{ "paper_id": "C94-1041", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:49:35.064018Z" }, "title": "KASSYS: A DEFINITION ACQUISITION SYSTEM IN NATURAL LANGUAGE", "authors": [ { "first": "Patricc", "middle": [], "last": "Hernert", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "hernert@chambord.univ-orleans.fr" }, { "first": "R", "middle": [ "L" ], "last": "De Vinci", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Orldans", "middle": [], "last": "Ccdex", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "This paper is an introdnction to KASSYS, a system that has been designed to extract information from detining statements in natural language. Only hyperonymous detinitions are dealt with here, for which systematic processing has been devised and itnl)lenmnted in tlte initial version of the system. The paper describes how KASSYS buiMs a taxinomie hierarchy by extracting the hyperonyms from these definitions. It also explains the way in which the system can answer closed questions (yes/no), thus enabling the user to check very quickly that a definition has been assimilated correctly. The underlying forrnalism is that of conceptual graphs, with which the reader is assumed to be familiar.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "C94-1041", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "This paper is an introdnction to KASSYS, a system that has been designed to extract information from detining statements in natural language. Only hyperonymous detinitions are dealt with here, for which systematic processing has been devised and itnl)lenmnted in tlte initial version of the system. The paper describes how KASSYS buiMs a taxinomie hierarchy by extracting the hyperonyms from these definitions. It also explains the way in which the system can answer closed questions (yes/no), thus enabling the user to check very quickly that a definition has been assimilated correctly. The underlying forrnalism is that of conceptual graphs, with which the reader is assumed to be familiar.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "The mm of KASSYS, the system described here, is to acquire lexicographical definitions expressed in French, to extract from these definitions a carefully chosen conceptual structure, to save this structure in a tile, and to then be able to use it, where appropriate, for the semantic analysis of a text or during the search for an artswer to a question put by the user. + The formalistn which has been adopted for the representation of the detinitions is that o1' conceptual graphs, 2 that the reader is assumed to understand. All the examples will be given in the feral of statements in natural language, and the operations actually pcrfof med by the system on the conceptual stnmtut'es extracted from these statements will not be described. This paper is limited to hyperonymous delinitions. It ;list) shows, very brietly, how KASSYS can answer cet+tain types of question.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I-INTRODUCTION", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Ilyperonymy/hyponymy can be delined its follows: term A is said to be a hyperonym of term B, or alternatively that term B is a hyponym of term A, if the set of instances of term B is included in the set of instances of term A. This gives the following corollary: the set of semantic features that make ttp the elements of A is included in the set of sem,'mtic featnres that make up the elements of B; the elelnents of B are saM to inherit the sem,'mtic features that are common to the elements of A. llere wc b For a complete descriplion of the initM version of KASS YS, please refer to (llernert 93).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "2Cf. (Sowa 84).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "have tile notion of inheritance of semantic features that is fundanmntal to tile theory of semantic netwm'ks.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "Ilyperonymy is thus defined by the gencral relation:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "(1) (A is a hyperonym of B) ~ (V x, B(x) D A(x))", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "The equiwflcnt in natural hmguage of (1) is:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "(2) (A is a hyperonyna of B) ~ (All P, is A)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "For example, lhe definition of the concept bee:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "(3) bee: a social insect which produces wax and honey.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "I;rom this delinition it is possible to extr'tct the I'ollowing statement, in which insect is: the hyperonym of bee:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "(4) All bees are insects.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "In formal terms a hyl)eronynu)us definition can be written its in (5), in which the delining statement is split into two fundamental components: the hyperonym, followed by a conjunction of semantic features which distinguish tile defined fl'om this hyperonym; this conjunction of semantic featnrcs is called spectJic diffi'rence. The implication contained in (5) is that KASSYS perceives definitions its statements of conditions that are necessary but not sufticient. It is assnmed that concept F; as delined in (5) may possess senmntic features that have not been specified but the knowledge of which may turn out to be indispensable if it were necessary to differentiate it from an individual beh)nging to a very simihn class.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-Some points concerning hyperonynmus detinllions", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "It is usually fairly easy to extract Ihc hypcronyna fr(ml a hypcronymous definition. In nearly all cases the hyperonym of the (letined is the lirst word of the definition, in KASSYS the lk)llowing heuristics have been implemented:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-llow to extract the hyperonym", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "For the delinition of a verb the hyperonyn~ is the litst word o1' the deliniti,.m; if this word is not a verb the search fails, l'or nouns, start by checking whether or not the definition begins with a defining prefix, i.e. art expression such as action oJ~Jhct oJ~ etc.; in sonte cases the delinition may not be hyperonymous; otherwise, if tim first word of the deliniti(m is a noun it is the hyperonym; if the lit'st N words are adjectives, possibly separated by the conjunction and or by a comma, and if the (N+l)th word is a noun, then this noun is the hyperonym.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-llow to extract the hyperonym", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "These two heuristics are commonly used by systems to search for hyperonyms in detinitions, sometimes with improvements to take into account the special cases tbr wbich these heuristics are not suitable. 3", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-llow to extract the hyperonym", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "The hyperonym is obviously a fundamental etmnent of a hyperonymous definition. Taken alone, a concept and its hyperonym 4 are sufficient to build an elementary semantic netwo;rk in which all the nodes are connected by the same link IS-A. Tbe semantic network is limited to a simple taxonomic hierarchy which can be built and nminrained far more easily than a complete setnantic network.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "KASSYS carries out a certain number of checks on the proposed hyperonym. If, for example, it is too general, tim user is \"tsked to choose another; if it has already been used as a hyperonym, the system suggests that maybe one of its hyponyms could be a better candidate. Let us now look in more detail at what KASSYS does when the user defines tile same concept more than once. Let us take the following definition patterns:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(6) V x, A(x) D (B(x) A C(x)) (7) V x, A(x) :) 0r(x) ^ C'(x))", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "In (6) and 7, concept A has been deIined by the hypcronyms B and B' respectively and the specific differet~ces C and C'. There are four different cases:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "1. If B=B' and C=C', the definitions are klentieal and the second one is therefore redundant.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "2. If B=B' and C<>C', the second definition can be considered as additional information which should be merged with the definition that has already been memorised.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "3. If B<>B' and C=C', the definitions are identical but for one hyperonym; the system will therefore ask the user to choose between (6) and 7; note that, if B has been defined with B' as its hyperonynl (respectively B' with B), the system will suggest keeping (6) (respectively (7)).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "4. If B<>B' and C<>C', the user will have to choose one of these two definitions.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "Note tlmt, if the second definition (7) does not mention the hyperonym of A, the system will find this hyperonym thanks to the first hyperonymons definition that has been entered, which necessarily contains tile structure (6).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "2.4 -Tbe circularity of definitions 3For example. (Byrd 87) identifies several hypemnym~ in tile ~;alne definition, separated by a conjunction; in (V&onis 89) there is a heuristic which, in certain cases, allows the hyperonym of a noun delined by the pretix action t~'to he extracted.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "4Right from the beginning it has been assumed that no concept possesses more than one immediate hyperonyrn; fi'om this point of view this immediate hyperonym coincides with the genus in the Arislolelian sense of the term.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "Whether definitions come flom a French dictionary or have been produced by a user who is not a lexicographer, they usually contain characteristics that are considered to make them totally useless. Definitions are too often found to be repetitive or inconsistent; however, once these problems have been klentified they can almost always be corrected. But this is not true of circular definitions which, today, are accepted as being inevitable, s", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "As far as KASSYS is concerned, the presence of cycles in definitions would have the nnfortun'lte result of leading the program into infinite loops. In order to awfid this, an algorithm has been implemented which searches each new hyperonymousdefinition for words th:tt will lead to a circular definition. Let us exauaine tile folk)wing example:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(8) swarm: group of bees that leaves an overcrowded hive to settle elsewhere. (9) bee: social insect of tile Hymenoptera group, called honeyJty that lives in swarms and produces wax and honey. (Ill) hive: shelter designed for a swarm of bees.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "If tile definitions arc submitted to tile system in this order, tile circularity due to the presence of swarm in the definition ot' tim concept bee is detected -ts soon as this delinition is entered. The user is therefore asked to modify at least one of the two definitions (8) and (9). One possible solution would be to replace (9) by (1 I):", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(11) bee: social insect of tile l lymenoptera group, called honeyfiy that lives in colonies and produces wax anti honey, Now (8) and ([ 1) are accepted without any difficulty. But there is still a problem with (10) since the definition of hive contains the noun swarm. This circul;trity can be got rid of by removing hive from tile definition of swarm or swarm from the delinition of hive. The first solution leads to seriously truncating the definition of the noun sworm:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(12) swarm: group of bees.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "The second leads to a somcwlmt unnatural deliuition:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(13) hive: shelter designed for a group c,f bees. This example shows that it is sometimes ahnost inevitable to have reconrse to a circular detinition and it is for this reason that KASSYS can be conligured to accept such delinitions, llowever, the danger is that, when the knowledge base is consulted, certain algorithms which are used in this consultation and which, at the present time, are tmable to check their own evolution, may lead to inIinite loops with a consequent loss o f inlbmmtion that has not previously been menmrised. Let us suppose that tile following detinitions have been st, bmitted to the system, which then analyses and memorises them:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-How to build the taxinomie hierarchy", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "(14)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "revolver: small-arm with a rew/lving cylinder that can contain six cartridges. (15) pistol: small-arm with a removable cartridge clip in which the cartridges are loaded. (16) small-arm: short, portable tirearm. (17) tirearm: arm that tires shots through tile detonation of an explosive mixture.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "I,et us begin with the simplest questions, i.e. those it is possible to answer by consulting just one delinition. For example:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "(18) Does a rewllver have a cylinder?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "Using definition (14), this question can he answered in the aflirmative. This is exactly what KASSYS does, by simply projecting tile conceptual graph assf~ciated to tile question onto tile conceptual graph of the defining statement a revolver is a small-arm with etc.. Note that KASSYS knows that irA is sltid to be with P,, then A has B.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "It may happen that a query is projected onto the body of a definition but not onto tile detining statement that has been obtained from tile delined and tile definition. For example:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "(19) Does a cylinder contain e:trtridges?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "The graph of this query is not projected oiito that of a revolver i.v a small-arm with etc. btlt onto that of tile detinition properly speaking of tevolver, which contains the pattern a cylinder contains cartridges. The system cleverly deduces that there exist cylinders which contain cartridges and so, in answer to question (19), replies So+ metimes.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "QUERYING TIlE KNOWlJgDGE", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "This section deals with the case of questions that cannot be answered by consulting just one hyperonymous delinition. It is assumed that these questions contain neither modal verbs nor negations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "The following algorithm has been implemented so as to be able to answer these questions: a Search in the assertion to be veritied for the concepts to which a type definition has been associated; for each concept C that is found: 1. Search for tile definition of C.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "2. For this detinition, perform all possible type expansions (the strategy that has been implemented is a breadth lit'st search); for each definition that is obtained, try to project the graph of the query onto the 'This algorithm requires an operalion which has not been delinell:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "type #xpansion; this consists ill replacing a give. word in Ihe graph ol n statement by its type detinition.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "graph of this delinition; if a projection succeeds, the answer is Yes; go to 5; if no projection succeeds,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "Cotltimle.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "g. For each of the hyponyn~s of C, return to [; i[' a projection succeeds, the answer is Sometitne,v; go to 5; if no projection succeeds, continue.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "4. No pro.iection has succeeded; the system ix unable to answer.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "5", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": ". If an answer has been found, display it; otherwise display I don't know; stop.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "t+et us take tile query:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "(21}) Does a pistol fire shots?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "Starling froth tire cm/cept pistol, then performhlg type expansion on its hyperonym small-arm, followed by a second type expansion on tile conceptfirear, t, KASSYS buihls the graph of the following detinition:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "(21) A pistol is a short portable arm which Ih'es shots, etc.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "We are back to the case of the previous paragraph, where just one hypermlymous delhfition is enough to be able to answer tile question. It is easy to see that the graph of tile query (20) is projected onto that of tile detinition (21). This is what KASSYS does, and so it replies in the affirmative to question (20).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "It should be noted that this algorithm can be very time consuming, it\" tile assertion to be verified contains more than one concept that has been delined in the knc~wledge base. One possible sohttion would be to look lk~r the answet starting from a prio,ity concept that we shall call tire Joc,s of tile que,y and that is de/ined as being tire concept to which tile questioning applies. It is a somewhat wtgue notion and is rather difficult to explain clearly. \"1~ begin with, it was necessary to detine a naive, focus extractim/ heuristic. Although far flollr perfect, this heuristic is never dangerous since tile previous algorithm guarantees that all tile concepts will be tried. 1 [owever, where tile heuristic COtllptlteS a focus leading to a successful conclusion, tile time saved is inolmrtional to tire ,mmber of concepts cmll:lined in tile assertion and on which type expansion can be performed. In tire example uf question (2t)), the focus determined by the heuristic is pislol, which leads to a successful conclusion. The ltnlotlrlt Of time is saved here is nil but wouht be considerable if tile definition of tile concept shot, for exatnple, were to be inserted in the knowledge base.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-An algorithm using type expansion", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "Queries that contain a negation (]enerally speaking, the handling of negation is a tricky affair for the essential reason that negation in natural language cannot be confused with logical negation, l:{~r instance, it is easy to lind a statement with a truth value that is identical to that of its negation. 7 llowever, in a huge number of elementary cases, especially where the :Let us lake the eXalllI)le of Ihe sla|elllenl/~,1y drrl,goll likes bakhtva, negation concerns tim main verb of a chmse, it is reasonable to accept that the trnth value of the chtuse is the opposite of that of the assertion which is obtained by removing the negation from the clause. This is a heuristic wllich has proved to be extremely efficient in KASSYS but which woukl have to be re-exantined if certain sin> plifying hypotheses were to be abandoned.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "Let p be a statement containing just one verb, and leg(p) the negation of this statement, obtained by adding a negation to the verb contained in p. The answer given for leg(p) is a function of that which has been l'ound for p: s", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "TRUE FALSE I SOME ] UNI)EF 1 P neg(p) FALSE TaUI~ 1~---~-------~FALSE [--O-l qDE[+ I Negation in queries", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "This table must be read from top to bottom only. Don't forget that it gives the truth value of the statetnent leg(p), which contains one and only one negation, in function of that of p, which contains no negation. Note that the aim of this table is not to define the truth wtlue ofneg(neg(p)). In the case where leg(p) isn't valid, ignoring this restriction leads to attributing two truth values to leg(leg(p)).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "Let us take as an examl)le tile following queried statement, which is the negative answer to (19):", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "(22) A cylinder does not contain cartrklges.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "KASSYS answers that statement (22) isn't valid since cylinders exist which contain cartrklges, as is consistent with the hypothesis that queried statements are prefixed by a universal quantifier. Statement (22) is interpreted as Not all cylinders contain cartridges, and not as There exist cylinders which do not contain cartridges, hi tile hitter case it is obviously impossible to answer, for the sintple reason that nowhere is it said that there exist cylinders other than those which are parts of revolvers. However, in the hypothesis oft closed world, 9 objects whose existence has not been asserted are assumed not to exist in this world. Given this one proviso, tile answer to (22) is negative, whatever its interpretation. On tile contrary, a queried statenrent such as It is not true tlzat a o'linder does not contain cartridges, which is the negation of (22), is rejected by the system for tile simple reason that it contains two negations. The previous heuristic is not suitable for use in this statement, for which the wdues TRUE and SOME are possible.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "-", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "The following session, given in French, is a faithful illustration of the messages given by tile system.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A SESSION WITH KASSYS", "sec_num": "4." } ], "back_matter": [ { "text": "This paper is a sketchy panorama of KASSYS. In particular, only the handling of byperonylnous definitions has been discussed. You have seen how the taxinomic hierarchy and the knowledge base are built. You have also been told how, broadly speaking, the query/answer module currently running in the system works.The interest of this work is to show that conceptual graph theory offers an elegant framework in which hyperonymous definitions fit naturally. Careful and judicious use of this framework and the operations defined within it (type expansion, projection) enable information search algorithms to be implemented easily. ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "annex", "sec_num": null } ], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "KASSYS: Bonjonr, j'attends lOS instructions", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "KASSYS: Bonjonr, j'attends lOS instructions...", "links": null }, "BIBREF1": { "ref_id": "b1", "title": "USER: Un adronef est un appareil d' aviation", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "2. USER: Un adronef est un appareil d' aviation.", "links": null }, "BIBREF2": { "ref_id": "b2", "title": "); this statement is false because we have no drag(m; it~ negation is equally false, for the stone reason. 8UNI)EF for zmdefined; SOME tbr Sometimes: some occurrences exist for which the queried statenlenl is true", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "K: OK, j' ai assimil6 le concept . taken from (1 [irst 91); this statement is false because we have no drag(m; it~ negation is equally false, for the stone reason. 8UNI)EF for zmdefined; SOME tbr Sometimes: some occurrences exist for which the queried statenlenl is true. 9This hypothesis has not been adopted here.", "links": null }, "BIBREF3": { "ref_id": "b3", "title": "U: Qn'est-ce qu'un adronef ? 5. K: Un adroncf est un app.'n'eil d'aviation. 6. U: Une fusde est un appareil qui sort a envoyer une", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: Qn'est-ce qu'un adronef ? 5. K: Un adroncf est un app.'n'eil d'aviation. 6. U: Une fusde est un appareil qui sort a envoyer une charge dans l'espace.", "links": null }, "BIBREF4": { "ref_id": "b4", "title": "Le concept a pour hyponyme ", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "K: Le concept a pour hyponyme ;", "links": null }, "BIBREF5": { "ref_id": "b5", "title": "LISEe est un adronef qui sert h eavuycr une charge dans I'espace. l)ois-je intdgrer la nouvelle \u00a2lonn6e ~l cette ddfinition ? 16. U: Oui. 17. K: Bien, j'ai compris votre ddfinition de . 18. U: Qu'est-ce qu'nne fusde ? 19. I<2: Une I'tlsde est un adronef propulsd par till motenr ,t r6action, qui selt ~l envoyer nne charge dans l'espacc. 20. U: Un adronef est tln apparcil qui petit voler", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "celui-ci est-il un hyperonyme phls proche de ? 8. U: Oui. 9. K: Je ddduis done qu'une ftxs6e est un adronef qui sert ~l envoyer une charge darts l'espace. Etes-vous d'accord avec celte ddfinition ? 10. U: Oui. 11. K: J'ai mdnlorisd la ddlinition de . 12. U: Une fusde est propulsde par tin ntoteur a rdaction. 13. K: S'agibil d'une question ou d'une affirmation ? 14. U: C'est une affirmatitm. 15. K: Je sais d6j'l qn'une ['LISEe est un adronef qui sert h eavuycr une charge dans I'espace. l)ois-je intdgrer la nouvelle \u00a2lonn6e ~l cette ddfinition ? 16. U: Oui. 17. K: Bien, j'ai compris votre ddfinition de . 18. U: Qu'est-ce qu'nne fusde ? 19. I<2: Une I'tlsde est un adronef propulsd par till motenr ,t r6action, qui selt ~l envoyer nne charge dans l'espacc. 20. U: Un adronef est tln apparcil qui petit voler. 2l. K: Ok, j'ai assimil6 la ddfinition de . 22. U: Un phmeur est un appareil semblable a l'avion mais ddmuni de motenr.", "links": null }, "BIBREF6": { "ref_id": "b6", "title": "U: Oui. 25. K: Je ddduis donc qu'un phnleur est tilt adronef semblable h l'avion nlais ddmuni de moteur. Etes-vous d'accord avec cette ddfinition ? 26. U: Oni. J'ai ntdnlorisd la ddfinition de . Un adronef peut cnvoyer une charge dans", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "Le concept a pour hyponyme ; celui-ci est41 un hyperonyme phns proche de ? 24", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "K: Le concept a pour hyponyme ; celui-ci est41 un hyperonyme phns proche de ? 24. U: Oui. 25. K: Je ddduis donc qu'un phnleur est tilt adronef sem- blable h l'avion nlais ddmuni de moteur. Etes-vous d'ac- cord avec cette ddfinition ? 26. U: Oni. J'ai ntdnlorisd la ddfinition de . Un adronef peut cnvoyer une charge dans l'espace 27. K: 28. U: ? 29. K: Oui.", "links": null }, "BIBREF7": { "ref_id": "b7", "title": "U: l~ourquoi ?", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: l~ourquoi ?", "links": null }, "BIBREF8": { "ref_id": "b8", "title": "Parce qu'une fnsde est till adronel' prol~ulsd par till nlotcur ~1 rdaction, qui sort ~l envoyer nnc charge dans 1' espace. 32. U: Pourquoi ?", "authors": [ { "first": "I", "middle": [], "last": "", "suffix": "" } ], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "I. K: Parce qu'une fnsde est till adronel' prol~ulsd par till nlotcur ~1 rdaction, qui sort ~l envoyer nnc charge dans 1' espace. 32. U: Pourquoi ?", "links": null }, "BIBREF9": { "ref_id": "b9", "title": "K: C'est tons qui me I'avez dit", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "K: C'est tons qui me I'avez dit.", "links": null }, "BIBREF10": { "ref_id": "b10", "title": "Est-cc que les appareils volent ? 35. K: Quelquefois", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: Est-cc que les appareils volent ? 35. K: Quelquefois.", "links": null }, "BIBREF11": { "ref_id": "b11", "title": "U: Un planeur peut voler ? 37. K: Oui", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: Un planeur peut voler ? 37. K: Oui.", "links": null }, "BIBREF12": { "ref_id": "b12", "title": "Est-ce qu'un planenr possb.dc till motenr ? 39. K: Ncm", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: Est-ce qu'un planenr possb.dc till motenr ? 39. K: Ncm.", "links": null }, "BIBREF13": { "ref_id": "b13", "title": "U: On at'r~te lb", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "U: On at'r~te lb.", "links": null }, "BIBREF14": { "ref_id": "b14", "title": "Ma mdnloirc n'est pas vide. Dois-je faire nne sauvegarde ? 42. U: Non", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "K: Ma mdnloirc n'est pas vide. Dois-je faire nne sau- vegarde ? 42. U: Non.", "links": null }, "BIBREF15": { "ref_id": "b15", "title": "Comtne vous voudrez. Merci et :~l bient6t. 5. CONCLUSION", "authors": [ { "first": "I", "middle": [], "last": "", "suffix": "" } ], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "I. K: Comtne vous voudrez. Merci et :~l bient6t. 5. CONCLUSION", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF1": { "text": "BASE 3.1 -~qhnple questions KASSYS is able to answer yes/no type questions, i.e. it can compnte the truth of certain statements. This paper does not deal with elementary queries of tile type Is an A 5Cf, for example, (Weinreich 70). page 81. a B?, which tile system b'mdles without any prot~letn.", "num": null, "uris": null, "type_str": "figure" } } } }