{ "paper_id": "C86-1001", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:14:25.410700Z" }, "title": "", "authors": [], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "C86-1001", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [], "body_text": [ { "text": "I_aboratoire Documentaire ot Linguistigue 1 2, place Jussieu 1-\"-75221 Paris CEDEX 05", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The essenti~d feature of a lexicon-grammar is that the elementary unit of computation and storage is the simple sentence: snbleet-verb-complement(s). -this type of representation is obviously needed for verbs:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "limiting a verb to its shape has no meaning other than typographic, ~ir]ce a verb cannot be separated from its subject and essential coreplemenl(s) 2.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We have shown (M, Gross 1975 ) that given a verb, Or equivalently a simple sentence, the set of syntactic properties that describes its variations is unique: in general, no ether verb has an identical syntactic paradigm 3. As a consequence, the properties of each verbal construction must be represented in a texicon--grammar. The lexicon has no significance taken as an isolated component and the gr~rnmar tempera:at, viewed as independent of the lexicon, will have to be limited to certain complex sentences,", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 14, "end": 28, "text": "(M, Gross 1975", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "be-Adiective tetras are close to verbs, their description is quite similar, that is, they are considered as sentences.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We have apl}lied lexicon-grammar representation not only to the two obvious predicative parts of speech, verb and adjective, but to nouns and adverbs a~; well. In the same way as one adjoins the verb to be tn adjectives, we have ~ystematically introduced support verbs (Vsup) for nouns and adverbs, as in the following examples (Z.S, Harris 1976 , M. Gross 1982 (was, happened, occurred, took 2. The notion of essential complement has been refined through the systematic study of 12,000 verbs of French (M. Gross 1975; J,-P. Boons, A. Gaillet, C. Locl~re 19YGa, 1976b , 1987 ) and a study of adverbials, that is, of nonessential complements (M. Gross 19~6) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 334, "end": 345, "text": "Harris 1976", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 346, "end": 361, "text": ", M. Gross 1982", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 362, "end": 392, "text": "(was, happened, occurred, took", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 507, "end": 518, "text": "Gross 1975;", "ref_id": "BIBREF5" }, { "start": 519, "end": 567, "text": "J,-P. Boons, A. Gaillet, C. Locl~re 19YGa, 1976b", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 568, "end": 574, "text": ", 1987", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 645, "end": 656, "text": "Gross 19~6)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The subject arKI/or the con'lplements may be transformed and/or omitted through various syntactic operations, in particular, by nominalizing the verb (G. Gross, R. Vivbs 198E; ) , but the full information can be recovered (Z.S. Harris 1982) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 154, "end": 160, "text": "Gross,", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 161, "end": 175, "text": "R. Vivbs 198E;", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 176, "end": 177, "text": ")", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 228, "end": 240, "text": "Harris 1982)", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "3. A line of '~+'\" and \"\"'\" marks in FiGure 1 is such a paradigm.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "4. Both examples are not isolated entries of the lexicon=grammar, but rather (Z,S, Harris 1964) , transforms of other forms: fhJ~ text <::ontradi/.;ta the law This text is important for Bob $apport verbs are frequerd in technical texts, and may have stylistic variants, as in this last example, Grammatical elements such as determiners, prepositions and conjunctions, do not belong to the lexicon-grammar in the same sense as the four major parts of speech do, siece they are parts ot structures or rules.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 83, "end": 95, "text": "Harris 1964)", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For example, prepositions appear in the columns ef the lexicon-grammar.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "An early representation of verbs in a lexicon-grammar of about 12,000 verbs is ftiven in figure t. Each row of the matrix is an entry whose main construction is defined by a table or class code. In figure I, the code G corresponds to the class of constructions: subject-verb-direct sentential complement, noted:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(1) N O V qee P (N O ts the subject and P stands for sentence).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Each column is a syntactic property, and corresponds to a structure into which V may enter, roughly a syntactic transform of the main structure, ~or example, in columns we have placed the Passive forms, Extraposed and renominal forms. Thus, the related structures are semantically close. \"+\" sign at the intersection of a row and a column indicates that the ntry in the row is accepted in the structure associated to the column, \"-\" sign correspoeds to inacceptability. The process of accumulation that led to the formalized lexicon-grammar of 12,000 French verbs has run into what seemed to be at first a minor problem of representation of words:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "the difference between simple and compound words, On the one hand, there are simple words ~uch as the verb know and complex (idiomatic) forms such as keep in mind, Both forms play the same syetactic arid semantic role in sentences such as:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Bob knows that Max ha~ moved to Tampa Bob keeps in mind that Max /)as moved to Tampa bat the lexical content (one word va three) requires different identification procedures (simple dictionary tooktJp vs a certain amount of syntactic analys}s).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The representation of fiGUre 1 treats two forms such as to know (,~erneone, something) arid to keep (someone, something] in mind m tf~ same way, thut~ emphasizing the semantic equivalence between simple and compound verbs, Bet compoged terms raise ~;i problem of representation. The unit of representation in a linear lexicon is roughly the word 5 as defined by its written form, that is, a .~equence of letters separated from ne~lhbOring sequences by boundary bionic. As a consequence, compound words cam|of be directly put into a dictionary the way simple words are. Aa idenUficatior| procedure i:~ needed for their occurrences in texts, and thi~ procedure will make use of the various simple parts of the compound utterance. Hence, the formal linguistic properties of con'lpouud terms will determine both the procedure of ideetifieaUon in text~ and the type of storage they require. We thus have to discuss the main types of compounds and to single out those properties that bear on automatic parsing and dictionary lookup.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 64, "end": 86, "text": "(,~erneone, something)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 100, "end": 120, "text": "(someone, something]", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Since", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We call adverb any circumstancial complement, including sentent)al phrases, as in the following examples:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "( *at nights and no relative clause can be appended: *M night (that, which) was agreed on.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "Such observations are general, and apply to many adverbs of varied form and lexical content:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "It rained cats and dogs *many cats and dogs *big cats and dogs *cat and dog from time to tit~e ~trorn timet~ to times *from a time to another time from long time to long time Consequently, these compound adverbs could be identified by a simple recognRiorr procedure, for they do not require any lei, amatization or syntactic analysis to be reduced to a dictionary form, as is the case with verb for)as for example.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "A lexieal study of compound adverbs has been performed in French and a systematic inventory has been compiled from various dictionaries. Runni,g texts have been examined as well. It is interesting to note that whereas in current dictionaries there are about 1,500 one word adverbs, most of them in -meat (-ly), we have found over 5,000", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "compound adverbs, These compound adverbs have been classihed according to their sywtacltc shape.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "The syntactic forms are described at the elementary level ef sequences of fmrts of speech.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "We ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound adverbs", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "The examples discussed an far are entirely frozen. Itence, as a i)vuctical matter, they can be located iu a text by using the search function available for strings in any text editor system. There are however more complex examples that require deeper analysis. Consider fay example the idiomatic adverb in the sentence:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Tableau 2", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "It ic largely frozen: no other determiner is allowed, no adjectives can be appended to either noun, etc., but the person of the possessive adjective Pone, may vary. This possessive adjective must refer to the subject of the sentence, and varies accordingly: *Max propound ideas from the top el your hat *My staler proposed ideas from the top of his hat Bob and Max proposed ideas from the top of their hat 8In this case. the recognition procedure is no longer a simple string matching operation, since a variable slot must be dealt with inside the fixed string. More general matching rules are required here 6. Once this compound adverb l,laa been identified in a text to be processed, it can be given an iaterpt~etation, for example in terms of a simple adverb such as teiaarely or lightly and the referential information carried by Pots can then be ignored.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max propoaed 8ohrtiena from l,he top of his hat", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Itowever, one oar] easily construct particular discourses where the obligatory cereference relation involved will (bsambiguate some analysis. Thus, not only the variatien of Poaa must be accounted l,or at the lexical level, but its referential infermatien has to be kept l,or possible use in a parser.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max propoaed 8ohrtiena from l,he top of his hat", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "{fiber compound adverbs oiler different degrees of variation. There m'e cases where one part of the adverb is frozen and another part is entirely free: does not occur elsewhere than in adverbial phrases with the preposition for: it cannot be the subject or object of any verb. On the other hand, the modifiers of sake are quite varied and regular from the point of view of the syntax of noun modifiers 7.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max propoaed 8ohrtiena from l,he top of his hat", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "There are also cases of seemingly free adverbs which require an ad hoc treatment.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For example, dates such as:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Monday March 13, 1968 at 9 pan.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "are described it) a natural way by a finite automaton.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Tecl;nical or specialized families of adverbs come close to being frozeu adverbs:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(2) They elected Bob on the (firsl, second) ballot (3) Max ate his noodles in a bow/", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The special semantic relations that hold between the adverbial complement and the rest el, the sentence are lirmted. There are few verbs such as to eat which combine with in a bowl and which have the non locative interpretation of (3). The usual interpretation is thai found in:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "6. PRDLOG rules are particularly well adapted to recognizing such frozen forms (P. Sabatier 1980).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max organized a party in honor of Bob Max hid the car at the far end of the parking lot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "~for a heavenly ,~oke", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "There are nonetheless restrictions on them:", "sec_num": "7." }, { "text": "Entering ITozen adverbs into a lexicon-grammar raises many r=ew questions,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max puF hia noodle~ in a bowl", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The bulk of adverbs can be described by means of the This is not the case for at the top of his voice which is practically limited to modifying the verbs of saying. Moreover the obbgatory coreference link of hia leads to a representation where this adverb is not analyzed. Thus two semantically similar types of adverbs have to be represented quite differently in the lexicon-grammar. All the situations just exemplified with adverbs are quite common, cod are also encountered with nouns, adjectives and verbs. The paradox el ~ relaresentatJon they lead to can only be solved by introducing a complex level of semantic equivalence for the entries of the lexicon-grammar,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Max puF hia noodle~ in a bowl", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "C~n'npound nouns form the bulk of the lexicon of languages.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Language creativity is largely associated with the growth of technical vocabularies which consist mainly of technical nouns.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Compound nouns number in the millions for European laoguages. They are usually built rrem the vocabulary of simple words by means or grammatical rules which may involve grammatical words. By definition, their meaniog is nencompositional. The compound nouns can be described in terms of the sequence of their grammatical categories, in the same way as for adverbs (IA. Gross, D. Tremblay 1985) . We have for example: or regent that suggests we are dealing with a compound noun. Also, the meameg of these phrases is nonoompoaitional in the sense that they have a legal or institutional meaoing that their components do not have clearly.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 368, "end": 392, "text": "Gross, D. Tremblay 1985)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Det N =:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The variations of lurer we have enumerated can be partly hal'=died bit atlcachiag a finite automaton to a given entry, and this automaton will describe the main grammatical changes allowed The adjunction o~ free relative clauses to compound nouns may require a different treatment \"l~)e kiads of variation of compound nouns are aO numereu,~ that cletermieing whether a given nomit)al coostruction is a compouod noun or nol: almost requires c~. original demonstratiou.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Titus, aotontatizirlg~ the co,infraction of a leKicoa is a,'l activity that will preseot severe Ibnitatioas.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Determining the sup~mrt verbs for compound nouns does )tot seem to raise other probletes than those encountered with simple nouns.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2, Compound nouns", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Conrlpound aeons raise other questions in some language\u2022:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "R~MAIrlK", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "-in Gerraan. whore rio blacks occur between component\u00a2, segmentation is ~[ prebleltn; -in French (G. Gross '1985) , where the spelling of the plural is ht general not standardized, extra variations have to be expecte(I.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 101, "end": 113, "text": "Gross '1985)", "ref_id": "BIBREF3" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "R~MAIrlK", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Adjectives, noun complements and relative clauses carl be cemplex and yet apply to free nouns. From the point ot view developped here, that is, the representation in terms of sequences of grammatical categories allowing for efficient matching procedures witt) texts, th~.,y do not differ from adverbs and nouns.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Compound modifielFs", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The Gross 1982) , can be described as sequences of categories. We write N i for variable noun phrases and C i for frozen noun phrases. For subjects; i = 0, for complements: i = I, 2. Examples are:", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 4, "end": 15, "text": "Gross 1982)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(I) N O V C t =: Bob hit the /ackpot (2) N 0 V N 1 Prep C 2 =: Bob took your project into account (3) N 0 V CI Prep C 2 =: Bob look the bull by Ihe heron (4) N\u00b0~ C 0 V C t =:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Bob'a dream came true", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We outlined in I the description ot a lexicon-grammar of French v~bs and the reasons why compound verbs had to be separated from simple On~S. ~;ystematic search through dictionaries (monolingaal, bilingual, and specialized) has yielded close to 20,000 compound verbs belonging to the same level of language as the 12,000 simple verbs.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A syntactic classification has been built for them ( Figure 3) .", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 53, "end": 62, "text": "Figure 3)", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Compound verbs are the most complex Forms that have to be entered into a lexicon \u00a3t. The compounds discussed previously were simple 9. There are however a limited number of frozen discourses such as: Tableau 3", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In the case of compound verbs, the various ports of each utterance remain syntactically independent, Thus, the verbs of (1)-.(4) can take any tensed form, as ill:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "At tbaf time. Bob will be hitting the lackpat Sentential inserts (:an separate a verb from its coruplemonts:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Examples are:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In example (2). the direct complement N t is Ifee and general. heoce, se+ltenti~d structures can separate the verb from its second (frezed=} complement:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Bob hit, if seems to me, the jackpot", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Notice that parts of compound verbs may be recognized directly, for example the iackpof, or into account, but these parts may be ambiguous, whereas the full utterances can rarely be confused with free for~,ns 10.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Bob took the tact lhat Jo was absent yesterday into account", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "10+ As a matter of fact, when an utterance is found to be ambiguous, with one analysis as a frozen form and the other as a free form, ignoring competing free forms altogether is a good parsing strategy,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Bob took the tact lhat Jo was absent yesterday into account", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Ilew to organize the lexicon of compound utterances is an gloom question, From a computational point ef view, many solutions use available for the lookup of a (:emDound term: (i) Io classical algorithms m which left-to-right analysis is ess~,ntird+ the compound teraq could I.)e viewed as an extension of the first Ina)ot element met while scanning the sentence. Vor eXSOlplo, the adiectiw'~ long is the first such element of the cotopoond adverb m the toJ~g rim.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Among mmw other possibilities, the program, pausing ,:nJ the word long would test the occurrence of the and in to the loft of long, snd the occurrence of run to the right.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Notice that the left-to-right constraint has to be somewhat relaxed iu order to test both left and right contexts of long.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "(ii) In a futuristic view Of parsing involving parallel computing, one might envision several levels of lexicon. At the firat level, lon(j on the one hand ~md run, on the othe~, would to two sots of cov=structions whose intersection would contain tfJu~ compouiKI ilt I'ilo /oJJfl run; the lattc, r can then be searched N)r in the input text.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "V(u con'ffJo,ond verbs, one wonh'l have to synthesize a matchinfl utterance, rather than .girn[dy looking it up.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Such a procedure car, always fm sln+utat ed s(tqueutJally.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "I. all cost-.,';, the representatio, el utterances which we have used. flamen the Se(luer.cos of syntactic categories, agow.~; for the separation of the lexi(:on of con'lpeund [ornl!~: into classes for which direct access can be provided. In this way, dictionary Iooliup can Lie stied u|l 1i ftEMAIH< In laver el leflqo-right aualysit; one could point to the loci that complex terms can ellen be abbreviated and that abbreviations are nlostty rHfht truncations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "In seth situations the remaining part (the tellmast p~rt) af the truocated term must carry the in|ormation that describers the rgtht context m order to allow reconstruction of the reducncl part. Iherc are however examples where abbreviations are carried out on the left part el a term. (e g. a progral~mlng language a larp.quagc).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Preliminary figures have shown that conl[~und terms form thP. essential", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "[.art of a lexicon-grammar. It is also interesting to observe that they Iorce both the linguist and the computer specialist to adopt a me(;h voore abstract view of language; -~;emantically, tw defied)on, compoond utterances cannot be decomposed into simple utterances', in other terms, meaning is not compositional fer c(a'npoends, fleece, in a certain sense, one has to recognize that meaning has not nuJch to do with words; -syntactically, it has become a rather general hatlit to attach properties 1o individual words, In the case of compounds this mode of representation is no longer possible:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Why privilege one part of a compound with marks rather than some other part? For example, there is no reason to attach the Passive marking to the verb rather than to either of the complements of the utterance to put the cart before the horse, Lexicon-grammar representations eliminate such questions by dolocalizing the syntactic information and by attaching it to the full sentence, In this sense, compound expressions provide a powerful n]etivation for representing lexical and syntactic phenomena in the form of a lexicon-grammar.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "11. The saree use of se(luences of syntactic categories is found in n string grammar (Z.S+ Harris 1961), which has proven to be quite efficient in syntactic recognition (N, Sager 1981 , M. Salkoff 1973 , 1979 .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 169, "end": 183, "text": "(N, Sager 1981", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 184, "end": 201, "text": ", M. Salkoff 1973", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 202, "end": 208, "text": ", 1979", "ref_id": "BIBREF16" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SoFno (;oncIusions", "sec_num": "4." } ], "back_matter": [], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "La slruclure des phrases simples en lran~aia, I Constr~/ctions intransitives", "authors": [ { "first": "Jean-Paul", "middle": [], "last": "Boeas", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "Alain", "middle": [], "last": "Guillet", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "C", "middle": [], "last": "Leclsre", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "-Hristian", "suffix": "" } ], "year": null, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Boeas, Jean-Paul,, Guillet, Alain. and LeclSre, C-hristian. 197Ga, La slruclure des phrases simples en lran~aia, I Constr~/ctions intransitives, Geneva: Droz, 37zp.", "links": null }, "BIBREF1": { "ref_id": "b1", "title": "ta structure (tea phrases simple8 en fran,~iais. III Clasae,~ de constructions transitives", "authors": [ { "first": "Jean-Paul", "middle": [], "last": "Boons", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "Alain", "middle": [], "last": "Guillet", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "Christian", "middle": [], "last": "Lecl~re", "suffix": "" } ], "year": null, "venue": "Guillet, Alain. and t.ecl~'re, Christian. 1987. La sfrucltn'e des phrases simplea en fran~ais", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Boons, Jean-PauL, Guillet, Alain. and Lecl~re, Christian, 197Gb, ta structure (tea phrases simple8 en fran,~iais. III Clasae,~ de constructions transitives, Rapport de recherches No 6, Paris: University Paris 7, L,A,D,L., 143p, Boons, Jean-Paul., Guillet, Alain. and t.ecl~'re, Christian. 1987. La sfrucltn'e des phrases simplea en fran~ais. II Classes de constructions locatives, Paris: Cantil~ae.", "links": null }, "BIBREF2": { "ref_id": "b2", "title": "G#n~ration automatique de textes en langues nalurellea", "authors": [ { "first": "Laurence", "middle": [], "last": "Danlos", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1985, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Danlos, Laurence. 1985, G#n~ration automatique de textes en langues nalurellea, Paris: Masson, 239p,", "links": null }, "BIBREF3": { "ref_id": "b3", "title": "Le lexique ~lectranique des roots compos~a du fran(~ala", "authors": [ { "first": "Ga", "middle": [], "last": "Gross", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1985, "venue": "Rapport ATrP CNRS", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Gross, Ga.~:ton. 1985. Le lexique ~lectranique des roots compos~a du fran(~ala, Rapport ATrP CNRS, Paris: LJnwersity Paris XIII,", "links": null }, "BIBREF4": { "ref_id": "b4", "title": "Syntaxe " }, "TABREF2": { "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null, "text": "Note that words or roots are often considered as units in most attempts to devise semantic representations.Notice that nightly can also be considered as a frozen compound, though not constituted of words but Of a word and a suffix. Again, lack of compositionality stems from the can be expressed by a large variety of unconstrained forms.Frozen or compound adverbs constitute the simplest case of compound forms because they do not allow variations of their components. As mentioned above, in at night no adjective is authorized. Moreover,", "content": "
1) The show took place nighlly el night during a busy night the night Bob missed his plane By compound adverbs, or frozen or idiomatic adverbs, we mean adverbs that can be separated into several words, with some or all of their words frozen, that is, semantically and/or syntactically noncompositional. In (1), af night is a compound adverb, the lack of compositionality is apparent from lexical restrictions such as: *at day, *at afternoon, *at evening and by the impossibility of inserting material that is a priori plausible, syntactically and semantically: *at (coming. present) night *st (cold, dark) night during the (coming, present) night during s (cold, dark) night 5. observation weekly, monthly, yearly, etc. which are compounds that can vary freely (within semantic constraints). In the same way, tfm daily, of the event associated with the sentence 8 in the form: the night (E, that) 8 one cannot insert a determiner: *at (a, this) night, the plural is forbidden:
" }, "TABREF3": { "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null, "text": "pl~co use symbols with obviousinterpretationssuchasPrep,Dot,Adl,N,V,COOl(fay conjunction) and W for a variable ranging over verb complements,etc. We write:PrepN=: at nightPrepDot N=: in the endPrepDot Adf N =: in the long rimProp Oel, N el Dot N=: in every nonce of the wordat the point of a gunProp Def N Ceni Dot N =: time and againV W=: to beginwithS=: all thingsbeingequalF gure 2 shows the classes that have been defined on this basis,together with examples and the number el, items in each (:lass;PAD% Adv_..... _ |~oad~,fin .....i |PO -.~ __PCIhap (\"] en bref1 ,160P[)l~q( Prep De~ Clco,m-e tome atzente570PACPrep adi \u00a2/ +++e sa hel,h, mort440!peaP~+pCAdj/ ~ d ~o,'~e ~l+,l..+1 t ~oo lPCDN Prap C de N[,'hi maven tie N/330 /PCP( i lhdp ( Pr~:p C[de.~ plods d {a 1~1%240-'..... T170'pvl,,,pv,....... i{,,o IPFP (phrase figae)Ipi ....... lie sail]230 iII [ 200//PVCO(V) comme C~comme un cheveu sar la soupe ~ / /210PPCO F'JC .....(Vt ('onj (\"el out le tret~ hlet e.' t/ _1100TOTAL~,',4 190Frozen Adverbs (t4. (;ros;,s 19~6 )" }, "TABREF6": { "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null, "text": "board of governors one be modified in several ways: board a~ld governora ta.ke separate determiners and modifiers: ~he powerful boarda of the twelve governora of my bank, Such a compound noun comes close to being a free Form. It is the liruited number of", "content": "
secondaeonssuchas director,governor
themoon
AdlN=: crudeoil, realealaFe
N ofN=: elrokeof luck,
boardof(governors, regenfa)
Det N ofDot N =: the talk of the town
NN=: lestlobe,color7V
Such nouns can become quite complex in various technical Fields.
In general, compound nouns allow variations of determiners and
modifiers, but many situations are encountered:
the moonis a frozen combination,--definitearticle-noun
--which behaves like a proper name, because ot its unicity of
reference. It cannot be modifiedby adjectives without losing its
reference:*the(big,yellow) moon;
crude oil takes restricted determiners.Since it is a mass noun,
there are difficulties in accepting its plural, It can be modified by
adjectives and nouns as in (cheap, high quality) crude oH, but
thesecannotmodifyel/:*crude,(cheap, high quality) oil;
stroke of luck has unrestricted determiners and modifiers, bat no
iosertionis allowed immediately before or next to of, in particular
luckcannot be modified: *stroke of gor~ luckS;
8. ~,lrnko of bad luck would be a different compound word, whose
relationto afroke of luckis only etymological.
" }, "TABREF7": { "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null, "text": "", "content": "
as clean as a new pin
The bookis up to dale
Bob is the world's (beat, worat)teacher
They discussedit, on a take it or leave it basis
3. Compound verbs
Compound verbs or frozerl sentences as we have termedthem
(M.
" }, "TABREF8": { "num": null, "type_str": "table", "html": null, "text": "by and large they wore topologically connc% that is, either their I'mrts could not be separated by any extraneous linguistic material or else the+ inso~ted material could be easily described (i.e. by moans of a finite automaton).", "content": "
++'+ ]+ -l.oI ii, +,\"'\"+ ..... h.. .....! /
CAN |NoV (C i~ de N),Col ..... leli~ la [antuc d~. Max (hd)50(! [
!;!_iNNoV (C d,: N),[] hat le rappcl d ........... h;5_00
(.~PINoV Pr+p Ci11 clmr=ie dam; los b+gonia+;i 300 +
CPNNoV I:'rap (t C de N),II abondc ,Jam; Ic sens de Max25(!
C:!Pi\"J N0V (',2[r~p N2.}la d6charg6 sa bit ..... \"Maxt 750
CNF'2NoV Iql })'cp C'~lls out pass/: Max par tes altucsI 350 ]
!CIP2N,. V (;i I'rb.l+ C2It tact de l'cau dans sen vin800
C5Quc P V PI6p CiQuc Max rcstc inilhe l!ti ~i;t favour150
1(7NoV Ct flce ()n PII a dit IlOIl ~' l CC que Max testcr ,50
cP,NoV (~l ,:1..' ce Qu PI1 se tiler (t lop; \u00a2loigts dc cc qu'il egt /
i'Cst(~I
CAI)V NoV Adv _Cola nc pisse pas loin, ]Z!} ! 200
c\u00d7INoV Nli est palti sans laisscl (l+adrcsse ]30()
(]OCoV %/]AI nloll[indc nlOll[C all ILCI tic Max [ I 300
If wa,s for all Ihe world aa it S
Which need an extra level of complexity (L. Danlos 19B5).
" } } } }