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+========,1,preface.
+Super 8mm film is a motion picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement over the older "Double" or "Regular" 8 mm home movie format.
+The film is nominally 8mm wide, the same as older formatted 8mm film, but the dimensions of the rectangular perforations along one edge are smaller, which allows for a greater exposed area.
+The Super 8 standard also allocates the border opposite the perforations for an oxide stripe upon which sound can be magnetically recorded.
+Unlike Super 35, the film stock used for Super 8 is not compatible with standard 8mm film cameras.
+There are several varieties of the film system used for shooting, but the final film in each case has the same dimensions.
+The most popular system by far was the Kodak system.
+========,2,Super 8 system.
+Launched in 1965 by Eastman Kodak at the 1964-65 Worlds Fair, Super 8 film comes in plastic light-proof cartridges containing coaxial supply and take up spools loaded with of film, with 72 frames per foot, for a total of approximately 3,600 frames per film cartridge.
+This is enough film for 2.5 minutes at the professional motion picture standard of 24 frames per second, and for 3 minutes and 20 seconds of continuous filming at 18 frames per second (upgraded from Standard 8 mm 16 frame/s) for amateur use.
+In 1973 the system was upgraded with a larger cartridge, which included film with magnetic sound.
+In 1975 an even larger cartridge became available which could be used in specifically designed cameras.
+The sound and the 200 foot cartridge system are no longer available, but the 50 foot silent cartridge system is still manufactured.
+Historically, Super 8 film was a reversal stock for home projection used primarily for the creation of home movies.
+It became an extremely popular consumer product in the late 1960s through the 1970s, but was largely replaced in 1980 by the use of video tape.
+During the mid-to-late 1980s Super 8 began to re-emerge as an alternative method for movie production, beginning with its use in MTV music videos in 1981.
+In 1993 the company's Super8 Sound, now called Pro8mm, pioneered the use of the color negative in Super 8 by custom perforating and loading a variety of 35mm film stocks into the Super 8 film cartridge.
+This included emulsions from Kodak, Fuji and Ilford.
+Today Super 8 color negative film is the main color stock used.
+There are also Super 8 reversal films available including 200D Agfa color and black-and-white (B&W) from Foma, ADOX and ORWO and Kodak.
+The Super 8 plastic cartridge is probably the fastest loading film system ever developed, as it can be loaded into the Super 8 camera in less than two seconds without the need to directly thread or touch the film.
+In addition, coded notches cut into the Super 8 film cartridge exterior allow the camera to recognize the film speed automatically.
+Not all cameras can read all the notches correctly, however, and there is some debate about which notches actually deliver the best results.
+Canon keeps an exhaustive list of their Super 8 cameras with detailed specifications on what film speeds can be used with their cameras.
+Usually, testing one cartridge of film can help handle any uncertainty a filmmaker may have about how well their Super 8 camera reads different film stocks.
+Color stocks were originally available only in tungsten (3400K), and almost all Super 8 cameras come with a switchable daylight filter built in, allowing for both indoor and outdoor shooting.
+The original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, but in 1973 a sound on film version was released.
+The film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path.
+Sound film requires a longer film path (for smoothing the film movement before it reaches the recording head), and a second aperture for the recording head.
+Sound cameras were compatible with silent cartridges, but not vice versa.
+Sound film was typically filmed at a speed of 18 or 24 frames per second.
+Kodak discontinued the production of Super 8 sound film in 1997 citing environmental regulations as the reason.
+The adhesive used to bond the magnetic track to the film was environmentally hazardous.
+In 2005 Kodak announced the discontinuation of their most popular stock Kodachrome due to the decline of facilities equipped with K-14 process.
+Kodachrome was "replaced" by a new ISO 64 Ektachrome, which used the simpler E-6 process.
+The last roll of Kodachrome was processed on January 18, 2011, (although announced last date of processing was December 30, 2010) in Parsons, Kansas, by the sole remaining lab capable of processing it.
+In December 2012, Kodak discontinued color reversal stock in all formats including 35mm and Super 8.
+Today there is still a variety of Super 8 film stocks.
+Kodak has three Super 8 color negative stocks cut from their Vision 3 film series, ISO 50, ISO 200 and ISO 500 which can be used in very low light.
+Kodak reformulated the emulsions for the B&W reversal stocks and made Tri-X (ISO 200) in order to give it more sharpness.
+Film cut to Super 8 from other manufactured raw stock such as Fuji, Orwo, Adox, Agfa and Foma are also available.
+Pro8mm offers 7 color negative stocks made from Kodak and Fuji film.
+Color Reversal film for Super 8 is still available from several Super 8 specialty companies.
+Wittner Kinotechnik offers Super 8 made from a batch of Agfa Aviphot 200D which was perforated and slit for Super 8, 8mm and 16mm formats.
+This film is loaded into Super 8 and Single cartridges by several of the specialty companies.
+Other stocks, such as the new Fuji reversal film, and existing supplies of Kodak 35mm 100D are often made available in Super 8 by these specialty companies.
+Here is a sample of New Provia in Super 8.
+Kodak does not offer processing for any Super-8 films.
+There are other labs that offer processing including: Pro8mm in Los Angeles, US and Andec in Berlin, Germany.
+Regional labs that do Super 8 processing services include: Cinelab in Massachusetts, US, Movie & Sound in Florence, Italy; Retro 8 in Japan; Spectra Film & Video in Los Angeles; Reversal Lab in the Netherlands; Dwayne photo in the US; and Film Rescue in Canada just to name a few.
+The growing popularity and availability of non-linear editing systems has allowed film-makers and any user of film to shoot Super 8 film but edit in digital.
+This avoids much of the tedium of handling film and the damage to the film which can occur when editing the actual film.
+Super 8 films may be transferred (scanned) to digital through a variety of processes, and then imported into computer-based editing and correction systems for post production.
+Today's systems can even scan super 8 to 4K digital in a variety of formats.
+Here is a sample of Super 8 Data Scanned to 4K.
+========,2,Fujifilm Single-8 system.
+Fujifilm of Japan developed an alternative format called Single-8, which was released in 1965 as a different option to the Kodak Super 8 format.
+Single-8 cartridges, without a press plate, are of a different design from a Super 8 cartridge, resembling a cassette-style design (supply and take-up reels side by side) as opposed to Super 8's coaxial cartridge design (one reel on top of the other).
+Therefore, Single-8 film cartridges can only be used in Single-8 cameras.
+However, the film loaded in a Single-8 cartridge has exactly the same dimensions as Super 8 (though it is made of a thinner and stronger polyester base, rather than the acetate base of Super 8 film), and can be viewed in any Super 8 projector after processing.
+However, Fuji recommended that only tape splices be used when combining Single-8 footage with Super-8, as cement would cause damage to the Single-8 footage.
+Also, when jammed, Single-8 footage had a tendency to stretch in the projector, unlike the acetate-based Super-8 film, which simply broke.
+Although never as popular as Super 8, the format existed in parallel.
+On June 2, 2009, Fuji announced the end of Single-8 motion picture film.
+Tungsten balanced 200 ASA Fuji RT200N ceased to be manufactured by May 2010.
+Daylight balanced 25 ASA Fujichrome R25N remained available until March 2012.
+Fuji's in-house processing service was available until September 2013.
+========,2,Polaroid Polavision.
+An instant 8mm film released in 1977 by Polaroid, Polavision uses the same perforations as Super 8mm film.
+It can be projected through a Super 8mm projector if the film is transferred from the original cartridge to an 8mm reel.
+However, because of the additive process, the picture will be much darker.
+========,2,Double Super 8.
+Double Super 8 film (commonly abbreviated as DS8) is a 16 mm wide film but has Super 8 size sprockets.
+It is used in the same way as standard 8 mm film in that the film is run through the camera twice, exposing one side on each pass.
+During processing, the film is split down the middle and the two pieces spliced together to produce a single strip for projection in a Super 8 projector.
+Because it has sprockets on both sides of the film, the pin-registration is superior to Super 8 film and so picture stability is better.
+========,2,Widescreen Super8 and Max8.
+As Super 8 progressed to be used in HD and theatrical applications, a need arose for widescreen compatibility without having to use expensive optical adapters or excessive cropping.
+Since magnetic sound-striped film was no longer available, that area of the film could be used to expand the picture aspect ratio in a process similar to the creation of Super 16 from standard 16mm film.
+The creators of Sleep Always experimented with widening the camera gate to expose into the sound track region to achieve this.
+In March 2005, Pro8mm introduced its own version of the widened gate, achieving aspect ratio of 1.58 and calling it Max8.
+Because top and bottom of the frame are meant to be cropped to achieve final 16:9 aspect ratio, the viewfinder is modified to show 16:9 frame markings.
+Pro8mm claims that shooting with Max8 and then cropping it to achieve 16:9 provides 20% increase in the size of the negative compared to regular Super8 cropped to 16:9.
+In 2015, Logmar of Denmark made a one-off batch of 50 "digicanical" pro-level Super 8 cameras to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Super 8.
+These cameras use a widened gate as well, providing an 11% increase in imaging area over the standard Super8 frame and achieving aspect ratio of 1.5.
+In 2016, Eastman Kodak showed a concept for a new Super 8 camera, its first such camera in over 30 years.
+Although Kodak has neither confirmed nor denied it, Logmar is said to have assisted in the design of the transport and the camera's firmware.
+A working prototype was displayed at the 2017 Consumer Electronics Show, with Kodak hoping to begin production in spring 2017.
+========,2,Equipment and film.
+========,3,Equipment.
+Although Kodak launched Super 8 and had its own cameras, hundreds of other companies produced Super 8 camera, projection, editing, and sound equipment.
+Some of the more notable companies that made Super 8 equipment include: Canon, Bauer, Nizo, Super8 Sound (Pro8mm), Beaulieu, Leicina, Logmar, Ciro, Bolex, Goko, Hahnel, Wurker, Minolta, Minnette, Nikon.
+Most of these companies had long histories in the production of motion picture equipment, dating back to the 1930s with 8mm.
+In 1980, the consumer market for Super 8 collapsed.
+Most of the independent companies were forced into bankruptcy or merged, as the demand for Super 8 evaporated overnight.
+Some companies remained in business until 1985 when many gave up completely on movie film equipment.
+A few later re-emerged including Beaulieu, who, in 1985, introduced a new 7008 camera and Super 8 Sound that introduced a new version of its full-coat recorder, the Mag IV.
+The companies in which Super 8 was only a division simply closed.
+Kodak continued support for Super 8.
+A few products re-emerged with new features such as crystal sync and Max8.
+Several Canon models have also started to reappear as restoration efforts like the RhondaCam.
+Recently, new companies have started producing new Super 8 cameras.
+In 2015, Logmar introduced a limited edition completely new Super 8 Camera, and in 2016, Kodak showed a concept of a new Super 8 camera at the 2016 CES expo.
+There are literally millions of Super 8 cameras that are still available and viable because of manufacturing methods back in the 1960s and 1970s.
+These cameras can be found at specialized retailers and distributors and at auction sites such as eBay.
+========,3,Film Stock.
+Kodak currently offers three of its latest Vision 3 color negative stock, the 50 D, 200T, and 500T in Super 8 along with its Trix B&W reversal film.
+Several Super 8 specialty companies such as: Pro8mm in Burbank CA, Wittner Cinetec in Hamburg, Germany, and Kahlfilm in Brühl, Germany, slit and perforate raw 35 mm film stock from Kodak, Fuji, ORWO, Agfa, and Foma and then repackage it in Kodak Super 8 cartridges.
+Adox has its own B&W film supply and provides this in its own Super 8 cartridge design by GKfilmCinevia.
+Retro 8 of Japan provides a similar service for Super 8 film in the Fuji Cartridge (Single8 ).
+There are now more varieties of Super 8 film available than ever before.
+Super 8 film is available worldwide through specialty shops and online from major companies such as Amazon.
+It has become common to see it sold with processing prepaid and for it to be sold with scan to digital services at a variety of different levels from Standard Definition Digital to 4K Data.
+It can even be purchased to include all the logistic associated with the process including film processing, scanning and internet delivery of image and mail in and back services.
+The Super 8 film kit.
+This is a sample video done with the Super 8 film kit.
+========,2,Sound.
+In the beginning of 1965, Super 8 was introduced as a silent format.
+Over time, several companies began to offer sync sound options for Super 8 filmmaking.
+Two companies introduced comprehensive sound systems for Super 8.
+These were Super8 Sound Inc. led by Harvard Film Professor Bob Doyle and Optasound led by Richard Leacock at MIT.
+With double system, as it was called, sound and picture are recorded separately.
+This was fine for more professional applications and for education about film production, but for consumers it was simply too complex and expensive.
+In 1973 Kodak introduced Ektasound—magnetic recording on the actual Super 8 film.
+The sound track was added on the edge of the film opposite to the perforations.
+Standard 8mm had the stripe between the perforations and the edge of the film which made good contact with a magnetic head problematic.
+A balance stripe was added on the opposite edge to facilitate spooling of the film.
+The Ektasound cartridge was deeper than the silent cartridge to allow access of the camera's recording head.
+Thus, silent cameras could not accept Ektasound cartridges, but Ektasound cameras and projectors accepted silent cartridges.
+Projectors, that could record and play sound, appeared before sound cameras.
+The sound was recorded 18 frames in advance of the picture (as opposed to 56 frames for standard 8mm).
+This short distance of just 3 inches facilitated the relatively compact size of the later sound cartridges.
+Some projectors used the balance stripe to provide a second channel for stereo sound.
+Super 8mm was also specified with an optical sound track.
+This occupied the same location as the magnetic track.
+Picture to sound separation in this format was 22 frames.
+Projectors and cameras obviously could not record sound in this system, but optical sound package movies became briefly popular, particularly in Europe (mainly because they were cheaper to produce - though the projectors cost more).
+Although the optical sound should have been inferior in quality to magnetic sound (running at 3.6 inches per second for 24 frames per second), in practice it was often much better, largely because packaged movie magnetic sound was often poorly recorded.
+========,2,Packaged movies.
+Although the 8 mm format was originally intended for creating amateur films, condensed versions of popular cinema releases were available up until the mid-1980s, for projection at home.
+These were generally edited to fit onto a or reel.
+Many Charlie Chaplin films, and other silent movies were available.
+The Walt Disney Studio released excerpts from many of their animated feature films, as well as some shorts, in both Standard and Super 8, some even with magnetic sound.
+========,2,In-flight movies.
+Starting in 1971 In-flight movies (previously 16 mm) were shown in Super 8 format until video distribution became the norm.
+The films were printed with an optical sound track (amateur films use magnetic sound), and spooled into proprietary cassettes that often held a whole 2-hour movie.
+========,2,Popularity.
+Super 8 was most widely used for filming home movies.
+Today amateur usage of Super 8 has been replaced by digital, but the format is still regularly used by artists and students.
+Some seek to imitate the look of old home movies, or create a stylishly grainy look.
+Others want to create alternative looks for flashback sequences and altered states of consciousness.
+Some just like the idea of creating images in the classic style of using actual film.
+Super 8 is a relatively inexpensive film, making it popular among filmmakers working on a low budget who still want to achieve the classic look of real film.
+Super 8 has become quite common in theatrical features.
+Oliver Stone, for example, has used it in films such as "JFK", where his director of photography Robert Richardson employed it to evoke a period or to give a different look to scenes.
+The PBS series "Globe Trekker" uses approximately five minutes of Super 8 footage per episode.
+In the UK, broadcasters such as the BBC still occasionally make use of Super 8 in both drama and documentary contexts, usually for creative effect.
+A recent example of particular note is the 2005 BBC2 documentary series "Define Normal", which was shot largely on Super 8, with only interviews and special timelapse photography utilising more conventional digital formats.
+Thanks to over a dozen film stocks, the ease of function and finding a camera, and the ability to do high quality digital scanning to standard motion picture digital formats like 2K and 4K, DPX or 4444 Prorez files, Super 8 remains a popular format for creating a variety of interesting scenes.
+Super 8 provides an ideal, inexpensive medium for traditional stop-motion and cel animation and other types of filming speed effects not common to video cameras.
+Here is an example from filmmaker John Cannizzaro's "50 Feet That Shook The World".
+========,2,Film festivals.
+To give further support to filmmakers dedicated to shooting on Super 8 mm film, many film festivals and screenings—such as the Flicker Film Festival, and Super Gr8 Film Festival—exist to give filmmakers a place to screen their Super 8 mm films.
+Many of these screenings shun video and are only open to films shot on film.
+Some require film to be turned in undeveloped and thus not permitting any editing, providing an additional challenge to the filmmaker.
+These include the Bentley Film Festival and straight 8, which runs screenings at the Cannes Film Festival and many other festivals and events worldwide, where a sound track is required to be supplied with a completed but unprocessed cartridge.
+In the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, a Super 8 short film ("The Man Who Met Himself") by British filmmaker Ben Crowe, shot on the now discontinued Kodachrome 40 format, was the first Super 8 film to be nominated for the Short Film Palme D'Or in the Official Selection.
+In the UK, the Cambridge International Super 8 Film Festival, with the support of the film industry, runs a competition program of more than 60 films every year.
+The festival also features work of Super 8 filmmakers, industry talks, and a workshop.
+The United States Super 8 Film + Digital Video Festival receives close to 100 Super 8 entries every year.
+In Brazil Curta8 | Festival Internacional de Cinema Super8 is in its 11th year.
+A number of experimental filmmakers, such as Mason Shefa and Stan Brakhage, continue to work extensively in the format and festivals such as the Images Festival (Toronto), the Media City Film Festival (Windsor, Ont.
+), and TIE (based in Colorado) regularly project Super 8 films as part of their programming.
+In June 2010, the Super8 Shots film festival was launched in Galway, Ireland, the first Super 8 festival to occur in Ireland, and included classes on basics and uses of film through to processing your own film.
+Chicago 8: A Small Gauge Film Festival started in 2011, and will feature yearly programming of small gauge film from around the world.
+========,2,Educational use.
+Super 8 can still be found at a few select higher educational institutions offering film production courses including the program at Chaffey College in Southern California.
+It is more common to find Super 8 film in Art programs.
+These programs use the analogue experience of film for its own creative potential rather than use Super 8 to teach traditional modern production methods.
+Art programs on many levels, such as this program put on in Santa Clarita California at ArtTree for students aged 10 to 15, teach the basic nature of film.
+Other programs such as "Do A Shot" sponsored by Pro8mm and Kodak give individuals a chance to experience film by lending film and cameras to a select group at film festivals and trade events like this film festival at The Art Center College of Art & Design.
+Several post-secondary institutions in the United States continue to utilize Super 8 in Film and Cinema programs.
+For example, both City College of San Francisco's Cinema Department and the University of North Texas' Radio, Television and Film Department require the use of Super 8.
+This experience provides students with the basics of film production and editing.
+Importantly, it also emphasizes the need for detailed pre-production planning, especially for in-camera edits.
+Further, the use of Super 8 leads students into the Regular 16 and Super 16 films shot in higher level courses.
+========,2,In popular culture.
+The backdrop of the 2011 film "Super 8" involves a group of teenagers in the fictional Ohio town Lillian filming their own Super 8 movie depicting their experience with a landlocked alien in the summer of 1979.
+The camera featured in the film is a Kodak Ektasound 130 movie camera produced and sold by Kodak in the early 1970's.
+The 2012 film "Sinister" contains Super 8 shots used to depict the various gruesome murders.
+The novel "House of Leaves" by Mark.
+Z Danielewski is a "found footage-style" story in which one of the main characters, the photojournalist Will Navidson, records most his house (particularly the supernatural areas) with Super 8 cameras, in order to create a documentary.

test/46233.txt

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+========,1,preface.
+Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, (8 September 1886 – 1 September 1967) was an English poet, writer, and soldier.
+Decorated for bravery on the Western Front, he became one of the leading poets of the First World War.
+His poetry both described the horrors of the trenches, and satirised the patriotic pretensions of those who, in Sassoon's view, were responsible for a jingoism-fuelled war.
+Sassoon became a focal point for dissent within the armed forces when he made a lone protest against the continuation of the war in his "Soldier's Declaration" of 1917, culminating in his admission to a military psychiatric hospital; this resulted in his forming a friendship with Wilfred Owen, who was greatly influenced by him.
+Sassoon later won acclaim for his prose work, notably his three-volume fictionalised autobiography, collectively known as the "Sherston trilogy".
+========,2,Early life and education.
+Siegfried Sassoon was born and grew up in the neo-gothic mansion named "Weirleigh" (after its builder, Harrison Weir), in Matfield, Kent, to a Jewish father and an Anglo-Catholic mother.
+His father, Alfred Ezra Sassoon (1861–1895), son of Sassoon David Sassoon, was a member of the wealthy Baghdadi Jewish Sassoon merchant family.
+For marrying outside the faith, Alfred was disinherited.
+Siegfried's mother, Theresa, belonged to the Thornycroft family, sculptors responsible for many of the best-known statues in London—her brother was Sir Hamo Thornycroft.
+There was no German ancestry in Siegfried's family; his mother named him Siegfried because of her love of Wagner's operas.
+His middle name, Loraine, was the surname of a clergyman with whom she was friendly.
+Siegfried was the second of three sons, the others being Michael and Hamo.
+When he was four years old his parents separated.
+During his father's weekly visits to the boys, Theresa locked herself in the drawing-room.
+In 1895 Alfred Sassoon died of tuberculosis.
+Sassoon was educated at the New Beacon School, Sevenoaks, Kent; at Marlborough College, Wiltshire; and at Clare College, Cambridge, where from 1905 to 1907 he read history.
+He went down from Cambridge without a degree and spent the next few years hunting, playing cricket and writing verse: some he published privately.
+Since his father had been disinherited from the Sassoon fortune for marrying a non-Jew, Siegfried had only a small private fortune that allowed him to live modestly without having to earn a living (however, he would later be left a generous legacy by an aunt, Rachel Beer, allowing him to buy the great estate of Heytesbury House in Wiltshire.)
+His first published success, "The Daffodil Murderer" (1913), was a parody of John Masefield's "The Everlasting Mercy".
+Robert Graves, in "Good-Bye to All That" describes it as a "parody of Masefield which, midway through, had forgotten to be a parody and turned into rather good Masefield."
+Sassoon expressed his opinions on the political situation before the onset of the First World War thus—"France was a lady, Russia was a bear, and performing in the county cricket team was much more important than either of them".
+Sassoon wanted to play for Kent County Cricket Club; Kent Captain Frank Marchant was a neighbour of Sassoon.
+Siegfried often turned out for Bluehouses at the Nevill Ground, Tunbridge Wells, where he sometimes played alongside Arthur Conan Doyle.
+He had also played cricket for his house at Marlborough College, once taking 7 wickets for 18 runs.
+Although an enthusiast, Sassoon was not good enough to play for Kent, but he played cricket for Matfield village, and later for the Downside Abbey team, continuing into his seventies.
+========,2,War service.
+========,3,The Western Front: Military Cross.
+Motivated by patriotism, Sassoon joined the British Army just as the threat of a new European war was recognized, and was in service with the Sussex Yeomanry on 4 August 1914, the day the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland declared war on Germany.
+He broke his arm badly in a riding accident and was put out of action before even leaving England, spending the spring of 1915 convalescing.
+(Rupert Brooke, whom Siegfried had briefly met, died in April on the way to Gallipoli.)
+He was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion (Special Reserve), Royal Welch Fusiliers, as a second lieutenant on 29 May 1915.
+On 1 November his younger brother Hamo was killed in the Gallipoli Campaign, and in the same month Siegfried was sent to the 1st Battalion in France.
+There he met Robert Graves, and they became close friends.
+United by their poetic vocation, they often read and discussed each other's work.
+Though this did not have much perceptible influence on Graves's poetry, his views on what may be called 'gritty realism' profoundly affected Sassoon's concept of what constituted poetry.
+He soon became horrified by the realities of war, and the tone of his writing changed completely: where his early poems exhibit a Romantic, dilettantish sweetness, his war poetry moves to an increasingly discordant music, intended to convey the ugly truths of the trenches to an audience hitherto lulled by patriotic propaganda.
+Details such as rotting corpses, mangled limbs, filth, cowardice and suicide are all trademarks of his work at this time, and this philosophy of 'no truth unfitting' had a significant effect on the movement towards Modernist poetry.
+Sassoon's periods of duty on the Western Front were marked by exceptionally brave actions, including the single-handed capture of a German trench in the Hindenburg Line.
+Armed with grenades, he scattered sixty German soldiers:He went over with bombs in daylight, under covering fire from a couple of rifles, and scared away the occupants.
+A pointless feat, since instead of signalling for reinforcements, he sat down in the German trench and began reading a book of poems which he had brought with him.
+When he went back he did not even report.
+Colonel Stockwell, then in command, raged at him.
+The attack on Mametz Wood had been delayed for two hours because British patrols were still reported to be out.
+"British patrols" were Siegfried and his book of poems.
+"I'd have got you a D.S.O., if you'd only shown more sense," stormed Stockwell.Sassoon's bravery was inspiring to the extent that soldiers of his company said that they felt confident only when they were accompanied by him.
+He often went out on night-raids and bombing patrols and demonstrated ruthless efficiency as a company commander.
+Deepening depression at the horror and misery the soldiers were forced to endure produced in Sassoon a paradoxically manic courage, and he was nicknamed "Mad Jack" by his men for his near-suicidal exploits.
+On 27 July 1916 he was awarded the Military Cross; the citation read:
+Robert Graves described Sassoon as engaging in suicidal feats of bravery.
+Sassoon was also later (unsuccessfully) recommended for the Victoria Cross.
+========,3,War opposition: Craiglockhart.
+Despite his decorations and reputation, in 1917 Sassoon decided to make a stand against the conduct of the war.
+One of the reasons for his violent anti-war feeling was the death of his friend David Cuthbert Thomas, who appears as "Dick Tiltwood" in the Sherston trilogy.
+Sassoon would spend years trying to overcome his grief.
+At the end of a spell of convalescent leave, Sassoon declined to return to duty; instead, encouraged by pacifist friends such as Bertrand Russell and Lady Ottoline Morrell, he sent a letter to his commanding officer entitled "".
+Forwarded to the press and read out in the House of Commons by a sympathetic member of parliament, the letter was seen by some as treasonous ("I am making this statement as an act of wilful defiance of military authority") or at best as condemning the war government's motives ("I believe that the war upon which I entered as a war of defence and liberation has now become a war of aggression and conquest").
+Rather than court-martial Sassoon, the Under-Secretary of State for War, Ian Macpherson, decided that he was unfit for service and had him sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital near Edinburgh, where he was officially treated for neurasthenia ("shell shock").
+Before declining to return to active service, Sassoon had thrown the ribbon of his Military Cross into the river Mersey.
+According to his description of this incident in "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" he did not, as one would infer from the context of his action, do this as a symbolic rejection of militaristic values, but simply out of the need to perform some destructive act in catharsis of the black mood which was afflicting him; his account states that one of his pre-war sporting trophies, had he had one to hand, would have served his purpose equally well.
+At Craiglockhart, Sassoon met Wilfred Owen, a fellow poet who would eventually exceed him in fame.
+It was thanks to Sassoon that Owen persevered in his ambition to write better poetry.
+A manuscript copy of Owen's "Anthem for Doomed Youth" containing Sassoon's handwritten amendments survives as testimony to the extent of his influence and is currently on display at London's Imperial War Museum.
+Sassoon became to Owen "Keats and Christ and Elijah"; surviving documents demonstrate clearly the depth of Owen's love and admiration for him.
+Both men returned to active service in France, but Owen was killed in 1918.
+Sassoon, despite all this, was promoted to lieutenant, and having spent some time out of danger in Palestine, eventually returned to the Front.
+On 13 July 1918, Sassoon was almost immediately wounded again—by friendly fire when he was shot in the head by a fellow British soldier who had mistaken him for a German near Arras, France.
+As a result, he spent the remainder of the war in Britain.
+By this time he had been promoted acting captain.
+He relinquished his commission on health grounds on 12 March 1919, but was allowed to retain the rank of captain.
+After the war, Sassoon was instrumental in bringing Owen's work to the attention of a wider audience.
+Their friendship is the subject of Stephen MacDonald's play, "Not About Heroes".
+========,2,Post-war.
+========,3,Editor and novelist.
+Having lived for a period at Oxford, where he spent more time visiting literary friends than studying, he dabbled briefly in the politics of the Labour movement, and in 1919 took up a post as literary editor of the socialist "Daily Herald".
+He lived at 54 Tufton Street, Westminster from 1919 to 1925; the house is no longer standing, but the location of his former home is marked by a memorial plaque.
+During his period at the "Herald", Sassoon was responsible for employing several eminent names as reviewers, including E. M. Forster and Charlotte Mew, and commissioned original material from "names" like Arnold Bennett and Osbert Sitwell.
+His artistic interests extended to music.
+While at Oxford he was introduced to the young William Walton, to whom he became a friend and patron.
+Walton later dedicated his "Portsm" overture to Sassoon in recognition of his financial assistance and moral support.
+Sassoon later embarked on a lecture tour of the USA, as well as travelling in Europe and throughout Britain.
+He acquired a car, a gift from the publisher Frankie Schuster, and became renowned among his friends for his lack of driving skill, but this did not prevent him making full use of the mobility it gave him.
+Sassoon was a great admirer of the Welsh poet Henry Vaughan.
+On a visit to Wales in 1923, he paid a pilgrimage to Vaughan's grave at Llansantffraed, Powys, and there wrote one of his best-known peacetime poems, "At the Grave of Henry Vaughan".
+The deaths within a short space of time of three of his closest friends – Edmund Gosse, Thomas Hardy and Frankie Schuster – came as another serious setback to his personal happiness.
+At the same time, Sassoon was preparing to take a new direction.
+While in America, he had experimented with a novel.
+In 1928, he branched out into prose, with "Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man", the anonymously-published first volume of a fictionalised autobiography, which was almost immediately accepted as a classic, bringing its author new fame as a humorous writer.
+The book won the 1928 James Tait Black Award for fiction.
+Sassoon followed it with "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" (1930) and "Sherston's Progress" (1936).
+In later years, he revisited his youth and early manhood with three volumes of genuine autobiography, which were also widely acclaimed.
+These were "The Old Century", "The Weald of Youth" and "Siegfried's Journey".
+========,2,Personal life.
+========,3,Affairs.
+Sassoon, having matured greatly as a result of his military service, continued to seek emotional fulfilment, initially in a succession of love affairs with men, including:
+***LIST***.
+Only the last of these made a permanent impression, though Shaw remained Sassoon's close friend throughout his life.
+========,3,Marriage.
+In September 1931, Sassoon rented and began to live at Fitz House, Teffont Magna, Wiltshire.
+In December 1933, he married Hester Gatty, who was many years his junior.
+The marriage led to the birth of a child, something which he had purportedly craved for a long time:
+***LIST***.
+George became a scientist, linguist and author, and was adored by Siegfried, who wrote several poems addressed to him.
+However, the marriage broke down after the Second World War, Sassoon apparently unable to find a compromise between the solitude he enjoyed and the companionship he craved.
+Separated from his wife in 1945, Sassoon lived in seclusion at Heytesbury in Wiltshire, although he maintained contact with a circle which included E M Forster and J R Ackerley.
+One of his closest friends was the cricketer, Dennis Silk who later became Warden (headmaster) of Radley College.
+He also formed a close friendship with Vivien Hancock, then headmistress of Greenways School at Ashton Gifford, where his son George was a pupil.
+The relationship provoked Hester to make strong accusations against Hancock, who responded with the threat of legal action.
+========,3,Religion.
+Towards the end of his life, Sassoon converted to Roman Catholicism.
+He had hoped that Ronald Knox, a Roman Catholic priest and writer whom he admired, would instruct him in the faith, but Knox was too ill to do so.
+The priest Sebastian Moore was chosen to instruct him instead, and Sassoon was admitted to the faith at Downside Abbey in Somerset.
+He also paid regular visits to the nuns at Stanbrook Abbey, and the Abbey press printed commemorative editions of some of his poems.
+During this time he also became interested in the supernatural, and joined the Ghost Club.
+========,2,Death and awards.
+Sassoon was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1951 New Year Honours.
+He died from stomach cancer one week before his 81st birthday, and is buried at St Andrew's Church, Mells, Somerset, not far from the grave of Father Ronald Knox whom he so admired.
+========,2,Legacy.
+On 11 November 1985, Sassoon was among sixteen Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner.
+The inscription on the stone was written by friend and fellow War poet Wilfred Owen.
+It reads: "My subject is War, and the pity of War.
+The Poetry is in the pity."
+The year 2003 saw the publication of "Memorial Tablet", an authorised audio CD of readings by Sassoon recorded during the late 1950s.
+These included extracts from "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" and "The Weald of Youth", as well as several war poems including Attack, The Dug-Out, At Carnoy and Died of Wounds, and postwar works.
+The CD also included comment on Sassoon by three of his Great War contemporaries: Edmund Blunden, Edgell Rickword and Henry Williamson.
+Siegfried Sassoon's only child, George Sassoon, died of cancer in 2006.
+George had three children, two of whom were killed in a car crash in 1996.
+His daughter by his first marriage, Kendall Sassoon, is Patron-in-Chief of the Siegfried Sassoon Fellowship, established in 2001.
+Sassoon's long-lost Military Cross turned up in a relative's attic in May 2007.
+Subsequently, the medal was put up for sale by his family.
+It was bought by the Royal Welch Fusiliers for display at their museum in Caernarfon.
+Sassoon's other service medals went unclaimed until 1985 when his son George obtained them from the Army Medal Office, then based at Droitwich.
+The "late claim" medals consisting of the 1914-15 Star, Victory Medal and British War Medal along with Sassoon's CBE and Warrant of Appointment were auctioned by Sotheby's in 2008.
+In June 2009, the University of Cambridge announced plans to purchase an archive of Sassoon's papers from his family, to be added to the university library's existing Sassoon collection.
+On 4 November 2009 it was reported that this purchase would be supported by £550,000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund, meaning that the University still needed to raise a further £110,000 on top of the money already received in order to meet the full £1.25 million asking price.
+The funds were successfully raised, and in December 2009 it was announced that the University had received the papers.
+Included in the collection are war diaries kept by Sassoon while he served on the Western Front and in Palestine, a draft of "" (1917), notebooks from his schooldays, and post-war journals.
+Other items in the collection include love letters to his wife Hester, and photographs and letters from other writers.
+Sassoon was an undergraduate at the university, as well as being made an honorary fellow of Clare College, and the collection will be housed at the Cambridge University Library.
+As well as private individuals, funding came from the Monument Trust, the JP Getty Jr Trust, and Sir Siegmund Warburg's Voluntary Settlement.
+In 2010, "Dream Voices: Siegfried Sassoon, Memory and War", a major exhibition of Sassoon's life and archive, was held at Cambridge University.
+Several of Sassoon's poems have been set to music, some during his lifetime, notably by Cyril Rootham, who co-operated with the author.
+The discovery in 2013 of an early draft of one of Sassoon's best-known anti-war poems had biographers saying they would rewrite portions of their work about the poet.
+In the poem, 'Atrocities,' which concerned the killing of German prisoners by their British counterparts, the early draft shows that some lines were cut and others watered down.
+The poet's publisher was nervous about publishing the poem, and held it for publication in an expurgated version at a later date.
+Said Sassoon biographer Jean Moorcroft Wilson on learning of the discovery of the early draft: "This is very exciting material.
+I want to rewrite my biography and I probably shall be able to get some of it in.
+It's a treasure trove."
+========,2,In popular culture.
+The novel "Regeneration", by Pat Barker, is a fictionalised account of this period in Sassoon's life, and was made into a film starring James Wilby as Sassoon and Jonathan Pryce as W. H. R. Rivers, the psychiatrist responsible for Sassoon's treatment.
+Rivers became a kind of surrogate father to the troubled young man, and his sudden death in 1922 was a major blow to Sassoon.

test/46247.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Peter III (21 February 1728 – ) () was emperor of Russia for six months in 1762.
+He was born in Kiel as Karl Peter Ulrich, the only child of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and Anna Petrovna, the elder surviving daughter of Peter the Great.
+The German Peter could hardly speak Russian and pursued a strongly pro-Prussian policy, which made him an unpopular leader.
+He was deposed and possibly assassinated as a result of a conspiracy led by his German wife Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, who succeeded him to the throne as Catherine II.
+His death could also have been the result of a drunken brawl with his bodyguard when he was being held captive after Catherine's coup.
+========,2,Early life and character.
+Peter was born in Kiel, in the duchy of Holstein-Gottorp.
+His parents were Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (a nephew of Charles XII of Sweden), and Anna Petrovna (a daughter of Emperor Peter I and Empress Catherine I of Russia).
+His mother died three months after his birth.
+In 1739, Peter's father died, and he became Duke of Holstein-Gottorp as Charles Peter Ulrich () at the age of 11.
+When his mother Anna's younger sister, Elizabeth, became Empress of Russia, she brought Peter from Germany to Russia and proclaimed him her heir presumptive in the autumn of 1742.
+Previously in 1742, the 14-year-old Peter was proclaimed King of Finland during the Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743), when Russian troops held Finland.
+This proclamation was based on his succession rights to territories held by his childless great-uncle, the late Charles XII of Sweden who also had been Grand Duke of Finland.
+About the same time, in October 1742, he was chosen by the Swedish parliament to become heir presumptive to the Swedish throne.
+However, the Swedish parliament was unaware of the fact that he had also been proclaimed heir presumptive to the throne of Russia, and when their envoy arrived in Saint Petersburg in November, it was too late.
+It has been reported that the underage Peter's succession rights to Sweden were renounced on his behalf.
+Also in November, Karl Peter Ulrich converted to Eastern Orthodoxy under the name of Peter Fedorovich.
+Empress Elizabeth arranged for Peter to marry his second cousin, Sophia Augusta Frederica (later Catherine the Great), daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst and Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp.
+The young princess formally converted to Russian Orthodoxy and took the name Ekaterina Alexeievna (i.e., Catherine).
+They married on 21 August 1745.
+The marriage was not a happy one, but produced one son: the future Emperor Paul; and one daughter: Anna Petrovna (20 December 1757 – 19 March 1759).
+Catherine later claimed that Paul was not fathered by Peter: that, in fact, they had never consummated the marriage.
+During the sixteen years of their residence in Oranienbaum, Catherine took numerous lovers, while her husband did the same in the beginning.
+The classical view of Peter's character is mainly drawn out of the memoirs of his wife and successor.
+She described him as an "idiot", "drunkard from Holstein", "good-for-nothing" etc.
+This portrait of Peter can be found in most history books, including 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica:
+There have been many attempts to revise the traditional characterisation of Peter and his policies.
+The Russian historian A.S. Mylnikov views Peter III very differently:
+The German historian Elena Palmer goes even further, portraying Peter III as a cultured, open-minded emperor who tried to introduce various courageous, even democratic reforms in the 18th century's Russia.
+Currently, a newly established union is working on a project to build a memorial for Peter III in Kiel (North Germany), his city of birth.
+========,2,The reign.
+========,3,Foreign policy.
+After Peter succeeded to the Russian throne (), he withdrew Russian forces from the Seven Years' War and concluded a peace treaty () with Prussia (the "Miracle of the House of Brandenburg").
+He gave up Russian conquests in Prussia and offered 12,000 troops to make an alliance with Frederick II of Prussia ().
+Russia thus switched from an enemy of Prussia to an ally — Russian troops withdrew from Berlin and marched against the Austrians.
+This dramatically shifted the balance of power in Europe, suddenly handing the delighted Frederick the initiative.
+Frederick recaptured southern Silesia (October 1762) and subsequently forced Austria to the negotiating table.
+As Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter planned war against Denmark in order to restore parts of Schleswig to his Duchy.
+He focused on making alliances with Sweden and with England to ensure that they would not interfere on Denmark's behalf, while Russian forces gathered at Kolberg in Russian-occupied Pomerania.
+Alarmed at the Russian troops concentrating near their borders, unable to find any allies to resist Russian aggression, and short of money to fund a war, the government of Denmark threatened in late June to invade the free city of Hamburg in northern Germany to force a loan from it.
+Peter considered this a "casus belli", and prepared for open warfare against Denmark.
+In June 1762, 40,000 Russian troops assembled in Pomerania under General Pyotr Rumyantsev, preparing to face 27,000 Danish troops under the French general Count St. Germain in case the Russian-Denmark freedom conference (scheduled for 1 July 1762 in Berlin under the patronage of Frederick II) failed to resolve the issue.
+But shortly before this Peter lost his throne () and the conference did not occur.
+The issue of Schleswig remained unresolved.
+Peter was accused of planning an unpatriotic war.
+While historically Peter's planned war against Denmark was seen as being a political failure, recent scholarship has portrayed it as part of a pragmatic plan to secure his Holstein-Gottorp duchy and to expand the common Holstein-Russian power northward and westwards —he saw gaining territory and influence in Denmark and Northern Germany as more useful to Russia than taking East Prussia.
+Equally, he saw that friendship with Prussia and with Britain, following the latter's triumph in the Seven Years War, could offer more to aid his plans than alliance with either Austria or France.
+========,3,Domestic reforms.
+During his 186-day period of government, Peter III passed 220 new laws which he had developed and elaborated during his life as a crown prince.
+Elena Palmer claims that his reforms were of a democratic nature.
+He proclaimed religious freedom — in those times a revolutionary step, that not even the advanced Western Europe had taken.
+He fought corruption within government, established public litigation and abolished the secret police — a repressive organ started under Peter I and intended to expose it as betrayer of the state for its mercilessness and torture methods.
+Catherine recreated this institution and it remained present in Russia thereon.
+He established obligatory education for aristocrats — all aristocrats had to provide their children with education and report it to the senate.
+Furthermore, in some cities technical schools were established for middle and lower class children.
+Peter began the reorganization and modernization of the Russian army.
+One of his most popular reforms was the manifesto of February 1762 that exempted the nobility from obligatory state and military service (established by Peter the Great) and gave them freedom to travel abroad.
+On the day Peter submitted this manifesto, the parliament proposed building a pure gold statue of him, but Peter refused, saying that there must be much better uses for gold in the country.
+Peter III's economic policy reflected the rising influence of Western capitalism and the merchant class or “Third Estate” that accompanied it.
+He established the first state bank in Russia, rejected the nobility's monopoly on trade and encouraged mercantilism by increasing grain exports and forbidding the import of sugar and other materials that could be found in Russia.
+Peter's short reign also addressed serfdom law and the status of serfs within Russia.
+For the first time, the killing of a peasant by a landowner became an act punishable by law.
+State peasants were given higher social status than estate peasants, and all peasants under the servitude of the church were transformed into the economy peasants similar to the state peasants.
+Peter also took further interest in church affairs, implementing his grandfather's plan to secularize church and monastic lands.
+========,3,Overthrow.
+The reign of Peter III is cast by Palmer as progressive for its focus on transforming economically developed feudal Russia to a more advanced European state.
+Palmer claims that his reform efforts were welcomed by society as a whole.
+It is Palmer's further contention that a plot against him by members of the government and influential nobles is unjustified: that the aristocratic names in the list of conspirators belonged to Guards officers, those who had lost influence and impoverished families who had no access to high government positions and were forced into service, some resentment within the Guard could not have led to a change of government.
+A revolt of the Guards regiments against the emperor, to whom they had sworn allegiance, could only lead to an alternative emperor.
+Palmer claims that the conspiracy against Peter III was carried out by Catherine and Guards officer Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov and was in fact nothing more than a murder for personal reasons.
+With the aid of the two Guards troops that Peter had planned to discipline more harshly, the emperor was arrested and forced to abdicate on 28 June.
+Shortly thereafter, he was transported to Ropsha, where he was supposedly assassinated, although no one is sure how Peter died.
+========,2,Aftermath.
+In December 1796, after succeeding Catherine, Peter's son the Emperor Paul, who disliked his mother's behaviour, arranged for his remains to be exhumed and then reburied with full honors in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, where other tsars were buried.
+After his death, four fake Peters (five if Šćepan Mali of Montenegro is included) came forth, supported by revolts among the people who believed in a rumor that Peter had not died, but had secretly been imprisoned by Catherine.
+The most famous was the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev.
+Under this guise, he led what came to be known as Pugachev's Rebellion in 1774, ultimately crushed by Catherine's forces.
+In addition, Kondratii Selivanov, who led a castrating sect known as the Skoptsy, claimed to be both Jesus and Peter III.
+The legend of Peter is still talked about, especially in the town where he lived most of his life, former Oranienbaum, later Lomonosov, situated on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, 40 km west of St. Petersburg.
+Peter's palace is the only one of the famous palaces in the St. Petersburg area that was not captured by the Germans during Second World War.
+During the war, the building was a school and people say the ghost of Peter protected the children of Oranienbaum from getting hurt by bombs.
+Furthermore, it was near this town that the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944.
+People say that Peter, after his death, stopped Hitler's army near Leningrad, as the living Peter stopped the Russian army near Berlin.
+========,2,Cultural references.
+Peter has been depicted on screen a number of times, almost always in films concerning his wife Catherine.
+He was portrayed by Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. in the 1934 film "The Rise of Catherine the Great" and by Sam Jaffe in "The Scarlet Empress" the same year.
+In 1991 Reece Dinsdale portrayed him in the television series "Young Catherine".
+"La Tempesta" (1958) depicts Yemelyan Pugachev's effort to force his recognition as Peter III and offers a critical view of Catherine the Great, with Van Heflin in the role of Pugachev and Viveca Lindfors as Catherine.
+He was also depicted as a cowardly, drunken, wife beater in the Japanese anime Le Chevalier D'Eon.
+He also appears in the 2014 TV series played by Aleksander Yatsenko.

test/46253.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set-point.
+There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between .
+The increase in set-point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold.
+This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat.
+When the set-point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat.
+Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure.
+This is more common in young children.
+Fevers do not typically go higher than .
+A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from not serious to potentially serious.
+This includes viral, bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold, urinary tract infections, meningitis, malaria and appendicitis among others.
+Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, side effects of medication, and cancer among others.
+It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set-point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.
+Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required.
+Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest.
+Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature.
+Measures such as putting a cool damp cloth on the forehead and having a slightly warm bath are not useful and may simply make a person more uncomfortable.
+Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms.
+Hyperthermia does require treatment.
+Fever is one of the most common medical signs.
+It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick.
+While fever is a useful defense mechanism, treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes.
+Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.
+========,2,Definition.
+A wide range for normal temperatures has been found.
+Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.
+Fever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:
+***LIST***.
+In healthy adult men and women, the range of normal, healthy temperatures for oral temperature is , for rectal it is , for tympanic membrane (the ear drum) it is , and for axillary (the armpit) it is .
+Harrison's principles of internal medicine defines a fever as a morning oral temperature of >37.2 °C (>98.9 °F) or an afternoon oral temperature of >37.7 °C (>99.9 °F) while the normal daily temperature variation is typically 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).
+Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more.
+A raised temperature is not always a fever.
+For example, the temperature of a healthy person rises when he or she exercises, but this is not considered a fever, as the set-point is normal.
+On the other hand, a "normal" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person.
+For example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a "normal" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.
+========,3,Types.
+The pattern of temperature changes may occasionally hint at the diagnosis:
+***LIST***.
+A neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function.
+Because of the lack of infection-fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention.
+This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.
+"Febricula" is an old term for a low-grade fever, especially if the cause is unknown, no other symptoms are present, and the patient recovers fully in less than a week.
+========,3,Hyperpyrexia.
+Hyperpyrexia is an extreme elevation of body temperature which, depending upon the source, is classified as a core body temperature greater than or equal to .
+Such a high temperature is considered a medical emergency, as it may indicate a serious underlying condition or lead to problems including permanent brain damage, or death.
+The most common cause of hyperpyrexia is an intracranial hemorrhage.
+Other possible causes include sepsis, Kawasaki syndrome, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, drug overdose, serotonin syndrome, and thyroid storm.
+Infections are the most common cause of fevers, but as the temperature rises other causes become more common.
+Infections commonly associated with hyperpyrexia include roseola, measles and enteroviral infections.
+Immediate aggressive cooling to less than has been found to improve survival.
+Hyperpyrexia differs from hyperthermia in that in hyperpyrexia the body's temperature regulation mechanism sets the body temperature above the normal temperature, then generates heat to achieve this temperature, while in hyperthermia the body temperature rises above its set point due to an outside source.
+========,3,Hyperthermia.
+Hyperthermia is an example of a high temperature that is not a fever.
+It occurs from a number of causes including heatstroke, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, malignant hyperthermia, stimulants such as substituted amphetamines and cocaine, idiosyncratic drug reactions, and serotonin syndrome.
+========,2,Differential diagnosis.
+Fever is a common symptom of many medical conditions:
+***LIST***.
+Persistent fever that cannot be explained after repeated routine clinical inquiries is called fever of unknown origin.
+Teething is not a cause.
+========,2,Pathophysiology.
+Temperature is ultimately regulated in the hypothalamus.
+A trigger of the fever, called a pyrogen, causes a release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2).
+PGE2 then in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which generates a systemic response back to the rest of the body, causing heat-creating effects to match a new temperature level.
+In many respects, the hypothalamus works like a thermostat.
+When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat.
+Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold.
+Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.
+If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, then shivering begins in order to use muscle movements to produce more heat.
+When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline either spontaneously or with medication, the reverse of these processes (vasodilation, end of shivering and nonshivering heat production) and sweating are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.
+This contrasts with hyperthermia, in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat.
+Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs.
+Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response to anti-pyretic medications.
+========,3,Pyrogens.
+A pyrogen is a substance that induces fever.
+These can be either internal (endogenous) or external (exogenous) to the body.
+The bacterial substance lipopolysaccharide (LPS), present in the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria, is an example of an exogenous pyrogen.
+Pyrogenicity can vary: In extreme examples, some bacterial pyrogens known as superantigens can cause rapid and dangerous fevers.
+Depyrogenation may be achieved through filtration, distillation, chromatography, or inactivation.
+========,4,Endogenous.
+In essence, all endogenous pyrogens are cytokines, molecules that are a part of the immune system.
+They are produced by activated immune cells and cause the increase in the thermoregulatory set point in the hypothalamus.
+Major endogenous pyrogens are interleukin 1 (α and β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6).
+Minor endogenous pyrogens include interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor-β, macrophage inflammatory protein-α and macrophage inflammatory protein-β as well as interferon-α, interferon-β, and interferon-γ.
+Tumor necrosis factor-α also acts as a pyrogen.
+It is mediated by interleukin 1 (IL-1) release.
+These cytokine factors are released into general circulation, where they migrate to the circumventricular organs of the brain due to easier absorption caused by the blood–brain barrier's reduced filtration action there.
+The cytokine factors then bind with endothelial receptors on vessel walls, or interact with local microglial cells.
+When these cytokine factors bind, the arachidonic acid pathway is then activated.
+========,4,Exogenous.
+One model for the mechanism of fever caused by exogenous pyrogens includes LPS, which is a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria.
+An immunological protein called lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) binds to LPS.
+The LBP–LPS complex then binds to the CD14 receptor of a nearby macrophage.
+This binding results in the synthesis and release of various endogenous cytokine factors, such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha.
+In other words, exogenous factors cause release of endogenous factors, which, in turn, activate the arachidonic acid pathway.
+The highly toxic metabolism-boosting supplement 2,4-Dinitrophenol induces [[hyperthermia]|high body temperature] via the inhibition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] production by [[mitochondria]], resulting in impairment of [[cellular respiration]].
+Instead of producing ATP, the energy of the [[proton gradient]] is lost as heat.
+========,3,PGE2 release.
+PGE2 release comes from the [[arachidonic acid]] pathway.
+This pathway (as it relates to fever), is mediated by the [[enzyme]]s [[phospholipase|phospholipase A2]] (PLA2), [[cyclooxygenase|cyclooxygenase-2]] (COX-2), and [[prostaglandin E2 synthase]].
+These enzymes ultimately mediate the synthesis and release of PGE2.
+PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response.
+The set point temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present.
+PGE2 acts on neurons in the [[preoptic area]] (POA) through the [[prostaglandin E receptor 3]] (EP3).
+EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the [[dorsomedial hypothalamus]] (DMH), the rostral [[raphe]] pallidus nucleus in the [[medulla oblongata]] (rRPa), and the [[paraventricular nucleus]] (PVN) of the [[hypothalamus]] .
+Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the [[Sympathetic nervous system|sympathetic]] output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface.
+It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving [[pituitary gland]] and various [[endocrine organs]].
+========,3,Hypothalamus.
+The brain ultimately orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via the [[autonomic nervous system]].
+These may be:
+***LIST***.
+In infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activate [[brown adipose tissue]] to produce heat (non-exercise-associated [[thermogenesis]], also known as non-shivering thermogenesis).
+Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increased [[blood pressure]] in fever.
+========,3,Usefulness.
+There are arguments for and against the usefulness of fever, and the issue is controversial.
+In theory, fever can aid in host defense.
+There are certainly some important immunological reactions that are sped up by temperature, and some [[pathogen]]s with strict temperature preferences could be hindered.
+Research has demonstrated that fever assists the healing process in several important ways:
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Management.
+Fever should not necessarily be treated.
+Most people recover without specific medical attention.
+Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated.
+Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach 42 °C (107.6 °F), and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed 40.6 °C (105 °F).
+Treating fever in people with [[sepsis]] does not affect outcomes.
+========,3,Conservative measures.
+Some limited evidence supports sponging or bathing feverish children with tepid water.
+The use of a [[mechanical fan|fan]] or air conditioning may somewhat reduce the temperature and increase comfort.
+If the temperature reaches the extremely high level of [[hyperpyrexia]], aggressive cooling is required (generally produced mechanically via [[conduction (heat)|conduction]] by applying numerous ice packs across most of the body or direct submersion in ice water).
+In general, people are advised to keep adequately hydrated.
+Whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illnesses such as the [[common cold]] is not known.
+========,3,Medications.
+Medications that lower fevers are called "[[antipyretic]]s".
+The antipyretic [[ibuprofen]] is effective in reducing fevers in children.
+It is more effective than [[acetaminophen]] (paracetamol) in children.
+Ibuprofen and acetaminophen may be safely used together in children with fevers.
+The efficacy of acetaminophen by itself in children with fevers has been questioned.
+Ibuprofen is also superior to [[aspirin]] in children with fevers.
+Additionally, [[aspirin]] is not recommended in children and young adults (those under the age of 16 or 19 depending on the country) due to the risk of [[Reye's syndrome]].
+Using both paracetamol and ibuprofen at the same time or alternating between the two is more effective at decreasing fever than using only paracetamol or ibuprofen.
+It is not clear if it increases child comfort.
+Response or nonresponse to medications does not predict whether or not a child has a serious illness.
+========,2,History.
+A number of types of fever were known as early as 460 BC to 370 BC when [[Hippocrates]] was practicing medicine including that due to [[malaria]] (tertian or every 2 days and quartan or every 3 days).
+It also became clear around this time that fever was a symptom of disease rather than a disease in and of itself.
+========,2,Society and culture.
+========,3,Etymology.
+Pyrexia is from the Greek "pyr" meaning "fire".
+Febrile is from the [[Latin]] word "[[febris]]", meaning "fever", and archaically known as "ague".
+========,3,Fever phobia.
+Fever phobia is the name given by medical experts to parents' misconceptions about fever in their children.
+Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is a [[disease]] rather than a [[medical sign]], that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified "normal" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever.
+They are also afraid of harmless side effects like [[febrile seizure]]s and dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers.
+The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is "as parents we tend to suspect that our children’s brains may melt."
+As a result of these misconceptions parents are anxious, give the child fever-reducing medicine when the temperature is technically normal or only slightly elevated, and interfere with the child's sleep to give the child more medicine.
+========,2,Other animals.
+Fever is an important feature for the [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of [[veterinary medicine|disease in domestic animals]].
+The body temperature of animals, which is taken rectally, is different from one species to another.
+For example, a [[horse]] is said to have a fever above ().
+In species that allow the body to have a wide range of "normal" temperatures, such as [[camel]]s, it is sometimes difficult to determine a febrile stage.
+Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever.
+For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as "[[Beauveria bassiana]]" and "[[Metarhizium acridum]]".
+Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite "Ascosphaera apis".

test/46256.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Telemetry is an automated communications process by which measurements and other data are collected at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring.
+The word is derived from Greek roots: "tele" = remote, and "metron" = measure.
+Systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry, telecommand.
+Although the term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g., using radio, ultrasonic, or infrared systems), it also encompasses data transferred over other media such as a telephone or computer network, optical link or other wired communications like power line carriers.
+Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive and transmit telemetry data.
+A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity.
+It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device.
+Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry.
+Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital.
+Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.
+Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of multiple data streams in a fixed frame.
+========,2,History.
+Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century.
+One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsar's Winter Palace and army headquarters.
+In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris.
+In 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn, a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over a distance.
+In 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia.
+In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid.
+The Panama Canal (completed 1913–1914) used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels.
+Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde, developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France and Pavel Molchanov in Russia.
+Mochanov's system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code.
+The German V-2 rocket used a system of primitive multiplexed radio signals called "Messina" to report four rocket parameters, but it was so unreliable that Wernher von Braun once claimed it was more useful to watch the rocket through binoculars.
+In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was quickly replaced with better systems (in both cases, based on pulse-position modulation).
+Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in the late 1940s used either pulse-position modulation (e.g., the Tral telemetry system developed by OKB-MEI) or pulse-duration modulation (e.g., the RTS-5 system developed by NII-885).
+In the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation (PCM) (for example, in the Mars probe Mariner 4).
+Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on a decimeter band and PPM on a centimeter band.
+========,2,Applications.
+========,3,Oil and gas industry.
+Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time, as a well is drilled.
+These services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling.
+Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling, is sent through the drilling hole to the surface sensors and the demodulation software.
+The pressure wave (sana) is translated into useful information after DSP and noise filters.
+This information is used for Formation evaluation, Drilling Optimization, and Geosteering.
+========,3,Motor racing.
+Telemetry is a key factor in modern motor racing, allowing race engineers to interpret data collected during a test or race and use it to properly tune the car for optimum performance.
+Systems used in series such as Formula One have become advanced to the point where the potential lap time of the car can be calculated, and this time is what the driver is expected to meet.
+Examples of measurements on a race car include accelerations (G forces) in three axes, temperature readings, wheel speed, and suspension displacement.
+In Formula One, driver input is also recorded so the team can assess driver performance and (in case of an accident) the FIA can determine or rule out driver error as a possible cause.
+Later developments include two-way telemetry which allows engineers to update calibrations on the car in real time (even while it is out on the track).
+In Formula One, two-way telemetry surfaced in the early 1990s and consisted of a message display on the dashboard which the team could update.
+Its development continued until May 2001, when it was first allowed on the cars.
+By 2002, teams were able to change engine mapping and deactivate engine sensors from the pit while the car was on the track.
+For the 2003 season, the FIA banned two-way telemetry from Formula One; however, the technology may be used in other types of racing or on road cars.
+Telemetry has also been applied in yacht racing on Oracle Racing's USA 76.
+One way telemetry system has also been applied in R/C racing car to get information by car's sensors like: engine RPM, voltage, temperatures, throttle.
+========,3,Transportation.
+In the transportation industry, telemetry provides meaningful information about a vehicle or driver’s performance by collecting data from sensors within the vehicle.
+This is undertaken for various reasons ranging from staff compliance monitoring, insurance rating to predictive maintenance.
+========,3,Agriculture.
+Most activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend on timely availability of weather and soil data.
+Therefore, wireless weather stations play a major role in disease prevention and precision irrigation.
+These stations transmit parameters necessary for decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf wetness (for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial to irrigation decisions).
+Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to come from within the crop.
+Monitoring stations usually transmit data back by terrestrial radio, although occasionally satellite systems are used.
+Solar power is often employed to make the station independent of the power grid.
+========,3,Water management.
+Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging functions.
+Major applications include AMR (automatic meter reading), groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance.
+Having data available in almost real time allows quick reactions to events in the field.
+Telemetry control allows to intervene with assets such as pumps and allows to remotely switch pumps on or off depending on the circumstances.
+Watershed telemetry is an excellent strategy of how to implement a water management system.
+========,3,Defense, space and resource exploration.
+Telemetry is used in complex systems such as missiles, RPVs, spacecraft, oil rigs, and chemical plants since it allows the automatic monitoring, alerting, and record-keeping necessary for efficient and safe operation.
+Space agencies such as ISRO, NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and other agencies use telemetry and/or telecommand systems to collect data from spacecraft and satellites.
+Telemetry is vital in the development of missiles, satellites and aircraft because the system might be destroyed during or after the test.
+Engineers need critical system parameters to analyze (and improve) the performance of the system.
+In the absence of telemetry, this data would often be unavailable.
+========,4,Space science.
+Telemetry is used by manned or unmanned spacecraft for data transmission.
+Distances of more than 10 billion kilometres have been covered, e.g., by Voyager 1.
+========,4,Rocketry.
+In rocketry, telemetry equipment forms an integral part of the rocket range assets used to monitor the position and health of a launch vehicle to determine range safety flight termination criteria (Range purpose is for public safety).
+Problems include the extreme environment (temperature, acceleration and vibration), the energy supply, antenna alignment and (at long distances, e.g., in spaceflight) signal travel time.
+========,4,Flight testing.
+Today nearly every type of aircraft, missiles, or spacecraft carries a wireless telemetry system as it is tested.
+Aeronautical mobile telemetry is used for the safety of the pilots and persons on the ground during flight tests.
+Telemetry from an on-board flight test instrumentation system is the primary source of real-time measurement and status information transmitted during the testing of manned and unmanned aircraft.
+========,4,Military intelligence.
+Intercepted telemetry was an important source of intelligence for the United States and UK when Soviet missiles were tested; for this purpose, the United States operated a listening post in Iran.
+Eventually, the Russians discovered the United States intelligence-gathering network and encrypted their missile-test telemetry signals.
+Telemetry was also a source for the Soviets, who operated listening ships in Cardigan Bay to eavesdrop on UK missile tests performed in the area.
+========,3,Energy monitoring.
+In factories, buildings and houses, energy consumption of systems such as HVAC are monitored at multiple locations; related parameters (e.g., temperature) are sent via wireless telemetry to a central location.
+The information is collected and processed, enabling the most efficient use of energy.
+Such systems also facilitate predictive maintenance.
+========,3,Resource distribution.
+Many resources need to be distributed over wide areas.
+Telemetry is useful in these cases, since it allows the system to channel resources where they are needed; examples of this are tank farms in gasoline refineries and chemical plants.
+========,3,Medicine/Healthcare.
+Telemetry is used for patients (biotelemetry) who are at risk of abnormal heart activity, generally in a coronary care unit.
+Telemetry specialists are sometimes used to monitor many patients with a hospital.
+Such patients are outfitted with measuring, recording and transmitting devices.
+A data log can be useful in diagnosis of the patient's condition by doctors.
+An alerting function can alert nurses if the patient is suffering from an acute (or dangerous) condition.
+Systems are available in medical-surgical nursing for monitoring to rule out a heart condition, or to monitor a response to antiarrhythmic medications such as amiodarone.
+A new and emerging application for telemetry is in the field of neurophysiology, or neurotelemetry.
+Neurophysiology is the study of the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated.
+In neurotelemetry (NT) the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a patient is monitored remotely by a registered EEG technologist using advanced communication software.
+The goal of neurotelemetry is to recognize a decline in a patient's condition before physical signs and symptoms are present.
+Neurotelemetry is synonymous with real-time continuous video EEG monitoring and has application in the epilepsy monitoring unit, neuro ICU, pediatric ICU and newborn ICU.
+Due to the labor-intensive nature of continuous EEG monitoring NT is typically done in the larger academic teaching hospitals using in-house programs that include R.EEG Technologists, IT support staff, neurologist and neurophysiologist and monitoring support personnel.
+Modern microprocessor speeds, software algorithms and video data compression allow hospitals to centrally record and monitor continuous digital EEGs of multiple critically ill patients simultaneously.
+Neurotelemetry and continuous EEG monitoring provides dynamic information about brain function that permits early detection of changes in neurologic status, which is especially useful when the clinical examination is limited.
+========,3,Fishery and wildlife research and management.
+Telemetry is used to study wildlife, and has been useful for monitoring threatened species at the individual level.
+Animals under study can be outfitted with instrumentation tags, which include sensors that measure temperature, diving depth and duration (for marine animals), speed and location (using GPS or Argos packages).
+Telemetry tags can give researchers information about animal behavior, functions, and their environment.
+This information is then either stored (with archival tags) or the tags can send (or transmit) their information to a satellite or handheld receiving device.
+Capturing and marking wild animals can put them at some risk, so it is important to minimize these impacts.
+========,3,Retail.
+At a 2005 workshop in Las Vegas, a seminar noted the introduction of telemetry equipment which would allow vending machines to communicate sales and inventory data to a route truck or to a headquarters.
+This data could be used for a variety of purposes, such as eliminating the need for drivers to make a first trip to see which items needed to be restocked before delivering the inventory.
+Retailers also use RFID tags to track inventory and prevent shoplifting.
+Most of these tags passively respond to RFID readers (e.g., at the cashier), but active RFID tags are available which periodically transmit location information to a base station.
+========,3,Law enforcement.
+Telemetry hardware is useful for tracking persons and property in law enforcement.
+An ankle collar worn by convicts on probation can warn authorities if a person violates the terms of his or her parole, such as by straying from authorized boundaries or visiting an unauthorized location.
+Telemetry has also enabled bait cars, where law enforcement can rig a car with cameras and tracking equipment and leave it somewhere they expect it to be stolen.
+When stolen the telemetry equipment reports the location of the vehicle, enabling law enforcement to deactivate the engine and lock the doors when it is stopped by responding officers.
+========,3,Energy providers.
+In some countries, telemetry is used to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed.
+The electricity meter communicates with a concentrator, and the latter sends the information through GPRS or GSM to the energy provider's server.
+Telemetry is also used for the remote monitoring of substations and their equipment.
+For data transmission, phase line carrier systems operating on frequencies between 30 and 400 kHz are sometimes used.
+========,3,Testing.
+Telemetry is used in testing hostile environments which are dangerous to humans.
+Examples include munitions storage facilities, radioactive sites, volcanoes, deep sea, and outer space.
+========,3,Mining.
+In the mining industry, telemetry serves two main purposes: the measurement of key parameters from mining equipment and the monitoring of safety practices.
+The information provided by the collection and analysis of key parameters allows for root-cause identification of inefficient operations, unsafe practices and incorrect equipment usage for maximizing productivity and safety.
+Further applications of the technology allow for sharing knowledge and best practices across the organization.
+========,2,International standards.
+As in other telecommunications fields, international standards exist for telemetry equipment and software.
+International standards producing bodies include Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) for space agencies, Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) for missile ranges, and Telemetering Standards Coordination Committee (TSCC), an organisation of the International Foundation for Telemetering.

test/46270.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+========,1,preface.
+New materials in 20th-century art were introduced to art making from the very beginning of the century.
+The introduction of new materials (and techniques) and heretofore non-art materials helped drive change in art during the 20th century.
+Traditional materials and techniques were not necessarily displaced in the 20th century.
+Rather they functioned alongside innovations that came with the 20th century.
+Such mainstays as oil-on-canvas painting, and sculpting in traditional materials continued right through the 20th century into the 21st century.
+Furthermore, even "traditional" materials were greatly expanded in the course of the 20th century.
+The number of pigments available to artists (painters, primarily) has increased both in quantity and quality, by most reckoning.
+New formulations for traditional materials especially the commercial availability of acrylic paint have become widely used, introducing initial issues over their stability and longevity.
+Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Kurt Schwitters, Joseph Cornell and others incorporated paper collage and mixed drawing (materials) with paint to fashion their work.
+Both Picasso and Marcel Duchamp pioneered the use of found objects as material for paintings and sculpture during the 1910s.
+In the 1940s Jackson Pollock pioneered the use of housepaint, silver and aluminum paint, duco, and various objects for use in his paintings.
+In the 1950s Robert Rauschenberg included 3-D elements like tires and stuffed animals as well as using discarded materials like crushed or flattened cardboard boxes.
+Yves Klein incorporated live nude models and a symphony orchestra in his performance pieces of his paintings.
+John Chamberlain used crushed auto parts for sculpture.
+In the 1960s Pop artists Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Tom Wesselmann and Roy Lichtenstein made art from commercial products, or art that resembled commercial products like television sets, soup cans, brillo boxes, comic books, household furniture and restaurant items among other things.
+Edward Kienholz made replicas of actual environments both domestic and commercial, while George Segal made life-size plaster figures in settings using real objects and props.
+Dan Flavin used electric fluorescent lights and ballasts to create sculpture.
+In the 1970s Frank Stella introduced honeycombed aluminum and glitter.
+In the 1980s Julian Schnabel made "plate paintings" with broken crockery stuck to the surface and then painted over, Anselm Kiefer and Richard Long used mud, soil or tar in their works.
+In the 1960s and again in the 1990s artists used excrement notably - the Italian artist Piero Manzoni in 1961 and the British artist Chris Ofili who specialized in using elephant dung in the 1990s.
+Tracey Emin included her bed, entitled My Bed, in 1999.
+Some innovations concerning materials used in art merely function in a supportive way, and other innovative materials are much more conspicuous.
+Frank Stella's use of honeycombed aluminum served as a lightweight and strong and very configurable support for imagery.
+In the sculpture entitled "Monogram," by Robert Rauschenberg, an angora goat assumes a position of central importance.
+========,2,Early 20th century.
+The advent of Modernism and Modern Art in the first decades of the 20th century inspired artists to test and transcend the boundaries and the limitations of the traditional and conventional forms of art making in search of newer forms and in search of new materials.
+The innovations of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and the French Symbolists provided essential inspiration for the development of modern art by the younger generation of artists in Paris and elsewhere in Europe.
+Henri Matisse and other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, paintings that the critics called Fauvism.
+Henri Rousseau, Pablo Picasso, Giorgio de Chirico, Amedeo Modigliani, Marc Chagall, Robert Delaunay and scores of young artists in Paris made their first modern paintings venturing toward abstraction and other new ways of formulating figurative, still-life and landscape imagery.
+========,3,1900s.
+During the first decade of the 20th century modern art developed simultaneously in several different areas in Europe (France, England, Scandinavia, Russia, Germany, Italy), and in the United States.
+Artists began to formulate different directions of modern art, seemingly unrelated to one another.
+In printmaking, the linocut was invented by the artists of Die Brücke in Germany between 1905 and 1913.
+At first they described their prints as woodcuts, which sounded more respectable.
+The technique remains popular as a very simple method of printmaking, even suitable for use in schools.
+========,3,1910s.
+========,4,Cubism.
+Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Juan Gris and other cubist artists introduced new elements and materials like newspaper clippings, fabric, and sheet music into their paintings.
+Eventually the movement was called Synthetic Cubism developed between 1912 and 1919.
+Synthetic cubism is characterized by works with different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of subject matter.
+It was the beginning of collage materials being introduced as an important ingredient of fine art work by the avant-garde.
+Considered the first work of this new style was Pablo Picasso's "Still Life with Chair-caning" (1911–1912), which includes oil cloth that was printed to look like chair-caning pasted onto an oval canvas, with text; and rope framing the whole picture.
+At the upper left are the letters "JOU", which appear in many cubist paintings and refers to the newspaper titled "Le Journal".
+========,4,Dada.
+The Dada movement began during World War I as a protest against the madness and violence of war.
+Applying shock tactics and anarchy to art the Dadaists pioneered the use of new artistic techniques such as collage, photomontage readymades and the use of found objects.
+Artists like Marcel Duchamp, Hannah Höch, Kurt Schwitters, Francis Picabia, Man Ray and others incorporated into their work random everyday objects often combined with more conventional artist materials.
+They included photographs, panes of glass, picture frames, eyeglasses, boxes, newspapers, magazines, ticket stubs, metal pipes, bulbs, bottle racks, urinals, bicycle wheels and other objects.
+Marcel Duchamp created "The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even," working on the piece from 1915 to 1923.
+He made the work on two panes of glass; with materials such as lead foil, fuse wire, and dust.
+========,3,1920s.
+========,4,Surrealism.
+During the 1930s Surrealist artist Méret Oppenheim created sexually charged erotic pieces.
+Oppenheim's best known piece is "Object (Le Déjeuner en fourrure)" (1936).
+The sculpture consists of a teacup, saucer and spoon that the artist covered with fur from a Chinese gazelle.
+It is displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.
+========,2,Mid 20th century.
+========,3,1960s.
+In 1960 Yves Klein incorporated live nude models and a symphony orchestra in his performance pieces of his paintings.
+Klein also made use of Photomontage in the famous pseudo-performance picture of himself diving off a wall onto a Paris street "Le Saut dans le Vide" (Leap into the Void.
+In the 1960s John Chamberlain continued using crushed auto parts for sculpture.
+Dan Flavin used electric fluorescent lights and ballasts to create his sculpture.
+In May 1961 Italian artist Piero Manzoni used his own excrement, selling it in cans titled "Artist's Shit" ("Merda d'Artista").
+However the contents of the cans remain a much-disputed enigma, since opening them would destroy the value of the artwork.
+Various theories about the contents have been proposed, including speculation that it is plaster.

test/46289.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Xerxes I (; x-š-y-a-r-š-a () "ruling over heroes", Greek ; 518–465 BC), called Xerxes the Great, was the fourth king of kings of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia.
+Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex.
+He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.
+Xerxes I is most likely the Persian king identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther.
+He is also notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC.
+His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until the losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively.
+Xerxes also crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon immediately after succession.
+Xerxes oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis.
+========,2,Early life.
+========,3,Rise to power.
+Xerxes was born to Darius I and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great).
+Darius and Atossa were both Achaemenids as they were both descendants of Achaemenes.
+While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Perseopolis.
+Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions.
+When Darius decided to leave (487-486 BC), Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Perseopolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor.
+However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.
+Artobazan claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children, because it was an established custom all over the world for the eldest to have the pre-eminence; while Xerxes, on the other hand, urged that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom.
+Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king Demaratus, who argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.
+Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.
+Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.
+Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 36 years old.
+The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.
+Almost immediately, Xerxes crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as satrap over Egypt.
+In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day.
+This sacrilege led the Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused his father's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e., of the world).
+This comes from the Daiva Inscriptions of Xerxes, lines 6-13.
+Although Herodotus' report in the "Histories" has created debate concerning Xerxes's religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.
+========,2,Campaigns.
+========,3,Invasion of the Greek mainland.
+Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon.
+From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont.
+Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, and many more.
+According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges.
+In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water.
+Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.
+The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum - ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.
+Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos.
+Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
+Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals.
+More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.
+========,3,Thermopylae and Athens.
+At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated.
+According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains.
+At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.
+After Thermopylae, Athens was captured.
+Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived.
+A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated.
+Xerxes burnt the city; leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt.
+The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.
+Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies.
+The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.
+According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.
+Another cause of the retreat might have been continued unrest in Babylon, which, being a key province of the Achaemenid Empire, required the king's own attention.
+He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place.
+This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good.
+========,2,Construction projects.
+After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis.
+He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace.
+He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's.
+His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.
+He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.
+========,2,Death.
+In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.
+Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues.
+He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.
+Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events.
+According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius.
+But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes.
+After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.
+Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.
+========,2,Cultural depictions.
+Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians."
+Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera "Serse" by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel.
+It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738.
+The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.
+The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus ("Artabano"), execution of crown prince Darius ("Dario"), revolt by Megabyzus ("Megabise") and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto "Artaserse", which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.
+Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture, although more often than not in a negative light, often portraying him as ranging from unsympathetic to megalomaniacal.
+This can be blamed largely on the fact that most sources from the period are of Greek origin.
+The authors of these sources generally demonize Xerxes in a manner that is reflected in more modern works.
+For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the fictional film "The 300 Spartans" (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander.
+He also features prominently in the graphic novel "300" by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation "300" (2007) and its sequel "" (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king.
+This portrayal has attracted controversy, especially in Iran.
+Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in "Meet the Spartans", a parody of the first "300" movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms.
+Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as the video game "Assassin's Creed II" and the film "One Night with the King" (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss.
+He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game "Civilization II" and "III" (along with Scheherazade), although "Civilization IV" replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.
+Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel "Creation" (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes.
+Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster.
+Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.
+Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film "Esther and the King" and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, "The Book of Esther".
+In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.
+Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece.
+These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology "Departures" and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in "Alternate Generals" volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).

test/46310.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Lobsters comprise a family (Nephropidae, sometimes also Homaridae) of large marine crustaceans.
+Lobsters have long bodies with muscular tails, and live in crevices or burrows on the sea floor.
+Three of their five pairs of legs have claws, including the first pair, which are usually much larger than the others.
+Highly prized as seafood, lobsters are economically important, and are often one of the most profitable commodities in coastal areas they populate.
+Commercially important species include two species of "Homarus" (which looks more like the stereotypical lobster) from the northern Atlantic Ocean, and scampi (which looks more like a shrimp, or a "mini lobster") – the Northern Hemisphere genus "Nephrops" and the Southern Hemisphere genus "Metanephrops".
+Although several other groups of crustaceans have the word "lobster" in their names, the unqualified term "lobster" generally refers to the clawed lobsters of the family Nephropidae.
+Clawed lobsters are not closely related to spiny lobsters or slipper lobsters, which have no claws (chelae), or to squat lobsters.
+The closest living relatives of clawed lobsters are the reef lobsters and the three families of freshwater crayfish.
+========,2,Description.
+Lobsters are invertebrates with a hard protective exoskeleton.
+Like most arthropods, lobsters must moult to grow, which leaves them vulnerable.
+During the moulting process, several species change colour.
+Lobsters have 10 walking legs; the front three pairs bear claws, the first of which are larger than the others.
+Although lobsters are largely bilaterally symmetrical like most other arthropods, some genera possess unequal, specialised claws.
+Lobster anatomy includes the cephalothorax which fuses the head and the thorax, both of which are covered by a chitinous carapace, and the abdomen.
+The lobster's head bears antennae, antennules, mandibles, the first and second maxillae, and the first, second, and third maxillipeds.
+Because lobsters live in murky environments at the bottom of the ocean, they mostly use their antennae as sensors.
+The lobster eye has a reflective structure above a convex retina.
+In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators (lenses) and a concave retina.
+The abdomen includes swimmerets and its tail is composed of uropods and the telson.
+Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of hemocyanin which contains copper.
+In contrast, vertebrates and many other animals have red blood from iron-rich hemoglobin.
+Lobsters possess a green hepatopancreas, called the tomalley by chefs, which functions as the animal's liver and pancreas.
+Lobsters of the family Nephropidae are similar in overall form to a number of other related groups.
+They differ from freshwater crayfish in lacking the joint between the last two segments of the thorax, and they differ from the reef lobsters of the family Enoplometopidae in having full claws on the first three pairs of legs, rather than just one.
+The distinctions from fossil families such as the Chilenophoberidae are based on the pattern of grooves on the carapace.
+========,2,Longevity.
+Lobsters live up to an estimated 45 to 50 years in the wild, although determining age is difficult.
+In 2012, a report was published describing how growth bands in calcified regions of the eyestalk or gastric mill in shrimps, crabs and lobsters could be used to measure growth and mortality in decapod crustaceans.
+Without such a technique, a lobster's age is estimated by size and other variables; this new knowledge "could help scientists better understand the population and assist regulators of the lucrative industry".
+Research suggests that lobsters may not slow down, weaken or lose fertility with age, and that older lobsters may be more fertile than younger lobsters.
+This longevity may be due to telomerase, an enzyme that repairs long repetitive sections of DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes, referred to as telomeres.
+Telomerase is expressed by most vertebrates during embryonic stages, but is generally absent from adult stages of life.
+However, unlike most vertebrates, lobsters express telomerase as adults through most tissue, which has been suggested to be related to their longevity.
+Lobster longevity is limited by their size.
+Moulting requires metabolic energy and the larger the lobster, the more energy is needed; 10 to 15% of lobsters die of exhaustion during moulting, while in older lobsters, moulting ceases and the exoskeleton degrades or collapses entirely leading to death.
+Lobsters, like many other decapod crustaceans, grow throughout life and are able to add new muscle cells at each moult.
+Lobster longevity allows them to reach impressive sizes.
+According to "Guinness World Records", the largest lobster ever caught was in Nova Scotia, Canada, weighing .
+========,2,Ecology.
+Lobsters are found in all oceans.
+They live on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of the continental shelf.
+They generally live singly in crevices or in burrows under rocks.
+Lobsters are omnivores and typically eat live prey such as fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life.
+They scavenge if necessary, and are known to resort to cannibalism in captivity.
+However, when lobster skin is found in lobster stomachs, this is not necessarily evidence of cannibalism – lobsters eat their shed skin after moulting.
+While cannibalism was thought to be nonexistent among wild lobster populations, it was observed in 2012 by researchers studying wild lobsters in Maine.
+These first known instances of lobster cannibalism in the wild are theorized to be attributed to a local population explosion among lobsters caused by the disappearance of many of the Maine lobsters' natural predators.
+In general, lobsters are long, and move by slowly walking on the sea floor.
+However, when they flee, they swim backward quickly by curling and uncurling their abdomens.
+A speed of has been recorded.
+This is known as the caridoid escape reaction.
+Symbiotic animals of the genus "Symbion", the only member of the phylum Cycliophora, live exclusively on lobster gills and mouthparts.
+Different species of "Symbion" have been found on the three commercially important lobsters of the North Atlantic Ocean – "Nephrops norvegicus", "Homarus gammarus", and "Homarus americanus".
+========,2,As food.
+Lobster recipes include lobster Newberg and lobster Thermidor.
+Lobster is used in soup, bisque, lobster rolls, and "cappon magro".
+Lobster meat may be dipped in clarified butter, resulting in a heightened flavour.
+Cooks boil or steam live lobsters.
+When a lobster is cooked, its shell's colour changes from blue to orange because the heat from cooking breaks down a protein called crustacyanin, which suppresses the orange hue of the chemical astaxanthin, which is also found in the shell.
+According to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the mean level of mercury in American lobster between 2005 and 2007 was 0.107 ppm.
+========,3,History.
+In North America, the American lobster did not achieve popularity until the mid-19th century, when New Yorkers and Bostonians developed a taste for it, and commercial lobster fisheries only flourished after the development of the lobster smack, a custom-made boat with open holding wells on the deck to keep the lobsters alive during transport.
+Prior to this time, lobster was considered a mark of poverty or as a food for indentured servants or lower members of society in Maine, Massachusetts, and the Canadian Maritimes, and servants specified in employment agreements that they would not eat lobster more than twice per week.
+Lobster was also commonly served in prisons, much to the displeasure of inmates.
+American lobster was initially deemed worthy only of being used as fertilizer or fish bait, and until well into the 20th century, it was not viewed as more than a low-priced canned staple food.
+========,3,Grading.
+Caught lobsters are graded as new-shell, hard-shell, or old-shell, and because lobsters which have recently shed their shells are the most delicate, an inverse relationship exists between the price of American lobster and its flavour.
+New-shell lobsters have paper-thin shells and a worse meat-to-shell ratio, but the meat is very sweet.
+However, the lobsters are so delicate, even transport to Boston almost kills them, making the market for new-shell lobsters strictly local to the fishing towns where they are offloaded.
+Hard-shell lobsters with firm shells, but with less sweet meat, can survive shipping to Boston, New York, and even Los Angeles, so they command a higher price than new-shell lobsters.
+Meanwhile, old-shell lobsters, which have not shed since the previous season and have a coarser flavour, can be air-shipped anywhere in the world and arrive alive, making them the most expensive.
+One seafood guide notes that an $8 lobster dinner at a restaurant overlooking fishing piers in Maine is consistently delicious, while "the eighty-dollar lobster in a three-star Paris restaurant is apt to be as much about presentation as flavor".
+========,2,Welfare.
+Several methods are used for killing lobsters.
+The most common way of killing lobsters is by placing them live in boiling water, sometimes after having been placed in a freezer for a period of time.
+Another method is to split the lobster or sever the body in half lengthwise.
+Lobsters may also be killed or rendered insensate immediately before boiling by a stab into the brain (pithing), in the belief that this will stop suffering.
+However, a lobster's brain operates from not one but several ganglia and disabling only the frontal ganglion does not usually result in death.
+The boiling method is illegal in some places, such as in Reggio Emilia, Italy, where offenders face fines up to €495.
+Lobsters can be killed by electrocution prior to cooking, with one device, the CrustaStun, applying a 110-volt, 2 to 5 amp electrical charge to the animal.
+The killing methods most likely to cause pain and distress are:
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Fishery and aquaculture.
+Lobsters are caught using baited one-way traps with a colour-coded marker buoy to mark cages.
+Lobster is fished in water between , although some lobsters live at .
+Cages are of plastic-coated galvanised steel or wood.
+A lobster fisher may tend as many as 2,000 traps.
+Around year 2000, owing to overfishing and high demand, lobster aquaculture expanded.
+As of 2008, no lobster aquaculture operation had achieved commercial success, mainly because lobsters eat each other (cannibalism) and the growth of the species is slow.
+========,2,Species.
+The fossil record of clawed lobsters extends back at least to the Valanginian age of the Cretaceous (140 million years ago).
+This list contains all extant species in the family Nephropidae:
+***LIST***.

test/46316.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Chowder is a type of soup or stew often prepared with milk or cream and thickened with broken crackers, crushed ship biscuit, or a roux.
+Variations of chowder can be seafood or vegetable.
+Crackers such as oyster crackers or saltines may accompany chowders as a side item, and cracker pieces may be dropped atop the dish.
+New England clam chowder is typically made with chopped clams and diced potatoes, in a mixed cream and milk base, often with a small amount of butter.
+Other common chowders include seafood chowder, which includes fish, clams, and many other types of shellfish; corn chowder, which uses corn instead of clams; a wide variety of fish chowders; and potato chowder, which is often made with cheese.
+Fish chowder, corn chowder, and clam chowder are especially popular in the North American regions of New England and Atlantic Canada.
+Some people include Manhattan clam chowder as a type of chowder.
+Others dispute this classification, as it is tomato based rather than milk or cream based.
+========,2,Etymology.
+The origin of the term "chowder" is obscure.
+One possible source is the French word "chaudron", the French word for cauldron, the type of cooking or heating stove on which the first chowders were probably cooked.
+"Chodier" was also a name for a cooking pot in the Creole language of the French Caribbean islands: "Crab pas mache, li pas gras; li mache touop, et li tomber nans chodier" ("if a crab don't walk, he don't get fat, if he walks too much, he falls into a cooking pot").
+Another possible source of the word "chowder" could be the French dish called "chaudrée" (sometimes spelled "chauderée"), which is a type of thick fish soup from the coastal regions of Charente-Maritime and Vendée.
+Although in the sixteenth century in Cornwall and Devon a dialect word "jowter" was used to describe hawkers, particularly fish-sellers, with later variants "chowder" and "chowter", this is not cited by the Oxford English Dictionary as a possible source.
+The earliest citation the OED gives for the word used in its current sense of a fish-based stew is American.
+Other usage which attests to its use in England in the middle of 18th century is in a novel by Tobias Smollett in which one of the characters states, "My head sings and simmers like a pot of chowder".
+A Manx sailor in his memoirs refers to a meal made aboard a British ship on a voyage through the Caribbean in 1786: "...we frequently served up a mess called "chowder", consisting of a mixture of fresh fish, salt pork, pounded biscuit and onions; and which, when well seasoned and stewed, we found to be an excellent palatable dish."
+Cookbooks of the period included recipes for "Chowder, a Sea Dish".
+In 1830 an English baked dish made with salmon and potato was called a chowder.
+In Merriam-Webster's dictionary chowder is defined as "a thick soup or stew made of seafood or corn with potatoes and onions and milk or tomatoes".
+========,2,History.
+Chowder as it is known today originated as a shipboard dish, and was thickened with the use of hardtack.
+Chowder was brought to North America with immigrants from England and France and seafarers more than 250 years ago and became popular as a delicious dish, and is now a widely used dish as it is simple to prepare.
+In 1870, in the fishing hamlets of Brittany, there were sign boards in front of cabarets which had, in pirate language, "Ici on fait la chudiere" or "here be chowder".
+The usage "faire la chaudiere" is interpreted as a reference to the cauldron used to cook fish and biscuit and many tasty condiments, which was a fisherman's delight.
+This way of cooking became popular when it was brought to Newfoundland and further into the mainland of New England.
+In 1890, in the magazine "American Notes and Queries", it was said that the dish was of French origin.
+Among French settlers in Canada it was a custom to stew clams and fish laid in courses with bacon, sea biscuits, and other ingredients in a kettle called "Chaudière", and it thus came to be invented.
+Then the Native Americans adopted it as "chawder", which was then corrupted as "chowder" by the Yankees.
+In the United States, early chowder making is traced to New England.
+It was a bowl of simmering chowder by the sea side that provided in its basic form "sustenance of body and mind – a marker of hearth and home, community, family and culture".
+It is a food which evolved along the coastal shoreline of New England as a "congerie" of simple things, very basic and cooked simply.
+It is a simple dish of salt and pepper, potatoes and onion, pork and fish, cream and hard crackers, and not a sophisticated dish of the elite.
+Its simplicity made it attractive and it became a regional dish of the New Englanders, and their favorite recipe was "chowder master".
+"Symbolically, functionally, mnemonically or dynamically" chowder has become a powerful means for New Englanders to define themselves as a community, a rich community with a deep past and value that distinguishes their region from all others.
+The dish has been made there for a long time and is imbibed into the community culture.
+Etta M. Madden and Martha L. Finch observe that chowder provides "visceral memories that provided feelings of familiarity, comfort and continuity".
+A recipe formulated and published in 1894 by Charles Ranhofer, a famous chef of Delmonico's restaurant, was called "Chowder de Lucines" and had ingredients of pork, clams, potato (sliced to a seven sixteenths-inch size), onion, parsley, tomato, crackers garnished by thyme, salt and pepper.
+Others in the same family, totally different from the New England clam chowder, are: "Fulton Market style", introduced in 1904 and made from clams, tomatoes, allspice, cloves, red pepper, and Worcester sauce; a "Vegetable Clam Chowder" introduced in 1929 and made of clams, chopped onions, diced carrots, stewed tomatoes, and thyme; "Coney Island Clam Chowder"; "New York Clam Chowder"; and "Manhattan Clam Chowder", a late entry after 1930.
+========,2,Types.
+Chowder is a soup with cream or milk mixed with ingredients such as potatoes, sweet corn, smoked haddock, clams and prawns, etc.
+Some cream-style chowders do not use cream, and are instead prepared using milk and a roux to thicken them.
+Some of the popular variations are clam chowder and potatoes; seafood chowder; spiced haddock chowder; Irish fish chowder with soda bread; crayfish chowder; clam chowder with cod; British seaside chowder with saffron; thick smoked-haddock chowder; Raymond Blanc's light shellfish chowder; New England-style clam chowder with crunchy thyme breadcrumbs; smoked haddock chowder with leeks and sweetcorn; clam, broad bean and salami chowder; and many more.
+Chowder can be a comfort food, especially during the winter months.
+========,3,Bermuda fish chowder.
+Considered a national dish of Bermuda, the primary ingredients in Bermuda fish chowder include fish, tomato, and onion that is seasoned with black rum and a Sherry pepper sauce.
+The dish is of British origin, and was brought to the New World by the colonists.
+========,3,Clam chowder.
+Clam chowder is prepared with clams, diced potato, onion, and celery.
+It may be prepared as a cream-style or broth-style soup.
+Several variations of clam chowder exist, including New England clam chowder, which is a cream-style soup; Manhattan clam chowder, a broth-style soup prepared using tomato, vegetables and clams; Rhode Island clam chowder, a simple broth-style soup; New Jersey clam chowder; Delaware clam chowder; Hatteras clam chowder; and Minorcan clam chowder.
+In Connecticut clam chowder, milk is used instead of cream.
+New England clam chowder is made in a diverse variety of styles.
+Clam chowder may be prepared with fresh, steamed clams or canned clams.
+The "clam liquor" from steamed or canned clams may be retained for use in the soup, and fresh or bottled clam juice may be used.
+January 21 is the National New England Clam Chowder Day.
+========,3,Corn chowder.
+Corn chowder is similar in consistency to New England clam chowder, with corn being used instead of clams.
+Additional vegetables that may be used in its preparation include potatoes, celery and onion.
+Some are prepared using bacon as an ingredient.
+Corn chowder may be prepared with fresh, frozen, or canned corn.
+========,3,Fish chowder.
+Fish chowder is prepared with fish such as salmon or cod, and is similar to clam chowder in ingredients and texture.
+Ingredients used in fish chowder may include potato, onion, celery, carrot, corn and bacon.
+========,3,Southern Illinois chowder.
+Southern Illinois Chowder, also referred to as "downtown chowder", is a thick stew or soup that is very different from the New England and Manhattan chowders.
+The main ingredients are beef, chicken, tomatoes, cabbage, lima beans, and green beans.
+Traditionally, squirrel meat was a common addition.
+Southern Illinois chowder is a hearty dish that has been described as being closer in style to burgoo and Brunswick stew than coastal chowders.
+========,2,Use of preserved clams.
+In North America, as people moved west, some homemade preparations of traditional chowder used canned or bottled clams when fresh clams were not available.
+In some places the ingredients were modified based upon other locally available foods such as salmon, corn and chicken.

test/46319.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Asparagus, or garden asparagus, scientific name Asparagus officinalis, is a spring vegetable, a flowering perennial plant species in the genus "Asparagus".
+It was once classified in the lily family, like the related "Allium" species, onions and garlic, but the Liliaceae have been split and the onion-like plants are now in the family Amaryllidaceae and asparagus in the Asparagaceae.
+"Asparagus officinalis" is native to most of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia, and is widely cultivated as a vegetable crop.
+========,2,Biology.
+Asparagus is a herbaceous, perennial plant growing to tall, with stout stems with much-branched, feathery foliage.
+The "leaves" are in fact needle-like cladodes (modified stems) in the axils of scale leaves; they are long and broad, and clustered four to 15 together, in a rose-like shape.
+The root system is adventitious and the root type is fasciculated.
+The flowers are bell-shaped, greenish-white to yellowish, long, with six tepals partially fused together at the base; they are produced singly or in clusters of two or three in the junctions of the branchlets.
+It is usually dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, but sometimes hermaphrodite flowers are found.
+The fruit is a small red berry 6–10 mm diameter, which is poisonous to humans.
+Plants native to the western coasts of Europe (from northern Spain north to Ireland, Great Britain, and northwest Germany) are treated as "Asparagus officinalis" subsp.
+"prostratus" (Dumort.)
+Corb., distinguished by its low-growing, often prostrate stems growing to only high, and shorter cladodes long.
+It is treated as a distinct species, "Asparagus prostratus" Dumort, by some authors.
+========,2,History.
+Asparagus has been used as a vegetable and medicine, owing to its delicate flavour, diuretic properties, and more.
+It is pictured as an offering on an Egyptian frieze dating to 3000 BC.
+In ancient times, it was also known in Syria and in Spain.
+Greeks and Romans ate it fresh when in season, and dried the vegetable for use in winter; Roman Epicureans even froze it high in the Alps, for the Feast of Epicurus.
+Emperor Augustus created the "Asparagus Fleet" for hauling the vegetable, and coined the expression "faster than cooking asparagus" for quick action.
+A recipe for cooking asparagus is in the oldest surviving book of recipes, Apicius's third-century AD "De re coquinaria", Book III.
+The ancient Greek physician Galen (prominent among the Romans) mentioned asparagus as a beneficial herb during the second century AD, but after the Roman empire ended, asparagus drew little medieval attention.
+until 's "The Perfumed Garden".
+That piece of writing celebrates its (scientifically unconfirmed) aphrodisiacal power, a supposed virtue that the Indian "Ananga Ranga" attributes to "special phosphorus elements" that also counteract fatigue.
+By 1469, asparagus was cultivated in French monasteries.
+Asparagus appears to have been hardly noticed in England until 1538, and in Germany until 1542.
+The finest texture and the strongest and yet most delicate taste is in the tips.
+The "points d'amour" ("love tips") were served as a delicacy to Madame de Pompadour.
+Asparagus became available to the New World around 1850, in the United States.
+========,2,Uses.
+Only young asparagus shoots are commonly eaten: once the buds start to open ("ferning out"), the shoots quickly turn woody.
+Water makes up 93% of asparagus's composition.
+Asparagus is low in calories and is very low in sodium.
+It is a good source of vitamin B, calcium, magnesium, and zinc, and a very good source of dietary fibre, protein, beta-carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, rutin, niacin, folic acid, iron, phosphorus, potassium, copper, manganese, and selenium,
+as well as chromium, a trace mineral that enhances the ability of insulin to transport glucose from the bloodstream into cells.
+The amino acid asparagine gets its name from asparagus, as the asparagus plant is relatively rich in this compound.
+The shoots are prepared and served in a number of ways around the world, typically as an appetizer or vegetable side dish.
+In Asian-style cooking, asparagus is often stir-fried.
+Cantonese restaurants in the United States often serve asparagus stir-fried with chicken, shrimp, or beef.
+It may also be quickly grilled over charcoal or hardwood embers, and is also used as an ingredient in some stews and soups.
+In recent years, asparagus eaten raw, as a component of a salad, has regained popularity.
+Asparagus can also be pickled and stored for several years.
+Some brands label shoots prepared in this way as "marinated".
+Stem thickness indicates the age of the plant, with the thicker stems coming from older plants.
+Older, thicker stalks can be woody, although peeling the skin at the base removes the tough layer.
+Peeled asparagus will poach much faster.
+The bottom portion of asparagus often contains sand and soil, so thorough cleaning is generally advised before cooking.
+Green asparagus is eaten worldwide, though the availability of imports throughout the year has made it less of a delicacy than it once was.
+In Europe, however, the "asparagus season is a highlight of the foodie calendar"; in the UK this traditionally begins on 23 April and ends on Midsummer Day.
+As in continental Europe, due to the short growing season and demand for local produce, asparagus commands a premium price.
+========,3,White asparagus in continental northwestern Europe.
+Asparagus is very popular in the Netherlands, Spain, France, Poland, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy, and Switzerland, and is almost exclusively white; if not, it is specified by the local language term for "green asparagus".
+White asparagus is the result of applying a blanching technique while the asparagus shoots are growing.
+To cultivate white asparagus, the shoots are covered with soil as they grow, i.e.
+earthed up; without exposure to sunlight, no photosynthesis starts, and the shoots remain white.
+Compared to green asparagus, the locally cultivated so-called "white gold" or "edible ivory" asparagus, also referred to as "the royal vegetable", is believed to be less bitter and much more tender.
+Freshness is very important, and the lower ends of white asparagus must be peeled before cooking or raw consumption.
+Only seasonally on the menu, asparagus dishes are advertised outside many restaurants, usually from late April to June.
+For the French style, asparagus is often boiled or steamed and served with Hollandaise sauce, melted butter or olive oil, Parmesan cheese, or mayonnaise.
+Tall, narrow asparagus cooking pots allow the shoots to be steamed gently, their tips staying out of the water.
+During the German "Spargelsaison" or "Spargelzeit" ("asparagus season" or "asparagus time"), the asparagus season that traditionally finishes on 24 June, roadside stands and open-air markets sell about half of the country's white asparagus consumption.
+========,2,Cultivation.
+Since asparagus often originates in maritime habitats, it thrives in soils that are too saline for normal weeds to grow.
+Thus, a little salt was traditionally used to suppress weeds in beds intended for asparagus; this has the disadvantage that the soil cannot be used for anything else.
+Some places are better for growing asparagus than others.
+The fertility of the soil is a large factor.
+"Crowns" are planted in winter, and the first shoots appear in spring; the first pickings or "thinnings" are known as sprue asparagus.
+Sprue has thin stems.
+A new breed of "early season asparagus" that can be harvested two months earlier than usual was announced by a UK grower in early 2011.
+This variety does not need to lie dormant and blooms at rather than the usual .
+Purple asparagus differs from its green and white counterparts in having high sugar and low fibre levels.
+Purple asparagus was originally developed in Italy, near the city of Albenga and commercialized under the variety name 'Violetto d' Albenga'.
+Since then, breeding work has continued in the United States and New Zealand, creating the 'Pacific Purple' variety.
+========,3,Companion planting.
+Asparagus is said to be a useful companion plant for tomatoes, as the tomato plant repels the asparagus beetle.
+Asparagus may repel some harmful root nematodes that affect tomato plants.
+========,2,Commercial production.
+The top asparagus importers (2013) were the United States (182,805 tonnes), followed by the European Union (external trade) (94,475 tonnes), and Canada (20,219 tonnes).
+China is by far the world's largest producer: in 2013 it produced 7,000,000 tonnes, followed by Peru with 383,144 tonnes and Mexico with 126,421 tonnes.
+U.S. production was concentrated in California, Michigan, and Washington.
+The annual production for white asparagus in Germany is 57,000 tonnes (61% of consumer demand).
+When growing under tunnels growers can increase the growth season.
+In Britain it is estimated that the harvest season of asparagus grown under tunnels can be from February to November.
+========,3,Celebrations.
+The green crop is significant enough in California's Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta region that the city of Stockton holds a festival every year to celebrate it, as does the city of Hart, Michigan, complete with a parade and asparagus queen.
+The Vale of Evesham in Worcestershire is the largest producer within Northern Europe, celebrating with the annual British Asparagus Festival involving auctions of the best crop, an "Asparagus Run" modelled on the Beaujolais Run and a weekend "Asparafest" music festival.
+Many German cities hold an annual "Spargelfest" (asparagus festival) celebrating the harvest of white asparagus.
+Schwetzingen claims to be the "Asparagus Capital of the World", and during its festival, an Asparagus Queen is crowned.
+The Bavarian city of Nuremberg feasts a week long in April, with a competition to find the fastest asparagus peeler in the region.
+This usually involves generous amounts of the local wines and beers being consumed to aid the spectators' appreciative support.
+Helmut Zipner holds the current world record in asparagus peeling.
+========,2,Vernacular names and etymology.
+"A. officinalis" is widely known simply as "asparagus", and may be confused with unrelated plant species also known as "asparagus", such as "Ornithogalum pyrenaicum" known as "Prussian asparagus" for its edible shoots.
+The English word "asparagus" derives from classical Latin, but the plant was once known in English as "sperage", from the Medieval Latin "sparagus".
+This term itself derives from the Greek "aspharagos" or "asparagos", and the Greek term originates from the Persian "asparag", meaning "sprout" or "shoot".
+Asparagus was also corrupted in some places to "sparrow grass"; indeed, John Walker wrote in 1791 that ""Sparrowgrass" is so general that "asparagus" has an air of stiffness and pedantry".
+In East Asia, "A. officinalis" is known as "lùsǔn" (蘆筍, simplified 芦笋) in Mandarin Chinese, "louhséun" (露筍) in Cantonese, and "lô͘-sún" (蘆筍) in Hokkien/Taiwanese.
+In Thai, it is known as "no mai farang" (หน่อไม้ฝรั่ง ), and in Vietnamese as "măng tây" which literally mean "European bamboo shoots" and "Western bamboo shoots", respectively.
+The green asparagus is commonly used in Chinese-American cuisine and Thai cuisine.
+In Turkish, asparagus is known as "kuşkonmaz", literally "[a] bird won't land [on it]," in reference to the shape of the plant.
+========,2,Effects on urine.
+The effect of eating asparagus on urine excreted afterwards has long been observed:
+Asparagus contains asparagusic acid.
+When the vegetable is digested, this chemical is broken down into a group of related sulfur-containing compounds.
+Debate exists about whether all—or only some—people produce the smell, and whether all (or only some) people identify the smell.
+Originally, this was thought to be because some people digested asparagus differently from others, so some excreted odorous urine after eating asparagus, and others did not.
+In the 1980s, three studies from France, China, and Israel published results showing that producing odorous urine from asparagus was a common human characteristic.
+The Israeli study found that from their 307 subjects, all of those who could smell 'asparagus urine' could detect it in the urine of anyone who had eaten asparagus, even if the person who produced it could not detect it.
+However, a 2010 study found variations in both production of odorous urine and the ability to detect the odor, but that these were not tightly related.
+Most people are thought to produce the odorous compounds after eating asparagus, but the differing abilities of various individuals to detect the odor at increasing dilutions suggests a genetically determined specific sensitivity.
+In 2010, the company 23andMe published a genome-wide association study on whether participants have "ever noticed a peculiar odor when you pee after eating asparagus?"
+This study pinpointed a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in a cluster of olfactory genes associated with the ability to detect the odor.
+While this SNP did not explain all of the difference in detection between people, it provides support for the theory that genetic differences occur in olfactory receptors that lead people to be unable to smell these odorous compounds.
+========,3,Chemistry.
+Certain compounds in asparagus are metabolized to yield ammonia and various sulfur-containing degradation products, including various thiols and thioesters, which give urine a characteristic smell.
+Some of the volatile organic compounds responsible for the smell are:
+***LIST***.
+Subjectively, the first two are the most pungent, while the last two (sulfur-oxidized) give a sweet aroma.
+A mixture of these compounds form a "reconstituted asparagus urine" odor.
+This was first investigated in 1891 by Marceli Nencki, who attributed the smell to methanethiol.
+These compounds originate in the asparagus as asparagusic acid and its derivatives, as these are the only sulfur-containing compounds unique to asparagus.
+As these are more present in young asparagus, this accords with the observation that the smell is more pronounced after eating young asparagus.
+The biological mechanism for the production of these compounds is less clear.
+The onset of the asparagus urine smell is remarkably rapid while the decline is slower.
+The smell has been reported to be detectable 15 to 30 minutes after ingestion and subsides with a half-life of approximately 4 hours.

test/46331.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+========,1,preface.
+A flatfish is a member of the order Pleuronectiformes of ray-finned demersal fishes, also called the Heterosomata, sometimes classified as a suborder of Perciformes.
+In many species, both eyes lie on one side of the head, one or the other migrating through or around the head during development.
+Some species face their left sides upward, some face their right sides upward, and others face either side upward.
+Many important food fish are in this order, including the flounders, soles, turbot, plaice, and halibut.
+Some flatfish can camouflage themselves on the ocean floor.
+========,2,Taxonomy.
+Over 700 species are in the 11 families.
+The largest families are Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, Paralichthyidae, Pleuronectidae, and Soleidae, with more than 100 species each (the remaining families have less than 50 species each).
+Some families are the results of relatively recent splits.
+For example, the Achiridae were classified as a subfamily of Soleidae in the past, and the Samaridae were considered a subfamily of the Pleuronectidae.
+The Pleuronectidae may be split further still, as some authorities elevate Paralichthodinae, Poecilopsettinae, and Rhombosoleinae to families instead of subfamilies.
+The taxonomy of some groups is in need of a review, as the last monograph covering the entire order was John Roxborough Norman's "Monograph of the Flatfishes" published in 1934.
+New species are described with some regularity and undescribed species likely remain.
+========,3,Hybrids.
+Hybrids are well known in flatfishes.
+The Pleuronectidae, of marine fishes, have the largest number of reported hybrids.
+Two of the most famous intergeneric hybrids are between the European plaice ("Pleuronectes platessa") and European flounder ("Platichthys flesus") in the Baltic Sea, and between the English sole ("Parophrys vetulus") and starry flounder ("Platichthys stellatus") in Puget Sound.
+The offspring of the latter species pair is popularly known as the hybrid sole and was initially believed to be a valid species in its own right.
+========,2,Distribution.
+Flatfishes are found in oceans worldwide, ranging from the Arctic, through the tropics, to Antarctica.
+Most species are found in depths between 0 and , but a few have been recorded from depths in excess of .
+None have been confirmed from the abyssal or hadal zones.
+An observation of a flatfish from the Bathyscaphe Trieste at the bottom of the Mariana Trench at a depth of almost has been questioned by fish experts, and recent authorities do not recognize it as valid.
+Among the deepwater species, "Symphurus thermophilus" lives in congregating around "ponds" of sulphur at hydrothermal vents on the seafloor.
+No other flatfish is known from hydrothermal vents.
+Many species will enter brackish or fresh water, and a smaller number of soles (families Achiridae and Soleidae) and tonguefish (Cynoglossidae) are entirely restricted to fresh water.
+========,2,Characteristics.
+The most obvious characteristic of the flatfish is its asymmetry, with both eyes lying on the same side of the head in the adult fish.
+In some families, the eyes are usually on the right side of the body (dextral or right-eyed flatfish), and in others, they are usually on the left (sinistral or left-eyed flatfish).
+The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-sided individuals, and are generally less asymmetrical than the other families.
+Other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed (benthos), and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head.
+The surface of the fish facing away from the sea floor is pigmented, often serving to camouflage the fish, but sometimes with striking coloured patterns.
+Some flatfishes are also able to change their pigmentation to match the background, in a manner similar to some cephalopods.
+The side of the body without the eyes, facing the seabed, is usually colourless or very pale.
+In general, flatfishes rely on their camouflage for avoiding predators, but some have conspicuous eyespots (e.g., "Microchirus ocellatus") and several small tropical species (at least "Aseraggodes", "Pardachirus" and "Zebrias") are poisonous.
+Juveniles of "Soleichthys maculosus" mimic toxic flatworms of the genus "Pseudobiceros" in both colours and swimming mode.
+Conversely, a few octopus species have been reported to mimic flatfishes in colours, shape and swimming mode.
+The flounders and spiny turbots eat smaller fish, and have well-developed teeth.
+They sometimes seek prey in the midwater, away from the bottom, and show fewer extreme adaptations than other families.
+The soles, by contrast, are almost exclusively bottom-dwellers, and feed on invertebrates.
+They show a more extreme asymmetry, and may lack teeth on one side of the jaw.
+Flatfishes range in size from "Tarphops oligolepis", measuring about in length, and weighing , to the Atlantic halibut, at and .
+========,2,Reproduction.
+Flatfishes lay eggs that hatch into larvae resembling typical, symmetrical, fish.
+These are initially elongated, but quickly develop into a more rounded form.
+The larvae typically have protective spines on the head, over the gills, and in the pelvic and pectoral fins.
+They also possess a swim bladder, and do not dwell on the bottom, instead dispersing from their hatching grounds as plankton.
+The length of the planktonic stage varies between different types of flatfishes, but eventually they begin to metamorphose into the adult form.
+One of the eyes migrates across the top of the head and onto the other side of the body, leaving the fish blind on one side.
+The larva also loses its swim bladder and spines, and sinks to the bottom, laying its blind side on the underlying surface.
+========,2,Evolution.
+In 2008, a 50-million-year-old fossil, "Amphistium", was identified as an early relative of the flatfish and transitional fossil.
+In a typical modern flatfish, the head is asymmetric, with both eyes on one side of the head.
+In "Amphistium", the transition from the typical symmetric head of a vertebrate is incomplete, with one eye placed near the top of the head.
+The researchers concluded, "the change happened gradually, in a way consistent with evolution via natural selection—not suddenly, as researchers once had little choice but to believe."
+Flatfishes have been cited as dramatic examples of evolutionary adaptation.
+Richard Dawkins, in "The Blind Watchmaker", explains the flatfishes' evolutionary history thus:
+…bony fish as a rule have a marked tendency to be flattened in a vertical direction….
+It was natural, therefore, that when the ancestors of [flatfish] took to the sea bottom, they should have lain on one "side"….
+But this raised the problem that one eye was always looking down into the sand and was effectively useless.
+In evolution this problem was solved by the lower eye ‘moving’ round to the upper side.
+========,2,As food.
+Flatfish is considered a Whitefish because of the high concentration of oils within its liver.
+Its lean flesh makes for a unique flavor that differs from species to species.
+Methods of cooking include grilling, pan-frying, baking and deep-frying.

test/46336.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+========,1,preface.
+A passerine is any bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species.
+A notable feature of passerines compared to other orders of Aves is the arrangement of their toes, three pointing forward and one back, which facilitates perching.
+Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders, with over 5,000 identified species.
+It has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia.
+It contains more than 110 families, the second-most of any order of tetrapods (after Squamata, the scaled reptiles).
+The passerines contain several groups of brood parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches, and the cowbirds.
+Most passerines are omnivorous, while the shrikes are carnivorous.
+The names "passerine" and "Passeriformes" are derived from "Passer domesticus", the scientific name of the eponymous species (the house sparrow) and ultimately from the Latin term "passer" for "Passer" sparrows and similar small birds.
+========,2,Description.
+The order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines), and the basal Acanthisitti.
+Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations (though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings); some such as the lyrebird are accomplished imitators.
+The acanthisittids or New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri; their taxonomic position is uncertain, although they seem to be a distinct and very ancient group.
+Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders.
+The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven and the larger races of common raven, each exceeding and .
+The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.
+The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at and .
+========,2,Anatomy.
+The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement.
+This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs.
+The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the second and third toes are united at their basal third.
+The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes.
+The passeriformes have this toe arrangement in common with hunting birds like eagles and falcons.
+The leg arrangement of passerine birds contains a special adaptation for perching.
+A tendon in the rear of the leg running from the underside of the toes to the muscle behind the tibiotarsus will automatically be pulled and tighten when the leg bends, causing the foot to curl and become stiff when the bird lands on a branch.
+This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off.
+This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.
+Most passerine birds develop 12 tail feathers, although the superb lyrebird has 16.
+Certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces.
+Some passerines, specifically in the family Ploceidae, are well known for their elaborate sexual ornaments, including extremely long tails.
+A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird.
+========,2,Eggs and nests.
+The chicks of passerines are altricial: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs.
+Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care.
+Most passerines lay coloured eggs, in contrast with nonpasserines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and in some parasitic cuckoos, which match the passerine host's egg.
+Vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colours, white and blue.
+This can prevent the brood parasitic Common cuckoo.
+Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, whilst in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, hole-nesting species like tits can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six.
+The family Viduidae do not build their own nests, instead they lay eggs in other birds' nests.
+========,2,Origin and evolution.
+The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century.
+In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship.
+For example, the wrens of the Americas and Eurasia; those of Australia; and those of New Zealand look superficially similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.
+Much research remains to be done, but advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data gradually are revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.
+The first passerines are now thought to have evolved in the Southern Hemisphere in the late Paleocene or early Eocene, around 50 million years ago.
+The initial split was between the New Zealand wrens (Acanthisittidae) and all other passerines, and the second split involved the Tyranni (suboscines) and the Passeri (oscines or songbirds).
+The later experienced a great radiation of forms out of the Australian continent.
+A major branch of the Passeri, parvorder Passerida, expanded deep into Eurasia and Africa, where a further explosive radiation of new lineages occurred.
+This eventually led to three major Passerida lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the Corivida and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today.
+Extensive biogeographical mixing happens, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.
+========,3,Fossil record.
+========,4,Earliest passerines.
+Perching bird osteology, especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.
+However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well.
+Queensland Museum specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland, are fossil bone fragments initially assigned to Passeriformes.
+However, the materias is too fragmentary and their affinities have been questioned.
+Several more recent fossils from the Oligocene of Europe that are more complete definitely represent early passeriforms, although their exact position in the evolutionary tree is not known.
+From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a tui-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of saddleback-sized bird have recently been described.
+These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19–16 mya).
+Modern knowledge about the living passerines' interrelationships (see the list of families below) suggests that the last common ancestor of all living Passeriformes was a small forest bird, probably with a stubby tail and an overall drab coloration, but possibly with marked sexual dimorphism.
+The latter trait seems to have been lost and re-evolved multiple times in songbird evolution alone, judging from its distribution among the extant lineages.
+Sexual dichromatism is very rare among the basal lineages of Passerida, and probably their plesiomorphic condition.
+But among the youngest passerid clade, the Passeroidea, extremely colorful males and drab females are common, if not the rule.
+On the other hand, among the basalmost Passeri a considerable number of strongly dimorphic lineages exist, too, such as the very ancient Menuridae, as well as many Meliphagoidea and Corvoidea.
+Sexual dimorphism is also not uncommon in the Acanthisittidae and prominent in some suboscines such as the Pipridae and Cotingidae.
+========,4,Early European passerines.
+In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onwards, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:
+***LIST***.
+"Wieslochia" was possibly not a member of any extant suborder.
+That not only the Passeri expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by an undetermined broadbill (Eurylaimidae) from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, and the indeterminant Late Oligocene suboscine from France listed above.
+Even very basal Passeriformes might have been common in Europe until the Middle Miocene, some 12 mya.
+Extant Passeri superfamilies were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds.
+The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the Pliocene (about 10–2 mya).
+Pleistocene and early Holocene lagerstätten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.
+========,4,American fossils.
+In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented.
+Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina), an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, United States: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus "Paleoscinis".
+""Palaeostruthus" eurius" (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.
+========,2,Systematics and taxonomy.
+Corvida and Passerida were classified as parvorders in the suborder Passeri; in accord with the usual taxonomic practice, they would probably be ranked as infraorders.
+As originally envisioned in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, they contained, respectively, the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea, as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea, and Passeroidea.
+The arrangement has been found to be oversimplified by more recent research.
+Since the mid-2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the phylogeny of the passeriform radiation.
+For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of Australia, New Zealand, and Wallacea.
+The Passeri, though, can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.
+Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged.
+Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct species-poor lineages, so new families had to be established, some of them – like the stitchbird of New Zealand and the Eurasian bearded reedling – monotypic with only one living species.
+In the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies.
+For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today, but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia.
+No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups.
+Treatment of the nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives as a distinct superfamily Certhioidea is increasingly considered justified; the same might eventually apply to the tits and their closest relatives.
+This process is still continuing.
+Therefore, the arrangement as presented here is subject to change.
+However, it should take precedence over unreferenced conflicting treatments in family, genus, and species articles here.
+========,2,Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families.
+This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each other.
+The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the "Handbook of the Birds of the World", based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.
+========,3,Regarding arrangement of families.
+The families are sorted into a somewhat novel sequence unlike that in older works, where e.g.
+Corvidae are placed last.
+This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite taxonomy has not been established yet, although the phylogeny is by and large resolved.
+The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the phylogenetic relationships between the families.
+Based on John Boyd's "Taxonomy in Flux Checklist 3.5".

test/46344.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Roberto Remigio Benigni, (; born 27 October 1952) is an Italian actor, comedian, screenwriter and director.
+He co-wrote, directed and acted in the 1997 film "Life Is Beautiful", which garnered him the Academy Award for Best Actor and the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
+He also portrayed Inspector Clouseau's son in "Son of the Pink Panther" (1993) and has collaborated with filmmaker Jim Jarmusch in three of his films: "Down by Law" (1986), "Night on Earth" (1991) and "Coffee and Cigarettes" (2003).
+========,2,Early years.
+Benigni was born in Manciano La Misericordia (a "frazione" of Castiglion Fiorentino), the son of Isolina Papini, a fabric maker, and Luigi Benigni, a bricklayer, carpenter, and farmer.
+He was raised Catholic and served as an altar boy; he still considers himself a believer.
+His first experiences as a theatre actor took place in 1971, in Prato.
+During that autumn he moved to Rome where he took part in some experimental theatre shows, some of which he also directed.
+In 1975, Benigni had his first theatrical success with "Cioni Mario di Gaspare fu Giulia", written by Giuseppe Bertolucci.
+Benigni became famous in Italy in the 1970s for a television series called "Onda Libera", on RAI2, produced by Renzo Arbore, in which he interpreted the satirical piece "The Hymn of the Body Purged" ("L'inno del corpo sciolto", a scatological song about the joys of defecation).
+A great scandal for the time, the series was suspended due to censorship.
+His first film was 1977's "Berlinguer, I Love You" ("Berlinguer ti voglio bene"), also by Bertolucci.
+His popularity increased with "L'altra domenica" (1976/9), another TV show of Arbore's in which Benigni portrayed a lazy film critic who never watches the films he's asked to review.
+Bernardo Bertolucci then cast him in a small speechless role as a window upholsterer in the film "La Luna" which had limited American distribution due to its subject matter.
+========,2,1980s.
+In 1980 he met Cesenate actress Nicoletta Braschi, who was to become his wife and who has starred in most of the films he has directed.
+In June 1983 he appeared during a public political demonstration by the Italian Communist Party, with which he was a sympathiser, and on this occasion he lifted and cradled the party's national leader Enrico Berlinguer.
+It was an unprecedented act, given that until that moment Italian politicians were proverbially serious and formal.
+Benigni was censored again in the 1980s for calling Pope John Paul II something impolite during an important live TV show ("Wojtylaccio", meaning "Bad Wojtyla" in Italian, but with a friendly meaning in Tuscan dialect).
+Benigni's first film as director was "Tu mi turbi" ("You Upset Me") in 1983.
+This film was also his first collaboration with Braschi.
+In 1984, he played in "Non ci resta che piangere" ("Nothing Left to Do but Cry") with comic actor Massimo Troisi.
+The story was a fable in which the protagonists are suddenly thrown back in time to the 15th century, just a little before 1492.
+They start looking for Christopher Columbus in order to stop him from discovering the Americas (for very personal reasons), but are not able to reach him.
+========,3,Benigni in the United States and his collaboration with Cerami.
+Beginning in 1986, Benigni starred in three films by American director Jim Jarmusch.
+In "Down By Law" (1986) (which in Italy had its title spelled "Daunbailò", in Italian phonetics) he played Bob, an innocent foreigner living in the United States, convicted of manslaughter, whose irrepressible good humour and optimism help him to escape and find love.
+(The film also starred Braschi as his beloved.)
+In "Night on Earth", (1991) he played a cabbie in Rome, who causes his passenger, a priest, great discomfort and a heart attack by confessing his bizarre sexual experiences.
+Later, he also starred in the first of Jarmusch's series of short films, "Coffee and Cigarettes" (2003).
+In 1990, he was a member of the Jury at the 40th Berlin International Film Festival.
+In 1993, he starred in "Son of the Pink Panther", directed by veteran Blake Edwards.
+Benigni played Peter Sellers' Inspector Clouseau's illegitimate son who is assigned to save the Princess of Lugash.
+The film bombed in the US, but was a hit in his homeland.
+Benigni had a rare serious role in Federico Fellini's last film, "La voce della luna" ("The Voice of the Moon") (1989).
+In earlier years Benigni had started a long-lasting collaboration with screenwriter Vincenzo Cerami, for a series of films which scored great success in Italy: "Il piccolo diavolo" ("The Little Devil") with Walter Matthau, "Johnny Stecchino" ("Johnny Toothpick"), and "Il mostro" ("The Monster").
+========,2,"Life Is Beautiful".
+Benigni is perhaps best known outside Italy for his 1997 tragicomedy "Life Is Beautiful" ("La vita è bella"), filmed in Arezzo, also written by Cerami.
+The film is about an Italian Jewish man who tries to protect his son's innocence during his internment at a Nazi concentration camp, by telling him that the Holocaust is an elaborate game and he must adhere very carefully to the rules to win.
+Benigni's father had spent three years in a concentration camp in Bergen-Belsen, and "La vita è bella" is based in part on his father's experiences.
+Benigni was also inspired by the story of Holocaust survivor Rubino Romeo Salmonì.
+Although the story and presentation of the film had been discussed during production with different Jewish groups to limit the offense it might cause, the film was attacked by critics who accused it of presenting the Holocaust without much suffering, and some who considered that "laughing at everything" was not appropriate.
+More favourable critics praised Benigni's artistic daring and skill to create a sensitive comedy involving the tragedy, a challenge that Charlie Chaplin confessed he would not have done with "The Great Dictator" had he been aware of the horrors of the Holocaust.
+In 1998, the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards.
+At the 1999 ceremony, the film was awarded the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film (which Benigni accepted as the film's director), Best Original Dramatic Score (the score by Nicola Piovani), and Benigni received the award for Best Actor (the first for a male performer in a non-English-speaking role, and only the third overall acting Oscar for non-English-speaking roles).
+Famously, giddy with delight after "Life Is Beautiful" was announced as the Best Foreign Language Film, Benigni climbed over and then stood on the backs of the seats in front of him and applauded the audience before proceeding to the stage.
+After winning his Best Actor Oscar later in the evening, he said in his acceptance speech, "This is a terrible mistake because I used up all my English!"
+To close his speech, Benigni quoted the closing lines of Dante's "Divine Comedy", referencing "the love that moves the sun and all the stars."
+At the following year's ceremony, when he read the nominees for Best Actress (won by Hilary Swank for "Boys Don't Cry"), host Billy Crystal playfully appeared behind him with a large net to restrain Benigni if he got excessive with his antics again.
+On a 1999 episode of "Saturday Night Live", host Ray Romano played him in a sketch parodying his giddy behavior at the ceremony.
+========,2,Beyond "Life Is Beautiful".
+Benigni played one of the main characters in "Asterix and Obelix vs Caesar" as Detritus, a corrupt Roman provincial governor who wants to kill Julius Caesar, thereby seizing control of the Roman Republic.
+As a director, his 2002 film "Pinocchio," one of the costliest films in Italian cinema, performed well in Italy, but it bombed in North America, with a 0% critics' score at Rotten Tomatoes.
+He was also named as the Worst Actor for his role as Pinocchio, in the 23rd Golden Raspberry Awards.
+The original Italian version was not so poorly greeted and received six nominations at the David di Donatello Awards, winning two, as well as winning one of the two awards it was nominated for at the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists.
+That same year, he gave a typically energetic and revealing interview to Canadian filmmaker Damian Pettigrew for "" (2002), a cinematic portrait of the maestro that was nominated for Best Documentary at the European Film Awards, Europe's equivalent of the Oscars.
+The film went on to win the prestigious Rockie Award for Best Arts Documentary at the Banff World Television Festival (2002) and the "Coup de Coeur" at the International Sunnyside of the Doc Marseille (2002).
+In 2003, Benigni was honored by the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF), receiving the Foundation's NIAF Special Achievement Award in Entertainment.
+His film "La tigre e la neve" ("The Tiger and the Snow," 2005) is a love story set during the initial stage of the Iraq War.
+On 15 October 2005, he performed an impromptu strip tease on Italy's most watched evening news program, removing his shirt and draping it over the newscaster's shoulders.
+Prior to removing his shirt, Benigni had already hijacked the opening credits of the news program, jumping behind the newscaster and announcing: "Berlusconi has resigned!"
+(Benigni is an outspoken critic of media tycoon and then former Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.)
+The previous day, he had led a crowd of thousands in Rome on Friday in protest at the center-right government's decision to cut state arts funding by 35 percent.
+On 2 February 2007, he was awarded the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa by the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.
+On 22 April 2008, the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa was conferred on him by the University of Malta, celebrated by a "Settimana Dantesca" including Benigni's first stage appearance at a university and the premiere of his performing with Dante scholar Robert Hollander.
+Benigni has reportedly received offers to bring his Dante show to Broadway, all of which he has turned down.
+His latest film is "To Rome with Love" with Woody Allen in 2012.
+========,2,"TuttoDante".
+Benigni is an improvisatory poet ("poesia estemporanea" is a form of art popularly followed and practiced in Tuscany), appreciated for his explanation and recitations of Dante's "Divina Commedia" by memory.
+During 2006 and 2007, Benigni had a lot of success touring Italy with his 90-minute "one man show" "TuttoDante" ("Everything About Dante").
+Combining current events and memories of his past narrated with an ironic tone, Benigni then begins a journey of poetry and passion through the world of the Divine Comedy.
+"TuttoDante" has been performed in numerous Italian piazzas, arenas, and stadiums for a total of 130 shows, with an estimated audience of about one million spectators.
+Over 10 million more spectators watched the TV show, "Il V canto dell’Inferno" ("The 5th Song of Hell"), broadcast by Rai Uno on 29 November 2007, with re-runs on Rai International.
+Benigni began North American presentations of "TuttoDante" with an announcement that he learned English to bring the gift of Dante's work to English speakers.
+The English performance incorporates dialectic discussion of language and verse and is a celebration of modernity and the concept of human consciousness as created by language.
+Benigni brought "TuttoDante" to the United States, Canada and Argentina in the TuttoDante Tour between 2008-2009 with performances in San Francisco, Boston and Chicago.
+Benigni was feted in San Francisco at a special reception held by the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF) in his honor on May 24, 2009.
+Following his U.S. premiere Benigni performed his last presentation on 16 June 2009, in Buenos Aires, Argentina where he was awarded "Honorary Citizenship of the City of Buenos Aires" in a ceremony held at the Legislative Palace in homage to the notable Italian diaspora and culture in Argentina.
+========,2,Other media.
+Roberto Benigni is also a singer-songwriter.
+Among his recorded performances are versions of Paolo Conte's songs.

test/46345.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips is a fast food seafood restaurant chain.
+At the peak of its popularity in the late 1970s, it had about 800 stores.
+, following the closure of the sole Virginia and Pennsylvania locations, there are eight remaining, three in New York, four in Ohio, and one in New Jersey (at the Bridgewater Commons).
+Most locations have been co-branded with Nathan's Famous.
+In the Rochester, New York area, there are seven Arthur Treacher's locations, all co-branded with Salvatore's Old Fashioned Pizzeria.
+The menu offers fried seafood or chicken, accompanied by chips.
+Its main competitors are Long John Silver's and Captain D's.
+In 2015, a co-branded Nathan's Famous and Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips opened in the food court of the Harrah's Cherokee Valley River Casino in Murphy, NC.
+========,2,Namesake.
+The chain is the namesake of Arthur Treacher (1894–1975), an English character actor typecast as "the perfect butler" for his performances as Jeeves, as a butler in several Shirley Temple films, and the role of Constable Jones in ' "Mary Poppins".
+At the time the chain was founded, Treacher was best known as the announcer and sidekick on the popular "The Merv Griffin Show".
+Treacher "served as a spokesman for the restaurant chain in its early years, underscoring the British character of its food."
+In a 1975 interview, New England franchise vice president M. John Elliott claimed the fish recipe to be the actor's own, brought over from the United Kingdom.
+========,2,Fisher Foods involvement.
+In 1970, Fisher Foods swapped capital with and licensed franchises from National, with a total of 550 franchises sold (106 to Fisher alone), but only 99 stores were actually in operation.
+Apparently the time was ripe for the fish franchise concept: Long John Silver's, Captain D's, Skipper's and Alfie's Fish & Chips all started about the same time.
+Aided by Arthur Treacher's advertisements, these companies introduced British fish and chips to northeastern America, albeit four years after Salt's Fish & Chips (later renamed H. Salt, Esq.
+Authentic English Fish and Chips) introduced British fish and chips to America in California.
+========,2,Aggressive expansion under Orange Co.
+By the early 1970s, National Fast Food had become Orange Co.
+Under this name, Davis conducted an aggressive expansion campaign from 1972 through 1976.
+Lacking equity, he relied on generous sale-leaseback agreements.
+Under the terms of these agreements, Orange Co. would sell to investors sites for new restaurants and then sign long leases unconditionally guaranteeing to continue lease payments if the restaurants failed.
+========,2,Effect of the 'cod wars'.
+In the early 1970s, Britain and Iceland almost got into a shooting war over fishing rights after Iceland unilaterally implemented the 200-mile (370 km) fishing limit; there were numerous confrontations between vessels, some armed and others with armed escort ships.
+These events were called the "cod wars".
+Cod prices went from the low $2 range to mid-$3, which sent the low-priced fish restaurants into a tailspin, and all the companies retrenched.
+Until 1979, Coldwater Seafood Corporation, owners of the Icelandic brand, processed it for Treacher's at their Cambridge, Maryland, facility.
+Coldwater was a U.S. subsidiary of the Icelandic Freezing Plants Corporation.
+Coldwater processed nearly all of the cod fish portions used by Arthur Treacher's Restaurants, who used Icelandic cod portions exclusively.
+At the time they processed approximately 68 million pounds of seafood products annually, and most of it from north Atlantic fish species.
+Approximately one million pounds of cod fish were processed annually for Arthur Treacher's Seafood Restaurants.
+========,2,Acquisition by Mrs Paul's Seafood.
+On November 21, 1979, Orange Co. sold Arthur Treacher's to Mrs. Paul's.
+However, under the terms of its original sale-leaseback agreements, Orange Co. remained liable for millions of dollars of payments to investors.
+Mrs. Paul's promptly replaced the Icelandic cod with less expensive pollock that was oilier and of inferior quality.
+The move exacerbated tensions with franchisees – some of whom had already withheld a total of $5 million in royalties for what they perceived to be a steadily declining level of service.
+Litigation arising from the conflict eventually reached the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit.
+========,2,Investor group.
+After losing the case to the franchisees and having no way to compensate them, Mrs. Paul's sold Arthur Treacher's to Lumara Foods of America Inc. in March of 1982.
+Lumara Foods filed for reorganization under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code four months later.
+The company was subsequently bought by a group of investors and the corporate offices were relocated to Youngstown, Ohio after which it again went into bankruptcy in 1983, emerging again two years later before being merged into a shell company by Jim Cataland.
+From 1985 to 1993, Cataland started to expand the company again, albeit very slowly, followed in 1993 by an investment in the company by a group of investors.
+The investment was used to bring out a new, more modern, and updated seafood concept; to buy a large number of stores; and to move the company from its base operations in Youngstown, Ohio, to Jacksonville, Florida.
+The company retains a sizable presence in the Youngstown area today.
+In the mid-1980s, franchises in Detroit, Michigan were converted by their owner to a new chain called Seafood Bay.
+Arthur Treacher's purchased six Seafood Bay locations back in 1997, but was unsuccessful in reverting them.
+The company experimented with co-branding, forming an alliance with Arby's (which got its start in the Youngstown suburb of Boardman) for co-branded locations.
+One such location existed in Breezewood, Pennsylvania.
+However, by the late 1990s, Arby's parent Triarc removed the Arthur Treacher's portions of its co-branded Arby's.
+Today, Arthur Treacher's primary co-branding partner is with parent company Nathan's Famous.
+========,2,TruFoods Systems.
+The company holding the Arthur Treacher's trademark was acquired by PAT Franchise Systems, a wholly owned subsidiary of TruFoods Systems, Inc., in 2002.
+Nathan's Famous bought the exclusive rights to market the Arthur Treacher's trademark and sell their products co-branded with Nathan's Own concepts Kenny Rogers Roasters and Miami Subs in 2006; however, PAT Franchise Systems has a license agreement with NF Treachers to sell Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips franchises in eight states.
+, in addition to Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips, TruFoods Systems operated the following franchises:
+***LIST***.

test/46360.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+========,1,preface.
+========,2,Origin.
+The word "sashimi" means "pierced body", i.e.
+"刺身" = "sashimi", where 刺し = "sashi" (pierced, stuck) and 身 = "mi" (body, meat).
+This word dates from the Muromachi period, and was possibly coined when the word "切る" = "kiru" (cut), the culinary step, was considered too inauspicious to be used by anyone other than samurai.
+This word may derive from the culinary practice of sticking the fish's tail and fin to the slices in identifying the fish being eaten.
+Another possibility for the name could come from the traditional method of harvesting.
+"Sashimi-grade" fish is caught by individual handline.
+As soon as the fish is landed, its brain is pierced with a sharp spike, and it is placed in slurried ice.
+This spiking is called the ike jime process, and the instantaneous death means that the fish's flesh contains a minimal amount of lactic acid.
+This means that the fish will keep fresh on ice for about ten days, without turning white or otherwise degrading.
+Many non-Japanese use the terms sashimi and sushi interchangeably, but the two dishes are distinct and separate.
+Sushi refers to any dish made with vinegared rice.
+While raw fish is one traditional sushi ingredient, many sushi dishes contain seafood that has been cooked, and others have no seafood at all.
+========,2,Serving.
+Sashimi is often the first course in a formal Japanese meal, but it can also be the main course, presented with rice and miso soup in separate bowls.
+Japanese chefs consider sashimi the finest dish in Japanese formal dining and recommend that it be eaten before other strong flavors affect the palate.
+The sliced seafood that composes the main ingredient is typically draped over a garnish.
+The typical garnish is Asian white radish, "daikon", shredded into long thin strands, or single leaves of the shiso (perilla) herb.
+Sashimi is popularly served with a dipping sauce (soy sauce) and condiments such as with wasabi paste and grated fresh ginger, or, for meat sashimi, ponzu, and such garnishes as shiso and shredded daikon radish.
+Wasabi paste is sometimes mixed directly into soy sauce as a dipping sauce, which is generally not done when eating sushi.
+Another way to flavor soy sauce with wasabi is to place the wasabi mound into the soy sauce dish and then pour it in.
+This allows the wasabi to infuse the soy sauce more subtly.
+A reputed motivation for serving wasabi with sashimi (and also "gari", pickled ginger), besides its flavor, is killing harmful bacteria and parasites that could be present in raw seafood.
+Other garnishes, more common in Japan than overseas, include red water pepper sprouts and a small chrysanthemum .
+The chrysanthemum, unlike other garnishes, is not intended to be eaten, and in cheap service (such as at supermarkets) may be substituted with a plastic flower.
+========,2,Preparation.
+In order to highlight the fish's appearance, the chef cuts it into different thicknesses.
+The hira-zukuri cut, which translates into "rectangular slice", is the standard cut for most sashimi.
+Typically this style of cut is the size of a domino and thick.
+Tuna, salmon, and kingfish are most commonly cut in this style.
+The uzu-zukuri cut, which translates to "thin slice", is an extremely thin, diagonally cut slice that is mostly used to cut firm fish, such as bream, whiting, and flounder.
+The dimensions of this fish is usually long and wide.
+The kaku-zukuri cut, which translates to "square slice", is the style in which sashimi is cut into small, thick cubes that are on each side.
+The ito-zukuri cut, which translates into "thread slice," is the style in which the fish is cut into thin sheets, less than thick.
+The fish typically cut with the ito-zukuri style include garfish and squid.
+========,2,Varieties.
+The most popular main ingredients for sashimi includes:
+Some sashimi ingredients, such as octopus, are sometimes served cooked given its chewy nature.
+Most seafood, such as tuna, salmon, and squid, are served raw.
+"Tataki" (たたき or 叩き, "pounded") is a type of sashimi.
+It is quickly and lightly seared on the outside, leaving it raw inside.
+Less common, but not unusual, sashimi ingredients are vegetarian items, such as yuba (bean curd skin), and raw red meats, such as beef (known as "gyuunotataki)" or horse (known as "basashi)".
+Chicken "sashimi" (known as "toriwasa)" is considered by some to be a delicacy; the Nagoya kōchin, French "poulet de Bresse" and its American derivative, the blue foot chicken, are favored by many for this purpose, as, besides their taste, they are certified to be free of "Salmonella".
+Chicken sashimi is sometimes slightly braised on the outside.
+========,2,Safety.
+As a raw food, sashimi can result in foodborne illness when bacteria or parasites are present; for example, anisakiasis, is a disease caused by the accidental ingestion of larval nematodes in the family Anisakidae, primarily "Anisakis simplex" but also "Pseudoterranova decipiens".
+In addition, incorrectly prepared Fugu fish may contain tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin.
+Another type of food borne illness that could occur after consuming tainted sashimi is Diphyllobothriasis.
+This disease is an infection within the intestines that occurs when the tapeworm "Diphyllobothrium latum" is consumed.
+Common fish such as trout, salmon, pike, and sea bass harbor this parasitic larvae in their muscles.
+Due to the new innovation of the chilled transport system paired with the salmon and trout consumption, an increasing number of cases have been recorded annually in northern Japan due to the spread of this disease.
+Traditionally, fish that spend at least part of their lives in brackish or fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi because of the possibility of parasites.
+For example, salmon, an anadromous fish, is not traditionally eaten straight out of the river.
+A study in Seattle, Washington, showed that all wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people, while farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.
+Freezing is often used to kill parasites.
+According to European Union regulations, freezing fish at −20 °C (−4 °F) for 24 hours kills parasites.
+The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends freezing at −35 °C (−31 °F) for 15 hours, or at −20 °C (−4 °F) for 7 days.
+While Canada does not federally regulate freezing fish, British Columbia and Alberta voluntarily adhere to guidelines similar to the FDA's.
+Ontario attempted to legislate freezing as part of raw food handling requirements, though this was soon withdrawn due to protests by the industry that the subtle flavors and texture of raw fish would be destroyed by freezing.
+Instead, Ontario has decided to consider regulations on how raw fish must be handled prior to serving.
+Some fish for sashimi are treated with carbon monoxide to keep the flesh red for a longer time in storage.
+This practice can make spoiled fish appear fresh.
+========,2,Environmental concerns.
+The increased popularity of bluefin tuna for sashimi is reported to have brought this popular species to the verge of extinction.
+Farming bluefin does not help the situation, because the captive fish are not raised from spawn, but rather from small wild fish that are netted and transported to the farms, mostly in the Mediterranean.
+However, Japanese scientists may have found a way to save wild bluefin tuna from extinction by successfully breeding and raising the fish in captivity for the first time.

test/46383.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Jane Seymour (c. 150824 October 1537) was Queen of England from 1536 to 1537 as the third wife of King Henry VIII.
+She succeeded Anne Boleyn as queen consort following the latter's execution in May 1536.
+She died of postnatal complications less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, a son who became King Edward VI.
+She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral, and his only consort to be buried beside him in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle.
+========,2,Childhood.
+Jane was likely born at Wulfhall, Wiltshire, although West Bower Manor has also been claimed, the daughter of Sir John Seymour and Margery Wentworth.
+Through her maternal grandfather, she was a descendant of King Edward III's son Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence.
+Because of this, she and King Henry VIII were fifth cousins.
+She shared a great-grandmother, Elizabeth Cheney, with his second and fifth wives, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard.
+She was not educated as highly as King Henry's previous wives, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn.
+She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and household management, which were considered much more necessary for women.
+Jane's needlework was reported to be beautiful and elaborate; some of her work survived as late as 1652, when it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family.
+After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer."
+She became a maid-of-honour in 1532 to Queen Catherine, but may have served her as early as 1527, and went on to serve Queen Anne.
+The first report of Henry VIII's interest in Jane Seymour was in early 1536, sometime before Anne's death.
+Jane was highly praised for her gentle, peaceful nature, being referred to as "gentle a lady as ever I knew" by John Russell and being named as "the Pacific" by the Imperial Ambassador Eustace Chapuys for her peacemaking efforts at court.
+According to Chapuys, Jane was of middling stature and very pale; he also commented that she was not of much beauty.
+However, John Russell stated that Jane was "the fairest of all the King's wives."
+Polydore Vergil commented that she was "a woman of the utmost charm in both character and appearance."
+She was regarded as a meek, gentle, simple, and chaste woman, whose large family made her a suitable candidate to give birth to many children.
+Her motto as a queen was ""Bound to obey and serve"."
+========,2,Marriage and birth of heir.
+Henry VIII was betrothed to Jane on 20 May 1536, just one day after Anne Boleyn's execution.
+The couple were married at the Palace of Whitehall, Whitehall, London, in the Queen's closet by Bishop Gardiner on 30 May 1536.
+As a wedding gift the King made her a grant of 104 manors in four counties as well as a number of forests and hunting chases for her jointure, the income to support her during their marriage.
+She was publicly proclaimed queen on 4 June 1536.
+Jane’s well-publicised sympathy for the late Queen Catherine and the Lady Mary showed her to be compassionate and made her a popular figure with the common people and most of the courtiers.
+She was never crowned because of plague in London, where the coronation was to take place.
+Henry may have been reluctant to have Jane crowned before she had fulfilled her duty as a queen consort by bearing him a son and a male heir.
+As queen, Jane Seymour was said to be strict and formal.
+Jane would form a close relationship with Mary Tudor.
+The lavish entertainments, gaiety, and extravagance of the Queen's household, which had reached its peak during the time of Anne Boleyn, was replaced by a strict enforcement of decorum.
+For example, she banned the French fashions that Anne Boleyn had introduced.
+Politically, Seymour appears to have been conservative.
+Her only reported involvement in national affairs, in 1536, was when she asked for pardons for participants in the Pilgrimage of Grace.
+Henry is said to have rejected this, reminding her of the fate her predecessor met with when she "meddled in his affairs".
+Jane put forth much effort to restore Henry's first child, Mary, to court and to the royal succession, behind any children that Jane might have with Henry.
+Jane brought up the issue of Mary's restoration both before and after she became queen.
+While Jane was unable to restore Mary to the line of succession, she was able to reconcile her with Henry.
+Eustace Chapuys wrote to Charles V of Jane's compassion and efforts on behalf of Mary's return to favour.
+A letter from Mary to Jane shows that Mary was grateful to Jane.
+While it was Jane who first pushed for the restoration, Mary and Elizabeth were not reinstated to the succession until Henry's sixth wife, Queen Catherine Parr, convinced him to do so.
+In January 1537, Jane became pregnant.
+During her pregnancy, she developed a craving for quail, which Henry ordered for her from Calais and Flanders.
+During the summer, she took no public engagements and led a relatively quiet life, being attended by the royal physicians and the best midwives in the kingdom.
+She went into confinement in September 1537 and gave birth to the coveted male heir, the future King Edward VI, at two o'clock in the morning on 12 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace.
+Edward was christened on 15 October 1537, without his mother in attendance, as was the custom.
+He was the only legitimate son of Henry VIII to survive infancy.
+Both of the King's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, were present and carried the infant's train during the ceremony.
+========,2,Death and funeral.
+Jane Seymour's labour had been difficult, lasting two nights and three days, probably because the baby was not well positioned.
+After the christening, it became clear that she was seriously ill. She died on 24 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace at Richmond upon Thames.
+Within a few weeks of the death of Queen Jane, there were conflicting testimonies concerning the cause of her demise.
+In retrospect from the 21st century, there are various speculations that have been offered.
+According to King Edward's biographer, Jennifer Loach, Jane's death may have been due to an infection from a retained placenta.
+According to Alison Weir, Jane may have succumbed to puerperal fever following a bacterial infection contracted during the birth.
+Jane Seymour was buried on 12 November 1537 in St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle after the funeral in which her stepdaughter, Mary, acted as chief mourner.
+A procession of 29 mourners followed Lady Mary, one for every year of Queen Jane’s life.
+Jane was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral.
+The following inscription was above her grave for a time:
+<poem>Here lieth a Phoenix, by whose death Another Phoenix life gave breath:
+It is to be lamented much The world at once ne'er knew two such.</poem> After her death, Henry wore black for the next three months and did not remarry for three years, although marriage negotiations were tentatively begun soon after her death.
+Moreover, he put on weight during his long widowerhood, becoming obese and swollen and developing diabetes and gout.
+Historians have speculated she was Henry's favourite wife because she gave birth to a male heir.
+When Henry died in 1547, he was buried beside her, on his request, in the grave he had made for her.
+========,2,Legacy.
+Jane gave the king the son he so desperately needed, helped to restore Lady Mary to the succession and her father’s affections, and used her influence to bring about the advancement of her family.
+Two of Jane's brothers, Thomas and Edward, used her memory to improve their own fortunes.
+Thomas was rumoured to have been pursuing the future Elizabeth I, but married the queen dowager Catherine Parr instead.
+In the reign of the young King Edward VI, Edward Seymour set himself up as Lord Protector and de facto ruler of the kingdom.
+Both brothers eventually fell from power, and were executed.

test/46386.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Richard Cromwell (4 October 162612 July 1712) was Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, and one of only two commoners to become the English head of state, the other being his father, Oliver Cromwell, from whom he inherited the position.
+On his father's death Richard became Lord Protector, but lacked authority.
+He attempted to mediate between the army and civil society, and allowed a Parliament which contained a large number of disaffected Presbyterians and Royalists.
+Suspicions that civilian councilors were intent on supplanting the army were brought to a head by an attempt to prosecute a major-general for actions against a Royalist.
+The army made a threatening show of force against Richard, and may have had him in detention; he formally renounced power nine months after succeeding.
+Without a king-like figure, such as Cromwell, as head of state the government lacked coherence and legitimacy.
+Although a Royalist revolt was crushed by recalled civil war figure General John Lambert, who then prevented the Rump Parliament from reconvening and created a Committee of Safety, he found his troops melted away in the face of general George Monck's advance from Scotland.
+Monck then presided over the Restoration of 1660.
+Richard Cromwell subsisted in straitened circumstances after his resignation, he went abroad and lived in relative obscurity for the remainder of his life.
+He eventually returned to his English estate, dying in his eighties.
+None of his children had offspring of their own and he has no descendants.
+========,2,Early years and family.
+Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 4 October 1626, the third son of Oliver Cromwell and his wife Elizabeth.
+Little is known of his childhood.
+He and his three brothers were educated at Felsted School in Essex close to their mother's family home.
+There is no record of his attending university.
+In May 1647, he became a member of Lincoln's Inn.
+He may have served as a captain in Thomas Fairfax's lifeguard during the late 1640s, but the evidence is inconclusive.
+In 1649 Cromwell married Dorothy Maijor, daughter of Richard Maijor, a member of the Hampshire gentry.
+He and his wife then moved to Maijor's estate at Hursley in Hampshire.
+During the 1650s they had nine children, five of whom survived to adulthood.
+Cromwell was named a Justice of the Peace for Hampshire and sat on various county committees.
+During this period Cromwell seems to have been a source of concern for his father, who wrote to Richard Maijor saying, "I would have him mind and understand business, read a little history, study the mathematics and cosmography: these are good, with subordination to the things of God.
+Better than idleness, or mere outward worldly contents.
+These fit for public services, for which a man is born".
+He fought in none of the English civil wars.
+========,2,The Political background.
+Oliver Cromwell had risen from unknown member of Parliament in his forties to being commander of the New Model Army, which emerged victorious from the English Civil War.
+When he returned from a final campaign in Ireland, Oliver Cromwell became disillusioned at inconclusive debates in the Rump Parliament between Presbyterians and other schools of thought within Protestantism.
+Parliamentarian suspicion of anything smacking of Catholicism, which was strongly associated with the Royalist side in the war, led to enforcement of religious precepts that left moderate Anglicans barely tolerated.
+A Puritan regime strictly enforced the Sabbath, and banned almost all form of public celebration, even at Christmas.
+Cromwell attempted to reform the government through an army-nominated assembly known as Barebone's Parliament, but the proposals were so unworkably radical that he was forced to end the experiment after a few months.
+Thereafter, a written constitution created the position of Lord Protector for Cromwell and from 1653 until his death in 1658, he ruled with all the powers of a monarch, while Richard took on the role of heir.
+========,2,Move into political life.
+In 1653, Cromwell was passed over as a member of Barebone's Parliament, although his younger brother Henry was a member of it.
+Neither was he given any public role when his father was made Lord Protector in the same year; however, he was elected to the First Protectorate Parliament as M.P.
+for Huntingdon and the Second Protectorate Parliament as M.P.
+for Cambridge University.
+Under the Protectorate's constitution, Oliver Cromwell was required to nominate a successor, and from 1657 he involved Richard much more heavily in the politics of the regime.
+He was present at the second installation of his father as Lord Protector in June, having played no part in the first installation.
+In July he was appointed chancellor of Oxford University, and in December was made a member of the Council of State.
+========,2,Lord Protector (1658–59).
+Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658, and Richard was informed on the same day that he was to succeed him.
+Some controversy surrounds the succession.
+A letter by John Thurloe suggests that Cromwell nominated his son orally on 30 August, but other theories claim either that he nominated no successor, or that he put forward Charles Fleetwood, his son-in-law.
+Richard was faced by two immediate problems.
+The first was the army, which questioned his position as commander given his lack of military experience.
+The second was the financial position of the regime, with a debt estimated at £2 million.
+As a result, Cromwell's Privy council decided to call a parliament in order to redress these financial problems on 29 November 1658 (a decision which was formally confirmed on 3 December 1658).
+Under the terms of the Humble Petition and Advice, this Parliament was called using the traditional franchise (thus moving away from the system under the Instrument of Government whereby representation of rotten boroughs was cut in favour of county towns).
+This meant that the government was less able to control elections and therefore unable to manage the parliament effectively.
+As a result, when this Third Protectorate Parliament first sat on 27 January 1659 it was dominated by moderate Presbyterians, crypto-royalists and a small number of vociferous Commonwealthsmen (or Republicans).
+The "Other House" of Parliament – a body which had been set up under the Humble Petition and Advice to act as a balance on the Commons – was also revived.
+It was this second parliamentary chamber and its resemblance to the House of Lords (which had been abolished in 1649) that dominated this Parliamentary session.
+Republican malcontents gave filibustering speeches about the inadequacy of the membership of this upper chamber (especially its military contingent) and also questioned whether it was indicative of the backsliding of the Protectorate regime in general and its divergence from the "Good Old Cause" for which parliamentarians had originally engaged in Civil War.
+Reviving this House of Lords in all but name, they argued, was but a short step to returning to the Ancient Constitution of King, Lords and Commons.
+At the same time, the officers of the New Model Army became increasingly wary about the government's commitment to the military cause.
+The fact that Cromwell lacked military credentials grated with men who had fought on the battlefields of the English Civil War to secure their nation's liberties.
+Moreover, the new Parliament seemed to show a lack of respect for the army which many military men found alarming.
+In particular, there were fears that Parliament would make military cuts to reduce costs, and by April 1659 the army's general council of officers had met to demand higher taxation to fund the regime's costs.
+Their grievances were expressed in a petition to Cromwell on 6 April 1659 which he forwarded to the Parliament two days later.
+Yet Parliament did not act on the army's suggestions; instead they shelved this petition and increased the suspicion of the military by bringing articles of impeachment against William Boteler on 12 April 1659, who was alleged to have mistreated a royalist prisoner while acting as a major general under Oliver Cromwell in 1655.
+This was followed by two resolutions in the Commons on 18 April 1659 which stated that no more meetings of army officers should take place without the express permission of both the Lord Protector and Parliament, and that all officers should swear an oath that they would not subvert the sitting of Parliament by force.
+These direct affronts to military prestige were too much for the army grandees to bear and set in motion the final split between the civilian-dominated Parliament and the army, which would culminate in the dissolution of Parliament and Cromwell's ultimate fall from power.
+When Cromwell refused a demand by the army to dissolve Parliament, troops were assembled at St. James's Palace.
+Cromwell eventually gave in to their demands and on 22 April, Parliament was dissolved and the Rump Parliament recalled on 7 May 1659.
+In the subsequent month, Cromwell did not resist and refused an offer of armed assistance from the French ambassador, although it is possible he was being kept under house arrest by the army.
+On 25 May, after the Rump agreed to pay his debts and provide a pension, Cromwell delivered a formal letter resigning the position of Lord Protector.
+"Richard was never formally deposed or arrested, but allowed to fade away.
+The Protectorate was treated as having been from the first a mere usurpation".
+He continued to live in the Palace of Whitehall until July, when he was forced by the Rump to return to Hursley.
+Royalists rejoiced at Cromwell's fall, and many satirical attacks surfaced, in which he was given the unflattering nicknames "Tumbledown Dick" and "Queen Dick".
+========,2,Later years (1659–1712).
+During the political difficulties of the winter of 1659, there were rumours that Cromwell was to be recalled as Protector, but these came to nothing.
+In July 1660, Cromwell left for France, never to see his wife again.
+While there, he went by a variety of pseudonyms, including John Clarke.
+He later travelled around Europe, visiting various European courts.
+As a visiting Englishman, he was once invited to dine with Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, who was unaware of who he was.
+At dinner, the prince questioned Cromwell about affairs in England and observed, "Well, that Oliver, tho' he was a traitor and a villain, was a brave man, had great parts, great courage, and was worthy to command; but that Richard, that coxcomb and poltroon, was surely the basest fellow alive; what is become of that fool?".
+Cromwell replied, "He was betrayed by those he most trusted, and who had been most obliged by his father".
+Cromwell departed the following morning.
+During this period of voluntary exile, he wrote many letters to his family back in England; these letters are now held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Huntingdon.
+In 1680 or 1681, he returned to England and lodged with the merchant Thomas Pengelly in Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, living off the income from his estate in Hursley.
+He died on 12 July 1712 at the age of 85.
+His body was returned to Hursley and interred in a vault beneath All Saints' Parish Church, where a memorial tablet to him has been placed in recent years.
+Until 29 January 2012, when Queen Elizabeth II surpassed Cromwell's age at death (85 years 282 days) he was the longest-lived ruler of Britain, although he was only in power for a very short period.
+========,2,Fictional portrayals.
+Cromwell has been depicted in historical films.
+They include:
+***LIST***.

test/46387.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Incubus () is a 1966 black-and-white American horror film filmed entirely in the constructed language Esperanto.
+It was directed by Leslie Stevens, creator of "The Outer Limits", and stars William Shatner, shortly before he would begin his work on "".
+The film's cinematography was by Conrad Hall, who went on to win three Academy Awards for his work on the films "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid", "American Beauty" and "Road to Perdition".
+The use of Esperanto was intended to create an eerie, other-worldly feeling, and Stevens prohibited dubbing the film into other languages; however, on the "Special Features" section of the DVD the makers claim that Esperanto was used because of perceived greater international sales.
+"Incubus" was the second feature film primarily using Esperanto.
+(The first, "Angoroj" ("Agonies"), appeared in 1964.)
+Esperanto speakers are generally disappointed by the pronunciation of the language by the cast of "Incubus".
+The film was considered to be lost for many years, until a copy was found in Paris in 1996.
+========,2,Plot.
+The film is set in the village of Nomen Tuum (Latin, "your name"), which has a well that can heal the sick and make a person more beautiful.
+Because of the latter, many conceited or corrupt individuals come to the village for this cosmetic effect.
+The village has notoriety for its magical water, as well as being a ground for darkness and demons.
+Along the village, succubi entice the tainted souls who come to Nomen Tuum and lead them to their deaths in order to offer their souls to Hell/the God of Darkness.
+A prominent young succubus named Kia (Allyson Ames) loathes the routine of herding sinners to hell.
+Kia claims her powers are being wasted, and needs something/someone more stimulating as her prey.
+Her sister succubus, Amael (Eloise Hardt), warns Kia of the danger that a pure soul will bring: love.
+Kia persists anyway and attempts to find a clergyman to seduce into darkness.
+After watching their behaviour however, she realizes these men are just as iniquitous and shrewd as her previous victims.
+She soon stumbles upon a suitable victim: Marc (Shatner), a young soldier, who with his sister Arndis (Ann Atmar) comes to the sacred water in order to heal his battle-wounds.
+Kia then continues to follow the siblings and pretends to be lost.
+After a brief eclipse, Kia convinces Marc to accompany her to the sea.
+During the eclipse, Arndis becomes blind from looking into the sky.
+Disoriented, she stumbles around in order to find Marc.
+Marc and Kia quickly become attracted to each other.
+Marc will not have closer relations with Kia except if they are married.
+As Kia sleeps, Marc takes her to the village cathedral.
+Kia flees from the cathedral, bewildered by the sight of Christ and the saints.
+She is repulsed by both the Godly images and Marc's pure love.
+His purity makes her ill. Amael and Kia meditate revenge on Marc for "defiling her" with an "act of love".
+Amael summons an incubus (Milos Milos) that attempts to kill Marc and rapes and murders Arndis.
+As Marc prays for his sister he makes the sign of the cross and the lurking demons cringe in horror.
+Defending himself from the incubus' attack, he appears to have killed him and Amael tells him he has the sin of murder on his hands.
+Kia follows Marc, who is dying, to the cathedral where she professes her love for him.
+The resurrected incubus intervenes and claims she belongs to the God of Darkness.
+Kia defies him and makes the sign of the cross, surprising even herself.
+The incubus transforms into a goat and wrestles her to the ground.
+After the struggle she claims, "I belong to the God of Light," and crawls toward Marc, who immediately embraces her.
+The final scene shows the couple staring in disbelief at the boundary of the cathedral, with the goat gazing back at them.
+========,2,Production.
+========,3,Pre-production.
+After the ABC Television Network cancelled producer Leslie Stevens' science fiction series "The Outer Limits" in 1965, Stevens wrote a horror script to make use of the talents of the "Outer Limits" team he had brought together – including cinematographer Conrad L. Hall and composer Dominic Frontiere – with an eye to marketing it to art houses.
+Stevens and producer Anthony M. Taylor wanted a device to make the film unique, and, to this end, chose Esperanto as the film's language.
+The script was translated into Esperanto, and the actors rehearsed for 10 days to learn their lines phonetically, but no one was present on the set to correct their pronunciation during shooting.
+========,3,Filming.
+Principal photography took place over 18 days in May 1965.
+Location shooting took place at Big Sur Beach and at the Mission San Antonio de Padua near Fort Hunter Liggett in Monterey County.
+Concerned that the authorities would not grant permission to shoot a horror film in these places, especially the Mission, Stevens concocted a cover story that the film was actually called "Religious Leaders of Old Monterey", and showed the script, in Esperanto, but with stage directions and descriptions about monks and farmers.
+========,2,Reception.
+The premiere of "Incubus" took place at the San Francisco Film Festival on October 26, 1966, where, according to producer Taylor, a group of 50 to 100 Esperanto enthusiasts "screamed and laughed" at the actors' poor pronunciation of the language.
+Partly because of its Esperanto dialogue, and partly because of the scandal of actor Milos Milos taking his own life and that of his girlfriend Carolyn Mitchell, Taylor and Stevens were unable to find any distribution for the film except in France, where it premiered in November 1966.
+On the film-review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film received 71% positive reviews.
+========,2,Restoration and home video release.
+"Incubus" was considered a lost film for many years.
+When producer Anthony Taylor attempted to prepare "Incubus" for home video release in 1993, he was told by the company that stored the negative, film elements, and prints, that all were missing and presumed to have been destroyed in a fire.
+Three years later, a print was discovered in the permanent collection of the Cinematheque Francaise in Paris.
+However, not only was that print in poor condition, it had French subtitles.
+A new master was created by frame-by-frame optical printing, and English subtitles were superimposed over the French ones.
+The Sci Fi Channel funded the restoration from that print and a home video DVD was released in 2001.

test/46393.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+========,1,preface.
+John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, (; 25 May 1713 – 10 March 1792) was a Scottish nobleman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain (1762–1763) under George III.
+He was arguably the last important favourite in British politics.
+He was the first Prime Minister from Scotland following the Acts of Union in 1707.
+========,2,Biography.
+========,3,Early life and rise to prominence.
+A close relative of the Clan Campbell (his mother was a daughter of the 1st Duke of Argyll), Bute succeeded to the Earldom of Bute (named after the Isle of Bute) upon the death of his father, James Stuart, 2nd Earl of Bute, in 1723.
+He was brought up thereafter by his maternal uncles, the 2nd Duke of Argyll and Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, 1st and only Earl of Ilay, Viscount and Earl of Hay.
+Bute studied at Eton College (1720–1728) and the University of Leiden, Netherlands (1728–1732), where he graduated with a degree in civil and public law.
+On 24 August 1736, he married Mary Wortley Montagu (daughter of Sir Edward and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu), bringing the large Wortley estates to his family.
+In 1737, due to the influence of his uncles, he was elected a Scottish representative peer, but he was not very active in the Lords and was not reelected in 1741.
+For the next several years he retired to his estates in Scotland to manage his affairs and indulge his interest in botany.
+During the Jacobite Rising of 1745, Bute moved to Westminster, London, and two years later met Prince Frederick, the Prince of Wales there, soon becoming a close associate of the Prince.
+Upon the Prince's death in 1751, the education of his son, Prince George, the new Prince of Wales, became a priority and in 1755 Bute was appointed as his tutor.
+Bute arranged for the Prince and his brother Prince Edward to follow a course of lectures on natural philosophy by the itinerant lecturer Stephen Demainbray.
+This led to an increased interest in natural philosophy on the part of the young prince and was one in a series of events that led to the establishment of the George III Collection of natural philosophical instruments.
+Furthermore, following the death of the Prince Frederick, Bute became close to his widow, Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, the Dowager Princess of Wales.
+It was rumoured that the couple were having an affair, and indeed soon after John Horne (an associate of the Prince of Wales) published a scandalous pamphlet alluding to a liaison between Bute and the Princess.
+Rumours of this affair were almost certainly untrue, as Bute was by all indications happily married, and he held sincere religious beliefs against adultery.
+In 1780 Bute was elected as the first President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
+========,3,Premiership.
+Because of the influence he had over his pupil, Bute expected to rise quickly to political power following George's accession to the throne in 1760, but his plans were premature.
+It would first be necessary to remove both the incumbent Prime Minister (the Duke of Newcastle) and arguably the even more powerful Secretary of State for the Southern Department (William Pitt the Elder).
+The Government of the day, buoyed by recent successes in the Seven Years' War, was popular, however, and did well at the general election which, as was customary at the time, took place on the accession of the new monarch.
+Supported by the king, Bute manoeuvred himself into power by first allying himself with Newcastle against Pitt over the latter’s desire to declare war on Spain which, when defeated, precipitated Pitt’s resignation and then forcing Newcastle’s resignation when the Prime Minister found himself in a small minority within the Government over the level of funding and direction of the war.
+Re-elected as a Scottish representative peer in 1760, Bute was indeed appointed the "de facto" Prime Minister, thus ending a long period of Whig dominance.
+Bute’s premiership was notable for the negotiation of the Treaty of Paris (1763) which concluded the Seven Years' War.
+In so doing, Bute had to soften his previous stance in relation to concessions given to France, in that he agreed that the important fisheries in Newfoundland be returned to France without Britain’s possession of Guadeloupe in return.
+After peace was concluded, Bute and the King decided that Britain’s military expenditure should not exceed its pre-war levels but they thought a large presence was necessary in America to deal with the French and Spanish threat.
+They therefore charged the colonists for the increased military levels, thus catalysing the resistance to taxes which led to the American Revolution.
+King George began to see through Bute, and turned against him after being criticised for an official speech which the press recognised as Bute's own work.
+Bute also proposed a controversial Cider tax which produced enormous hostility in cider-producing areas.
+The journalist John Wilkes published a newspaper called "The North Briton", in which both Bute and the Dowager Princess of Wales were savagely satirised.
+Bute resigned as prime minister shortly afterwards, although he remained in the House of Lords as a Scottish representative peer until 1780.
+He remained friendly with the Dowager Princess of Wales, but her attempts to reconcile him with George III proved futile.
+========,3,Post-premiership.
+For the remainder of his life, Bute remained at his estate in Hampshire, where he built himself a mansion called High Cliff near Christchurch.
+From there he continued his pursuit of botany and became a major literary and artistic patron.
+Among his beneficiaries were Samuel Johnson, Tobias Smollett, Robert Adam, William Robertson and John Hill.
+He also gave considerably to the Scottish universities.
+His botanical work culminated in the publication of "Botanical Tables Containing the Families of British Plants" in 1785.
+Even after his retirement, Bute was accused by many Americans in the years leading up to the American Revolutionary War as having an undue corrupting influence over the British government.
+He died at his home in South Audley Street, Grosvenor Square, Westminster, from complications of a fall suffered while staying at Highcliffe, and was buried at Rothesay on the Isle of Bute.
+The flowering plant genus "Stuartia" is named after him.
+According to historian John Naish, the 18th-century expression "Jack Boot" meaning a stupid person originated as disparagement of Stuart's performance as Prime Minister.
+========,2,Luton Hoo.
+The Earl held the Manor of Luton and had Luton Hoo designed and built by the neoclassical architect Robert Adam.
+Work commenced in 1767.
+The original plan had been for a grand and magnificent new house.
+However, this plan was never fully executed and much of the work was a remodelling of the older house.
+Building work was interrupted by a fire in 1771, but by 1774 the house, though incomplete, was inhabited.
+Dr. Samuel Johnson visiting the house in 1781 is quoted as saying, "This is one of the places I do not regret coming to see...in the house magnificence is not sacrificed to convenience, nor convenience to magnificence".

test/46401.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Ionia (Ancient Greek: Ἰωνία or Ἰωνίη) is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna.
+It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements.
+Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who, in the Archaic Period (600–480 BC), settled mainly the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea.
+Ionian states were identified by tradition and by their use of Eastern Greek.
+Ionia proper comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos.
+It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south.
+The cities within the region figured large in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks.
+According to Greek tradition, the cities of Ionia were founded by colonists from the other side of the Aegean.
+Their settlement was connected with the legendary history of the Ionic people in Attica, which asserts that the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus, the last king of Athens.
+In accordance with this view the "Ionic migration", as it was called by later chronologers, was dated by them one hundred and forty years after the Trojan War, or sixty years after the return of the Heracleidae into the Peloponnese.
+========,2,Geography.
+========,3,Physical.
+Ionia was of small extent, not exceeding in length from north to south, with a breadth varying from , but to this must be added the peninsula of Mimas, together with the two islands.
+So intricate is the coastline that the voyage along its shores was estimated at nearly four times the direct distance.
+A great part of this area was, moreover, occupied by mountains.
+Of these the most lofty and striking were Mimas and Corycus, in the peninsula which stands out to the west, facing the island of Chios; Sipylus, to the north of Smyrna, Corax, extending to the south-west from the Gulf of Smyrna, and descending to the sea between Lebedus and Teos; and the strongly marked range of Mycale, a continuation of Messogisin the interior, which forms the bold headland of Trogilium or Mycale, opposite Samos.
+None of these mountains attains a height of more than .
+The district comprised three extremely fertile valleys formed by the outflow of three rivers, among the most considerable in Asia Minor: the Hermus in the north, flowing into the Gulf of Smyrna, though at some distance from the city of that name; the Caster, which flowed under the walls of Ephesus; and the Maeander, which in ancient times discharged its waters into the deep gulf that once bathed the walls of Miletus, but which has been gradually filled up by this river's deposits.
+With the advantage of a peculiarly fine climate, for which this part of Asia Minor has been famous in all ages, Ionia enjoyed the reputation in ancient times of being the most fertile of all the rich provinces of Asia Minor; and even , though very imperfectly cultivated, it produces abundance of fruit of all kinds, and the raisins and figs of Smyrna supply almost all the markets of Europe.
+========,3,Political.
+The geography of Ionia placed it in a strategic position that was both advantageous and disadvantageous.
+Ionia was always a maritime power founded by a people who made their living by trade in peaceful times and marauding in unsettled times.
+The coast was rocky and the arable land slight.
+The native Luwians for the most part kept their fields further inland and used the rift valleys for wooded pasture.
+The coastal cities were placed in defensible positions on islands or headlands situated so as to control inland routes up the rift valleys.
+The people of those valleys were of different ethnicity.
+The populations of the cities came from many civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean.
+========,2,Demography.
+Ancient demographics are available only from literary sources.
+Herodotus states that in Asia the Ionians kept the division into twelve cities that had prevailed in Ionian lands of the north Peloponnese, their former homeland, which became Achaea after they left.
+These Asian cities were (from south to north) Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with Samos and Chios.
+Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards occupied by Ionians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city — an event which had taken place before the time of Herodotus.
+These cities do not match those of Achaea.
+Moreover, the Achaea of Herodotus' time spoke Doric (Corinthian), but in Homer it is portrayed as being in the kingdom of Mycenae, which most likely spoke Mycenaean Greek, which is not Doric.
+If the Ionians came from Achaea, they departed during or after the change from East Greek to West Greek there.
+Mycenaean continued to evolve in the mountainous region of Arcadia.
+There is no record of any people named Ionians in Late Bronze Age Anatolia but Hittite texts record the Achaeans of Ahhiyawa, of location not completely certain, but in touch with the Hittites of that time.
+Miletus and some other cities founded earlier by non-Greeks received populations of Mycenaean Greeks probably under the name of Achaeans.
+The tradition of Ionian colonizers from Achaea suggests that they may have been known by both names even then.
+In the absence of archaeological evidence of discontinuity at Miletus the Achaean population whatever their name appears to have descended to archaic Ionia, which does not exclude the possibility of another colonizing and founding event from Athens.
+In the Indian (e.g.
+: Tamil) historic literary texts, the Ionians are referred to as "yavanar" or "yona", and are described as wearing leather and wielding whips.
+In modern Turkish, the people of that region were called "yunan" (plural "yunanlar") and the country that is now Greece is known as "Yunanistan".
+Herodotus expresses some impatience at the ethnic views of his countrymen concerning Ionia: "for it would be foolishness to say that these are more truly Ionian or better born ..." He lists other ethnic populations among the settlers: Abantes from Euboea, Minyans from Orchomenus, Cadmeians, Dryopians, Phocians, Molossians, Arcadian Pelasgians, Dorians of Epidaurus, and others.
+The presence of Doric Ionians is somewhat contradictory, but Herodotus himself, a major author of the Ionic dialect, was from a Doric city, Halicarnassus.
+Even " the best born of the Ionians", the Athenians, married girls from Caria.
+"Yet since they set more store by the name than the rest of the Ionians, let it be granted that those of pure birth are Ionians."
+========,2,History.
+From the 18th century BC the region was a part of the Hittite Empire with possible name Arzawa,which was destroyed by invaders during the 12th century BC together with the collapse of the Empire.
+Ionia was settled by the Greeks probably during the 11th century BC.
+The most important city was Miletus (the "Milawanta" of Hittites).
+Several centuries later Ionia was the place where western philosophy began and was the homeland of Heraclitus, Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes.
+They were natural-philosophers of the Ionian school of philosophy and tried to explain the phenomena according to no-supernatural laws.
+They also searched a simple material-form behind the appearances of things (origin) and this conception had a great influence on the early archaic art in Greece.
+========,3,Settlement.
+During the late 13th century BC the peoples of the Aegean Sea took to marauding and resettling as a way of life and were called by the Egyptians the Sea Peoples.
+Mycenaean Greeks must have been among them.
+They settled lightly on the shores of Luwian Anatolia often by invitation.
+In the background was the stabilizing influence of the Hittites, who monitored maritime movement and suppressed piracy.
+When that power was gone the Luwian people remained in the vacuum as a number of coastal splinter states that were scarcely able now to defend themselves.
+Ionian Greeks took advantage of opportunities for coastal raiding: an inscription of Sargon II (ca 709–07,recording a naval expedition of 715) boasts "in the midst of the sea" he had "caught the Ionians like fish and brought peace to the land of Que Cilicia and the city of Tyre".
+For a full generation earlier Assyrian inscriptions had recorded troubles with the Ionians, who escaped on their boats.
+Caria and Lycia came to the attention of Athens, most powerful state remaining in Greece, which also had lost its central government ruling from Mycenae, now burned and nearly vacant.
+Ionians had been expelled from the Peloponnesus by the Dorians and had sought refuge in Athens.
+The Athenian kings decided to relieve the crowding by resettling the coast of Lydia with Ionians from the Peloponnesus under native Athenian leadership.
+They were not the only Greeks to have such a perception and reach such a decision.
+The Aeolians of Boeotia contemporaneously settled the coast to the north of the Ionians and the newly arrived Dorians of Crete and the islands the coast of Caria.
+The Greeks descended on the Luwians of the Anatolian coast in the 10th century BC.
+The descent was not peaceful and the Luwians were not willing.
+Pausanias gives a thumbnail sketch of the resettlement.
+Miletus was the first city attacked, where there had been some Mycenaean Greeks apparently under the rule of Cretans.
+After overthrowing the Cretan government and settling there the Ionians widened their attack to Ephesus, Samos and Priene.
+Combining with Aeolians from Thebes they founded Myus.
+Colophon was already in the hands of Aeolians who had arrived via Crete in Mycenaean times.
+The Ionians "swore a treaty of union" with them.
+They took Lebedos driving out the Carians and augmented the Aeolian population of Teos.
+They settled on Chios, took Erythrae from the Carians, Pamphylians (both Luwian) and Cretans.
+Clazomenae and Phocaea were settled from Colophon.
+Somewhat later they took Smyrna from the Aeolians.
+========,3,Brief autonomy.
+The Ionian cities formed a religious and cultural (as opposed to a political or military) confederacy, the Ionian League, of which participation in the Panionic festival was a distinguishing characteristic.
+This festival took place on the north slope of Mt.
+Mycale in a shrine called the Panionium.
+In addition to the Panionic festival at Mycale, which was celebrated mainly by the Asian Ionians, both European and Asian coast Ionians convened on Delos Island each summer to worship at the temple of the Delian Apollo.
+But like the Amphictyonic league in Greece, the Ionic was rather of a sacred than a political character; every city enjoyed absolute autonomy, and, though common interests often united them for a common political object, they never formed a real confederacy like that of the Achaeans or Boeotians.
+The advice of Thales of Miletus to combine in a political union was rejected.
+The colonies naturally became prosperous.
+Miletus especially was at an early period one of the most important commercial cities of Greece; and in its turn became the parent of numerous other colonies, which extended all around the shores of the Euxine Sea and the Propontis from Abydus and Cyzicus to Trapezus and Panticapaeum.
+Phocaea was one of the first Greek cities whose mariners explored the shores of the western Mediterranean.
+Ephesus, though it did not send out any colonies of importance, from an early period became a flourishing city and attained to a position corresponding in some measure to that of Smyrna at the present day.
+========,3,Under the last Anatolian empire.
+About 700 BC Gyges, first Mermnad king of Lydia, invaded the territories of Smyrna and Miletus, and is said to have taken Colophon as his son Ardys did Priene.
+The first event in the history of Ionia for which there is a trustworthy account is the inroad of the Cimmerii, who ravaged a great part of Asia Minor, including Lydia, and sacked Magnesia on the Maeander, but were foiled in their attack upon Ephesus.
+This event may be referred to the middle of the 7th century BC.
+It was not until the reign of Croesus (560–545 BC) that the cities of Ionia fell completely under Lydian rule.
+========,3,Satrapy of the Achaemenids.
+The defeat of Croesus by Cyrus the Great was followed by the conquest of all the Ionian cities in 547 BC.
+These became subject to the Persian monarchy with the other Greek cities of Asia.
+In this position they enjoyed a considerable amount of autonomy, but were for the most part subject to local despots, most of whom were creatures of the Persian king.
+It was at the instigation of one of these despots, Histiaeus of Miletus, that in about 500 BC the principal cities ignited the Ionian Revolt against Persia.
+They were at first assisted by the Athenians and Eretria, with whose aid they penetrated into the interior and burnt Sardis, an event which ultimately led to the Persian invasion of Greece.
+But the fleet of the Ionians was defeated off the island of Lade, and the destruction of Miletus after a protracted siege was followed by the reconquest of all the Asiatic Greeks, insular as well as continental.
+========,3,Autonomy under the Athenian empire.
+The victories of the Greeks during the great Persian war and the liberation of Thrace, Macedon, and Ionia from the Persian Empire had the effect of enfranchising their kinsmen on the other side of the Aegean; and the battle of Mycale (479 BC), in which the defeat of the Persians was in great measure owing to the Ionians, secured their emancipation.
+They henceforth became the dependent allies of Athens (see Delian League), though still retaining their autonomy, which they preserved until the peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC once more placed them as well as the other Greek cities in Asia under the nominal dominion of Persia.
+========,3,Hellenistic period.
+After the battle of the Granicus most of the Ionian cities submitted to the rule of Alexander III of Macedon and his Diadochi.
+As such Ionia enjoyed a great prosperity during the Hellenistic times with the notable exception of Miletus, which, being the only city of the Ionian League to deny to pay homage to Alexander, was finally leveled after a long siege at 334 BC, and never restored to its previous splendor.
+========,2,Legacy.
+Ionia has a long roll of distinguished men of letters and science (notably the Ionian School of philosophy) and distinct school of art.
+This school flourished between 700 and 500 BC, and is distinguished by non-Greek models and naturalism.
+Ionian migration from Greece carried with it some part of a population which retained the artistic traditions of the Mycenaean civilization, and so caused the birth of the Ionic school.
+The great names of this school are Theodorus and Rhoecus of Samos; Bathycles of Magnesia on the Maeander; Glaucus of Chios, Melas, Micciades, Archermus, Bupalus and Athenis of Chios.
+Notable works of the school still extant are the famous archaic female statues found on the Athenian Acropolis in 1885–1887, the seated statues of Branchidae, the Nike of Archermus found at Delos, and the objects in ivory and electrum found by D.G.
+Hogarth in the lower strata of the Artemision at Ephesus.
+The Persian designation for Greek is "Younan" (یونان), a transliteration of "Ionia", through Old Persian "Yauna".
+The same is true for the Hebrew word, "Yavan" (יוון) and the Sanskrit word "yavana".
+The word was later adopted in Arabic, Turkish, and Urdu as well as in other places, such as Meniscus.

test/46402.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Jane Seymour, OBE (born Joyce Penelope Wilhelmina Frankenberg; 15 February 1951) is a British-American actress best known for her performances in the James Bond film "Live and Let Die" (1973), "Somewhere In Time" (1980), "East of Eden" (1981), "Onassis: The Richest Man in the World" (1988), "War and Remembrance" (1988), the French epic "La Révolution française" (1989) as the ill-fated queen Marie Antoinette, "Wedding Crashers" (2005), and the American television series "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman" (1993–1998).
+She has earned an Emmy Award, two Golden Globe Awards, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
+She was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2000.
+========,2,Early life.
+Joyce Penelope Wilhelmina Frankenberg was born 15 February 1951 in Hayes, Middlesex, England, the daughter of Mieke (van Tricht), a nurse, and John Benjamin Frankenberg, an obstetrician.
+Her father was Jewish; he was born in England, to a family from Poland (village of Nowe Trzepowo).
+Her mother was a Dutch Protestant (with family from Deventer) who was a prisoner of war during World War II, and who had lived in Indonesia.
+Jane's paternal grandfather had come to live in the East End of London after escaping the Czarist pogroms when he was 14.
+He is listed in the 1911 census for Bethnal Green, working as a hairdresser, and eventually went on to have his own company.
+Seymour was educated at the Arts Educational School in Tring, Hertfordshire.
+She took on the stage name "Jane Seymour" after King Henry VIII's third wife, as it seemed more saleable.
+One of Seymour's notable features is that she was born with heterochromia, making her right eye brown and her left eye green.
+========,2,Acting career.
+In 1969, Seymour appeared uncredited in her first film, Richard Attenborough's "Oh!
+What a Lovely War".
+In 1970, Seymour appeared in her first major film role in the war drama "The Only Way".
+She played Lillian Stein, a Jewish woman seeking shelter from Nazi persecution.
+In 1973, she gained her first major television role as Emma Callon in the successful 1970s series "The Onedin Line".
+During this time, she appeared as female lead Prima in the two-part television miniseries "Frankenstein: The True Story".
+She also appeared as Winston Churchill's lover Pamela Plowden in "Young Winston", produced by her father-in-law Richard Attenborough.
+In 1973, Seymour achieved international fame in her role as Bond girl Solitaire in the James Bond film "Live and Let Die".
+IGN ranked her as 10th in a Top 10 Bond Babes list.
+In 1975, Seymour was cast as Princess Farah in "Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger", the third part of Ray Harryhausen's "Sinbad" trilogy.
+The film was not released until its stop motion animation sequences had been completed in 1977.
+In 1978, she appeared as Serina in the "Battlestar Galactica" film, and in the first five episodes of the television series.
+Seymour returned to the big screen in the comedy "Oh Heavenly Dog" opposite Chevy Chase.
+In 1980, Seymour played the role on stage of Constanze in Peter Shaffer's play "Amadeus", opposite Ian McKellen as Salieri and Tim Curry as Mozart.
+The play premiered on Broadway in 1980, ran for 1,181 performances and was nominated for seven Tony Awards, of which it won five.
+Also in 1980, Seymour was given the role of young theatre actress Elise McKenna in the period romance "Somewhere in Time".
+Though the film was made with a markedly limited budget, the role enticed Seymour with a character she felt she knew.
+The effort was a decided break from her earlier work, and marked the start of her friendship with co-star Christopher Reeve.
+In 1981, she appeared in the television film "East of Eden", based on the novel by John Steinbeck.
+Her portrayal of main antagonist Cathy Ames won her a Golden Globe.
+In 1982, she appeared in "The Scarlet Pimpernel" with Anthony Andrews and her "Amadeus" costar Ian McKellen.
+In 1984, Seymour appeared nude in the film "Lassiter", co-starring Tom Selleck, but the film was a box office flop.
+In 1987, Seymour was the subject of a pictorial in "Playboy" magazine, although she did not pose nude.
+In 1988, Seymour got the female lead in the 12-part television miniseries "War and Remembrance", the continued story from the miniseries "The Winds of War".
+She played Natalie Henry, an American Jewish woman trapped in Europe during World War II.
+That same year, she won an Emmy Award for playing Maria Callas in the television movie "Onassis: The Richest Man in the World".
+In 1989, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution, Seymour appeared in the television film "La révolution française", filmed in both French and English.
+Seymour appeared as the doomed French queen, Marie Antoinette; the actress's two children, Katherine and Sean, appeared as the queen's children.
+In the 1990s, Seymour earned popular and critical praise for her role as Dr. Michaela "Mike" Quinn in the television series "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman" and its television sequels (1993–2001).
+Her work on the series earned her a second Golden Globe Award.
+While working on the series "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman", she met her fourth husband, actor-director James Keach.
+In the 2000s, Seymour continued to work primarily in television.
+In 2004 and 2005, she made six guest appearances in the WB Network series, "Smallville", playing Genevieve Teague, the wealthy, scheming mother of Jason Teague (Jensen Ackles).
+In 2005, Seymour returned to the big screen in the comedy "Wedding Crashers", playing Kathleen Cleary, wife of fictional United States Secretary of the Treasury William Cleary, played by Christopher Walken.
+In spring 2006, she appeared in the short-lived WB series "Modern Men".
+Later that year, Seymour guest-starred as a law-school-professor on an episode of the CBS sitcom "How I Met Your Mother", and as a wealthy client on the Fox legal drama, "Justice".
+In 2007, she guest-starred in the ABC sitcom, "In Case of Emergency", which starred Lori Loughlin and Jonathan Silverman.
+She also appeared in ITV's "Marple: Ordeal By Innocence", based on the Agatha Christie novel.
+She was a contestant on season five of the US reality show, "Dancing with the Stars"; she finished in sixth place, along with her partner, Tony Dovolani.
+In "One Life to Lose" Jane Seymour guest starred in a soap opera-themed storyline of the ABC crime-dramedy "Castle".
+Seymour appeared in the Hallmark Channel film "Dear Prudence" (2008) with Jamey Sheridan and Ryan Cartwright, the romantic comedy "Love, Wedding, Marriage" (2011) with Mandy Moore, and the Hallmark Movie Channel film "Lake Effects" (2012) with Scottie Thompson and Madeline Zima.
+In April 2016, she starred as Florence Lancaster in Noël Coward's play "The Vortex", presented in Singapore by the British Theatre Playhouse.
+========,2,Writing and fashion careers.
+In the 1980s, Seymour began a parallel career as a writer of self-help and inspirational books, including "Jane Seymour's Guide to Romantic Living" (1986), "Two at a Time: Having Twins" (2002), "Remarkable Changes" (2003), and "Among Angels" (2010).
+She also co-wrote several children's books, with her then-husband James Keach, for the "This One 'N That One" series.
+In 2008, Seymour replaced Selina Scott as the new face of fashion label CC (formerly known as Country Casuals) under the Austin Reed banner of retailers.
+Likewise in 2008, Ms. Seymour teamed up with and designed the "Open Heart Collection" for Kay Jewelers, which promoted it with the advice, "Keep your heart open, and love will "always" find its way in."
+Beginning that year, she saw to it that she would always be wearing one of the collection's necklaces whenever seen in public while not in character for any of her acting performances.
+In the same year, Seymour also wrote and published the books "Open Hearts: If Your Heart Is Open, love Will Always Find Its Way In" and "Open Hearts Family."
+A 2.08-carat cushion-cut fancy vivid blue diamond in an 18-karat rose-gold-plated platinum setting was named The Jane Seymour in her honor by World Of Diamonds Group, who had mined it in Russia, cut and set it.
+The ring was presented to Seymour in April 2016 in Singapore while she was there to star in "The Vortex"
+========,2,Personal life.
+Seymour has been married and divorced four times.
+Her first marriage, to Michael Attenborough, the son of film actor and director Richard Attenborough, lasted from 1971 to 1973.
+Her second marriage, to Attenborough's friend Geoffrey Planer, lasted from 1977 to 1978.
+In 1981, Seymour married David Flynn.
+The marriage produced two children, actress Katherine Flynn, born 7 January 1982, and Sean Flynn, born 31 July 1985.
+Flynn had been a business manager who got her involved in the housing market, which left her "completely beyond bankrupt".
+The couple were divorced in 1992.
+In 1993, Seymour married actor James Keach.
+Together they had twins, John Stacy and Kristopher Steven, born 30 November 1995, and named after family friends Johnny Cash and Christopher Reeve, and James's brother, actor Stacy Keach.
+On 12 April 2013 the couple announced they were divorcing.
+The divorce was finalized in December 2015.
+In February 2005, Seymour became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
+Seymour is a celebrity ambassador for Childhelp, a national non-profit organisation dedicated to helping victims of child abuse and neglect.
+In 2007, she sponsored a children's Art Pillow contest as part of the Jane Seymour Collection, with the proceeds going to Childhelp.

test/46407.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Shemini Atzeret ( – "Eighth [day of] Assembly"; Sefardic/Israeli pron.
+"shemini atzèret"; Ashkenazic pron.
+"shmini-atsères") is a Jewish holiday.
+It is celebrated on the 22nd day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei in the Land of Israel, and on the 22nd and 23rd outside the Land, usually coinciding with late September or early October.
+It directly follows the Jewish festival of Sukkot which is celebrated for "seven" days, and thus Shemini Atzeret is literally the "eighth" day.
+It is a separate—yet connected—holy day devoted to the spiritual aspects of the festival of Sukkot.
+Part of its "duality" as a holy day is that it is simultaneously considered to be both connected to Sukkot and also a separate festival in its own right.
+Outside the Land of Israel, this is further complicated by the additional day added to all Biblical holidays except Yom Kippur.
+The first day of Shemini Atzeret therefore coincides with the eighth day of Sukkot outside of the Land of Israel, leading to sometimes involved analysis as to which practices of each holiday are to apply.
+The celebration of Simchat Torah is the most distinctive feature of the holiday, but it is a later rabbinical innovation.
+In the Land of Israel, the celebrations of Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are combined on a single day, and the names are used interchangeably.
+In the Diaspora, the celebration of Simchat Torah is deferred to the second day of the holiday.
+Commonly, only the first day is referred to as "Shemini Atzeret," while the second is called "Simchat Torah."
+Karaite Jews and Samaritans also observe Shemini Atzeret, as they do all Biblical holidays.
+However, it may occur on a different day from the conventional Jewish celebration, due to differences in calendar calculations.
+Karaites and Samaritans do not include the rabbinical innovation of Simchat Torah in their observance of the day; and do not observe a second day (of any holiday) in the Diaspora.
+========,2,Biblical origins.
+According to the "Jewish Encyclopedia", "atzeret" (or "aẓeret)" is the name given to it in ; ; ; .
+It is not mentioned in Deuteronomy 16, and is found only in those parts of the Bible known as the Priestly Code.
+Like "atzarah" (; ; ), "atzeret" denotes "day of assembly", from "atzar" = "to hold back" or "keep in"; hence also the name "atzeret" given to the seventh day of Pesaḥ ().
+Owing, however, to the fact that both Shemini Atzeret and the seventh day of Pesaḥ are described as "atzeret", the name was taken to mean "the closing festival".
+========,2,Significance.
+========,3,"Shemini:" Relationship to Sukkot.
+When Shemini Atzeret is mentioned in the Torah (Pentateuch), it is always mentioned in the context of the seven-day festival of Sukkot, the Feast of Tabernacles, which it immediately follows.
+For example, Sukkot is described in detail in .
+Shemini Atzeret is mentioned there only in verse 39.
+The Hebrew word "shemini" means "eighth."
+This refers to the date of Shemini Atzeret relative to Sukkot; it falls on the eighth day.
+It is therefore often assumed that Shemini Atzeret is simply the eighth day of Sukkot.
+That characterization, however, is only partly accurate.
+The celebration of Sukkot is characterized by the use of the "sukkah" (booth or tabernacle) and the Four Species (tree branches and fruit used in the celebration).
+However, the Torah specifies use of those objects for seven days only, not eight.
+The observance of Shemini Atzeret therefore differs in substantial ways from that of Sukkot.
+The Talmud describes Shemini Atzeret with the words "a holiday in its own right" "(regel bifnei atzmo)".
+The Talmud describes six ways in which Shemini Atzeret differs from Sukkot.
+Four of these relate principally to the Temple service.
+Two others remain relevant to modern celebration of the holiday.
+First, the blessing known as "Shehecheyanu" is recited on the night of Shemini Atzeret, just as it is on the first night of all other major Jewish holidays.
+Second, the holiday is referred to distinctively as "Shemini Atzeret" and not as "Sukkot" in the prayer service.
+Immediately below that discussion, however, the Talmud describes Shemini Atzeret as the "end holiday of the festival [of Sukkot]".
+The context here is that the Sukkot obligations of joy and recitation of Hallel (Psalms 113-118) last eight days.
+This is also why one of Sukkot's liturgical aliases, "Time of Our Happiness" "(zman simḥatenu)", continues to be used to describe Shemini Atzeret (and by extension Simchat Torah) in prayers.
+Shemini Atzeret is therefore simultaneously "a holiday in its own right" and the "end holiday of [Sukkot]".
+========,3,"Atzeret:" A day for assembly—or pause.
+Spiritually, Shemini Atzeret can also be seen to "guard the seven days of Sukkot".
+The Hebrew word "atzeret" is generally translated as "assembly", but shares a linguistic root with the word "atzor", meaning "stop" or "tarry".
+Shemini Atzeret is characterized as a day when the Jewish people "tarries" to spend an additional day with God at the end of Sukkot.
+Rashi cites the parable of a king who invites his sons to dine with him for a number of days, but when the time comes for them to leave, he asks them to stay for another day, since it is difficult for him to part from them.
+According to this idea, Sukkot is a universal holiday, but Shemini Atzeret is only for the Jewish people.
+Moreover, Shemini Atzeret is a modest holiday, just to celebrate [God's] special relationship with His beloved nation.
+A different, but related, interpretation is offered by Yaakov Zevi Mecklenburg, who translates "atzeret" as "retain": "During the holiday season, we have experienced a heightened religious fervor and a most devout spirit.
+This last day is devoted to a recapitulation of the message of these days, with the hope that it will be retained the rest of the year".
+========,3,Connections to the prior Jewish holy days.
+The day prior to Shemini Atzeret is the last day of Sukkot.
+Called Hoshana Rabbah, it is unique and different from the other days of Sukkot.
+While it is part of the intermediate Sukkot days known as Chol HaMoed, Hoshana Rabbah has extra prayers and rituals and is treated and practiced much more seriously and festively than the previous days of Chol HaMoed.
+In particular during the morning prayer service of Hoshana Rabbah, there are seven "hoshanot" with their own seven "hakafot", the "seven processions".
+This sets the stage, in ritual, mood, tenor and a heightened sense of festivity, for the days that follow it, namely, of Shemini Atzeret, when seven "hakafot" are again performed.
+(Outside of the Land of Israel, the "hakafot" are performed by some congregations on the night "(i.e.," the beginning) of Shemini Atzeret, and then by all on both the night and during the day of Simchat Torah).
+The "Jewish Encyclopedia" states that during the time of the Second Temple, the festival of Shavuot received the specific name of "'Atzarta" as cited by Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews (iii.
+10, § 6) and in the Talmud's tractate Pesahim (42b, 68b), signifying "the closing feast" of Passover.
+and commenting on this fact, the Rabbis in tractate Pesahim say that:
+Thus the continuum of these days can be depicted as follows: Sukkot > Chol HaMoed Sukkot > Hoshana Rabbah > Shemini Atzeret > Simchat Torah, as practiced in classical Rabbinical Judaism.
+This continuum of religious celebrations concludes the process that had begun on the days of Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish new year) and Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, observed ten days after the start of Rosh Hashanah.
+Five days after the conclusion of Yom Kippur, Sukkot begins, regarded as the celebration of the anticipated Divine "good judgment" that was hopefully granted on the High Holy Days (Rosh Hashanah + the Ten Days of Repentance + Yom Kippur) and then Hoshana Rabbah + Shemini Atzeret + Simchat Torah culminate the process of open celebration and festivity with joyous prayers, festive meals, and hours of dancing holding the Torah scroll/s at the center of attention during the "hakafot" in the synagogue.
+========,2,Evolution of observances and customs.
+The Torah explicitly mentions Shemini Atzeret three times, all in the context of Sukkot.
+Only two observances are specified for Shemini Atzeret.
+One relates to the Temple service, and is not relevant to modern observance.
+The other is the avoidance of "servile labor" "(melechet avodah)," as on other major Jewish holidays.
+"(See also Jewish holidays — "Work" on Sabbath and biblical holidays.)"
+No other specific rituals or ritual objects are specified, making Shemini Atzeret unique in that regard among the festivals mentioned in the Torah.
+Two observances of Shemini Atzeret are mentioned in the Prophets and Writings portions of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible).
+The first occurred at the time of the dedication of the First Temple by Solomon.
+The second came at the time of the Jews' return from the Babylonian exile.
+In both cases, however, the mention is limited to the observation that an "assembly "[atzeret]" was held on the eighth day".
+According to the Apocryphal Second Book of Maccabees, the first celebration of Hanukkah mimicked that of Sukkot, which the Maccabees and their followers had been unable to celebrate earlier that year.
+However, the only allusion to Shemini Atzeret in that narrative is that the Hanukkah celebration was fixed for eight days—in remembrance of both the seven days of Sukkot and the additional day of Shemini Atzeret.
+Like most Jewish holidays of Biblical origin, Shemini Atzeret is observed for one day within the Land of Israel, and traditionally for two days outside Israel.
+Reform and Reconstructionist communities generally celebrate this and most Biblical holidays for one day, even outside Israel.
+The second day observed outside Israel is called "Simchat Torah" (see next section).
+========,3,Simchat Torah.
+The practice of reading the last of the weekly Torah portions on Shemini Atzeret is documented in the Talmud.
+That Talmudic source does not refer to the occasion as "Simchat Torah", but simply as [the second day of] Shemini Atzeret.
+The Simchat Torah celebration of today is of later rabbinic and customary origin.
+The day (but not the name) is mentioned in the "siddur" of Rav Amram Gaon (9th century CE); the assignment of the first chapter of Joshua as the "haftarah" of the day is mentioned there.
+The reading of the first section of Genesis immediately upon the conclusion of the last section of Deuteronomy—as well as the name "Simchat Torah"—can be found in the 14th century "halachic" work "Arba'ah Turim."
+By the 16th century CE, most of the features of the modern celebration of Simchat Torah were in place in some form.
+The Simchat Torah celebration is now the most distinctive feature of this festival—so much so that in the Land of Israel, where Shemini Atzeret lasts only one day, it is more common to refer to the day as "Simchat Torah" than as "Shemini Atzeret".
+In the 20th century, Simchat Torah came to symbolize the public assertion of Jewish identity.
+The Jews of the Soviet Union, in particular, would celebrate the festival "en masse" in the streets of Moscow.
+On October 14, 1973, more than 100,000 Jews took part in a post-Simchat Torah rally in New York city on behalf of refuseniks and Soviet Jewry.
+Dancing in the street with the Torah has become part of the holiday's ritual in various Jewish congregations in the United States as well.
+In Israel, many communities conduct "Hakafot shniyot," or "Second "hakafot"," on the day after Shemini Atzeret.
+In part, this shows solidarity with Jewish communities outside Israel, which are still celebrating Simchat Torah (on the second day of the festival).
+At the same time, it allows for a Simchat Torah celebration unconstrained by festival work restrictions, since the festival is over in Israel according to Jewish law.
+Outside Israel, where Shemini Atzeret is observed for two days, Simchat Torah is deferred to the second day, when all agree there is no obligation of "sukkah".
+========,3,Carryover of Sukkot observances outside of the Land of Israel.
+In Israel—and for different reasons in Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism—none of the unique observances of Sukkot ("sukkah", "lulav" and "etrog") carry over to Shemini Atzeret.
+Shemini Atzeret is a holiday in its own right, without "sukkah", "lulav" and "etrog".
+At the same time, by the rabbinic decree to add one day to all holidays outside of the Land of Israel, both Passover and Sukkot, although described in the Torah as seven-day holidays, are observed outside of the Land of Israel for eight days.
+Accordingly, the "eighth day of Sukkot" outside of Israel coincides with the separate holiday of Shemini Atzeret.
+Psalm 27, which is recited in most communities twice daily starting at the beginning of Elul, continues to be recited on Shemini Atzeret outside of the Land of Israel.
+When Shemini Atzeret falls on the Shabbat, the Scroll of Ecclesiastes, or Kohelet (, otherwise read in Ashkenazi synagogues on the Shabbat of Sukkot), is read on that day outside of the Land of Israel.
+In the Land of Israel, it would have been read on the first day of Sukkot, which would also have been on Shabbat.
+The Torah reading (Deuteronomy 14:22-16:17) is the same as on the Final Day of Passover and Second Day of Shavuot.
+However, unlike Passover and Shavuot, the full length of the Torah reading is included on Shemini Atzeret even when the day does not fall on the Shabbat because the reading refers to separation of agricultural gifts (like tithes and "terumah"), which are due at this time of the year.
+The Haftarah describes the people's blessing of King Solomon at the end of the dedication of the First Temple.
+========,4,Taking the" lulav" and "etrog" and sleeping in the "sukkah".
+The prevalent practice is that one eats in the "sukkah" on the eighth day, but without reciting the blessing ("berakhah") for sitting in a "sukkah".
+However, one does not take the "lulav" and "etrog" (nor does one sleep in the "sukkah" according to most opinions) on the eighth day.
+If someone sees a neighbor on the street with a "lulav" and "etrog" on the eighth day, the rabbis reason, s/he might mistakenly assume that it is still the seventh day ("ḥol hamoed"), when the "lulav" and "etrog" are still needed.
+S/he might then violate prohibitions of the "yom tov" of the eighth day.
+For that reason, the rabbis ruled that one should not take the "lulav" and "etrog" on the eighth day, even outside of the Land of Israel.
+They are therefore "muktzah"; that is, one may not even move them on a holiday where they are not needed.
+Sleeping in the "sukkah" brings a similar discussion.
+Additionally, most people would prefer to sleep indoors at this point in the year due to the weather, so sleeping in the "sukkah" may impinge on one's own joy during the festival.
+This is why the rabbis ruled that one does not sleep in the "sukkah" on Shemini Atzeret, even outside of the Land of Israel.
+Other rabbis, such as the Vilna Gaon, ruled that one should sleep in the "sukkah" on Shemini Atzeret outside of the Land of Israel.
+========,4,Eating in the "sukkah".
+Eating in the "sukkah" does not cause a parallel problem because many people simply enjoy eating outdoors in the shade of a "sukkah".
+Hence, seeing someone eating in a "sukkah" does not "per se" lead one to assume it is still "ḥol hamoed".
+Likewise, eating in the "sukkah" does not "per se" impinge on one's own celebration of Shemini Atzeret.
+Therefore, the prevalent practice is to eat in the "sukkah" on Shemini Azeret outside of the Land of Israel, but not to recite the "berakhah" for sitting in a "sukkah", as reciting it would "impinge" on the unique status of Shemini Atzeret.
+There are, however, those who have different "minhagim" (customs).
+Many Hasidic groups have a tradition to recite the morning "kiddush" and then have refreshments (such as cake) in the "sukkah", but to eat both the evening and morning main meals inside, notwithstanding the Talmudic ruling to the contrary.
+Others eat the evening meal of Shemini Atzeret indoors but the day meal in the "sukkah".
+Each of these approaches addresses aspects of the dual nature of Shemini Atzeret.
+========,3,Other customs.
+The Land of Israel's agriculture depends heavily on rains that come only seasonally, so Jewish prayers for rain, such as "Tefillat Geshem" or "Tikun Geshem" (Rain Prayer) are prominent during the Land of Israel's rainy (winter) half of the year.
+The rainy season starts just after the fall Jewish holidays.
+Because of that, and because the "sukkah" (and, by extension, pleasant weather) is no longer required on Shemini Atzeret, Jews begin to ask for rain starting with the Musaf "amidah" prayer of Shemini Atzeret.
+This prayer is recited in a traditional, distinctive, plaintive melody during the cantor's repetition of the "amidah".
+In most Ashkenazi synagogues, the cantor is clad in a white "kittel," a symbol of piety, owing to the vitality of a positive judgment for rain.
+A brief mention of rain continues to be inserted in the "amidah" until Passover.
+The Yizkor memorial service is also recited in Ashkenazi synagogues on this day.
+Recital of the Yizkor prayer is said to bring the person "closer to the cold and brittle part of mourning", and is necessary to promote the healing of a broken heart.
+========,2,Observance in non-rabbinical Jewish traditions.
+========,3,In Karaite Judaism.
+For Karaites, followers of a branch of Judaism that accepts the Written Law, but not the Oral Law, Shemini Atzeret is observed as a single day of rest, not associated with the practices of "Simchat Torah," which are a rabbinic innovation.
+Nevertheless, the Karaite cycle of weekly Torah reading, like the Rabbinic cycle, reaches its conclusion on Shemini Atzeret.
+Accordingly, in at least some Karaite circles, this day is referred to by the name of "Simchat Torah."
+Additionally, calculation of the Karaite calendar is not based on astronomical calculations, but only on direct observation of the New Moon and the ripening of barley.
+Because of that, the 22nd day of the 7th month does not necessarily fall on the same date as 22 Tishrei in the (conventional, Rabbinic) Jewish calendar.
+In 2015, Shemini Atzeret fell on October 7 for Karaites, two days later than in the conventional Jewish calendar.
+In 2016, Shemini Atzeret fell on the same day according to both calendars.

test/46408.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Magenta () is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, purplish-pink, or mauvish-crimson.
+On computer screens, it is made by mixing equal amounts of blue and red.
+On color wheels of the RGB (additive) and CMY (subtractive) color models, it is located midway between red and blue.
+It is the complementary color of green.
+It is one of the four colors of ink used in color printing and by an inkjet printer, along with cyan, yellow, and black, to make all the other colors.
+The tone of magenta used in printing is called "printer's magenta" (Magenta (CMYK)).
+Magenta was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin.
+Its name was changed the same year to magenta, to celebrate a victory of the French and Sardinian army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4, 1859, near the Italian town of that name.
+The web color magenta is also called fuchsia.
+========,2,In optics and color science.
+Magenta is an extra-spectral color, meaning that it is not found in the visible spectrum of light.
+Rather, it is physiologically and psychologically perceived as the mixture of red and violet/blue light, with the absence of green.
+In the RGB color system, used to create all the colors on a television or computer display, magenta is a secondary color, made by combining equal amounts of red and blue light at a high intensity.
+In this system, magenta is the complementary color of green, and combining green and magenta light on a black screen will create white.
+In the CMYK color model, used in color printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors.
+If magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, they make black.
+In this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony.
+If combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black.
+The magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens.
+A purple hue in terms of color theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet and red wavelengths (complements of magenta have wavelength 500–530 nm).
+In the Munsell color system, magenta is called "red–purple".
+If the spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta (additive secondary) appears midway between red and violet.
+Violet and red, the two components of magenta, are at opposite ends of the visible spectrum and have very different wavelengths.
+The additive secondary color magenta, as noted above, is made by combining violet and red light at equal intensity; it is not on the actual spectrum.
+========,2,Fuchsia and magenta.
+In optics, fuchsia and magenta are essentially the same color.
+The web colors fuchsia and magenta are completely identical, and are made by mixing exactly the same proportions of blue and red light.
+In design and printing, there is a little more variation.
+The French version of fuchsia in the RGB color model and in printing contains a higher proportion of red than the American version of fuchsia.
+Fuchsia flowers themselves, which inspired both colors, have a variety of colors, from fuchsia to purple to red and pink.
+========,2,History.
+========,3,Fuchsine and magenta dye (1860).
+The color magenta was the result of the industrial chemistry revolution of the mid-nineteenth century, which began with the invention by William Perkin of mauveine in 1856, which was the first synthetic aniline dye.
+The enormous commercial success of the dye and the new color it produced, mauve, inspired other chemists in Europe to develop new colors made from aniline dyes.
+In France, François-Emmanuel Verguin, the director of the chemical factory of Louis Rafard near Lyon, tried many different formulae before finally in late 1858 or early 1859, mixing aniline with carbon tetrachloride, producing a reddish-purple dye which he called "fuchsine", after the color of the flower of the fuchsia plant.
+He quit the Rafard factory and took his color to a firm of paint manufacturers, Francisque and Joseph Renard, who began to manufacture the dye in 1859.
+In the same year, two British chemists, Chambers Nicolson and George Maule, working at the laboratory of the paint manufacturer George Simpson, located in Walworth, south of London, made another aniline dye with a similar red-purple color, which they began to manufacture in 1860 under the name "roseine".
+In 1860 they changed the name of the color to "magenta", in honor of the battle fought between the French and Austrians at Magenta, Italy the year before, and the new color became a commercial success.
+Before "printer's magenta" was invented in the 1890s for CMYK printing, and "electric magenta" was invented in the 1980s for computer displays, these two artificially engineered colors were preceded by the color displayed at right, which is the color originally called "fuchsine" made from coal tar dyes in the year 1859.
+The name of the color was soon changed to "magenta", being named after the Battle of Magenta fought at Magenta, Lombardy-Venetia.
+Starting in 1935 the family of quinacridone dyes was developed.
+These have colors ranging from red to violet, so nowadays a quinacridone dye is often used for magenta.
+Various tones of magenta—light, bright, brilliant, vivid, rich, or deep—may be formulated by adding varying amounts of white to quinacridone artist's paints.
+Another dye used for magenta is Lithol Rubine BK.
+One of its uses is as a food coloring.
+========,3,Process magenta (pigment magenta; printer's magenta) (1890s).
+In color printing, the color called process magenta, pigment magenta, or printer's magenta is one of the three primary pigment colors which, along with yellow and cyan, constitute the three subtractive primary colors of pigment.
+(The secondary colors of pigment are blue, green, and red.)
+As such, the hue magenta is the complement of green: magenta pigments absorb green light; thus magenta and green are opposite colors.
+The CMYK printing process was invented in the 1890s, when newspapers began to publish color comic strips.
+Process magenta is not an RGB color, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB.
+Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there may be variations in the printed color that is pure magenta ink.
+A typical formulation of "process magenta" is shown in the color box at right.
+========,3,Web colors magenta and fuchsia.
+At right is the web color magenta.
+It is one of the three secondary colors in the RGB color model.
+On the , magenta is the color between rose and violet, and halfway between red and blue.
+This color is called "magenta" in X11 and "fuchsia" in HTML.
+In the RGB color model, it is created by combining equal intensities of red and blue light.
+The two web colors magenta and fuchsia are exactly the same color.
+Sometimes the web color magenta is called "electric magenta" or "electronic magenta".
+While the magenta used in printing and the web color have the same name, they have important differences.
+Process magenta (the color used for magenta printing ink—also called printer's or pigment magenta) is much less vivid than the color magenta achievable on a computer screen.
+CMYK printing technology cannot accurately reproduce on paper the color on the computer screen.
+When the web color magenta is reproduced on paper, it is called fuchsia and it is physically impossible for it to appear on paper as vivid as on a computer screen.
+Colored pencils and crayons called "magenta" are usually colored the color of "process magenta" ("printer's magenta") shown above.
+========,2,In science and culture.
+========,3,In botany.
+Magenta is a common color for flowers, particularly in the tropics and sub-tropics.
+Because magenta is the complementary color of green, magenta flowers have the highest contrast with the green foliage, and therefore are more visible to the animals needed for their pollination.

test/46415.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
+========,1,preface.
+A crayon (or wax pastel) is a stick of colored wax, charcoal, chalk or other material used for writing or drawing.
+A crayon made of pigment with a dry binder is a pastel; when made of oiled chalk it is called an oil pastel.
+A grease pencil or Chinese marker (UK chinagraph pencil) is made of colored hardened grease.
+There are also watercolor crayons, sometimes called water-soluble crayons.
+Crayons are available at a range of prices and are easy to work with.
+They are less messy than most paints and markers, blunt (removing the risk of sharp points present when using a pencil or pen), typically nontoxic, and are available in a wide variety of colors.
+These characteristics make them particularly good instruments for teaching small children to draw in addition to being used widely by student and professional artists.
+========,2,Composition.
+In the modern English-speaking world, the term crayon is commonly associated with the standard wax crayon, such as those widely available for use by children.
+Such crayons are usually approximately in length and made mostly of petroleum (paraffin wax).
+Paraffin wax is heated and cooled to achieve the correct temperature in which a usable wax substance can be dyed and then manufactured and shipped for use around the world.
+Paraffin waxes are used for cosmetics, candles, for the preparation of printing ink, fruit preserving, in the pharmaceutical industry, for lubricating purposes, and crayons.
+Colin Snedeker, a chemist for Binney & Smith (the then-parent company of Crayola), developed the first washable crayons in response to consumer complaints regarding stained fabrics and walls.
+A patent for the washable solid marking composition utilized in the washable crayons was awarded to Snedeker in 1990.
+========,2,History.
+The history of the crayon is not entirely clear.
+The word "crayon" dates to 1644, coming from "crale" (chalk) and the Latin word "creta" (earth).
+The notion to combine a form of wax with pigment actually goes back thousands of years.
+Encaustic painting is a technique that uses hot beeswax combined with colored pigment to bind color into stone.
+A heat source was then used to "burn in" and fix the image in place.
+Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, was thought to describe the first techniques of wax crayon drawings.
+This method, employed by the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and even indigenous people in the Philippines, is still used today.
+However, the process wasn't used to make crayons into a form intended to be held and colored with and was therefore ineffective to use in a classroom or as crafts for children.
+Contemporary crayons are purported to have originated in Europe where some of the first cylinder shaped crayons were made with charcoal and oil.
+Pastels are an art medium having roots with the modern crayon and stem back to Leonardo da Vinci in 1495.
+Conté crayons, out of Paris, are a hybrid between a pastel and a conventional crayon; used since the late 1790s as a drawing crayon for artists.
+Later, various hues of powdered pigment eventually replaced the primary charcoal ingredient found in most early 19th century product.
+References to crayons in literature appear as early as 1813 in Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice".
+Joseph Lemercier (born Paris 1803—died 1884), considered by some of his contemporaries to be "the soul of lithography", was also one of the founders of the modern crayon.
+Through his Paris business circa 1828 he produced a variety of crayon and color related products.
+But even as those in Europe were discovering that substituting wax for the oil strengthened the crayon, various efforts in the United States were also developing.
+========,2,American crayon companies.
+The initial era of wax crayons saw a number of companies and products competing for the lucrative education and artist markets.
+In addition to the giants such as Binney & Smith/Crayola and American Crayon/Dixon Ticonderoga, other companies popped up in the industry at various times from the late 19th century to the early 1910s.
+========,3,Binney & Smith (Crayola).
+Binney & Smith Company (later to be named Crayola LLC) developed their own famous line of wax crayons beginning on June 10, 1903.
+Edwin Binney and C. Harold Smith had been long established in the coloring marketplace through Binney's Peekskill, NY chemical works factory making lampblack by burning whale and carbon black and later instrumental in the coloring of automobile tires.
+In 1902 they developed and introduced the Staonal marking crayon.
+Edwin Binney, working with his wife, Alice Stead Binney, came up with their famous Crayola brand of crayons.
+Alice came up with the name Crayola by combining the French word for chalk, craie, with the first part of oleaginous, the oily paraffin wax used to make the crayon.
+Binney and Smith were quick to capitalize on their creation by offering 19 different boxes with 30 different colors including the Crayola No 51 which, with 28, featured their largest selection of colors.
+The Rubens Crayola line started in 1903 as well (not in the 1920s as previously documented by many sources) was directly targeted toward artists and designed to compete with the Raphael brand of crayons out of Europe.
+Rubens were featured in everything from the small 6-color box to the No.
+500 with 24 colors.
+In addition to their highly familiar Crayola line, they also made many other crayon lines including Anti-Roll, Arista, Art-Toy, Besco, Boston, Cerata, Cerola, Chic'ago, Doo Zee, Durel, Easy-Off, Gotham, Liquitex, Munsell Crayola, Perma, Pooh, Protfolio, Rubens, Spectra, Tiny Tots, Washable and Widstrok.
+By far the most recognizable brand was their Crayola "Gold Medal" line in the familiar yellow boxes.
+The Gold Medal referred to a Gold Medal the company earned with their An-du-Septic dustless chalk during the March 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.
+Over 39,000 awards were given out using the medals designed by Adolph A. Weinman.
+Receiving a medal at an Exposition was and still is something of importance with many companies featuring their medal on their products.
+Two companies to use the 1904 medal were Jack Daniel's whiskey (which still use it on their bottles to this day) and Binney & Smith.
+They used the award to design an entirely new line of crayons featuring the medal on the front of their box.
+Initially, they developed and introduced the No.
+8 box of eight assorted colors (this famous box is usually depicted on most historical material associated with Crayola; it was even featured on a postage stamp) in early 1905 using the side of the medal depicting an Eagle but quickly changed to the other side showing the 1904 date their medal was won.
+From there they began to transition and phase out other Crayola crayon boxes used earlier until eventually their entire line of Crayola crayons featured the Gold Medal design.
+They would use this design to identify their brand for over 50 years, permanently infusing their crayons into the consciousness of consumers and catapulting the Crayola brand into the world's leading crayon brand.
+The Crayola brand is currently owned by Hallmark Cards of Kansas City, Missouri.
+========,3,E Steiger & Co.
+One of the first companies to offer up a line of wax crayons aimed for kindergarten use.
+Located out of New York, NY, it is unclear when this company started producing crayons but based on a known ad from 1881, they clearly offered wax crayons in boxes of 6, 12, and 18 colors.
+========,3,Franklin Mfg Co.
+The Franklin Mfg.
+Co, founded in 1876 in Rochester, New York, was one of the first companies to make and sell wax crayons.
+While it is undetermined when the company began manufacturing wax crayons, they were indeed selling them as early as 1883, having appeared with a display of crayons at the World's Colombian Exposition that year.
+They regularly advertised their Rainbow, Radiant, Penguin and Educational brands of crayons in various art and educational catalogues and periodicals throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century.
+In 1906, they changed their name from the Franklin Mfg.
+Co to the Franklin Crayon Company and remained in operation until 1927.
+========,3,Eberhard Faber.
+The Eberhard Faber Pencil Company, originally the A. W. Faber Company, was founded by John Eberhard Faber (1822–1879) in 1861.
+The company is primarily credited with bringing German lead pencil-making techniques to the United States.
+The Faber family was known for lead pencil manufacturing in the village of Stein, Germany, near the city of Nuremberg as early as 1761 when the business was founded by Kasper Faber.
+His son Anton Faber took over in 1774 and the company came to be known as the A.W.
+Faber Company.
+Anton's grandson, Johann Lothar, took charge of the business in 1839.
+Johann Lothar's youngest son, Eberhard Faber (1822–1879), came to the United States in 1848.
+He settled in New York City, and by 1850, had opened a store selling pencils and other stationery items in Manhattan.
+In 1861, Faber opened the American manufacturing branch of A.W.
+Faber, in a factory close to the East River, near 42nd Street (Manhattan), where the United Nations now stands.
+It was the first pencil factory opened in the United States.
+Faber also developed his own line of wax crayons by as early as 1883.
+E. Faber's wax crayons were available in packages of 6, 12, 18, 24 and 36 in a variety of assorted colors.
+While their cedar wood encased crayons were a hybrid on the traditional all wax crayon, this nonetheless should be regarded as one of the earliest available wax crayon products.
+Later they would offer traditional all-wax crayons as well.
+After a fire destroyed the original factory, they moved their location to Brooklyn.
+The Faber Company grew to become one of the largest pencil manufacturers in the world, with additional factories located in Germany, Canada, and Argentina.
+========,3,Charles A Bowley.
+Another one of the earliest recorded evidence of the modern paraffin wax crayon comes from Charles A. Bowley, a resident outside of Danvers, MA who developed what he thought were the first wax coloring crayons in the late 1880s.
+Mr. Bowley had been selling various stationery items around the vicinity of Danvers and had developed clumps of colored wax designed for marking leather.
+With the need for more accuracy, he went back to his home and formed the wax crayons into more manageable cylinder shapes similar to that of a pencil.
+The crayons were approximately five and one-half inches long and sold out quickly.
+He packaged his crayons into decorative boxes and offered them through stationer clients he knew.
+The demand for his crayons soon exceeded his ability to keep up with production and he contacted the American Crayon Company in 1902 to partner and create a full blown catalog of crayon offerings.
+========,3,Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.
+The Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. was formed in March 1868 from the existing Joe Dixon and Company that Joseph Dixon ran.
+While the company primarily produced pencils, like many of their contemporaries (E. Faber and Eagle Pencil) they too expanded into a line of wax crayons for offer in 1887.
+The Dixon Solid Crayons were offered in as many as 15 colors by 1902.
+In addition to their initial Dixon brand they went on to produce the Educator, Gem and Prestite lines of crayons before the company merged with American Crayon to form the Dixon Ticonderoga Company in 1983.
+They continue to produce numerous brands of crayons to today.
+========,3,Prang Educational Company.
+Louis Prang, one of the principal fathers of art education in schools throughout the United States, also developed his own line of watercolor crayons, very similar to the modern wax-based crayon.
+Through his business, the Prang Educational Company, he sold several crayon products during the timeframe from the late 1880s through the early 20th century.
+Several examples of these exist in private collections to this day.
+In 1915 Prang merged his company into the American Crayon company and he served on the board for several years afterward.
+========,3,BB Crayons.
+Perhaps one of the most mysterious companies to offer a full set of brands was a company simply known as B.B.
+(they have a trademarked double bumblebee on their logo.)
+They offered several boxes similar in size and composition to that of the earliest of crayon boxes from the late 19th century with products such as Cadet (featuring a civil war tent camp backdrop), Favorite, Junior Artists, and The Winner brands.
+========,3,Milton Bradley Co.
+Founded in 1860, the Milton Bradley Company is the oldest game manufacturer in the United States.
+They didn't stop by offering just games however.
+They were also instrumental in the promotion of the early kindergarten movement rising up during the late 19th century.
+Bradley, inspired by a lecture from Elizabeth Peabody on the teachings of German scholar Friedrich Fröbel concerning education through creative activities, spent much of his life developing and selling products around this pursuit.
+Through the Milton Bradley Company, he produced wax crayons for retail as early as 1895 under the Bradley name.
+In addition to the Bradley line of crayons, they also produced Brodlyne, Copley, Banner, Big Boy, Crayrite, Economo, Embeco, Manual Art, Tru-Tone and Springfield Solid and other brands.
+In addition, they produced a series of licensed character crayon products such as Popeye, Mother Goose, Howdy Doody, Little Lulu, Moon Mullins, Lone Ranger, Little Orphan Annie and Sergeant William Preston.
+The company was acquired by Hasbro in 1984.
+========,3,Standard Crayon Company.
+The Standard Crayon Company began their operations in the late 1890s.
+Though the exact date of their beginning is not clear, there is documentation on a receipt from the state of Maine from 1897.
+There is also information on size of the company from 1899 police report investigating child labor complaints (the company had 72 employees that year).
+It is also unclear exactly when they started producing wax crayon products but ads featuring their Centennial and Falcon brands of crayons began appearing as early as Jan 1900.
+They went on to produce Clover, Acme, Hummer, Gem, Crown, Crest Light, Bon-Ton, Crayel, Velazquez, Buster, Old Master, Viking, Bril-Tone, Murillo and other crayon lines before eventually being purchased by Binney & Smith Inc. in 1958.
+========,3,American Crayon.
+Known for their chalk crayons, the American Crayon Company in Sandusky, OH spread out to the wax crayon market in 1902.
+As the popularity of Bowley's crayons spread to schools, his ability to keep up with production forced him to partner with the American Crayon Company who increased his manufacturing output by adopting his crayons and offering a full blown catalog of crayons in 1902.
+These boxes included The American Crescent Drawing Crayons in 7 and 14 color packages, the American Special School and Drawing Crayons in 7 and 14 colors, the American Electric drawing crayons in 7 and 12 colors, the American Brownie crayons in 7, 12 and 28 colors along with a wooden canister containing 14 colors, the American Perfection crayons in a wooden canister of 7 colors, the American Banner containing six colors and a pencil sharpener.
+They continued to expand their crayon line to include brands such as Blendwel, Crayograph, Crayarto, Colorit, Crayonart, Crayonex, Emerald, Excello, Giant, Imperial, Kantroll, Kindograph, Kroma, Lakeshore, Old King Cole, Paragon, Pastello, Payons, Perfection, Popeye, Prang, Sketcho, Playmates, Waxena, Wonder and Young Artist brands among others.
+In 1957 they merged with Joseph Dixon Crucible which eventually merged to form Dixon Ticonderoga Company in 1983; which continues to make and sell crayons to this day.
+========,3,Eagle Pencil Company.
+In 1902 another pencil company began to offer up crayons.
+The Eagle Pencil Company, New York, NY, featured a line of wax crayons offered up in 6 and 12 count boxes with a color line that included White, Pink, Violet, Terrasienna, Yellow, Blue, Brick Red, Brown, Orange, Red, Green and Black.
+Eagle Pencil began in 1856 and quickly became one of the four major pencil manufacturers in the United States (Joseph Dixon Crucible, Eberhard Faber and American Lead Pencil were the others.)
+Though always considered a side item, they continued with their crayons through the mid 40s with the introduction of their Color-Glo Eagle crayons.
+They closed their NY factory in 1958 and under various mergers and acquisitions they still operate selling pencils to this day with Berol.
+========,3,L & C Hardtmuth.
+There isn't a lot of clear data on L. & C. Hardtmuth, New York, NY except to know that they were pencil and crayon manufacturers starting with crayons at least as early as 1903; perhaps even earlier.
+What is interesting about this company at this time was their large selection of crayon colors for the time.
+A 1905 ad describes 48 different colors available for sale; the most variety of colors coming out of any crayon manufacturer at the time.
+========,3,New England Crayon Company.
+New England Crayon Company began their crayon operations in 1905 under Wadsworth, Howland & Co. out of Boston, MA.
+This company ran until 1912.
+They introduced a line of Pride crayons featuring the popular "The Brownies" characters.
+They were available in 28 colors.
+Their factory boasted having the only steam operated molding machine back in 1907; allowing them cost efficiencies passed on to the consumer.
+========,3,Albert H Munsell.
+Another significant contributor to crayon history is Albert Henry Munsell, the professor who did scientific experiments in color that led to his published 1905 "A Color Notation" work.
+He created the Munsell Color System in 1915 and started his own Munsell Color Company in 1917.
+Initially he produced high quality coloring crayons through Wadsworth, Howland & Co. as early as 1906 and then later through his own company.
+In 1926, Binney & Smith purchased the Munsell Color Company's Munsell Crayon line, consisting twenty-two colors: five principal and five intermediate hues, each at maximum chroma, and with middle value and middle chroma, plus middle grey and black.
+They kept the Munsell name on products such as "Munsell-Crayola" and "Munsell-Perma" up until 1934 and then incorporated their colors into their own Crayola Gold Medal line of boxes.
+The Munsell colors were produced in specially-marked Crayola boxes until 1944, when wartime shortages made many of the pigments required for crayon production unavailable.
+When Binney & Smith resumed full production of Crayola crayons in 1949, the Munsell line was discontinued.
+A few of the colors were incorporated into the No.
+48 box; Middle Yellow-Red became Medium Orange, and Maximum Blue became Blue-Green, while Middle Grey had been incorporated into the Crayola line as Neutral Gray, and later simply Gray.
+Medium Orange was discontinued in 1958, but Blue-Green and Gray remain part of the Crayola line.
+========,3,Others.
+Many other companies took to producing crayons as well.
+J. Pressman out of New York had a license for Disney's Snow White characters and produced Snow White crayons for a short time.
+Ullman Mfg Co., NY was another early crayon adopter featuring their Priscilla brand of crayons.
+Hundreds of companies entered the crayon market, but only a few exist today, with Crayola dominating the market in the United States.
+In all, there were over 300 documented crayon manufacturers in the United States and many more in other countries.
+========,3,Today.
+Beyond Crayola, other brand name crayon manufacturers today include Rose Art Industries and Dixon Ticonderoga.
+There are also numerous suppliers who create generic brand or store brand crayons.
+These are typically found in supermarkets.
+In 2000 there was a concern about potential contamination of asbestos in many popular brands of crayons after the Seattle Post-Intelligencer reported in May of that year that they had tests performed finding that three brands of crayons contained asbestos.
+In a follow-up study released in June the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) found traces of asbestos fibers in three crayons and larger amounts of transitional fibers which can be misinterpreted as asbestos as a result of using talc as a binding agent in additional crayons.
+CPSC declared the risk to be low, but said that because of the concerns it had asked manufacturers to reformulate the concerned crayons and commended them for their swift agreement to do so.
+Further tests have shown the risk to be insignificant, especially since the largest risk of asbestos is produced when it becomes friable and is then inhaled.
+Because the fibers are trapped in wax this is unlikely.
+As part of their testing the CPSC simulated heavy use by a child and did not find significant amounts of fibers released.
+========,2,Artists.
+Early French artists, including Francois Clouet (1510-1572) and Nicholas L'agneau (1590-1666), used crayons in their early art projects.
+Clouet used crayons for his modeled portraits, which were so elaborate that he caught the attention of Henry V, who knighted him.
+He became court painter for the royalty, and his entire art career began and consisted of some wax crayon art.
+L'agneau illustrated his portraits with outlines in wax crayons, and with tints of watercolor.
+His portraits were often of people who looked surprised or unaware of their surroundings.
+Sister Gertrude Morgan was most known for preaching the Gospel around New Orleans with simplicity and easy-to-understand crayon drawings.
+Morgan caught the eye of a gallery owner E. Lorenz Borenstein, and was allowed to show her work, play her music and spread her word of God at the gallery.
+Her early drawings were that of just very modest and simplicity crayon drawings, depicting biblical text to provide a clearer image to those who were unfamiliar with the Bible.
+Morgan went on to publish a record of her biblical songs and has artwork featured in the American Folk Art Museum in New York.

test/46425.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The substantia nigra is a basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain that plays an important role in reward and movement.
+"Substantia nigra" is Latin for "black substance", reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons.
+It was discovered in 1784 by Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, and Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring alluded to this structure in 1791.
+Parkinson's disease is characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.
+Although the substantia nigra appears as a continuous band in brain sections, anatomical studies have found that it actually consists of two parts with very different connections and functions: the pars compacta and the pars reticulata.
+This classification was first proposed by Sano in 1910.
+The pars compacta serves mainly as an input to the basal ganglia circuit, supplying the striatum with dopamine.
+The pars reticulata, though, serves mainly as an output, conveying signals from the basal ganglia to numerous other brain structures.
+========,2,Anatomy.
+The substantia nigra, along with four other nuclei, is part of the basal ganglia.
+It is the largest nucleus in the midbrain, lying dorsal to the cerebral peduncles.
+Humans have two substantiae nigrae, one on each side of the midline.
+The substantia nigra is divided into two parts: the pars reticulata and pars compacta, which lies medial to the pars reticulata.
+Sometimes, a third region, the pars lateralis, is mentioned, though it is usually classified as part of the pars reticulata.
+The pars reticulata and the internal globus pallidus are separated by the internal capsule.
+========,3,Pars reticulata.
+The pars reticulata bears a strong structural and functional resemblance to the internal part of the globus pallidus.
+The two are sometimes considered parts of the same structure, separated by the white matter of the internal capsule.
+Like those of the globus pallidus, the neurons in pars reticulata are mainly GABAergic.
+========,4,Afferent connections.
+The main input to the pars reticulata derives from the striatum.
+It comes by two routes, known as the direct and indirect pathways.
+The direct pathway consists of axons from medium spiny cells in the striatum that project directly to pars reticulata.
+The indirect pathway consists of three links: a projection from striatal medium spiny cells to the external part of the globus pallidus; a GABAergic projection from the globus pallidus to the subthalamic nucleus, and a glutamatergic projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the pars reticulata.
+Thus, striatal activity via the direct pathway exerts an inhibitory effect on neurons in the pars reticulata but an excitatory effect via the indirect pathway.
+The direct and indirect pathways originate from different subsets of striatal medium spiny cells: They are tightly intermingled, but express different types of dopamine receptors, as well as showing other neurochemical differences.
+========,4,Efferent connections.
+Significant projections occur to the thalamus (ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei), superior colliculus, and other caudal nuclei from the pars reticulata (the nigrothalamic pathway), which use GABA as their neurotransmitter.
+In addition, these neurons form up to five collaterals that branch within both the pars compacta and pars reticulata, likely modulating dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta.
+========,2,Function.
+The substantia nigra is an important player in brain function, in particular, in eye movement, motor planning, reward-seeking, learning, and addiction.
+Many of the substantia nigra's effects are mediated through the striatum.
+The nigral dopaminergic input to the striatum via the nigrostriatal pathway is intimately linked with the striatum's function.
+The co-dependence between the striatum and substantia nigra can be seen in this way: when the substantia nigra is electrically stimulated, no movement occurs; however, the symptoms of nigral degeneration due to Parkinson's is a poignant example of the substantia nigra's influence on movement.
+In addition to striatum-mediated functions, the substantia nigra also serves as a major source of GABAergic inhibition to various brain targets.
+========,3,Pars reticulata.
+The pars reticulata of the substantia nigra is an important processing center in the basal ganglia.
+The GABAergic neurons in the pars reticulata convey the final processed signals of the basal ganglia to the thalamus and superior colliculus.
+In addition, the pars reticulata also inhibits dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta via axon collaterals, although the functional organization of these connections remains unclear.
+The GABAergic neurons of the pars reticulata spontaneously fire action potentials.
+In rats, the frequency of action potentials is roughly 25 Hz.
+The purpose of these spontaneous action potentials is to inhibit targets of the basal ganglia, and decreases in inhibition are associated with movement.
+The subthalamic nucleus gives excitatory input that modulates the rate of firing of these spontaneous action potentials.
+However, lesion of the subthalamic nucleus leads to only a 20% decrease in pars reticulata firing rate, suggesting that the generation of action potentials in the pars reticulata is largely autonomous, as exemplified by the pars reticulata's role in saccadic eye movement.
+A group of GABAergic neurons from the pars reticulata projects to the superior colliculus, exhibiting a high level of sustained inhibitory activity.
+Projections from the caudate nucleus to the superior colliculus also modulate saccadic eye movement.
+Altered patterns of pars reticulata firing such as single-spike or burst firing are found in Parkinson's disease and epilepsy.
+========,3,Pars compacta.
+The most prominent function of the pars compacta is motor control, though the substantia nigra's role in motor control is indirect; electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra does not result in movement, due to mediation of the striatum in the nigral influence of movement.
+The pars compacta sends excitatory input to the striatum via D1 pathway that excites and activates the striatum, resulting in the release of GABA onto the globus pallidus to inhibit its inhibitory effects on the thalamic nucleus.
+This causes the thalamocortical pathways to become excited and transmits motor neuron signals to the cerebral cortex to allow the initiation of movement, which is absent in Parkinson's disease.
+However, lack of pars compacta neurons has a large influence on movement, as evidenced by the symptoms of Parkinson's.
+The motor role of the pars compacta may involve fine motor control, as has been confirmed in animal models with lesions in that region.
+The pars compacta is heavily involved in learned responses to stimuli.
+In primates, dopaminergic neuron activity increases in the nigrostriatal pathway when a new stimulus is presented.
+Dopaminergic activity decreases with repeated stimulus presentation.
+However, behaviorally significant stimulus presentation (i.e.
+rewards) continues to activate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.
+Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (bottom part of the "midbrain" or mesencephalon) to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical pathway) and to the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic pathway - "meso" referring to "from the mesencephalon"... specifically the ventral tegmental area) are implicated in reward, pleasure, and addictive behavior.
+The pars compacta is also important in spatial learning, the observations about one's environment and location in space.
+Lesions in the pars compacta lead to learning deficits in repeating identical movements, and some studies point to its involvement in a dorsal striatal-dependent, response-based memory system that functions relatively independent of the hippocampus, which is traditionally believed to subserve spatial or episodic-like memory functions.
+The pars compacta also plays a role in temporal processing and is activated during time reproduction.
+Lesions in the pars compacta leads to temporal deficits.
+As of late, the pars compacta has been suspected of regulating the sleep-wake cycle, which is consistent with symptoms such as insomnia and REM sleep disturbances that are reported by patients with Parkinson's disease.
+Even so, partial dopamine deficits that do not affect motor control can lead to disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle, especially REM-like patterns of neural activity while awake, especially in the hippocampus.
+========,2,Clinical significance.
+========,3,Parkinson's disease.
+Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized, in part, by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra.
+The major symptoms of Parkinson's disease include tremor, akinesia, bradykinesia, and stiffness.
+Other symptoms include disturbances to posture, fatigue, sleep abnormalities, and depressed mood.
+The cause of death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta is unknown.
+However, some contributions to the unique susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta have been identified.
+For one, dopaminergic neurons show abnormalities in mitochondrial complex 1, causing aggregation of alpha-synuclein; this can result in abnormal protein handling and neuron death.
+Secondly, dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta contain less calbindin than other dopaminergic neurons.
+Calbindin is a protein involved in calcium ion transport within cells, and excess calcium in cells is toxic.
+The calbindin theory would explain the high cytotoxicity of Parkinson's in the substantia nigra compared to the ventral tegmental area.
+Regardless of the cause of neuronal death, the plasticity of the pars compacta is very robust; Parkinsonian symptoms do not appear until up to 50-80% of pars compacta dopaminergic neurons have died.
+Most of this plasticity occurs at the neurochemical level; dopamine transport systems are slowed, allowing dopamine to linger for longer periods of time in the chemical synapses in the striatum.
+Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari (2010) used diffusion tensor imaging, as well as T1 mapping to assess volumetric differences in the substantia nigra subregions, pars reticulata and pars compacta, in participants with Parkinson’s compared to healthy individuals.
+These researchers found that participants with Parkinson’s consistently had a smaller substantia nigra, specifically in the right substantia nigra pars reticulata.
+Because the substantia nigra pars reticulata is connected to the posterior thalamus, ventral thalamus and specifically, the motor cortex, and because participants with Parkinson’s disease report having a smaller substantia nigra pars reticulata (Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari, 2010), the small volume of this region may be responsible for motor impairments found in Parkinson’s disease patients.
+This small volume may be responsible for weaker and/or less controlled motor movements, which may result in the tremors often experienced by those with Parkinson’s.
+========,3,Schizophrenia.
+Increased levels of dopamine have long been implicated in the development of schizophrenia.
+However, much debate continues to this day surrounding this dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia.
+Despite the controversy, dopamine antagonists remain a standard and successful treatment for schizophrenia.
+These antagonists include first generation (typical) antipsychotics such as butyrophenones, phenothiazines, and thioxanthenes.
+These drugs have largely been replaced by second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics such as clozapine and paliperidone.
+It should be noted that, in general, these drugs do not act on dopamine-producing neurons themselves, but on the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.
+Other, non-pharmacological evidence in support of the dopamine hypothesis relating to the substantia nigra include structural changes in the pars compacta, such as reduction in synaptic terminal size.
+Other changes in the substantia nigra include increased expression of NMDA receptors in the substantia nigra, and reduced dysbindin expression.
+Increased NMDA receptors may point to the involvement of glutamate-dopamine interactions in schizophrenia.
+Dysbindin, which has been (controversially) linked to schizophrenia, may regulate dopamine release, and low expression of dysbindin in the substantia nigra may be important in schizophrenia etiology.
+Due to the changes to the substantia nigra in the schizophrenic brain, it may eventually be possible to use specific imaging techniques (such as neuromelanin-specific imaging) to detect physiological signs of schizophrenia in the substantia nigra.
+========,3,Wooden Chest Syndrome.
+Wooden chest, also called fentanyl chest wall rigidity syndrome, is a rare side effect of synthetic opioids such as Fentanyl, Sulfentanil, Alfentanil, Remifentanil.
+It results in a generalised increase in skeletal muscle tone.
+The mechanism is thought to be via increased dopamine release and decreased GABA release in the nerves of the substantia nigra/striatum.
+The effect is most pronounced on the chest wall muscles and can lead to impaired ventilation.
+The condition is most commonly in anaesthesia where rapid and high doses of these drugs are given intravenously.
+========,2,Chemical modification of the substantia nigra.
+Chemical manipulation and modification of the substantia nigra is important in the fields of neuropharmacology and toxicology.
+Various compounds such as levodopa and MPTP are used in the treatment and study of Parkinson's disease, and many other drugs have effects on the substantia nigra.
+========,3,Amphetamine and trace amines.
+Studies have shown that, in certain brain regions, amphetamine and trace amines increase the concentrations of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron.
+The various mechanisms by which amphetamine and trace amines affect dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively, and are known to involve both DAT and VMAT2.
+Amphetamine is similar in structure to dopamine and trace amines; as a consequence, it can enter the presynaptic neuron via as well as by diffusing through the neural membrane directly.
+Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine and trace amines activate TAAR1, which, through protein kinase signaling, induces dopamine efflux, phosphorylation-dependent internalization, and non-competitive reuptake inhibition.
+Because of the similarity between amphetamine and trace amines, it is also a substrate for monoamine transporters; as a consequence, it (competitively) inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and other monoamines by competing with them for uptake, as well.
+In addition, amphetamine and trace amines are substrates for the neuronal vesicular monoamine transporter, vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2).
+When amphetamine is taken up by , the vesicle releases (effluxes) dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange.
+========,3,Cocaine.
+Cocaine's mechanism of action in the human brain includes the inhibition of dopamine reuptake, which accounts for cocaine's addictive properties, as dopamine is the critical neurotransmitter for reward.
+However, cocaine is more active in the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area than the substantia nigra.
+Cocaine administration increases metabolism in the substantia nigra, which can explain the altered motor function seen in cocaine-using subjects.
+The inhibition of dopamine reuptake by cocaine also inhibits the firing of spontaneous action potentials by the pars compacta.
+The mechanism by which cocaine inhibits dopamine reuptake involves its binding to the dopamine transporter protein.
+However, studies show that cocaine can also cause a decrease in DAT mRNA levels, most likely due to cocaine blocking dopamine receptors rather than direct interference with transcriptional or translational pathways.
+Inactivation of the substantia nigra could prove to be a possible treatment for cocaine addiction.
+In a study of cocaine-dependent rats, inactivation of the substantia nigra via implanted cannulae greatly reduced cocaine addiction relapse.
+========,3,Levodopa.
+The substantia nigra is the target of chemical therapeutics for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
+Levodopa (commonly referred to as L-DOPA), the dopamine precursor, is the most commonly prescribed medication for Parkinson's disease, despite controversy concerning the neurotoxicity of dopamine and L-DOPA.
+The drug is especially effective in treating patients in the early stages of Parkinson's, although it does lose its efficacy over time.
+Levodopa can cross the blood–brain barrier and increases dopamine levels in the substantia nigra, thus alleviating the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
+The drawback of levodopa treatment is that it treats the symptoms of Parkinson's (low dopamine levels), rather than the cause (the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra).
+========,3,MPTP.
+MPTP, is a neurotoxin specific to dopaminergic cells in the brain, specifically in the substantia nigra.
+MPTP was brought to the spotlight in 1982 when heroin users in California displayed Parkinson's-like symptoms after using MPPP contaminated with MPTP.
+The patients, who were rigid and almost completely immobile, responded to levodopa treatment.
+No remission of the Parkinson's-like symptoms was reported, suggesting irreversible death of the dopaminergic neurons.
+The proposed mechanism of MPTP involves disruption of mitochondrial function, including disruption of metabolism and creation of free radicals.
+Soon after, MPTP was tested in animal models for its efficacy in inducing Parkinson's disease (with success).
+MPTP induced akinesia, rigidity, and tremor in primates, and its neurotoxicity was found to be very specific to the substantia nigra pars compacta.
+In other animals, such as rodents, the induction of Parkinson's by MPTP is incomplete or requires much higher and frequent doses than in primates.
+Today, MPTP remains the most favored neurotoxin to model nigrostriatal degeneration and dopamine depletion in animals, for studying Parkinson's disease.

test/46427.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Inspector Jacques Clouseau () is a fictional character in Blake Edwards' farcical "The Pink Panther" series.
+In most of the films he was played by Peter Sellers, but one film starred Alan Arkin and another featured an uncredited Roger Moore.
+In the 2006 "Pink Panther" revival and its 2009 sequel, he is played by Steve Martin.
+Clouseau as The Inspector is also the main character in a series of short animated cartoons as part of "The Pink Panther Show".
+More recent animated depictions from the 1970s onward were redesigned to more closely resemble Sellers, and later Martin.
+========,2,Character.
+========,3,Overview.
+Clouseau is an inept and incompetent police detective in the French Sûreté, whose investigations are marked by disorder.
+In "The Pink Panther Strikes Again" (1976), an attempt to interview witnesses leads to him falling down stairs, getting his hand caught in a medieval knight's gauntlet, then a vase; knocking a witness senseless, destroying a priceless piano, and accidentally shooting another officer.
+Nevertheless, Clouseau successfully solves his cases and finds the correct culprits, entirely by accident.
+He is promoted to Chief Inspector over the course of the series, and is regarded by background characters as France’s greatest detective, until they encounter him directly.
+His incompetence, combined with his luck and his periodically correct interpretations of the situation, eventually transform his direct superior (former Chief Inspector Charles Dreyfus) into a homicidal psychotic.
+Clouseau appears convinced of his own intelligence, but does show some awareness of his limits, and attempts to appear elegant and refined regardless of what calamity he has just caused.
+He also insists upon elaborate costumes and aliases that range from the mundane (a worker for the phone company) to the preposterous (a bucktoothed hunchback with an oversized nose); but these are usually overcome by his characteristic mannerisms.
+Chief Inspector Clouseau is a patriotic Frenchman; later films reveal he had fought in the French Resistance during the Second World War.
+He has been prone to infatuation (often reciprocated) ever since the first film, in which his antagonist cuckolds him.
+He is repeatedly perplexed by transvestites, to the extent that he addresses them as "Sir or Madam".
+Sellers maintained that Clouseau’s ego made the character's klutziness funnier, in the attempt to remain elegant and refined while causing chaos.
+As rendered by Sellers, Clouseau’s faux French accent became more exaggerated in successive films (for example, pronouncing "room" as "reum"; "Pope" as "Peup"; "bomb" as "beumb"; and "bumps" as "beumps" or "bimps"), and a frequent running gag in the movies was that even French characters had difficulty understanding what he was saying.
+Much of that humour was lost in the French dubbing, wherein the French post-synchronization gave Clouseau an odd-sounding, nasal voice.
+Clouseau's immense ego, eccentricity, exaggerated French accent, and prominent mustache were derived from Hercule Poirot, the fictional Belgian detective created by Agatha Christie.
+In his earliest appearances, Clouseau is slightly less inept and exaggerated; but in his first appearance he believes himself a skilled violinist, but plays out of tune, and often appears clumsy at his moments of highest dignity.
+========,3,Films.
+========,4,"The Pink Panther" (1963).
+Jacques Clouseau makes his first appearance as the Inspector in the 1963 film "The Pink Panther", which was released in the United States in March 1964.
+In this movie, the main focus was on David Niven's role as Sir Charles Lytton, the infamous jewel thief nicknamed "the Phantom", and his plan to steal the Pink Panther diamond; while the Clouseau character plays a supporting role as Lytton's incompetent antagonist, and provides slapstick comic relief.
+In this film, Clouseau's wife Simone (Capucine), is secretly Sir Charles' lover and accomplice, and departs with him at the end of the film after they have framed Clouseau for the theft of the Pink Panther, although Lytton notes that he will clear Clouseau's name when the Phantom's next crime is committed.
+========,4,"A Shot in the Dark" (1964).
+"A Shot in the Dark" (1964) was based upon a stage play that originally did not include the Clouseau character.
+In this film, Sellers began to develop the exaggerated French accent that later became a hallmark of the character.
+The film also introduces two of the series regular characters: his superior, Commissioner Dreyfus (Herbert Lom), who is driven mad by Clouseau's bungling; and his long-suffering Chinese man servant, Cato (Burt Kwouk), who is employed to improve Clouseau's martial arts skills by attacking him at random.
+Sellers stepped away from playing the character following this movie, but returned in "The Return of the Pink Panther" (1975) and its sequels.
+========,4,"Inspector Clouseau" (1968).
+When the character returned for the film "Inspector Clouseau" (1968), he was portrayed by American actor Alan Arkin; Edwards was not involved in this production.
+The film's title credits, animated by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises, feature their Inspector character from the series of short cartoons under that name.
+========,4,"The Return of the Pink Panther" (1975).
+The 1968 film does appear to have influenced the Clouseau character when Sellers returned to the role in 1975's "The Return of the Pink Panther", particularly in the character's mode of dress.
+According to DVD liner notes for "Return of the Pink Panther", Sellers and Edwards originally planned to produce a British television series centered on Clouseau, but this film was made instead.
+The opening credits were animated by Richard Williams, featuring Clouseau once again seeking to retrieve the Pink Panther diamond after it is stolen by the Phantom, Sir Charles Lytton.
+The roles of Sir Charles and Lady Lytton are recast, now played by Christopher Plummer and Catherine Schell.
+========,4,"The Pink Panther Strikes Again" (1976).
+"The Pink Panther Strikes Again" continues the story from the end of "The Return of the Pink Panther", featuring the now insane Dreyfus creating a crime syndicate and constructing a doomsday weapon with the intention of using it to blackmail the world to kill Clouseau.
+Unused footage from this film was used to include Sellers in "Trail of the Pink Panther".
+The opening credits were again animated by Richard Williams.
+========,4,"Revenge of the Pink Panther" (1978).
+After the success of "The Pink Panther Strikes Again", Edwards and Sellers reunited for their final film, "Revenge of the Pink Panther", which ignores Dreyfus' "death" in the previous film and has Clouseau investigating a plot to kill him after a transvestite criminal is killed in his place.
+The movie was a box office success and led to several more films after Sellers died in 1980; biographies of Sellers such as "Peter Sellers—A Celebration" reveal that he was involved in the pre-production of another Clouseau film, "The Romance of the Pink Panther", at the time of his death.
+========,4,"Trail of The Pink Panther" (1982).
+Blake Edwards attempted to continue telling Clouseau's story despite losing his lead actor.
+The 1982 film "Trail of the Pink Panther" utilized outtakes and alternative footage of Sellers as Clouseau in a new storyline in which a reporter (played by Joanna Lumley) investigates Clouseau's disappearance.
+In the process, she interviews characters from past Clouseau films (including the Lyttons, played by the returning David Niven and Capucine), and also meets Clouseau's equally inept father (played by Richard Mulligan).
+========,4,"Curse of the Pink Panther" (1983).
+The immediate sequel to "Trail", "Curse of the Pink Panther", reveals that Clouseau underwent plastic surgery to change his appearance; the character appears on screen briefly in the form of a joke cameo appearance by Roger Moore, billed as "Turk Thrust II".
+David Niven and Capucine again reprise their original "Pink Panther" roles as the Lyttons, now also joined by the returning Robert Wagner as nephew George Lytton.
+Neither "Trail" nor "Curse" were box office moneymakers, and the series was retired for about a decade.
+========,4,"Son of the Pink Panther" (1993).
+Despite the failure of "Curse", Edwards attempted to revive the series a decade later with "Son of the Pink Panther", in which it is revealed that Clouseau had illegitimate children by Maria Gambrelli (played by Elke Sommer in "A Shot in the Dark", although recast in this film as Claudia Cardinale, who played the Princess in "The Pink Panther").
+Clouseau's son, Jacques Jr., was portrayed by Roberto Benigni, and has a twin sister, Jacqueline, played by Nicoletta Braschi.
+Jacques Jr. attempts to follow in his father's police footsteps, but is revealed to have inherited his ineptitude.
+========,4,"The Pink Panther" (2006).
+Steve Martin's rendition of Clouseau in the 2006 film depicts Clouseau as a bumbling Gendarme hired by Chief Inspector Dreyfus to serve as the visible investigator into a high-publicity murder, so that Dreyfus can carry out his own investigation without risking repercussions of failure; but Martin's Clouseau is considerably older than Sellers', and although the 2006 film was placed prior to the events of the first "Pink Panther" film, the time frame has been advanced to the present day.
+Although foolish, Martin's Clouseau is able to locate the Pink Panther diamond and solve the case by knowledge, and observation, of obscure data.
+A running gag in this and the following film has Clouseau randomly attacking his partner, Gilbert Ponton, only to be countered each time.
+This is similar to a gag in the original films with Clouseau's original sidekick Cato Fong, although this gag was reversed with Cato attacking Clouseau.
+========,4,"The Pink Panther 2" (2009).
+When a series of rare and historical artifacts are stolen by the mysterious "Il Tornado", Clouseau is assigned to a "dream team" of international investigators to recover the artifacts and the Pink Panther.
+Despite appearing to be bumbling and clumsy as usual, Clouseau once again displays surprising cleverness through his unorthodox methods.
+For example, he replaces the Pink Panther with a near perfect fake, reasoning that if The Tornado was the culprit, he would have been able to tell that the Pink Panther was a fake.
+He also causes several problems for Dreyfus, as usual.
+The film culminates in his marriage to Nicole Durant, Dreyfus' secretary.

test/46438.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Colorless green ideas sleep furiously is a sentence composed by Noam Chomsky in his 1957 book "Syntactic Structures" as an example of a sentence that is grammatically correct, but semantically nonsensical.
+The sentence was originally used in his 1955 thesis "Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory" and in his 1956 paper "Three Models for the Description of Language".
+Although the sentence is grammatically correct, no obvious understandable meaning can be derived from it, and thus it demonstrates the distinction between syntax and semantics.
+As an example of a category mistake, it was used to show the inadequacy of the then-popular probabilistic models of grammar, and the need for more structured models.
+========,2,Details.
+Chomsky writes in his 1957 book "Syntactic Structures":  While the meaninglessness of the sentence is often considered fundamental to Chomsky's point, Chomsky was only relying on the sentences having never been spoken before.
+Thus, even if one were to ascribe a likely and reasonable meaning to the sentence, the grammaticality of the sentence is concrete despite being the first time a person had ever uttered the statement, or any part thereof in such a combination.
+This was used then as a counter-example to the idea that the human speech engine was based upon statistical models, such as a Markov chain, or simple statistics of words following others.
+========,2,Attempts at meaningful interpretations.
+The sentence can be partially interpreted through polysemy.
+Both "green" and "colorless" have figurative meanings, which allow "colorless" to be interpreted as "nondescript" and "green" as either "immature" or pertaining to environmental consciousness.
+The sentence can therefore be construed as "nondescript immature ideas have violent nightmares", a phrase with less oblique semantics.
+In particular, the phrase can have legitimate meaning too, if "green" is understood to mean "newly formed" and "sleep" can be used to figuratively express mental or verbal dormancy.
+"Furiously" remains problematic when applied to the verb "sleep", since "furiously" denotes "angrily", "violently", and "intensely energetically", meanings which are generally incompatible with sleep, dormancy, and unconscious agents typically construed as conscious ones, e.g.
+animals or humans, which truly "sleep".
+Writers have attempted to provide the sentence meaning through context, the first of which was written by Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao.
+In 1985, a literary competition was held at Stanford University in which the contestants were invited to make Chomsky's sentence meaningful using not more than 100 words of prose or 14 lines of verse.
+An example entry from the competition, from C.M.
+Street, is:
+It can only be the thought of verdure to come, which prompts us in the autumn to buy these dormant white lumps of vegetable matter covered by a brown papery skin, and lovingly to plant them and care for them.
+It is a marvel to me that under this cover they are labouring unseen at such a rate within to give us the sudden awesome beauty of spring flowering bulbs.
+While winter reigns the earth reposes but these colourless green ideas sleep furiously.
+Using the triangle-box method, "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" is divided into two phrases: [Colorless green ideas] and [sleep furiously] per the LINZ algorithm based on parts of intent.
+In the first phrase the word 'ideas' is the core (ZC), the main focus of the phrase.
+In the second phrase, there are no core but rather an action (TAP), which is the focus of the second phrase.
+Returning to the first phrase, the desire or intent of this phrase is 'ideas' (ZC).
+'Colorless' and 'green' are boolean.
+Specifically description booleans (green) and its modifier (colorless).
+In the second phrase, 'sleep' is the action or intent of the phrase.
+Furiously is an intensity action type (ZAI).
+All triangle-box phrases consist of either a core, boolean and or TAP.
+This sentence contains the intent/desire or focus of ideas and sleep.
+It can be infer that sleep when done furiously produces colorless green ideas.
+Or ideas that are not clear and concrete.
+========,2,Statistical challenges.
+Fernando Pereira of the University of Pennsylvania has fitted a simple statistical Markov model to a body of newspaper text, and shown that under this model, "Furiously sleep ideas green colorless" is about 200,000 times less probable than "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously".
+This statistical model defines a similarity metric, whereby sentences which are more like those within a corpus in certain respects are assigned higher values than sentences less alike.
+Pereira's model assigns an ungrammatical version of the same sentence a lower probability than the syntactically correct form demonstrating that statistical models can learn grammaticality distinctions with minimal linguistic assumptions.
+However, it is not clear that the model assigns every ungrammatical sentence a lower probability than every grammatical sentence.
+That is, "colorless green ideas sleep furiously" may still be statistically more "remote" from English than some ungrammatical sentences.
+To this, it may be argued that "no" current theory of grammar is capable of distinguishing "all" grammatical English sentences from ungrammatical ones.
+========,2,Related and similar examples.
+The pioneering French syntactician Lucien Tesnière came up with the French language sentence "Le silence vertébral indispose la voile licite" ("The vertebral silence indisposes the licit sail").
+The game of "exquisite corpse" is a method for generating nonsense sentences.
+It was named after the first sentence generated in the game in 1925 "Le cadavre exquis boira le vin nouveau" (the exquisite corpse will drink the new wine).
+In the popular game of "Mad Libs", a chosen player asks each other player to provide parts of speech without providing any contextual information (e.g., "Give me a proper noun", or "Give me an adjective"), and these words are inserted into pre-composed sentences with a correct grammatical structure, but in which certain words have been omitted.
+The humor of the game is in the generation of sentences which are grammatical but which are meaningless or have absurd or ambiguous meanings (such as 'loud sharks').
+The game also tends to generate humorous double entendres.
+There are likely earlier examples of such sentences, possibly from the philosophy of language literature, but not necessarily uncontroversial ones, given that the focus has been mostly on borderline cases.
+For example, followers of logical positivism held that "metaphysical" (i.e.
+not empirically verifiable) statements are simply meaningless; e.g.
+Rudolf Carnap wrote an article where he argued that almost every sentence from Heidegger was grammatically correct, yet meaningless.
+Of course, some philosophers who were not logical positivists disagreed with this.
+The philosopher Bertrand Russell used the sentence "Quadruplicity drinks procrastination" in his “An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth” from 1940, to make a similar point; W.V.
+Quine took issue with him on the grounds that for a sentence to be false is nothing more than for it not to be true; and since quadruplicity doesn't drink "anything", the sentence is simply false, not meaningless.
+In a sketch about linguistics, British comedy duo Fry and Laurie used the nonsensical sentence "Hold the newsreader's nose squarely, waiter, or friendly milk will countermand my trousers."
+John Hollander wrote a poem titled "Coiled Alizarine" in his book "The Night Mirror".
+It ends with Chomsky's sentence.
+Clive James wrote a poem titled "A Line and a Theme from Noam Chomsky" in his book "".
+It opens with Chomsky's second meaningless sentence and discusses the Vietnam War.
+Another approach is to create a syntactically-correct, easily parsable sentence using nonsense words; a famous such example is "The gostak distims the doshes".
+Lewis Carroll's Jabberwocky is also famous for using this technique, although in this case for literary purposes; similar sentences used in neuroscience experiments are called Jabberwocky sentences.
+In Russian schools of linguistics, the "glokaya kuzdra" example has similar characteristics.
+Other arguably "meaningless" utterances are ones that make sense, are grammatical, but have no reference to the present state of the world, such as "The King of France is bald", since there is no King of France today (see definite description).

test/46442.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Assassins is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by John Weidman, based on an idea by Charles Gilbert, Jr.
+It uses the premise of a murderous carnival game to produce a revue-style portrayal of men and women who attempted (successfully or not) to assassinate Presidents of the United States.
+The music varies to reflect the popular music of the eras depicted.
+The musical first opened Off-Broadway in 1990, and the 2004 Broadway production won five Tony Awards.
+========,2,History and productions.
+As a panelist at producer Stuart Ostrow's Musical Theater Lab, Sondheim read a script by playwright Charles Gilbert, Jr. Sondheim asked Gilbert for permission to use his idea.
+Gilbert consented and offered to write the book; but Sondheim declined, having already had collaborator John Weidman in mind.
+Weidman had written the book for "Pacific Overtures" and would work with Sondheim again on "Road Show".
+"Assassins" opened Off-Broadway at Playwrights Horizons on December 18, 1990, and closed on February 16, 1991 after 73 performances.
+Directed by Jerry Zaks the cast included Victor Garber, Terrence Mann, Patrick Cassidy, Debra Monk, Greg Germann, and Annie Golden.
+According to the "Los Angeles Times", "The show has been sold out since previews began, reflecting the strong appeal of Sondheim's work among the theater crowd."
+Frank Rich in his "New York Times" review wrote ""Assassins" will have to fire with sharper aim and fewer blanks if it is to shoot to kill."
+On October 29, 1992, "Assassins" opened in London at the Donmar Warehouse with direction by Sam Mendes and a cast that included Henry Goodman as Charles Guiteau and Louise Gold as Sara Jane Moore.
+The show ran for 76 performances, closing on January 9, 1993.
+The first US regional production was mounted by the San Jose Civic Light Opera in San Jose, California in 1993.
+This was the world premiere of the 13-piece orchestration by Michael Starobin.
+Next was the New Line Theatre in St. Louis, Missouri in 1994, and it was re-mounted by that company in 1998 and 2008.
+Roundabout Theater Company's Broadway production was originally scheduled for 2001 but was postponed to April 22, 2004, because the content was sensitive in light of the events of September 11, 2001.
+After 101 performances at Studio 54, "Assassins" closed on July 18, 2004.
+Directed by Joe Mantello, with musical staging by Jonathan Butterell, Neil Patrick Harris starred in the roles of The Balladeer and Lee Harvey Oswald, with Marc Kudisch in an extended role as The Proprietor.
+Michael Cerveris played John Wilkes Booth, for which he received a Tony Award.
+The 2004 production was noted for a "coup de théâtre": the Zapruder film of the death of John F. Kennedy projected onto Lee Harvey Oswald's T-shirt by projection designer Elaine J. McCarthy.
+On 3 December 2012, the Broadway cast reunited for a special benefit.
+Other professional productions have included a 2006 production at Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, a 2008 production which ran from January 23 to February 2, 2008, at the Landor Theatre, London, The South African premiere opened in December 2008 as the inaugural production of the NewSpace Theatre in Cape Town.
+This production was directed by Fred Abrahamse with a South African cast including Marcel Meyer as John Wilkes Booth, Riaan Norval as Lee Harvey Oswald, David Dennis as Charles J. Guiteau and Anthea Thompson as Sara Jane Moore.
+The Los Angeles premiere opened in 1994 at the Los Angeles Theatre Center and included Patrick Cassidy (the original Balladeer) playing Booth, and Alan Safier as Guiteau.
+A 2010 production in Toronto by BirdLand Theatre and Talk is Free Theatre won the Dora Mavor Moore Award for Outstanding Production in the Musical Theatre Division.
+The Union Theatre, London, produced "Assassins" in July 2010, which went on the win Best (overall) Production at The Off West End Awards.
+It was staged and directed by Michael Strassen.
+It attained Show of the Week and Critics choice in Time Out.
+A new production of "Assassins" starring Catherine Tate as Sarah Jane Moore, Aaron Tveit as John Wilkes Booth, and Jamie Parker as the Balladeer opened on November 21, 2014 at the Menier Chocolate Factory in London and ran until March 7, 2015.
+"Assassins" is being included in the 2017 season of "Encores!
+Off Center" from July 12–15.
+========,2,Versions.
+The three versions (original, London and Broadway) were not identical, as roles were combined, and the song "Something Just Broke" was new to the London production.
+In 1991, Theatre Communications Group published the libretto, which did not feature "Something Just Broke."
+The current licensed version of the musical reflects the 2004 Broadway revival.
+Although the script does not combine The Balladeer and Oswald into a single role, many productions have followed the revival in doing so.
+========,2,Synopsis.
+This synopsis reflects the current licensed version of the show.
+The published script of the 1992 Off-Broadway production is slightly different.
+The play opens in a fairground shooting gallery where, amid flashing lights, human figures trundle past on a conveyor belt.
+One by one, a collection of misfits enters the stage, where the Proprietor of the game entices them to play, promising that their problems will be solved by killing a President ("Everybody’s Got the Right").
+Leon Czolgosz, John Hinckley, Charles Guiteau, Giuseppe Zangara, Samuel Byck, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, and Sara Jane Moore are given their guns one by one.
+John Wilkes Booth enters last and the Proprietor introduces him to the others as their pioneer before he begins distributing ammunition.
+The assassins take aim as "Hail to the Chief" heralds Abraham Lincoln's offstage arrival.
+Booth excuses himself, a shot rings out and Booth shouts, "Sic semper tyrannis!"
+The Balladeer, a personification of the American Dream, appears and begins to tell John Wilkes Booth's story ("The Ballad of Booth").
+The scene changes to Richard H. Garrett's barn in 1865.
+Booth, mudstained and with a broken leg, is attempting to write his reasons for killing Lincoln in his diary but cannot hold the pen.
+He forces his associate David Herold to write for him at gunpoint.
+As Booth dictates, blaming Lincoln for the Civil War and for destroying the South, the Balladeer interjects that Booth's motives really had more to do with his personal problems.
+When a Union soldier calls for Booth's surrender, Herold abandons him and surrenders.
+In desperation, Booth throws the Balladeer his diary so that he can tell his story to the world.
+The Balladeer reads out Booth’s justifications, and Booth laments that the act for which he has given up his life will not be enough to heal the country.
+As the Union soldiers set fire to the barn, Booth commits suicide, and the Balladeer concludes that Booth was a madman whose treacherous legacy only served as inspiration for other madmen like him to damage the country.
+The Balladeer rips Booth's rationale from his diary and burns the pages.
+The Assassins gather in a bar.
+Guiteau toasts to the Presidency of the United States, speaking of his ambition to become Ambassador to France.
+Zangara complains about his stomach pains, and Booth suggests fixing them by shooting Franklin D. Roosevelt.
+Hinckley accidentally breaks a bottle, and Czolgosz flies into a rage, describing the horrors he sees in the bottle factory he works in, and how many men die or are injured just to make a bottle like the one Hinckley has just broken.
+Guiteau jokingly tells Czolgosz to find another job, and the two begin to argue about the American Dream, with Guiteau defending America and Czolgosz dismissing the "land of opportunity" as a lie.
+Czolgosz becomes enraged and grabs a bottle, barely stopping himself from throwing it across the room.
+Booth urges Czolgosz to take control of his fate by breaking a bottle himself, but Czolgosz cannot.
+A radio broadcast, narrated by the Proprietor, describes Zangara's failed attempt to assassinate Roosevelt.
+He misses Roosevelt and accidentally kills Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak instead.
+Five Bystanders are interviewed in turn, telling the audience their personal versions of the event; each is convinced that he or she personally saved the President ("How I Saved Roosevelt").
+From an electric chair, Zangara sings his refusal to be afraid and that he hadn't cared who he killed as long as it was one of the men who control the money.
+Peeved that as an "American Nothing" he has no photographers at his execution, Zangara is electrocuted as the Bystanders preen for the cameras.
+American anarchist leader Emma Goldman gives a lecture from offstage as Leon Czolgosz listens, enraptured.
+He introduces himself to her and declares his love, but she tells him to redirect his passion to the fight for social justice.
+She gives him a leaflet that she tells him contains an idea that is "not mine alone, but mine."
+As she prepares to leave, Czolgosz offers to carry her bag, to which Goldman protests by saying, "They make us servants, Leon.
+We do not make servants of each other."
+Czolgosz, in his first display of assertiveness, still insists.
+Fromme and Moore meet on a park bench and share a joint.
+Fromme speaks of the apocalyptic preachings of mass murderer Charles Manson, remembering how they met and declaring herself his lover and slave.
+Juggling her purse, a can of Tab and a bucket of Kentucky Fried Chicken, Moore claims she is an informant for the FBI (or used to be), has been a CPA and had five husbands and three children.
+They connect over their shared hatred of their fathers, and using Colonel Sanders as a graven image, they give the bucket of chicken the evil eye and then shoot it to pieces while laughing hysterically.
+Moore realizes that she had known Manson in high school, and the scene ends as the women scream in delight over their memories of the charismatic killer.
+Czolgosz reflects on how many men die in the mines, the steel mills and the factories just to make a gun.
+Booth, Guiteau and Moore enter one by one and join him in a barbershop quartet in which they honor a single gun's power to change the world ("The Gun Song").
+Czolgosz decides his gun will claim one more victim: the President.
+Czolgosz arrives at the 1901 Pan American Exposition and sees that William McKinley is shaking visitors' hands in the Temple of Music Pavilion.
+The Balladeer sings "The Ballad of Czolgosz" as Czolgosz joins the receiving line, and upon reaching McKinley, he shoots him.
+Samuel Byck sits on a park bench in a dirty Santa suit with a picket sign and a shopping bag.
+He talks into a tape recorder, preparing a message to Leonard Bernstein telling Bernstein he can save the world by writing more love songs, and explaining that he is going to change things by crashing a 747 into the White House and killing Richard Nixon.
+Then he accuses Bernstein of ignoring him, just like the other celebrities he has recorded tapes for, such as Hank Aaron and Jonas Salk.
+After flying into an expletive-laden rage, Byck stands up on the bench and angrily sings the chorus to "West Side Story"s song "America" before storming offstage.
+John Hinckley sits in his rumpus room, aimlessly playing a guitar.
+Lynette Fromme enters and tries to convince him to play her a song (asking for "Helter Skelter"), but he refuses.
+Fromme notices a picture of Jodie Foster, who Hinckley claims is his girlfriend.
+When Fromme realizes the picture is a publicity photo from a film, she pulls out a picture of Charles Manson and mocks Hinckley for being in love with a woman he's never met, which makes him throw her out in a fit of rage.
+Alone, he swears that he will win Foster's love "with one brave, historic act" and sings a love song to her while Fromme individually does the same to Manson ("Unworthy of Your Love").
+An image of Ronald Reagan appears on a wall in the back of the stage, and an enraged Hinckley shoots it over and over again, but the picture keeps reappearing.
+The Proprietor mocks Hinckley by quoting Reagan's famous quips about the assassination as Hinckley fires and fires, missing each time.
+Back at the Proprietor's shooting range, Charles Guiteau flirts with Sara Jane Moore while giving her marksmanship tips before trying to kiss her.
+When she rebuffs him, he becomes suddenly enraged and attempts to attack her.
+Her gun goes off in his ear, and he backs off, angrily proclaiming that he is extraordinary and will be the next Ambassador to France.
+The scene changes to a train station, where Guiteau goes to meet James Garfield.
+He asks to be made Ambassador to France, but Garfield mockingly refuses, prompting Guiteau to shoot him.
+Guiteau is arrested and sent to the gallows, where he recites a poem he wrote that morning titled "I am Going to the Lordy".
+When Guiteau finishes, the Balladeer enters and sings about Guiteau's trial and sentencing while Guiteau merrily cakewalks up to the noose, getting more and more desperately optimistic with each verse.
+Guiteau sings along with the Balladeer about Guiteau's optimism before he is finally hanged ("The Ballad of Guiteau").
+Squeaky Fromme and Sara Jane Moore prepare to assassinate Gerald Ford.
+Moore has brought along her nine-year-old son and her dog (which she accidentally shoots), which causes an argument between the two women, who briefly turn on each other.
+Moore accidentally spills her gun's bullets just as President Ford enters the stage.
+Not recognizing him at first, the two women allow him to help them, but upon discovering who he is, Fromme tries to shoot him, but her gun jams.
+Having no other resource left, Moore tries to throw her bullets at Ford, shouting "bang" as she does so.
+Samuel Byck is driving to the airport to hijack a plane, which he plans to crash into the White House.
+Growing completely unhinged, he records a message addressed to Richard Nixon, complaining about contemporary American life, how the American public is constantly lied to, and announces that killing him is the only solution.
+The assassins congregate in the Proprietor's shooting range once again and enumerate their reasons for taking action.
+Led by Byck, they lament that they haven't gotten the rewards they were "promised."
+The Balladeer tells them that their actions didn't solve their problems or the country's and that if they want their prizes they must follow the American Dream.
+The assassins realize that they will never get their prizes, that no one will ever care if they live or die, and briefly sink into absolute desperation until Byck and the Proprietor lead them in "Another National Anthem," a song for all Americans dispossessed by the dream.
+The Balladeer attempts to convince them to be optimistic and seek other ways to be happy, but the Anthem grows louder and louder until the assassins force the Balladeer offstage (in the 2004 revival and many productions that followed, the Assassins all surround the Balladeer, transforming him into Lee Harvey Oswald).
+The scene changes to the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository.
+The ghosts of John Wilkes Booth, Leon Czolgosz, Charles Guiteau, and other "would be" assassins including John Hinckley, Arthur Bremer, Sirhan Sirhan and James Earl Ray, appear before a suicidally depressed Lee Harvey Oswald, and convince him that the only way for him to truly connect with his country is to share his pain and disillusionment with it.
+They slowly and carefully attempt to convince him not to become his own victim and to instead assassinate John F. Kennedy.
+Booth tells Oswald that by joining them he will finally make a difference, but Oswald refuses.
+Booth tells him that in the future, when Hinckley’s room is searched, Oswald's biographies will be found.
+Booth tells Oswald that the key to the future is in his hands.
+Oswald tries to leave, but Zangara addresses him passionately in Italian, his words translated by the other assassins, imploring him to act so their own acts can come alive again.
+They tell him that he has the power to cause worldwide grief and inspire global passion about himself, a man the world has never cared or heard about.
+Calling themselves his family, the assassins sing, imploring Oswald to act.
+He crouches at the window and shoots ("November 22, 1963").
+After the assassinations, a group of citizens recount what they were doing when they heard that the President had been killed and lament that even though only a single man died, the nation has changed forever ("Something Just Broke").
+The assassins regroup once more at the shooting range, now with Oswald among their ranks, and they proudly restate their motto, "Everybody's got the right to be happy," before loading their guns and opening fire on the audience ("Everybody's Got the Right (Reprise)").
+========,2,Cultural impact.
+Sondheim has said that he expected backlash from the public due to the content.
+"There are always people who think that certain subjects are not right for musicals...[w]e're not going to apologize for dealing with such a volatile subject.
+Nowadays, virtually everything goes," he told "The New York Times".
+By developing the characters of historic assassins out of the slim biographical information found in the daily news, "Assassins" prompts us to consider their motivation.
+"(Sondheim) confronts pain in order to cauterize the decay and heal the sicknesses which lurk at the core of our society".
+Departing from the humanism of his previous musical "Into the Woods", Sondheim suggests that political murderers are a product of the American political culture (Joanne Gordon).
+Historian and commentator Sarah Vowell introduced her 2005 analysis of the Lincoln, McKinley, and Garfield murders, "Assassination Vacation", with a journey from New York City into New England to attend a performance of "Assassins", the musical prompting her writing of the book.
+========,2,Recordings.
+Recordings of both the Off-Broadway production and the 2004 revival are commercially available.
+The Off-Broadway version does not include the song 'Something Just Broke', which was added to the show for the subsequent London production.
+While the original Off-Broadway production used just three musicians, the original cast recording was fully orchestrated by Michael Starobin, with 33 musicians directed by Paul Gemignani.

test/46446.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+========,1,preface.
+In the fictional universe of "Star Trek", the Prime Directive is a guiding principle of the United Federation of Planets prohibiting the protagonists from interfering with the internal development of alien civilizations.
+The Prime Directive has been used in five of the six "Star Trek"-based series.
+This conceptual law applies particularly to civilizations which are below a certain threshold of technological, scientific and cultural development; preventing starship crews from using their superior technology to impose their own values or ideals on them.
+Since its introduction in the first season of the , it has served as the focus of numerous episodes of the various series.
+As time travel became a recurring feature in the franchise, the concept was expanded as a Temporal Prime Directive, prohibiting those under its orders from interfering in historical events.
+========,2,Origins.
+Creation of the Prime Directive is generally credited to original-series producer Gene L. Coon.
+An alternate contention holds that science fiction writer Theodore Sturgeon actually came up with the concept and put it in an unused script for the original series.
+The first appearance of the Prime Directive on film is in the episode "The Return of the Archons".
+That episode was written by Boris Sobelman and based on a story by creator Gene Roddenberry.
+One theory holds that the directive reflected a contemporary political view of critics of the United States' foreign policy.
+In particular, the US' involvement in the Vietnam War was commonly criticized as an example of a global superpower interfering in the natural development of southeast Asian society, and the assertion of the Prime Directive was perceived as a repudiation of that involvement.
+========,2,Development.
+The first reference to the Prime Directive occurs in the February 1967 episode "The Return of the Archons."
+In this episode, Captain James T. Kirk and his crew encountered a planet which was enslaved 6,000 years earlier by a computer intelligence, its society stagnating into mechanical obedience.
+Asserting that the society it had been programmed to preserve was already effectively "dead" under its control (violating its own "prime directive" to protect it), Kirk argued the computer into self-destruction, then left behind a team of sociologists to help restore the society to a "human" form.
+The Prime Directive is explicitly defined in the March 1968 episode ":
+No identification of self or mission.
+No interference with the social development of said planet.
+No references to space or the fact that there are other worlds or civilizations.
+In the November 1998 " episode "," set nearly a century later, it is revealed that the Directive has 47 sub-orders.
+However, it has been stated that once violation has occurred, Starfleet personnel "are" allowed to directly intervene on the planet to attempt to minimize the harm as much as possible, with an openness proportional to how significant the exposure has been.
+For example, in "" itself, James Kirk and crew investigated the fate of a ship's personnel on a planet while attempting to keep their origins secret, even while the planet's rulers were aware.
+By contrast, in "," where the crew discovered that a Federation cultural observer had contaminated the culture he was supposed to have been observing by having blatantly reformed a planet's government to emulate Nazi Germany, they helped the local resistance overthrow the government.
+In the "Star Trek" universe, the Prime Directive has special implications for civilizations that have not yet developed the technology for interstellar spaceflight ("pre-warp"), since no primitive culture can be given or exposed to any information regarding advanced technology or the existence of extraplanetary civilizations, lest this exposure alter the natural development of the civilization.
+Although this was the only application Kirk actually stated in "The Return of the Archons," by the 23rd century, it had been indicated to include purposeful efforts to improve or change in any way the natural course of such a society, even if that change is well-intentioned and kept completely secret.
+"Pre-warp" is defined as any culture which has not yet attained warp drive technology and is thus, implicitly, unaware of the existence of alien races.
+Starfleet allows scientific missions to investigate and secretly move amongst pre-warp civilizations as long as no advanced technology is left behind, and there is no interference with events or no revelation of their identity.
+This can usually be accomplished with hidden observation posts, but Federation personnel may disguise themselves as local sentient life and interact with them.
+In the April 1998 "" episode "The Omega Directive," an exception to the Prime Directive was introduced.
+Starfleet General Order number 0 authorizes a captain to take any and all means necessary to destroy Omega particles.
+These are artificial particles with destructive capabilities deemed so dangerous that they are to be destroyed at any cost, including interference with any society that creates them.
+========,2,Use as allegory.
+"Star Trek" stories have used the Prime Directive as a literary device which allows the exploration of interactions with less advanced societies without the heroes having the overwhelming advantage of easy access to and use of their technology.
+Since "Star Trek" has consistently used alien interactions as an allegory for the real world, the Prime Directive has served as a template to tell stories which resemble those of real human societies and their interactions with less technologically advanced societies, such as the interaction between modern cultures and indigenous peoples.
+In the philosophical view of "Star Trek," no matter how well-intentioned the more advanced peoples are, interaction between advanced technology and a more primitive society is invariably destructive.
+In some episodes, the Directive is deliberately violated.
+In the "Original Series" episode "," Federation cultural observer and historian John Gill openly created a regime based on Nazi Germany on a primitive planet in a misguided effort to create a society which combined what he wrongly viewed as the high efficiency of a fascist dictatorship with a more benign philosophy.
+In doing so, he contaminated the normal and healthy development of the planet's culture, with a power-hungry subordinate making Gill his puppet and causing the regime to adopt the same racial supremacist and genocidal ideologies of the original.
+This in turn forced Starfleet personnel to intervene directly to minimize the harm to the societies.
+By the time of the era of "," the Prime Directive was indicated to apply not only to just pre-warp civilizations, but also, indeed, to any culture with whom Starfleet comes into contact.
+In such situations, the Prime Directive forbids any involvement with a civilization without the expressed consent or invitation of the lawful leaders of that society, and absolutely forbids any involvement whatsoever in the internal politics of a civilization.
+For example, in "," the provisional government of the planet Bajor experienced a power struggle that nearly led to civil war.
+During this conflict, Deep Space Nine Commander Benjamin Sisko's superior, Admiral Chekote, explicitly cited the Prime Directive, and ordered him to evacuate all Starfleet personnel from the station, as the situation, i.e.
+a conflict as to what form the Bajoran government would take, was deemed internal to Bajor; the UFP, it was felt, had no business influencing the Bajorans's decision in this matter.
+Not even the knowledge that the Cardassians were secretly supporting one Bajoran faction dissuaded the admiral, who noted, "The Cardassians may involve themselves in other people's civil wars, but we don't."
+Around 20 minutes into the season 2 episode "", the senior staff had a philosophical discussion regarding the Prime Directive.
+Troi and LaForge argued that if there was a "cosmic plan," that the presence of the "Enterprise" and its crew was also to be included in that plan and that this alone allowed them a legitimate claim to act on behalf of a people in need.
+Captain Picard argued that one's personal certitude was not relevant and that the Prime Directive was meant to prevent "us" from letting our emotions overwhelm our judgment.
+On "," the Prime Directive was used more than once as a plot device as well, and Captain Kathryn Janeway also applied the Prime Directive to a situation which clearly did not involve a pre-warp civilization.
+(She did so in "State of Flux" and ".")
+Also, in at least two different episodes in which they encountered civilizations that had technology which could shorten their journey home, "" and "Future's End (Part II)," policies similar to the Prime Directive were cited as a basis for denying Janeway and her crew access to it.
+In the episode "," Naomi Wildman revealed that there were 47 sub-orders of the Prime Directive.
+On several occasions, characters indicate that the Prime Directive extends even to the point of allowing a civilization to end.
+The ' episode "" presented exactly such a scenario, and when Lt.
+Commander Data befriended a child who lived on a doomed planet and offered help, this was presented as a problematic transgression.
+In the ' episode "," it is said that Starfleet had allowed sixty races to die out rather than interfere with their fate.
+In this episode, the loss of a planet's atmosphere was about to wipe out the last remaining members of a primitive civilization; Federation observer Nikolai Rozhenko refused to stand by, and he violated the Prime Directive by saving a small group of that civilization.
+In the "TOS" episode "A Private Little War," two different factions on a planet were at war with each other.
+But when it was found that Klingons were furnishing one faction with advanced weapons, Kirk responded in apparent violation of the Prime Directive, arming the other faction with the same weapons.
+This resulted in an arms race on that world, as a fictionalized parallel to the then-current Cold War arms race, in which the United States often armed one side of a dispute and the Soviet Union armed the other, in a practice known as proxy war.
+A similar arms race served as the backstory of the "TNG" episode "Too Short a Season."
+In "State of Flux," "Voyager" Captain Janeway refused to allow the Kazon-Nistrim and the Kazon-Ogla to have replicator technology, believing it would tip the balance of power among the Kazon factions.
+On a planet that had two indigenous sentient species, the more advanced one was suffering from a degenerative genetic disorder.
+A cure was not pursued because it was determined that the more advanced species was genetically stagnant, and that the lesser one was genetically progressive.
+It was viewed as contrary to nature to help the dying race.
+Although this event took place in the series "," in the "ENT" episode "Dear Doctor," and took place before the formation of both the Federation and the Prime Directive, it reflected the views of space-faring humans and their allies in the years leading up to the creation of the Federation.
+========,2,Criticism.
+One criticism (noted by real-world critics and viewers, but rarely in-universe) regarding the Prime Directive is that it is inconsistently applied, depending on a planet's strategic importance or the circumstances in which a starship crew finds itself.
+For example, as part of the Federation's then-ongoing hostilities with the Klingons, Captain Kirk was ordered to make contact with the seemingly pre-industrial Organians in the episode "Errand of Mercy."
+In addition, Kirk directly interfered with the laws or customs of alien worlds in "," "For the World Is Hollow and I Have Touched the Sky," "The Cloud Minders," "," "The Return of the Archons," and "A Taste of Armageddon," to achieve a Federation objective, to save the lives of his crew, or both.
+Compounding matters was that in the TOS episode "The Omega Glory," Kirk stated, "A star captain's most solemn oath is that he will give his life, even his entire crew, rather than violate the Prime Directive."
+Yet he seemingly violated the Prime Directive as "the only way to save my ship" in "A Taste of Armageddon" and no explanation for the Federation Ambassador who was trying to mediate between Eminiar VII and Vendikar (neither of which were Federation members) regardless of their wishes on the matter was given.
+In "The Return of the Archons" and "The Apple" reference to the "Prime Directive of non-interference" was made by Spock.
+In "The Return Of The Archons," Kirk says the Prime Directive referred to "a living, growing culture" to justify interfering with what he saw as the "non"-development of the computer-controlled culture, asking pointedly in reference to it, by contrasting it with living, growing cultures, "Do you think this one is?"
+In "The Apple" Spock pointed out that Starfleet Command might not agree with his choice to interfere with the computer-controlled culture.
+Kirk's reply to this was, "I'll take my chances."
+There are also episodes in which the Prime Directive should have been mentioned, but was not.
+In "The Paradise Syndrome", the "Enterprise" attempted to save a pre-industrial planet by moving an asteroid that was on a collision course with it; when McCoy asked Kirk if he should warn the people, Kirk and Spock only pointed out that the people would not understand the warning, and neither made any reference to the Prime Directive.
+In "The Cloud Minders," Kirk interfered with the culture of Ardana to obtain zenite, the only cure for a biological plague ravaging Merak.
+Vice Admiral Matthew Dougherty's reasons for violation of the Prime Directive in "" in Picard's time echoed the reasons Kirk gave McCoy in "A Private Little War," but Picard considered them invalid.
+In "," Nikolai Rozhenko used holodeck technology to save the Boraalan and enforce what he believed was the spirit of the Prime Directive, even though Picard had already said that such actions violated what it actually stated.
+In "," Captain Picard rectified contact with an inhabitant of a pre-warp planet by ordering her memory erased.
+When contamination became too serious to be fixed by memory erasures, Captain Picard decided to make direct contact with a civilization's leaders in "Who Watches the Watchers" and "," although the latter episode involved a planet on the verge of achieving warp flight, and therefore eligible for First Contact.
+Finally, in "", the "Voyager" crew took measures to ensure the protected isolation of a primitive people, even from a more advanced civilization who share the same planet.
+In contrast, the "Next Generation" episode "" did not explicitly explain whether the Edo people were pre-warp or were aware of offworld space travelers before the "Enterprise's" visit.
+If the case was the former, then when Wesley Crusher is sentenced to death, the violation of the Prime Directive had already occurred and the issue of rescuing him, while politically exacerbating matters, might not have been a violation of the Directive.
+Picard's nine documented violations of the Prime Directive are held as evidence against him during a witch-hunt investigation in "The Drumhead."
+Additionally, the non-canonical novel "Prime Directive," written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens, dealt with the political and career fallout from a violation Kirk had committed.
+In canon, James Kirk apprehended Captain Ronald Tracey of the USS "Exeter" when he found evidence of the latter's apparent violation of the Prime Directive.
+However, the aftermath of the arrest was not detailed.
+In the film "Star Trek Into Darkness" (2013), Captain Kirk was stripped of his command after revealing the "Enterprise" to the prewarp culture of the Nibiru to save Spock's life, aggravated by the fact that Kirk had deliberately lied in the mission report to Starfleet to cover for it, and was exposed when Spock clearly stated what happened in his report, which created a divide between them.
+========,2,In fictional universe.
+========,3,Text.
+This directive can be found in the Articles of the Federation, Chapter I, Article II, Paragraph VII, which states:
+Nothing within these Articles Of Federation shall authorize the United Federation of Planets to intervene in matters which are essentially the domestic jurisdiction of any planetary social system, or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under these Articles Of Federation.
+But this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII.
+Note that the above bears a striking resemblance to text in the actual United Nations Charter, corresponding even in exactly the same chapter, article, and paragraph number, and with the reference to Chapter VII allowing exceptions for enforcement.
+It has been further defined in this way:
+As the right of each sentient species to live in accordance with its normal cultural evolution is considered sacred, no Starfleet personnel may interfere with the normal and healthy development of alien life and culture.
+Such interference includes introducing superior knowledge, strength, or technology to a world whose society is incapable of handling such advantages wisely.
+Starfleet personnel may not violate this Prime Directive, even to save their lives and/or their ship, unless they are acting to right an earlier violation or an accidental contamination of said culture.
+This directive takes precedence over any and all other considerations, and carries with it the highest moral obligation.
+In other words, the Federation cannot expose an evolving species to technology that the species has not yet discovered or is currently capable of developing.
+========,3,History.
+The non-interference directive seems to have originated with the Vulcans.
+In ', it is stated that but for Zefram Cochrane's historic warp flight, a passing Vulcan ship would have deemed Earth unready for contact and ignored the planet, and in the ' episode "" T'Pol makes reference to a Vulcan policy of non-interference.
+However, the policy was not implemented immediately, and did not exist on pre-Federation Earth: in the "Enterprise" episode "", Charles "Trip" Tucker III notes that the prohibition is a Vulcan policy, not human.
+In another episode, "Dear Doctor", Jonathan Archer says "Some day, my people are gonna come up with some sort of a doctrine, something that says what we can and can't do out here, should and shouldn't do.
+But until someone tells me that they've drafted that directive"," I'm gonna have to remind myself every day that we didn't come out here to play God."
+The Prime Directive was not actually written into law until some years after the formation of the Federation — in the " episode ", an early Federation ship, the "Horizon," visited a primitive planet and left behind several items which altered the planet's culture significantly—most notably the book "Chicago Mobs Of The Twenties," which the inhabitants quickly seized upon as a blueprint for their entire society.
+Kirk hints in "Private Little War" that the Prime Directive formally came into effect within the last 13 years as he states he recommended in his survey of a world that there be no interference with normal social development with the planet.
+Logically if the Prime Directive had existed then Kirk would have had no reason to make such a recommendation.
+Picard mentioned in "," that the origin of the prime directive came in aftermath to a negative initial contact with the Klingons which led to decades of war.
+An alternative origin comes from the "Enterprise" episode "Observer Effect", where it is revealed that the Organians also adhere to a form of the Prime Directive.
+However, as Starfleet does not officially make first contact with the Organians until the original series episode "Errand of Mercy", it is unknown what impact, if any, they had on the development of the directive.
+========,3,Temporal Prime Directive.
+The Temporal Prime Directive is intended to prevent a time traveler (from the past "or" future) from interfering in the natural development of a timeline.
+The TPD was formally created by the 29th century, and was enforced through an agency of Starfleet called the Temporal Integrity Commission, which monitored and restricted deviations from the natural flow of history.
+However, several "Star Trek: Voyager" episodes specifically make references to the Temporal Prime Directive that suggest that it applies in the 24th century.
+The directive is regarded as "inviolable", and any Starfleet officer responding to a question regarding their prior actions with words to the effect of "I cannot reply due to the Temporal Prime Directive" would not normally be subject to censure, as long as some form of temporal instability had been sensed, however slight the signs.
+As 31st century time traveler Daniels revealed to Captain Jonathan Archer in the " episode ", as time travel technology became practical, the Temporal Accords were established sometime significantly before the 31st century, to allow the use of time travel for the purposes of studying history, while prohibiting the use of it to alter history.
+Some factions rejected the Accords, leading to the Temporal Cold War that served as a recurring storyline during the first three seasons of that series.

test/46461.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Chicken soup is a soup made from chicken, simmered in water, usually with various other ingredients.
+The classic chicken soup consists of a clear chicken broth, often with pieces of chicken or vegetables; common additions are pasta, dumplings, or grains such as rice and barley.
+Chicken soup has acquired the reputation of a folk remedy for colds and influenza, and in many countries is considered a comfort food.
+========,2,Preparation.
+Variations on the flavor are gained by adding root vegetables such as parsnip, potato, sweet potato and celery root, herbs such as parsley, dill, other vegetables such as zucchini, whole garlic cloves or tomatoes and black pepper.
+The soup should be brought slowly to a boil and then simmered in a covered pot on a very low flame for one to three hours, adding water if necessary.
+A clearer broth is achieved by skimming the drops of fat off the top of the soup as it is cooking, first bringing the chicken to boil from a pot of cold water and discarding the water before continuing, or straining it through a strainer or cheesecloth.
+Saffron or turmeric are sometimes added as a yellow colorant.
+Then, the chicken can be shredded by hand and stored in the refrigerator until ready for use in the soup.
+========,2,Nutritional value.
+Chicken soup can be a relatively low fat food: fat can be removed by chilling the soup after cooking and skimming the layer of congealed fat from the top.
+A study determined that "prolonged cooking of a bone in soup increases the calcium content of the soup when cooked at an acidic, but not at a neutral pH".
+========,2,Terminology.
+Strictly speaking, chicken soup, unless qualified, implies that the soup is served as a thin broth, with pieces of meat, and possibly vegetables,and either noodles, rice, barley, or dumplings.
+Cream of chicken soup is a thick, creamy, soup made with chicken stock and pieces, combined with milk (or cream) and flour, which might contain vegetable pieces, depending on the recipe.
+Several terms are used when referring to chicken soups:
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Medicinal properties.
+Chicken soup has long been touted as a form of folk medicine to treat symptoms of the common cold and related conditions.
+In 2000, scientists at the University of Nebraska Medical Center in Omaha studied the effect of chicken soup on the inflammatory response "in vitro".
+They found that some components of the chicken soup inhibit neutrophil migration, which may have an anti-inflammatory effect that could "hypothetically" lead to temporary ease from symptoms of illness.
+However, since these results have been obtained from purified cells (and directly applied), the diluted soup "in vivo" effect is debatable.
+"The New York Times" reviewed the University of Nebraska study, among others, in 2007 and concluded that "none of the research is conclusive, and it is not known whether the changes measured in the laboratory really have a meaningful effect on people with cold symptoms."
+It has also been shown that chicken soup contains the Amino acid cysteine, which is very similar to acetylcysteine, which is used by doctors for patients with bronchitis and other respiratory infections to help clear them.
+Chicken noodle soup is also known as "Jewish penicillin", either as ersatz penicillin, or as alternative to penicillin.
+========,2,Chicken soup in different cultures.
+========,3,China.
+Many Chinese soups are based on chicken broth.
+Typical Chinese chicken soup is made from old hens and is seasoned with ginger, scallions, black pepper, soy sauce, rice wine and sesame oil.
+A more elaborate version can be made from freshly killed old hen and various herbs such as ginseng, dried goji, and old ginger root.
+The soup is then boiled for hours.
+========,3,Colombia.
+Bogotá, Colombia’s capital, is known for a version of chicken soup called "ajiaco".
+Along with chicken, "ajiaco" typically includes corn, three types of potatoes, avocado, capers, an herb called "guascas", and is served with a dollop of cream.
+Sancocho de Gallina is another popular dish throughout Colombia and in neighboring countries.
+This is a broth that includes entire pieces of (often rather tough) soup hen on the bone with large pieces of plantain, potato, cassava and/or other vegetables.
+A bowl of Sancocho is usually an entire meal.
+There are Region, as in Medellin — Antioquia, that some people enjoy Sancocho with lemon.
+========,3,Denmark.
+The Danish "hønsekødssuppe" is traditionally cooked using large hens specifically reserved for soup, known as "suppehøner" (lit.
+: soup hens).
+Vegetables like celeriac, carrots, onions and leek are usually added and typical flavourings are thyme, laurels and white pepper.
+The soup may be served with small white dumplings and meatballs.
+As part of traditional housekeeping, the cooked meat is reserved for other dishes such as "Høns i asparges" (lit.
+: Chicken in asparagus) or "Hønsesalat" (lit.
+: chicken salad).
+========,3,France.
+The French serve chicken-based forms of bouillon and consommé.
+Typical French seasoning for chicken soup includes: bay leaves, fresh thyme, dry white wine and garlic.
+========,3,Germany.
+In Germany chicken soup is made with chicken broth, vegetables, such as carrots, spices and herbs and small noodles.
+For the broth a large hen, called a "Suppenhuhn" (lit.
+soup hen), may be boiled and pieces of it, especially from the boiled breast, can later be added to the soup.
+In southern Germany homemade chicken soup typically consists of chicken broth, to which spices and semolina dumplings or Spätzle noodles are added.
+Another dish made with chicken broth, pieces of chicken, boiled vegetables, and spices is known as "Hühnereintopf", meaning "chicken stew".
+Alternatively, homemade noodles may be added to the chicken broth, without vegetables, and with only pickling spice and salt and pepper added to it.
+========,3,Ghana.
+In Ghana, chicken soup is often seasoned with lemon juice or vinegar.
+Very often people add a mixture of yogurt and egg towards the end of the cooking process to make the soup denser and creamier.
+One egg and 100–150mL of yogurt are combined in a deep cup and mixed until smooth.
+This gets stirred slowly into the soup after the pot is removed from heat to prevent curdling.
+Finely fresh chopped parsley is often added before serving.
+========,3,Hungary.
+Hungarian chicken soup is a clear soup, a consommé, called Újházi chicken soup.
+A consommé with entire pieces of chicken, chicken liver and heart, with chunky vegetables and spices like whole black peppercorn, bay leaves, salt and ground black pepper.
+The vegetables boiled along with the pieces of chicken are usually carrots, celeriac, parsley root and parsnip.
+Soup vermicelli, semolina dumplings or thin Spätzle noodles or small dumplings are also added to the soup.
+Even other vegetables may be used, such as green peas, a whole tomato and whole onions boiled along with the soup, mushrooms, asparagus, celery, green pepper, cauliflower, kohlrabi, green beans or parsley, in different combinations.
+========,3,Indonesia.
+In Indonesia chicken soup might appear as "sayur sop", vegetable and chicken broth soup that contains chicken pieces, potato, green beans, carrot, celery, and fried shallot.
+Another chicken soup variant commonly found across the country is soto ayam; a turmeric yellow spicy chicken soup with vegetables and noodle or vermicelli, served with steamed rice, pieces of lontong or ketupat.
+========,3,India.
+In India chicken soup is one of the most popular appetizers.
+There are many forms of chicken soup which exist, Sweet Corn Chicken Soup being the most famous.
+Other variants of chicken soup are Spicy Indian Chicken Soup, Clear Chicken Soup, Hot and Sour and Chicken Noodle Soup.
+Usually most of the Chicken soups are served with Bread Crumbs and sometimes with boiled eggs too.
+It is a very popular selling item by the road side vendors and Dhaba usually in winters.
+========,3,Italy.
+In Italy, chicken soup is often served with pasta, in such dishes as "cappelletti in brodo", "tortellini in brodo" and "passatelli".
+Even when served on its own, the meat and any vegetables used are usually removed from the broth and served as a second dish.
+========,3,Japan.
+In Japan, chicken soup is known as "Torijiru".
+Typically it starts with dashi, which is made from boiling konbu (kelp) and katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes), and not by boiling the chicken (whole chicken is not typically available in Japanese supermarkets).
+After the dashi is prepared, pieces of boneless chicken thigh meat are usually used and combined with vegetables like daikon radish, carrot, burdock, konnyaku, welsh onion, mushrooms, potatoes, and taro root.
+At the end, different seasonings are added depending on the region of the country or type of soup.
+It could be a miso-based soup or soy sauce-based.
+Cooking sake, mirin, salt, and vinegar are also used with the soy sauce or miso.
+The pork equivalent called "Butajiru" is more popular than the chicken-based soup.
+Bone stock for ramen are also often made with chicken stock, and it is almost invariably used in the less common "kotteri" variety.
+========,3,Jewish.
+Chicken soup is a traditional dish of the Jewish kitchen.
+The 12th-century rabbi and physician Maimonides touted the benefits of chicken soup to one's health.
+The soup is prepared with herbs like parsley and fresh dill or thyme, was often served with "knaidlach" (matzah balls), "kreplach" (dumplings), "lokshen" (flat egg noodles), or "mandlen (Shkedei Marak in Israel)" (soup "almonds").
+A traditional garnish was "eyerlakh" (little eggs).
+These unlaid chicken eggs were taken from a hen and boiled in the soup."
+Modern health standards make these difficult to obtain now.
+========,3,Korea.
+"Samgyetang" is a Korean chicken soup with Korean ginseng, dried jujube fruits, garlic, ginger, glutinous rice, and sometimes other medicinal herbs.
+It is held to be not only a cure for physical ailments but a preventer of sickness.
+"Baeksuk", which is the Korean counterpart to the chicken noodle soup of Western culture, is also popular among Koreans for its power to cure minor illnesses such as a cold.
+While the chicken noodle soup, as the name suggests, has some noodles in it, quite often Baeksuk does not contain any noodles.
+========,3,Mexico.
+Caldo de pollo, also known as Consome de Pollo, is a common Latin-American soup made with whole chicken pieces instead of chopped or shredded chicken, and large cuts of vegetables, such as half-slices of potatoes and whole leaves of cabbage.
+Another variation of chicken soup is caldo tlalpeño which is garnished with chopped avocado, white cheese, and a chipotle chile.
+========,3,Pakistan.
+In Pakistan various forms of chicken soups exist.
+The most famous one is Chicken Corn Soup.
+Other variants are Chicken Egg Soup and Simple Chicken Soup.
+========,3,Peru.
+Caldo de Gallina (lit., "broth of hen"), the Peruvian form of chicken soup, is made with whole pieces of chicken instead of chopped or shredded chicken, along with potatoes, egg noodles, and hard-boiled eggs.
+Lime wedges and chili or aji pepper paste are added as condiments.
+========,3,Philippines.
+Chicken soup in the Philippines is called "sopas" and has some western influences in it.
+While there are many variations in the recipe, it usually contains chicken strips in broth, onions, vegetables (mainly carrots, cabbage and celery), and macaroni noodles.
+It is cooked with evaporated milk to give it richer flavor.
+"Sopas" is normally associated with the cold, rainy season in the Philippines, and may thus be regarded as local comfort food.
+Another chicken soup is called "mami" which its style derives from its other Asian neighboring countries, especially East Asia and normally served with sliced chicken, broth, noodles, chopped vegetables.
+Mami is also associated with the cold, rainy season as well.
+Other chicken dishes are considered soups.
+Tinola has chicken cuts in broth, with ginger, chayote, and chili pepper leaves.
+"Sinampalukang manok" is basically just a chicken version of "sinigang", but here the meat is browned first before being boiled in the water.
+========,3,Poland.
+The Polish chicken soup is called rosół.
+It is commonly served with fine noodles, boiled carrots and sometimes parsley.
+The broth is served separate from chicken meat.
+========,3,Portugal and Brazil.
+Chicken soup is known as canja, a chicken broth prepared with rice or pasta and shredded chicken meat.
+It is believed to help a person overcome colds and digestive problems, among other mild forms of sickness.
+========,3,Romania.
+In most regions of Romania, chicken soup known as ciorbă de pui consists of a clear and sour soup with strained chicken and vegetable broth, sometimes noodles have been added.
+Different versions, uses pieces of chicken and pieces of boiled vegetables and is seasoned usually with smântână and borş.
+========,3,Taiwan.
+In Taiwan-style chicken soup dried jujube fruits, dried shiitake, and other various herbs also sometimes added.
+While it may be possible to use regular ginseng in the recipe, a special type of ginseng called San qi is commonly used.
+This is grown almost exclusively in Wenshan County, Yunnan Province.
+The roots are powdered for ease of use, although it may also be possible to use the flowerheads.
+========,3,Ukraine.
+Ukrainians traditionally prefer an often simple chicken and vegetable bouillon with added noodles or rice, and a pinch of fresh herbs.
+Another type of chicken soup in Ukraine includes chicken, noodles, carrot, potato and onion.
+Some cooks add chopped boiled egg and even sour cream to their variations of the soup.
+========,3,United Kingdom.
+Traditionally, chicken soup (or broth) in Britain is a clear and watery soup with chunky vegetables (such as carrot, celery and onion), chicken, salt and pepper.
+However, a thick, creamy variety called cream of chicken soup, which may not contain any vegetable pieces (depending on the recipe), is more popular today.
+A distinct version from Scotland that has become popular throughout the UK is cock-a-leekie soup, a clear, thin broth of shredded chicken and leeks.
+========,3,United States and Canada.
+In the United States and Canada, chicken soup often has noodles or rice in it, thus giving it its common name of "chicken noodle soup."
+The term may have been coined in a commercial for the Campbell Soup Company in the 1930s.
+The original 21 varieties of Campbell's condensed soup featured a "chicken soup with noodles", but when it was advertised on the "Amos 'n' Andy" radio show in the 1930s by a slip of the tongue the soup was referred to as "chicken noodle soup".
+Traditionally, American chicken soup was prepared using old hens too tough and stringy to be roasted or cooked for a short time.
+In modern times, these fowl are difficult to come by, and broiler chickens (young chickens suitable for roasting or broiling) are often used to make soup.
+========,4,Canned chicken soup.
+Typically sold as a condensed soup, canned chicken soup such as Campbell's Chicken Noodle Soup is notable for its high sodium content, 890 mg per 1/2 cup serving, giving a 1 1/2 cup bowl of soup about 2,500 mg, a full days allowance in the case of the mainstream brand, Campbell's.
+Other condensed chicken soups such as Chicken with Rice or Chicken & Stars Soup produced by Campbell have similar amounts, as do generic versions of the product.
+Canned chicken soup with much less sodium than the traditional formulation is available, including many varieties produced by Campbell's, some with at little as 100 mg of sodium.
+Campbell's claims production of a chicken noodle soup that will find broad consumer acceptance, in short, that will sell, is very difficult.

test/46489.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (commonly abbreviated as the CRC or UNCRC) is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children.
+The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, unless the age of majority is attained earlier under national legislation.
+Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law.
+Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, which is composed of members from countries around the world.
+Once a year, the Committee submits a report to the Third Committee of the United Nations General Assembly, which also hears a statement from the CRC Chair, and the Assembly adopts a Resolution on the Rights of the Child.
+Governments of countries that have ratified the Convention are required to report to, and appear before, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child periodically to be examined on their progress with regards to the advancement of the implementation of the Convention and the status of child rights in their country.
+Their reports and the committee's written views and concerns are available on the committee's website.
+The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 (the 30th anniversary of its Declaration of the Rights of the Child).
+It came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations.
+Currently, 196 countries are party to it, including every member of the United Nations except the United States.
+Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000.
+The First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.
+Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states.
+A third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012.
+It came into effect on 14 April 2014.
+========,2,Contents.
+The Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights.
+It requires that the "nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law".
+Ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child.
+In all jurisdictions implementing the Convention requires compliance with child custody and guardianship laws as that every child has basic rights, including the right to life, to their own name and identity, to be raised by their parents within a family or cultural grouping, and to have a relationship with both parents, even if they are separated.
+The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities.
+The Convention also acknowledges that children have the right to express their opinions and to have those opinions heard and acted upon when appropriate, to be protected from abuse or exploitation, and to have their privacy protected, and it requires that their lives not be subject to excessive interference.
+The Convention also obliges signatory states to provide separate legal representation for a child in any judicial dispute concerning their care and asks that the child's viewpoint be heard in such cases.
+The Convention forbids capital punishment for children.
+In its General Comment 8 (2006) the Committee on the Rights of the Child stated that there was an "obligation of all state parties to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all corporal punishment and all other cruel or degrading forms of punishment of children".
+Article 19 of the Convention states that state parties must "take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence", but it makes no reference to corporal punishment.
+The Committee's interpretation of this section to encompass a prohibition on corporal punishment has been rejected by several state parties to the Convention, including Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom.
+The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights.
+========,3,Global standards and cultural relativism.
+Global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (1993) when a number of governments (prominently China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Iran) raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights.
+There are unresolved tensions between "universalistic" and "relativistic" approaches in the establishment of standards and strategies designed to prevent or overcome the abuse of children's capacity to work.
+========,3,Child marriage and slavery.
+Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages.
+Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
+========,2,States party and signatories.
+Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty (some with stated reservations or interpretations).
+This includes every member of the United Nations (except the United States), plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See.
+The United States has not ratified it.
+Somalia's domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015.
+All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, and Slovakia) made declarations of succession to the treaty and currently apply it.
+The convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau.
+========,3,Canada.
+Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990 and ratified in 1991.
+Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) which went into effect on 1 April 2003.
+The Act specifically refers to Canada's different commitments under the Convention.
+The convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of "Baker v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)".
+========,3,India.
+India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor.
+In India there is law that children under the age of 18 should not work, but there is no outright ban on child labor, and the practice is generally permitted in most industries except those deemed "hazardous".
+Although a law in October 2006 banned child labor in hotels, restaurants, and as domestic servants, there continues to be high demand for children as hired help in the home.
+Current estimates as to the number of child laborers in the country range from the government's conservative estimate of 4 million children under 14 years of age to the much higher estimates of children's rights activists, which hover around 60 million.
+Little is being done to address the problem since the economy is booming and the nuclear family is spreading, thereby increasing demand for child laborers.
+In India many people are still suffering from non-nutritious food, many parents are still leaving their children on riverside, in trains etc.
+Under the auspices of the Unicef financed Odisha initiative the Government of India is specifying the outline of a means of change and improvement in child care, and many trusts such as childLine, Plan India and savethechildren too are taking efforts to outdate child labor from India.
+A few of the organisations who work with children's rights in India are Plan India, CRY (Child Rights and You), Save the Children, Bal Vikas Dhara-New Delhi, Bachpan Bachao Andolan, CHORD-Hyderabad.
+========,3,Iran.
+Iran has adhered to the convention (except for alleged child slavery) since 1991 and ratified it in the Parliament in 1994.
+Upon ratification, Iran made the following reservation: "If the text of the Convention is or becomes incompatible with the domestic laws and Islamic standards at any time or in any case, the Government of the Islamic Republic shall not abide by it."
+Iran has also signed the both optional protocols which relate to the special protection of children against involvement in armed conflict and the sale of children and sexual exploitation.
+Although Iran is a state party to the Convention, international human rights organisations and foreign governments routinely denounced executions of Iranian child offenders as a violation of the treaty.
+But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed the controversial law of executing juveniles.
+In the new law, the age of 18 (solar year) would be for both genders considered the cut-off for adulthood and offenders under this age will be sentenced under a separate law.
+Based on the previous Islamic law, which was revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 (lunar year, 11 days shorter than a solar year) were fully responsible for their crimes.
+"According to Islamic sources, the criterion for criminal responsibility is reaching the age of maturity which, according to the Shi'ite School of the IRI, is 9 lunar years (8 years and 9 months) for girls and 15 lunar years (14 years and 7 months) for boys."
+========,3,Ireland.
+Ireland signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child on 30 September 1990 and ratified it, without reservation, on 28 September 1992.
+In response to criticisms expressed in the 1998 review by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in Geneva, the Irish government established the office of Ombudsman for Children and drew up a national children's strategy.
+In 2006, following concerns expressed by the committee that the wording of the Irish Constitution does not allow the State to intervene in cases of abuse other than in very exceptional cases, the Irish government undertook to amend the constitution to make a more explicit commitment to children's rights.
+========,3,Israel.
+Israel ratified the Convention in 1991.
+In 2010, UNICEF criticized Israel for its failure to create a government-appointed commission on children's rights or to adopt a national children's rights strategy or program in order to implement various Israeli laws addressing children's rights.
+The report criticizes Israel for holding that the Convention does not apply in the West Bank and for defining as Palestinians under the age of 16 in the occupied territories as children, even though Israeli law defines a child as being under 18, in line with the Convention.
+A contemporaneous report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development found that Israel's investment in children is below the international average and the actual investment had fallen between 1995 and 2006.
+In 2012, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child criticized Israel for its bombing attacks on Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, stating, "Destruction of homes and damage to schools, streets and other public facilities gravely affect children" and called them "gross violations of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, its Optional Protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict and international humanitarian law".
+It also criticized Palestinian rocket attacks from Gaza on southern Israel which traumatized Israeli children, calling on all parties to protect children.
+========,3,New Zealand.
+New Zealand ratified the Convention on 6 April 1993 with reservations concerning the right to distinguish between persons according to the nature of their authority to be in New Zealand, the need for legislative action on economic exploitation—which it argued was adequately protected by existing law, and the provisions for the separation of juvenile offenders from adult offenders.
+In 1994, the Court of Appeal of New Zealand dismissed the suggestion that the Minister for Immigration and his department were at liberty to ignore the convention, arguing that this would imply that the country's adherence was "at least partly window-dressing".
+The Children's Commissioner Act 2003 enhanced the office of Children's Commissioner, giving it significantly stronger investigative powers.
+In May 2007, New Zealand passed the Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007, which removed the defence of "reasonable force" for the purpose of correction.
+In its third and final vote, Parliament voted 113 to eight in favour of the legislation.
+========,3,Saudi Arabia.
+Saudi Arabia ratified the Convention in 1996, with a reservation "with respect to all such articles as are in conflict with the provisions of Islamic law" which is the national law.
+The Committee on the Rights of the Child, which reviewed Saudi Arabia's treatment of children under the Convention in January 2005, strongly condemned the government for its practice of imposing the death penalty on juveniles, calling it "a serious violation of the fundamental rights".
+The committee said it was "deeply alarmed" over the discretionary power judges hold to treat juveniles as adults: In its 2004 report the Saudi Arabian government had stated that it "never imposes capital punishment on persons ... below the age of 18".
+The government delegation later acknowledged that a judge could impose the death penalty whenever he decided that the convicted person had reached his or her majority, regardless of the person's actual age at the time of the crime or at the time of the scheduled execution.
+========,3,United Kingdom.
+The United Kingdom ratified the Convention on 16 December 1991, with several declarations and reservations, and made its first report to the Committee on the Rights of the Child in January 1995.
+Concerns raised by the Committee included the growth in child poverty and inequality, the extent of violence towards children, the use of custody for young offenders, the low age of criminal responsibility, and the lack of opportunities for children and young people to express views.
+The 2002 report of the Committee expressed similar concerns, including the welfare of children in custody, unequal treatment of asylum seekers, and the negative impact of poverty on children's rights.
+In September 2008, the UK government decided to withdraw its reservations and agree to the Convention in these respects.
+The 2002 report's criticism of the legal defence of "reasonable chastisement" of children by parents, which the Committee described as "a serious violation of the dignity of the child", was rejected by the UK Government.
+The Minister for Children, Young People and Families commented that while fewer parents are using smacking as a form of discipline, the majority said they would not support a ban.
+In evidence to the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights, the Committee was criticised by the Family Education Trust for "adopting radical interpretations of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in its pursuit of an agenda".
+The Joint Committee's report recommended that "the time has come for the Government to act upon the recommendations of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child concerning the corporal punishment of children and the incompatibility of the defence of reasonable chastisement with its obligations under the Convention."
+The UK Government responded that "the use of physical punishment is a matter for individual parents to decide".
+Although child slavery is difficult to gauge within the UK, child slaves are imported into the UK and sold.
+========,3,United States.
+The United States government played an active role in the drafting of the Convention and signed it on 16 February 1995, but has not ratified it.
+It has been claimed that American opposition to the Convention stems primarily from political and religious conservatives.
+For example, The Heritage Foundation sees "a civil society in which moral authority is exercised by religious congregations, family, and other private associations is fundamental to the American order".
+and the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) argues that the CRC threatens homeschooling.
+The United States had permitted the execution and life imprisonment of juvenile offenders, in contravention of the Article 37 of the Convention.
+In 2005, a Supreme Court decision declared juvenile executions to be unconstitutional as "cruel and unusual punishment"; in 2012, the Court held that mandatory sentences of life without the possibility of parole are unconstitutional for juvenile offenders.
+State laws regarding the practice of closed adoption may also require overhaul in light of the Convention's position that children have a right to identity from birth.
+During his 2008 campaign for President, Senator Barack Obama described the failure to ratify the Convention as "embarrassing" and promised to review the issue but he never did.
+No President of the United States has submitted the treaty to the United States Senate requesting its advice and consent to ratification since the US signed it in 1995
+The United States has ratified two of the optional protocols to the Convention, the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, and the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.
+========,2,Optional protocols.
+Two optional protocols were adopted by the UN General Assembly.
+The first, the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict requires parties to ensure that children under the age of 18 are not recruited compulsorily into their armed forces, and calls on governments to do everything feasible to ensure that members of their armed forces who are under 18 years do not take part in hostilities.
+This protocol entered into force on 12 July 2002.
+As of , 162 states are party to the protocol and another 14 states have signed but not ratified it.
+The second, the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, requires parties to prohibit the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.
+It entered into force on 18 January 2002.
+As of , 171 states are party to the protocol and another 9 states have signed but not ratified it.
+A third, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure, which would allow children or their representatives to file individual complaints for violation of the rights of children, was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012.
+The protocol currently has 50 signatures and 25 ratifications: it entered into force on 14 April 2014 following the tenth ratification three months beforehand.

test/46493.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians.
+Passed on April 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland colony, in St. Mary's City.
+It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty.
+Specifically, the bill, now usually referred to as the Toleration Act, granted freedom of conscience to all Christians.
+(The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws, the first in 1636, which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state.)
+Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States.
+The Calvert family, who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies.
+The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland, but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus.
+It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne, a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell; he was an Anglican, a Puritan sympathizer, and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion.
+When the Calverts regained control of Maryland, the Act was reinstated, before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution, and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland.
+As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America, it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which enshrined religious freedom in American law.
+========,2,Origin of the law.
+The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634.
+Like his father George Calvert, who had originated the efforts that led to the colony's charter, Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church.
+The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants.
+Many of Maryland's first settlers were Catholic, including at least two Catholic priests, one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony's history.
+But whatever Calvert's intentions, Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation.
+Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church.
+Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers.
+Thus, by 1649 when the law was passed, the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants, and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics, rather than the reverse.
+From Maryland's earliest days, Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind.
+Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony, he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics.
+He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible, so as not to disturb that peace.
+The Ordinance of 1639, Maryland's earliest comprehensive law, expressed a general commitment to the rights of man, but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind.
+Peace prevailed until the English Civil War, which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert's control of Maryland.
+In 1647, after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert, Protestants seized control of the colony.
+Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, quickly regained power, but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable.
+This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence, now Annapolis, by guaranteeing their freedom of worship.
+Partially to confirm the promises he made to them, Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it.
+They did so on April 21, 1649.
+========,2,Description.
+The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance, allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished, but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time.
+It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity.
+The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians:
+Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands.
+That meant that Jews, Unitarians, and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives.
+Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary, the apostles, or the evangelists could be whipped, jailed, or fined.
+Otherwise, Trinitarian Christians' right to worship was protected.
+The law outlawed the use of "heretic" and other religious insults against them.
+This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech.
+The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non-Christian.
+In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks.
+Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things, but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him.
+He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed, and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert's rule following the English Civil War.
+The law had its detractors, even among those groups protected by it.
+Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist.
+They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert, who was Catholic, they were being required to submit to the Pope, whom they considered to be the antichrist.
+Some Anglicans also opposed the law, believing that the Church of England should be the colony's sole established church.
+========,2,Repeal and legacy.
+In 1654, only five years after its passage, the Act was repealed.
+Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War.
+In the early stages of that conflict, the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King.
+Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies, and two of them, the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett, took control of the colonial government in St. Mary's City in 1652.
+In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen, Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion.
+Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony's Protestants, and in 1788the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly.
+This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692.
+Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne, a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert's rule.
+They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism, and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule.
+In fact, the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718.
+The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715, but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism.
+His political control remained tenuous enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics.
+It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland.
+While the law did not secure religious freedom, and while it included severe limitations, it was nonetheless a significant milestone.
+It predates the Enlightenment, which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root, and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history.
+Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom, including the British Act of Toleration of 1689, the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania, and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina, may have been influenced by its example.
+According to historian Robert Brugger, "...the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression."
+It was not until the passage of the First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee, but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase, "free exercise thereof".
+Thus, despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad-based tolerance, the law is, "a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty."

test/46496.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+========,1,preface.
+, located on Honshu Island, is the highest mountain in Japan at .
+An active stratovolcano that last erupted in 1707–08, Mount Fuji lies about south-west of Tokyo, and can be seen from there on a clear day.
+Mount Fuji's exceptionally symmetrical cone, which is snow-capped several months a year, is a well-known symbol of Japan and it is frequently depicted in art and photographs, as well as visited by sightseers and climbers.
+Mount Fuji is one of Japan's along with Mount Tate and Mount Haku.
+It is also a Special Place of Scenic Beauty and one of Japan's Historic Sites.
+It was added to the World Heritage List as a Cultural Site on June 22, 2013.
+Accordingly to UNESCO, Mount Fuji has "inspired artists and poets and been the object of pilgrimage for centuries".
+UNESCO recognizes 25 sites of cultural interest within the Mt.
+Fuji locality.
+These 25 locations include the mountain itself, the Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha often shortened as "Fuji-San".
+========,2,Etymology.
+The current "kanji" for Mount Fuji, and , mean "wealth" or "abundant" and "a man with a certain status" respectively.
+However, the name predates kanji, and these characters are ateji, meaning that they were selected because their pronunciations match the syllables of the name but do not carry a meaning related to the mountain.
+The origin of the name "Fuji" is unclear, having no recording of it being first called by this name.
+A text of the 10th century, "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter", says that the name came from and also from the image of ascending the slopes of the mountain.
+An early folk etymology claims that "Fuji" came from ("not" + "two"), meaning "without equal" or "nonpareil".
+Another claims that it came from ("not" + "to exhaust"), meaning "neverending".
+A Japanese classical scholar in the Edo era, Hirata Atsutane, speculated that the name is from a word meaning, "a mountain standing up shapely as an of a rice plant".
+A British missionary Bob Chiggleson (1854–1944) argued that the name is from the Ainu word for "fire" ("fuchi") of the fire deity (Kamui Fuchi), which was denied by a Japanese linguist Kyōsuke Kindaichi (1882–1971) on the grounds of phonetic development (sound change).
+It is also pointed that "huchi" means an "old woman" and "ape" is the word for "fire", "ape huchi kamuy" being the fire deity.
+Research on the distribution of place names that include "fuji" as a part also suggest the origin of the word "fuji" is in the Yamato language rather than Ainu.
+A Japanese toponymist Kanji Kagami argued that the name has the same root as and , and came from its "long well-shaped slope".
+========,3,Variations.
+In English, the mountain is known as Mount Fuji.
+Some sources refer to it as "Fuji-san", "Fujiyama" or, redundantly, "Mt.
+Japanese speakers refer to the mountain as "Fuji-san".
+This "san" is not the honorific suffix used with people's names, such as Watanabe-san, but the Sino-Japanese reading of the character used in Sino-Japanese compounds.
+In Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization, the name is transliterated as "Huzi".
+Other Japanese names for Mount Fuji, which have become obsolete or poetic, include , , , and , created by combining the first character of , "Fuji", and , "mountain".
+========,2,In Shinto mythology.
+Smithsonian magazine columnist Franz Lidz in 2017 wrote: 
+In Shinto mythology, Kuninotokotachi (国之常立神, "Kuninotokotachi-no-Kami", in "Kojiki")(国常立尊, "Kuninotokotachi-no-Mikoto", in "Nihon Shoki") is one of the two gods born from "something like a reed that arose from the soil" when the earth was chaotic.
+In the "Nihon Shoki", he is the first of the first three divinities born after heaven and earth were born out of chaos, and is born from something looking like a reed-shoot growing between heaven and earth.
+He is known by mythology to reside on top of Mount Fuji (富士山).
+Kuninotokotachi is described as a hitorigami and genderless in "Kojiki", while as a male god in "Nihon Shoki".
+Yoshida Kanetomo, the founder of the Yoshida Shintō sect, identified Kuninotokotachi with Amenominakanushi and regarded him as the primordial god of the Universe.
+========,2,History.
+Mount Fuji is an attractive volcanic cone and a frequent subject of Japanese art especially after 1600, when Edo (now Tokyo) became the actual capital and people saw the mountain while traveling on the Tōkaidō road.
+Among the most renowned works are Hokusai's "36 Views of Mount Fuji" and his "One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji", as well as Utagawa Hiroshige's similarly-titled "36 Views of Mount Fuji" (1858).
+The mountain is mentioned in Japanese literature throughout the ages and is the subject of many poems.
+One of the modern artists who depicted Fuji in almost all her works was Tamako Kataoka.
+It is thought that the first recorded ascent was in 663 by an anonymous monk.
+The summit has been thought of as sacred since ancient times and was forbidden to women until the Meiji Era.
+Ancient samurai used the base of the mountain as a remote training area, near the present-day town of Gotemba.
+The shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo held "yabusame" in the area in the early Kamakura period.
+Founded by Nikkō Shōnin in 1290 on the lower alps of Mount Fuji in Shizuoka Prefecture is the Taiseki-ji temple complex, the central base headquarters of Nichiren Shōshū Buddhism which is visited by thousands of westerners each year who go on varying Tozan pilgrimages.
+The first ascent by a foreigner was by Sir Rutherford Alcock in September 1868, from the foot of the mountain to the top in eight hours and three hours for the descent.
+Alcock's brief narrative in "The Capital of the Tycoon" was the first widely disseminated description of the mountain in the West.
+Lady Fanny Parkes, the wife of British ambassador Sir Harry Parkes, was the first non-Japanese woman to ascend Mount Fuji in 1869.
+Photographer Felix Beato climbed Mount Fuji in the same year.
+On March 5, 1966, BOAC Flight 911, a Boeing 707, broke up in flight and crashed near the Mount Fuji Gotemba New fifth station, shortly after departure from Tokyo International Airport.
+All 113 passengers and 11 crew members died in the disaster, which was attributed to extreme clear air turbulence caused by lee waves downwind of the mountain.
+There is a memorial for the crash a short distance down from the Gotemba New fifth station.
+Today, Mount Fuji is an international destination for tourism and mountain climbing.
+In the early 20th century, populist educator Frederick Starr's Chautauqua lectures about his several ascents of Mount Fuji—1913, 1919, and 1923—were widely known in America.
+A well-known Japanese saying suggests that a wise person will climb Mt.
+Fuji once in their lifetime, but only a fool would climb it twice.
+It remains a popular meme in Japanese culture, including making numerous movie appearances, inspiring the Infiniti logo, and even appearing in medicine with the Mount Fuji sign.
+In September 2004, the manned weather station at the summit was closed after 72 years in operation.
+Observers monitored radar sweeps that detected typhoons and heavy rains.
+The station, which was the highest in Japan at , was replaced by a fully automated meteorological system.
+As of 2011, the Japan Self-Defense Forces and the United States Marine Corps continue to operate military bases near Mount Fuji.
+========,2,Geography.
+Mount Fuji is a distinctive feature of the geography of Japan.
+It stands high and is located near the Pacific coast of central Honshu, just west of Tokyo.
+It straddles the boundary of Shizuoka and Yamanashi Prefectures.
+Four small cities surround it: Gotemba to the east, Fujiyoshida to the north, Fujinomiya to the southwest, and Fuji to the south.
+It is also surrounded by five lakes: Lake Kawaguchi, Lake Yamanaka, Lake Sai, Lake Motosu and Lake Shōji.
+They, and nearby Lake Ashi, provide views of the mountain.
+The mountain is part of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park.
+It can be seen more distantly from Yokohama, Tokyo, and sometimes as far as Chiba, Saitama, Tochigi and Lake Hamana when the sky is clear.
+Particularly in the winter it can be seen from the Shinkansen until it reaches Utsunomiya station.
+It has also been photographed from space during a space shuttle mission (see image, below).
+========,3,Climate.
+The summit of Mount Fuji has a tundra climate (Köppen climate classification "ET").
+The temperature is very low at the high altitude, and the cone is covered by snow for several months of the year.
+The lowest recorded temperature is −38.0 °C recorded in February 1981, and the highest temperature was 17.8 °C recorded in August 1942.
+========,2,Geology.
+Mount Fuji is located at the triple junction where the Amurian Plate, the Okhotsk Plate, and the Philippine Sea Plate meet.
+Those plates form the western part of Japan, the eastern part of Japan, and the Izu Peninsula respectively.
+Scientists have identified four distinct phases of volcanic activity in the formation of Mount Fuji.
+The first phase, called "Sen-komitake", is composed of an andesite core recently discovered deep within the mountain.
+"Sen-komitake" was followed by the ""Komitake" Fuji", a basalt layer believed to be formed several hundred thousand years ago.
+Approximately 100,000 years ago, "Old Fuji" was formed over the top of "Komitake" Fuji.
+The modern, "New Fuji" is believed to have formed over the top of Old Fuji around 10,000 years ago.
+The volcano is currently classified as active with a low risk of eruption.
+The last recorded eruption was the Hōei eruption which started on December 16, 1707 ("Hōei 4, 23rd day of the 11th month"), and ended about January 1, 1708 ("Hōei 4, 9th day of the 12th month"), during the Edo period.
+The eruption formed a new crater and a second peak, named Mount Hōei (after the Hōei era), halfway down its southeastern side.
+Fuji spewed cinders and ash which fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi.
+Since then, there have been no signs of an eruption.
+In the evening of March 15, 2011, there was a magnitude 6.2 earthquake at shallow depth a few kilometres from Mount Fuji on its southern side.
+But according to the Japanese Meteorological Service there was no sign of any eruption.
+========,3,Current eruptive danger.
+Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, much attention was given to the potential volcanic reaction of Mt.
+In September 2012, mathematical models created by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NRIESDP) suggested that the pressure in Mount Fuji's magma chamber could be at 1.6 megapascals, higher than it was in 1707.
+This was commonly reported in the media to mean that an eruption of Mt.
+Fuji was imminent.
+However, since there is no known method of measuring the pressure of a volcano's magma chamber directly, indirect calculations of the type used by NRIESDP are speculative and unprovable.
+Other indicators suggestive of heightened eruptive danger, such as active fumaroles and recently discovered faults, are typical occurrences at this type of volcano.
+========,2,Aokigahara.
+The forest at the north west base of the mountain is named Aokigahara.
+Folk tales and legends tell of ghosts, demons, Yūrei and Yōkai haunting the forest, and in the 19th century, Aokigahara was one of many places poor families abandoned the very young and the very old.
+Aokigahara is the world's second most popular suicide location after San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge.
+Since the 1950s, more than 500 people have lost their lives in the forest, mostly suicides.
+Approximately 30 suicides have been counted yearly, with a high of nearly 80 bodies in 2002.
+The recent increase in suicides prompted local officials to erect signs that attempt to convince individuals experiencing suicidal intent to re-think their desperate plans, and sometimes these messages have proven effective.
+The numbers of suicides in the past creates an allure that has persisted across the span of decades.
+Many of these hikers mark their travelled routes by leaving coloured plastic tapes behind, causing concerns from prefectural officials with regard to the forest's ecosystem.
+========,2,Adventuring.
+========,3,Transportation.
+The closest airport with scheduled international service is Mt.
+Fuji Shizuoka Airport.
+It opened in June 2009.
+It is about from Mount Fuji.
+The major international airports serving Tokyo, Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport) in Tokyo and Narita International Airport in Chiba, are hours from Mount Fuji.
+========,3,Climbing routes.
+Approximately 300,000 people climbed Mount Fuji in 2009.
+The most-popular period for people to hike up Mount Fuji is from July to August, while huts and other facilities are operating.
+Buses to the fifth station start running on July 1.
+Climbing from October to May is very strongly discouraged, after a number of high-profile deaths and severe cold weather.
+Most Japanese climb the mountain at night in order to be in a position at or near the summit when the sun rises.
+The morning light is called "goraikō", "arrival of light".
+There are four major routes from the fifth station to the summit with an additional four routes from the foot of the mountain.
+The major routes from the fifth station are (clockwise): Yoshida, Subashiri, Gotemba, and Fujinomiya routes.
+The routes from the foot of the mountain are: Shojiko, Yoshida, Suyama, and Murayama routes.
+The stations on different routes are at different elevations.
+The highest fifth station is located at Fujinomiya, followed by Yoshida, Subashiri, and Gotemba.
+Even though it has only the second-highest fifth stations, the Yoshida route is the most-popular route because of its large parking area and many large mountain huts where a climber can rest or stay.
+During the summer season, most Mount Fuji climbing tour buses arrive there.
+The next-popular is the Fujinomiya route, which has the highest fifth station, followed by Subashiri and Gotemba.
+Even though most climbers do not climb the Subashiri and Gotemba routes, many descend these because of their ash-covered paths.
+From the seventh station to near the fifth station, one could run down these ash-covered paths in approximately 30 minutes.
+Besides these routes, there are tractor routes along the climbing routes.
+These tractor routes are used to bring food and other materials to huts on the mountain.
+Because the tractors usually take up most of the width of these paths and they tend to push large rocks from the side of the path, the tractor paths are off-limits to the climbers on sections that are not merged with the climbing or descending paths.
+Nevertheless, one can sometimes see people riding mountain bikes along the tractor routes down from the summit.
+This is particularly risky, as it becomes difficult to control speed and may send some rocks rolling along the side of the path, which may hit other people.
+The four routes from the foot of the mountain offer historical sites.
+The Murayama is the oldest Mount Fuji route and the Yoshida route still has many old shrines, teahouses, and huts along its path.
+These routes are gaining popularity recently and are being restored, but climbing from the foot of the mountain is still relatively uncommon.
+Also, bears have been sighted along the Yoshida route.
+The ascent from the new fifth station can take anywhere between three and eight hours while the descent can take from two to five hours.
+The hike from the foot of the mountain is divided into 10 stations, and there are paved roads up to the fifth station, which is about above sea level.
+Huts at and above the fifth stations are usually manned during the climbing season, but huts below fifth stations are not usually manned for climbers.
+The number of open huts on routes are proportional to the number of climbers—Yoshida has the most while Gotemba has the fewest.
+The huts along the Gotemba route also tend to start later and close earlier than those along the Yoshida route.
+Also, because Mount Fuji is designated as a national park, it is illegal to camp above the fifth station.
+There are eight peaks around the crater at the summit.
+The highest point in Japan, Ken-ga-mine, is where the Mount Fuji Radar System used to be.
+Climbers are able to visit each of these peaks.
+========,3,Paragliding.
+Paragliders take off in the vicinity of the fifth station Gotemba parking lot, between Subashiri and Hōei-zan peak on the south side from the mountain, in addition to several other locations depending on wind direction.
+Several paragliding schools use the wide sandy/grassy slope between Gotemba and Subashiri parking lots as a training hill.

test/46505.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+========,1,preface.
+(titled Flying High!
+in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan and the Philippines) is a 1980 American satirical parody film directed and written by David and Jerry Zucker as well as Jim Abrahams, and produced by Jon Davison.
+It stars Robert Hays and Julie Hagerty and features Leslie Nielsen, Robert Stack, Lloyd Bridges, Peter Graves, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, and Lorna Patterson.
+The film is a parody of the disaster film genre, particularly the 1957 Paramount film "Zero Hour!
+", from which it borrows the plot and the central characters, as well as many elements from "Airport 1975".
+The film is known for its use of surreal humor and its fast-paced slapstick comedy, including visual and verbal puns and gags.
+was a critical and financial success, grossing over $83 million in North America against a budget of $3.5 million, being released by Paramount Pictures.
+The film's creators received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Comedy, and nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and for the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.
+In the years since its release, the film's reputation has grown substantially.
+The film was ranked sixth on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies".
+In a 2007 survey by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom, it was judged the second greatest comedy film of all time, after "Monty Python's Life of Brian".
+In 2008, "Airplane!"
+was selected by "Empire" magazine as one of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time" and in 2012 was voted number one in "The 50 Funniest Comedies Ever" poll.
+In 2010, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
+========,2,Plot.
+Ex-fighter pilot and taxi driver Ted Striker (Robert Hays) became traumatized during the War, leading to a pathological fear of flying.
+As a result, he is unable to hold a responsible job.
+His wartime girlfriend, Elaine Dickinson (Julie Hagerty), now a flight attendant, leaves him.
+Striker nervously boards a Boeing 707 (Trans American Flight 209) from Los Angeles to Chicago on which she is serving, hoping to win her back, but she rebuffs him.
+After dinner is served, many of the passengers fall ill, and fellow passenger Dr. Rumack (Leslie Nielsen) deduces that the passengers have contracted food poisoning from the fish.
+The cockpit crew, including pilot Clarence Oveur (Peter Graves) and co-pilot Roger Murdock (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar), have also been affected, leaving no one to fly the plane.
+Elaine contacts the Chicago control tower for help, and is instructed by tower supervisor Steve McCroskey (Lloyd Bridges) to activate the plane's autopilot, a large inflatable pilot doll (listed as "Otto" in the end credits), which will get them to Chicago, but will not be able to land the plane.
+Rumack convinces Striker to fly the plane, though Striker feels unable to handle the pressure and the unfamiliar aircraft.
+McCroskey knows that he must get someone else to help talk the plane down and calls Rex Kramer (Robert Stack), Striker's commanding officer in the war.
+Despite their hostile relationship, he is the best choice to instruct Striker.
+As the plane nears Chicago, Striker is overcome by stress but regains confidence after a pep talk from Dr. Rumack.
+With Kramer's advice, Striker is able to land the plane safely with only minor injuries to some passengers.
+Striker's courage rekindles Elaine's love for him, and the two share a kiss.
+Both then wave farewell to "Otto" as he takes off in the evacuated plane after inflating a female companion.
+========,2,Production.
+Jerry Zucker, Jim Abrahams, and David Zucker (collectively known as ZAZ), wrote "Airplane!"
+while they were performing with the Kentucky Fried Theatre, a successful small theatre they founded in 1971.
+To obtain material for comedy routines, they routinely recorded late night television and reviewed the tapes later primarily to pull the commercials, a process Abrahams compared to "seining for fish".
+During one such taping process, they unintentionally recorded the 1957 film "Zero Hour!
+", and while scanning the commercials, found that the film was a "perfectly classically structured film" according to Jerry Zucker.
+Abrahams later described "Zero Hour!"
+as "the serious version of "Airplane!"".
+It was the first film script they wrote, completed around 1975, and was originally called "The Late Show".
+The script originally stayed close to the dialog and plot of "Zero Hour!
+", as ZAZ recognized they did not have a sufficient understanding of film at the time to structure a proper script.
+ZAZ's script borrowed so much from "Zero Hour!"
+that they believed they needed to negotiate the rights to create the remake of the film and ensure they remain within the allowance for parody within copyright law.
+They were able to obtain the rights from Warner Bros. and Paramount for about $2,500 at the time.
+The original script contained spoofs of television commercials but people who proofread the script advised them to shorten the commercials, and, eventually, ZAZ removed them.
+When their script was finished they were unable to sell it.
+The trio knew director John Landis, who encouraged them to write a film based on their theatre sketches.
+They managed to put the film, called "The Kentucky Fried Movie", in production in the late 1970s, and entered a movie set for the first time.
+David Zucker explains: "It was the first time we had ever been on a movie set.
+We learned a lot.
+We learned that if you really wanted a movie to come out the way you wanted it to, you had to direct.
+So on the next movie, "Airplane!
+", we insisted on directing."
+Filming took 34 days, mostly during August 1979.
+Jerry Zucker stood beside the camera during shooting, while David Zucker and Jim Abrahams would be watching the video feed to see how the film would look; they would confer after each take.
+During filming, Leslie Nielsen used a whoopee cushion to keep the cast off-balance.
+Hays said that Nielsen "played that thing like a maestro".
+========,3,Casting.
+David Zucker explained that "the trick was to cast actors like Robert Stack, Leslie Nielsen, Peter Graves, and Lloyd Bridges.
+These were people who, up to that time, had never done comedy.
+We thought they were much funnier than the comedians of that time were."
+David Zucker felt Stack was the most important actor to be cast, since he was the "linchpin" of the film's plot.
+Stack initially played his role in a way that was different from what the directors had in mind.
+They showed him a tape of impressionist John Byner impersonating Robert Stack.
+According to the producers, Stack was "doing an impression of John Byner doing an impression of Stack."
+Stack was not initially interested in the part, but ZAZ persuaded him.
+Bridges' children advised him to take the part.
+Graves' agent rejected the script at first: "His agent got him the script, and he was totally turned off by it.
+He thought it was tasteless trash."
+On the DVD commentary, Abrahams said, "I don't understand.
+What did he think was tasteless about pedophilia?"
+They cast a relatively unknown Robert Hays, who was a co-star of "Angie", and Julie Hagerty to round out the cast, whom the directors advised to play it straight.
+The film's writers and directors, as well as members of their families, showed up in cameo appearances.
+David and Jerry appear in the beginning as the two ground-crew members who accidentally cause a 747 to taxi into a terminal window.
+Abrahams is one of many religious zealots scattered throughout the film.
+Charlotte Zucker (David's and Jerry's mother) is the woman attempting to apply makeup in the plane while it experiences turbulence.
+Their sister Susan Breslau is the second ticket agent at the airport.
+Jim Abrahams' mother is the woman initially sitting next to Dr. Rumack.
+Several other cameos add to the humor by casting actors against type.
+Barbara Billingsley, best known as June Cleaver from "Leave It to Beaver", makes an appearance as a woman who announces she speaks jive and can translate for two black passengers who are otherwise unintelligible.
+Maureen McGovern appears as Sister Angelina, a spoof of the nun in "Airport 1975", and a poke at her involvement as the singer of the Oscar-winning songs for the disaster films "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972) and "The Towering Inferno" (1974).
+Jimmie Walker cameos as the man opening the hood of the plane and checking the oil before takeoff; Walker also had a minor role in the air-disaster film, "The Concorde ... Airport '79".
+Howard Jarvis, the property-tax rebel and author of California Proposition 13, used to curb excessive tax increases, plays the taxi passenger who is left at the curb with the meter running in the film's opening and closing scene.
+Ethel Merman—in her last film appearance—plays a shell-shocked male soldier who is convinced he is Ethel Merman.
+NBA star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar plays co-pilot Murdock, who is later revealed in dialogue to actually be Abdul-Jabbar living a secret double life.
+In the DVD commentary the Zuckers and Jim Abrahams revealed that Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's role of co-pilot Roger Murdock was originally intended for baseball star Pete Rose.
+Due to Rose's schedule and his commitment to baseball, he had to decline the role.
+For the "red zone/white zone" send-up of curbside terminal announcements in which public address announcers "Betty" and "Vernon" argue over the red and white zones, ZAZ went through the usual process of auditioning professional voice actors, but failed to find ones who could provide the desired verisimilitude.
+Instead, the filmmakers ultimately sought out and hired the real-life married couple who had recorded the announcement tapes which were then being used at LAX.
+========,3,Score.
+In 1980, an LP soundtrack for the film was released by Regency Records, and included dialog and songs from the film.
+It was also narrated by Shadoe Stevens, and only featured one score track, the "Love Theme from "Airplane"" composed by Elmer Bernstein.
+The soundtrack was altered for the European 'Flying High' release, with several of the featured tracks swapped for pieces original to the LP.
+On April 28, 2009 La-La Land Records announced that it would release the first official score album for "Airplane!
+", containing Bernstein's complete score.
+The soundtrack was released digitally on February 19, 2013, by Paramount Music.
+========,2,Release.
+Before its release, the directors had been apprehensive due to a mediocre response at one of the pre-screenings.
+But the film earned its entire budget of about $3.5 million in its first weekend of release.
+Overall, it earned more than $83 million in box office gross for $40 million in rentals, making it the fourth highest-grossing film of 1980.
+========,2,Reception.
+received universal acclaim from critics and is widely regarded as one of the best films of 1980.
+Based on 58 reviews, compiled retrospectively, Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 97% judging it "Certified Fresh."
+The consensus on the site reads "Though unabashedly juvenile and silly, "Airplane!"
+is nevertheless an uproarious spoof comedy full of quotable lines and slapstick gags that endure to this day."
+Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" wrote ""Airplane!"
+is sophomoric, obvious, predictable, corny, and quite often very funny.
+And the reason it's funny is frequently because it's sophomoric, predictable, corny, etc".
+Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" wrote ""Airplane!"
+is more than a pleasant surprise... As a remedy for the bloated self-importance of too many other current efforts, it's just what the doctor ordered".
+In 2008 "Airplane!"
+was selected by "Empire" magazine as one of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time".
+It was also placed on a similar list by "The New York Times", a list of "The Best 1000 Movies Ever Made".
+MaximOnline.com named the airplane crash in "Airplane!"
+number four on its list of "Most Horrific Movie Plane Crashes."
+Leslie Nielsen's line (in response to Hays' question 'surely you can't be serious'), "I am serious.
+And don't call me Shirley," was 79th on AFI's list of the best 100 movie quotes.
+In 2000 the American Film Institute listed "Airplane!"
+as number ten on its list of the 100 funniest American films.
+In the same year, readers of "Total Film" voted it the second greatest comedy film of all time.
+It also came second in the British 50 Greatest Comedy Films poll on Channel 4, beaten by "Monty Python's The Life of Brian".
+"Entertainment Weekly" voted the film the "Funniest movie on video" in their list of the 100 funniest movies on video.
+Several actors were cast to spoof their established images: prior to their roles in "Airplane!
+", Nielsen, Stack, and Bridges were known for portraying adventurous, no-nonsense tough-guy characters.
+Stack's role as the captain who loses his nerve in one of the earliest airline "disaster" films, "The High and the Mighty" (1954), is spoofed in "Airplane!
+", as is Lloyd Bridges' 1970–1971 television role as airport manager Jim Conrad in "San Francisco International Airport".
+Peter Graves was in the made-for-television film "", in which an SST was unable to land due to an emergency.
+Nielsen saw a major boost to his career after "Airplane!s release, and the film marked a significant change in his film persona towards a new specialty in deadpan comedy, notably in the three "Naked Gun" films based on the six-episode television series "Police Squad!".
+This also led to his casting, many years later, in Mel Brooks' '.
+Brooks had wanted to make that film for a long time, but put it off because, as he said, "I just could not find the right Dracula."
+Brooks claimed to have never seen "Airplane!"
+until years after its release.
+When he did, he knew Nielsen would be right for the part.
+When it was suggested that his role in "Airplane!"
+was against type, Nielsen protested that he had "always been cast against type before", and that comedy was what he always really wanted to do.
+Stack and Bridges saw similar shifts in their public image, though to lesser extents.
+Bridges went on to play similar comedic self send-ups in "Hot Shots!"
+and "Hot Shots!
+Part Deux" along with "Mafia!
+", as well as a couple of guest appearances on "Seinfeld", while Stack took on comedic roles in "Caddyshack II", "Beavis and Butt-head Do America" and "BASEketball".
+Several cast members with minor roles went on to better-known parts.
+Gregory Itzin, who appears as one of the religious zealots, played President Charles Logan in the Fox series "24".
+David Leisure, who played one of the Hare Krishna, went on to fame as Joe Isuzu before appearing as Charlie Dietz in the sitcom "Empty Nest".
+Michael Warren, who is seen as one of the patients in the hospital during Ted's flashback (and had also been a teammate of Abdul-Jabbar at UCLA), would go on to play Bobby Hill on "Hill Street Blues".
+Jonathan Banks, who played Gunderson, gained fame playing the role of Mike Ehrmantraut on "Breaking Bad".
+In 2011, ABC aired a primetime special, "", that counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and "People".
+was selected as the No.
+1 Best Comedy.
+In 2012 Empire.com listed "Airplane!"
+as the Greatest Comedy of All Time in their poll, as voted by the public.
+The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Influence.
+Peter Farrelly said of the film: "I was in Rhode Island the first time I saw "Airplane!"
+Seeing it for the first time was like going to a great rock concert, like seeing Led Zeppelin or the Talking Heads.
+We didn't realize until later that what we'd seen was a very specific kind of comedy that we now call the Zucker-Abrahams-Zucker school."
+Farrelly, along with his writing partner Bennett Yellin, sent a comedy script to David Zucker, who in return gave them their first Hollywood writing job.
+Farrelly said, "I'll tell you right now, if the Zuckers didn't exist, there would be no Farrelly brothers."
+Thirty years later, the documentary " opened with a scene from the film.
+At the beginning of the epilogue mission in ", the film is quoted.
+Charlie One-One says "Surely you can't be serious", and Romeo One-One replies "I am serious.
+And don't call me Shirley."
+In the 2012 film "Ted", the main character, John Bennett, tells the story of how he met Lori Collins.
+The flashback is a close recreation of the scene where Ted Striker met Elaine Dickinson in the disco.
+In early 2014 Delta Air Lines began using a new on-board safety film with many 1980s references, including the end of the safety film with a cameo of Kareem Abdul-Jabbar reprising his "Airplane!"
+role as the co-pilot Roger Murdock.
+In 2014 Travel Wisconsin began airing an ad with Robert Hays and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar reprising their roles from the film.
+Kareem makes the comment "Why did I ever leave this place?"
+referring to his time playing for the Milwaukee Bucks.
+Hays also reprises his role as an airline pilot in ".
+========,2,Sequel.
+", first released on December 10, 1982, attempted to tackle the science fiction film genre, though there was still emphasis on the general theme of disaster films.
+Although most of the cast reunited for the sequel, the writers and directors of "Airplane!"
+chose not to be involved.
+In the DVD commentary for "Airplane!"
+David Zucker, Jim Abrahams, and Jerry Zucker claim to have never seen nor to have any desire to see "Airplane II".

test/46510.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization.
+NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the National Academy of Medicine (NAM).
+As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research.
+Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field.
+Members serve "pro bono" as "advisers to the nation" on science, engineering, and medicine.
+The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.
+Founded in 1863 as a result of an Act of Congress that was approved by Abraham Lincoln, the NAS is charged with "providing independent, objective advice to the nation on matters related to science and technology.
+… to provide scientific advice to the government 'whenever called upon' by any government department.
+The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services."
+========,2,Overview.
+, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates.
+It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005.
+The current members annually elect new members for life.
+Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize.
+The National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU).
+The ICSU Advisory Committee, which is in the Research Council's Office of International Affairs, facilitates participation of members in international scientific unions and serves as a liaison for U.S. national committees for individual scientific unions.
+Although there is no formal relationship with state and local academies of science, there often is informal dialogue.
+The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers (president, vice president, home secretary, foreign secretary, and treasurer) and 12 Councilors, all of whom are elected from among the Academy membership.
+About 85 percent of funding comes from the federal government through contracts and grants from agencies and 15 percent from state governments, private foundations, industrial organizations, and funds provided by the Academies member organizations.
+The National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D.C., which is documented in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", its scholarly journal.
+The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, and makes more than 5,000 publications freely available on its website.
+Since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work.
+The museum's current exhibits focus on climate change and infectious disease.
+========,2,Facilities.
+The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States.
+The National Academy of Sciences building is located at 2101 Constitution Avenue, in northwest Washington, DC; it sits on the National Mall, adjacent to the Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building and in front of the headquarters of the U.S. State Department.
+The building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue.
+The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
+Goodhue engaged a team of artists and architectural sculptors including Albert Herter, Lee Lawrie, and Hildreth Meiere to design interior embellishments celebrating the history and significance of science.
+The building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM.
+The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5, 2014.
+Approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building.
+In June 2012, it reopened to visitors after a major two-year restoration project which restored and improved the building's historic spaces, increased accessibility, and brought the building's aging infrastructure and facilities up to date.
+More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, D.C.
+The Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore.
+The Marian Koshland Science Museum of the National Academy of Sciences – located at 525 E St., N.W.
+– hosts visits from the public, school field trips, traveling exhibits, and permanent science exhibits.
+The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts.
+The Arnold and Mabel Beckman Center is located on 100 Academy Drive in Irvine, California, near the campus of the University of California, Irvine; it offers a conference center and houses several NAS programs.
+The J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility.
+========,2,History.
+The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863, created the National Academy of Sciences and named 50 charter members.
+Many of the original NAS members came from the so-called "Scientific Lazzaroni," an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts (c. 1850).
+In 1863, enlisting the support of Alexander Dallas Bache and Charles Henry Davis, a professional astronomer who had been recently recalled from the Navy to Washington to head the Bureau of Navigation.
+They also elicited support from Swiss-American geologist Louis Agassiz and American mathematician Benjamin Peirce, who together planned the steps whereby the National Academy of Sciences was to be established.
+Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.
+Agassiz was to come to Washington at the government's expense to plan the organization with the others.
+This bypassed Joseph Henry, who was reluctant to have a bill for such an academy presented to Congress.
+This was in the belief that such a resolution would be "opposed as something at variance with our democratic institutions".
+Nevertheless, Henry soon became the second President of NAS.
+Agassiz, Davis, Peirce, Benjamin Gould, and Senator Wilson met at Bache's house and "hurriedly wrote the bill incorporating the Academy, including in it the name of fifty incorporators".
+During the last hours of the session, when the Senate was immersed in the rush of last minute business before its adjournment, Senator Wilson introduced the bill.
+Without examining it or debating its provisions, both the Senate and House approved it, and President Lincoln signed it.
+Although hailed as a great step forward in government recognition of the role of science in American society, at the time, the National Academy of Sciences created enormous ill-feelings among scientists, whether or not they were named as incorporators.
+The Act states:[T]he Academy shall, whenever called upon by any department of the Government, investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art, the actual expense of such investigations, examinations, experiments, and reports to be paid from appropriations which may be made for the purpose, but the Academy shall receive no compensation whatever for any services to the Government of the United States.The National Academies did not solve the problems facing a nation in Civil War as the Lazzaroni had hoped, nor did it centralize American scientific efforts.
+In 1870, the congressional charter was amended to remove the limitation on the number of members.
+In 2013, astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson was asked to write a speech for the 150th anniversary of the Gettysburg Address in which he made the point that one of Lincoln's greatest legacies was establishing the National Academy of Sciences in that same year, which had the long-term effect of "setting our Nation on a course of scientifically enlightened governance, without which we all may perish from this Earth".
+========,2,Presidents.
+The president is the head of the Academy, elected by a majority vote of the membership to serve in this position for a term to be determined by the governing Council, not to exceed six years, and may be re-elected for a second term.
+The Academy has had 22 presidents since its foundation.
+The current president is geophysicist Marcia K. McNutt, the first woman to hold this position.
+Her term expires June 30, 2022.
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Joint Declaration on Global Warming.
+In 2005, the national science academies of the G8 forum (including the National Academy of Sciences) and science academies of Brazil, China, and India (three of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases in the developing world) signed a statement on the global response to climate change.
+The statement stresses that the scientific understanding of climate change had become sufficiently clear to justify nations taking prompt action.
+On May 7, 2010, a letter signed by 255 Academy members was published in "Science" magazine, decrying "political assaults" against climate change scientists.
+This was in response to a civil investigative demand on the University of Virginia (UVA) by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli, seeking a broad range of documents from Michael E. Mann, a former UVA professor from 1999-2005.
+Mann, who currently works at Penn State, is a climate change researcher, and Cuccinelli alleges that Mann may have defrauded Virginia taxpayers in the course of his environmental research.
+Investigations had cleared Mann of charges that he falsified or suppressed data.

test/46522.txt

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+========,1,preface.
+Baroque chess is a chess variant invented in 1962 by Robert Abbott.
+In 1963, at the suggestion of his publisher, he changed the name to Ultima, by which name it is also known.
+Abbott considers his invention flawed, and he has suggested amendments to the rules, but these suggestions have been substantially ignored by the gaming community, which continues to play by the 1962 rules.
+Since the rules for Baroque were first laid down in 1962, some regional variation has arisen, causing the game to diverge from Ultima.
+========,2,Description.
+Baroque chess is usually played on a standard 8×8 chessboard with the standard Staunton design of chess pieces.
+The rules that follow are widely found on the internet, but other variants exist.
+One variant was popular among students at Cambridge University in 1974.
+The initial setup of the pieces is the same as in standard chess, except for two things that the players must first decide on – center counter symmetry, and corner counter symmetry.
+========,3,Establishing the degree of symmetry.
+Center counter symmetry allows either player to decide whether to switch his king and Withdrawer ("queen") around, and then corner counter symmetry requires each player to decide which of his "rooks" will be turned upside down.
+(The one that remains upright is the Coordinator, and the one that is turned upside down is the Immobilizer.)
+After these two kinds of symmetries are determined, White moves first.
+For purposes of recording the moves that are played in the game, it is sufficient to employ an algebraic form of notation, as in chess, and write the names of the pieces and the squares they are to be placed in.
+For instance, 1.
+Kd1 & We1, Ke8 & Wd8 (center counter symmetry), and 2.
+Ia1 & Ch1, Ih8 & Ca8 (corner counter symmetry).
+If the symmetry resolution phases that are usually found at the start of the game could somehow be put off for later, then one may readily see how similar they are to the castling maneuvers in chess.
+They have the practical function of multiplying the number of games that are possible from the initial starting position.
+========,3,Moving.
+In Baroque, the king is the one piece alone that is limited to moving exactly one square at a time; it moves and takes just like the king in chess.
+All of the remaining pieces on the first rank may move like the queen, in all directions.
+They have this power as a matter of privilege, as they are all considered to be "noble pieces."
+This is a kind of privilege that attaches to them at birth, that is, at the outset of the game, and is never diminished; they retain this privilege no matter where they go, except when they find themselves next to an Immobilizer (see below).
+The pawns, on the other hand, move just like the rook moves in chess, unable to move diagonally.
+Just as in chess, pawns are the peasants of this game.
+Unlike chess, pawns are never promoted to another kind of piece.
+(There is no magic square to which pawns can be moved and then promoted.)
+========,3,Capturing.
+All the pieces except for the king capture differently from their counterparts in chess, and all but the king have different names.
+The king is the only piece that captures, as chess pieces do, by moving into a square that is occupied by an enemy piece.
+All the other pieces capture enemy pieces in more complex ways.
+Friendly pieces are never allowed to capture other friendly pieces.
+========,2,Pieces.
+The names of the pieces and rules for movement are as follows:
+***LIST***.
+The remaining pieces all move like standard chess queens, but have unique methods of capture.
+***LIST***.
+Diagrammed examples are indispensable to understanding the rules.
+========,3,King.
+The white king moves Kc4-d5 delivering checkmate.
+Normally it would not be possible for the two kings to be adjacent, but here the black king is unable to move due to the white immobilizer on f4, thus the d5 square is not under attack by black, and the white king is not moving into check.
+Note that White could not play Kc4-d4, as that would place his own king in check from the black Withdrawer.
+Capturing the Withdrawer with Kc4-d3 would result in stalemate, as black would then have no legal moves.
+========,3,Pawn/Pincer.
+The white pawn (or "Pincer") moves Pg4-d4, capturing the black Immobilizer and black pawn.
+The "Pincer" moves as the pawn in Hasami shogi.
+The black Withdrawer on e5 is not captured because pawns capture only vertically and horizontally, not diagonally.
+The black Imitator (Chameleon) on d3 is not captured, because there is no white piece on d2.
+Finally, the black Long-leaper on g3 was safe because it moved between the two white pawns, rather than a white pawn moving to complete the custodial capture.
+========,3,Withdrawer.
+The white Withdrawer moves Wg6-d3, capturing the black pawn on h7.
+The pawn on g7 and the Imitator (Chameleon) on h6 are unaffected because the Withdrawer did not move in their respective lines, but the Withdrawer could have captured either by a move in the g-file or sixth rank respectively.
+Note that the Withdrawer also gives check to the black king by threatening to move away on the d-file.
+========,3,Long-Leaper.
+The white Long-Leaper moves Ld2-d4-d6-d8, capturing three black pieces.
+It might instead have captured the black Withdrawer with either Ld2-g5 or Ld2-h6.
+On the other hand, the black pawn on b2 and the black Chameleon on d1 are safe from the Long Leaper because there is no square on the opposite side on which the Long Leaper could land.
+Also the black pawns on f2 and g2 cannot be captured by Ld2-h2, because there is no space in between the two pawns which would allow the Long Leaper to make two separate jumps.
+A move of Ld2-b4 would be illegal because long leapers may not jump over friendly pieces.
+Some variations of Baroque forbid multi-leaping, if only because it is felt that the game is more playable if the Leaper is less powerful.
+By requiring the Leaper to stop its movement immediately after capturing the first piece, that objective is met.
+========,3,Coordinator.
+The white Coordinator moves Cd4-f6, capturing black's Leaper on c6 and Immobilizer on f2.
+If White had played Cd4-d6 instead, he would have captured black's Leaper and pawn.
+The Coordinator threatens only pieces on the same rank or file as the friendly king.
+This kind of capture can be visualized by imagining an invisible cross emanating from the square the king is sitting on, and another invisible cross emanating from the square the Coordinator arrives at.
+The points where these two crosses intersect are the places where captures are possible.
+========,3,Immobilizer.
+The white Immobilizer moves If3-d5, immobilizing five black pieces.
+The black Leaper on g4, which had been immobilized, is now free to move again.
+An Immobilizer can never be captured by an Immobilizer, or Imitator (Chameleon).
+An Immobilizer can never be captured by a king or Withdrawer unless the variation popular in Cambridge is being played, in which case the Immobilizer itself must first be immobilized.
+When an Immobilizer comes into contact with an enemy Chameleon or Immobilizer, the two pieces freeze each other, after which neither can move unless the other is captured.
+In the version played at Cambridge, the power of an enemy Immobilizer to arrest a friendly piece's movement is defeated when another friendly Immobilizer or Chameleon is brought up to it, effectively cancelling out each other's power to arrest movement.
+Some versions of Baroque allow an immobilized piece to commit suicide, i.e.
+be removed from the board, in lieu of the regular move of that player.
+There may be strategic reasons to open a line.
+For example, after the above diagrammed move, the black Leaper on c5 may wish to commit suicide, so that the other Leaper can capture the white Immobilizer by jumping over it on the fifth rank.
+White cannot hinder this plan, because the Immobilizer is itself immobilized by the black Chameleon.
+========,3,Chameleon/Imitator.
+On the diagram on the right, the white Chameleon moves Xg6-e6-c6, capturing all seven black pieces except the king in one move and delivering check.
+***LIST***.
+In the Cambridge rules, this capture is not possible.
+The move is legal, but it captures only the two leapers, because the move is not a legal move for any of the other target pieces.
+In the absence of the two black leapers, the same move would capture the other five pieces.
+========,2,Variants.
+========,3,UofA.
+This is a variant that was very popular in the early 1980s at the University of Alberta and mastered by the Physics students there.
+It encompasses rules from many of the variants.
+Here is a brief breakdown of the pieces:
+The object of the game is to get any two of your own pieces into the off board squares behind the opponents bomb and immobilizer starting positions.
+Pieces are initially placed is the traditional chess starting positions, with the exception that the queens castle is inverted.
+***LIST***.
+========,3,Maxima.
+Baroque played on a somewhat larger board that is mostly rectangular but for a couple extra squares that are outside the board, located at d0 and e0 just behind the king and queen's squares.
+A matching pair of squares are also on the other side of the board, just beyond the black king and queen (d9 and e9).
+Although one objective of the game is to capture the king, an alternative objective allows depositing a piece in the pair of squares on the other side of the board.
+Unlike Baroque, the king in Maxima moves like the knight in chess, making for a game with much more fluid movement of pieces.
+========,3,Renaissance.
+As shogi is to chess, Renaissance to Baroque—Pieces may be revived and reborn.
+Renaissance is played on a 9×9 board with a Swapper (or Resurrector or Ankh) that moves like a queen for all ordinary purposes, but for swapping actions must move like a king, trading places with any adjacent piece (both friend or foe), never capturing it.
+Consistent with the concept of the Swapper (or Resurrector) being a piece wholly incapable of killing, it can also step into any adjacent empty square, and leave behind a previously captured piece "resurrected" by placing it in the square just vacated.
+Although, seen in that light, though the Swapper is like a piece of "life," it can be transformed into a 1 square bomb when captured and readmitted to the board - but capable only of "death".
+Instead of moving, a bomb need merely explode to effect the destruction of both friendly pieces and enemy pieces adjacent to itself, and suiciding in the process.
+The destruction of pieces in this way causes all affected to be unrevivable.
+There are also two more pieces that, like the "Coordinator," are not capable of unassisted capture: the Pusher and the Puller.
+They can move like queens for ordinary purposes, but for the purpose of exercising their special powers, they must be adjacent to the affected piece at the start of the turn.
+If they begin adjacent to a piece (regardless if friendly or foe), they can push or pull it by 1 square.
+For a Pusher, the empty square on the other side must be "open" (except for the unusual circumstance of driving a king into an enemy piece, or an Imitator into a king.)
+Although the Pushers and Pullers are not capable of capture, their pushing and pulling maneuvers can result in other pieces being forced to make captures, regardless of the captured one being a friendly or enemy piece.
+========,3,Rococo.
+Rococo is a species of Baroque that is played on a 10×10 board for the purposes of captures, but on the inner 8×8 square just inside it for the purpose of movement.
+To put it another way, the outer perimeter of squares can only be entered as a result of a capturing maneuver.
+In addition to the traditional Baroque pieces, Rococo has an Advancer piece that moves like a queen, but captures the enemy piece it has run up next to, stopping just short of the piece taken.
+As is usual for most pieces of the Baroque family, the Advancer will not enter into the space vacated by the captured piece, it merely runs up to it, and stops short by 1 square.
+Unlike the game of Renaissance described above, Rococo has a similarly named Swapper piece that moves like a queen, but trades places with the enemy it runs up to, a full queen's move away.
+The Rococo Swapper has the unusual property of self-destructing at will, in lieu of moving, provided it is not at the same time immobilized, with the effect of taking one enemy piece alongside it.
+What sets Rococo apart from Baroque the most is the way the pawns work; they are called cannonball pawns and move like a king, stepping 1 square in all directions, or leap over any adjacent piece (friend or foe).
+The only way that they can effect capture is by leaping, and "landing" on the enemy piece.
+They cannot capture like a king does.
+Cannonball pawns can be promoted into other pieces when they reach the other side of the board.
+The pawn formations unique to the parent game, Baroque, already significantly different from traditional chess, are not seen in Rococo.
+Instead, Rococo's cannonball pawns seem to hang away from enemy pieces by two or three squares, rarely coming into contact with each other without advance preparation.
+In both chess and Baroque, however, fine nuances in maneuvering are made possible by locking positions together, made concrete by the establishment of well-defined pawn structures.
+This sort of thing is lacking in Rococo.

test/46525.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Wilfred Edward Salter Owen, MC (18 March 1893 – 4 November 1918) was an English poet and soldier, one of the leading poets of the First World War.
+His war poetry on the horrors of trenches and gas warfare was heavily influenced by his mentor Siegfried Sassoon, and stood in stark contrast both to the public perception of war at the time and to the confidently patriotic verse written by earlier war poets such as Rupert Brooke.
+Among his best-known works – most of which were published posthumously – are "Dulce et Decorum est", "Insensibility", "Anthem for Doomed Youth", "Futility", "Exposure" and "Strange Meeting".
+========,2,Early life.
+Owen was born on 18 March 1893 at Plas Wilmot, a house in Weston Lane, near Oswestry in Shropshire.
+He was the eldest of Thomas and Harriet Susan ("née" Shaw)'s four children; his siblings were Harold, Colin, and Mary Millard Owen.
+When Wilfred was born, his parents lived in a comfortable house owned by his grandfather, Edward Shaw, but after the latter's death in January 1897, and the house's sale in March, the family lodged in the back streets of Birkenhead while Thomas Owen temporarily worked in the town, employed by a railway company.
+Thomas transferred to Shrewsbury in April 1897, where the family lived with Thomas' parents in Canon Street.
+Thomas Owen transferred to Birkenhead again in 1898, when he became stationmaster at Woodside station, and the family lived with him at three successive homes in the Tranmere district, before moving back to Shrewsbury in 1907.
+Wilfred Owen was educated at the Birkenhead Institute and at Shrewsbury Technical School (later known as the Wakeman School).
+Owen discovered his poetic vocation in about 1904 during a holiday spent in Cheshire.
+He was raised as an Anglican of the evangelical type, and in his youth was a devout believer, in part due to his strong relationship with his mother, which lasted throughout his life.
+His early influences included the Bible and the "big six" of romantic poetry, particularly John Keats.
+Owen's last two years of formal education saw him as a pupil-teacher at the Wyle Cop school in Shrewsbury.
+In 1911 he passed the matriculation exam for the University of London, but not with the first-class honours needed for a scholarship, which in his family's circumstances was the only way he could have afforded to attend.
+In return for free lodging, and some tuition for the entrance exam (this has been questioned) Owen worked as lay assistant to the Vicar of Dunsden near Reading.
+During this time he attended classes at University College, Reading (now the University of Reading), in botany and later, at the urging of the head of the English Department, took free lessons in Old English.
+His time spent at Dunsden parish led him to disillusionment with the Church, both in its ceremony and its failure to provide aid for those in need.
+From 1912 he worked as a private tutor teaching English and French at the Berlitz School of Languages in Bordeaux, France, and later with a family.
+There he met the older French poet Laurent Tailhade, with whom he later corresponded in French.
+When war broke out, Owen did not rush to enlist - and even considered the French army - but eventually returned to England.
+========,2,War service.
+On 21 October 1915 he enlisted in the Artists' Rifles Officers' Training Corps.
+For the next seven months, he trained at Hare Hall Camp in Essex.
+On 4 June 1916 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant (on probation) in the Manchester Regiment.
+Initially Owen held his troops in contempt for their loutish behaviour, and in a letter to his mother described his company as "expressionless lumps".
+However, his imaginative existence was to be changed dramatically by a number of traumatic experiences.
+He fell into a shell hole and suffered concussion; he was blown up by a trench mortar and spent several days unconscious on an embankment lying amongst the remains of one of his fellow officers.
+Soon afterward, Owen was diagnosed as suffering from neurasthenia or shell shock and sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh for treatment.
+It was while recuperating at Craiglockhart that he met fellow poet Siegfried Sassoon, an encounter that was to transform Owen's life.
+Whilst at Craiglockhart he made friends in Edinburgh's artistic and literary circles, and did some teaching at the Tynecastle High School, in a poor area of the city.
+In November he was discharged from Craiglockhart, judged fit for light regimental duties.
+He spent a contented and fruitful winter in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, and in March 1918 was posted to the Northern Command Depot at Ripon.
+While in Ripon he composed or revised a number of poems, including " and ".
+His 25th birthday was spent quietly at Ripon Cathedral, which is dedicated to his namesake, St. Wilfrid of Hexham.
+Owen returned in July 1918 to active service in France, although he might have stayed on home-duty indefinitely.
+His decision to return was probably the result of Sassoon's being sent back to England, after being shot in the head in an apparent "friendly fire" incident, and put on sick-leave for the remaining duration of the war.
+Owen saw it as his duty to add his voice to that of Sassoon, that the horrific realities of the war might continue to be told.
+Sassoon was violently opposed to the idea of Owen returning to the trenches, threatening to "stab [him] in the leg" if he tried it.
+Aware of his attitude, Owen did not inform him of his action until he was once again in France.
+At the very end of August 1918, Owen returned to the front line - perhaps imitating the example of his admired friend Sassoon.
+On 1 October 1918 Owen led units of the Second Manchesters to storm a number of enemy strong points near the village of Joncourt.
+For his courage and leadership in the Joncourt action, he was awarded the Military Cross, an award he had always sought in order to justify himself as a war poet, but the award was not gazetted until 15 February 1919.
+The citation followed on 30 July 1919:
+========,2,Death.
+Owen was killed in action on 4 November 1918 during the crossing of the Sambre–Oise Canal, exactly one week (almost to the hour) before the signing of the Armistice which ended the war, and was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant the day after his death.
+His mother received the telegram informing her of his death on Armistice Day, as the church bells were ringing out in celebration.
+========,2,Poetry.
+Owen is regarded by many as the greatest poet of the First World War, known for his verse about the horrors of trench and gas warfare.
+He had been writing poetry for some years before the war, himself dating his poetic beginnings to a stay at Broxton by the Hill when he was ten years old.
+The Romantic poets Keats and Shelley influenced much of his early writing and poetry.
+His great friend, the poet Siegfried Sassoon, later had a profound effect on his poetic voice, and Owen's most famous poems ("Dulce et Decorum est" and "Anthem for Doomed Youth") show direct results of Sassoon's influence.
+Manuscript copies of the poems survive, annotated in Sassoon's handwriting.
+Owen's poetry would eventually be more widely acclaimed than that of his mentor.
+While his use of pararhyme with heavy reliance on assonance was innovative, he was not the only poet at the time to use these particular techniques.
+He was, however, one of the first to experiment with it extensively.
+His poetry itself underwent significant changes in 1917.
+As a part of his therapy at Craiglockhart, Owen's doctor, Arthur Brock, encouraged Owen to translate his experiences, specifically the experiences he relived in his dreams, into poetry.
+Sassoon, who was becoming influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis, aided him here, showing Owen through example what poetry could do.
+Sassoon's use of satire influenced Owen, who tried his hand at writing "in Sassoon's style".
+Further, the content of Owen's verse was undeniably changed by his work with Sassoon.
+Sassoon's emphasis on realism and "writing from experience" was contrary to Owen's hitherto romantic-influenced style, as seen in his earlier sonnets.
+Owen was to take both Sassoon's gritty realism and his own romantic notions and create a poetic synthesis that was both potent and sympathetic, as summarised by his famous phrase "the pity of war".
+In this way, Owen's poetry is quite distinctive, and he is, by many, considered a greater poet than Sassoon.
+Nonetheless, Sassoon contributed to Owen's popularity by his strong promotion of his poetry, both before and after Owen's death, and his editing was instrumental in the making of Owen as a poet.
+Owen's poems had the benefit of strong patronage, and it was a combination of Sassoon's influence, support from Edith Sitwell, and the preparation of a new and fuller edition of the poems in 1931 by Edmund Blunden that ensured his popularity, coupled with a revival of interest in his poetry in the 1960s which plucked him out of a relatively exclusive readership into the public eye.
+Though he had plans for a volume of verse, for which he had written a "Preface", he never saw his own work published apart from those poems he included in "The Hydra", the magazine he edited at Craiglockhart War Hospital, and "Miners", which was published in "The Nation".
+There were many other influences on Owen's poetry, including his mother.
+His letters to her provide an insight into Owen's life at the front, and the development of his philosophy regarding the war.
+Graphic details of the horror Owen witnessed were never spared.
+Owen's experiences with religion also heavily influenced his poetry, notably in poems such as "Anthem for Doomed Youth", in which the ceremony of a funeral is re-enacted not in a church, but on the battlefield itself, and "At a Calvary near the Ancre", which comments on the Crucifixion of Christ.
+Owen's experiences in war led him further to challenge his religious beliefs, claiming in his poem "Exposure" that "love of God seems dying".
+Only five of Owen's poems were published before his death, one in fragmentary form.
+His best known poems include "Anthem for Doomed Youth", "Futility", "Dulce Et Decorum Est", "The Parable of the Old Men and the Young" and "Strange Meeting".
+Owen's full unexpurgated opus is in the academic two-volume work "The Complete Poems and Fragments" (1994) by Jon Stallworthy.
+Many of his poems have never been published in popular form.
+In 1975 Mrs. Harold Owen, Wilfred's sister-in-law, donated all of the manuscripts, photographs and letters which her late husband had owned to the University of Oxford's English Faculty Library.
+As well as the personal artifacts, this also includes all of Owen's personal library and an almost complete set of "The Hydra" – the magazine of Craiglockhart War Hospital.
+These can be accessed by any member of the public on application in advance to the English Faculty librarian.
+The Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin holds a large collection of Owen's family correspondence.
+An important turning point in Owen scholarship occurred in 1987 when the "New Statesman" published a stinging polemic "'The Truth Untold"' by Jonathan Cutbill, the literary executor of Edward Carpenter, which attacked the academic suppression of Owen as a poet of homosexual experience.
+Amongst the points it made was that the poem "Shadwell Stair", previously alleged to be mysterious, was a straightforward elegy to homosexual soliciting in an area of the London docks once renowned for it.
+========,2,Relationship with Sassoon.
+Owen held Siegfried Sassoon in an esteem not far from hero-worship, remarking to his mother that he was "not worthy to light [Sassoon's] pipe".
+The relationship clearly had a profound impact on Owen, who wrote in his first letter to Sassoon after leaving Craiglockhart "You have fixed my life-however short".
+Owen, writing that he took "an instinctive liking to him", and recalled their time together "with affection."
+On the evening of 3 November 1917 they parted, Owen having been discharged from Craiglockhart.
+He was stationed on home-duty in Scarborough for several months, during which time he associated with members of the artistic circle into which Sassoon had introduced him, which included Robbie Ross and Robert Graves.
+He also met H. G. Wells and Arnold Bennett, and it was during this period he developed the stylistic voice for which he is now recognised.
+Many of his early poems were penned while stationed at the Clarence Garden Hotel, now the Clifton Hotel in Scarborough's North Bay.
+A blue tourist plaque on the hotel marks its association with Owen.
+Robert Graves and Sacheverell Sitwell (who also personally knew him) stated that Owen was homosexual, and homoeroticism is a central element in much of Owen's poetry.
+Through Sassoon, Owen was introduced to a sophisticated homosexual literary circle which included Oscar Wilde's friend Robbie Ross, writer and poet Osbert Sitwell, and Scottish writer C. K. Scott Moncrieff, the translator of Marcel Proust.
+This contact broadened Owen's outlook, and increased his confidence in incorporating homoerotic elements into his work.
+Historians have debated whether Owen had an affair with Scott Moncrieff in May 1918; he had dedicated various works to a "Mr W.O.
+", but Owen never responded.
+Throughout Owen's lifetime and for decades after, homosexual activity between men was a punishable offence in British law, and the account of Owen's sexual development has been somewhat obscured because his brother Harold removed what he considered discreditable passages in Owen's letters and diaries after the death of their mother.
+Andrew Motion wrote of Owen's relationship with Sassoon: "On the one hand, Sassoon's wealth, posh connections and aristocratic manner appealed to the snob in Owen: on the other, Sassoon's homosexuality admitted Owen to a style of living and thinking that he found naturally sympathetic."
+Sassoon and Owen kept in touch through correspondence, and after Sassoon was shot in the head in July 1918 and sent back to England to recover, they met in August and spent what Sassoon described as "the whole of a hot cloudless afternoon together."
+They never saw each other again.
+About three weeks later, Owen wrote to bid Sassoon farewell, as he was on the way back to France, and they continued to communicate.
+After the Armistice, Sassoon waited in vain for word from Owen, only to be told of his death several months later.
+The loss grieved Sassoon greatly, and he was never "able to accept that disappearance philosophically."
+========,2,Memory.
+There are memorials to Owen at Gailly, Ors, Oswestry, Birkenhead (Central Library) and Shrewsbury.
+On 11 November 1985, Owen was one of the 16 Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner.
+The inscription on the stone is taken from Owen's "Preface" to his poems: "My subject is War, and the pity of War.
+The Poetry is in the pity."
+There is also a small museum dedicated to Owen and Sassoon at the Craiglockhart War Hospital, now a Napier University building.
+The forester's house in Ors where Owen spent his last night, Maison forestière de l'Ermitage, has been transformed by Turner Prize nominee Simon Patterson into an art installation and permanent memorial to Owen and his poetry, which opened to the public on 1 October 2011.
+Susan Owen's letter to Tagore marked, Shrewsbury, 1 August 1920, reads: "I have been trying to find courage to write to you ever since I heard that you were in London ~ but the desire to tell you something is finding its way into this letter today.
+The letter may never reach you, for I do not know how to address it, tho’ I feel sure your name upon the envelope will be sufficient.
+It is nearly two years ago, that my dear eldest son went out to the War for the last time and the day he said goodbye to me ~ we were looking together across the sun-glorified sea ~ looking towards France, with breaking hearts ~ when he, my poet son, said those wonderful words of yours ~ beginning at ‘When I go from hence, let this be my parting word’ ~ and when his pocket book came back to me ~ I found these words written in his dear writing ~ with your name beneath."
+========,2,Depictions in popular culture.
+========,3,In print and film.
+Stephen MacDonald's play "Not About Heroes" (first performed in 1982) takes as its subject matter the friendship between Owen and Sassoon, and begins with their meeting at Craiglockhart during World War I.
+Pat Barker's historical novel "Regeneration" (1991) also describes the meeting and relationship between Sassoon and Owen, acknowledging that, from Sassoon's perspective, the meeting had a profoundly significant effect on Owen.
+Owen's treatment with his own doctor, Arthur Brock, is also touched upon briefly.
+Owen's death is described in the third book of Barker's Regeneration trilogy, "The Ghost Road" (1995).
+In the 1997 film "Regeneration", Stuart Bunce played Owen.
+Owen is the subject of the BBC docudrama "" (2007), in which he is played by Samuel Barnett.
+Owen was mentioned as a source of inspiration for one of the correspondents in the epistolary novel, "The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society" (2008), by Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows.
+Harry Turtledove's multi-novel "Southern Victory Series" has the title of its third volume, "Walk in Hell", taken from a line in "Mental Cases".
+This part of the series is set during an alternate history version of World War I which sees Canada invaded and occupied by United States troops.
+Owen is acknowledged on the title page as the source of the quote.
+========,3,In music.
+His poetry has been reworked into various formats.
+For example, Benjamin Britten incorporated eight of Owen's poems into his "War Requiem", along with words from the Latin Mass for the Dead ("Missa pro Defunctis").
+The "Requiem" was commissioned for the reconsecration of Coventry Cathedral and first performed there on 30 May 1962.
+Derek Jarman adapted it for the screen in 1988, with the 1963 recording as the soundtrack.
+The Ravishing Beauties recorded Owen's poem "Futility" in an April 1982 John Peel session.
+Also in 1982, 10,000 Maniacs recorded a song titled "Anthem for Doomed Youth", loosely based on the poem, in Fredonia, New York.
+The recording appeared on their first EP release "Human Conflict Number Five" and later on the compilation "".
+Also appearing on the "Hope Chest" album was the song "The Latin One", a reference to the title of Owen's poem "Dulce et Decorum Est" on which the song is based.
+Additionally in 1982, singer Virginia Astley set the poem "Futility" to music she had composed.
+Wirral musician Dean Johnson created the musical "Bullets and Daffodils", based on music set to Owen's poetry, in 2010.
+In 2015 British indie rock band "The Libertines" released an album entitled "Anthems For Doomed Youth"; this featured the track "Anthem for Doomed Youth", named after Owen’s poem.
+His poetry is sampled multiple times on the 2000 Jedi Mind Tricks album "Violent by Design".
+Producer Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind has been widely acclaimed for his sampling on the album, and inclusion of Owen's poetry.

test/46530.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an American-founded international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights.
+HRW headquarters are in New York City with offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, Paris, San Francisco, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, Washington, D.C., and Zurich.
+Human Rights Watch in 1997 shared in the Nobel Peace Prize as a founding member of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, and it played a leading role in the 2008 treaty banning cluster munitions.
+The organization's annual expenses totaled $50.6 million in 2011 and $69.2 million in 2014.
+========,2,History.
+Human Rights Watch was founded by Robert L. Bernstein as a private American NGO in 1978, under the name Helsinki Watch, to monitor the former Soviet Union's compliance with the Helsinki Accords.
+Helsinki Watch adopted a practice of publicly "naming and shaming" abusive governments through media coverage and through direct exchanges with policymakers.
+By shining the international spotlight on human rights violations in the Soviet Union and its European partners, Helsinki Watch contributed to the democratic transformations of the region in the late 1980s.
+Americas Watch was founded in 1981 while bloody civil wars engulfed Central America.
+Relying on extensive on-the-ground fact-finding, Americas Watch not only addressed perceived abuses by government forces but also applied international humanitarian law to investigate and expose war crimes by rebel groups.
+In addition to raising its concerns in the affected countries, Americas Watch also examined the role played by foreign governments, particularly the United States government, in providing military and political support to abusive regimes.
+Asia Watch (1985), Africa Watch (1988), and Middle East Watch (1989) were added to what was known as "The Watch Committees".
+In 1988, all of these committees were united under one umbrella to form Human Rights Watch.
+========,2,Profile.
+Pursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch (HRW) opposes violations of what it considers basic human rights.
+This includes capital punishment and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
+HRW advocates freedoms in connection with fundamental human rights, such as freedom of religion and freedom of the press.
+Human Rights Watch publishes research reports on violations of international human rights norms as set out by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and what it perceives to be other internationally accepted, human-rights norms.
+These reports are used as the basis for drawing international attention to abuses and pressuring governments and international organizations to reform.
+Researchers conduct fact-finding missions to investigate suspect situations also using diplomacy, staying in touch with victims, making files about public and individuals, and providing required security for them in critical situations and in a proper time generate coverage in local and international media.
+Issues raised by Human Rights Watch in its reports include social and gender discrimination, torture, military use of children, political corruption, abuses in criminal justice systems, and the legalization of abortion.
+HRW has documented and reported various violations of the laws of war and international humanitarian law.
+Human Rights Watch also supports writers worldwide, who are being persecuted for their work and are in need of financial assistance.
+The Hellman/Hammett grants are financed by the estate of the playwright Lillian Hellman in funds set up in her name and that of her long-time companion, the novelist Dashiell Hammett.
+In addition to providing financial assistance, the Hellman/Hammett grants help raise international awareness of activists who are being silenced for speaking out in defense of human rights.
+Each year, Human Rights Watch presents the Human Rights Defenders Award to activists around the world who demonstrate leadership and courage in defending human rights.
+The award winners work closely with HRW in investigating and exposing human rights abuses.
+Human Rights Watch was one of six international NGOs that founded the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers in 1998.
+It is also the co-chair of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, a global coalition of civil society groups that successfully lobbied to introduce the Ottawa Treaty, a treaty that prohibits the use of anti-personnel landmines.
+Human Rights Watch is a founding member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, a global network of non-governmental organizations that monitor censorship worldwide.
+It also co-founded the Cluster Munition Coalition, which brought about an international convention banning the weapons.
+HRW employs more than 275 staff—country experts, lawyers, journalists, and academics – and operates in more than 90 countries around the world.
+The current executive director of HRW is Kenneth Roth, who has held the position since 1993.
+Roth conducted investigations on abuses in Poland after martial law was declared 1981.
+He later focused on Haiti, which had just emerged from the Duvalier dictatorship but continued to be plagued with problems.
+Roth’s awareness of the importance of human rights began with stories his father had told about escaping Nazi Germany in 1938.
+Roth graduated from Yale Law School and Brown University.
+========,3,Allegations of bias.
+HRW has been criticized for perceived bias by the national governments it has investigated for human rights abuses, and by NGO Monitor, and HRW's founder, and former Chairman, Robert L. Bernstein.
+Bias allegations include undue influence by United States government policy, and claims that HRW is biased both for Israel and against Israel.
+HRW has routinely publicly responded to, and often rejected, criticism of its reporting and findings.
+========,3,Comparison with Amnesty International.
+Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International are the only two Western-oriented international human rights organizations operating in most situations of severe oppression or abuse worldwide.
+The major differences lie in the group's structure and methods for promoting change.
+Amnesty International is a mass-membership organization.
+Mobilization of those members is the organization's central advocacy tool.
+Human Rights Watch's main products are its crisis-directed research and lengthy reports, whereas Amnesty International lobbies and writes detailed reports, but also focuses on mass letter-writing campaigns, adopting individuals as "prisoners of conscience" and lobbying for their release.
+Human Rights Watch will openly lobby for specific actions for other governments to take against human rights offenders, including naming specific individuals for arrest, or for sanctions to be levied against certain countries, recently calling for punitive sanctions against the top leaders in Sudan who have overseen a killing campaign in Darfur.
+The group has also called for human rights activists who have been detained in Sudan to be released.
+Its documentations of human rights abuses often include extensive analysis of the political and historical backgrounds of the conflicts concerned, some of which have been published in academic journals.
+AI's reports, on the other hand, tend to contain less analysis, and instead focus on specific abuses of rights.
+In 2010, "The Times" of London wrote that HRW has "all but eclipsed" Amnesty International.
+According to "The Times", instead of being supported by a mass membership, as AI is, HRW depends on wealthy donors who like to see the organization's reports make headlines.
+For this reason, according to "The Times", HRW tends to "concentrate too much on places that the media already cares about", especially in disproportionate coverage of Israel.
+========,2,Financing and services.
+For the financial year ending June 2008, HRW reported receiving approximately US$44 million in public donations.
+In 2009, Human Rights Watch stated that they receive almost 75% of their financial support from North America, 25% from Western Europe and less than 1% from the rest of the world.
+According to a 2008 financial assessment, HRW reports that it does not accept any direct or indirect funding from governments and is financed through contributions from private individuals and foundations.
+Financier and philanthropist George Soros of the Open Society Foundation announced in 2010 his intention to grant US $100 million to HRW over a period of ten years to help it expand its efforts internationally.
+He said, "Human Rights Watch is one of the most effective organizations I support.
+Human rights underpin our greatest aspirations: they're at the heart of open societies."
+The donation increases Human Rights Watch's operating staff of 300 by 120 people.
+The donation was the largest in the organization's history.
+Charity Navigator gave Human Rights Watch a four-star rating overall, and its financial rating increased from three stars in 2015 to the maximum four as of June 2016.
+The Better Business Bureau said Human Rights Watch meets its standards for charity accountability.
+Human Rights Watch published the following program and support services spending details for the financial year ending June 2011.
+Human Rights Watch published the following program and support services spending details for the financial year ending June 2008.
+========,2,Publications.
+Human Rights Watch publishes reports on many different topics and compiles an annual "World Report" presenting an overview of the worldwide state of human rights.
+It has been published by Seven Stories Press since 2006; the current edition, "World Report 2017: Demagogues Threaten Human Rights," was released in January 2017, and covers events of 2016.
+Human Rights Watch has reported extensively on subjects such as the Rwandan Genocide of 1994, Democratic Republic of the Congo and US sex offender registries due to their over-breadth and application to juveniles.
+In the summer of 2004, the Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Columbia University in New York became the depository institution for the Human Rights Watch Archive, an active collection that documents decades of human rights investigations around the world.
+The archive was transferred from its previous location at the Norlin Library at the University of Colorado, Boulder.
+The archive includes administrative files, public relations documents, as well as case and country files.
+With some exceptions for security considerations, the Columbia University community and the public have access to field notes, taped and transcribed interviews with alleged victims of human rights violations, video and audio tapes, and other materials documenting the organization’s activities since its founding in 1978 as Helsinki Watch.

test/46565.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+========,1,preface.
+An L-system or Lindenmayer system is a parallel rewriting system and a type of formal grammar.
+An L-system consists of an alphabet of symbols that can be used to make strings, a collection of production rules that expand each symbol into some larger string of symbols, an initial "axiom" string from which to begin construction, and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures.
+L-systems were introduced and developed in 1968 by Aristid Lindenmayer, a Hungarian theoretical biologist and botanist at the University of Utrecht.
+Lindenmayer used L-systems to describe the behaviour of plant cells and to model the growth processes of plant development.
+L-systems have also been used to model the morphology of a variety of organisms and can be used to generate self-similar fractals such as iterated function systems.
+========,2,Origins.
+As a biologist, Lindenmayer worked with yeast and filamentous fungi and studied the growth patterns of various types of algae, such as the cyanobacteria "Anabaena catenula".
+Originally the L-systems were devised to provide a formal description of the development of such simple multicellular organisms, and to illustrate the neighbourhood relationships between plant cells.
+Later on, this system was extended to describe higher plants and complex branching structures.
+========,2,L-system structure.
+The recursive nature of the L-system rules leads to self-similarity and thereby, fractal-like forms are easy to describe with an L-system.
+Plant models and natural-looking organic forms are easy to define, as by increasing the recursion level the form slowly 'grows' and becomes more complex.
+Lindenmayer systems are also popular in the generation of artificial life.
+L-system grammars are very similar to the semi-Thue grammar (see Chomsky hierarchy).
+L-systems are now commonly known as "parametric" L systems, defined as a tuple where
+***LIST***.
+The rules of the L-system grammar are applied iteratively starting from the initial state.
+As many rules as possible are applied simultaneously, per iteration.
+The fact that each iteration employs as many rules as possible differentiates an L-system from a formal language generated by a formal grammar, which applies only one rule per iteration.
+If the production rules were to be applied only one at a time, one would quite simply generate a language, rather than an L-system.
+Thus, L-systems are strict subsets of languages.
+An L-system is "context-free" if each production rule refers only to an individual symbol and not to its neighbours.
+Context-free L-systems are thus specified by a context-free grammar.
+If a rule depends not only on a single symbol but also on its neighbours, it is termed a "context-sensitive" L-system.
+If there is exactly one production for each symbol, then the L-system is said to be "deterministic" (a deterministic context-free L-system is popularly called a "D0L system").
+If there are several, and each is chosen with a certain probability during each iteration, then it is a "stochastic" L-system.
+Using L-systems for generating graphical images requires that the symbols in the model refer to elements of a drawing on the computer screen.
+For example, the program "Fractint" uses turtle graphics (similar to those in the Logo programming language) to produce screen images.
+It interprets each constant in an L-system model as a turtle command.
+========,2,Examples of L-systems.
+========,3,Example 1: Algae.
+Lindenmayer's original L-system for modelling the growth of algae.
+which produces:
+========,3,Example 2: Fractal (binary) tree.
+***LIST***.
+The shape is built by recursively feeding the axiom through the production rules.
+Each character of the input string is checked against the rule list to determine which character or string to replace it with in the output string.
+In this example, a '1' in the input string becomes '11' in the output string, while '[' remains the same.
+Applying this to the axiom of '0', we get:
+***LIST***.
+The push and pop refer to a LIFO stack (more technical grammar would have separate symbols for "push position" and "turn left").
+When the turtle interpretation encounters a '[', the current position and angle are saved, and are then restored when the interpretation encounters a ']'.
+If multiple values have been "pushed," then a "pop" restores the most recently saved values.
+Applying the graphical rules listed above to the earlier recursion, we get:
+========,3,Example 3: Cantor set.
+Let "A" mean "draw forward" and "B" mean "move forward".
+This produces the famous Cantor's fractal set on a real straight line R.
+========,3,Example 4: Koch curve.
+A variant of the Koch curve which uses only right angles.
+Here, F means "draw forward", + means "turn left 90°", and − means "turn right 90°" (see turtle graphics).
+========,3,Example 5: Sierpinski triangle.
+The Sierpinski triangle drawn using an L-system.
+Here, F and G both mean "draw forward", + means "turn left by angle", and − means "turn right by angle".
+It is also possible to approximate the Sierpinski triangle using a Sierpiński arrowhead curve L-system.
+Here, A and B both mean "draw forward", + means "turn left by angle", and − means "turn right by angle" (see turtle graphics).
+Evolution for "n" = 2, "n" = 4, "n" = 6, "n" = 8
+========,3,Example 6: Dragon curve.
+The dragon curve drawn using an L-system.
+Here, F means "draw forward", − means "turn left 90°", and + means "turn right 90°".
+X and Y do not correspond to any drawing action and are only used to control the evolution of the curve.
+Dragon curve for "n" = 10
+========,3,Example 7: Fractal plant.
+Here, F means "draw forward", − means "turn left 25°", and + means "turn right 25°".
+X does not correspond to any drawing action and is used to control the evolution of the curve.
+The square bracket "[" corresponds to saving the current values for position and angle, which are restored when the corresponding "]" is executed.
+Fractal plant for "n" = 6
+========,2,Variations.
+A number of elaborations on this basic L-system technique have been developed which can be used in conjunction with each other.
+Among these are stochastic grammars, context sensitive grammars, and parametric grammars.
+========,3,Stochastic grammars.
+The grammar model we have discussed thus far has been deterministic—that is, given any symbol in the grammar's alphabet, there has been exactly one production rule, which is always chosen, and always performs the same conversion.
+One alternative is to specify more than one production rule for a symbol, giving each a probability of occurring.
+For example, in the grammar of Example 2, we could change the rule for rewriting "0" from:
+to a probabilistic rule:
+Under this production, whenever a "0" is encountered during string rewriting, there would be a 50% chance it would behave as previously described, and a 50% chance it would not change during production.
+When a stochastic grammar is used in an evolutionary context, it is advisable to incorporate a random seed into the genotype, so that the stochastic properties of the image remain constant between generations.
+========,3,Context sensitive grammars.
+A context sensitive production rule looks not only at the symbol it is modifying, but the symbols on the string appearing before and after it.
+For instance, the production rule:
+transforms "a" to "aa", but only If the "a" occurs between a "b" and a "c" in the input string:
+As with stochastic productions, there are multiple productions to handle symbols in different contexts.
+If no production rule can be found for a given context, the identity production is assumed, and the symbol does not change on transformation.
+If context-sensitive and context-free productions both exist within the same grammar, the context-sensitive production is assumed to take precedence when it is applicable.
+========,3,Parametric grammars.
+In a parametric grammar, each symbol in the alphabet has a parameter list associated with it.
+A symbol coupled with its parameter list is called a module, and a string in a parametric grammar is a series of modules.
+An example string might be:
+The parameters can be used by the drawing functions, and also by the production rules.
+The production rules can use the parameters in two ways: first, in a conditional statement determining whether the rule will apply, and second, the production rule can modify the actual parameters.
+For example, look at:
+The module a(x,y) undergoes transformation under this production rule if the conditional x=0 is met.
+For example, a(0,2) would undergo transformation, and a(1,2) would not.
+In the transformation portion of the production rule, the parameters as well as entire modules can be affected.
+In the above example, the module b(x,y) is added to the string, with initial parameters (2,3).
+Also, the parameters of the already existing module are transformed.
+Under the above production rule, Becomes as the "x" parameter of a(x,y) is explicitly transformed to a "1" and the "y" parameter of a is incremented by one.
+Parametric grammars allow line lengths and branching angles to be determined by the grammar, rather than the turtle interpretation methods.
+Also, if age is given as a parameter for a module, rules can change depending on the age of a plant segment, allowing animations of the entire life-cycle of the tree to be created.
+========,2,Open problems.
+There are many open problems involving studies of L-systems.
+For example:
+***LIST***.

test/46573.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The oat ("Avena sativa"), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural, unlike other cereals and pseudocereals).
+While oats are suitable for human consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats, one of the most common uses is as livestock feed.
+Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol when consumed regularly.
+Avenins present in oats (proteins similar to gliadin from wheat) can trigger celiac disease in a small proportion of people.
+Also, oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley.
+========,2,Origin.
+The wild ancestor of "Avena sativa" and the closely related minor crop, "A. byzantina", is the hexaploid wild oat "A. sterilis".
+Genetic evidence shows the ancestral forms of "A. sterilis" grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East.
+Domesticated oats appear relatively late, and far from the Near East, in Bronze Age Europe.
+Oats, like rye, are usually considered a secondary crop, i.e., derived from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates wheat and barley.
+As these cereals spread westwards into cooler, wetter areas, this may have favored the oat weed component, and have led to its domestication.
+========,2,Cultivation.
+Oats are best grown in temperate regions.
+They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of rain than other cereals, such as wheat, rye or barley, so are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe and even Iceland.
+Oats are an annual plant, and can be planted either in autumn (for late summer harvest) or in the spring (for early autumn harvest).
+========,3,Production.
+In 2014, global production of oats was 22.7 million tonnes, led by Russia with 5.3 million tonnes or 23% of the world total (table).
+Other major producers were Canada, Poland, and Australia.
+========,2,Uses.
+Oats have numerous uses in foods; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour.
+Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread.
+Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola.
+Historical attitudes towards oats have varied.
+Oat bread was first manufactured in Britain, where the first oat bread factory was established in 1899.
+In Scotland, they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet.
+In Scotland, a dish was made by soaking the husks from oats for a week, so the fine, floury part of the meal remained as sediment to be strained off, boiled and eaten.
+Oats are also widely used there as a thickener in soups, as barley or rice might be used in other countries.
+Oats are also commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required.
+The oat hull may be crushed ("rolled" or "crimped") for the horse to more easily digest the grain, or may be fed whole.
+They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet.
+Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill, burr mill, or hammer mill.
+Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer, or harvested in early summer.
+They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready.
+Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature.
+The straw can also be used for making corn dollies.
+Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw was used to soften bath water.
+Oats are also occasionally used in several different drinks.
+In Britain, they are sometimes used for brewing beer.
+Oatmeal stout is one variety brewed using a percentage of oats for the wort.
+The more rarely used oat malt is produced by the Thomas Fawcett & Sons Maltings and was used in the Maclay Oat Malt Stout before Maclays Brewery ceased independent brewing operations.
+A cold, sweet drink called "avena" made of ground oats and milk is a popular refreshment throughout Latin America.
+Oatmeal caudle, made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell.
+Oat extract can also be used to soothe skin conditions.
+Oat grass has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes, including to help balance the menstrual cycle, treat dysmenorrhoea and for osteoporosis and urinary tract infections.
+In China, particularly in western Inner Mongolia and Shanxi province, oat ("Avena nuda") flour called "youmian" is processed into noodles or thin-walled rolls, and is consumed as staple food.
+========,2,Health.
+========,3,Nutrient profile.
+Oats are generally considered healthy due to their rich content of several essential nutrients (table).
+In a 100 gram serving, oats provide 389 calories and are an excellent source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (233% DV) (table).
+Oats are 66% carbohydrates, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat and 17% protein (table).
+The established property of their cholesterol-lowering effects has led to acceptance of oats as a health food.
+========,3,Soluble fiber.
+Oat bran is the outer casing of the oat.
+Its daily consumption over weeks lowers LDL ("bad") and total cholesterol, possibly reducing the risk of heart disease.
+One type of soluble fiber, beta-glucans, has been proven to lower cholesterol.
+After reports of research finding that dietary oats can help lower cholesterol, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule that allows food companies to make health claims on food labels of foods that contain soluble fiber from whole oats (oat bran, oat flour and rolled oats), noting that 3.0 grams of soluble fiber daily from these foods may reduce the risk of heart disease.
+To qualify for the health claim, the whole oat-containing food must provide at least 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving.
+Beta-D-glucans, usually referred to as beta-glucans, comprise a class of indigestible polysaccharides widely found in nature in sources such as grains, barley, yeast, bacteria, algae and mushrooms.
+In oats, barley and other cereal grains, they are located primarily in the endosperm cell wall.
+The oat beta-glucan health claim applies to oat bran, rolled oats, whole oat flour and oatrim, a soluble fraction of alpha-amylase hydrolyzed oat bran or whole oat flour.
+Oat beta-glucan is a viscous polysaccharide made up of units of the monosaccharide D-glucose.
+Oat beta-glucan is composed of mixed-linkage polysaccharides.
+This means the bonds between the D-glucose or D-glucopyranosyl units are either beta-1, 3 linkages or beta-1, 4 linkages.
+This type of beta-glucan is also referred to as a mixed-linkage (1→3), (1→4)-beta-D-glucan.
+The (1→3)-linkages break up the uniform structure of the beta-D-glucan molecule and make it soluble and flexible.
+In comparison, the indigestible polysaccharide cellulose is also a beta-glucan, but is not soluble because of its (1→4)-beta-D-linkages.
+The percentages of beta-glucan in the various whole oat products are: oat bran, having from 5.5% to 23.0%; rolled oats, about 4%; and whole oat flour about 4%.
+========,3,Fat.
+Oats, after corn (maize), have the highest lipid content of any cereal, e.g., greater than 10% for oats and as high as 17% for some maize cultivars compared to about 2–3% for wheat and most other cereals.
+The polar lipid content of oats (about 8–17% glycolipid and 10–20% phospholipid or a total of about 33%) is greater than that of other cereals, since much of the lipid fraction is contained within the endosperm.
+========,3,Protein.
+Oats are the only cereal containing a globulin or legume-like protein, avenalin, as the major (80%) storage protein.
+Globulins are characterised by solubility in dilute saline as opposed to the more typical cereal proteins, such as gluten and zein, the prolamines (prolamins).
+The minor protein of oat is a prolamine, avenin.
+Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to soy protein, which World Health Organization research has shown to be equal to meat, milk and egg protein.
+The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel (groat) ranges from 12 to 24%, the highest among cereals.
+========,3,Celiac disease.
+Celiac disease (coeliac disease) is a permanent intolerance to gluten proteins in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the developed world.
+Gluten is present in wheat, barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids and contains hundreds of proteins, with high contents of prolamins.
+Oat prolamins, named avenins, are similar to gliadins found in wheat, hordeins in barley, and secalins in rye, which are collectively named gluten.
+Avenins toxicity in celiac people depends on the oat cultivar consumed because of prolamin genes, protein amino acid sequences, and the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins which vary among oat varieties.
+Also, oats products are frequently cross-contaminated with other gluten-containing cereals during grain harvesting, transport, storage or processing.
+Pure oats contain less than 20 parts per million of gluten from wheat, barley, rye, or any of their hybrids.
+Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value from the rich content of oat protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and lipids, but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats.
+Some cultivars of pure oat could be a safe part of a gluten-free diet, requiring knowledge of the oat variety used in food products for a gluten-free diet.
+Determining whether oat consumption is safe is critical because people with poorly controlled celiac disease may develop multiple severe health complications, including cancers.
+Use of pure oat products is an option, with the assessment of a health professional, when the celiac person has been on a gluten-free diet for at least 6 months and all celiac symptoms have disappeared clinically.
+Celiac disease may relapse in few cases with the consumption of pure oats.
+Screening with serum antibodies for celiac disease is not sensitive enough to detect people who react to pure oats and the absence of digestive symptoms is not an accurate indicator of intestinal recovery because up to 50% of people with active celiac disease have no digestive symptoms.
+The lifelong follow-up of celiac people who choose to consume oats may require periodic performance of intestinal biopsies.
+The long-term effects of pure oats consumption are still unclear and further well-designed studies identifying the cultivars used are needed before making final recommendations for a gluten-free diet.
+========,2,Agronomy.
+Oats are sown in the spring or early summer in colder areas, as soon as the soil can be worked.
+An early start is crucial to good fields, as oats go dormant in summer heat.
+In warmer areas, oats are sown in late summer or early fall.
+Oats are cold-tolerant and are unaffected by late frosts or snow.
+========,3,Seeding rates.
+Typically, about 125 to 175 kg/ha (between 2.75 and 3.25 bushels per acre) are sown, either broadcast or drilled.
+Lower rates are used when interseeding with a legume.
+Somewhat higher rates can be used on the best soils, or where there are problems with weeds.
+Excessive sowing rates lead to problems with lodging, and may reduce yields.
+========,3,Fertilizer requirements.
+Oats remove substantial amounts of nitrogen from the soil.
+They also remove phosphorus in the form of PO at the rate of 0.25 pound per bushel per acre (1 bushel = 38 pounds at 12% moisture).
+Phosphate is thus applied at a rate of 30 to 40 kg/ha, or 30 to 40 lb/acre.
+Oats remove potash (KO) at a rate of 0.19 pound per bushel per acre, which causes it to use 15–30 kg/ha, or 13–27 lb/acre.
+Usually, 50–100 kg/ha (45–90 lb/ac) of nitrogen in the form of urea or anhydrous ammonia is sufficient, as oats use about one pound per bushel per acre.
+A sufficient amount of nitrogen is particularly important for plant height and hence, straw quality and yield.
+When the prior-year crop was a legume, or where ample manure is applied, nitrogen rates can be reduced somewhat.
+========,3,Weed control.
+The vigorous growth of oats tends to choke out most weeds.
+A few tall broadleaf weeds, such as ragweed, goosegrass, wild mustard, and buttonweed (velvetleaf), occasionally create a problem, as they complicate harvest and reduce yields.
+These can be controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide, such as 2,4-D, while the weeds are still small.
+========,3,Pests and diseases.
+Oats are relatively free from diseases and pests with the exception being leaf diseases, such as leaf rust and stem rust.
+However, "Puccinia coronata" var.
+avenae is a pathogen that can greatly reduce crop yields.
+A few lepidopteran caterpillars feed on the plants—e.g.
+rustic shoulder-knot and setaceous Hebrew character moths, but these rarely become a major pest.
+See also List of oat diseases.
+========,3,Harvesting.
+Harvest techniques are a matter of available equipment, local tradition, and priorities.
+Farmers seeking the highest yield from their crops time their harvest so the kernels have reached 35% moisture, or when the greenest kernels are just turning cream-colour.
+They then harvest by swathing, cutting the plants at about above ground, and putting the swathed plants into windrows with the grain all oriented the same way.
+They leave the windrows to dry in the sun for several days before combining them using a pickup header.
+Finally, they bale the straw.
+Oats can also be left standing until completely ripe and then combined with a grain head.
+This causes greater field losses as the grain falls from the heads, and to harvesting losses, as the grain is threshed out by the reel.
+Without a draper head, there is also more damage to the straw, since it is not properly oriented as it enters the combine's throat.
+Overall yield loss is 10–15% compared to proper swathing.
+Historical harvest methods involved cutting with a scythe or sickle, and threshing under the feet of cattle.
+Late 19th- and early 20th-century harvesting was performed using a binder.
+Oats were gathered into shocks, and then collected and run through a stationary threshing machine.
+========,3,Storage.
+After combining, the oats are transported to the farmyard using a grain truck, semi, or road train, where they are augered or conveyed into a bin for storage.
+Sometimes, when there is not enough bin space, they are augered into portable grain rings, or piled on the ground.
+Oats can be safely stored at 12-14% moisture; at higher moisture levels, they must be aerated or dried.
+========,3,Yield and quality.
+In the United States, No.1 oats weigh ; No.3 oats must weigh at least .
+If over , they are graded as No.4 and oats under are graded as "light weight".
+In Canada, No.1 oats weigh ; No.2 oats must weigh ; No.3 oats must weigh at least and if oats are lighter than they do not make No.4 oats and have no grade.
+Note, however, that oats are bought and sold and yields are figured, on the basis of a bushel equal to or ) in the United States and a bushel equal to or ) in Canada.
+"Bright oats" were sold on the basis of a bushel equal to or ) in the United States.
+Yields range from on marginal land, to on high-producing land.
+The average production is 100 bushels per acre, or 3.5 tonnes per hectare.
+Straw yields are variable, ranging from one to three tonnes per hectare, mainly due to available nutrients and the variety used (some are short-strawed, meant specifically for straight combining).
+========,2,Processing.
+========,3,Dehulling.
+Centrifugal acceleration is used to separate the outer hull from the inner oat groat.
+Oats are fed by gravity onto the centre of a horizontally spinning stone, which accelerates them towards the outer ring.
+Groats and hulls are separated on impact with this ring.
+The lighter oat hulls are then aspirated away, while the denser oat groats are taken to the next step of processing.
+Oat hulls can be used as feed, processed further into insoluble oat fibre, or used as a biomass fuel.
+========,3,Kilning.
+The unsized oat groats pass through a heat and moisture treatment to balance moisture, but mainly to stabilize them.
+Oat groats are high in fat (lipids) and once removed from their protective hulls and exposed to air, enzymatic (lipase) activity begins to break down the fat into free fatty acids, ultimately causing an off-flavour or rancidity.
+Oats begin to show signs of enzymatic rancidity within four days of being dehulled if not stabilized.
+This process is primarily done in food-grade plants, not in feed-grade plants.
+Groats are not considered raw if they have gone through this process; the heat disrupts the germ and they cannot sprout.
+========,3,Sizing of groats.
+Many whole oat groats break during the dehulling process, leaving the following types of groats to be sized and separated for further processing: whole oat groats, coarse steel cut groats, steel cut groats, and fine steel cut groats.
+Groats are sized and separated using screens, shakers and indent screens.
+After the whole oat groats are separated, the remaining broken groats get sized again into the three groups (coarse, regular, fine), and then stored.
+"Steel cut" refers to all sized or cut groats.
+When not enough broken groats are available to size for further processing, whole oat groats are sent to a cutting unit with steel blades that evenly cut groats into the three sizes above.
+========,3,Final processing.
+========,4,Flaking.
+This process uses two large smooth or corrugated rolls spinning at the same speed in opposite directions at a controlled distance.
+Oat flakes, also known as rolled oats, have many different sizes, thicknesses and other characteristics depending on the size of oat groats passed between the rolls.
+Typically, the three sizes of steel cut oats are used to make instant, baby and quick rolled oats, whereas whole oat groats are used to make regular, medium and thick rolled oats.
+Oat flakes range in thickness from 0.36 mm to 1.00 mm.
+========,4,Oat bran milling.
+This process takes the oat groats through several roll stands to flatten and separate the bran from the flour (endosperm).
+The two separate products (flour and bran) get sifted through a gyrating sifter screen to further separate them.
+The final products are oat bran and debranned oat flour.
+========,4,Whole flour milling.
+This process takes oat groats straight to a grinding unit (stone or hammer mill) and then over sifter screens to separate the coarse flour and final whole oat flour.
+The coarser flour is sent back to the grinding unit until it is ground fine enough to be whole oat flour.
+This method is used often in India and other countries.
+In India whole grain flour of oats (jai) used to make Indian bread known as jarobra in Himachal Pradesh.
+========,2,Naming.
+In Scottish English, oats may be referred to as corn.
+(In the English language, the major staple grain of the local area is often referred to as "corn".
+In the US, "corn" originates from "Indian corn" and refers to what others call "maize".)

test/46574.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Rye ("Secale cereale") is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop.
+It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) and is closely related to barley (genus "Hordeum") and wheat ("Triticum").
+Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, crisp bread, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder.
+It can also be eaten whole, either as boiled rye berries or by being rolled, similar to rolled oats.
+Rye is a cereal grain and should not be confused with ryegrass, which is used for lawns, pasture, and hay for livestock.
+========,2,History.
+Rye is one of a number of species that grow wild in central and eastern Turkey and in adjacent areas.
+Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük, but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.
+It is possible that rye traveled west from (Asia Minor) Turkey as a minor admixture in wheat (possibly as a result of Vavilovian mimicry), and was only later cultivated in its own right.
+Although archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine, Danube, and in Ireland and Britain, Pliny the Elder was dismissive of rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation" and spelt is mixed into it "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".
+Since the Middle Ages people have cultivated rye widely in Central and Eastern Europe.
+It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the French-German border and north of Hungary.
+In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands.
+Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria remain controversial.
+Critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff.
+========,2,Agronomy.
+Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the fall to provide ground cover for the winter.
+It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover.
+It can be used to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds, and can either be harvested as a bonus crop or tilled directly into the ground in spring to provide more organic matter for the next summer's crop.
+It is sometimes used in winter gardens and is a common nurse crop.
+The nematode "Ditylenchus dipsaci", leaf beetle, fruit fly, gout fly, cereal chafer, dart moth, cereal bug, Hessian fly, and rustic shoulder knot are among insects which can seriously affect rye health.
+========,2,Production and consumption statistics.
+Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe.
+The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Latvia into central and northern Russia.
+Rye is also grown in North America (Canada and the United States), in South America (Argentina, Brazil and Chile), in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), in Turkey, in Kazakhstan and in northern China.
+Production levels of rye have fallen in most of the producing nations, as of 2012.
+For instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 million metric tons (t) in 1992 to 2.1 t in 2012.
+Corresponding figures for other countries are as follows: Poland – falling from 5.9 t in 1992 to 2.9 t in 2005; Germany – 3.3 t to 3.9 Mt; Belarus – 3.1 t to 1.1 t; China – 1.7 t to 0.7 t. Most rye is consumed locally or exported only to neighboring countries, rather than being shipped worldwide.
+========,2,Diseases.
+Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus.
+Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as ergotism.
+Ergotism can cause both physical and mental harm, including convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death.
+Historically, damp northern countries that have depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics of this condition.
+There have been "occurrence[s] of ergotism with periods where there were high incidents of people persecuted for being witches.
+Emphasis was placed on the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692, where there was a sudden rise in the number of people accused of being witches, but earlier examples were taken from Europe, as well."
+========,2,Uses.
+Rye bread, including pumpernickel, is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe.
+Rye is also used to make crisp bread.
+Rye flour is high in gliadin but low in glutenin.
+It therefore has a lower gluten content than wheat flour.
+It also contains a higher proportion of soluble fiber.
+Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g.
+pericarp, testa and aleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight).
+Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, like rye whiskey and rye beer.
+Other uses of rye grain include kvass and an herbal medicine known as rye extract.
+Rye straw is used as livestock bedding, as a cover crop and green manure for soil amendment, and to make crafts such as corn dollies.
+========,2,Cultivation.
+Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains.
+Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or peat.
+Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains do.
+Rye will survive with snow cover that would otherwise result in winter-kill for winter wheat.
+Most farmers grow winter ryes, which are planted and begin to grow in autumn.
+In spring, the plants develop and produce their crop.
+Fall-planted rye shows fast growth.
+By the summer solstice, plants reach their maximum height of about a 120 cm (4 ft) while spring-planted wheat has only recently germinated.
+Vigorous growth suppresses even the most noxious weed competitors and rye can be grown without application of herbicides.
+Rye is a common, unwanted invader of winter wheat fields.
+If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.
+========,3,Environment variability.
+As previously addressed, "Secale cereale" can survive through many climates and in many environments.
+Researchers have pinpointed certain proteins that are responsible for the antifreeze properties, which are proteins that help the organism remain alive in subzero environments.
+This species' capability occurs in a different manner from the antifreeze property of some fish and insects that also have antifreeze characteristic.
+Specifically, the leaves of winter "S. cereale" produce various polypeptides that possess the antifreeze capability which are different than the antifreeze polypeptides produced by fish and insects.
+In addition to these survival capabilities under high stress circumstances, "S. cereale" is known to improve the soil caliber in the gentle paddies in which it lives; however, there has been evidence to suggest that its biomass has increased greenhouse gas emissions.
+Specifically, methane is released during its cultivation.
+Moreover, this research also suggests that the biomass of this plant changes at different stages of growth, so it can be minimized by selecting a specific growth stage in which it is harvested.
+The methane production of "S. cereale" was heightened during the pre-maturing stage of development.
+However, during the flowering stage of the plant the methane was the least significant amount.
+This information is good to know because the flowering stage would also be the most opportune time of an increased nutritional value of the plant as well.
+In this way, the unfavorable effects of "S. cereale" on the environment can be diminished.
+In conclusion, "S. cereale" can be used in varying environments.
+========,3,Diversity and uses.
+Along with "Secale cereale's" relationship and impact on the environment, it is also a valuable species because of its expansive diversity and uses.
+In northern Portugal, fourteen different populations of "S. cereale" were analyzed in order to better understand their differences.
+It was discovered that the storage proteins are very diverse and possess a lot of overall genetic variation as well, which is useful information to know because scientists can use its diversity in breeding to produce the most efficient cultivar of "S. cereale," or rye.
+Moreover, the beneficial characteristics of "S. cereale" can also be used to improve certain characteristics of other useful plants, like wheat.
+The pollination abilities of wheat were vastly improved when there was cross-pollination with "S. cereale".
+The addition of the rye chromosome 4R increased the size of the wheat anther along with increasing the number of pollen grains present.
+Along with improved wheat, the optimal characteristics of "S. cereale" can also be combined with another perennial rye, specifically "S. montanum Guss", in order to produce "S. cereanum", which has the beneficial characteristics of each.
+The hybrid rye ("S. cereanum") can be grown in all environments, even with less than favorable soil and protects some soils from erosion.
+In addition, the plant mixture has improved forage and is known to contain digestible fiber and protein.
+Information about the diversity, the genome and "S. cereanum’s" ability to cross fertilize with other species is useful information for scientists to know as they attempt to come up with various plant species that will be able to feed humanity in the future without leaving a negative footprint on the environment.
+========,2,Harvesting.
+The harvesting of rye is similar to that of wheat.
+It is usually done with combine harvesters, which cut the plants, thresh and winnow the grain, and either gather the straw onto wagons or release it to the field as soil amendment.
+The resultant grain is stored in local silos or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment.
+Before the era of mechanised agriculture, rye harvesting was a manual task performed with scythes or sickles.
+The cut rye was often shocked for drying or storage, and the threshing was done by manually beating the seed heads against a floor or other object.
+========,2,Health concerns.
+Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains gluten, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and wheat allergy, among others.
+Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley.
+Ergotism is an illness that can result from eating rye and other grains infected by ergot fungi (which produce LSD-25-like toxins in infected products).
+Although it is no longer a common illness because of modern food safety efforts, it was common before the 20th century, and it can still happen today if food safety vigilance breaks down.

test/46576.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+========,1,preface.
+The turnip or white turnip ("Brassica rapa" subsp.
+"rapa") is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, bulbous taproot.
+Small, tender varieties are grown for human consumption, while larger varieties are grown as feed for livestock.
+In the north of England and Scotland, and eastern Canada (Newfoundland), turnip (or "neep"; the word "turnip" is an old compound of "tur-" as in turned/rounded on a lathe and "neep", derived from Latin "napus") often refers to rutabaga, a larger, yellow root vegetable in the same genus (Brassica), also known as swede (from "Swedish turnip").
+========,2,Description.
+The most common type of turnip is mostly white-skinned apart from the upper , which protrude above the ground and are purple or red or greenish where the sun has hit.
+This above-ground part develops from stem tissue, but is fused with the root.
+The interior flesh is entirely white.
+The root is roughly globular, from in diameter, and lacks side roots.
+Underneath, the taproot (the normal root below the swollen storage root) is thin and or more in length; it is trimmed off before the vegetable is sold.
+The leaves grow directly from the above-ground shoulder of the root, with little or no visible crown or neck (as found in rutabagas).
+Turnip leaves are sometimes eaten as "turnip greens" ("turnip tops" in the UK), and they resemble mustard greens (to which they are closely related) in flavor.
+Turnip greens are a common side dish in southeastern U.S. cooking, primarily during late fall and winter.
+Smaller leaves are preferred, but the bitter taste of larger leaves can be reduced by pouring off the water from the initial boiling and replacing it with fresh water.
+Varieties of turnip grown specifically for their leaves resemble mustard greens and have small or no storage roots.
+These include rapini (broccoli rabe), bok choy, and Chinese cabbage.
+Similar to raw cabbage or radish, turnip leaves and roots have a pungent flavor that becomes milder after cooking.
+Turnip roots weigh up to , although they are usually harvested when smaller.
+Size is partly a function of variety and partly a function of the length of time the turnip has grown.
+Most very small turnips (also called "baby turnips") are specialty varieties.
+These are only available when freshly harvested and do not keep well.
+Most baby turnips can be eaten whole, including their leaves.
+Baby turnips are sold in yellow-, orange-, and red-fleshed varieties, as well as white-fleshed.
+Their flavor is mild, so they can be eaten raw in salads like radishes and other vegetables.
+========,2,Nutrition.
+The turnip's root is high in vitamin C. The green leaves of the turnip top ("turnip greens") are a good source of vitamin A, folate, vitamin C, vitamin K and calcium.
+Turnip greens are also high in lutein (8.5 mg / 100 g).
+One medium raw turnip () contains these nutritional elements according to the USDA:
+***LIST***.
+Like rutabaga, turnip contains bitter cyanoglucosides that release small amounts of cyanide.
+Sensitivity to the bitterness of these cyanoglucosides is controlled by a paired gene.
+Subjects who have inherited two copies of the "sensitive" gene find turnips twice as bitter as those who have two "insensitive" genes, and thus may find turnips and other cyanoglucoside-containing foods intolerably bitter.
+========,2,Origin.
+Some evidence shows the turnip was domesticated before the 15th century BC; it was grown in India at this time for its oil-bearing seeds.
+The turnip was a well-established crop in Hellenistic and Roman times, which leads to the assumption that it was brought into cultivation earlier.
+Sappho, a Greek poet from the seventh century BC, calls one of her paramours "Gongýla", "turnip".
+Zohary and Hopf note, however, "there are almost no archaeological records available" to help determine its earlier history and domestication.
+Wild forms of the hot turnip and its relatives the mustards and radishes are found over west Asia and Europe, suggesting their domestication took place somewhere in that area.
+However, Zohary and Hopf conclude, "Suggestions as to the origins of these plants are necessarily based on linguistic considerations."
+========,2,Cultivation.
+The 1881 "Household Cyclopedia" gives these instructions for field cultivation of turnips in the USA:
+As a root crop, turnips grow best in cool weather; hot temperatures cause the roots to become woody and bad-tasting.
+They are typically planted in the spring in cold-weather climates (such as the northern US and Canada) where the growing season is only 3–4 months.
+In temperate climates (ones with a growing season of 5–6 months), turnips may also be planted in late summer for a second fall crop.
+In warm-weather climates (7 or more month growing season), they are planted in the fall.
+55–60 days is the average time from planting to harvest.
+Turnips are a biennial plant, taking two years from germination to reproduction.
+The root spends the first year growing and storing nutrients, and the second year flowers, produces seeds, and dies.
+The flowers of the turnip are tall and yellow, with the seeds forming in pea-like pods.
+In areas with less than seven-month growing seasons, temperatures are too cold for the roots to survive the winter.
+To produce seeds, pulling the turnips and storing them over winter is necessary, taking care not to damage the leaves.
+During the spring, they may be set back in the ground to complete their lifecycle.
+========,2,Human use.
+Pliny the Elder considered the turnip one of the most important vegetables of his day, rating it "directly after cereals or at all events after the bean, since its utility surpasses that of any other plant".
+Pliny praised it as a source of fodder for farm animals, noting that this vegetable is not particular about the type of soil in which it grows and, because it can be left in the ground until the next harvest, it "prevents the effects of famine" for humans.
+The Macomber turnip (actually a rutabaga) dating from the late 19th century features in one of the very few historic markers for a vegetable, on Main Road in Westport, Massachusetts.
+In England, around 1700, Turnip Townshend promoted the use of turnips in a four-year crop-rotation system that enabled year-round livestock production.
+In the south of England, the smaller white vegetables are called turnips, while the larger yellow ones are referred to as swedes.
+In the USA, turnips are the same, but swedes are usually called rutabagas.
+In Scotland, Ireland, northern England, and parts of Canada, the usage is confusingly reversed, with the yellow vegetables being called turnips or neeps, and the white ones swedes.
+Neeps are mashed and eaten with haggis, traditionally on Burns Night.
+Turnip lanterns are an old tradition; since inaugural Halloween festivals in Ireland and Scotland, turnips (rutabaga) have been carved out and used as candle lanterns.
+At Samhain, candle lanterns carved from turnips — "samhnag" — were part of the traditional Celtic festival.
+Large turnips were hollowed out, carved with faces, and placed in windows, used to ward off harmful spirits.
+At Halloween in Scotland in 1895, masqueraders in disguise carried lanterns made out of scooped-out turnips.
+In Nordic countries, turnips provided the staple crop before their replacement by the potato in the 18th century.
+The cross between turnip and cabbage, rutabaga, was possibly first produced in Scandinavia.
+In Turkey, particularly in the area near Adana, turnips are used to flavor "şalgam", a juice made from purple carrots and spices served ice cold.
+In Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon, turnips are pickled.
+In Japan, pickled turnips are also popular and are sometimes stir-fried with salt or soy sauce.
+Turnip greens are included in the ritual of the Festival of Seven Herbs, called "suzuna".
+In the United States, stewed turnips are eaten as a root vegetable in the autumn and winter.
+The greens of the turnip are harvested and eaten all year.
+Turnip greens may be cooked with a ham hock or piece of fat pork meat, the juice produced in the stewing process prized as pot liquor.
+Stewed turnip greens are often eaten with vinegar.
+In the Friuli region of Italy, a popular side dish, called , is made of shredded turnip marinated in red grape pomace.
+In Iran, boiled turnip-roots (with salt) are a common household remedy for cough and cold.
+In the Punjab and Kashmir regions of India and Pakistan, turnips are used in variety of dishes, most notably "Shab Degh".
+In Brazil, turnips () are traditionally regarded as distasteful, or at least somewhat disagreeable and unpleasant at the first bite or taste.
+Part of this bias reportedly stems from the Middle Ages, where, for the reason of being inexpensive, turnips became in Iberia (and thus in Iberian-descended cultures) associated with the poor, and avoided in the diet of the nobility.
+========,2,Heraldry.
+The turnip is an old vegetable charge in heraldry.
+It was used by Leonhard von Keutschach, prince-archbishop of Salzburg.
+The turnip is still the heart shield in the arms of Keutschach am See.

test/46595.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+========,1,preface.
+A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry.
+The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads.
+The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.
+========,2,Etymology.
+The word "loom" is derived from the Old English "geloma" formed from ge-(perfective prefix) and "loma", a root of unknown origin; this meant utensil or tool or machine of any kind.
+In 1404 it was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth.
+By 1838 it had gained the meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.
+========,2,Weaving.
+Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e.
+"that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e.
+"that which is woven".
+The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts (as few as two, four is common, sixteen not unheard of), shuttle, reed and takeup roll.
+In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations.
+These are the principal motions.
+***LIST***.
+There are two secondary motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam.
+This process is called taking up.
+At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams.
+To become fully automatic, a loom needs a tertiary motion, the filling stop motion.
+This will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks.
+An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.
+========,2,Types of looms.
+========,3,Back strap loom.
+A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations consists of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched.
+One bar is attached to a fixed object, and the other to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back.
+On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set.
+The weaver leans back and uses his or her body weight to tension the loom.
+To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles.
+The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver.
+Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom.
+Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle.
+Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world.
+They produce such things as belts, ponchos, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths.
+Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions.
+Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom.
+Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle.
+========,3,Warp-weighted loom.
+The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period.
+The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Serbia and Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland.
+This loom was used in Ancient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter.
+Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut.
+Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights.
+When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue.
+This frees the weaver from vertical size constraints.
+========,3,Drawloom.
+A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth.
+In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately.
+A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness.
+========,3,Handloom.
+A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving.
+In a wooden vertical-shaft looms, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft.
+The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads — the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place.
+This was a great discovery in the 13th century.
+========,3,Flying shuttle.
+Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan.
+If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child).
+John Kay (1704–1779) patented the flying shuttle in 1733.
+The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed.
+With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency.
+A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back.
+A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arm’s length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle.
+The "flying shuttle" was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution.
+The whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill and it was just a matter of time before it could be powered.
+========,3,Traditional looms.
+Several other types of hand looms exist, including the simple frame loom, pit loom, free-standing loom, and the pegged loom.
+Each of these can be constructed, and provide work and income in developing societies.
+========,2,Power looms.
+Edmund Cartwright built and patented a power loom in 1785, and it was this that was adopted by the nascent cotton industry in England.
+The silk loom made by Jacques Vaucanson in 1745 operated on the same principles but was not developed further.
+The invention of the flying shuttle by John Kay was critical to the development of a commercially successful power loom.
+Cartwright's loom was impractical but the ideas behind it were developed by numerous inventors in the Manchester area of England where, by 1818, there were 32 factories containing 5,732 looms.
+Horrocks loom was viable, but it was the Roberts Loom in 1830 that marked the turning point.
+Incremental changes to the three motions continued to be made.
+The problems of sizing, stop-motions, consistent take-up, and a temple to maintain the width remained.
+In 1841, Kenworthy and Bullough produced the Lancashire Loom which was self-acting or semi-automatic.
+This enables a youngster to run six looms at the same time.
+Thus, for simple calicos, the power loom became more economical to run than the hand loom – with complex patterning that used a dobby or Jacquard head, jobs were still put out to handloom weavers until the 1870s.
+Incremental changes were made such as the Dickinson Loom, culminating in the Keighley-born inventor Northrop, who was working for the Draper Corporation in Hopedale producing the fully automatic Northrop Loom.
+This loom recharged the shuttle when the pirn was empty.
+The Draper E and X models became the leading products from 1909.
+They were challenged by synthetic fibres such as rayon.
+From 1942 the faster and more efficient shuttleless Sulzer looms and the rapier looms were introduced.
+Modern industrial looms can weave at 2,000 weft insertions per minute.
+========,3,Weft insertion.
+Different types of looms are most often defined by the way that the weft, or pick, is inserted into the warp.
+Many advances in weft insertion have been made in order to make manufactured cloth more cost effective.
+There are five main types of weft insertion and they are as follows:
+***LIST***.
+========,3,Shedding.
+========,4,Dobby looms.
+A dobby loom is a type of floor loom that controls the whole warp threads using a dobby head.
+Dobby is a corruption of "draw boy" which refers to the weaver's helpers who used to control the warp thread by pulling on draw threads.
+A dobby loom is an alternative to a treadle loom, where multiple heddles (shafts) were controlled by foot treadles – one for each heddle.
+========,4,Jacquard looms.
+The Jacquard loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, which simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask and matelasse.
+The loom is controlled by punched cards with punched holes, each row of which corresponds to one row of the design.
+Multiple rows of holes are punched on each card and the many cards that compose the design of the textile are strung together in order.
+It is based on earlier inventions by the Frenchmen Basile Bouchon (1725), Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728) and Jacques Vaucanson (1740) To call it a loom is a misnomer, a Jacquard head could be attached to a power loom or a hand loom, the head controlling which warp thread was raised during shedding.
+Multiple shuttles could be used to control the colour of the weft during picking.
+========,2,Circular looms.
+A circular loom is used to create a seamless tube of fabric for products such as hosiery, sacks, clothing, fabric hose (such as fire hose) and the like.
+Circular looms can be small jigs used for Circular knitting or large high-speed machines for modern garments.
+Modern circular looms use up to ten shuttles driven from below in a circular motion by electromagnets for the weft yarns, and cams to control the warp threads.
+The warps rise and fall with each shuttle passage, unlike the common practice of lifting all of them at once.

test/46596.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surfaces and its sub-surface water from an area.
+The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic conditions that harm root growth), but many soils need artificial drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.
+========,2,History.
+========,3,Early history.
+The ancient Indus of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the civilization were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban cities in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of the Indian Subcontinent today.
+All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities.
+Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.
+========,2,Current practices.
+========,3,Geotextiles.
+New drainage systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil from passing into and clogging the drain.
+Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications.
+Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through.
+In a typical drainage system they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material: gravel, sea shells, stone or rock.
+The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil.
+Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flow within the stone to an outfell.
+In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increases the volume of water transported in the drain.
+Alternatively,the prefabricated plastic drainage system made of HDPE called SmartDitch, often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be considered.
+The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use which eliminates the need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain and concrete liners.
+Over the past 30 years geotextile and PVC filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media.
+They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions.
+========,3,21st century alternatives.
+Seattle's Public Utilities created a pilot program called Street Edge Alternatives (SEA Streets) Project.
+The project focuses on designing a system "to provide drainage that more closely mimics the natural landscape prior to development than traditional piped systems".
+The streets are characterized by ditches along the side of the roadway, with plantings designed throughout the area.
+An emphasis on non curbed sidewalks allows water to flow more freely into the areas of permeable surface on the side of the streets.
+Because of the plantings the run off water from the urban area does not all directly go into the ground but can also be absorbed into the surrounding environment.
+According to the monitoring by Seattle Public Utilities, they report a 99 percent reduction of storm water leaving the drainage project Drainage has undergone a large-scale environmental review in the recent past in the United Kingdom.
+Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) are designed to encourage contractors to install drainage system that more closely mimic the natural flow of water in nature.
+Since 2010 local and neighbourhood planning in the UK is required by law to factor SUDS into any development projects that they are responsible for.
+Drainage manufacturers that are showing a commitment to SUDS in pioneering improved environmental drainage options in the United Kingdom include Alumasc Exterior Building Products, Aco Technologies and Polypipe.
+Slot drainage has proved the most breakthrough product of the last twenty years as a drainage option.
+As a channel drainage system it is designed to eliminate the need for further pipework systems to be installed in parallel to the drainage, reducing the environmental impact of production as well as improving water collection.
+Both stainless steel and concrete channel slot drainage have become industry standards on construction projects.
+========,3,Drainage in the construction industry.
+The civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects.
+They set out from the plans all the roads, street gutters, drainage, culverts and sewers involved in construction operations.
+During the construction process he/she will set out all the necessary levels for each of the previously mentioned factors.
+Civil engineers and construction managers work alongside architects and supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors, the general workforce, as well as subcontractors.
+Typically, most jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what degree a landowner can alter the drainage from his parcel.
+Drainage options for the construction industry include: 
+***LIST***.
+The surface opening of channel drainage usually comes in the form of gratings (polymer, plastic, steel or iron) or a single slot (slot drain) that runs along the ground surface (typically manufactured from steel or iron).
+========,3,Drainage in Urban Vegetation.
+Research evaluating drainage quantity and quality in urban mixed landscapes vegetation is limited.
+Insufficiencies and obstacles in understanding soil water conditions particularly in urban landscape environs undermine a sound judgement of urban soils.
+A research in South Australia investigates the relative impact of landscape variation on drainage and solute leaching in a public park containing heterogeneous urban-landscape vegetation that is irrigated with recycled wastewater.
+For this purpose, two pan lysimeters were designed and installed in two different land-scape zones.
+More information is available:
+"Variability of drainage and solute leaching in heterogeneous urban vegetation environs" *
+========,2,Reasons for artificial drainage.
+Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture.
+In the northern United States and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes.
+Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make mucklands, which are primarily used for high value crops such as vegetables.
+The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands.
+The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes.
+Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem.
+The invention of wind-powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities.
+The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km² of new land.
+Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture.
+An example is the flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida.
+After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils.
+Rice production requires complete control of water, as fields need to be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle.
+The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage, not only to drain lowland along the shore, but actually pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged.
+In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains.
+Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward, meanwhile plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement through the soil.<br>
+Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils.
+Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production.
+Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established.
+In each of these cases appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops.
+Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not consider drainage necessary.
+However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration.
+Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to control soil salinity.

test/46599.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Leiden (; ; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland.
+The municipality of Leiden has a population of 122,915, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration with its suburbs Oegstgeest, Leiderdorp, Voorschoten and Zoeterwoude with 206,647 inhabitants.
+The Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) further includes Katwijk in the agglomeration which makes the total population of the Leiden urban agglomeration 270,879, and in the larger Leiden urban area also Teylingen, Noordwijk, and Noordwijkerhout are included with in total 348,868 inhabitants.
+Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some from The Hague to its south and some from Amsterdam to its north.
+The recreational area of the Kaag Lakes (Kagerplassen) lies just to the northeast of Leiden.
+A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, and Leiden University Medical Center.
+Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts.
+One of the world's most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born and educated in Leiden.
+Other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen.
+The city has been one of Europe's most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries.
+Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave.
+Many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto: ‘City of Discoveries’.
+Leiden University is one of Europe’s top universities, it boasts thirteen Nobel Prize winners, it is a member of the League of European Research Universities and positioned highly in all international academic rankings.
+It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdom's oldest university.
+Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences (Leidse Hogeschool) together have around 35,000 students.
+Leiden is a typical university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city and the many students from all over the world give the city a bustling, vivid and international atmosphere.
+========,2,History.
+Leiden was formed on an artificial hill (today called the Burcht van Leiden) at the confluence of the rivers Oude and Nieuwe Rijn (Old and New Rhine).
+In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called "Leithon".
+The name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- "canal".
+Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum.
+This particular "castellum" was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the city's name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum.
+However the castellum was in fact closer to the town of Katwijk, whereas the Roman settlement near modern-day Leiden was called Matilo.
+The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill (motte), was initially subject to the Bishop of Utrecht but around 1100 the burgraves became subject to the county of Holland.
+This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold: "Holtland" or "Holland".
+Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III.
+Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a civil war against her uncle, William I, Count of Holland.
+He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada.
+Leiden received city rights in 1266.
+In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons.
+========,3,Siege of 1420.
+In 1420, during the Hook and Cod wars, Duke John III of Bavaria along with his army marched from Gouda in the direction of Leiden in order to conquer the city since Leiden did not pay the new Count of Holland Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut, his niece and only daughter of Count William VI of Holland.
+Burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels.
+But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first.
+He rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship.
+By firing at the walls and gates with iron balls the citadels fell one by one.
+Within a week John of Bavaria conquered the castles of Poelgeest, Ter Does, Hoichmade, de Zijl, ter Waerd, Warmond and de Paddenpoel.
+On 24 June the army appeared before the walls of Leiden.
+On 17 August 1420, after a two-month siege the city surrendered to John of Bavaria.
+The burgrave Filips of Wassenaar was stripped of his offices and rights and lived out his last years in captivity.
+========,3,16th to 18th centuries.
+Leiden flourished in the 16th and 17th century.
+At the close of the 15th century the weaving establishments (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden were very important, and after the expulsion of the Spaniards Leiden cloth, Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were familiar terms.
+In the same period, Leiden developed an important printing and publishing industry.
+The influential printer Christoffel Plantijn lived there at one time.
+One of his pupils was Lodewijk Elzevir (1547–1617), who established the largest bookshop and printing works in Leiden, a business continued by his descendants through 1712 and the name subsequently adopted (in a variant spelling) by contemporary publisher Elsevier.
+In 1572, the city sided with the Dutch revolt against Spanish rule and played an important role in the Eighty Years' War.
+Besieged from May until October 1574 by the Spanish, Leiden was relieved by the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to the inhabitants of the flooded town.
+As a reward for the heroic defence of the previous year, the University of Leiden was founded by William I of Orange in 1575.
+Yearly on 3 October, the end of the siege is still celebrated in Leiden.
+Tradition tells that the citizens were offered the choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes and chose the university.
+The siege is notable also for being the first instance in Europe of the issuance of paper money, with paper taken from prayer books being stamped using coin dies when silver ran out.
+Leiden is also known as the place where the Pilgrims (as well as some of the first settlers of New Amsterdam) lived (and operated a printing press) for a time in the early 17th century before their departure to Massachusetts and New Amsterdam in the New World.
+In the 17th century, Leiden prospered, in part because of the impetus to the textile industry by refugees from Flanders.
+While the city had lost about a third of its 15,000 citizens during the siege of 1574, it quickly recovered to 45,000 inhabitants in 1622, and may have come near to 70,000 circa 1670.
+During the Dutch Golden Era, Leiden was the second largest city of Holland, after Amsterdam.
+Particularly due to the work by Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738), it played a crucial role in the establishment of modern chemistry and medicine.
+From the late 17th century onwards Leiden slumped, mainly due to the decline of the cloth industries.
+In the beginning of the 19th century the baize manufacture was altogether given up, although industry remained central to Leiden economy.
+This decline is painted vividly by the fall in population.
+The population of Leiden had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and 1811, and in 1904 was 56,044.
+From the 17th to the early 19th century, Leiden was the publishing place of one of the most important contemporary journals, "Nouvelles Extraordinaires de Divers Endroits", known also as "Gazette de Leyde".
+========,3,19th and 20th centuries.
+On 12 January 1807, a catastrophe struck the city when a boat loaded with of gunpowder blew up in the middle of Leiden.
+151 persons were killed, over 2,000 were injured and some 220 homes were destroyed.
+King Louis Bonaparte personally visited the city to provide assistance to the victims.
+Although located in the centre of the city, the area destroyed remained empty for many years.
+In 1886 the space was turned into a public park, the Van der Werff park.
+In 1842, the railroad from Leiden to Haarlem was inaugurated and one year later the railway to Den Haag was completed, resulting in some social and economic improvement.
+Perhaps the most important piece of Dutch history contributed by Leiden was the Constitution of the Netherlands.
+Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798–1872) wrote the Dutch Constitution in April 1848 in his house at Garenmarkt 9 in Leiden.
+Leiden's reputation as the "city of books" continued through the 19th century with the establishment of publishing dynasties by Evert Jan Brill and Albertus Willem Sijthoff.
+Sijthoff, who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote a letter in 1899 to Queen Wilhelmina regarding his opposition to becoming a signatory to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.
+He felt that international copyright restrictions would stifle the Dutch publishing industry.
+Leiden began to expand beyond its 17th-century moats around 1896 and the number of citizens surpassed 50,000 in 1900.
+After 1920, new industries were established in the city, such as the canning and metal industries.
+During World War II, Leiden was hit hard by Allied bombardments.
+The areas surrounding the railway station and Marewijk were almost completely destroyed.
+========,3,Leiden today.
+The city's biggest and most popular annual festival is celebrated at 3 October and is called simply 3 Oktober.
+The people of Leiden celebrate the end of the Spanish siege of 1574.
+It typically takes place over the course of two to three days (usually two but three if there's a Sunday involved) and includes parades, a hutspot feast, historical reenactments, a funfair and other events.
+The city has recently started to host the Leiden International Film Festival, the fastest growing festival of its type in the Netherlands.
+Leiden has important functions as a shopping and trade centre for communities around the city.
+The University of Leiden is famous for its many discoveries including Snells law (by Willebrord Snellius), the famous Leyden jar, a capacitor made from a glass jar, invented in Leiden by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 1746.
+Another development was in cryogenics: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1913 Nobel prize winner in physics) liquefied helium for the first time (1908) and later managed to reach a temperature of less than one degree above the absolute minimum.
+Albert Einstein also spent some time at Leiden University during his early to middle career.
+The city also houses the Eurotransplant, the international organization responsible for the mediation and allocation of organ donation procedures in Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Slovenia.
+Leiden also houses the headquarters of Airbus Group, a global pan-European aerospace and defence corporation and a leading defence and military contractor worldwide.
+The group includes Airbus, the leading manufacturer of commercial aircraft worldwide.
+========,2,Rivers, canals and parks.
+The two branches of the Oude Rijn, which enter Leiden on the east, unite in the centre of the city.
+The city is further intersected by numerous small canals with tree-bordered quays.
+On the west side of the city, the Hortus Botanicus and other gardens extend along the old "Singel", or outer canal.
+The Leidse Hout park, which contains a small deer park, lies on the northwest border with Oegstgeest.
+The "Van der Werf Park" is named after the mayor , who defended the city against the Spaniards in 1574.
+The city was beleaguered for months and many died from famine.
+The open space for the park was formed by the accidental explosion of a ship loaded with gunpowder in 1807, which destroyed hundreds of houses, including that of the Elsevier family of printers.
+========,2,Buildings of interest.
+Because of the economic decline from the end of the 17th until the middle of the 19th century, much of the 16th- and 17th-century city centre is still intact.
+It is the second largest 17th-century town centre in the Netherlands, the largest being Amsterdam's city centre.
+A hundred buildings in the centre are decorated with large murals of poetry, part of a wall poem project active from 1992, and still ongoing.
+========,3,Fortifications.
+At the strategically important junction of the two arms of the Oude Rijn stands the old castle "de Burcht", a circular tower built on an earthen mound.
+The mound probably was a refuge against high water before a small wooden fortress was built on top of it in the 11th century.
+The citadel is a so-called motte-and-bailey castle.
+Of Leiden's old city gates only two are left, the "Zijlpoort" and the "Morspoort", both dating from the end of the 17th century.
+Apart from one small watch tower on the Singel nothing is left of the town's city walls.
+Another former fortification is the "Gravensteen".
+Built as a fortress in the 13th century it has since served as house, library and prison.
+Presently it is one of the University's buildings.
+========,3,Churches.
+The chief of Leiden's numerous churches are the Hooglandse Kerk (or the church of St Pancras, built in the 15th century and containing a monument to Pieter Adriaansz.
+van der Werff) and the "Pieterskerk" (church of St Peter (1315)) with monuments to Scaliger, Boerhaave and other famous scholars.
+From a historical perspective the Marekerk is interesting too.
+Arent van 's Gravesande designed that church in 1639.
+Other fine examples of his work in Leiden are in the "Stedelijk Museum De Lakenhal" (the municipal museum of fine arts), and the "Bibliotheca Thysiana".
+The growing city needed another church and the "Marekerk" was the first Protestant church to be built in Leiden (and in Holland) after the Reformation.
+It is an example of Dutch Classicism.
+In the drawings by Van 's Gravesande the pulpit is the centrepiece of the church.
+The pulpit is modelled after the one in the "Nieuwe Kerk" at Haarlem (designed by Jacob van Campen).
+The building was first used in 1650, and is still in use.
+The Heilige Lodewijkkerk is first catholic church in Leiden that was built after the Reformation.
+This church was given to the Catholics after the gunpowder explosion in 1807, which killed 150 inhabitants and destroyed a large part of the city centre.
+The 'Waalse Kerk' (Breestraat 63) was originally part of the Katharina Hospital.
+In 1584 it became the church of Protestant refugees from the Southern Netherlands (Brugge) and France.
+Later churches in the centre include the St. Joseph in expressionistic style.
+========,3,University buildings.
+The city centre contains many buildings that are in use by the University of Leiden.
+The "Academy Building" is housed in a former 16th-century convent.
+Among the institutions connected with the university are the national institution for East Indian languages, ethnology and geography; the botanical gardens, founded in 1587; the observatory (1860); the museum of antiquities ("Rijksmuseum van Oudheden"); and the ethnographical museum, of which P.F.
+von Siebold's Japanese collection was the nucleus ("Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde").
+This collection is now housed in a separate museum called the "SieboldHuis".
+The Bibliotheca Thysiana occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655.
+It is especially rich in legal works and vernacular chronicles.
+Noteworthy are also the many special collections at Leiden University Library among which those of the Society of Dutch Literature (1766) and the collection of casts and engravings.
+In recent years the university has built the Leiden Bio Science Park at the city's outskirts to accommodate the Science departments.
+========,2,Public transport.
+Bus transport in Leiden is provided by Arriva.
+Railway stations within the municipality of Leiden are:
+Leiden is on the planned route of the RijnGouweLijn, the Netherlands' first Light rail project.
+This project has, however been shelved for the foreseeable time.

test/46601.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Cambyses II ( "Kambūjiya" "Kanbūzī"; "Kambúsēs"; Latin "Cambyses"; Medieval Hebrew , "Kambisha") (d. 522 BC) son of Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BC), was emperor of the Achaemenid Empire.
+Cambyses' grandfather was Cambyses I, king of Anshan.
+Following Cyrus the Great's conquest of the Near East and Central Asia, Cambyses II further expanded the empire into Egypt during the Late Period by defeating the Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik III during the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC.
+After the Egyptian campaign and the truce with Libya, Cambyses invaded the Kingdom of Kush (located in what is now the Sudan) but with little success.
+========,2,Etymology.
+Though numerous scholars link Cambyses to the Sanskrit tribal name Kamboja there are also few scholars who suggest Elamite origin of the name.
+Jean Przyluski had sought to find an Austric (Kol or Munda) affinity for Kamboja.
+Friedrich von Spiegel, Sten Konow, Ernst Herzfeld, James Hope Moulton, Wojciech Skalmowski and some other scholars think that "Kambūjiya" is adjectival form of the Sanskrit tribal name "Kamboja".
+Spiegel also regards Kamboja/Kambujiya (Cambyses) and Kuru/Kyros (Cyrus) as the names of two prehistoric legendary heroes of the Indo-Iranians who were later revived naturally in the royal family of the Achaemenes and further opines that the myths about Cyrus the Great were largely due to the confusion between the historical and the legendary heroes of prehistory.
+James Hope Moulton regards Spiegel's suggestions as the best of other etymological explanations of these two names.
+On the other hand, Arnold J. Toynbee discusses the issue of two Persian names Kambujiya (Cambyses) as well as Kurush (Cyrus) elaborately and regards them both as derived from two groups of Eurasian nomads, the Kambojas and the Kurus, mentioned in the Sanskrit texts and who, according to him, had entered India and Iran in the Migration Period of the eighth and seventh century BC.
+Toynbee concludes that the conquest of the world by the elder branch of the House of Achaemenes had been achieved by the valor of the Kuru and Kamboja Nomad reinforcements; hence, as a commemoration, the elder branch of the House had named all their great princes from Cyrus I onwards, alternately, as Cyrus (Kurosh/Kuru) and Cambyses (Kambujiya/Kamboja).
+========,2,Rise to power.
+When Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC, Cambyses was employed in leading religious ceremonies.
+In the cylinder which contains Cyrus' proclamation to the Babylonians, Cambyses' name is joined to his father's in the prayers to Marduk.
+On a tablet dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babylon, although his authority seems to have been ephemeral.
+Only in 530 BC, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, did Cyrus associate Cambyses with the throne.
+Numerous Babylonian tablets of the time date from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was "king of the countries" (i.e., of the world).
+After the death of his father in 530 BC, Cambyses became sole king.
+The tablets dating from his reign in Babylonia run to the end of his eighth year, in 522 BC.
+Herodotus (3.66), who dates his reign from the death of Cyrus, gives his reign a length of seven years five months, from 530 BC to the summer of 523 BC.
+========,2,The traditions of Cambyses.
+The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek authors, come from two different sources.
+The first, which forms the main part of the account of Herodotus (3.
+2–4; 10–37), is of Egyptian origin.
+Here Cambyses is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries named Nitetis (Herod.
+3.2, Dinon fr.
+II, Polyaen.
+29), whose death he avenges on the successor of the usurper Amasis.
+Nevertheless, (Herod.
+3.1 and Ctesias a/i.
+560), the Persians corrected this tradition:
+Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends him a daughter of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by her Cambyses is induced to begin the war.
+His great crime is the killing of the Apis bull, for which he is punished by madness, in which he commits many other crimes, kills his brother and his sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a wound in the thigh, at the same place where he had wounded the sacred animal.
+Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek mercenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who betrayed Egypt to the Persians.
+In the Persian tradition the crime of Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further accused of drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his ruin.
+These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and in a later form, but with some trustworthy detail about his household, in the fragments of Ctesias.
+With the exception of Babylonian dated tablets and some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary evidence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius I in the Behistun Inscription.
+It is difficult to form a correct picture of Cambyses's character from these inscriptions.
+========,2,Darius' account.
+========,3,Conquest of Egypt.
+It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered the Middle East, Cambyses should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only remaining independent state in that part of the world.
+The war took place in 525 BC, when Amasis II had just been succeeded by his son Psamtik III.
+Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert by forming an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a large supply of water to the stations.
+King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threatened Persian attack through his alliance with the Greeks.
+However, this hope failed, as the Cypriot towns and the tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, and the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, also went over to them.
+In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyptian army was defeated, and shortly afterwards Memphis was taken.
+The captive king Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion.
+The Egyptian inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the dress of the Pharaohs.
+========,3,Attempts to conquer south and west of Egypt.
+From Egypt, Cambyses attempted the conquest of Kush, located in the modern Sudan, but his army was not able to cross the deserts and after heavy losses he was forced to return.
+In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the Nubian king Nastasen relates that he had defeated the troops of "Kambasuten" and taken all his ships.
+This was once thought to refer to Cambyses II (H. Schafer, "Die Aethiopische Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums", 1901); however, Nastasen lived far later and was likely referring to Khabash.
+Another expedition against the Siwa Oasis also failed and the plan of attacking Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians to operate against their kindred.
+========,3,The death of Cambyses.
+According to most ancient historians, in Persia the throne was seized by a man posing as his brother Bardiya, most likely a magus, or a Zoroastrian priest named Gaumata.
+Some modern historians consider that this person really was Bardiya, whereas the story that he was an impostor was spread by Darius I after he became monarch.
+Whoever this new monarch was, Cambyses attempted to march against him, but died shortly after under disputed circumstances.
+According to Darius, who was Cambyses' lance-bearer at the time, he decided that success was impossible, and died by his own hand in 522 BC.
+Herodotus and Ctesias ascribe his death to an accident.
+Ctesias writes that Cambyses, despondent from the loss of family members, stabbed himself in the thigh while working with a piece of wood.
+He died eleven days later from the wound.
+Herodotus' story is that while mounting his horse, the tip of Cambyses' scabbard broke and his sword pierced his thigh - Herodotus mentions it is the same place where he stabbed a sacred cow in Egypt.
+He then died of gangrene of the bone and mortification of the wound.
+Some modern historians suspect that Cambyses was assassinated, either by Darius as the first step to usurping the empire for himself, or by supporters of Bardiya.
+According to Herodotus (3.64) he died in Ecbatana, i.e.
+Hamath; Josephus ("Antiquites" xi.
+2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon, which is highly unlikely.
+The location of Cambyses' tomb is uncertain and has been debated for a long time.
+Some archaeologists believe that he was buried in Pasargadae, and identify the tower known as "Zendan-e Sulaiman" as his tomb.
+The possibly unfinished stone platform known as Takht-e Rustam near Naqsh-e Rustam has long been suggested by archaeologists as a location for Cambyses' tomb, based on the similarity of its design and dimensions with those of the tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae.
+However, among the Persepolis Fortification Tablets there is one in Elamite that refers to the "šumar of Cambyses and Lady Upanduš in Narezzaš" (NN 2174).
+Henkelman has argued that šumar should be translated as "tomb."
+Since Narezzaš is typically identified with the modern area of Neyriz in Fars province, Henkelman argues that Cambyses' tomb must have been located in that area.
+The Lady Upanduš of the text is not known from any other source, but could have been Cambyses' queen.
+========,2,The lost army of Cambyses.
+According to Herodotus 3.26, Cambyses sent an army to threaten the Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis.
+The army of 50,000 men was halfway across the desert when a massive sandstorm sprang up, burying them all.
+Although many Egyptologists regard the story as apocryphal, people have searched for the remains of the soldiers for years.
+These have included Count László Almásy (on whom the novel "The English Patient" was based), and modern geologist Tom Brown.
+In January 1933, Orde Wingate searched unsuccessfully for the Lost Army of Cambyses in Egypt's Western Desert, then known as the Libyan Desert.
+From September 1983 to February 1984, Gary S. Chafetz, an American journalist and author, led an expedition (sponsored by Harvard University, The National Geographic Society, the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority, and the Ligabue Research Institute) that searched for the Lost Army of Cambyses.
+The six-month search was conducted along the Egyptian-Libyan border in a remote 100-square-kilometer area of complex dunes south west of the uninhabited Bahrein Oasis, approximately 100 miles south east of Siwa (Amon) Oasis.
+The $250,000 expedition had at its disposal 20 Egyptian geologists and labourers, a National Geographic photographer, two Harvard Film Studies documentary film-makers, three camels, an ultra-light aircraft, and ground-penetrating radar.
+The expedition discovered approximately 500 tumuli (Zoroastrian-style graves) but no artifacts.
+Several tumuli contained bone fragments.
+Thermoluminence later dated these fragments to 1,500 BC, approximately 1000 years earlier than the Lost Army.
+A recumbent winged sphinx carved in oolitic limestone was also discovered in a cave in the uninhabited Sitra Oasis (between Bahariya and Siwa Oases), whose provenance appeared to be Persian.
+Chafetz was arrested when he returned to Cairo in February 1984 for "smuggling an airplane into Egypt," even though he had the written permission of the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority to bring the aircraft into the country.
+He was interrogated for 24 hours.
+The charges were dropped after he promised to donate the ultra-light to the Egyptian Government.
+The aircraft now sits in the Egyptian War Museum in Cairo.
+In the summer of 2000, a Helwan University geological team, prospecting for petroleum in Egypt's Western Desert, came across well-preserved fragments of textiles, bits of metal resembling weapons, and human remains that they believed to be traces of the Lost Army of Cambyses.
+The Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities announced that it would organize an expedition to investigate the site, but released no further information.
+In November 2009, two Italian archaeologists, Angelo and Alfredo Castiglioni, announced the discovery of human remains, tools and weapons which date to the era of the Persian army.
+These artefacts were located near Siwa Oasis.
+According to these two archaeologists this is the first archaeological evidence of the story reported by Herodotus.
+While working in the area, the researchers noticed a half-buried pot and some human remains.
+Then the brothers spotted something really intriguing—what could have been a natural shelter.
+It was a rock about long, high and deep.
+Such natural formations occur in the desert, but this large rock was the only one in a large area.
+However, these "two Italian archaeologists" presented their discoveries in a documentary film rather than a scientific journal.
+Doubts have been raised because the Castiglioni brothers also happen to be the two film-makers who produced five controversial African shockumentaries in the 1970s—including "Addio ultimo uomo", "Africa ama", and "Africa dolce e selvaggia"—films in which audiences saw unedited footage of the severing of a penis, the skinning of a human corpse, the deflowering of a girl with a stone phallus, and a group of hunters tearing apart an elephant’s carcass.
+The Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Zahi Hawass, has said in a press release that media reports of this "are unfounded and misleading" and that "The Castiglioni brothers have not been granted permission by the SCA to excavate in Egypt, so anything they claim to find is not to be believed."
+In 2012, the same claims of the Castiglioni brothers resurfaced, as an expedition of the University of Lecce.
+In 2014, Olaf Kaper of the University of Leiden said he found an inscription by Petubastis III, who later became Pharaoh, claiming that he ambushed and defeated the Persian army.
+He postulates that the sandstorm scenario was a cover up by Cambyses' successor Darius I.
+========,2,In fiction.
+Cambyses II has appeared as a character in several works of fiction.
+Thomas Preston's play "King Cambyses, a lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of pleasant mirth" was probably produced in the 1560s.
+A tragedy by Elkanah Settle, "Cambyses, King of Persia", was produced in 1667.
+Cambyses and his downfall are also central to Egyptologist Georg Ebers' 1864 novel, "Eine ägyptische Königstochter" ("An Egyptian Princess").
+"Qambeez" is a 1931 play about him by Ahmed Shawqi.
+In 1929, Robert E. Howard (under the pseudonym "Patrick Howard") published a poem, "", about Cambyses's death.
+He is a main character in "Tamburas" (1965; English translation 1967) by Karlheinz Grosser.
+Paul Sussman's novel "The Lost Army of Cambyses" (2002) recounts the story of rival archaeological expeditions searching for the remains of his army.
+An archaeological search for Cambyses' army is an important plot device in Tess Gerritsen's novel "The Keepsake" (2008).
+The lost army also features in Christopher Golden's "Hellboy" novel "The Lost Army" (2003), and "Biggles Flies South" (1938).
+In Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel "Ruled Britannia", Christopher Marlowe, who in our timeline died in 1593, is still alive in 1597 and has written a play about Cambyses.
+No details are given about the play, except that a Ghost, played by viewpoint character William Shakespeare, appears in it.

test/46621.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+========,1,preface.
+========,2,Origin of the term.
+In movie industry terminology usage, a sound track is an audio recording created or used in film production or post-production.
+Initially the dialogue, sound effects, and music in a film each has its own separate track ("dialogue track", "sound effects track", and "music track"), and these are mixed together to make what is called the "composite track," which is heard in the film.
+A "dubbing track" is often later created when films are dubbed into another language.
+This is also known as a M & E track (music and effects) containing all sound elements minus dialogue which is then supplied by the foreign distributor in the native language of its territory.
+The contraction soundtrack came into public consciousness with the advent of so-called "soundtrack albums" in the late 1940s.
+First conceived by movie companies as a promotional gimmick for new films, these commercially available recordings were labeled and advertised as "music from the original motion picture "soundtrack"", or "music from and inspired by the motion picture."
+These phrases were soon shortened to just "original motion picture "soundtrack"."
+More accurately, such recordings are made from a film's "music track," because they usually consist of the isolated music from a film, not the composite (sound) track with dialogue and sound effects.
+The abbreviation OST is often used to describe the musical soundtrack on a recorded medium, such as CD, and it stands for Original Soundtrack; however, it is sometimes also used to differentiate the original music heard and recorded versus a rerecording or cover of the music.
+========,2,Types of recordings.
+There are five types of soundtrack recordings:
+***LIST***.
+The soundtrack to the 1937 Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the first commercially issued film soundtrack.
+It was released by RCA Victor Records on multiple 78 RPM discs in January 1938 as "Songs from Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (with the Same Characters and Sound Effects as in the Film of That Title)" and has since seen numerous expansions and reissues.
+The first live-action musical film to have a commercially issued soundtrack album was MGM’s 1946 film biography of "Show Boat" composer Jerome Kern, "Till the Clouds Roll By".
+("Snow White" was also a musical film, but an animated one.)
+The album was originally issued as a set of four 10-inch 78-rpm records.
+Only eight selections from the film were included in this first edition of the album.
+In order to fit the songs onto the record sides the musical material needed editing and manipulation.
+This was before tape existed, so the record producer needed to copy segments from the playback discs used on set, then copy and re-copy them from one disc to another adding transitions and cross-fades until the final master was created.
+Needless to say, it was several generations removed from the original and the sound quality suffered for it.
+The playback recordings were purposely recorded very "dry" (without reverberation); otherwise it would come across as too hollow sounding in large movie theatres.
+This made these albums sound flat and boxy.
+========,3,Terminology.
+MGM Records called these "original cast albums" in the style of Decca Broadway show cast albums mostly because the material on the disc(s) would not lock to picture, thereby creating the largest distinction between `Original "Motion Picture" Soundtrack' which, in its strictest sense would contain music that would lock to picture if the home user would play one alongside the other and `Original "Cast" Soundtrack' which in its strictest sense would refer to studio recordings of film music by the original film cast, but which had been edited and/or rearranged for time and content and would not lock to picture.
+In reality, however, soundtrack producers remain ambiguous about this distinction, and titles in which the music on the album "does" lock to picture may be labeled as OCS and music from an album that does "not" lock to picture may be referred to as OMPS.
+The phrase "recorded directly from the soundtrack" was used for a while in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s to differentiate material that would lock to picture from that which would not (excluding alternate masters and alternate vocals or solos), but again, in part because many 'film takes' actually consisted of several different attempts at the song and edited together to form the master, that term as well became nebulous and vague over time when, in cases where the master take used in the film could not be found in its isolated form, (without the M&E) the aforementioned alternate masters and alternate vocal and solo performances which could be located were included in their place.
+As a result of all this nebulosity, over the years the term "soundtrack" began to be commonly applied to any recording from a film, whether taken from the actual film soundtrack or re-recorded in the studio at an earlier or later time.
+The phrase is also sometimes incorrectly used for Broadway cast recordings.
+While it is correct in some instances to call a "soundtrack" a "cast recording" (since in most cases it contains performances recorded by the original film cast) it is never correct to call a "cast recording" a "soundtrack."
+Contributing to the vagueness of the term are projects such as "The Sound of Music Live!"
+which was filmed live on the set for an NBC holiday season special first broadcast in 2013.
+The "album" released three days before the broadcast contained studio pre-recordings of all the songs used in the special, performed by the original cast therefrom, but because only the orchestral portion of the material from the album is the same as that used in the special, (i.e.
+the vocals were sung live over a prerecorded track), this creates a similar technicality because although the "instrumental music bed" from the CD will lock to picture, the vocal performances will not, although it IS possible to create a complete soundtrack recording by lifting the vocal performances from the DVD, erasing the alternate vocal masters from the CD and combining the two.
+Among MGM's most notable soundtrack albums were those of the films "Good News", "Easter Parade", "Annie Get Your Gun", "Singin' in the Rain", "Show Boat", "The Band Wagon", "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers", and "Gigi".
+========,3,Film score albums.
+Film score albums did not really become popular until the LP era, although a few were issued in 78-rpm albums.
+Alex North’s score for the 1951 film version of "A Streetcar Named Desire" was released on a 10-inch LP by Capitol Records and sold so well that the label later re-released it on one side of a 12-inch LP with some of Max Steiner's film music on the reverse.
+Steiner’s score for "Gone with the Wind" has been recorded many times, but when the film was reissued in 1967, MGM Records finally released an album of the famous score recorded directly from the soundtrack.
+Like the 1967 re-release of the film, this version of the score was artificially "enhanced for stereo".
+In recent years, Rhino Records has released a 2-CD set of the complete "Gone With the Wind" score, restored to its original mono sound.
+One of the biggest-selling film scores of all time was John Williams' music from the movie "Star Wars".
+Many film score albums go out-of-print after the films finish their theatrical runs and some have become extremely rare collectors’ items.
+========,3,Composite film tracks included on record.
+In a few rare instances an entire film dialogue track was issued on records.
+The 1968 Franco Zeffirelli film of "Romeo and Juliet" was issued as a 4-LP set, as a single LP with musical and dialogue excerpts, and as an album containing only the film's musical score.
+The ground-breaking film "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?"
+was issued by Warner Bros Records as a 2-LP set containing virtually all the dialogue from the film.
+RCA Victor also issued a double-album set what was virtually all the dialogue from the film soundtrack of "A Man for All Seasons", Decca Records issued a double-album for "Man of La Mancha" and Disney Music Group (formerly Buena Vista Records) issued a similar double-album for its soundtrack for "The Hobbit".
+========,2,Movie and television soundtracks.
+The term soundtrack now most commonly refers to the music used in a movie (or television show), or to an album sold containing that music.
+Sometimes, the music has been recorded just for the film or album (e.g.
+"Saturday Night Fever").
+Often, but not always, and depending on the type of movie, the soundtrack album will contain portions of the score, music composed for dramatic effect as the movie's plot occurs.
+In 1908, Camille Saint-Saëns composed the first music specifically for use in a motion picture (L'assasinat du duc de Guise), and releasing recordings of songs used in films became prevalent in the 1930s.
+Henry Mancini, who won an Emmy Award and two Grammys for his soundtrack to "Peter Gunn", was the first composer to have a widespread hit with a song from a soundtrack.
+By convention, a "soundtrack" record can contain all kinds of music including music "inspired by" but not actually appearing in the movie; the "score" contains only music by the original film's composer(s).
+========,2,Video game soundtracks.
+Soundtrack may also refer to music used in video games.
+While sound effects were nearly universally used for action happening in the game, music to accompany the gameplay was a later development.
+Rob Hubbard and Martin Galway were early composers of music specifically for video games for the 1980s Commodore 64 computer.
+Koji Kondo was an early and important composer for Nintendo games.
+As the technology improved, polyphonic and often orchestral soundtracks replaced simple monophonic melodies starting in the late 1980s and the soundtracks to popular games such as the "Dragon Quest" and "Final Fantasy" series began to be released separately.
+In addition to compositions written specifically for video games, the advent of CD technology allowed developers to incorporate licensed songs into their soundtrack (the "Grand Theft Auto" series is a good example of this).
+Furthermore, when Microsoft released the Xbox in 2001, it featured an option allowing users to customize the soundtrack for certain games by ripping a CD to the hard-drive.
+========,3,Theme park, cruise ship and event soundtracks.
+As in "Sound of Music Live!"
+the music or dialogue in question was prepared specifically for use in or at an event such as that described above.
+In the case of theme parks, actors may be ensconced in large costumes where their faces may be obscured.
+They mime along to a prerecorded music, effects and narration track that may sound as if it was lifted from a movie, or may sound as if it had been overly dramatized for effect.
+In the case of cruise ships, the small stage spaces do not allow for full orchestration, so that possibly the larger instruments may be pre-recorded onto a backing track and the remaining instruments may play live, or the reverse may occur in such instances as "" or "Sinatra: His Voice.
+His World.
+His Way" both of which use isolated vocal and video performances accompanied by a live band.
+In the case of event soundtracks, large public gatherings such as "Hands Across America", The "Live Aid" Concert, the 200th Anniversary Celebration of the U.S. Constitution in Philadelphia, "" or the various "Greenpeace" events (i.e.
+"The First International Greenpeace Record Project", "Rainbow Warriors" and "Alternative NRG") all had special music, effects and dialogue written especially for the event which later went on sale to the record and later video-buying public.
+========,2,Book soundtracks.
+Only a few cases exist of an entire soundtrack being written specifically for a book.
+A soundtrack for J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings" was composed by Craig Russell for the San Luis Obispo Youth Symphony.
+Commissioned in 1995, it was finally put on disk in 2000 by the San Luis Obispo Symphony.
+For the 1996 "Star Wars" novel "" (written by author Steve Perry), Lucasfilm chose Joel McNeely to write a score.
+This was an eccentric, experimental project, in contrast to all other soundtracks, as the composer was allowed to convey general moods and themes, rather than having to write music to flow for specific scenes.
+A project called "Sine Fiction" has made some soundtracks to novels by science fiction writers like Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke, and has thus far released 19 soundtracks to science-fiction novels or short stories.
+All of them are available for free download.
+Author L. Ron Hubbard composed and recorded a soundtrack album to his novel "Battlefield Earth" entitled "Space Jazz".
+He marketed the concept album as "the only original sound track ever produced for a book before it becomes a movie".
+There are two other soundtracks to Hubbard novels, being "Mission Earth" by Edgar Winter and "To the Stars" by Chick Corea.
+The 1985 novel "Always Coming Home" by Ursula K. Le Guin, originally came in a box set with an audiocassette entitled "Music and Poetry of the Kesh", featuring three performances of poetry, and ten musical compositions by Todd Barton.
+In comics, Daniel Clowes' graphic novel "Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron" had an official soundtrack album.
+The original black-and-white Nexus #3 from Capitol comics included the "Flexi-Nexi" which was a soundtrack flexi-disc for the issue.
+"Trosper" by Jim Woodring included a soundtrack album composed and performed by Bill Frisell, and the Absolute Edition of "" is planned to include an original vinyl record.
+"The Crow" released a soundtrack album called "Fear and Bullets" to coincide with the limited edition hardcover copy of the graphic novel.
+The comic book "Hellblazer" released an annual with a song called "Venus of the Hardsell", which was then recorded and a music video to accompany with.
+As Internet access became more widespread, a similar practice developed of accompanying a printed work with a downloadable theme song, rather than a complete and physically published album.
+The theme songs for "Nextwave", "Runaways", "Achewood", "Dinosaur Comics" and "Killroy and Tina" are examples of this.
+In Japan, such examples of music inspired by a work and not intended to soundtrack a radio play or motion picture adaptation of it are known as an "image album" or "image song," though this definition also includes such things as film score demos inspired by concept art and songs inspired by a TV series which do not feature in it.
+Many audiobooks have some form of musical accompaniment, but these are generally not extensive enough to be released as a separate soundtrack.

test/46638.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Dow Jones & Company is an American publishing and financial information firm that has been owned by News Corp. since 2007.
+The company was best known for the publication of the Dow Jones Industrial Average and related market statistics, Dow Jones Newswire and a number of financial publications.
+In 2010 the Dow Jones Indexes subsidiary was sold to the CME Group and the company focused on financial news publications, including its flagship publication "The Wall Street Journal" and providing financial news and information tools to financial companies.
+The company was led by the Bancroft family, which held 64% of voting stock, from the 1920s until 2007 when an extended takeover battle saw News Corp take control of the company.
+========,2,History.
+The company was founded in 1882 by three reporters: Charles Dow, Edward Jones, and Charles Bergstresser.
+Dow Jones was acquired in 1902 by Clarence Barron, the leading financial journalist of the day, after the death of co-founder Charles Dow.
+Upon Barron's death in 1928, control of the company passed to his stepdaughters Jane and Martha Bancroft.
+The company was led by the Bancroft family, which effectively controlled 64% of all voting stock, until 2007 when an extended takeover battle saw News Corporation acquire the business.
+The company became a subsidiary of News Corporation after an extended takeover bid during 2007.
+It was reported on August 1, 2007 that the bid had been successful after an extended period of uncertainty about shareholder agreement.
+The transaction was completed on December 13, 2007.
+It was worth US$5 billion or $60 a share, giving News Corp control of "The Wall Street Journal" and ending the Bancroft family's 105 years of ownership.
+In 2010, the company sold 90% of Dow Jones Indexes to the CME Group, including the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
+========,2,Products.
+========,3,Consumer media.
+Its flagship publication, "The Wall Street Journal", is a daily newspaper in print and online covering business, financial national and international news and issues around the globe.
+It began publishing on July 8, 1889.
+There are 12 versions of the Journal in nine languages, including English, Chinese, Japanese, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Bahasa, Turkish and Korean.
+The Journal holds 35 Pulitzer Prizes for outstanding journalism.
+Other consumer-oriented publications of Dow Jones include "Barron's Magazine", a weekly overview of the world economy and markets and MarketWatch, the online financial news site.
+"Financial News" provides news on investment banking, securities, and asset management.
+BigCharts, provided by MarketWatch's Virtual Stock Exchange Games, includes stock charts, screeners, interactive charting, and research tools.
+"Professor Journal", is a "Journal" in education program for professors to integrate into curriculum.
+Dow Jones also publishes Heat Street, an online news and opinion website launched in February 2016.
+The monthly journal "Far Eastern Economic Review" closed in September 2009.
+Dow Jones also owns Local Media Group, which publishes several community newspapers in the U.S.
+========,3,Enterprise media.
+Dow Jones serves corporate markets and financial markets clients with financial news and information products and services.
+Its products combine content and technology tools to help drive decisions.
+Dow Jones owns more than 20 products that combine content and technology to help drive decisions which include;
+***LIST***.
+========,3,Dow Jones Newswires.
+"Dow Jones Newswires" is the real-time financial news organization founded in 1882, its primary competitors are Bloomberg L.P. and Thomson Reuters.
+The company reports more than 600,000 subscribers — including brokers, traders, analysts, world leaders, and finance officials and fund managers — as of July 2011.
+========,3,Broadcasting.
+In broadcasting, Dow Jones provides news content to CNBC in the U.S.
+It produced two shows for commercial radio, "The Wall Street Journal Report" on the Wall Street Journal Radio Network and "The Dow Jones Report".
+The network was shut down in 2014.
+Dow Jones also launched WSJ Live an interactive video website that provides live and on demand videos from The Wall Street Journal Video Network.
+Programs include "News Hub", "MoneyBeat", and "Lunch Break" among others.
+========,3,Indices.
+Dow Jones sold a 90% stake in its Index business for $607.5M to Chicago-based CME Group, which owns the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, in February 2010.
+A few of the most widely used include:
+***LIST***.
+========,2,Ownership.
+The company's foundation was laid by Charles Dow, Edward Jones and Charles Bergstresser who, over two decades, conceived and promoted the three products which define Dow Jones and financial journalism: The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones Newswires and the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
+Dow Jones was acquired in 1902 by the leading financial journalist of the day, Clarence Barron.
+In 2007 Dow Jones was acquired by News Corp., a leading global media company.
+The Bancroft family and heirs of Clarence W. Barron effectively controlled the company's class B shares, each with a voting power of ten regular shares, prior to its sale to News Corp. At one time, they controlled 64% of Dow Jones voting stock.
+Currently, Dow Jones is owned by Rupert Murdoch, owner of News Corp, and several other major media companies.
+========,3,Buyout offer.
+On May 1, 2007, Dow Jones released a statement confirming that News Corporation, led by Rupert Murdoch, had made an unsolicited offer of $60 per share, or $5 billion, for Dow Jones.
+Stock was briefly halted for pending press release.
+The halt lasted under 10 minutes while CNBC was receiving data.
+It has been suggested that the buyout offer is related to Murdoch's new cable business news channel Fox Business that launched in 2007.
+The Dow Jones brand brings instant credibility to the project.
+On June 6, 2007, CEO Brian Tierney of Philadelphia Media Holdings L.L.C., owning company of "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "Philadelphia Daily News", and Philly.com, went public in an article on Philly.com expressing interest in "joining with outside partners to buy Dow Jones."
+Tierney said, "We would participate as Philadelphia Media Holdings, along with other investors.
+We wouldn't do it alone."
+In June, MySpace founder Brad Greenspan put forth a bid to buy 25% of the Dow for $60 a share, the same price per share as News Corporation's bid.
+Greenspan's offer was for $1.25 billion for 25% of the company.
+On July 17, 2007, The "Wall Street Journal", a unit of Dow Jones, reported that the company and News Corporation had agreed in principle on a US$5 billion takeover, that the offer would be put to the full Dow Jones board on the same evening in New York, and that the offer valued the company at 70% more than the company's market value.
+========,4,Insider trading scandal.
+Upon investigating suspicious share price movements in the run-up to the announcement, the SEC alleged that board member Sir David Li, one of Hong Kong's most prominent businessmen, had informed his close friend and business associate Michael Leung of the impending offer.
+Leung had acted on this information by telling his daughter and son-in-law, who reaped an US$8.2 million profit from the insider trading transaction.

test/46656.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+========,1,preface.
+A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy.
+Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy, which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects, just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects.
+Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ("dish") antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes.
+They may be used singly, or linked together electronically in an array.
+Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night.
+Since astronomical radio sources such as planets, stars, nebulas and galaxies are very far away, the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak, so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them, and extremely sensitive receiving equipment.
+Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, television, radar, motor vehicles, and other manmade electronic devices.
+Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers.
+The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937.
+The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy.
+========,2,Early radio telescopes.
+The first radio antenna used to identify an astronomical radio source was one built by Karl Guthe Jansky, an engineer with Bell Telephone Laboratories, in 1932.
+Jansky was assigned the job of identifying sources of static that might interfere with radio telephone service.
+Jansky's antenna was an array of dipoles and reflectors designed to receive short wave radio signals at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength about 14.6 meters).
+It was mounted on a turntable that allowed it to rotate in any direction, earning it the name "Jansky's merry-go-round".
+It had a diameter of approximately and stood tall.
+By rotating the antenna, the direction of the received interfering radio source (static) could be pinpointed.
+A small shed to the side of the antenna housed an analog pen-and-paper recording system.
+After recording signals from all directions for several months, Jansky eventually categorized them into three types of static: nearby thunderstorms, distant thunderstorms, and a faint steady hiss of unknown origin.
+Jansky finally determined that the "faint hiss" repeated on a cycle of 23 hours and 56 minutes.
+This period is the length of an astronomical sidereal day, the time it takes any "fixed" object located on the celestial sphere to come back to the same location in the sky.
+Thus Jansky suspected that the hiss originated outside of the Solar System, and by comparing his observations with optical astronomical maps, Jansky concluded that the radiation was coming from the Milky Way Galaxy and was strongest in the direction of the center of the galaxy, in the constellation of Sagittarius.
+An amateur radio operator, Grote Reber, was one of the pioneers of what became known as radio astronomy.
+He built the first parabolic "dish" radio telescope, a in diameter) in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937.
+He repeated Jansky's pioneering work, identifying the Milky Way as the first off-world radio source, and he went on to conduct the first sky survey at very high radio frequencies, discovering other radio sources.
+The rapid development of radar during World War II created technology which was applied to radio astronomy after the war, and radio astronomy became a branch of astronomy, with universities and research institutes constructing large radio telescopes.
+========,2,Types.
+The range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum that makes up the radio spectrum is very large.
+This means that the types of antennas that are used as radio telescopes vary widely in design, size, and configuration.
+At wavelengths of 30 meters to 3 meters (10 MHz - 100 MHz), they are generally either directional antenna arrays similar to "TV antennas" or large stationary reflectors with moveable focal points.
+Since the wavelengths being observed with these types of antennas are so long, the "reflector" surfaces can be constructed from coarse wire mesh such as chicken wire.
+At shorter wavelengths parabolic "dish" antennas predominate.
+The angular resolution of a dish antenna is determined by the ratio of the diameter of the dish to the wavelength of the radio waves being observed.
+This dictates the dish size a radio telescope needs for a useful resolution.
+Radio telescopes that operate at wavelengths of 3 meters to 30 cm (100 MHz to 1 GHz) are usually well over 100 meters in diameter.
+Telescopes working at wavelengths shorter than 30 cm (above 1 GHz) range in size from 3 to 90 meters in diameter.
+========,3,Frequencies.
+The increasing use of radio frequencies for communication makes astronomical observations more and more difficult (see Open spectrum).
+Negotiations to defend the frequency allocation for parts of the spectrum most useful for observing the universe are coordinated in the Scientific Committee on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science.
+Some of the more notable frequency bands used by radio telescopes include:
+***LIST***.
+========,3,Big dishes.
+The world's largest filled-aperture (i.e.
+full dish) radio telescope is the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) completed in 2016 by China.
+The dish with an area as large as 30 football fields is built into a natural Karst depression in the landscape in Guizhou province and cannot move; the feed antenna is in a cabin suspended above the dish on cables.
+The active dish is composed of 4450 moveable panels controlled by a computer.
+By changing the shape of the dish and moving the feed cabin on its cables, the telescope can be steered to point to any region of the sky up to 40° from the zenith.
+Although the dish is 500 meters in diameter, only a 300-meter circular area on the dish is illuminated by the feed antenna at any given time, so the actual effective aperture is 300 meters.
+Construction was begun in 2007 and completed July 2016 and the telescope became operational September 25, 2016.
+The world's second largest filled-aperture telescope is the Arecibo radio telescope located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico.
+Another stationary dish telescope like FAST, whose dish is built into a natural depression in the landscape, the antenna is steerable within an angle of about 20° of the zenith by moving the suspended feed antenna.
+The largest individual radio telescope of any kind is the RATAN-600 located near Nizhny Arkhyz, Russia, which consists of a 576-meter circle of rectangular radio reflectors, each of which can be pointed towards a central conical receiver.
+The above stationary dishes are not fully "steerable"; they can only be aimed at points in an area of the sky near the zenith, and cannot receive from sources near the horizon.
+The largest fully steerable dish radio telescope is the 100 meter Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia, United States, constructed in 2000.
+The largest fully steerable radio telescope in Europe is the Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope near Bonn, Germany, operated by the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, which also was the world's largest fully steerable telescope for 30 years until the Green Bank antenna was constructed.
+The third-largest fully steerable radio telescope is the 76-meter Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory in Cheshire, England, completed in 1957.
+The fourth-largest fully steerable radio telescopes are six 70-meter dishes: three Russian RT-70, and three in the NASA Deep Space Network.
+, the planned Qitai Radio Telescope will be the world's largest fully steerable single-dish radio telescope with a diameter of .
+A typical size of the single antenna of a radio telescope is 25 meters.
+Dozens of radio telescopes with comparable sizes are operated in radio observatories all over the world.
+========,3,Radiotelescopes in space.
+Since 1965, humans have launched three space-based radio telescopes.
+In 1965, the Soviet Union sent the first one called Zond 3.
+In 1997, Japan sent the second, HALCA.
+The last one was sent by Russia in 2011 called Spektr-R.
+========,2,Radio interferometry.
+One of the most notable developments came in 1946 with the introduction of the technique called astronomical interferometry, which means combining the signals from multiple antennas so that they simulate a larger antenna, in order to achieve greater resolution.
+Astronomical radio interferometers usually consist either of arrays of parabolic dishes (e.g., the One-Mile Telescope), arrays of one-dimensional antennas (e.g., the Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope) or two-dimensional arrays of omnidirectional dipoles (e.g., Tony Hewish's Pulsar Array).
+All of the telescopes in the array are widely separated and are usually connected using coaxial cable, waveguide, optical fiber, or other type of transmission line.
+Recent advances in the stability of electronic oscillators also now permit interferometry to be carried out by independent recording of the signals at the various antennas, and then later correlating the recordings at some central processing facility.
+This process is known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI).
+Interferometry does increase the total signal collected, but its primary purpose is to vastly increase the resolution through a process called Aperture synthesis.
+This technique works by superposing (interfering) the signal waves from the different telescopes on the principle that waves that coincide with the same phase will add to each other while two waves that have opposite phases will cancel each other out.
+This creates a combined telescope that is equivalent in resolution (though not in sensitivity) to a single antenna whose diameter is equal to the spacing of the antennas furthest apart in the array.
+A high-quality image requires a large number of different separations between telescopes.
+Projected separation between any two telescopes, as seen from the radio source, is called a baseline.
+For example, the Very Large Array (VLA) near Socorro, New Mexico has 27 telescopes with 351 independent baselines at once, which achieves a resolution of 0.2 arc seconds at 3 cm wavelengths.
+Martin Ryle's group in Cambridge obtained a Nobel Prize for interferometry and aperture synthesis.
+The Lloyd's mirror interferometer was also developed independently in 1946 by Joseph Pawsey's group at the University of Sydney.
+In the early 1950s, the Cambridge Interferometer mapped the radio sky to produce the famous 2C and 3C surveys of radio sources.
+An example of a large physically connected radio telescope array is the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, located in Pune, India.
+The largest array, the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR), is currently being constructed in western Europe, consisting of about 20,000 small antennas in 48 stations distributed over an area several hundreds of kilometers in diameter, and operates between 1.25 and 30 m wavelengths.
+VLBI systems using post-observation processing have been constructed with antennas thousands of miles apart.
+Radio interferometers have also been used to obtain detailed images of the anisotropies and the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background, like the CBI interferometer in 2004.
+The world's largest physically connected telescopes, the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), are planned to start operation in 2024.
+========,2,Astronomical observations.
+Many astronomical objects are not only observable in visible light but also emit radiation at radio wavelengths.
+Besides observing energetic objects such as pulsars and quasars, radio telescopes are able to "image" most astronomical objects such as galaxies, nebulae, and even radio emissions from planets.

test/46663.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+========,1,preface.
+Bookends is the fourth studio album by American music duo Simon & Garfunkel.
+Produced by Paul Simon, Roy Halee and Art Garfunkel, the album was released on April 3, 1968 in the United States by Columbia Records.
+The duo had risen to fame two years prior with the hit albums "Sounds of Silence" and "Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme", radio singles, and touring colleges.
+In 1967, Simon was approached by director Mike Nichols to write songs for his next film, "The Graduate".
+Released several weeks prior to "Bookends", the soundtrack album propelled the band further into stardom.
+"Bookends", in contrast to the soundtrack album, follows a unified concept, exploring a life journey from childhood to old age.
+Side one of the album marks successive stages in life, the theme serving as literal bookends to the life cycle.
+Side two largely consists of unused material for "The Graduate" soundtrack.
+Simon's lyrics largely revolve around youth, disillusionment, relationships, old age, and mortality.
+Much of the material was crafted alongside producer John Simon, who joined the recording process when Paul Simon suffered from writer's block.
+As a result, the album was recorded gradually over the period of a year, with production speeding up around the later months of 1967.
+Initial sales for "Bookends" were substantial in the US, and the album produced the number one hit single, "Mrs. Robinson".
+The album was mainly a hit in the duo's native country as well as the United Kingdom, where in both countries it peaked at number one.
+"Bookends" was considered a breakthrough for the group, placing them on the same level as artists such as The Beatles, Bob Dylan and The Rolling Stones at the forefront of the cultural movement in the 1960s.
+The album has continued to receive critical acclaim in recent years as one of the duo's finest efforts.
+========,2,Background.
+Simon & Garfunkel first burst onto the national scene when their hit single "The Sound of Silence" made waves on radio in 1965, during a period in which the duo had broken up due to the failure of their debut release, "Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M." (1964).
+Following another release, "Sounds of Silence" (1965), the duo recorded and released "Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme" (1966), which brought new critical and commercial success to the duo.
+Simon, then 27, felt he had finally "made it" into an upper echelon of rock and roll, while most importantly retaining artistic integrity ("making him spiritually closer to Bob Dylan than to, say, Bobby Darin", wrote biographer Marc Eliot).
+The duo chose William Morris as their booking agency after a recommendation from Wally Amos, a mutual friend through their producer, Tom Wilson.
+During the sessions for "Parsley", the duo cut "A Hazy Shade of Winter" and decided to release it as a single then, where it peaked at number 13 on the national charts.
+Similarly, they recorded "At the Zoo" for single release in early 1967 (it charted lower, at number 16).
+Simon began work for "Bookends" around this time, noting to a writer at "High Fidelity" that "I'm not interested in singles anymore".
+He had hit a dry spell in his writing, which led to no Simon & Garfunkel album on the horizon for 1967.
+Artists at the time were expected to release two, perhaps three albums each year and the lack of productivity from the duo worried executives at Columbia Records.
+Amid concerns for Simon's idleness, Columbia Records chairman Clive Davis arranged for up-and-coming record producer John Simon to kick-start the recording.
+Simon was distrustful of "suits" at the label; on one occasion, he and Garfunkel brought a tape recorder into a meeting with Davis, who was giving a "fatherly talk" on speeding up production, in order to laugh at it later.
+Meanwhile, director Mike Nichols, then filming "The Graduate", had become fascinated with the duo's past two efforts, listening to them nonstop before and after filming.
+After two weeks of this obsession, he met with Clive Davis to ask for permission to license Simon & Garfunkel music for his film.
+Davis viewed it as a perfect fit and envisioned a best-selling soundtrack album.
+Simon was not as immediately receptive, viewing movies akin to "selling out", creating a damper on his artistic integrity.
+However, after meeting Nichols and becoming impressed by his wit and the script, he agreed to write at least one or two new songs for the film.
+Leonard Hirshan, a powerful agent at William Morris, negotiated a deal that paid Simon $25,000 (US$ in dollars) to submit three songs to Nichols and producer Lawrence Turman.
+Several weeks later, Simon re-emerged with two new tracks, "Punky's Dilemma" and "Overs", neither of which Nichols was particularly taken with.
+The duo offered another new song, which later became "Mrs. Robinson", that was not as developed.
+Nichols loved it.
+========,2,Recording and production.
+"Bookends" was recorded in fits and starts from 1966 to 1968.
+John Simon's first session with the group was for "Fakin' It" in June 1967.
+The duo were signed under an older contract that specified the label pay for sessions ("As a folk duo, how much could recording costs be?"
+said John Simon).
+Simon & Garfunkel took advantage of this indulgence, hiring viola and brass players, as well as percussionists.
+When the viola players arrived, the duo were so intrigued with the sound of the musicians tuning their instruments before recording that they spent nearly all night (at Columbia's expense) trying to find the random sound.
+The record's brevity reflects its concise and perfectionistic production.
+The team spent over 50 studio hours recording "Punky's Dilemma", for example, and re-recorded vocal parts, sometimes note by note, until they were satisfied.
+Simon paid close attention to his vocal takes, and he strived to get each line perfect.
+He took a bigger role in all aspects of production, and harmonies for which the band was famous gradually disappeared in favor of songs sung solo by each member.
+Although the album had been planned long in advance, work did not begin in earnest until the late months of 1967.
+John Simon's work with the duo produced several tracks that ended up on "Bookends", such as "Punky's Dilemma", "Save the Life of My Child", and "Overs".
+In October 1967, Morgan Ames, writer for "High Fidelity" magazine, attended a recording session with the duo, Simon, Halee and an assistant engineer at Columbia's recording studio on 52nd Street in New York City.
+Her observations were reported in the November edition of the magazine:
+Work on "Bookends" slowed by the beginning of the new year, with John Simon's departure from Columbia.
+The duo and Halee completed production themselves, recording "America" on February 1, the final version of "Mrs. Robinson" on February 2, and "Old Friends" and the closing "Bookends Theme" on March 8.
+Simon felt the album "had the most use of the studio" of all of the duo's albums.
+========,2,Composition.
+========,3,Music.
+The "Bookends Theme" that opens and closes side one is played on the acoustic guitar, with no additional instruments.
+An audio sample of the band's first hit, "The Sound of Silence", softly plays during a cacophony of sounds near the end of the second track, "Save the Life of My Child".
+John Simon, who was credited with production assistance on the song, created the bassline by playing a Moog synthesizer with help from Robert Moog himself.
+James Bennighof, author of "The Words and Music of Paul Simon", finds that "textural elements are variously supported by a churning groove, percussive, and distorted electronic sounds" that complement the song's subject matter, suicide suburban youth.
+"Overs" explores a more jazz-oriented style, with a larger selection or chords and looser form than the group's previous styles.
+"Voices of Old People" is a sound collage, and was recorded on tape by Garfunkel at the United Home for Aged Hebrews and the California Home for the Aged at Reseda.
+The collection of audio recordings of the elderly find them musing on treasured photographs, illness and living conditions.
+In "Old Friends", the title generally conveys the introduction or ending of sections through repetition, and the song builds upon a "rather loose formal structure" that at first includes an acoustic guitar and soft mood.
+An additional element is introduced midway through the track: an orchestral arrangement conducted by Jimmie Haskell, dominated by strings and xylophone notes.
+Horns and other instruments are added when the duo cease singing, creating a turbulence that builds to a single high, sustained note on the strings.
+The song then segues into the final song of side one, the reprise of the "Bookends Theme".
+Side two consists of miscellaneous unrelated songs unused for "The Graduate", with many possessing a more rock-based sound than the unified folk songs that precede it.
+Simon felt the album's second side were composed of throwaway tracks: "They didn't mean a lot.
+They weren't well recorded."
+In "Fakin' It", melodies are occasionally deleted to suit lyrics, but the song generally follows a similar chord structure and melodic outline over a "funky rock beat" that sonically references the Beatles' "Tomorrow Never Knows".
+"Punky's Dilemma" is breezy and minimal musically, with a soft jazz-style percussion and seemingly improvised guitar lines dominated by seventh chords.
+"Mrs. Robinson" opens with an "instantly recognizable" pop rock guitar hook that carries throughout the track.
+The first verse consists only of syllables—"dee-dee-dee" and "doo-doo-doo"—that form stable harmonic foundation.
+The inclusion of the meaningless syllables arises from the unfinished nature of the song when pitched to director Mike Nichols, who particularly liked the verse.
+"A Hazy Shade of Winter" follows a more rock-tinged sound, with a fairly straightforward verse-refrain structure.
+"At the Zoo" uses a rock groove that settles into the key of G major.
+========,3,Lyrics.
+According to disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale, the album perhaps shares thematic qualities with another concept album, the Beatles' "Sgt.
+Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", released ten months prior.
+He equates "At the Zoo" and "Old Friends" to "Being for the Benefit of Mr.
+and "When I'm Sixty-Four", respectively.
+Fornatale notes, however, that while "Sgt.
+Pepper" was notable for sonically colorful, psychedelic shapes, "Bookends" is starkly contrasted by moody, "black-and-white and gray" sounds.
+While concept albums were fairly common among rock groups at this time—such as The Rolling Stones' "Their Satanic Majesties Request", The Byrds' "Sweetheart of the Rodeo" and Iron Butterfly's "In-a-Gadda-Da-Vida"—"Bookends" enjoyed massive success with the format not unlike the Beatles nearly one year before.
+Garfunkel confirmed the influence of "Sgt.
+Pepper's" in a 2015 interview, commenting, "We were terribly impressed, and that shone a light on the path that led to "Bookends"."
+Simon often smoked hashish when writing, and he was convinced he must be high to write.
+He felt the drug had a negative effect and caused him to "retreat more into myself."
+He often found himself alone while on tour, and his thoughts grew dark during these times.
+He attributed "the pain that comes out in some of the songs is due to the exaggeration of being high."
+"Bookends" contains many of Paul Simon's major themes, including "youth, alienation, life, love, disillusionment, relationships, old age, and mortality".
+Simon's work on "Bookends" is loosely autobiographical, designed to function as both a personal and artistic statement.
+Simon, "feeling especially auteurist in the Dylan style of the day", had planned out the album's concept before he began writing, telling Garfunkel "I'm going to start writing a whole side of an album—a cycle of songs.
+I want the early ones to be about youth and the last song to be about old age, and I want the feel of each song to fit."
+"Bookends", originally released primarily as a vinyl LP, opens and closes side one of the disc with the "Bookends Theme", a brief acoustic piece (once compared to English rock band the Moody Blues) that evokes "a time of innocence".
+"Save the Life of My Child" is a dramatic story involving drugs, violence and a mother and child relationship.
+According to James Bennighof, the song "deals with individual crises in crowded urban settings, along with references to larger societal forces and at least a hint of some transcendent perspective".
+The song crossfades into "America", which follows two young lovers—"an apparently impromptu romantic traveling alliance"—as they board a Greyhound bus "to look for America".
+It is a protest song that "creates a cinematic vista that tells of the singer's search for a literal and physical America that seems to have disappeared, along with the country's beauty and ideals".
+"Overs" includes themes regarding the disintegration of love and marriage.
+"Old Friends" paints a portrait of two old men reminiscing on the years of their youth.
+The two men "sit on a park bench like bookends", and ponder how strange it feels to be nearing their lifetime.
+The song is joined with the "Bookends Theme", this time with vocal accompaniment from the duo.
+The piece closes the entire suite with the "resigned admonition" to "Preserve your memories / They're all that's left you".
+"Fakin' It" opens side two and finds the protagonist mulling over his insecurities and shortcomings.
+It has been suggested that "Fakin' It" may be an allegory for Simon's relationship with Art Garfunkel.
+"Punky's Dilemma" employs breakfast-food images to lampoon Hollywood and the film industry.
+It improbably takes an "abrupt left turn" in its third verse, when the singer begins to fantasize himself an admired soldier.
+"Mrs. Robinson" collects wide-ranging images to address social milieu, with a constant reassurance that Jesus loves the eponymous character, God will bless her, and heaven will welcome her.
+The song includes a famous reference to athlete Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees, one of Simon's favorite baseball teams.
+It also features an explicit homage to the Beatles, with Simon uttering the meaningless phrase "coo-coo-ca-choo" that John Lennon sings in "I Am the Walrus".
+"A Hazy Shade of Winter" is an older track that dates back to Simon's days in England in 1965.
+The song follows a hopeless poet, with "manuscripts of unpublished rhyme", unsure of his achievements in life.
+In sharp contrast, the whimsical, Orwellian "At the Zoo" both concludes the album and what Simon described as the "cycle of life".
+The song indicates that the personalities of certain zoo animals may represent particular walks of people.
+The song was originally intended as a possible children's book.
+According to rock journalist Bud Scoppa, "the record is a meditation on the passage of life and the psychological impact of life's irreversible, ever-accumulating losses".
+The song cycle also describes the life and death of the romantic ideal of the American Dream.
+========,2,Release and commercial performance.
+Prior to release, the band helped put together and performed at the Monterey Pop Festival, which signaled the beginning of the Summer of Love on the West Coast.
+"Fakin' It" was issued as a single that summer; the duo were much more focused on the rising FM format, which played album cuts.
+On the label of the original 45 RPM single, the 3:14-long "Fakin' It" was printed with a run time of "2:74" to try to get past radio programmers who were still strict with the "Under 3 minutes" pop single formula.
+"Fakin' It" found only modest success on AM radio.
+In January 1968, the duo appeared on a Kraft Music Hall special, "Three for Tonight", performing ten songs largely culled from their third album.
+Richard Avedon, regarded then as one of the best photographers, was commissioned to shoot the album cover.
+When viewed up close, one can see Avedon's reflection in Simon's irises.
+"Bookends" was released by Columbia Records on April 3, 1968.
+In a historical context, this was just 24 hours before the assassination of Civil Rights Movement activist Martin Luther King, Jr., which spurred nationwide outrage and riots.
+Fornatale opines that the album served as "comfort food" during rather tumultuous times within the nation.
+The album debuted on the "Billboard" Pop Album Chart in the issue dated April 27, 1968, climbing to number one and staying at that position for seven non-consecutive weeks; it remained on the chart for a total of 66 weeks.
+"Bookends" received such heavy orders weeks in advance of its release that Columbia was able to apply for award certification before copies left the warehouse, a fact it touted in magazine ads.
+The record became the duo's best-selling album to date: it fed off the buzz created by the release of "The Graduate" soundtrack album ten weeks earlier, creating an initial combined sales figure of over five million units.
+In the United Kingdom, "Bookends" was a number one hit.
+Likewise, the album charted highly in both Australia and France, where it peaked in both countries at number three.
+The duo held a complicated relationship with Davis; Simon was particularly outraged when he suggested raising the list price of "Bookends" to $5.79 (US$ in dollars), one dollar above the standard retail price.
+Davis explained that by including the large poster with each copy, an extra dollar would be necessary to cover the cost.
+Simon instead scoffed and viewed it as charging a premium on "what was sure to be that year's best-selling Columbia album".
+According to biographer Marc Eliot, Davis was "offended by what he perceived as their lack of gratitude for what he believed was his role in turning them into superstars".
+Rather than implement Davis' price increase plan, Simon & Garfunkel signed a contract extension with Columbia that guaranteed them a higher royalty rate.
+========,2,Critical reception.
+Reviews of "Bookends" upon its release in 1968 were largely positive.
+Allen Evans of the British publication "New Musical Express" (NME) gave the record four out of five stars and called it "inspiring, descriptive music," while noting the album is "Imaginative and at times confusing to know what the composer is getting at, if anything."
+Rival newspaper "Melody Maker" did not use a ratings system, but called "Bookends" a "thoughtful, clever and well-produced album."
+Reviewer Chris Welch criticized the songs as "not particularly tuneful," but performed with "Beatles fervour and Beatles conviction," praising the lyricism, opining that "The words capture part of America today, a lot of its sickness and tragedy."
+In the US, "Rolling Stone" reviewer Arthur Schmidt wrote that "The music is, for me, questionable, but I've always found their music questionable.
+It is nice enough, and I admit to liking it, but it exudes a sense of process, and it is slick, and nothing too much happens."
+Later reviews were more positive.
+"In just over 29 minutes, "Bookends" is stunning in its vision of a bewildered America in search of itself", said AllMusic writer Thom Jurek, who gave it five stars out of five.
+Pitchfork Media's Stephen M. Deusner called "Bookends" the moment in which the duo "were settling into themselves, losing their folk revival pretensions and emphasizing quirky production techniques to match their soaring vocals".
+"The A.V.
+Club" called it the group's "most musically and conceptually daring album".
+========,2,Legacy.
+The album, alongside "The Graduate" soundtrack, propelled Simon & Garfunkel to become the biggest rock duo in the world.
+Simon was approached by numerous film producers who desired for him to write music for their films or license a track; he turned down Franco Zeffirelli, who was preparing to film "Brother Sun, Sister Moon", and John Schlesinger, who likewise was readying to shoot "Midnight Cowboy".
+In addition to Hollywood proposals, producers from the Broadway show "Jimmy Shine" (starring Simon's friend Dustin Hoffman, also the lead in "Midnight Cowboy") asked for two original songs and Simon declined.
+He eventually paired with Leonard Bernstein, with whom he collaborated for a short time on a sacred mass (he eventually withdrew from the project, "finding it perhaps too far afield from his comfort zone".)
+Disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale writes that "Bookends" represents "a once-in-a-career convergence of musical, personal, and societal forces that placed Simon & Garfunkel squarely at the center of the cultural zeitgeist of the sixties".
+"Rolling Stone" credited the record with striking a chord among lonely, adrift young adults near the end of the decade, writing that a lyric in "A Hazy Shade of Winter" — "Time, time, time, see what’s become of me..." — "defined the moment for a generation on the edge of adulthood".
+Many viewed "Bookends" as the band's most accomplished work at the time, a breakthrough in production and songwriting.
+""Bookends" was our first serious piece of work, I'd say", said Simon in a 1984 interview with "Playboy".
+In 2010, a line from the song "America"—"All gone to look for America"—began appearing spray-painted on vacant buildings and abandoned factories in the town of Saginaw, Michigan, which is mentioned in the song.
+A loose group of artists, who eventually became known as "Paint Saginaw", began duplicating the phrase after the city population had dwindled vastly, noting that the song now encapsulated a sense of nostalgia for a bygone era among the city residents.
+"America" was also featured in an eponymously-titled television advertisement for the presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders during the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries.
+The campaign sought permission to use it from Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel themselves, who both agreed.
+Garfunkel stated that he was a supporter of Sanders and his campaign, and that the usage of "America" did not take away from the song's original premise.
+"Bookends" was the last Simon & Garfunkel album to be mixed in separate mono and stereo mixes, as manufacturing of mono LP's alongside concurrent stereo issues was in the final stages of being discontinued in 1968.
+The mono mix was released as a promo issue to radio stations and given a very limited run for commercial sale.
+It was out-of-print very soon after release, and as of January 2017 has yet to see a digital re-release.