{ "paper_id": "Y15-1041", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:41:56.292639Z" }, "title": "Understanding Infants' Language Development in Relation to Levels of Consciousness: An Approach in Building up an Agent-based Model", "authors": [ { "first": "Helena", "middle": [], "last": "Hong", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "Development Lab", "institution": "Nanyang Technological University", "location": { "country": "Singapore Singapore" } }, "email": "helenagao@ntu.edu.sg" }, { "first": "Gao", "middle": [ "Can" ], "last": "Guo", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "Development Lab", "institution": "Nanyang Technological University", "location": { "country": "Singapore Singapore" } }, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "Language development in infants is a dynamic process that involves the emergence and increase of consciousness, with which built-in learning mechanisms make infants' imitation and interaction with their surroundings become socially meaningful. Taking Gao & Holland's (2008, 2013) statements of levels of consciousness for language development as the theoretical guideline, this study proposes a rule-based, signal-processing agent-based model to explore the dynamics of language development in early infants. In this model, we assume that an infant's rule-based learning behaviors can be featured by different levels of consciousness and that its adaptation processes can be explained in relation to levels of consciousness. In this paper we will discuss properties of consciousness at different levels and identify the influencing factors for reaching them. Our ultimate goal in building up the model is to understand the processes of language development with an approach that can better reflect reality.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "Y15-1041", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "Language development in infants is a dynamic process that involves the emergence and increase of consciousness, with which built-in learning mechanisms make infants' imitation and interaction with their surroundings become socially meaningful. Taking Gao & Holland's (2008, 2013) statements of levels of consciousness for language development as the theoretical guideline, this study proposes a rule-based, signal-processing agent-based model to explore the dynamics of language development in early infants. In this model, we assume that an infant's rule-based learning behaviors can be featured by different levels of consciousness and that its adaptation processes can be explained in relation to levels of consciousness. In this paper we will discuss properties of consciousness at different levels and identify the influencing factors for reaching them. Our ultimate goal in building up the model is to understand the processes of language development with an approach that can better reflect reality.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "Understanding how language is acquired by infants has remained to be a challenging task. Previous attempts, such as the behavioral approach (e.g. Skinner, 1957; Roediger, 2004; Ramscar & Yarlett, 2007) , relational frame theory (e.g. Hayes et al., 2001) , nativist theories (Chomsky, 1967 (Chomsky, , 1975 , social interactionist theories (Bruner, 1983; Carpenter et al., 1998; Tomasello, 2003) , etc. all have achieved remarkable results that have shed light on future directions in research in child language acquisition.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 146, "end": 160, "text": "Skinner, 1957;", "ref_id": "BIBREF37" }, { "start": 161, "end": 176, "text": "Roediger, 2004;", "ref_id": "BIBREF34" }, { "start": 177, "end": 201, "text": "Ramscar & Yarlett, 2007)", "ref_id": "BIBREF33" }, { "start": 234, "end": 253, "text": "Hayes et al., 2001)", "ref_id": "BIBREF17" }, { "start": 274, "end": 288, "text": "(Chomsky, 1967", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" }, { "start": 289, "end": 305, "text": "(Chomsky, , 1975", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" }, { "start": 339, "end": 353, "text": "(Bruner, 1983;", "ref_id": "BIBREF4" }, { "start": 354, "end": 377, "text": "Carpenter et al., 1998;", "ref_id": "BIBREF7" }, { "start": 378, "end": 394, "text": "Tomasello, 2003)", "ref_id": "BIBREF39" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "More recent views emphasize that child language emerges through imitation and social interaction with the support of built-in learning mechanisms (Tomasello & Bates, 2001; Tomasello, 2003; Snow, 1999; MacWhinney, 2004; Bates & Goodman, 1999) . For example, emergentist theories, represented by MacWhinney's competition model (1986) , argue that language acquisition emerges from the interaction of biological pressures and the environment through a cognitive process. These theories emphasize that nature and nurture need to be jointly involved to trigger the language learning process.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 146, "end": 171, "text": "(Tomasello & Bates, 2001;", "ref_id": "BIBREF40" }, { "start": 172, "end": 188, "text": "Tomasello, 2003;", "ref_id": "BIBREF39" }, { "start": 189, "end": 200, "text": "Snow, 1999;", "ref_id": "BIBREF38" }, { "start": 201, "end": 218, "text": "MacWhinney, 2004;", "ref_id": "BIBREF24" }, { "start": 219, "end": 241, "text": "Bates & Goodman, 1999)", "ref_id": "BIBREF3" }, { "start": 325, "end": 331, "text": "(1986)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "In psychology, Jean Piaget's experimental studies on cognitive development revealed stagedevelopment in children. Children's speech was discussed in terms of thought and reasoning (Piaget, 1926) . Following Piaget, psychologists and linguists (e.g. Bowerman, 1990 Bowerman, , 2004 Bates, 1975 Bates, , 1999 Bates & Goodman, 1997 Mandler, 2004 Mandler, , 1998 made data-based assumptions that there could be many learning processes involved in language acquisition. Evolutionarily, some wired-in help supplied by a long evolutionary history is assumed to exist in supporting this task. For example, infants can imitate facial gestures between 12 and 21 days of age, an age much earlier than predicted by stage development theory (e.g. Piaget) . Such imitation implies that human neonates equate their own behaviors with gestures they see others perform (Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1997; Meltzoff & Borton, 1979; Meltzoff & Moore, 1977) . But how does the newborn go on from there to make sense of the torrent of novel input? In particular, how does the newborn travel the long distance from very limited initial abilities to full language acquisition? Although we have large collections of relevant data, we have little theory of the dynamics of this process. These questions remain to be answered (Gao & Holland, 2013) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 180, "end": 194, "text": "(Piaget, 1926)", "ref_id": "BIBREF30" }, { "start": 249, "end": 263, "text": "Bowerman, 1990", "ref_id": "BIBREF5" }, { "start": 264, "end": 280, "text": "Bowerman, , 2004", "ref_id": "BIBREF6" }, { "start": 281, "end": 292, "text": "Bates, 1975", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" }, { "start": 293, "end": 306, "text": "Bates, , 1999", "ref_id": "BIBREF1" }, { "start": 307, "end": 328, "text": "Bates & Goodman, 1997", "ref_id": "BIBREF2" }, { "start": 329, "end": 342, "text": "Mandler, 2004", "ref_id": "BIBREF26" }, { "start": 343, "end": 358, "text": "Mandler, , 1998", "ref_id": "BIBREF25" }, { "start": 734, "end": 741, "text": "Piaget)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 852, "end": 877, "text": "(Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1997;", "ref_id": "BIBREF16" }, { "start": 878, "end": 902, "text": "Meltzoff & Borton, 1979;", "ref_id": "BIBREF27" }, { "start": 903, "end": 926, "text": "Meltzoff & Moore, 1977)", "ref_id": "BIBREF28" }, { "start": 1289, "end": 1310, "text": "(Gao & Holland, 2013)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Our objective of this study is to apply the agentbased model (Holland, 1995) to explore language development in early infants. Our approach has substantial differences from the previous attempts. We will take Gao & Holland's (2008 , 2013 statements of levels of consciousness (LoC) for language development as the theoretical guideline to build up a model that can reveal the dynamics of language development in early infants. By incorporate development observations into a theoretical framework, we will illustrate the mechanisms underlying LoC transitions and introduce an interdisciplinary approach to new experiments.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 61, "end": 76, "text": "(Holland, 1995)", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" }, { "start": 209, "end": 230, "text": "Gao & Holland's (2008", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 231, "end": 237, "text": ", 2013", "ref_id": "BIBREF32" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Consciousness is often implicitly discussed as thought expressed in language (Carruthers, 1996 (Carruthers, , 2000 . Even further back, in Plato's time, there was a general agreement that one can only speak of what one is consciously aware of. Therefore, it is reasonable to view infant language acquisition process from the perspective of consciousness. However, linguistic theories rarely touch upon consciousness.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 77, "end": 94, "text": "(Carruthers, 1996", "ref_id": "BIBREF8" }, { "start": 95, "end": 114, "text": "(Carruthers, , 2000", "ref_id": "BIBREF9" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of Consciousness", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "Personal Construct theory (Kelly, 1955 (Kelly, /1991 ) defines human consciousness as undergoing both conscious and unconscious processes. It postulates that human cognition starts from unconscious processes, or \"low levels of cognitive awareness\". According to Zelazo (2004) , children's development of consciousness undergoes several dissociable levels before they reach full cognitive capability. His Viewing developmental and information-processing as the key features, Zelazo (2004) developed a hierarchically arranged LoCs and provided a metric for measuring the level at which consciousness is operating in specific situations. This is very different from models that are mainly based on adult data that distinguish between consciousness and a meta-level of consciousness (e.g., Moscovitch, 1989; Schacter, 1989; Schooler, 2002) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 26, "end": 38, "text": "(Kelly, 1955", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 39, "end": 52, "text": "(Kelly, /1991", "ref_id": "BIBREF22" }, { "start": 262, "end": 275, "text": "Zelazo (2004)", "ref_id": "BIBREF42" }, { "start": 474, "end": 487, "text": "Zelazo (2004)", "ref_id": "BIBREF42" }, { "start": 786, "end": 803, "text": "Moscovitch, 1989;", "ref_id": "BIBREF29" }, { "start": 804, "end": 819, "text": "Schacter, 1989;", "ref_id": "BIBREF35" }, { "start": 820, "end": 835, "text": "Schooler, 2002)", "ref_id": "BIBREF36" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of Consciousness", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "Based on Zelazo (2004) and Zelazo et al (2008) ' work on the development of consciousness in children, Gao & Holland (2008 , 2013 assumed that language development in a newborn depends upon expanding consciousness and that levels of consciousness can also be identified. Following Gao & Holland, we attempt to examine mechanisms (behavioral traits) that generate the behaviors at different levels of consciousness and their relations to well-known transitions as the newborn develops. In our model, infant's behavior is regarded not only simply as the output of the interaction between the infant and its surroundings, but also as the product of infant's understanding which is confined to agerelated levels of consciousness.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 9, "end": 22, "text": "Zelazo (2004)", "ref_id": "BIBREF42" }, { "start": 27, "end": 46, "text": "Zelazo et al (2008)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 103, "end": 122, "text": "Gao & Holland (2008", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 123, "end": 129, "text": ", 2013", "ref_id": "BIBREF32" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of Consciousness", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "In this paper, our focus is on the preverbal period (0-12 months). Although children during this period cannot express themselves by formal language that we can fully understand, they are obviously able to show their understanding and desires by non-verbal means together with simple but repeated trials of articulation of pre-linguistic sounds. To take a detailed look at these features, we follow Gao & Holland's (2008 , 2013 definitions of the \"level of consciousness\" and make further divisions of these levels into more detailed sub-stages. Table 1 shows the \"level of consciousness\" sub-stages and their corresponding features in language development during a child's first year of life. From birth to the end of the first year, an infant goes through three levels of consciousness (See Table 1 ). The first level of consciousness development is LoC 0 -Unconscious, at which babies can only respond to stimuli unconsciously, without awareness of even their own actions. The main character of infant's behaviours at this stage is reflective. Take \"throaty noises\" for example, they are the earliest vocalizations produced by infants, such as breathing, coughing, burping, sucking or sneezing. Babies make these sounds involuntarily. They are mainly physiological reactions that are partly characters of a living being in general.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 399, "end": 420, "text": "Gao & Holland's (2008", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 421, "end": 427, "text": ", 2013", "ref_id": "BIBREF32" } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 546, "end": 553, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF1" }, { "start": 793, "end": 800, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of Consciousness", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "LoC 1 starts with the feature of growth that is labeled as the \"Intentionality stage\", which is the first stage (stage 1.1) of LoC 2. At this stage, babies begin to respond to environmental stimulations. As the examples shown in Table 1 , infants are gradually aware of what they hear, where the sounds come from (sound localization) and what are the differences between them (consonant and vowel distinctions). \"Voluntary action stage\" is the second stage, at which infants initiate to direct their actions according to their desire. Therefore, the crying (voluntary crying) and cooing sound (coos & laugh) at this stage may be more related to infants' desires and emotions. That is, they start to use their abilities as communication tools to communicate with their caregivers. At the third stage -\"Repeated action stage\", babies begin to show their preference of repetition. This is seen as the fact that upon their responses to their caregivers the feedback that babies receive from the caregivers generates pleasure. This is possibly why we see 4-month-old babies play with vocalizations (babbling & vocal play) and produce repetitive syllables.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 229, "end": 236, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "However, all the actions under LoC 1 are restricted to present intero-and exteroreceptor stimulation (Now), which are only triggered by present stimuli.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "When babies start to be able to relate certain signals to a certain kind of meanings, they arrive at LoC 2 -\"Recursive consciousness\". At the \"Differential Labels\" stage they are able to maintain the previous consciousness level and recall what they have acquired before. A typical observation is a baby's reaction when she hears a certain syllable or a voice pattern. For example, when a 5-monthold baby hears someone calls her name, which she must have heard for many times before, she will look toward the sound source (response to name), though she does not know yet that it is her name. When a baby begins to be aware of relationships, she is at stage 2.2. A 10-month-old infant's use of protowords (patterned speech) and an 11-month-old infant's understanding of others' expressions (adept at speech perception) are typical developmental features at this stage. When a baby is around 1 year old, she can use words comparatively accurately alike adults (first words). This is the feature named as \"Functional Reactions\" shown at stage 2.3, the last stage of LoC 2.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Level of", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The theoretical framework of agent-based model (ABM) proposed by Holland (1995) creates a flexible abstraction of the real world and provides an approach in the general study of complex adaptive systems (cas).", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 65, "end": 79, "text": "Holland (1995)", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Agent-based Model of LoC", "sec_num": "3" }, { "text": "ABMs consist of basic computer algorithm units, so-called agents, which are the central modeling focus points. Agents are modular or self-contained. An agent is an identifiable, discrete individual with a set of characteristics or attributes, behaviors, and decision-making capability. Figure 1 shows the structure of an individual agent in our model. We name it \"baby-agent\". First, we will give our modeling assumptions with the four typical elements of ABMs: environment, interactions, behavior rules, and adaptation. Then, in the next section, we will describe the model in detail. ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 286, "end": 294, "text": "Figure 1", "ref_id": "FIGREF0" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Agent-based Model of LoC", "sec_num": "3" }, { "text": "For a newborn, all the things including its own body are unfamiliar. Trevarthen and Aitken (2001) distinguished three type of engagement of a human subject with his body and the outside world: in his own body, to objects, and to other persons. These three aspects comprise a baby-agent's personal growth environment within which a baby-agent experiences three dimensional consciousness developments. The consequent accumulated consciousness forms a baby-agent's thought of the world and serves as fodder that muses for language expression.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 69, "end": 97, "text": "Trevarthen and Aitken (2001)", "ref_id": "BIBREF41" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "a) Environment", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Baby-agents continuously interact with their environment as well as with other agents. A babyagent is situated, or situationally dependent, in the sense that its behavior is based on the current state of its interactions with other agents and with its environment.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "b) Interactions", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "\"Other agents\" is a special part of the babyagents' environment. Along with the increase of LoC, the interaction and relationship between a baby-agent and other agents will be greatly changed. For a baby-agent with the lowest LoC, it has no distinctive features from other agents within the entire environment. It can only receive and respond to signals, with no awareness of their existence and attributes. However, a baby-agent with a higher LoC can realize that some agents or signals are special for it. As a result, it will become conscious of other agents' identities as well as its personal connections with them, and thus begins to build up new protocols or mechanisms that channel its interactions with other agents.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "b) Interactions", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "During the interaction and building up the relationship, a baby-agent is autonomous and selfdirected. It can function independently in its environment and in its interactions with other agents. It seems as if its individual behavior processes are controlled by a combination of heuristic and stochastic rules. In our model, we define the behavior rules by a set of IF/THEN rules that respond to external and internal signals. A baby-agent interacts with its environment and other agents through an exchange of the signals. It should be noted that, baby-agent's behavior rules cannot be separated from its underlying level of consciousness. Providing the same scenario, babyagents at different levels of consciousness are expected to show different behavior rules. The term \"level\" immediately suggests a progression from one level to another and a type of corresponding dynamics. The adaptation is the power that makes these progressions happens.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "c) Behavior rules", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Being adaptive is the most important character of the agents. That is, the agents in the model can learn from their environment and dynamically change their behaviors in response to their experience. Casti (1997) argues that agents should contain both baselevel rules for behavior as well as a higher-level set of \"rules to change the rules.\" The base-level rules provide responses to the environment, while the \"rules to change the rules\" provide adaptation. A baby-agent has the ability to learn and adapt its behaviors based on its experience, which requires not only memory, but also feedback and recirculation. Suitable feedback is very important in the adaptation process, which points out the right direction for the cultivation of a new behavior pattern.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 200, "end": 212, "text": "Casti (1997)", "ref_id": "BIBREF10" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "d) Adaptation", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The behavior principle of the baby-agents with the lowest level of consciousness is quite simple. If a certain behavior pattern can make them feel happy directly, they will persevere in it and vice versa. This is the basis of the discovery of new rules and the modification of extant rules. However, as they reach a higher level of consciousness, they may consider more about the rules. Therefore, for different levels of consciousness, we may have different behavior principles according to the characters of each level. In addition, the kinds of signals processed determine the level of performance under a certain rule, and thus certain kinds of rule conditions can be typically associated with the LoC involved.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "d) Adaptation", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In our model, we will use rule-based, signalprocessing agents (Holland et al., 1986) , with rules of the form", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 62, "end": 84, "text": "(Holland et al., 1986)", "ref_id": "BIBREF21" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF/THEN rules and feature database", "sec_num": "4.1" }, { "text": "THEN (send signal y).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (signal x is present)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Signals x and y could be utterances, gestures, or visual input.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (signal x is present)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In the following examples, T (\"teacher\", e.g. the mother) stands for a competent adult that regularly interacts with the infant L (\"learner\"). For example, a simple rule for L might be,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (signal x is present)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "THEN (L says \"milk\").", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (T lifts a milk bottle)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Signals can also serve to coordinate internal process, in which case they have no intrinsic meaning, serving much like the un-interpreted bit strings that coordinate instructions in a computer program. Each agent has many rules and, indeed, many rules can be active simultaneously (Gao & Holland, 2013) . This simultaneous activity is roughly the counterpart of the simultaneous firing of assemblies of neurons in the central nervous system (Hebb, 1949) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 281, "end": 302, "text": "(Gao & Holland, 2013)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" }, { "start": 441, "end": 453, "text": "(Hebb, 1949)", "ref_id": "BIBREF18" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (T lifts a milk bottle)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "By collecting data from literatures in the fields of linguistics, cognitive science, neuroscience, and psychology, we have built up an age-related development feature database. Beside the features of language development, we have identified other features. We believe that language acquisition is a complex process. Supports from various capabilities' development are needed (Gesell, 1928) . The features arranged in different categories reflect the multiple dimensions of their interactions while the capacities of the baby-agent are being developed. Figure 2 shows main development features of the infants' first year of life and their associations with each other. ", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 375, "end": 389, "text": "(Gesell, 1928)", "ref_id": "BIBREF15" } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 552, "end": 560, "text": "Figure 2", "ref_id": "FIGREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "IF (T lifts a milk bottle)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "According to Gao & Holland (2013) , to learn in this rule-based context, the agent must have the ability to modify its signal-processing rules. Such rulemodifying, learning abilities are innate capacities supplied by evolution. Learning abilities can also be expressed as rules, functioning in a similar way as Hebb's (1949) learning rule in neuro-psychology. Therefore, these meta-rules for learning are clearly distinguished from the signal-processing rules. In agent-based models, the meta-rules are unchanging and common to all agents. Our agent-based models described here are based on meta-rules that are demonstrably available to pre-primates. There are two general learning tasks that a baby-agent must be able to carry out:", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 13, "end": 33, "text": "Gao & Holland (2013)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" }, { "start": 311, "end": 324, "text": "Hebb's (1949)", "ref_id": "BIBREF18" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Learning", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "As an agent interacts with other agents within a certain environment, it must be aware of the existence of rules and also able to decide which of the rules are helpful and which are detrimental. A mature agent must even be able to determine which early-acting, stage-setting rules make possible later beneficial outcomes. (As an example given by Holland (1998) , consider the sacrifice of a piece in a game like checkers in order to make a triple jump later.) The credit-assignment learning process assigns strengths to the rules. A rule's strength reflects its usefulness to the system, useful rules having high strengths. Rules then compete to control the agent. The stronger rules have a better chance of winning the competition. In effect, the rules in this system are treated as hypotheses to be progressively confirmed or disconfirmed. (See Holland, 1998, chapter 4) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 346, "end": 360, "text": "Holland (1998)", "ref_id": "BIBREF20" }, { "start": 847, "end": 872, "text": "Holland, 1998, chapter 4)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "a) Credit-assignment", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Obviously, during the credit-assignment procedure, recirculation and feedback are indispensable. The random variation and imitation provide a random sampling that helps uncover the most primitive behavior rules. When a behavior rule is repeatedly associated with rewarding feedback, such as food or a mother's smile, it becomes a sampled regularity that is associated with valuable experience. From the sampling point of view, the behavior rule's reliability is continually tested under the credit assignment procedure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "a) Credit-assignment", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Once rules have been rated by credit-assignment, it makes sense to replace rules that have little or no strength by generating new rules (hypotheses). Random generation of new rules is not an option here; that would be like trying to improve a computer program by inserting random instructions. Instead, newly generated rules must somehow be plausible hypotheses in terms of experience already accumulated. (See Holland, 1995, chapter 2) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 412, "end": 437, "text": "Holland, 1995, chapter 2)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "b) Rule discovery", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For the baby-agent with a higher level of consciousness, random variation of rules from the very beginning is not the best way to get the beneficial behavior rules. A mature baby-agent may have the abilities to discover new rules by combining building blocks (Holland, 1995 , chapter 1 ff) which are extracted from rules already established. An important advantage of building blocks is that they occur as repeated patterns in the ever-changing torrent of sensory input, which provide repeatable experiences in a perpetually novel environment.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 259, "end": 273, "text": "(Holland, 1995", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "b) Rule discovery", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "According to Holland (1998) , building blocks (generators in mathematics) have a familiar role in the sciences, best exemplified by the building block hierarchy of the physical sciencesthe quark / nucleon / atom / molecule / membrane /\u2026 hierarchy. Selected combinations of building blocks at one level form the building blocks of the next level. For a spoken language there is a similar phoneme / word / sentence hierarchy. A grammar specifies the laws that determine how words can be combined to yield sentences. Actually, in viewing the levels of consciousness, we find a similar hierarchy. Higher levels of consciousness in the LoC theory are brought about by the iterative reprocessing of the contents of lower levels of consciousness. (Zelazo et al., 2007) After a period of development process, a babyagent has acquired a certain number of behavior rules, which can be seen as the building blocks for discovering new rules. Plausible new conditions and rules can be generated by recombining these building blocks that already confirmed. A confirmed building block becomes a plausible hypothesis when combined with other similarly distilled building blocks. The procedure is much like the crossbreeding of good plants (or animals) to get better plants. There is a substantial literature, centering on genetic algorithms (Holland, 1995) , that discuss the production of new rules in agentbased models via the crossing of extant rules. There is not space here to discuss genetic algorithms in detail, but it is a well-established procedure.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 13, "end": 27, "text": "Holland (1998)", "ref_id": "BIBREF20" }, { "start": 740, "end": 761, "text": "(Zelazo et al., 2007)", "ref_id": "BIBREF43" }, { "start": 1325, "end": 1340, "text": "(Holland, 1995)", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Building blocks", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "The building blocks amount to hypotheses at different levels of precision, with the rules being confirmed (or disconfirmed) as the agent gains experience. These different levels of precision may be related to the levels of consciousness.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Building blocks", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "According to Gao & Holland (2013) , the metarules for credit assignment and rule discovery allow the neonate to achieve a gradual increase in control, corresponding to increasing LoC. The process begins with the acquisition of repeatable sound and gestures. Sounds and gestures reinforced by T become the building blocks that can be used when the baby-agent is mature. For example, producing various combinations of utterances at LoC 1 can be simply a kind of play, while they are the necessary building block to form meaningful utterances at LoC 2. Connecting optional utterances with specific meanings greatly reduce behavior's ambiguity. In mathematical terms we refine a broad equivalence class into a set of smaller, more informative subclasses.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 13, "end": 33, "text": "Gao & Holland (2013)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Building blocks", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "In this way, selected combinations of building blocks at one LoC become the building blocks for the next level. Building blocks offer combinatoric possibilities: a large variety of useful or meaningful structures can be constructed from a small number of building blocks. Moving up the LoC hierarchy thus becomes a much more efficient process than trying to \"establish\" a monolithic rule for each possibility at the highest LoC.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Building blocks", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "By now, almost every part of the agent-based model has been introduced, and we come to the final topic of this sectionthe properties of consciousness. Actually, there are three concepts of consciousness involved in our model: the level of consciousness, the consciousness capabilities, and consciousness status.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "The level of consciousness and its impact on a baby-agent's behavior rules have already been emphasized. However, consciousness development is a continuous process, and the increase in LoC is a quantum leap from the accumulation of drip growth. Therefore, before determining at which level of consciousness a baby-agent is situated, we must know the factors that influence the development of a baby's consciousness capability. As an example, we focus on illustrating two main factors: time and training. Hereby, we give the measurement of consciousness capability as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "Where, is the measurement of a baby's consciousness capability at time t when a baby-agent has been consciously trained for N times; f(t) and h(N) are the consciousness increments gained from the time factor and the training factor separately.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "There is no doubt that the increase of consciousness needs time. Ever since a baby was born, the internal and external environments provide it abundant stimulations, which promote the increase of its consciousness naturally. For", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "( ) ( ) t Consciousness f t h N \uf03d\uf02b t Consciousness", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "convenience, we regard the natural increase rate (rate) of consciousness in our model as being constant, and thus the consciousness increment gained from the time factor can be defined as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "As for the training factor, it should be much more complex. By denoting as the consciousness increment of the i-th training, the consciousness increment gained from the training factor can be expressed as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "Where, i stands for the i-th training; N is the total training times by time t; and respectively indicate the feedback that the babyagent receives and the consciousness status that baby-agent is situated in the i-th training.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "The impact of the feedback on the learning process has been described. We now come to take a look at the consciousness status. It should be noted that, for a baby-agent whose consciousness capability can reach LoC 3, it doesn't mean that it remains situated at LoC 3. Actually, it will normally stay at a lower level of consciousness, and will elevate its own consciousness status to deal with specific requirement when needed. Just as we will achieve different scores if we bear different attitudes in exams, a baby-agent with a different consciousness status will have different amount of consciousness increase as well.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "Given different parameters, we can model various development paths of baby-agents. By calibrating age-related development features according to the consciousness capabilities' increased integrally in a baby-agent, we can determine the consciousness condition of each behavior rule. This kind of treatment makes sense. Gao & Holland's (2013) framework makes it possible to observe an infant's language development in relation to the increase of levels of consciousness in specific situations. In principle, this approach takes the development of language as well as the growth of consciousness capabilities in an infant as being supported by diversified factors in reasonable environments.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 318, "end": 340, "text": "Gao & Holland's (2013)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A Baby-agent's consciousness properties", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "This study proposes a rule-based, signal-processing agent-based model to reveal the dynamics of language development in early infants. This model shows how a newborn discovers behavior rules and improves its autonomy. With the establishment of such a model, we are able to explore the mechanisms that support language development and understand how language is acquired, used, and changes over time.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Summary", "sec_num": "5" }, { "text": "By building up the model, we are able to see that the influence of consciousness on language development is manifold. During the learning processes, it is very important to identify a role for interaction, without which it will be impossible for infants to develop a sense of learning. However, the impact of interaction on language development is limited by levels of consciousness. Infants cannot acquire the contents beyond the limit of LoC at a given age. That is, when consciousness does not exist or does not reach a certain level, a learning process cannot be activated in an infant. In addition, different learning procedures occur at different levels of consciousness. What infants acquire at a lower LoC will become the building blocks for a higher LoC, which is the reason why an infant at a higher LoC can acquire more complex rules for learning more quickly.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Summary", "sec_num": "5" }, { "text": "What is presented in this paper is only the description of a step toward building up experimentally executable versions of models. The present model setting described is seemingly simple. In the future work, such models will be further established to allow multiple agents to interact with each other at different levels of consciousness, suggesting that each agent will develop its own idiolect and that the agents that interact regularly with each other will have many common constructions in their idiolects.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Summary", "sec_num": "5" }, { "text": "Academic Research Fund (AcRF) Tier 1 Complexity Seed Funding awarded to Helena Gao by the Ministry of Education of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Experiment trials conducted by Can Guo. ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Acknowledgements:", "sec_num": null } ], "back_matter": [], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "Peer relations and the acquisition of language. 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Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness (pp. 405-432).", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF0": { "num": null, "type_str": "figure", "uris": null, "text": "The structure of an individual baby-agent interacting with its environment confined to its LoC." }, "FIGREF1": { "num": null, "type_str": "figure", "uris": null, "text": "An illustration of some developmental features and their associations during infants' first year of life To focus on the growth of the baby-agent, our model pays more attention to children's behavior transitions by applying IF/THEN rules referring to the development feature database. Based on the development features, we are able to determine a set of IF/THEN rules. The following are some examples: [In the rules that follow, denotes an overt action caused by a particular signal.] Typical rule at LoC 0 [Unconscious activities]. At LoC 0, baby just has inherited ('wired in') cognitive abilities." }, "TABREF0": { "text": "", "content": "
Aware ofAdept to speech
Relationshipsperception 11
Stage 2.3First words 12
Functional
Reactions
Stage 0Reflexive crying 0;
ReflectiveThroaty noises 0
LoC 1Stage 1.1Sound localization 0;
MinimalIntentionalityDistinguish consonant 1;
consciousnessDistinguish vowel 3
Stage 1.2Voluntary crying 2;
VoluntaryCoos & laugh 2
Action
Stage 1.3Babbling & vocal play
Repeated4;
ActionCanonical babbling 6;
LoC 2Stage 2.1Respond to name 5;
RecursiveDifferentialRespond to \"No\" 6;
consciousnessLabelsNative preference 7;
Segment speech 7;
Stage 2.2Patterned speech 10;
", "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null }, "TABREF1": { "text": "", "content": "
: The \"Level of Consciousness\" Stages and
main language development features within a
child's first year of life
", "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null } } } }