{ "paper_id": "C96-1019", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:52:15.665492Z" }, "title": "Connectivity in Bag Generation", "authors": [ { "first": "Arturo", "middle": [], "last": "Trujillo", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "", "institution": "The Robert Gordon University", "location": { "addrLine": "St Andrew Street Aberdeen Al", "country": "l 1fig Scotland" } }, "email": "" }, { "first": "Simon", "middle": [], "last": "Berry", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "", "institution": "The Robert Gordon University", "location": { "addrLine": "St Andrew Street Aberdeen Al", "country": "l 1fig Scotland" } }, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "'Fhis l)aper presents a pruning technique which can bc used to reduce the number of paths searched in rule-based b~g generators of the type proposed by (Poznafiski el; al., 1!)95) and (l'opowMl, 1995). Pruning the search space in these generators is important given the. computational cost of bag generation. 'rhe technique relies on a connectivity constraint between the semantic indices associated with each lexical sign in a ba R. Testing the algorithm on a range of sentences shows reductions in the~ generation time and the nmnber of edges constru cl.cd.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "C96-1019", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "'Fhis l)aper presents a pruning technique which can bc used to reduce the number of paths searched in rule-based b~g generators of the type proposed by (Poznafiski el; al., 1!)95) and (l'opowMl, 1995). Pruning the search space in these generators is important given the. computational cost of bag generation. 'rhe technique relies on a connectivity constraint between the semantic indices associated with each lexical sign in a ba R. Testing the algorithm on a range of sentences shows reductions in the~ generation time and the nmnber of edges constru cl.cd.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "Bag generation is a form of natural language gel> er;ttion in which the input is ;~ bag (Mso known as a inultiset: a set in which rcpe~ted elements are significant) of lexicM elements and the output is a grammatical sentence or a statistically most probable permutation with respect to some. bmguage model.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Bag generation has been considered within the st~tistieal and rule-based paradigms of computational linguistics, and catch has handled this problem differently (Chen and Lee, 1994; Whitelock, 1994; Popowich, 1995; Tn0illo , 1995) . This paper only considers ruh' based approaches to this problem.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 160, "end": 180, "text": "(Chen and Lee, 1994;", "ref_id": "BIBREF4" }, { "start": 181, "end": 197, "text": "Whitelock, 1994;", "ref_id": "BIBREF18" }, { "start": 198, "end": 213, "text": "Popowich, 1995;", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" }, { "start": 214, "end": 229, "text": "Tn0illo , 1995)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Bag generation has received particulm: attention in lexicalist approaches to MT, as exemplitied by Shake-and-Bake generation (Beaven, 1992; Whitelock, 1994) . One can also envisage applications of bag generation to generation fi'om mini-*Now at S[1ARP L~tboral, ories of I\"mrope, Oxh)rd Science [)ark, Oxford OX4 4CA. E-ma~il: simon~sh~Lrp.co, nk tmdly recursiw', semantic ropresentactions (Cope.stake ct al., 1995) and other semantic fi'ameworks which separate scoping fi'om content information (l{eyle, 1995) . ht these frameworks, the unordered natllFe ()f predicate or relation sets makes the aI> plict~tion o[' bag generation techniques attra.ctiw:.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 125, "end": 139, "text": "(Beaven, 1992;", "ref_id": "BIBREF1" }, { "start": 140, "end": 156, "text": "Whitelock, 1994)", "ref_id": "BIBREF18" }, { "start": 390, "end": 415, "text": "(Cope.stake ct al., 1995)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 496, "end": 510, "text": "(l{eyle, 1995)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "A notational convention used in the I)al)er is that items such as 'dogt' stand for simplitied lexical signs of the. form (Shieber, 198( In such signs, the semantic argument will be referred to as an qndex' and will be shown as n subscril)t to a lexeme; in the above exmnple, the index has been giwm the unique type 1.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 121, "end": 130, "text": "(Shieber,", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 131, "end": 135, "text": "198(", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "The term index is borrowed rl'Olll IIPSG (Pollard and Sag, 1994) where indices ~u'e used as arguments to relations; however these indices tnay also be equated with dis(-onrse referents in l)lt:I' (Kamp and I{eyle, 1993) . As with most lexicalist generators, semantic variables ttttlSl; [)c distinguished in order to disallow tr;mslationally incorrect permutations of the target bag. We distinguish variables by uniquely typing them.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 41, "end": 64, "text": "(Pollard and Sag, 1994)", "ref_id": "BIBREF10" }, { "start": 196, "end": 219, "text": "(Kamp and I{eyle, 1993)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Two assumptions are made regarding [cxiealsemantic indexing.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Assmnption 1 All lea'teal signs must be indexed, including fltnetional and nonprcdicative elements (Calder cl al., 1989) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 99, "end": 120, "text": "(Calder cl al., 1989)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Assumption 2 All le.~ical signs must be connecled to each other. 7'wo lea:ical signs arc connected if they are directly connected; furthermore, the connectivity rclation is h'an.silivc.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Definition 1 7'wo signs, A, 11, are directly connccled if there cxisl at least two paths, PathA, Palht3, such that A:PathA is token identical with B:PathB.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "The indices involved in determining connectivity arc; specified as pa.rameters for a pro._ ticul;tr formalism, l'k)r exanq)le, in tlPSG, !01 play a major role in preventing the generation of incorrect translations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "[CAT=S 1 ~ [oKr=NP l [O~T=VP 1) [SEM=E~]J LS~M:A~G1 :=~] L~:M=IEL.,,~o'~=IIljj [CAT=NP] [CAT=Det 1 rcA~'=Na ]", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "2) L~.=I ~ j ~ Ls,~:.,,,~ ~ =l~l L~E~=@[,,~<---", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "-V1]] [CAT=N1] 3) [~,_~ j [oa,,=m] [OAT=Eli [cKr=PP] [CAT=vPl Figure CAT= A [CAT----N1 SEM:ARG1 :~] ] CAT= N1 [OAT = PP SI,' M: ARG1 ~[~]] ] [ CAT = N 1 [ OA'I'= P [SEM__@~^lm3~][ --=~J] [CAT=NP ] CAT= Vtra rCAT=N p ]", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "1: Simple unification grammar.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "It will be shown that it is possible to exploit the connectivity Assumption 2 above in order to achieve a reduction in the number of redundant wfss constructed by both types of generator described in section 2.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Take the following bag:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Using Connectivity for Pruning", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "Ex. 2 {dogl,thcl,brown:,big:} (corresponding to 'the big brown dog'). Assume that the next wfss to be constructed by the generator is the NP 'the dog'. Given the grammar in Figure 1 , it is possible to deduce that 'brown' can never be part of a complete NP constructed from such a substring. This can be determined as follows. If this adjective were part of such a sentence, 'brown' would have to appear as a leaf in some constituent that combines with 'the dog' or with a constituent containing 'the dog'. From the grammar, the only constituents that can combine with 'dog' are VP, Vtra and P. However, none of these constituents can have 'brownl' as a leaf: ill the case of P and Vtra this is trivial, since they are both categories of a ditferent lexical type. In the case of the VP, 'brownl' cannot appear as a leaf either because expansions of the VP are restricted to NP complements with 2 as their semantic index, which in turn would also require adjectives within them to }lave this index. l,'urthermore, 'brown1' cannot OCCUr as a loaf in a deel)er constituent in the VP t)ecause such an occurrence would be associated with a different index. In such cases 'brown' would modify a different noun with a different index:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 173, "end": 181, "text": "Figure 1", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Using Connectivity for Pruning", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "Ex. a { the], dog] , withl ,2 , the~ , lnvwn2 , collar2} A naive implementation of this deduction would attempt to expand the VP depth-ill'st, left to right, ill order to accommodate 'brown' in a complete derivation. Since this would not be possible, the NP 'the dog' would be discarded. This approach is grossly inefficient however. What is required is a more tractable algorithm which, given a wfss and its associated sign, will be able to determine whether all remaining lexical elements can ever form part of a complete sentence which includes that wfss.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 21, "end": 56, "text": "withl ,2 , the~ , lnvwn2 , collar2}", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Using Connectivity for Pruning", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "Note that deciding whether a lexical sign can appear outside a phrase is determined purely by the grammar, and not by whether the lexical elements share the same index or not. Thus, a more complex grammar would allow 'the man' from the bag Ex. 4 {thel,manl,shaves ory. In the general case, however, tile size of the outer domains is O(n2), where n is the number of distinct signs; this number can be controlled by employing equivalence classes of different levels of specificity for pre-terminal and non-terminal signs. 'l'al~le 1: Effect of pruning (times in secs).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 426, "end": 433, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Results", "sec_num": "5" }, { "text": "Only one reading was generated for each bag, corresponding to one attachment site for PPs. 'l'he tMJe shows that the technique ctm yieht reductions in the number of edges (both active aud inactive) and time taken, especially for longer sentences, while retaining the overheads at an acceptable level.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Chart Gen. + Pruning", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A technique fl)r pruning the search space of a bag generator has been implemented and its usefulness shown in Lhe geueration of different types of constructions. The technique relies on a connectivity constraint imposed on the semantic relationships expressed in the input bag. In order to apply the algorithm, outer domains needed to be compiled from the grammar; these are used to discard wfss by ensuring l'exical signs outside a wfss can indeed appear outside that string.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Conclusion", "sec_num": "6" }, { "text": "Exploratory work employing adjacency constraints during generation has yielded further improvements in execution time when applied in conjunction with the pruner. If extended appropriately, these constraints could prune the search space even further. This work will be reported at a later date.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Conclusion", "sec_num": "6" } ], "back_matter": [ { "text": "Two anonymous reviewers provided very useful comments; we regret not being able to do justice to all their suggestions.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Acknowledgments", "sec_num": null } ], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "Compilers -Principles, Techniques, and Tools", "authors": [ { "first": "A", "middle": [ "V" ], "last": "Aho", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "R", "middle": [], "last": "Sethi", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "J", "middle": [ "D" ], "last": "Ullman", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1986, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "A. V. Aho, R. Sethi, and J. D. Ullman. 1986. Compilers -Principles, Techniques, and Tools. 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(1994), pages 339-59.", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF0": { "text": "0: SI'M --[ ttl/I,N = dog ] .... [ attc:~l = 1 J", "uris": null, "type_str": "figure", "num": null }, "FIGREF1": { "text": "N P[sem:arg l:X],Vtra[sem:arg2:Y], { } ) (NP[~em:arg~:X],Vt~a[sem :arga:Y], { } ) (NP[~o,n:~rgl:X],P[~em:~rga:Y], { })This set indicates that for any NIP, the only terminal categories not contained in the subtree with root NP, and with which the NP shares a semantic index, are Vtra and P. For instance, the first triple arises from the following tree: SNP/sem:argl:X] VP[sem:arg2:X] Vtra[sem:arg2:X] NP a.a Pruning through Outer Domains and", "uris": null, "type_str": "figure", "num": null }, "FIGREF2": { "text": "Initial commcted graph.", "uris": null, "type_str": "figure", "num": null }, "FIGREF3": { "text": "Updated disconnected graph after the wfss 'the dog' is constructed.", "uris": null, "type_str": "figure", "num": null } } } }