{ "paper_id": "2016", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T01:05:22.021300Z" }, "title": "Tuning Hierarchies in Princeton WordNet", "authors": [ { "first": "Ahti", "middle": [], "last": "Lohk", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "", "institution": "Tallinn University of Technology", "location": { "settlement": "Tallinn", "country": "Estonia" } }, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "Many new wordnets in the world are constantly created and most take the original Princeton WordNet (PWN) as their starting point. This arguably central position imposes a responsibility on PWN to ensure that its structure is clean and consistent. To validate PWN hierarchical structures we propose the application of a system of test patterns. In this paper, we report on how to validate the PWN hierarchies using the system of test patterns. In sum, test patterns provide lexicographers with a very powerful tool, which we hope will be adopted by the global wordnet community.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "2016", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "Many new wordnets in the world are constantly created and most take the original Princeton WordNet (PWN) as their starting point. This arguably central position imposes a responsibility on PWN to ensure that its structure is clean and consistent. To validate PWN hierarchical structures we propose the application of a system of test patterns. In this paper, we report on how to validate the PWN hierarchies using the system of test patterns. In sum, test patterns provide lexicographers with a very powerful tool, which we hope will be adopted by the global wordnet community.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "Many new wordnets in the world are constantly created and most take the original Princeton WordNet (PWN) as their starting point. This arguably central position imposes a responsibility on PWN to ensure that its structure is clean and consistent. This is particularly true for hierarchical relations, which are the most frequently encoded relations and which form the backbone of the network. To validate PWN hierarchical structures we propose the application of a system of test patterns developed in (Lohk, 2015) . Importantly, all instances returned by the test pattern system were manually validated by two members of the Estonian Wordnet (EstWN) team (Kadri Vare and Heili Orav). The results were encouraging, and we applied the algorithms to PWN. We propose that after a few iterations on PWN other wordnets apply the algorithm on their resources and, after a couple of iterations, compare their structures with that of PWN, which can serve as some kind of Gold Standard for wordnets. Alternatively, the analysis is commercially available from the first author.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 502, "end": 514, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction and background", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "In this paper we report on how to validate the PWN hierarchies using the system of test patterns.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction and background", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "A test pattern is a description of a specific substructure in the wordnet hierarchy. The system of test patterns and the descriptions of all patterns are found in (Lohk, 2015) . This system consists of ten test patterns that all involve multiple inheritance, an important property that can point to different semantic inaccuracies going back to lexicographic errors. Because they are semantic, every test pattern applies cross-lingually and sheds new light on wordnets by examining their hierarchies and helping to detect and correct possible errors.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 163, "end": 175, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction and background", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "These patterns were used to validate the semantic hierarchies of Estonian Wordnet over four years (2011-2014) and on ten versions. During this time, the structure of Estonian Wordnet changed significantly, as described in Section 3.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction and background", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "The aim of this paper is to show that the same specific substructures that have been found in Estonian Wordnet also exist in Princeton WordNet. Moreover, some experiments on Princeton Word-Net confirm the promising benefits of test pattern application (Section 4). Therefore, we propose test patterns as a method for validation and tuning hierarchies in PWN and all other wordnets. This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of the validation methods applied to the wordnet hierarchies. Section 3 presents the results of using test patterns iteratively on EstWN. Section 4 demonstrates that the same pattern instances can be found in PWN as well as in other wordnets. Some experiments are described. We close with a conclusion and proposals for future work.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction and background", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "To give a better understanding of the test patterns approach we provide a short overview of the validation methods applied on the semantic hierarchies of wordnet. (Lohk 2015) argues that the methods can be divided into three groups based on two features, as shown in Table 1 . These features can be formulated as questions as follows: do they rely on corpus data and lexical resources? Do they make use the contents of a synset?", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 163, "end": 174, "text": "(Lohk 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 267, "end": 274, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF0" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "State of the art in validating the semantic hierarchies of wordnet", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "Group of methods use of corpus data, lexical resources use the contents of a synset Group I + + Group II -+ Group III -- ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "State of the art in validating the semantic hierarchies of wordnet", "sec_num": "2" }, { "text": "The most frequently used validation methods for wordnet hierarchies rely on corpora and lexical resources. Different techniques for extracting the relevant information have been applied. Some of the well-known approaches include: \uf0b7 Lexico-syntactic patterns (Hearst, 1992) , (Nadig et al., 2008 ) \uf0b7 Similarity measurements (Sagot and Fi\u0161er, 2012) \uf0b7 Mapping and comparing to wordnet (Pedersen et al., others, 2013 ) \uf0b7 Applying wordnet in NLP tasks (Saito et al., 2002) Resources used in this group of methods are:", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 258, "end": 272, "text": "(Hearst, 1992)", "ref_id": "BIBREF7" }, { "start": 275, "end": 294, "text": "(Nadig et al., 2008", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" }, { "start": 323, "end": 333, "text": "(Sagot and", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 382, "end": 412, "text": "(Pedersen et al., others, 2013", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 447, "end": 467, "text": "(Saito et al., 2002)", "ref_id": "BIBREF25" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Corpus-based methods", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "\uf0b7 Monolingual text corpora (Sagot and Fi\u0161er, 2012) \uf0b7 Bilingual aligned corpora (Krstev et al., 2003 ) \uf0b7 Monolingual explanatory dictionaries (Nadig et al., 2008 ) \uf0b7 Wordnets (Peters et al., 1998; al., 2012) \uf0b7 Ontologies (Gangemi et al., 2002) ", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 79, "end": 99, "text": "(Krstev et al., 2003", "ref_id": "BIBREF9" }, { "start": 141, "end": 160, "text": "(Nadig et al., 2008", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" }, { "start": 174, "end": 195, "text": "(Peters et al., 1998;", "ref_id": "BIBREF22" }, { "start": 220, "end": 242, "text": "(Gangemi et al., 2002)", "ref_id": "BIBREF4" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Corpus-based methods", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "These methods for validating hierarchies rely on lexical relations (word-word), semantic relations (concept-concept) and the rules among them. This includes the rules applied to the construction of WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998) , and additional rules, such as the following:", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 206, "end": 222, "text": "(Fellbaum, 1998)", "ref_id": "BIBREF2" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Rule-based methods", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "\uf0b7 Metaproperties (rigidity, identity, unity and dependence) described in ontology construction (Guarino and Welty, 2002) \uf0b7 Top Ontology concepts or \"unique beginners\" (Object, Substance, Plant, Comestible, \u2026) (Atserias et al., 2005; Miller, 1998 ) \uf0b7 Specific rules for particular error detections (Gupta, 2002; Nadig et al., 2008) . For instance, a rule proposed by (Nadig et al., 2008) :\"If one term of a synset X is a proper suffix of a term in a synset Y, X is a hypernym of Y\"", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 95, "end": 120, "text": "(Guarino and Welty, 2002)", "ref_id": "BIBREF5" }, { "start": 209, "end": 232, "text": "(Atserias et al., 2005;", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" }, { "start": 233, "end": 245, "text": "Miller, 1998", "ref_id": "BIBREF18" }, { "start": 297, "end": 310, "text": "(Gupta, 2002;", "ref_id": "BIBREF6" }, { "start": 311, "end": 330, "text": "Nadig et al., 2008)", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" }, { "start": 366, "end": 386, "text": "(Nadig et al., 2008)", "ref_id": "BIBREF19" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Rule-based methods", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "These methods are purely formal and do not take into account the semantics among word forms. Specific substructures of a wordnet's hierarchies are checked and validated. Target substructures include: \uf0b7 Cycles (\u0160mrz, 2004) , (Kubis, 2012) \uf0b7 Shortcuts (Fischer, 1997) \uf0b7 Rings (Liu et al., 2004; Richens, 2008) \uf0b7 Dangling uplinks (Koeva et al., 2004; \u0160mrz, 2004 ) \uf0b7 Orphan nodes (null graphs) (\u010capek, 2012) . \uf0b7 Small hierarchy (Lohk et al., 2014c) \uf0b7 Unique beginners (Lohk et al., 2014c) In addition, (Lohk, 2015) proposes different, yet undiscovered substructures and shows that the application of these substructures to validate the semantic hierarchies of wordnet may improve wordnet structure significantly. These substructures with a specific nature which are used in wordnet assessment are called test patterns. Next, we explain the concept of test patterns and demonstrate their efficient use with Estonian Wordnet.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 209, "end": 221, "text": "(\u0160mrz, 2004)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 224, "end": 237, "text": "(Kubis, 2012)", "ref_id": "BIBREF10" }, { "start": 250, "end": 265, "text": "(Fischer, 1997)", "ref_id": "BIBREF3" }, { "start": 274, "end": 292, "text": "(Liu et al., 2004;", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" }, { "start": 293, "end": 307, "text": "Richens, 2008)", "ref_id": "BIBREF23" }, { "start": 327, "end": 347, "text": "(Koeva et al., 2004;", "ref_id": "BIBREF8" }, { "start": 348, "end": 358, "text": "\u0160mrz, 2004", "ref_id": "BIBREF26" }, { "start": 390, "end": 403, "text": "(\u010capek, 2012)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 424, "end": 444, "text": "(Lohk et al., 2014c)", "ref_id": "BIBREF15" }, { "start": 464, "end": 484, "text": "(Lohk et al., 2014c)", "ref_id": "BIBREF15" }, { "start": 498, "end": 510, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Graph based methods", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "Since 2011, different types of test patterns have been developed and applied progressively to EstWN. Currently, ten test patterns exist. For every test pattern we implemented a program to find the relevant instances. Four programs are implemented for semi-automatic application (closed subsets, closed subset with a root, the largest closed subset and connected roots) and six for automatic use (the test patterns shown in italics in Table 2 ). Instances found with test patterns using programs for semi-automatic application were discussed elsewhere (Lohk, 2015) . Test pattern instances found with programs for automatic use are employed in the constant validation process. Table 2 shows the number of instances that each test pattern returned after its automatic application. The first two patterns (shortcut and ring) are inspired by (Fischer, 1997; Liu et al., 2004; Richens, 2008) . There are also some cases of synset with many roots, called dangling uplinks in (Koeva et al., 2004) and (\u0160mrz, 2004) . Bold font in the table shows when the test pattern was given to a lexicographer for verification. An example of this is the \"shortcut\" cases where lexicographers verified each instance manually in the 63rd version submitted to the EstWN. The effect, as reflected in the next version, can be clearly seen in the table. It is evident that the application of heartshaped substructure and dense component patterns had a considerable effect on the lexicography.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 551, "end": 563, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" }, { "start": 838, "end": 853, "text": "(Fischer, 1997;", "ref_id": "BIBREF3" }, { "start": 854, "end": 871, "text": "Liu et al., 2004;", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" }, { "start": 872, "end": 886, "text": "Richens, 2008)", "ref_id": "BIBREF23" }, { "start": 969, "end": 989, "text": "(Koeva et al., 2004)", "ref_id": "BIBREF8" }, { "start": 994, "end": 1006, "text": "(\u0160mrz, 2004)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 434, "end": 441, "text": "Table 2", "ref_id": "TABREF2" }, { "start": 676, "end": 683, "text": "Table 2", "ref_id": "TABREF2" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A case study: applying test patterns to Estonian Wordnet", "sec_num": "3" }, { "text": "As all instances of test patterns include multiple inheritance cases, the fourth column (Multiple inheritance cases) demonstrates the influence of using test patterns most clearly. For example, a comparison between versions 66 and 70 shows that the number of cases has gone down about 32 times (97%). Note that 118 hierarchies contain about 75% of shallow hierarchies where roots are connected to only one level of subordinates.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A case study: applying test patterns to Estonian Wordnet", "sec_num": "3" }, { "text": "According to (Lohk, 2015) , over ten versions of EstWN the most popular correction operation has been removing the hypernymy and hyponymy relations -21,911 times. Secondly, the lexical units in synsets were changed 5,344 times (including deleted and added lexical units). Thirdly, 4,122 times hypernymy and hyponymy relations were replaced by another semantic relation, mainly by near synonymy and fuzzynymy.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 13, "end": 25, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A case study: applying test patterns to Estonian Wordnet", "sec_num": "3" }, { "text": "Substructures connected with multiple inheritances have been used to validate PWN. (Fischer, 1997; Liu et al., 2004 and Richens, 2008) examined shortcuts; rings were suggested by (Koeva et al., 2004) , and (\u0160mrz, 2004 ) examined dangling uplinks. There are also some examples of closed subsets in (Lohk et al., 2012) and one example of heart-shaped substructure in (Lohk and V\u00f5handu, 2014) . Lohk gave an example of a connected roots case in his poster presentation at Estonian Applied Lingvistics Conference in Tallinn in April 2013.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 83, "end": 98, "text": "(Fischer, 1997;", "ref_id": "BIBREF3" }, { "start": 99, "end": 119, "text": "Liu et al., 2004 and", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" }, { "start": 120, "end": 134, "text": "Richens, 2008)", "ref_id": "BIBREF23" }, { "start": 179, "end": 199, "text": "(Koeva et al., 2004)", "ref_id": "BIBREF8" }, { "start": 206, "end": 217, "text": "(\u0160mrz, 2004", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 297, "end": 316, "text": "(Lohk et al., 2012)", "ref_id": "BIBREF16" }, { "start": 365, "end": 389, "text": "(Lohk and V\u00f5handu, 2014)", "ref_id": "BIBREF17" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Validating Princeton WordNet", "sec_num": "4" }, { "text": "Next, we provide some examples of test pattern instances to grasp their structure and how they may help to discover specific incosistencies in PWN semantic hierarhies. The complete overview of test patterns has been given in the dissertation of the first author (Lohk, 2015) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 262, "end": 274, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Validating Princeton WordNet", "sec_num": "4" }, { "text": "Shortcut is a pattern wherein a synset (based on Figure 1, {event}) is simultaneously connected to another synset ({group action}) both directly and indirectly. In that case, {group action} is not an ambiguous concept. Instead, it merely contains a redundant link (dotted line). ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 49, "end": 67, "text": "Figure 1, {event})", "ref_id": "FIGREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Shortcut", "sec_num": "4.1" }, { "text": "In a heart-shaped substructure, two nodes (based on Figure 2, Figure 2 . An instance of heart-shaped substructure, PWN (version 3.1) In the case of PWN, we have seen that the instances of heart-shaped substructure tend to show the cases where instead of role or type relation hypernymy is used. An example of this is presented in Figure 2 , where {hard drug} is actually a certain type of {narcotic} and as well as a {controlled substance}. It is remarkable that when heart-shaped substructure was first used in EstWN, its number of instances was 451 (see Table 2 ) yet five versions later it had decreased to 0. Moreover, during the correction operations no hypernymy/hyponymy relation was changed to role or type (Lohk, 2015) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 115, "end": 132, "text": "PWN (version 3.1)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 715, "end": 727, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 52, "end": 61, "text": "Figure 2,", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 62, "end": 70, "text": "Figure 2", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 330, "end": 338, "text": "Figure 2", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 556, "end": 563, "text": "Table 2", "ref_id": "TABREF2" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Heart-shaped substructure", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\"Compound\" pattern is an exception among other test patterns as it considers the content of synsets.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "\"Compound\" pattern", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "More precisely, that kind of substructure satisfies the following two conditions:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "\"Compound\" pattern", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Firstly, this substructure contains a case where a lexical unit of a superordinate (based on Figure 3 {ball}) is connected to two subordinates (1-{baseball}, 2-{basketball}\u2026 24-{volleyball}) which contain that lexical unit (ball).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 93, "end": 109, "text": "Figure 3 {ball})", "ref_id": "FIGREF3" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "\"Compound\" pattern", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Secondly, at least one subordinate has an extra superordinate ({baseball equipment}, {basketball equipment}, \u2026, {golf equipment}). To validate the kind of pattern instance shown in Figure 3 , the lexicographer has to ask if subordinates 1 to 5 have an extra superordinate, and why it is not true about subordinates from 6 to 24. Studying this figure more carefully, we see that {basketball} is a {basketball equipment}. However, {football} and {volleyball} being quite similar in their definitions do not follow the same logic. That is to say, {football} and {volleyball} are not equipment.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 181, "end": 189, "text": "Figure 3", "ref_id": "FIGREF3" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "\"Compound\" pattern", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "The dense component pattern provides an opportunity to uncover substructures where, due to multiple inheritance, the density of the interrelated concepts in the semantic hierarchy is higher (Lohk et al., 2014a) , (Lohk et al., 2014b) . This substructure (subgraph) consists of two synsets (nodes) (based on Figure {manicure} and {pedi-cure}) with at least two identical parents (it corresponds to complete bipartite graph) ({beauty treatment} and {aid, attention, care, \u2026}). The overall size of an instance of a dense component depends on how many synsets (nodes) with at least two parents are interconnected through multiple inheritance and/or same parents (Lohk, 2015) . In Figure 4 , the dense component pattern is emphasized with bold lines. While this substructure contains at least two multiple inheritance cases, we see it as a case of the regularity of multiple inheritance. Herewith, the aim of the dense component is to help detect if this regularity is justified or alternatively, if this regularity has to be expanded.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 190, "end": 210, "text": "(Lohk et al., 2014a)", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 213, "end": 233, "text": "(Lohk et al., 2014b)", "ref_id": "BIBREF14" }, { "start": 658, "end": 670, "text": "(Lohk, 2015)", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" } ], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 307, "end": 324, "text": "Figure {manicure}", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 676, "end": 684, "text": "Figure 4", "ref_id": "FIGREF5" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Dense component", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "In the case of Figure 4 , the regularity of multiple inheritance has to be expanded. Two reasons for that are concepts {facial} and {hair care, \u2026}. In addition to {beauty treatment}, {facial} fits in with {aid, attention, care, \u2026}. Moreover, {hair care} is a {beauty treatment} besides being {aid, attention, care, \u2026}.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 15, "end": 23, "text": "Figure 4", "ref_id": "FIGREF5" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Dense component", "sec_num": "4.4" }, { "text": "The connected roots test pattern involves different hierarchies through multiple inheritance cases.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Connected roots", "sec_num": "4.5" }, { "text": "This pattern helps to see how big and deep the connections between POS hierarchies are. Every node acts as a unique beginner and is equipped with the number of hierarchy levels and the number of subordinates in the same hierarchy ( Figure 1 ). The first number of the edge label indicates the number of common subordinates for two hierarchies. The next two numbers separated by \"|\" denote the hierarchy levels where the first common concept is located in both hierarchies. In Figure 1 , there is only one large hierarchy with the unique beginner {entity}. It heads a 19-level hierarchy and 74,023 subordinates. By contrast, the two hierarchies ({South_1} and {Spain_1 \u2026}) are very small. They both dominate only one additional level. The edge labels reveal that the common concepts of both hierarchies are on the first lower levels in both of the smaller hierarchy cases. Both unique beginners ({South_1} and {Spain_1}) seem to be too specific to be the highest concepts. Table 2 presents a comparison between PWN's structure and that of other wordnets. Table 3 , it is easy to see that the wordnets are very different. Finnish Wordnet was manually translated from PWN (Lind\u00e9n and Niemi, 2014), hence it is not surprising that the first two rows are essentially identical.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 232, "end": 241, "text": "Figure 1", "ref_id": "FIGREF1" }, { "start": 477, "end": 485, "text": "Figure 1", "ref_id": "FIGREF1" }, { "start": 973, "end": 980, "text": "Table 2", "ref_id": "TABREF2" }, { "start": 1055, "end": 1062, "text": "Table 3", "ref_id": "TABREF5" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Connected roots", "sec_num": "4.5" }, { "text": "The table shows a clear need for a deep structural analysis of all wordnets. Of course, it must be remembered that the hierarchies of different languages will never show a one-to-one correspondence, as the lexicons necessarily differ. Test patterns are a unique form of validating hierarchies. They are not language-specific and can be applied cross-lingually. Their value lies in aiding lexicographers in detecting and correcting errors and thus provide more accurate resources. Every test pattern has the property of multiple inheritance. In most cases, except for the pattern of shortcut (Sec. 4.1), there is a lexical polysemy behind multiple inheritance.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Short numerical overview of the test pattern instances In", "sec_num": "4.6" }, { "text": "Multiple inheritance is not always wrong. However, PWN still contains many cases where instead of role or type relation the hypernymy relation has been used. This is one reason for why sometimes multiple inheritance cases are presented in PWN (see Figure 2) .", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 248, "end": 257, "text": "Figure 2)", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Short numerical overview of the test pattern instances In", "sec_num": "4.6" }, { "text": "In sum, the analysis of wordnet structures using test patterns provides lexicographers with a very powerful tool, which we hope will be adopted by the global wordnet community.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Short numerical overview of the test pattern instances In", "sec_num": "4.6" } ], "back_matter": [], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "A Proposal for a Shallow Ontologization of WordNet", "authors": [ { "first": "Atserias", "middle": [], "last": "Batalla", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "J", "middle": [], "last": "Climent Roca", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "S", "middle": [], "last": "Mor\u00e9 L\u00f3pez", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "J", "middle": [], "last": "Rigau Claramunt", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "G", "middle": [], "last": "", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 2005, "venue": "Proces. 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Science and Technology 7, 173-181.", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF1": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "An instance of shortcut,PWN (version 3.1)", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF3": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "An instance of \"compound\" pattern, PWN (version 3.1)", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF4": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": ", care, ...} (2|20) the work of providing treatment for or attending to someone or something {facial} care for the face that usually involves cleansing and massage and the application of cosmetic creams ... {hair care, ...} care for the hair: the activity of washing or cutting or curling or arranging the hair", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF5": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "An instance of dense component,", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF7": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "An instance of connected roots,", "type_str": "figure" }, "TABREF0": { "content": "
that classify a group of validating
methods
Group I comprises all methods based on lexical
resources and corpora; group II includes rules or
rule-based methods, while group III consists of
graph-based methods.
", "num": null, "html": null, "text": "Features", "type_str": "table" }, "TABREF2": { "content": "", "num": null, "html": null, "text": "A numerical overview of EstWN spanning eleven version", "type_str": "table" }, "TABREF5": { "content": "
Conclusions
", "num": null, "html": null, "text": "Five wordnets in comparison 5", "type_str": "table" } } } }