{ "paper_id": "C82-1015", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:12:56.836954Z" }, "title": "", "authors": [ { "first": "Barbara", "middle": [], "last": "Grosz", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Norman", "middle": [], "last": "Haas", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Gary", "middle": [], "last": "Hendrix", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Jerry", "middle": [], "last": "Hobbs", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Paul", "middle": [], "last": "Martin", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Robert", "middle": [], "last": "Moore", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Jane", "middle": [], "last": "Robinson", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" }, { "first": "Stanley", "middle": [], "last": "Rosenschein", "suffix": "", "affiliation": {}, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "The DIALOGIC system translates English sentences into representations of their literal meaning in the context of an utterance. These representations, or \"lngical forms,\" are intended to be a purely formal language that is as close as possible to the structure of natural language, while providing the semantic compositionality necessary for meaning-dependent computational processing. The design of DIALOGIC (and of its constituent modules) was influenced by the goal of using it as the core language-processing component in a variety of systems, some of which are transportable to nee domains of application.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "C82-1015", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "The DIALOGIC system translates English sentences into representations of their literal meaning in the context of an utterance. These representations, or \"lngical forms,\" are intended to be a purely formal language that is as close as possible to the structure of natural language, while providing the semantic compositionality necessary for meaning-dependent computational processing. The design of DIALOGIC (and of its constituent modules) was influenced by the goal of using it as the core language-processing component in a variety of systems, some of which are transportable to nee domains of application.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "The DIALOGIC system translates Engllsh sentences into representations of their literal meaning in the context of an utterance. These representations, or \"logical forms,\" are intended to be a purely formal language that is as close as possible to the structure of natural language, while providing the semantic compositionality necessary for meanlng-dependent computational processing.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The design of DIALOGIC (and of its constituent modules) was influenced by the goal of using it as the core language-processlng component in a variety of systems, some of which are transportable to new domains of application.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Currently DIALOCIC is a core component of four systems being developed within several different research projects at SRI. One is the TEAM project, ~ whose goal Is to provide natural-language access to large data bases through systems that are easily adaptable to a wide range of new applications. Another, the RLAUS project, ~ is a longer-range effort to address basic research problems in naturallanguage semantics, commonsense reasoning, and the pragmatics.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A third,project is investigating the problem of providing natural-language access to text. ~ A fourth, in which ~IALOGIC also plays an important role, is examining the development of formal grammars. 5 DIALOGIC is divided into five modules coordinated by the DIAMOND executive system. DIAMOND is a modification of the executive system used in the SRI speechunderstanding project [Walker 1978 ] and also in a task-dialogue interpretation I Now working at Machine Intelllgence Corporation in Sunnyvale, California. system [A. Robinson, 1980] . It provides the formal language for defining the grammar and the control for parsing English sentences and translating them into loglcal-form expressions.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 379, "end": 391, "text": "[Walker 1978", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 520, "end": 539, "text": "[A. Robinson, 1980]", "ref_id": "BIBREF9" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The five modules are (1) the DIAGRAM grammar;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(2) s set of semantic translators; (3) a set of basic semantic functions;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(4) a scoping algorithm (for quantifiers and sentence operators);", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(5) a set of basic pragmatic functions. The remainder of this paper describes these components of DIALOCIC and presents an example illustrating how they coordinate in the interpretation of an utterance. A description of the logical form that is the target of DIALOGIC's interpretation processes may be found in [Moore, 1981] In addition to accepting or rejecting a rule application, the constructors can assign scores that allow listing alternative analyses in a preferred order. The result of applying the grammar to analysis of an input is one or more annotated ~arse trees.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 311, "end": 324, "text": "[Moore, 1981]", "ref_id": "BIBREF8" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "OVERVIEW", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "and annotations are not limited to syntactic information. The translators, described next, specify bow the translation of a phrase into logical form is to be defined in terms of the attributes of the words and phrases that compose it. This coupling of syntax and semantics (for which attribute ~rammars [Tienari 1980 ] were originally designed) is convergent with current formal theories bf natural language that advocate constructing a syntax and semantics that \"work in tandem\" [Dowry et el. 1981 ; Kaplan and Bresnan (to appear); Gazdar (to appear); Landsbergen 1976.] Future work on DIAGRAM includes efforts to extend both its coverage and its formalism.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 303, "end": 316, "text": "[Tienari 1980", "ref_id": "BIBREF12" }, { "start": 480, "end": 498, "text": "[Dowry et el. 1981", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 553, "end": 571, "text": "Landsbergen 1976.]", "ref_id": "BIBREF7" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Attributes", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In extending the formalism, our dual objective is to capture certain linguistic generalizations (e.g., dative movement) and to make the task of developing a large grammar more manageable.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Attributes", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "To accomplish this, we are exploring the use of metarules [Gazdar to Although the translators operate top-down (the translator for each node inyokes the translators for its children), the translation is in effect built bottom-up-since, typically, the first thing a translator for a nonterminal node does is to invoke the translators for each of its constituents, usually left to right. However, the top-down nature of the translation process is significant, because it means that information located above a node and to its left is available when the node is translated.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 58, "end": 68, "text": "[Gazdar to", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Attributes", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In addition to producing the logical form, the translators determine the syntactic constraints upon and preferences for either coreference or noncoreference of noun phrases, especially pronouns, following an algorithm described in [Hobbs, 1976] .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 231, "end": 244, "text": "[Hobbs, 1976]", "ref_id": "BIBREF4" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Attributes", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "To insulate changes in the grammar from those that occur in logical form, the construction of the latter is isolated from the translator procedures by calls on basic semantic functions [Konollge, 1979] ).", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 185, "end": 201, "text": "[Konollge, 1979]", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The actual construction of a logical form is done in two phases: (I) ioglcal-form fragments (iffs) are attached to the parse tree by the basic semantic functions;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(2) the final logical form is assembled from these by the scoplng algorithm.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Lffs are assigned only to certain\" nodes in the parse tree.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Usually the iff at an NP node will encode the properties held by the entity the NP describes [e.g., \"X such that EMPLOYEE(X) & OLD(X)\" for \"old employee\"] and the fragment for a clauselevel construction (e.g., a VP) will encode the predlcate-argument structure of the clause,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The basic semantic functions also leave markers on the parse tree to indicate such things as the type of quantifier or deter~iner associated with a noun phrase. These markers are used by the scoplng algorithm to determine the final loglcal form for the utterance.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(Note that the Iffs and markers left by the basic semantic functions may be viewed as further annotations to the parse tree.) DIALOGIC currently includes eleven basic semantic functions. Six of these do most of the work of buildlng lffs for standard noun phrases and clauses. The others are concerned with adding such things as mode, degree, and adverbial modification to clauses. As more precise specifications are defined for encoding these phenomena in logical form, we expect to collapse some of this latter group.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The scoplng algorithm is designed to collect the loglcal-form fragments from the parse tree and produce the possible scoplngs of quantlflers and other scoped operators.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SCOPING OF QUANTIFIERS AND OTHER SENTENTIAL OPERATORS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The scoplng algorithm used in DIALOGIC (adapted from that in Hendrlx, 1978) produces all the scoplngs thnt do not vlolate the hard rules of Engllsh scoplng, and then ranks them according to a score computed by a set of speciallst critics.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SCOPING OF QUANTIFIERS AND OTHER SENTENTIAL OPERATORS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Each critic is a function that returns a score for some aspect of the conflicting rules of quantification in Engllsh; e.g., the left-rlght scope critic lowers the score of 8coplngs that involve permuting the leftoutermost default ordering of quantlflers. All critics receive equal weight in the present implementation, but the design of the system does allow for differential weighting.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SCOPING OF QUANTIFIERS AND OTHER SENTENTIAL OPERATORS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The current set of critics is concerned with such things as changes in sentence order and the relatlve scoplng of quantlflers of different strengths. The scoplng of nonstandard quantlflers and of the generallzed negative (\"not, .... no one,\" \"nothing, .... none\") remain to be done.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SCOPING OF QUANTIFIERS AND OTHER SENTENTIAL OPERATORS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Basic pragmatic functions are intended to fulfill several roles in DIALOGIC, all concerned with certain kinds of indetermlnacles in logical form whose resolution requires pragmatic information.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The four primary uses of basic pragmatic functions in the current system are (i) ~o provide a context-speclflc interpretation of certain terms that have only vague meanings in themselves (e.g., prepositions llke \"of\" and \"~n~\" or Inherently vague verbs llke \"have\"); (2) to establlsh the specific relationship underlying any given noun-noun combination;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(3) to identify the referents of pronouns; and (4) to interpret a limited range of metonymy (e.g., the use of \"blonds\" to mean \"people with blond hair\").", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "At present, only a small core of pragmatic functions is implemented, each of which handles only a subset of the cases it is intended to cover.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BASIC PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "illustrate how the different modules' of DIALOGIC contribute to the interpretation of an utterance, we shall consider the example, \"What SRI employees have children older than 15 years?\"", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The logical form for this query--the target for the interpretation processes--Is (lowercase is used to indicate variables, uppercase to indicate constants and predicates):", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "[QUERY (WH employeel (AND (EMPLOYEE employeel) (EMPLOYEES-COMPANY-OF employeel SRI)) (SOME child2 (CHILD child2) (AND (CHILD-0F employeel child2) ((*MORE* OLD) child2 (YEAR 15] This corresponds rou@hly to a formal representation for \"who is each employee such that the company of the ~nployee is SRI and some child of the employee is older than fifteen years?\" During DIAMOND'S parsing phase, the parse tree in Figure I is constructed. At this polnt~ the attributes annotating the tree encode such properties as the type of noun (count, mass~ unit) and syntactic number. These attrlbutes have been used during the parsing phase to rule out certain alternative structures.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 411, "end": 419, "text": "Figure I", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Once this structure is built, the translators are invoked.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In combination with the basic semantic functions, the translators assign addltlonal attributes to nodes in the tree, encoding such information as the quantlflers (type~ strength, and the variables they bind) and heads of noun phrases. For example~ the head of the WHNP, \"what SRI employees\"m is a variable of type EMPLOYEE that 14 bound by a wiT-type quantifier.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Attributes also encode the underlying predlcate-argument structures for verb phrases and adJectlves~ and the iffs to be used in constructing the flnal logical form for the utterance.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In the sentence of Figure I , the nodes WHNP and S are annotated as being quantlfledp WHNP with a wh-type quantifier and S as a \"query.\" Although every rule has an associated translator, only some of these result in iffs being attached to nodes. For this example~ the nodes marked with *e in the original parse tree are the only ones for which Iffs are produced.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 19, "end": 27, "text": "Figure I", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The fragment attached to each of these nodes is as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "To", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(*NN* employeel SRI) NOUN2", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(EMPLOYEE employee1 ) PREDICATE (*HAVE employee1 child2) NOUN3 (CHILD child2) NCOMP ((*MORE* OLD) child2 (YEAR 15)) EMPLOYEE, CHILD, and OLD are\" monadlc predicates that are part of the conceptual model of the domain. *MORE e maps a predicate into a comparative along the scale corresponding to the predicate. *NN* and *HAVE are dummy predicates that indicate the need tO invoke the basic pragmatic functions.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "After the translation process is complete, the final loglcal form is asseLbled by a procedure that considers alteruatlve quantifier scoplngs (using the quantifier- The basic pragmatic functions use information in the conceptual model of the domain to transform (*HN* employeel SRI)--corresponding to the noun-noun compound \"SRI employee\"--into (EMPLOYEE-OF employeel SRI) and (*HAVE employeel child2) into (CHILD-OF employeel child2).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "/ I /------\\ MSDET NO~D I NOUHI ** I / \\ NHD NOUN2 ** [ -S N / VPT t V 4 J I \\.WHAT SRI '-S B~q,OYEE HAVE -'8 / \\ SNHQ ENDPUNCT J i ? / m t NorM3 ** f /----~ -S N PREDICATE ** t VP I \\ NP [ \\ NCONFS t NCOMP *t f PREDADJ I /~ -------~ ADJT I i / \\ /------", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The nodes with either quantifier or ioglcal-form markings are the only ones considered by the TEAM scoplng algorithm. Besides the WH quantifying employee1, TEAM recognizes that a default existential quantifier must be created for child2~ so SOME is added.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The scope rules force QUERY to have the widest scope; this position 18 contested only if there are multiple sententlal markers. Both orderlngs of the WHAT and SOME quantlflers are generated. The two resultlng quantified statements correspon d to (WHAT employeel (SOME child ...)...) and (SOHE child (WHAT employee ...)...)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Next the scope critic functions evaluate the different scoplngs; only three of the critics are relevant. One critic considers the left-right node ordering and prefers the first scoplng because it comes closer to the surface form, One critic prefers scoplngs in which WH outecopes an adjacent exlstential; it too upgrades the score of the first and downgrades the score of the second. The other critic knows that default existential quantlflers need the narrowest possible scope; it too selects the first.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "NOUN1", "sec_num": null } ], "back_matter": [ { "text": "Because of the modularlzation in D~ALOGIC, changes in one part of the system reverberate very little in other components. Changes in the constraints imposed on the phrase-structure rules in the grammar have no effect on any other part of the system. A change in a rule itself necessitates a change in the corresponding translator, but the basic semantic functions do not need to be revised. Similarly, a change in the logical form or in the data structures within which it is implemented requires a corresponding change in the basic semantic functions, but not in the grammar or translators.In addition to extending DIALOGIC as mentioned in the foregoing sections, we are also investigating possible revisions of the translation phase (as currently performed by the translators and basic semantic functions) to allow translation into loglcal form to be specified declaratlvely.In this new approach [Rosenscheln and Shleber (to appear) [, loglcal types are associated with the phrasal categories, and the translation of a phrase is synthesized from the translations of its immediate constituents according to a local rule, which typically involves functional application.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 898, "end": 934, "text": "[Rosenscheln and Shleber (to appear)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "SUMMARY", "sec_num": null } ], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF2": { "ref_id": "b2", "title": "Phrase Structure Grammar", "authors": [], "year": null, "venue": "On the Nature of Syntactic Representation", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "\"Phrase Structure Grammar,\" in P. Jacobson and G. K. Pullum, eds. On the Nature of Syntactic Representation.", "links": null }, "BIBREF3": { "ref_id": "b3", "title": "Semantic Aspects of Translation", "authors": [ { "first": "G", "middle": [ "G" ], "last": "Hendrix", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1978, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "193--226", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Hendrix, G.G. [1978[ \"Semantic Aspects of Translation,\" in Understanding Language, D. E. Walker, ed., pp. 193-226 (Elsevier, New York, New York, 1978).", "links": null }, "BIBREF4": { "ref_id": "b4", "title": "Pronoun Resolution", "authors": [ { "first": "J", "middle": [], "last": "Hobbs", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1976, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Hobbs, J. 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[to appear] \"Lexical-Functlonal Grammar: A Formal System for Grammatical Representation,\" Occasional Paper 13, Center for Cognitive Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "links": null }, "BIBREF6": { "ref_id": "b6", "title": "A Framework for a Portable Natural Language Interface to Large Data Bases", "authors": [ { "first": "K", "middle": [ "G" ], "last": "Konolige", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1979, "venue": "Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International", "volume": "197", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Konolige, K. G. 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[1976] \"Syntax and Formal Semantics of English in PNLIQAI,\" in COLING 76~Preprints of th___ee 6thlnternational Conference on Computatlonal Linguistics, No. 21, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (June 28-July 2, 1976).", "links": null }, "BIBREF8": { "ref_id": "b8", "title": "Problems in Logical Form", "authors": [ { "first": "R", "middle": [ "C" ], "last": "Moore", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1981, "venue": "Proceedings of the 19th Annual Meetlngof the Association for Computational Linguistics", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "117--124", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Moore, R. C. [1981] \"Problems in Logical Form,\" in Proceedings of the 19th Annual Meetlngof the Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 117-124, The Association for Computational Linguistics, SRI International, Menlo Park, California (July 1981).", "links": null }, "BIBREF9": { "ref_id": "b9", "title": "Interpreting Natural-Language Utterances in Dialogs About Tasks", "authors": [ { "first": "Ann", "middle": [ "E" ], "last": "Robinson", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1980, "venue": "Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International", "volume": "210", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Robinson, Ann E. [1980] \"Interpreting Natural-Language Utterances in Dialogs About Tasks,\" Technical Note 210, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International, Menlo Park, California (March 1980).", "links": null }, "BIBREF10": { "ref_id": "b10", "title": "DIAGRAM: A Grammar for Dialogues", "authors": [ { "first": "J", "middle": [ "J" ], "last": "Robinson", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1982, "venue": "Communications of the ACM", "volume": "25", "issue": "I", "pages": "27--47", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Robinson, J. J. [1982] \"DIAGRAM: A Grammar for Dialogues,\" Communications of the ACM, Vol. 25, No. I, ppo 27-47 (January 1982).", "links": null }, "BIBREF11": { "ref_id": "b11", "title": "Translating English into Logical Form", "authors": [ { "first": "S", "middle": [ "J" ], "last": "Rosenscheln", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "S", "middle": [ "M" ], "last": "Shieber", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1982, "venue": "Proceedlngs of 20th Annual Meetin~ of Association for Computational Linguistics Conference", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Rosenscheln, S. J. and Shieber, S.M. [To appear] \"Translating English into Logical Form,\" in Proceedlngs of 20th Annual Meetin~ of Association for Computational Linguistics Conference, Toronto, Canada (June 1982).", "links": null }, "BIBREF12": { "ref_id": "b12", "title": "On the Definition of an Attribute Grammar", "authors": [ { "first": "M", "middle": [], "last": "Tienari", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1980, "venue": "Proceedings of a Workshop", "volume": "94", "issue": "", "pages": "408--414", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Tienari, M. [1980] \"On the Definition of an Attribute Grammar,\" in Nell D. Jones, ed., Semantic-Directed Compiler Generation. Proceedings of a Workshop, Aarhus, Denmark (January, 1980). G. Goos and J. Hartmanis, eds., Lecture Notes in Computer Science Vol. 94, pp. 408-414, (Sprlnger-Verlag, Berlln-Heldelberg-New York, 1980).", "links": null }, "BIBREF13": { "ref_id": "b13", "title": "Understandln~ Spoken Languag____~e", "authors": [ { "first": "D", "middle": [ "E" ], "last": "Walker", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1978, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Walker, D.E. (ed.) [1978] Understandln~ Spoken Languag____~e (Elsevier North- Holland, New York, New York~ 1978).", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF0": { "num": null, "uris": null, "text": "Sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency under Contract N00039-80-C-0645. 3 Sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency under Contract N00039-80-C-0575. 4 Funded by the Nations1 Library of Medicine under Grant IROI-LM03611. 5 Sponsored by the National Science Foundation under Grant IST-8103550.", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF1": { "num": null, "uris": null, "text": "Tree for \"What SRI employees have children older than 15 years?\" related annotations left on the parse tree) and invokes the basic pragmatic functions as needed.", "type_str": "figure" } } } }