{
    "paper_id": "C86-1021",
    "header": {
        "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
        "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:14:50.316753Z"
    },
    "title": "",
    "authors": [
        {
            "first": "Nakoto",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Naoao",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Kyoto University Kyoto",
                "location": {
                    "postCode": "606",
                    "country": "Japan"
                }
            },
            "email": ""
        },
        {
            "first": "Jun-Ichi",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Tsujii",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Kyoto University Kyoto",
                "location": {
                    "postCode": "606",
                    "country": "Japan"
                }
            },
            "email": ""
        }
    ],
    "year": "",
    "venue": null,
    "identifiers": {},
    "abstract": "",
    "pdf_parse": {
        "paper_id": "C86-1021",
        "_pdf_hash": "",
        "abstract": [],
        "body_text": [
            {
                "text": "The interlingual approach to MT has been repeatedly advocated by researchers originally interested Jn natural language understanding who take machine translation to be one possible application. However, not only the ambiguity but also the vagueness which every natural language inevitably has leads this approach into essential difficulties. In contrast, our project, the Mu-project, adopts the transfer approach as the basic framework of MT. This paper describes the detailed construction of the transfer phase of our system from Japanese to English, and gives some examples of problems which seem difficult to treat in the interlJngual approach. The basic design principles of the transfer phase of our system have already been mentioned in (i) (2). Some of the principles which are relevant to the topic of this paper are:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(a)Multiple Layer of Grammars (b)Multiple Layer Presentation (c) Lexicon Driven Processing (d) Form-Oriented Dictionary Description This paper also shows how these principles are realized in the current system.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The transfer phase of our system consists of the following three sub-phases ( from which one can retrieve various levels of information contained in the input sentences. The MTP is performed recursively from the top of the tree to the bottom (Fig. 2) . At each step of the recursion, the sub-structure governed by a node (current node, node X ira Fig. 2 ) is transferr(~d to the corresponding structure of the target language (TL). This phase mainly performs lexJcal tran~'{fer, that is, it chooses an appropriate target lexical item for node X by examining the annotation parts of that node and its dependent nodes (nodes YI,..Y2,..Yn). The selection of a target lexical item may place certain constrains on the transfer of the dependent nodes. These constrains are expressed as property-value pairs and added to the annotation parts of the dependent nodes, which are to be utilized in the subsequent recursion steps. For language pairs such as Japanese and English which belong to quite different language families, however, the lexical transfer is not so straightforward. It often happens that single lexical items of SL correspond to complex (-~xpressions of TL and vice versa. Furthermore, certain structural changes are also required.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 242,
                        "end": 250,
                        "text": "(Fig. 2)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 347,
                        "end": 353,
                        "text": "Fig. 2",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The Construction of the Transfer Phase",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Because the MTP recursively transfers sub-structures governed by single nodes, certain global structural differences cannot be naturally treated. Such global changes are deal t with by the Pre-TP and Pest-TP subphases (See section 7) . The following four columns are provided in the formoriented bilingual dictionary of nouns (Fig. 3) . The description of each column is expanded into corresponding types of lexical rule (i.e. GRADE rules which are stored in the dictionaries and invoked at specified processing phases : GRADE is the programming language for writing grammar rules used in our project).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 326,
                        "end": 334,
                        "text": "(Fig. 3)",
                        "ref_id": "FIGREF1"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The Construction of the Transfer Phase",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "(1)Column A : Transfer based on the Relationship to the Governor (Fig. 4 ) Even major parts-of-speech such as nouns need not correspond between two languages. Certain Japanese nouns correspond to words of different parts-ofspeech in English, depending on the surrounding context.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 65,
                        "end": 72,
                        "text": "(Fig. 4",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The Construction of the Transfer Phase",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "0) $~ ---> wooden desk (tree) (desk) 1~ -~0) )~)3 ---> interactive input (interaction) (input)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Ex-I :~",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "However, the same nouns should be translated as nouns in Engl~sh in contexts such as : This indicates that: if '~' is used as a noun a~ifier and the case relation between '9};' and the governor is 'RATerial' then the translation equivalent is 'wooden', else 'tree'.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Ex-I :~",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Ex-2. :/g 0) ~ ---> growth of trees (tree) (growth) ~(~ 0) ~U,~ ---> advantage of interaction (interaction) (",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Ex-I :~",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "(2) Column B : Selections of Prepositions (Fig. 5 It also happens that Japanese verbs with wide ranges of meaning should be translated into certain English verbs when collocated with specific nouns. Rules which choose appropriate English verbs by referring to semantic class:ifications of case elements (nouns) are defJ ned as ].exical rules in the verb dictionary (See Section 4). However, certain collocations of verbs and nouns are so specific that choices of appropriate target verbs cannot be expressed by the lexica] rules of verbs of this type. column D in the form-oriented dictionary of nouns is used to specify such collocations between nouns and verbs. The description of this column is not only expanded into ]exica] rules of the nouns but also into the property (J-DIC-DER:V) of those nouns. The values of this property is a set of Japanese predicates which require special treatments when they are collocated with the nouns. When node X ill Fig. 2 ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 42,
                        "end": 49,
                        "text": "(Fig. 5",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 955,
                        "end": 961,
                        "text": "Fig. 2",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fi~. 4. Example of Descriptions in Coluan-A",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "to be big, to be heavy, etc.)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fi~. 4. Example of Descriptions in Coluan-A",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "are also represented as embedded clauses (Fig. 8) , and so column D is used to choose adjectives in English. Note that most of the combinations between nouns and appropriate adjectives are highly conventionalized in each language and so it is hard to imagine the conceptual primitives for adjectives that could be language independent. We have several words of minor parts-of-speech in Japanese which roughly correspond to determiners, quantifiers, etc. Jn English. Almost the same kind of information as column D is specified in this column for these words.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 41,
                        "end": 49,
                        "text": "(Fig. 8)",
                        "ref_id": "FIGREF3"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fi~. 4. Example of Descriptions in Coluan-A",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "When the node X in Fig. 2 is a verb or an adjective, the transfer grammar for predicates is invoked. If it dose not exist:, the other rule in the grammar invokes the lexical rules derived from the form-oriented dictionary of the predicate (node X). By examining the annotation parts of that node and its dependents, the lexJcal rules of a predicate may determine (]) the trans].ation equivalent in English (2) the deep case relationship and surface ease maker of those dependents strictly governed by the predicate.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 19,
                        "end": 25,
                        "text": "Fig. 2",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The Form-Oriented Dictionary and Lexical Transfer of Verbs",
                "sec_num": "4"
            },
            {
                "text": "If a Japanese predicate is really ambiguous, a separate case frame is provided for each of its meanings. The Japanese analysis grammar disambiguates the meaning and a separate lexical entry is prepared in the bilingual dictionary, i.e. different meanings of a predicate are treated as different lexica], items in the transfer phase. However, the real problems in translation is not caused by ~mbiguity such as this but by vagueness of meaning. When we treat a language pair such as Japanese and English, it is not exceptional but rather usual that a verb of SL has to be translated into different target lexical items, even though the native speakers of SL cannot clearly realize the meaning difference. The above three usages of the verb '~ ' are continuous in the sense that all of them have the core meaning in common. If we considered them as different meanings, the Japanese verb '~' would have plenty of different meanings and be a highly ambiguous word. Note that the English verb 'to wear' should be translated into more than five differnt Japanese verbs depending on what is to be worn. 'To wear shoes', 'to wear a watch', 'to wear spectacles', etc. should all be translated differently. These facts show that it is impossible to establish the set of lexical items of the interlingua. In our system, then, these 'translationally ambiguous' lexical items are treated in the transfer phase.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The Form-Oriented Dictionary and Lexical Transfer of Verbs",
                "sec_num": "4"
            },
            {
                "text": "The form-oriented dictionary of verbs is shown in Fig. 9 . Each pair of condition and a transformation is expanded into a tree transformation rule of GRADE. Fig.10 shows that the schematic construction of the MTP. The substructure governed by the node X is transferred recursively by an appropriate subgrammar, depending on the properties of that node. For simplicity, only the subgrammars for main clauses and noun phrases are shown in detail. The blocks surrounded by bold lines in this figure are those which are performed by lexical rules described in section 3 and 4.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 50,
                        "end": 56,
                        "text": "Fig. 9",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 157,
                        "end": 163,
                        "text": "Fig.10",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Ex",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The lexical rules are invoked at the beginning of the subgrammars, because they are the rules for treating idiosyncratic phenomena specific to lexical items and are applied before the other, moregeneral rules are applied. Constraints on some of the dependent nodes such as syntactic forms (a prepositional phrase with a specific preposition,etc.) are determined by these lexical rules, and added to their annotation parts. These constraints are utilized at the next recursion step where the substructure under each dependent node is The form-oriented dictionaries are provided just for preparing dictionary descriptions for a large number of ordinary lexica] J terns. The forms given in the preceding sections are used by lexicographers who do not have any detail ed knowledge about the transfer grammar. At execution time, these descriptions are expanded into GRADE lexica] rules (Fig. ll) .",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 881,
                        "end": 890,
                        "text": "(Fig. ll)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Japanese",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "If one wants to specify complicated transfer rules which cannot be expressed in these forms, one can provide ]exica] rules directly i n GRADE, and attach them to specific lexica], items. Such lexica] rules are also invoked at the appropriate time during tha transfer phase. The rules in the transfer grammar checks whether the ]exical items have ]exJca] rules of certain types, and if they have, the ]exical rules are i nvoked whether they are derived from the formoriented dictionaries or prepared directly in the GRADE form. On<! can specify arbitrary treetransformations in GRADE so that one can prepare very flexible transfer rules specific to ]exica] items. Lexical rules for certain items such as Japanese verbs with wide ranges of usages are given directly in GRADE. o K-N",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Japanese",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Though mosl Japanese verbs and nouns are respectively translated into English verbs and nouns, certain parts-of-speech in Japanese do not have such direct equivalents in English, and the word of such parts-of-speech need to be translated into various kinds of expressions.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fig.ll Relationships betveen Format Dictionaries and Dictionaries for Execution",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The transfer rules are highly specific to each lexica] item, and therefore, we do not prepare any dictionary formats for these words. The tranfer rules are directly prepared in the GRADE form.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fig.ll Relationships betveen Format Dictionaries and Dictionaries for Execution",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The adverbial postpositional particles ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Fig.ll Relationships betveen Format Dictionaries and Dictionaries for Execution",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "NoLe a]so that, because the roles of these particles are to give additional, meaning to the core meaning (i.e. the propositional contents) of the sentences and some of them are related to the attitude or the intention of the speaker, the inter] ingua] representation for these patti cles can be very comp]ieated.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "]it is a] so the case for the Japanese auxi.]iary verbs which follow the main predicates and express vari ous kinds of modal i ty, aspect, politeness, and so on. The correspondence of these expressions is highly dependent on language pairs and so should be treated in the transfer phase. from the top te tbe bottom. The order of processing is })re-determined by the dependency trees given by the analysis phase. If the substructures are changed unexpectedly durLng the recursion, the upper ]eve] of recursi ve processing cannot respond to the change ; if it could, tee rules which cbeck the results of the transfer of the substructures and take appropriate actions would need ko be provided, making the construction of subgrammars unnecessarily complicated.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "There are pairs of stereotypibal sentence sty] es J n the two languages which cannot be translated by phrase-to-phrase trans]ation. translated irlto an adverb or a preposJ tiona] phrase in EnglJ sh. Rules are prepared in Pre-TP, which transform clausal constructions into phrasal constructions.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Ex-11AtZW$~a~12t~<, B_~....8~6",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "---> not only h is ~ but also B is \"o\"",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Because the clues of such stereotypical sentence patterns are embedded deeply in the analysis trees (see Fig.14) and resultant tree structures of the transfer phase become quite different from those of the analysis phase, it is difficult for the recursive processing in MTP to treat them.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 105,
                        "end": 112,
                        "text": "Fig.14)",
                        "ref_id": "FIGREF9"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The two phases, Pre-TP and Post-TP, are provided for such global structural changes. In these two phases, each rule traverses the whole tree independently in order to find where the rule is applicable. For example, the following structural transformation (Fig.  12) is taken place, because Japanese quantifiers such as ~b ~ (many, much), ~f~b~ (few, little) etc. can be used as predicates but English quantifiers cannot. ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 255,
                        "end": 265,
                        "text": "(Fig.  12)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> 1) such as A, B and C ---> A, B, C and so on",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "A subordinate clause with a predicate of 'TE'-form (~,[~7[ -to pay attention to) is usually expressed in Engllsh as a subordinate clause with a conjunction such as 'while', 'when' etc. or a participle clause. However, when the predicate of the subordinate clause is a verb of a certain type, the clause expresses the 'manner' case of the main clause and it should be Such structural transformations are often required in the translation of Japanese into English. Some complex expressions which contain subordinate clauses or embedded clauses are used in Japanese only for expressing deep case relationships.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> to control (the) machine carefully",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "(A with a subject marker)(cause) (to become)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> to control (the) machine carefully",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "....",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "> to control (the) machine carefully",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Because 'A' becomes the cause .......",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": ". > (d irect translat ion)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "'h' fills the deep case 'cause' of the main clause --> 'by'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Because direct translations of these expressions result in clumsy English, they are reduced into much simpler structures in the transfer phase ( Fig. 13 ).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 145,
                        "end": 152,
                        "text": "Fig. 13",
                        "ref_id": "FIGREF1"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "main clause main clause (2) Stereotypical expressions of Japanese which have corresponding English stereotypical expressions : The correspondence of stereotypical expressions in the two languages such as given in Ex-ll cannot be recovered appropriately by the phrase-to-phrase transfer in MTP. Rules are prepared in Pre-TP, which discover the existence of such stereotypical expressions and insert special nodes in the dependency trees to facilitate the recursive processing of MTP (Fig. 14) . (3) Complf~-x Expressions following predacates : Though auxi liary verbs in Japanese fo] ] ow main predicates to express various kinds of information such as modality, aspect, po]iteness, etc., some complex expressions which contain embedded clauses are also used to express the same kind of information and should be expressed in English by auxiliary verbs, aspect verbs (ex : to begin, to continue, keep --ing, etc.), etc. (Fig. 15) . Note that what kinds of information can be expressed hy simp].e &uxiliary verbs and so by simple linguistic constructions is dependent on each language, and the adjustment of the di. fference requires certain structural changes.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 482,
                        "end": 491,
                        "text": "(Fig. 14)",
                        "ref_id": "FIGREF9"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 919,
                        "end": 928,
                        "text": "(Fig. 15)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "(data (advance) (case (automated (to increase processing) particle ships)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "-'past tense)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "-'by') .... > (direct translation) Due to advances of data processing, the number of autonlated ships increased. (natura I transl at ion) Advances of data processing increase(] the number of automated ships.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "(deep interpretation)",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "back_matter": [
            {
                "text": "We explained ~n this abstract the construction of the transfer phase of our Japanese-Eng] i. sh translation system. The implementations of the whole system has already been completed and the trans]atJon results (i0,000 sentences) are now being evaluated by professional translators and native speakers of Eng] ish. ']'he evaluation results obtained by now are quite sati sfac tory.The descri ption in the form-oriented dictionaries discussed in this abstract are currently prepared for abou 74,000 nouns and 5,000 verbs and adjectives. (2) Transformation from constructions with intransitive verbs J nto constructions with transitive verbs : It happens quite often that an event is naturally expressed by an intransJ tive verb i n Japanese but by a transitive verb in English.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "]0 Conclusions",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "bib_entries": {},
        "ref_entries": {
            "FIGREF0": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Fig. i). Pre-Transfer Phase (Pre-TP) Main Transfer Phase (MTP) Pc st -Transfer Phase (Post-TP) f-re-Transfer p .ha.:,l-~ Ma in Transfer Phase ~ P:st-Transfer :has J"
            },
            "FIGREF1": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Fora-orlented Dictionary for Nouns (Di-lingual Dictinary) 3 The Form-Oriented Dictionatz and Lexical Transfer of Nouns"
            },
            "FIGREF3": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "deep case BOD: Additional specification ('\u00a2dei' shows the case element should be deleted in English, i.e. the meaning of the case element is lexically included by English predicate.) This shows :If '~'(efficiency) is collocated mith ',~#~t~'(high), then the combination should be translated into 'efficient', else the translation equivalent is 'efficiency'. Fig. 8. An Example of Descriptions in Coluaa-Lezlcal Transfer of an Adective (4) Column C : Transfer based on Collocation with Modifiers"
            },
            "FIGREF7": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Fig.12. Structure Chang~ in Pre-~ Furthermore, the following structures in Japanese are treated. (i) Subordinate clauses which should be expressed by adverbs or prepositional phrases in English :"
            },
            "FIGREF8": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Reduction of a Structure in Pre-1?"
            },
            "FIGREF9": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Correspondence of sterotyplca| patterns"
            },
            "FIGREF10": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Fig. 15. Reduction of Structures in Pre-'l?"
            },
            "TABREF1": {
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "num": null,
                "content": "<table><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">The semantic relationships</td><td>are not sufficient for</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">selecting</td><td colspan=\"2\">such preposJ tions appropriately.</td><td>Same</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">postpositional</td><td>case particles should be translated</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">into different prepositions,</td><td>even though the deep</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">semantic relationships in Japanese are the same (thai:</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">is, Japanese</td><td>native</td><td>speakers</td><td>cannot</td><td>intuitively</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">distinguish the difference.) In Ex-4, for example,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">English native speakers can clearly distinguish</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">semantic</td><td colspan=\"2\">relationship</td><td>of 'results' and 'effects ~</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">(GOAL or OBJECT</td><td>case)</td><td>from that of 'family' and</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">'duty' (BENEFICIARY case), whereas in Japanese the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">same postpositional</td><td>case particles are used and so</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">the distinction of the semantic relationships is not</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">so clear for Japanese natives. We</td><td>cannot, therefore,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">even expect the stability of semantic relationships</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">across the two languages.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Fie ld</td><td>Part-of-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">xical-Item</td><td/><td>Equivalent</td><td>Code</td><td>Speech</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>~</td><td/><td/><td>effect</td><td>GEN</td><td>i!</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">Co IuJn-B [~ur apunese 1 Deep face Marker[ Case Relation</td><td>English Surface ~rker</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>'on'</td><td>[ effect</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">~npaeese i Translation cal-Item Equivalent</td><td>Field Code</td><td>Pert-of-Spe~h</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">......</td><td>duty</td><td>GEN</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>Column-B</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>[Japanese</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">[ Deep</td><td>English</td><td>TranslationJ Part-of-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">lSurface Marker I Case Relation.</td><td>Surface ~rker</td><td>Equivalent [ Speech</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>/ E}~'~</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">I GOAL</td><td>'to'</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>'~,]~'</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">usually correspond to English prepositlon'agalst'.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">Fig. 5. Example of descriptions in Column-B</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">(3) Column D : Transfer based on Collocations with</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">Predicates (Fig. 6)</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">Certain combinations of nouns and predicates (verbs,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">adjectives, etc.) in Japanese</td><td>are translated</td><td>into</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">single words</td><td>in English</td><td>: the combinations</td><td>are</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">lexicalized by single English words, combinations of</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>nouns</td><td colspan=\"3\">and adjectives,</td><td>for example,</td><td>are often</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">].exicalized by single English adjectives.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>)</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">Certain nouns determines relate their dependents</td><td>the prepositions of certain deep cases to which</td><td colspan=\"2\">Ex-5. ~</td><td colspan=\"2\">~{</td><td>~</td><td>.... &gt; lustrous</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">them, as predicates (verbs) usually do.</td><td colspan=\"3\">(luster)</td><td>(to exist)</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>~g</td><td/><td>~</td><td>~</td><td>.... &gt; efficient</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">(efficiency)</td><td>(to be high)</td></tr><tr><td>(teacher)</td><td colspan=\"2\">(qualification)</td><td colspan=\"4\">These combinations can appear in the position of an</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">..... &gt; qualification fo_~r a teacher</td><td colspan=\"4\">embedded clause and cause structural changes between</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">two languages(Fig.7). Combinations of verbs and their</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">case elements may also correspond to single English</td></tr><tr><td>(teacher)</td><td colspan=\"2\">(position) ..... &gt; position as a teacher</td><td>verbs.</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>Ex-4.</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">Ex-6. ~,~</td><td>%</td><td>~</td><td>..... &gt; focus</td></tr><tr><td>(results)</td><td colspan=\"2\">(effect)</td><td colspan=\"3\">(focus)</td><td>(to adjust)</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">..... &gt; effects on the results</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>(family)</td><td colspan=\"2\">(duty)</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">..... &gt; duty to the family</td><td/><td/><td/></tr></table>",
                "text": ""
            },
            "TABREF4": {
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "num": null,
                "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"8\">transferred . Only the dependent nodes which are not</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">treated by the</td><td colspan=\"4\">].exieal rules</td><td>are dealt</td><td>with</td><td>by</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">general rules. That is, general rules are applied to</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">the dependent nodes of a predicate,</td><td>only when the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">node Wi in Fig. i0 is not treated by</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">(i) lexical ru].es from the column D of the node Wj</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">(2) lexical rules of the predicate, the node X</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">(3) lexica] rules from the column A of the node Wi</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">(4) lexical rules from the column C of the node Wi</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">The general</td><td colspan=\"2\">rules</td><td colspan=\"3\">are further</td><td>divided</td><td>into the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">following two categories :</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">(i) Rules</td><td colspan=\"2\">in the</td><td colspan=\"3\">case when</td><td>the</td><td>deep</td><td>case</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">relation between the node Wi and the governor</td><td>(the</td></tr><tr><td>node</td><td colspan=\"4\">X) is uniquely</td><td colspan=\"3\">determined</td><td>by the</td><td>analysis</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">grammar : They determine the surface preposition of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">English by referring to the deep case interpretation,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">the surface case marker of Japanese,</td><td>and the lexica]</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">item and the semantic markers attached to the node W. 1</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">(55 semantic</td><td colspan=\"2\">markers</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">are used</td><td>in our system</td><td>to</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">classify Japanese</td><td colspan=\"3\">nouns) .</td><td>X</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">(2) Rules in the case when the deep case relation is</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">not uniquely determined in the analysis phase : They</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">determine</td><td colspan=\"5\">the preposition</td><td>just by referring</td><td>to the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">surface</td><td colspan=\"3\">case marker</td><td colspan=\"3\">of Japanese.</td><td>The preposition</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">roughly corresponding</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">t:O the Japanese</td><td>surface case</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">marker is selected.</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">The above two categories</td><td>of rules are just rough</td><td>Subgrammnr for</td><td>[$ubgrammar for</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">c]assificat[ons and, in reality,</td><td>more detailed rules</td><td>Clauses</td><td>| Noun Phrases</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">are prepared</td><td colspan=\"3\">for each</td><td colspan=\"2\">Japanese</td><td>case</td><td>marker.</td><td>In</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">particular,</td><td colspan=\"5\">there are several type 2</td><td>rules for each</td><td>Invocation of \"</td><td>Invocation of. lexical</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">surface case marker which take into account the set of possible case interpretations given by the analysis phase.</td><td>lexical rules derived from column D of node Vi</td><td>rules derived from ~olumn A</td></tr><tr><td>Thus,</td><td colspan=\"4\">tl~e dependent</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">nodes</td><td>of a predicate</td><td>are</td><td>When there exists a</td><td>invocation of ieslcal</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">transferred by several kinds of rules with differing</td><td>node ~i with colloca-</td><td>\"ules derived from</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">preferences</td><td colspan=\"3\">in order</td><td colspan=\"2\">to utilize</td><td>as much</td><td>of the</td><td>tiorml information</td><td>:olumn C</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">in [ormatJon</td><td colspan=\"3\">extracted</td><td colspan=\"2\">duri ng the ansi ys is phase as</td><td>with node X</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">possible. The same multiple subgrammars is a].so adopted for the other grammatical layer construction of units such as subordinate clauses, embedded clauses, etc.</td><td>Invocation of Lexieal Rules of node X</td><td>invocation of lexical \u2022 ules derived from :oluan B</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">6 Lexica]</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>\u00a2</td><td>Invocation of recursiv(</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Invocation of recursive</td><td>process for transfer-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Process for transferring</td><td>ins the substructure</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>the substructure</td><td>~overned by Z~</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>governed by W i</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>from the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>__,.~Return from thJ</td><td>rules for</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>[recurslon</td><td>; modifiers of</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>General rules for treating</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>the case elements which mr,</td><td>leneral rules for</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>not transferred by lexica]</td><td>:resting quantifiers</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>rules</td><td>~to.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Rules for dependents of</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>other kinds (i.e. adverb)</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Fig. I0. Schematic Constr.ctlon nf s.hgrammar~ nf )4T?</td></tr></table>",
                "text": "Rules and the Form-Oriented Dictionaries ............................."
            }
        }
    }
}