for the first time. Between Brevort and Moran, US 2 previously followed Worth Road inland to the Tahquamenon Trail to meet the northern extension of US 31 into the Upper Peninsula. The new routing took US 2 along the lakeshore into St. Ignace. US 31 was truncated to the state ferry docks in Mackinaw City and US 2 was routed through St. Ignace along the former US 31 to Rogers Park; the connection in St. Ignace to the state ferry docks became M ‑ 122. Further changes in the early 1940s straightened the roadway out near Watersmeet and Crystal Falls.


Additional realignments were completed by the MSHD to move US 2 to its modern lakeshore routing between Gould City and Epoufette in 1941. The new highway traveled due east from Gould City to Naubinway and then along the lake to Epoufette. The former route through Engadine was turned back to local control as far east as Garnet. From there east, it was numbered just M ‑ 48, removing US 2 from a concurrency. Another former section into Epoufette was added to extend M ‑ 117. The new highway was detoured around the Cut River Bridge until it was completed in 1946 after construction delays over steel shortages during World War II.


The western end of US 2 took on two changes in the 1940s. M ‑ 28 was extended along US 2 to the state line at Ironwood from its western terminus at Wakefield. A similar extension was made from M ‑ 28's eastern terminus to Sault Ste. Marie in 1948. The M ‑ 54 designation was renumbered as Business US 2 by 1945. The eastern M ‑ 28 extension was reversed in 1950, and the western extension to the state line was shifted to a new location by 1952.


=== Interstate era ===


With the coming of the Interstate Highway System in Michigan, the MSHD planned to convert the eastern section of US 2 to a freeway between St. Ignace and Sault St. Marie. In planning maps from 1947, this highway corridor was included in the system that later became the Interstates. It was also included in the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955, or Yellow Book after the cover color, that was released in 1955 as the federal government readied plans for the freeway system. The proposed number in 1958 was Interstate 75 (I ‑ 75).


The first section of freeway was built in late 1957 or early 1958 between Evergreen Shores and M ‑ 123 north of St. Ignace. The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1, 1957; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge. In 1961, another new freeway segment closed the gap between the Mackinac Bridge and Evergreen Shores sections. At the time, the I ‑ 75 designation supplanted US 27 on the bridge, and US 2 was shifted to follow I ‑ 75 along the freeways in the St. Ignace area. The former routing of US 2 in downtown St. Ignace was redesignated BL I ‑ 75. More sections of freeway were opened in 1962 immediately to the south of the newly constructed International Bridge in Sault Ste. Marie as well as between Dafter and Kinross. The last two sections opened in 1963 connected the northern end of the freeway at M ‑ 123 to Kinross, and the section between Dafter and Sault Ste. Marie. At this time, all of US 2's former routing became a county road known as Mackinac Trail (H-63).


The Department of State Highways expanded US 2 / US 41 into an expressway between Gladstone and Rapid River in 1971. The state built a new bridge over the Manistique River in 1983, bypassing downtown. MDOT disposed of the former routing of US 2 into downtown in two ways. The western half was initially an unnumbered state highway until it was later transferred to local control. An extension of M ‑ 94 replaced the remainder, including the Siphon Bridge, through downtown. In that same year, the department truncated US 2 to end in St. Ignace by removing it from the I ‑ 75 freeway. The last changes were made to US 2's routing through Iron River in 1998, bypassing the bridge that formerly carried the highway over the river in town. In 2011, MDOT raised the speed limit along the expressway section in Delta County from 55 to 65 mph (89 to 105 km / h), although the speed limit for trucks remains 55 mph (89 km / h).


== Memorial designations and tourist routes ==


On July 1, 1924, the State Administrative Board named M ‑ 12, the predecessor to US 2 in Michigan, the Bohn Highway to honor Frank P. Bohn, a prominent local citizen who later served in Congress from 1927 to 1933. In 1929, the residents of Escanaba created a memorial to the veterans of World War I called Memory Lane. The project consisted of elm and maple trees planted along US 2 / US 41 west of town. The American Legion sold the trees to local businesses and individuals who could honor specific soldiers. Later in 1949, the Bessemer Women's Club created a tribute in the form of a permanent living memorial to the area veterans. Also called Memory Lane, the group planted 140 elms and 1,840 evergreens, trees and shrubs as a landscaped parkway along 2.3 miles (3.7 km) of US 2 east of Bessemer.


Most of US 2, along with US 23 in the Lower Peninsula, was designated the United Spanish War Veterans Memorial Highway in 1949. To connect the gap in the routing where US 2 cuts through Wisconsin, M ‑ 95 and M ‑ 69 were used in place of US 2 between Iron Mountain and Crystal Falls. Signs marking the highway were not erected until 1968 when Governor George W. Romney had them installed.


The Amvets Memorial Drive designation was created for the section of US 2 / US 41 / M ‑ 35 between the northern Escanaba city limits and County Road 426 (CR 426) in Delta County. The American Veterans (AMVETS) organization in Michigan petitioned the Michigan Legislature to grant this designation, which was assigned under Public Act 144 in 1959.


Two sections of US 2 are part of the overall Great Lakes Circle Tour (GLCT): the segment from the Wisconsin state line near Ironwood to the M ‑ 28 junction in Wakefield is part of the Lake Superior Circle Tour (LSCT), and the segment from the southern M ‑ 35 junction in Escanaba to the eastern terminus in St. Ignace is part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour (LMCT). These two tours were created in May 1986 through a joint effort between MDOT and its counterparts in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Ontario. The section of US 2 between Iron River and Crystal Falls has been named the Iron County Heritage Trail. This Pure Michigan Byway was designated to honor the "rich history of two industries that built a state and nation: mining and logging." On August 26, 2007, MDOT announced that the section of US 2 that runs concurrently with M ‑ 35 in Delta County was being included in the UP Hidden Coast Recreational Heritage Trail.


== Historic bridges ==


There are six bridges along current or former sections of US 2 that MDOT has added to its listing of Michigan's Historic Bridges; two of these are also listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). A third bridge added to the NRHP in late 2012 has not been added to MDOT's listing however. The first of these historic bridges is the crossing of the Iron River, which has since been bypassed by a new bridge. The original structure, dating to 1918, is a 55-foot-long (17 m) spandrel arch span that was built by the MSHD as Trunk Line Bridge No. 191. The structure was listed on the NRHP on December 9, 1999, for its architectural and engineering significance.


In December 2012, the National Park Service approved the listing of the Upper Twin Falls Bridge that crosses the Menominee River northwest of Iron Mountain. The structure is a single-span, pin-connected, camelback, through-truss bridge, and it is the only known example of its type in Michigan. It was built between 1909 and 1910 because the Twin Falls Power Dam would flood an existing river crossing. The span cost $ 5,106 (equivalent to $ 780,000 in 2015), paid equally by Dickinson and Florence counties. Until the 1930s, the Upper Twin Falls Bridge carried US 2 across the Menominee River. In 1934, a new bridge was built about a mile downstream, and the highway was rerouted over the new span. The bridge closed to automobile traffic in September 1971, and the nomination process for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places began in 2012.


In 2003, MDOT replaced the Sturgeon River Bridge in Waucedah Township, Dickinson County. As of October 2011, even though the old bridge was demolished and replaced, MDOT retained it on their historic bridge list. It was built in 1929.


Before 1983, US 2 used a different routing through Manistique and crossed the Manistique River on what is nicknamed the "Siphon Bridge". Built as a part of a raceway flume on the river, the water level is actually higher than the road surface. This produces a siphon effect, giving the bridge its nickname. The Manistique Pulp and Paper Company was organized in 1916 and needed a dam on the Manistique River to supply their mill. This dam would require a large section of the city to be flooded, and shallow river banks meant difficulties in any bridge construction. Instead of expensive dikes, a concrete tank was built lengthwise in the river bed; the sides of this tank provided man-made banks higher than the natural banks. The Michigan Works Progress Administration described the bridge as having "concrete bulkheads, formed by the side spans of the bridge, [that] allow the mill to maintain the water level several feet above the roadbed." The Manistique Tourism Council stated: "At one time, the bridge itself was partially supported by the water that was atmospherically forced under it," and that the bridge has been featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not !. The eight-span structure is 294 feet (90 m) long.


The Cut River Bridge carries US 2 across the Cut River in Hendricks Township, Mackinac County. This structure was built during World War II but completion was delayed due to war-induced steel shortages. The span uses 888 short tons (793 long tons; 806 t) of structural steel to bridge the 641 feet (195 m) over the river and its gorge at a height of 147 feet (45 m) above the river. The Cut River Bridge is one of only two cantilevered deck truss bridges in the state. On either side of the bridge, there are picnic areas and trails down to the river.


Listed on the NRHP on December 17, 1999, the Mackinac Trail – Carp River Bridge carries H-63, the modern successor to US 2, over the Carp River north of St. Ignace. The bridge is another spandrel arch structure 60 feet (18 m) in length and built in 1920. Increasing traffic along Mackinac Trail prompted the MSHD to "widen its deck by five feet [1.5 m] and install new guardrails in the 1929 – 1930 biennium" along with the addition of decorative retaining walls.


The last of the historic bridges along a former segment of US 2 is the structure carrying Ashmun Street (BS I ‑ 75) over the Power Canal in Sault Ste. Marie. Built in 1934, it is one of only three steel arch bridges in the state. The 42-foot-wide (13 m) and 257-foot-long (78 m) structure is described by MDOT as "massive" with an "innovative" construction method: the previous structure was used as a falsework for the current bridge before removal.


== Major intersections ==


MDOT has erected milemarkers along the two Michigan segments of the highway that use the total mileage starting at the state line in Ironwood; the signs on the eastern segment reflect the mileage in Florence County, Wisconsin.


== Business route ==


Business U.S. Highway 2 (Bus. US 2) is a 1.270-mile (2.044 km) business route that runs from the Wisconsin state line at the Montreal River. The route extends through downtown Ironwood on Silver and Aurora streets before turning northward along Suffolk Street. Bus. US 2 stays on Suffolk Street for a short while until it turns onto Frederick Street. On Frederick Street, Bus. US 2 bears north through a residential area along Douglas Street. The eastern terminus of the route is at its junction with US 2 at the corner of Cloverland Drive and Douglas Street north of downtown.


The business route was created in August 1942 when former M ‑ 54 in Ironwood was renumbered as a business loop of US 2. It was originally a bi-state business connection before the Wisconsin Department of Transportation decommissioned Bus. US 2 in Hurley westward along State Trunk Highway 77 and northward along US 51 in 2002.


= Butterfly World Tour =


The Butterfly World Tour was the third concert tour by American singer-songwriter Mariah Carey. The tour promoted Carey's album at the time, Butterfly (1997), and included songs from several of her previous albums. The tour visited Asia, Australia and the United States, with rehearsals taking place in December 1997. Starting on January 11, 1998 the tour spanned five shows in Asia, six in Australia, and one in Hawaii, US. Throughout the tour, Carey varied hairstyles and outfits, as well as song selections. The Butterfly World Tour was very successful; the four dates at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under one hour, equaling over 200,000 tickets, breaking the previous record she held at the stadium for show sell-outs.


The tour was recorded in VHS format, and was titled Around the World. The video featured live performances of Carey at different worldwide venues including New York, Japan, Hawaii and Brisbane. Other scenes are included in the video such as a conversation between Carey and Brenda K. Starr prior to her performance of "I Still Believe". Prior to the performances in Australia, a scene of Carey swimming with dolphins is shown. Additionally, Olivia Newton-John makes a cameo appearance during their joint performance of Newton-John's song, "Hopelessly Devoted to You". The video was commercially successful, being certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD).


== Background ==


Since her debut in 1990, Carey had not journeyed on a large or extensive tour. In fact, she had not embarked on a tour until her third studio effort, Music Box (1993), when she performed six arena shows in the United States during the Music Box Tour. The opening night of the tour received scathing reviews, mostly aimed at Carey's deemed "obvious" stage-fright and failure to make a connection with the crowd. Succeeding nights were more favorably reviewed, with critics raving about Carey's vocals. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote regarding Carey's live vocals, "Beyond any doubt, Ms. Carey's voice is no studio concoction. Her range extends from a rich, husky alto to dog-whistle high notes; she can linger over sensual turns, growl with playful confidence, syncopate like a scat singer." However, after the strong media attention, Carey did not visit the US on her succeeding Daydream World Tour in 1996, visiting only Europe and Asia. The tour in contrast, received critical acclaim from critics and fans alike, as well as breaking ticket sale records. Carey's three shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under three hours, equaling in over 150,000 tickets, setting the record of fastest show sellouts in Japan's history. On the Butterfly World Tour, Carey broke the record, selling 200,000 tickets in under one hour. During 1997, after the commercially and critically successful release of Butterfly, Carey had not planned to tour once again, due to the long travel times and strain on her voice. However, due to overwhelming demand by fans, Carey agreed to perform in Asia once again, only extending the tour to Taiwan and Australia, as well as one last show in the United States. Rehearsals for the show began shortly after Christmas 1997, extending for a period of two weeks.


== Concert synopsis ==


The show began with Carey standing on a small elevated centerpiece on stage, surrounded by several long draped curtains. Carey featured three background vocalists throughout the tour, Trey Lorenz, Melodie Daniels and Kelly Price. As the introduction began with "Emotions", each of the curtains were slowly draped, revealing Carey atop the platform, dressed in a beige mini-dress and matching sheer blouse and stiletto heels. As she began performing "Emotions", the platform was lowered so Carey could access the other sections of the stage throughout the song's performance. After an intimate performance with dimmed lights for "The Roof (Back in Time)", Carey was joined on-stage by a Peruvian guitar player, who played the Latin-inspired guitar melodies during her performance of "My All". Afterwards, Carey sang "Close My Eyes", the only sitting performance of the show. During the song, several male backup dancers performed slow and ample dance routines behind Carey on a higher level of the stage.


For the second part of the show, Carey had the second costume change of the evening, donning a long sequined black gown and semi-teased hair. For the performance of "Dreamlover", Carey was joined by three female back-up dancers, who mimicked her light dance routines during the song. The next song on the set-list was "Hero", which featured Carey alone on-stage, without any vocal back-up. After the song's performance, Carey was joined on-stage by Lorenz, who performed "I'll Be There" alongside her. Next came "Make It Happen", a song which accompanied yet another wardrobe change for Carey. She donned a short mini-skirt, alongside a sleeveless white blouse and loose golden curls. On-stage, Carey was joined by a full church choir, all dressed in long black garments. After the song's recital, Carey performed "One Sweet Day", alongside a previously recorded video of Boyz II Men during their live performance of the song with Carey at Madison Square Garden in 1995.


After completing the song, Carey changed to a pair of leg-hugging blue jeans and a tank top. Her next performance was the "Fantasy" remix, featuring Ol ' Dirty Bastard on a large projection screen behind the stage, as Carey performed light chair dance-routines alongside several male dancers. The performance featured the most intricate choreography Carey performed on the tour. After a low-key performance of "Babydoll", or "Whenever You Call" in other countries, Carey was once again joined by several male dancers, as she sang "Honey", while re-enacting the music video during a small skit. Carey once again changed to a beige ensemble similar to her first outfit before performing her debut single, "Vision of Love". The final song on the tour was "Butterfly", which featured large stills of butterflies and flowers projected onto the large screen behind Carey. She donned a long brown sequined gown for the performance, being joined on stage once again by her trio of back-up singers. During the shows in Japan, Carey performed her holiday classic "All I Want for Christmas Is You", alongside various male and female dancers on stage who performed light dance routines alongside Carey. During the song, Carey donned a Santa suit and matching hat, while being carried on a large stage prop by the dancers.


== Critical reception ==


Virtually the entire tour was an instant sell-out; the four shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, broke Carey's previous ticket-sales record, selling out all 200,000 tickets in under one hour. Additionally, the entire Australian leg sold out within hours, leading Carey to extend the tour one more date in the United States. The show at Hawaii's 50,000 capacity Aloha Stadium sold out as well, making her one of the few acts in the stadiums history to sell out the entire venue. Aside from its commercial success, fans and critics raved about the show's visuals, as well as Carey's vocal delivery.


== Broadcasts and recordings ==


During the tour, several bits and performances were filmed and later edited into a VHS and DVD entitled Around the World. The VHS featured performances from Tokyo Dome, Aloha Stadium as well as few other skits and scenes that were later compiled into the video. The film first begins with performances in Hawaii, where the song's recitals are cut into halves, excluding the second verses and bridge to shorten the bulk length of the video. Afterwards, Carey's performance of "My All" is shown in inter-cut scenes from Japan and Taipei. After the conclusion of the song, scenes of Carey conversing with Brenda K. Starr are shown, which eventually lead to a tribute to her at a small and intimate New York club, where Carey performs "I Still Believe". Soon after, Carey's performance in Japan with Lorenz for "I'll Be There" is shown, leading to scenes of Carey swimming with dolphins in Australia. the next title on the video is Carey's live rendition of "Hopelessly Devoted To You", where she is joined by Olivia Newton-John on stage in Melbourne. A scene of a fans gathering outside of a New York City studio is shown, following a performance of "Honey," and "Hero" at Aloha Stadium. The VHS was a commercial success, being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 100,000 units. The video was also certified gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD).


== Set list ==


"Looking In / Butterfly (Intro)"


"Emotions"


"The Roof"


"My All"


"Close My Eyes"


"Daydream Interlude (Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix)"


"Dreamlover"


"Hero"


"I 'll Be There" (with Trey Lorenz)


" Make You Happy (Trey Lorenz)


"Make It Happen"


"One Sweet Day" (featuring pre-recorded Boyz II Men)


" Ain 't Nobody (Band Interlude)


"Fantasy ( Bad Boy Remix"


"Whenever You Call" 1


" Breakdown1


"Honey" (featuring pre-recorded Mase) "


"Vision of Love"


" Butterfly


" Without You1


"Butterfly (Outro)"


" All I Want for Christmas is You1


< sus > 1 < / sus > Performed on select dates


== Shows ==


== Personnel ==


Walter Afanasieff - director, keyboard


Dan Shea - keyboard


Vernon Black - guitar


Randy Jackson - bass


Gigi Conway - drums


Peter Michael - percussion


Gary Cirimelli - music sequencing


Trey Lorenz - vocals, background vocals


Kelly Price - background vocals


Cheree Price - background vocals


Melonie Daniels - background vocals


Cindy Mizelle - background vocals


Source:


= Thelnetham Windmill =


Thelnetham Windmill, also known as Button's Mill is a Grade II * listed tower mill constructed of brick. The windmill is located at Thelnetham, Suffolk, England. It was built in the early nineteenth century to grind wheat into flour. Thelnetham windmill worked by wind power until 1924, latterly on two sails, after which it became derelict.


In 1979, a group of enthusiasts purchased Thelnetham windmill for restoration. Numerous volunteers helped to restore the mill to full working order over an eight-year period. The mill is open to the public, and flour ground at the mill can be bought at the site.


The mill is a small four storey tower mill with Patent sails and winded by a fantail. It drives two pairs of millstones, with a third pair driven by an auxiliary engine.


== History ==


The windmill at Thelnetham was built by millwright George Bloomfield for William Button in 1819. It replaced a post mill which had been moved to Sandy Lane, Diss, Norfolk the previous year. The mill was set to work on Christmas Day 1819. In 1832, the mill was modernised by the fitting of a cast-iron windshaft, Patent sails and a fantail. The new windshaft was fitted on 16 July 1832. It was made by J Aickman, the Kings Lynn millwright, and weighs 1 ¾ tons (1,780 kg). A new stock was fitted in September 1836. William Button died on 11 February 1837. The mill passed jointly to his widow Rebecca and their son Richard. Richard Button worked the mill until 1860, at which date it was conveyed to his sons Richard and William, who sold it to Richard Peverett from Kenninghall, Norfolk in 1862.


The mill was worked by Stephen Peverett, Richard's son. He inherited the mill on the death of his father in 1875 and leased it to Henry Bryant in 1879. In 1884, the mill was sold by auction, and Henry Bryant purchased the freehold. Bryant rebuilt the floors of the mill. From 1892, a portable steam engine was used as auxiliary power, driving an extra pair of millstones on the ground floor. This was replaced in 1914 by a Hornsby oil engine. Bryant ran the mill until 1920 when he sold it to Alphonso Vincent, a retired millwright from Garboldisham, Norfolk. The Hornsby engine was sold in the early 1920s. The mill was tailwinded c1920, and as a result one pair of sails was removed. Vincent carried out some repairs to the mill and ran it until he retired in 1924. One of the remaining two sails was wrecked in 1926 when the mill was again tailwinded.


On the death of Alphonso Vincent in 1932, his son George inherited the property. He lived at the site in an old lorry until his death in 1973. The mill passed to his daughter, who sold it in 1974 to Mr and Mrs Humphries, who intended to convert it into a house. They later changed their minds and offered it for sale for restoration. In 1976, the cap of the mill was blown to pieces in a gale. Thelnetham windmill was purchased by five members of the Suffolk Mills Group in November 1979, and plans for restoration were made. The consortium consisted of Mark Barnard, Charles Dolman, Peter Dolman, David Pearce and Chris Seago. The derelict mill and an acre of land cost £ 6,000.


== Restoration ==


The mill was restored over a period of six years. Much of the work was carried out by enthusiasts who used working holidays to repair the mill.


=== 1979 – 1980 ===


The consortium took possession of the mill in November 1979. The first priority was to make the mill as weathertight as possible. Polythene sheets were spread on the dust floor of the mill to prevent further water penetration of the structure. The mill was surveyed and recorded. In spring 1980, the dust floor partially collapsed and was removed as a safety measure. Scaffolding was erected to allow the fanstage to be dismantled, and the cap centering wheels were removed in preparation for the removal of the cap frame.


A two-week work-in was held at the end of July and beginning of August 1980. Thirty-three volunteers worked on the mill over the work-in. Two new main floor beams for the dust floor were made from baulks of pitch pine which had previously been in a maltings at Bury St Edmunds. On 3 August 1980, the windshaft and remaining sail fragments were removed by a mobile crane, followed by the cap frame and the cast-iron curb sections.


New oak joists were laid on the dust floor and temporary boarding laid to provide a working platform for repairs to the top of the mill tower. The bin floor was removed, apart from one oak main beam which was repairable. A replacement main beam was made from pitch pine, and the oak beam was repaired. New oak joists were fitted, along with some salvaged from the original floor which were fit to be reused. One of these had previously been a whip from a Common sail. Some of the joists were made from pitch pine from the Eastbridge Windpump, which, following its collapse on 19 February 1977, had been re-erected at the Museum of East Anglian Life, Stowmarket. The sack hoist was dismantled to enable its repair, brickwork was repaired, and new lintels were made for some of the windows. A tarpaulin was secured over the mill tower to keep the weather out over winter. The floorboards on the bin floor were replaced and one of the two pairs of millstones was removed.


The work was financed by grants of £ 500 from the Council for the Preservation of Rural Essex, £ 250 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, £ 200 from the Scarfe Trust, and £ 200 from the Suffolk Mills Group. Other donations and income amounted to £ 65, with the balance of expenditure being met jointly by the five owners.


The "work-in" was reported in both local and national media, including BBC Look East, Bury Free Press, Eastern Daily Press, East Anglian Daily Times, Daily Telegraph, and Radio Orwell.


=== 1981 ===


In the 1981 season two separate work-ins were held, the first from 25 July to 2 August and the second from 22 August to 30 August. A total of 37 volunteers participated over the two weeks.


The millstones were removed from the stone floor, which was then repaired. One of the main beams was found to have been attacked by Death Watch beetles, and over a third of the elm beam was replaced with oak. The six supports for the hurst frame were repaired one at a time, as they bore the whole of the weight of the machinery above. One post required replacement. It had rotted and the floor had sunk by 4 inches (100 mm) causing the second main floor beam to fracture. When this work had been completed, the stone floor was removed, including the second main floor beam, which was removed in one piece so that the most suitable route to install its replacement could be assessed.


The new main beam for the stone floor was installed and the ground floor was concreted. The stone floor was reconstructed, reusing the old stone bearers and those joists that were fit for reuse. Other joists were made new from oak or pitch pine. New floorboards were laid in the dust floor, the 1 1 ⁄ 4 inches (32 mm) thick elm boards being double-grooved with a metal tongue between them. Those on the bin floor are of a similar configuration. The top four courses of brickwork of the mill tower were removed and work began on rebuilding them, aided by a trammel attached to the upright shaft.


During the second work-in, the remainder of the stone floor was boarded, again using double-grooved boards with a metal tongue between them. The window on the dust floor was rebuilt and the reconstruction of the top four courses of brickwork continued. The top two courses were rebuilt with red engineering bricks. The dust floor window had a reinforced concrete lintel cast as the tower was weak at this point and had distorted. The windshaft, the curb segments and fantail gearing were given two coats of red lead paint. A new finial for the cap was made from a piece of oak 3 feet (910 mm) long by 16 inches (410 mm) diameter. A start was made on removing the old pointing on the brickwork and repointing with gauged mortar.


After the work-in had finished, the boarding of the stone floor was completed and the mill thoroughly cleaned in preparation for an open day which was held in late autumn. The work done in 1981 cost £ 3,250. Donations received were £ 2,000 from Rank Xerox, £ 1,704 from the Historic Buildings Council and £ 130 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council. Other donations and income received amounted to £ 70. The project received further coverage in local media, the Eastern Daily Press, and South Norfolk News.


=== 1982 ===


The 1982 work-ins took place from 24 July to 1 August and 21 August to 29 August. The work planned included the completion of the brickwork at the top of the tower, installation of the Elm curb, a start on the construction of the new cap, installing machinery and making and fitting various doors and windows. The cap frame was constructed, incorporating two beams from the original cap frame that were fit to be reused. The cap frame was completed in autumn 1982. It had been constructed upside down and a mobile crane was used to turn it over and place the windshaft into position.


=== 1983 ===


Work in the early part of 1983 was mainly confined to smaller jobs such as casting various brasses and overhaul of the various parts of the fantail drivetrain and mechanism for controlling the Patent sails. The mill was generally made as safe as possible inside in preparation for scheduled visits, including one from the Wind and Watermill Section of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Other work included the overhaul of the final drive to the 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) stones, including dismantling the stone nut and replacement of three cogs in beech.


When the weather improved, work commenced outside. The cap circle was mostly constructed before the first work-in commenced. The work-ins took place over two separate weeks in July and August, with 35 people participating. During the first work-in, the fantail posts and braces were fitted. The oak cap ribs, which had been prefabricated offsite were fitted and the finial was supported by scaffolding ready for final fitting. Intermdiate noggings of oak were fitted and the finial was pulled into position using a windlass. The cap frame was competed with the fitting of intermediate ribs and noggings. The rear of the cap circle was also completed during this time.


Between the two work-ins, the rear dormer was completed and the fitting of noggings to the cap frame completed. This enabled a start to be made on boarding the cap on the Monday of the second work-in. The boards for the cap are ½ inch (13 mm) thick and 9 inches (230 mm) wide at the petticoat, tapering towards the top. A new neck bearing was installed under the windshaft, not without difficulty and much machining before it would fit. When the boarding of the cap was completed, the cover strips were fitted over the joints. The petticoat was drawn into position using a rope and windlass, and the galvanised steel reinforcing band screwed into position, producing a sturdy structure. The striking rod was fitted through the windshaft and the axle for the fantail fitted in position on top of the fantail posts. At the top of the mill tower, the curb was prepared to accept the cap, and the cast iron curb track plates bolted into position. Repointing of the brickwork of the tower continued, with nearly half of it completed at the end of the second work-in.


After the work-ins had ended, work continued on finishing the cap which was scheduled for lift-on in October. The weather hampered the work initially, but the application of a modern microporous paint, designed to withstand normal movement of the timber and yet remain waterproof, was completed in time for the lift-on. A mini work-in was held the weekend before the cap was lifted, with 17 people participating over the weekend. Final work was done to the cap and a new window was fitted to the stone floor of the mill. The tarpaulin was removed and the trammel dismantled. The 5-ton cap was lifted into place by a mobile crane on 24 October 1983, watched by a crowd of some 70 people. The fitting of the cap was toasted with beer from Adnams Brewery, Southwold.


Restoration work in 1983 cost £ 1,408. Grants were received from the Association of Independent Museums, Blo 'Norton Women's Institute, Ipswich Historical Transport Society, the National Association for Gifted Children, Mr D. Porter and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Further income came from the sale of guide books and a drawing of the mill by Wilf Foreman.


=== 1984 ===


Four work-ins were held during 1984. The first two were by apprentices from Eastern Electricity Board. Thelnetham Windmill was chosen at the project to benefit from the Young Person's Development Project for that year. Pakenham Watermill had previously benefited from the project, and its owners, the Suffolk Preservation Trust, had suggested that Thelnetham Windmill would be a good candidate for the scheme. Two separate parties spent a week each at the mill. A mains electricity supply was provided. An underground cable was laid with assistance from British Telecom who were trialling a thrust borer which had been developed at their research facility at Martlesham Heath. The thrust borer laid 25 yards (23 m) of ducting through which the mains cable was pulled into position. The mill was then supplied with lights and sockets on each floor.


Other work undertaken by the apprentices involved repairing some frost damage to the foundation brickwork, digging a drainage trench around the mill and moving the auxiliary engine into position. A concrete path around the tower was trapping moisture, leading to rising damp. A French drain was constructed around the mill to remedy these problem. A 21 horsepower (16 kW) Ruston & Hornsby 4YHR diesel engine had been purchased in 1981 and was fitted onto a permanent concrete base with the aid of a mobile crane. After fitting it was then painted. Some missing or broken parts were made or repaired as necessary.


Off-site, the new brake wheel and fantail were made. The original brake wheel was too rotten to repair, and showed evidence that it had been altered from the original one installed in 1819. The original brake wheel was 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter to allow the Common sails to run at their optimum speed. When the mill was modernised in 1832 it was necessary to alter the gear ratios within the mill, as Patent sails run at a slower speed than Common sails. The great spur wheel was increased in diameter and the stone nuts reduced in diameter. The brake wheel was also rebuilt, with a cast iron segment ring fitted in place of the original cogs, resulting in a wheel 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) in diameter. The opinion of professional millwrights was sought, and it was decided that a scaled-up version of the original brake wheel would be made, but retaining the cast iron teeth segments. The remains of the original brake wheel were retained as an exhibit in the mill. The original iron segments were all broken, so a pattern was made and new segments were cast in heat-treated malleable cast iron. When the brake wheel was completed it was dismantled and transported to the mill ready for reassembly.


The fantail was made. Some of the small gears were replaced. The stocks were made from pitch pine and the blades from Douglas fir. Work at the mill over the winter included repairs to the brickwork and windows, with only one window still needing attention when the first work-in began. New beech cogs were fitted to the crown wheel, which was restored to its correct position on the upright shaft.


The stocks and sails were made during the two work-ins held in July and August, a total of 41 people attending over the two weeks. A second-hand stock had been bought in the 1920s and preserved at the mill, but upon examination it was found to be unfit for use. Thus two new stocks were required instead of one. Modern steel stocks had already been discounted on cost and durability grounds, leaving two options. Traditional stocks made from a single piece of timber, or laminated stocks. Good quality pitch pine was not obtainable in the lengths required. Douglas fir was obtainable in such lengths but was discounted on strength and durability grounds. A Douglas fir stock on a nearby mill had rotted after only seven years. Thus it was decided that laminated stocks would be made.


The 52 feet (15.85 m) long stocks were made from Douglas fir. All timber had been pressure treated with preservative and well seasoned. It was estimated that a laminated stock would be up to 20 % stronger than a similar stock of solid timber. The timber used was 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) thick and nine laminations were required at the centre, where the stock passes through the poll end of the windshaft. Careful attention was paid to where individual joints occurred between different pieces of timber. Both stocks were made during the work-in, with one of them being trimmed and finished ready for use. The stocks were the first laminated stocks made by amateurs.


The four sails were made. The originals being slightly different pairs. Those on the inner stock having bays of 3 feet (910 mm) pitch and those on the outer stock having bays of 3 feet 2 inches (970 mm) pitch. It was decided that the new sails would be identical, at the larger pitch. Four 27 feet (8.23 m) long whips were cut from a baulk of pitch pine obtained from a demolished maltings at Bury St Edmunds. The whips are 6 inches (150 mm) square at their inner end. Sail bars and uplongs were made from modern pitch pine, selected for quality. The mortices for the sail bars were cut. That at the heel of the sail being at 27°and that at the tip being 15 °, decreasing by 1 ½°at each sail bar. Three of the four sails had been completed at the end of the work in.


The fantail and associated gearing was fitted to the mill. At the end of the second work-in, the cap could be turned by means of the hand crank. The fantail itself, with the blades painted red, white and blue was installed shortly afterwards. The clasp arm brake wheel was assembled around the windshaft. It was found that the wallower was eccentric on the upright shaft by ½ inch (13 mm). When this was corrected the brake wheel was within 1 / 16 th of an inch (less than 1 mm) of true. The clamps for the stocks were sawn from a baulk of pitch pine ready for completion later in the year. Other work included a new frame for one of the ground floor doors, cleaning and painting ironwork and further repointing on the brickwork. The four sails were fitted to the mill with the aid of a mobile crane at the end of the second work-in. The stock, with one sail attached was carefully inserted through the poll end of the windshaft and when wedged in position and the clamps had been attached the second sail was fitted to the stock. The process was repeated for the second pair of sails. The mill turned by wind again on the last day of the second work-in.


Work later in the year included the finishing of the fourth sail, balancing the fantail and sorting out teething troubles with the fantail gearing. The brake and brake lever were made and installed and shutter cranks for the sails were cast.


Restoration work in 1984 cost £ 2,918. Grants received were £ 1,209 from English Heritage, £ 500 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, Other donations amounted to £ 52. Income from open days at the mill came to £ 151. A boost to the funds was £ 2,000 from Hervey Benham. This money had been allocated to allow the moving of a derelict post mill buck to Thelnetham. In the end, the removal was not proceeded with, and Mr Benham allowed the donation to remain with the Thelnetham Mill Preservation Trust. The project received further support in local media, including the East Anglian Daily Times, one of the work-ins being featured on Anglia Television's About Anglia programme.


=== 1985 - 87 ===


Work planned for 1985 included the replacement of the dust floor window and completion of the stocks and sails. The external walls of the mill were tarred and internal walls plastered. Two work-ins were held, from 20 July to 28 July and 17 August to 26 August. Further work over the next two years saw the restoration completed in 1987.


== Restoration team ==


The restoration of Thelnetham Windmill was made possible by the efforts of 135 individuals and 61 organisations. This was achieved by the donation of labour, plant, materials or grants of money, or by giving discounts for materials purchased or providing publicity for the project.


== Description ==


Terms explained in the Mill machinery article are in italics


As built in 1819


A four-storey tower mill with Common sails carried on a wooden windshaft, driving two pairs of overdrift millstones. Brake wheel 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter. Winding was by hand.


As restored


The four-storey tower is built of brick, and stands 31 feet 5 inches (9.58 m) from ground level to the curb. The walls are 2 feet (610 mm) thick at ground level. The mill is described from the top down.


The pepperpot cap sits on top of the tower, giving the mill an overall height of 45 feet (13.72 m) to the finial. It houses the cast-iron windshaft and 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) diameter wooden brake wheel internally. Externally the four double Patent sails span 64 feet (19.51 m). They are 9 feet (2.74 m) wide and can develop 30 horsepower (22 kW). The eight bladed fantail keeps the mill turned into wind.


The top floor of the mill is the dust floor. It could be used for storage of grain and gives internal access to the cap. The cast-iron wallower, which is driven by the brake wheel is carried at the top of the upright shaft, in the centre of the mill.


The bin floor is where the grain is stored before being ground into flour. The sack hoist mechanism is housed on this floor, driven from the wooden crown wheel on the floor below by belt.


The stone floor is where the two pairs of underdrift French Burr millstones are located. The stones are 4 feet 4 inches (1.32 m) and 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) diameter. The wooden crown wheel is located towards the ceiling. This drives the sack hoist on the bin floor. Other machinery on this floor are an oat crusher and a flour dresser.


The ground floor of the mill is the meal floor. It is where the freshly ground flour is delivered for bagging up. The wooden great spur wheel, located at the bottom of the extended upright shaft and stone nuts are located on this floor. The great spur wheel has been converted from compass arm construction to clasp arm construction. A third pair of 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) diameter French Burr millstones is located on a hurst frame, driven by the auxiliary engine via a fast and loose pulley.


== Millers ==


William Button 1819-37


Rebecca Button 1837-? ?


Richard Button 18? ? -60


William Button 1860-62


Richard Button (Jr) 1860-62


Stephen Peverett 1862-79


Henry Bryant 1879-1920


Alphonso Vincent 1920-24


George Vincent 1920-24


Reference for above: -


== Culture and media ==


A video of the restoration of the mill was produced by Viv Codd.


== Public access ==


Thelnetham Mill is open to the public on Easter Monday, the Sunday of the late May and August bank holidays and the first Sunday in July, August and September. It is also open at other times by prior arrangement.


= Sailor Mouth =


"Sailor Mouth" is the first segment of the 18th episode of the second season, or the 38th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. The episode was directed by Andrew Overtoom, and was written by Walt Dohrn, Paul Tibbitt, and Merriwether Williams. Dohrn and Tibbitt also served as storyboard directors, and Carson Kugler, William Reiss, and Erik Wiese worked as storyboard artists. It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on September 21, 2001.


The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom. In this episode, SpongeBob reads a "bad word" off a dumpster behind the Krusty Krab, but does not know what it means. Patrick explains to him that it is a "sentence enhancer" which is used "when you want to talk fancy." The two start using it in every sentence they speak. However, when Mr. Krabs hears them, he warns the two never to use the word again or any of the 13 bad words. Later on, SpongeBob accidentally swears again. Patrick then runs to tell Mr. Krabs with SpongeBob trying to stop him. However, when Mr. Krabs accidentally injures his toe, he utters all the 13 bad words. The two cannot believe it and run to Mama Krabs to tell on him. Mama Krabs, who is appalled by their use of the words, makes the three paint her house as punishment.


The episode received positive reviews, while various members of the SpongeBob SquarePants crew consider the episode to be one of their favorites, mainly due to the satirical nature of the episode. However, the episode was not immune to negative reception, and was criticized by watchdog media group the Parents Television Council and fans, who interpreted the episode as an example of promoting and implicitly satirizing use of profanity towards children.


== Plot summary ==


When SpongeBob goes around to the back of the Krusty Krab to take out the trash, he reads some words written on a dumpster. SpongeBob asks Patrick what is it and Patrick says that the word is a "sentence enhancer" which is used "when you want to talk fancy." The next day, SpongeBob walks into the Krusty Krab and says the word to Patrick and then over the intercom. The Krusty Krab customers are appalled by SpongeBob's use of his "word" and leave. Squidward then informs Mr. Krabs, who then decides to tell them that they were using profanity, and mentions that there are 13 swear words they should not use. SpongeBob and Patrick vow Mr. Krabs that they will never use swear words again.


Later, they play their favorite game, Eels and Escalators. Patrick always gets escalators but SpongeBob always gets eels. Eventually, he loses the game and accidentally utters the swear word. Patrick then races to the Krusty Krab to tell Mr. Krabs with SpongeBob trying to stop him. SpongeBob bursts through the front door and tells Mr. Krabs that Patrick said the swear word, Patrick then joins along. Eventually, Mr. Krabs stops their gibberish explanations, and takes SpongeBob and Patrick outside and makes them paint the Krusty Krab as punishment.


Mr. Krabs is about to give SpongeBob and Patrick the job, but he hits his foot on a rock, throws the paint away and says all 13 swear words while complaining about his foot being injured. When SpongeBob and Patrick hear all the swear words, they run to Mama Krabs' house to tell her that Mr. Krabs swears. When they all reach her house, they repeat the same swear words that Mr. Krabs used. This makes her faint, but shortly after Mr. Krabs scolds SpongeBob and Patrick for saying all those bad words in front of her she regains consciousness. Mama Krabs states that all three of them should be ashamed for saying all those words. She then gives all three of them the task of painting her house with a fresh coat of paint as punishment for saying those words at her.


== Production ==


"Sailor Mouth" was directed by Andrew Overtoom, and was written by Walt Dohrn, Paul Tibbitt, and Merriwether Williams. Dohrn and Tibbitt also served as storyboard directors, and Carson Kugler, William Reiss and Erik Wiese worked as storyboard artists. Series creator Stephen Hillenburg has described the episode plot as "a classic thing all kids go through." Much of the storyline for the episode was inspired by the writers'own experiences from childhood. The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on September 21, 2001. The episode marks the introduction of Mr. Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who was voiced by former SpongeBob SquarePants creative producer and current executive producer Paul Tibbitt.


The writing staff used their individual childhood experiences as inspirations to come up with much of the story lines for this episode. The idea for "Sailor Mouth" was inspired by creative director Derek Drymon's experience "[when] I got in trouble for saying the f-word in front of my mother." Drymon said, "The scene where Patrick is running to Mr. Krabs to tattle, with SpongeBob chasing him, is pretty much how it happened in real life." The end of the episode, where Mr. Krabs uses more profanity than SpongeBob and Patrick, was also inspired "by the fact that my [Drymon's] mother has a sailor mouth herself."


The scene where SpongeBob and Patrick playing a game of Eels and Escalators, which is a parody of Snakes and Ladders, was difficult for the crew to animate, since many shots featured certain board pieces changing location. According to the series'season 2 DVD commentary, it was planned to have a scene that had SpongeBob saying "Go' dolphin noise 'yourself" followed by Patrick saying "' Dolphin noise ' you too!" during the Eels and Escalators game. It was removed in the final episode check because it would have been inappropriate for the younger audience.


"Sailor Mouth" was released on the DVD compilation called SpongeBob SquarePants: Sea Stories on March 12, 2002. It was also included in the SpongeBob SquarePants: The Complete 2nd Season DVD released on October 19, 2004. On September 22, 2009, "Sailor Mouth" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five.


== Reception ==


Erik Wiese, a member of the SpongeBob SquarePants crew, considers "Sailor Mouth" to be his favorite episode, mainly due to its random and satirical nature, saying "Sometimes SpongeBob just catches me off-guard." Nancy Basile of About.com ranked the episode at number two for her list of the Top 10 SpongeBob SquarePants Episodes. She said "'Sailor Mouth' just barely missed being in the number one slot." Basile praised the episode's plot and called it "genius [...] because children can relate to the forbidden thrill of using curse words, and adults can laugh at the parody of TV censorship." In an interview with Paul Tibbitt, one of the episode's writers, he told that "Sailor Mouth" is his second favorite SpongeBob episode.


=== Criticism and controversy ===


According to a report titled Wolves in Sheep's Clothing, which documents the increase in potentially violent, profane, and sexual content in children's programming, the Parents Television Council, a watchdog media group, and fans believed the SpongeBob SquarePants episode "Sailor Mouth" was an implicit attempt to promote and satirize use of profanity among children. The episode originally aired during the 2001 – 02 television season, ironically the season in which the PTC named SpongeBob SquarePants among the best programs on cable television, but the report cited a repeat broadcast of the episode from 2005 to prove its point that it promoted use of profanity among children. In a later report, several members of the PTC listed "Sailor Mouth" as an example of how levels of profane, sexual, and violent activity has increased in children's television programming. Nickelodeon, in response to the incident, said "It's sad and a little desperate that they stooped to literally putting profane language in the mouths of our characters to make a point. Has the FCC looked at this?" Richard Huff of the New York Daily News criticized the report for misinterpreting an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants, "Sailor Mouth", over its intent to satirize profanity implicitly.


= Military history of Australia =


The military history of Australia spans the nation's 220-year modern history, from the early Australian frontier wars between Aboriginals and Europeans to the ongoing conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan in the early 21st century. Although this history is short when compared to that of many other nations, Australia has been involved in numerous conflicts and wars, and war and military service have been significant influences on Australian society and national identity, including the Anzac spirit. The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and its unique security dilemma.


As British offshoots, the Australian colonies participated in Britain's small wars of the 19th century, while later as a federated dominion, and then an independent nation, Australia fought in the First World War and Second World War, as well as in the wars in Korea, Malaya, Borneo and Vietnam during the Cold War. In the Post-Vietnam era Australian forces have been involved in numerous international peacekeeping missions, through the United Nations and other agencies, including in the Sinai, Persian Gulf, Rwanda, Somalia, East Timor and the Solomon Islands, while more recently they have also fought as part of multi-lateral forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. In total, nearly 103,000 Australians died during the course of these conflicts.


== War and Australian society ==


For most of the last century military service has been one of the single greatest shared experiences of white Australian males, and although this is now changing due to the professionalisation of the military and the absence of major wars during the second half of the 20th century, it continues to influence Australian society to this day. War and military service have been defining influences in Australian history, while a major part of the national identity has been built on an idealised conception of the Australian experience of war and of soldiering, known as the Anzac spirit. These ideals include notions of endurance, courage, ingenuity, humour, larrikinism, egalitarianism and mateship; traits which, according to popular thought, defined the behaviour of Australian soldiers fighting at Gallipoli during the First World War. The Gallipoli campaign was one of the first international events that saw Australians taking part as Australians and has been seen as a key event in forging a sense of national identity.


The relationship between war and Australian society has been shaped by two of the more enduring themes of Australian strategic culture: bandwagoning with a powerful ally and expeditionary warfare. Indeed, Australian defence policy was closely linked to Britain until the Japanese crisis of 1942, while since then an alliance with the United States has underwritten its security. Arguably, this pattern of bandwagoning — both for cultural reasons such as shared values and beliefs, as well as for more pragmatic security concerns — has ensured that Australian strategic policy has often been defined by relations with its allies. Regardless, a tendency towards strategic complacency has also been evident, with Australians often reluctant to think about defence issues or to allocate resources until a crisis arises; a trait which has historically resulted in unpreparedness for major military challenges.


Reflecting both the realist and liberal paradigms of international relations and the conception of national interests, a number of other important themes in Australian strategic culture are also obvious. Such themes include: an acceptance of the state as the key actor in international politics, the centrality of notions of Westphalian sovereignty, a belief in the enduring relevance and legitimacy of armed force as a guarantor of security, and the proposition that the status quo in international affairs should only be changed peacefully. Likewise, multilateralism, collective security and defence self-reliance have also been important themes. Change has been more evolutionary than revolutionary and these strategic behaviours have persisted throughout its history, being the product of Australian society's democratic political tradition and Judaeo-Christian Anglo-European heritage, as well its associated values, beliefs and economic, political and religious ideology. These behaviours are also reflective of its unique security dilemma as a largely European island on the edge of the Asia-Pacific, and the geopolitical circumstances of a middle power physically removed from the centres of world power. To be sure, during threats to the core Australia has often found itself defending the periphery and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars. Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers — known colloquially as Diggers — have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, for both their fighting abilities and their humanitarian qualities.


== Colonial era ==


=== British Forces in Australia, 1788 – 1870 ===


From 1788 until 1870 the defence of the Australian colonies was mostly provided by British Army regular forces. Originally Marines protected the early settlements at Sydney Cove and Norfolk Island, however they were relieved of these duties in 1790 by a British Army unit specifically recruited for colonial service, known as the New South Wales Corps. The New South Wales Corps subsequently was involved in putting down a rebellion of Irish convicts at Castle Hill in 1804. Soon however shortcomings in the corps convinced the War Office of the need for a more reliable garrison in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Chief of these shortcomings was the Rum Rebellion, a coup mounted by its officers in 1808. As a result, in January 1810 the 73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot arrived in Australia. By 1870, 25 British infantry regiments had served in Australia, as had a small number of artillery and engineer units.


Although the primary role of the British Army was to protect the colonies against external attack, no actual threat ever materialised. The British Army was instead used in policing, guarding convicts at penal institutions, combating bushranging, putting down convict rebellions — as occurred at Bathurst in 1830 — and to suppress Aboriginal resistance to the extension of European settlement. Notably British soldiers were involved in the battle at the Eureka Stockade in 1854 on the Victorian goldfields. Members of British regiments stationed in Australia also saw action in India, Afghanistan, New Zealand and the Sudan.


During the early years of settlement the naval defence of Australia was provided by detached Royal Navy units of the East Indies Station, based in Sydney. However, in 1859 Australia was established as a separate squadron under the command of a commodore, marking the first occasion that Royal Navy ships had been permanently stationed in Australia. The Royal Navy remained the primary naval force in Australian waters until 1913, when the Australia Station ceased and responsibility handed over to the Royal Australian Navy; the Royal Navy's depots, dockyards and structures were given to the Australian people.


=== Frontier warfare, 1788 – 1934 ===


The reactions of the native Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden arrival of British settlers in Australia were varied, but were inevitably hostile when the settler's presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of the indigenous inhabitants' lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation. By and large neither the British nor the Aborigines approached the conflict in an organised sense and conflict occurred between groups of settlers and individual tribes rather than systematic warfare. At times, however, the frontier wars did see the involvement of British soldiers and later mounted police units. Not all Aboriginal groups resisted white encroachment on their lands, while many Aborigines served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes.


Fighting between Aborigines and Europeans was localised as the Aborigines did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. As a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent. Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the early 20th century. This warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic "myth" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres. Among the most famous is the Battle of Pinjarra in Western Australia in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings. However, in Tasmania the so-called Black War was fought between 1828 and 1832, and aimed at driving most of the island's native inhabitants onto a number of isolated peninsulas. Although it began in failure for the British, it ultimately resulted in considerable casualties amongst the native population.


It may be inaccurate though to depict the conflict as one sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Aborigines. Although many more Aborigines died than British, this may have had more to do with the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by the Europeans. Aboriginal tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices — using spears, clubs and other primitive weapons. Unlike the indigenous peoples of New Zealand and North America, on the main Aborigines failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans. Although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread. The Aborigines were never a serious military threat to European settlers, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them. On occasions large groups of Aborigines attacked the settlers in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aborigines would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears while the settlers reloaded. However, such open warfare usually proved more costly for the Aborigines than the Europeans.


Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within 50 metres (160 ft). These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.


The conflict lasted for over 150 years and followed the pattern of British settlement in Australia. Beginning in New South Wales with the arrival of the first Europeans in May 1788, it continued in Sydney and its surrounds until the 1820s. As the frontier moved west so did the conflict, pushing into outback New South Wales in the 1840s. In Tasmania, fighting can be traced from 1804 to the 1830s, while in Victoria and the southern parts of South Australia, the majority of the violence occurred during the 1830s and 1840s. The south-west of Western Australia experienced warfare from 1829 to 1850. The war in Queensland began in the area around Brisbane in the 1840s and continued until 1860, moving to central Queensland in the 1850s and 1860s, and then to northern Queensland from the 1860s to 1900. In Western Australia, the violence moved north with European settlement, reaching the Kimberley region by 1880, with violent clashes continuing until the 1920s. In the Northern Territory conflict lasted even later still, especially in central Australia, continuing from the 1880s to the 1930s. One estimate of casualties places European deaths at 2,500, while at least 20,000 Aborigines are believed to have perished. Far more devastating though was the effect of disease which significantly reduced the Aboriginal population by the beginning of the 20th century; a fact which may also have limited their ability to resist.


=== New Zealand Wars, 1861 – 64 ===


==== Taranaki War ====


In 1861, the Victorian ship HMCSS Victoria was dispatched to help the New Zealand colonial government in its war against Māori in Taranaki. Victoria was subsequently used for patrol duties and logistic support, although a number of personnel were involved in actions against Māori fortifications. One sailor died from an accidental gunshot wound during the deployment.


==== Invasion of the Waikato ====


In late 1863, the New Zealand government requested troops to assist in the invasion of the Waikato province against the Māori. Promised settlement on confiscated land, more than 2,500 Australians (over half of whom were from Victoria) were recruited to form four Waikato Regiments. Other Australians became scouts in the Company of Forest Rangers. Despite experiencing arduous conditions the Australians were not heavily involved in battle, and were primarily used for patrolling and garrison duties. Australians were involved in actions at Matarikoriko, Pukekohe East, Titi Hill, Ōrākau and Te Ranga. Fewer than 20 were believed to have been killed in action. The conflict was over by 1864, and the Waikato Regiments disbanded in 1867. However, many of the soldiers who had chosen to claim farmland at the cessation of hostilities had drifted to the towns and cities by the end of the decade, while many others had returned to Australia.


=== Colonial military forces, 1870 – 1901 ===


From 1870 until 1901, each of the six colonial governments was responsible for their own defence. The colonies had gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, and while the Colonial Office in London retained control of some affairs, the Governor of the each colony was required to raise their own colonial militia. To do this, they were granted the authority from the British crown to raise military and naval forces. Initially these were militias in support of British regulars, but when military support for the colonies ended in 1870, the colonies assumed their own defence responsibilities. The colonial military forces included unpaid volunteer militia, paid citizen soldiers, and a small permanent component. They were mainly infantry, cavalry and mounted infantry, and were neither housed in barracks nor subject to full military discipline. Even after significant reforms in the 1870s — including the expansion of the permanent forces to include engineer and artillery units — they remained too small and unbalanced to be considered armies in the modern sense. By 1885, the forces numbered 21,000 men. Although they could not be compelled to serve overseas many volunteers subsequently did see action in a number conflicts of the British Empire during the 19th century, with the colonies raising contingents to serve in Sudan, South Africa and China.


Despite a reputation of colonial inferiority, many of the locally raised units were highly organised, disciplined, professional, and well trained. During this period, defences in Australia mainly revolved around static defence by combined infantry and artillery, based on garrisoned coastal forts. However, by the 1890s, improved railway communications between the mainland eastern colonies led Major General James Edwards — who had recently completed a survey of colonial military forces — to the belief that the colonies could be defended by the rapid mobilisation of brigades of infantry. As a consequence he called for a restructure of defences, and defensive agreements to be made between the colonies. Edwards argued for the colonial forces to be federated and for professional units — obliged to serve anywhere in the South Pacific — to replace the volunteer forces. These views found support in the influential New South Wales Commandant, Major General Edward Hutton, however suspicions held by the smaller colonies towards New South Wales and Victoria stifled the proposal. These reforms remaining unresolved however, and defence issues were generally given little attention in the debate on the political federation of the colonies.


With the exception of Western Australia, the colonies also operated their own navies. In 1856, Victoria received its own naval vessel, HMCSS Victoria, and its deployment to New Zealand in 1860 during the First Taranaki War marked the first occasion that an Australian warship had been deployed overseas. The colonial navies were expanded greatly in the mid-1880s and consisted of a number of gunboats and torpedo-boats for the defence of harbours and rivers, as well as naval brigades to man vessels and forts. Victoria became the most powerful of all the colonial navies, with the ironclad HMVS Cerberus in service from 1870, as well as the steam-sail warship HMS Nelson on loan from the Royal Navy, three small gunboats and five torpedo-boats. New South Wales formed a Naval Brigade in 1863 and by the start of the 20th century had two small torpedo-boats and a corvette. The Queensland Maritime Defence Force was established in 1885, while South Australia operated a single ship, HMCS Protector. Tasmania had also a small Torpedo Corps, while Western Australia's only naval defences included the Fremantle Naval Artillery. Naval personnel from New South Wales and Victoria took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, while HMCS Protector was sent by South Australia but saw no action. The separate colonies maintained control over their military and naval forces until Federation in 1901, when they were amalgamated and placed under the control of the new Commonwealth of Australia.


=== Sudan, 1885 ===


During the early years of the 1880s, an Egyptian regime in the Sudan, backed by the British, came under threat from rebellion under the leadership of native Muhammad Ahmad (or Ahmed), known as Mahdi to his followers. In 1883, as part of the Mahdist War, the Egyptians sent an army to deal with the revolt, but they were defeated and faced a difficult campaign of extracting their forces. The British instructed the Egyptians to abandon the Sudan, and sent General Charles Gordon to co-ordinate the evacuation, but he was killed in January 1885. When news of his death arrived in New South Wales in February 1885, the government offered to send forces and meet the contingent's expenses. The New South Wales Contingent consisted of an infantry battalion of 522 men and 24 officers, and an artillery battery of 212 men and sailed from Sydney on 3 March 1885.