| { | |
| "paper_id": "Y13-1013", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:32:24.312179Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Exploring the Chinese Mental Lexicon with Word Association Norms", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Yee", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Oi", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "University of Hong Kong", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Tat Chee Avenue", | |
| "settlement": "Kowloon, Hong Kong" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Kwong", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "University of Hong Kong", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Tat Chee Avenue", | |
| "settlement": "Kowloon, Hong Kong" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "Our internal repository of words, often known as the mental lexicon, has primarily been modelled by psychologists as some kind of network. One way to probe its organisation and access mechanisms is by means of word association techniques, which have rarely been applied on Chinese. This paper reports on the design and implementation of a pilot word association test on native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers. The test contains 500 stimulus words, carefully selected and controlled on important factors including word frequency, part-of-speech, syllabicity, concreteness and vocabulary type. The resulting association norms based on 58 participants reveal interesting properties of the Chinese mental lexicon, such as the dominance of disyllabic and nominal concepts, and collocational associations. Despite its current small scale, the word association norms obtained from this study do not only offer first-hand psycholinguistic evidence for investigating the Chinese mental lexicon but also provide a useful resource to inform future studies in Chinese lexical access, lexical semantics and lexicography.", | |
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| "paper_id": "Y13-1013", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our internal repository of words, often known as the mental lexicon, has primarily been modelled by psychologists as some kind of network. One way to probe its organisation and access mechanisms is by means of word association techniques, which have rarely been applied on Chinese. This paper reports on the design and implementation of a pilot word association test on native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers. The test contains 500 stimulus words, carefully selected and controlled on important factors including word frequency, part-of-speech, syllabicity, concreteness and vocabulary type. The resulting association norms based on 58 participants reveal interesting properties of the Chinese mental lexicon, such as the dominance of disyllabic and nominal concepts, and collocational associations. Despite its current small scale, the word association norms obtained from this study do not only offer first-hand psycholinguistic evidence for investigating the Chinese mental lexicon but also provide a useful resource to inform future studies in Chinese lexical access, lexical semantics and lexicography.", | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Humans know tens of thousands of words, and their language behaviour suggests that the words are systematically organised and efficiently accessed in their internal word repository, often known as the mental lexicon. For a long time, psychologists have hypothesised the mental lexicon as a massive network of inter-connected nodes. The organisation and access mechanisms of the mental lexicon have primarily been studied with experimental approaches, using a variety of tasks like lexical decision, semantic verification, word association, etc. Despite some intrinsic weaknesses, word association techniques offer first-hand psycholinguistic evidence of our mental lexicon especially for revealing the extensiveness of the network and the different kinds of semantic associations among concepts in it. However, large-scale association norms obtained from native Chinese speakers comparable to those in English and other languages are lacking. This study, as a pilot attempt, intends to produce a set of word association norms from native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers, to complement other experimental methods and offer more insight for further studies on the Chinese mental lexicon.", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Hong Kong Chinese is our focus in this study. Written vocabularies from Modern Standard Chinese and spoken vocabularies from the Cantonese dialect are supposed to co-exist in the mental lexicon of its speakers. It is therefore theoretically and practically interesting to explore how such mixed forms, together with other Chinese-specific factors like logographic meanings, syllabicity and the fuzziness of the word notion, as well as other general factors like word frequency, part-of-speech, concreteness and polysemy, shape the organisation of the Chinese mental lexicon.", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| "text": "Stimulus words were thus chosen carefully and systematically, with due consideration for the various important factors. The resulting word association norms are expected to shed light on a wide range of research questions on the Chinese mental lexicon, some of which are particularly addressed in the current study:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "\uf0b7 What is the basic unit in the semantic memory of Chinese speakers?", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "\uf0b7 What kinds of semantic associations are found, and which kind (taxonomic, thematic, or otherwise) dominates?", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "\uf0b7 How do the associations differ for words of different frequency, part-of-speech, and concreteness?", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "\uf0b7 Are written and spoken vocabulary items stored together or separately?", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "In Section 2, we briefly review related work. In Section 3, the design and implementation of our word association test, and the compilation of word association norms, will be described. Preliminary analysis of the data will be discussed in Section 4, followed by a conclusion with further research agenda in Section 5.", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| "text": "As Aitchison (2003) pointed out, the general picture of the mental lexicon so far is one in which there are a variety of links between words, some strong, some weak. Strictly speaking, our knowledge of words includes phonological, morphological, syntactic, and even other lower level features like radicals, shapes and strokes. Hence network models in different forms and complexity have been proposed under the connectionist roof. For example, McClelland and Rumelhart's (1981) interactive activation model assumes three levels of processing (feature, letter, and word) which occur simultaneously with excitatory or inhibitory interactions. Others (e.g. Bock and Levelt, 1994; Caramazza, 1997) suggested that a lexical network should also connect a lemma level and a lexeme level for syntactic and phonological properties respectively, in addition to the conceptual level for semantic relations. Models for Chinese need to account for the role of radicals and their positions in a character, as well as the combination of characters to form words (e.g. Taft, 2006) . The focus of this study is primarily on the semantic connections among words, or semantic memory.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 3, | |
| "end": 19, | |
| "text": "Aitchison (2003)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 445, | |
| "end": 478, | |
| "text": "McClelland and Rumelhart's (1981)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 655, | |
| "end": 677, | |
| "text": "Bock and Levelt, 1994;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 678, | |
| "end": 694, | |
| "text": "Caramazza, 1997)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1054, | |
| "end": 1065, | |
| "text": "Taft, 2006)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF26" | |
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| "section": "Studies on the Mental Lexicon", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
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| "text": "The psychological reality of the network models receives support from experimental psychology, which often employs methods like lexical decision, semantic verification, etc. The spreading activation model of lexical access suggested in Collins and Loftus' (1975) classic study has been most influential especially with its account for the associative priming effects. Frequency effect and concreteness effect have been observed regarding lexical organisation (e.g. Kroll and Merves, 1986; Bleasdale, 1987) . The role of polysemy with respect to lexical representation and word recognition, in isolation or in context, has also been widely studied (e.g. Rayner and Frazier, 1989; Klein and Murphy, 2002; Rodd et al., 2002) . Similar studies on Chinese, though not as many, have identified some Chinese-specific properties of the mental lexicon, including the fuzziness of the word notion (e.g. Hoosain, 1992) , word frequency (but not character frequency) effects and the competition between homophonic morphemes (e.g. Zhou and Marslen-Wilson, 1994) , relations between morphemes and words (e.g. Myers, 2006) , polysemy and meaning representation in the mental lexicon (e.g. Lin and Ahrens, 2010) . Most of these studies on Chinese, however, were based on Mandarin Chinese, and the effect of concreteness has not been widely studied.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 236, | |
| "end": 262, | |
| "text": "Collins and Loftus' (1975)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 465, | |
| "end": 488, | |
| "text": "Kroll and Merves, 1986;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 489, | |
| "end": 505, | |
| "text": "Bleasdale, 1987)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 653, | |
| "end": 678, | |
| "text": "Rayner and Frazier, 1989;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF23" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 679, | |
| "end": 702, | |
| "text": "Klein and Murphy, 2002;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 703, | |
| "end": 721, | |
| "text": "Rodd et al., 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF24" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 893, | |
| "end": 907, | |
| "text": "Hoosain, 1992)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1018, | |
| "end": 1048, | |
| "text": "Zhou and Marslen-Wilson, 1994)", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 1095, | |
| "end": 1107, | |
| "text": "Myers, 2006)", | |
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| "start": 1174, | |
| "end": 1195, | |
| "text": "Lin and Ahrens, 2010)", | |
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| "section": "Studies on the Mental Lexicon", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
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| "text": "Word association techniques have also been a traditional approach to probe the mental lexicon. They can be used within experimental approaches, but more often, the resulting word association norms offer another useful resource for us to explore the mental lexicon from a broader perspective, which may in turn inform and complement experimental studies. Word association tests ask human subjects for the first word they can think of upon seeing or hearing a stimulus word and the percentage of subjects producing each response is computed from a large group of subjects to give the word association norms, which are useful in many respects (e.g. de Groot, 1989; Hirsh and Tree, 2001; Guida and Lenci, 2007) . Examples of famous English word association norms include the 1952 Minnesota word association norms (Jenkins, 1970) and the Birkbeck word association norms (Moss and Older, 1996) . Large-scale word association data are also available for other languages like Japanese (Joyce, 2005) and German (Schulte im Walde et al., 2008) . However, comparable large-scale association norms obtained from native Chinese speakers are lacking. The pilot study reported in this paper thus intends to fill this gap with a focus on the mental lexicon of native Hong Kong Chinese, and to capitalise on the range of association data thus produced for qualitative and quantitative analyses with respect to various important factors.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 646, | |
| "end": 661, | |
| "text": "de Groot, 1989;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 662, | |
| "end": 683, | |
| "text": "Hirsh and Tree, 2001;", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 684, | |
| "end": 706, | |
| "text": "Guida and Lenci, 2007)", | |
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| "start": 809, | |
| "end": 824, | |
| "text": "(Jenkins, 1970)", | |
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| "start": 865, | |
| "end": 887, | |
| "text": "(Moss and Older, 1996)", | |
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| "text": "(Joyce, 2005)", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 1014, | |
| "end": 1033, | |
| "text": "Walde et al., 2008)", | |
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| "section": "Studies on the Mental Lexicon", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
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| "text": "In this study, human subjects were asked to give the first word which occurs to them upon seeing a certain stimulus word, and thus it is a discrete word association test. The responses need not be in any particular part-of-speech, and thus they lead to a set of free association norms. In the following, we describe the design and implementation of the test. Chinese examples are listed with Cantonese transcription in Jyutping (in italics) and an English gloss (in quotes) alongside.", | |
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| "section": "Word Association Test", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "Online version of the association test was developed. Registered participants were given instructions in English and Chinese (Figure 1) , and asked to input their response on the web interface ( Figure 2 ). The English and Chinese instructions are more or less equivalent. It was additionally specified in the Chinese instructions that there was no restriction on the part-of-speech and syllabicity for the responses. There is also slight difference in the example given in the instructions. In English, possible responses to \"butter\" are exemplified with \"bread\", \"milk\", \"fat\" and \"spread\"; while in Chinese, for the equivalent stimulus word \u725b\u6cb9 ngau4-jau4 'butter', the example responses given are \u9eb5\u5305 min6-baau1 'bread', \u725b\u6cb9\u679c ngau4-jau4-gwo2 'avocado', \u725b\u5976 ngau4-naai5 'milk', \u80a5\u81a9 fei4-nei6 'fatty', \u9ec3\u8272 wong4-sik1 'yellow', and \u643d caa4 '(to) spread'. The inclusion of \"avocado\" and \"milk\" for the Chinese examples was to demonstrate the Chinese-specific cases as they share morphemes with the stimulus word.", | |
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| "start": 125, | |
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| "text": "(Figure 1)", | |
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| "start": 195, | |
| "end": 203, | |
| "text": "Figure 2", | |
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| "section": "Test Platform", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "All 58 participants (20 males and 38 females) were undergraduate students of the City University of Hong Kong. They were recruited from the Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics, and the Department of Computer Science. All of them are native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers.", | |
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| "section": "Participants", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
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| "text": "Each participant was rewarded with a shopping voucher upon completion of all test sessions.", | |
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| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
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| "text": "To maximise the usefulness of the pilot collection of data and the resulting association norms, a balanced and representative sample of stimulus words was selected. The selection was done with systematic control on various factors deemed important in human lexical processing, which include word frequency (High, Mid, Low) 1 , part-of-speech (Noun, Verb, Adjective, Fluid), syllabicity (Monosyllabic, Disyllabic, Trisyllabic), concreteness (Concrete, Abstract), and vocabulary type (Written, Spoken) 2 . As far as polysemy is concerned, most of the disyllabic and trisyllabic words are unambiguous. The categorially fluid ones are by default ambiguous, and the monosyllabic words are mostly ambiguous in Chinese.", | |
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| "section": "Selection of Stimulus", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
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| "text": "They were not particularly controlled for the number of meanings they possess. Altogether 500 stimulus words were selected. Their distribution with respect to the various factors and some examples for each category are shown in Table 1 . All stimulus words were randomly divided into five test sessions with 100 words each.", | |
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| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF1" | |
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| "section": "Selection of Stimulus", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
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| "text": "The initially collected responses were checked for obvious typos (e.g. changing \u666e\u901a\u8a70 pou2-tung1-kit3 to \u666e\u901a\u8a71 pou2-tung1-waa2 for 'Putonghua') and correcting homophones (e.g. changing \u5feb\u5b50 faai3-zi2 to \u7b77\u5b50 faai3-zi2 for 'chopsticks'). For specific responses, we had to double check with participants and asked them to clarify, to help our subsequent classification of the responses. Similar responses (e.g. \u86cb daan2 'egg' and \u96de\u86cb gai1-daan2 'egg') were marked. In a word association test, the general patterns of responses from large groups of subjects are compiled into a set of word association norms. The percentage occupied by a certain response is assumed to indicate the associative strength between the stimulus and that response. The percentage of individual response types for each stimulus word was thus computed and the association norms were listed accordingly. Two examples are shown in Figure 3 . 1 The frequency distinction for the current study was based on a 2.6-million-character Chinese corpus collected over the web, which is composed of texts from three newspapers and five magazines covering a variety of topics. The corpus was word segmented. Two word lists were compiled from the news subcorpus and the magazine subcorpus respectively. The word-frequency list from the news subcorpus was divided into three frequency bands according to the cumulative percentage: Hi (below 80%), Mid (80-90%) and Low (above 90%). Only words appearing in both subcorpora were included as candidates.", | |
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| "text": "Figure 3", | |
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| "section": "Association Norm Preparation", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
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| "text": "2 By written vocabularies, we mean those lexical items which can be acceptably used in standard written Chinese texts. In fact most of these items are also used in Cantonese speech. The spoken vocabularies, on the other hand, are often considered inappropriate to be used in formal written contexts.", | |
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| "section": "Association Norm Preparation", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
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| "text": "Please read each word displayed on screen and then input the first word it brings to mind. Type your response in the textbox provided. For example, if the given word is \"butter\", the first word you think of might be \"bread\" or \"milk\" or \"fat\" or \"spread\" or something else. Please note that we are interested in the word that comes to mind immediately, and there is no right or wrong \"answer\", so you only need to give your immediate response, not after thinking about it for a while. Do not go back and change your mind after you have given your first response. Your responses should primarily be in the same language as the given words, but if it really happens that you immediately think of a word in another language, you may just input that word. Each test session contains 100 words. Try to finish one whole session without interruption at a time. Now please click \"Start\" to begin. ", | |
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| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
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| "text": "Lo \u826f\u77e5 loeng4-zi1 'conscience' \u6f5b\u8cea cim4-zat1 'potential' Con Hi \u96fb\u8166 din6-nou5 'computer' \u624b\u888b sau2-doi2 'handbag' Mid \u756b\u5bb6 waa2-gaa1 'painter' \u83dc\u5200 coi3-dou1 'chopper' Lo \u82b1\u751f faa1-sang1 'peanut' \u85e5\u818f joek6-gou1 'ointment' Verb Abs Hi \u660e\u767d ming4-baak6 'understand' \u61c9\u4ed8 jing3-fu6 'handle' Mid \u73cd\u60dc zan1-sik1 'cherish' \u6297\u62d2 kong3-kui5 'resist' Lo \u7336\u8c6b jau4-ji4 'hesitate' \u627f\u7e7c sing4-gai3 'inherit' Con Hi \u7562\u696d bat1-jip6 'graduate' \u53c3\u8003 caam1-haau2 'refer' Mid \u6563\u6b65 saan3-bou6 'stroll' \u6311\u9078 tiu1-syun2 'select' Lo \u5f98\u5f8a pui4-wui4 'linger' \u6e9c\u51b0 lau4-bing1 'ice-skate' Adj -- Hi \u660e\u986f ming4-hin2 'obvious' \u91cd\u8981 zung6-jiu3 'important' Mid \u4f4e\u8abf dai1-diu6 'low-key' \u6177\u6168 hong2-koi3 'generous' Lo \u5e7c\u7a1a jau3-zi6 'naive' \u8106\u5f31 ceoi3-joek6 'fragile' Fluid -- Hi \u670d\u52d9 fuk6-mou6 'serve/service' \u8a08\u5283 gai3-waak6 'plan' Mid \u6307\u63ee zi2-fai1 'conduct(or)' \u7df4\u7fd2 lin6-zaap6 'exercise' Lo \u63a8\u65b7 teoi1-dyun3 'infer(ence)' \u9752\u6625 cing1-ceon1 'young/youth' Mono Noun Con Hi \u624b sau2 'hand' \u6d77 hoi2 'sea' Mid \u83dc coi3 'vegetable' \u78b3 taan3 'carbon' Lo \u6c27 joeng5 'oxygen' \u864e fu2 'tiger' Tri Noun Con Hi \u8eab\u5206\u8b49 san1-fan2-zing3 'ID card' \u8fa6\u516c\u5ba4 baan6-gung1-sat1 'office' Mid \u5c0f\u670b\u53cb siu2-pang4-jau5 'child' \u725b\u4ed4\u8932 ngau4-zai2-fu3 'jeans' Lo \u5929\u82b1\u677f tin1-faa1-baan2 'ceiling' \u4f3a\u670d\u5668 si6-fuk6-hei3 'server' Spk -- -- -- -- \u56de\u6c34 wui4-seoi2 '(to) refund' \u5c4b\u4f01 uk1-kei2 'home'", | |
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| "section": "\u8acb\u89c0\u770b\u87a2\u5149\u5e55\u986f\u793a\u7684\u8a5e\u8a9e\uff0c\u7136\u5f8c\u76e1\u5feb\u5728\u7a7a\u683c\u5167\u8f38\u5165\u7b2c\u4e00\u500b\u60a8\u5373\u6642\u806f\u60f3\u5230\u7684\u8a5e\u8a9e\uff0c\u97f3\u7bc0\u53ca\u8a5e\u6027\u4e0d\u9650\u3002", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "All responses were then classified according to their syntactic and semantic nature. The syntactic classification, as shown in Table 2 , categorises each response with respect to its constituent unit (WRD for words, PHR for phrases, SEN for sentences and INC for incomplete), vocabulary type (WRT for written words, SPK for spoken words, ENG for English or foreign words, and MIX for code-mixed items), and part-of-speech (NN for common nouns, VB for verbs, AJ for adjectives, PN for proper nouns, and OT for all other categories). For example, one of the responses to \u4e09\u6587\u6cbb saam1-man4-zi6 'sandwich' is \u597d\u98df hou2-sik6 'delicious', and this response is classified as WRD (word), SPK (spoken), and AJ (adjective). The semantic classification, on the other hand, had to consider the relation between individual stimulus words and responses. The granularity of classification may vary according to different purposes of analysis (e.g. Guida and Lenci, 2007; McRae et al., 2012) . In this study, four main types of relations, from narrow to broad, are considered, namely taxonomic, collocational, thematic, and other relations. As exemplified in Table 3 , taxonomic relations 3 comprises ANT for antonymy, HYP for hypernymy/hyponymy, MER for meronymy/holonymy, PRP for properties/attributes, SBL for siblings or coordinate terms, and SYN for (near-)synonymy. Collocations (COL) cover strongly collocated stimulus-response pairs or common syntagmatic patterns. Thematic relations (THM) include all broad and contextual relations between the stimulus and response, which can usually be connected within a given theme or context. Situational and personal associations, and those involving subjective perception and value judgement, are grouped into the last category (OTH), which accommodates all other cases that cannot fit into any of the above types. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 928, | |
| "end": 950, | |
| "text": "Guida and Lenci, 2007;", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 951, | |
| "end": 970, | |
| "text": "McRae et al., 2012)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 127, | |
| "end": 134, | |
| "text": "Table 2", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1138, | |
| "end": 1145, | |
| "text": "Table 3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Classification of Responses", | |
| "sec_num": "3.5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Among the 29,000 responses to 500 stimulus words from 58 participants, there are about 16,000 distinct stimulus-response pairs. The response types elicited by individual stimuli range from 7 to 49, averaging at 32. Among all response tokens, the majority falls under written vocabularies. Less than 1% of the responses are non-Chinese (English or numeric) or code-mixed items.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Basic Profile of Data", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Spoken vocabularies occupy about 4% of all responses. Nevertheless, for the 20 spoken stimulus words, slightly more than 13% of the responses are spoken items. This suggests that while spoken and written items co-exist in the mental lexicon of Hong Kong Chinese, spoken items remain the minority but they are more closely linked together and more readily activate one another.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Basic Profile of Data", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Excluding non-Chinese and code-mixed responses, the majority of the response tokens (about 74%) are disyllabic, followed by about 14% of monosyllabic responses, 8% of trisyllabic ones, and the remaining (less than 4%) are quadrisyllabic or longer. For monosyllabic stimuli alone, 40% of the responses are also monosyllabic, and disyllabic responses occupy only 50%. On the other hand, for trisyllabic stimuli alone, monosyllabic responses fall back to a general 13% whereas trisyllabic responses occupy about 11%. In general, about 5% of the responses are obviously non-words. Most of these are phrases, and there are some sentences, and only a few incomplete constituents.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Basic Profile of Data", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For the part-of-speech (POS) and semantic nature of the responses, we consider only those which appeared twice or more. Among them, nominal responses occupy about 59%, verbal responses 19%, and adjectival responses 17%. Proper nouns account for less than 4% of the responses. It is interesting to note that the proportion of nominal responses stays the largest regardless of the POS of the stimulus words (54% for nominal stimuli, 70% for verbal stimuli, and 61% for adjectival stimuli). Nevertheless, associations between verbs and adjectives are apparently weaker as compared to verb-verb and adjective-adjective associations respectively. For instance, for verbal stimuli, there are 20% verbal responses but only 7% adjectival responses. For adjectival stimuli, there are 23% adjectival responses but only 15% verbal responses. This suggests the central role of nominal nodes in the PACLIC-27 mental lexicon. Verbs and adjectives have their own mass of associations, but most of the time they are more strongly associated to nominal concepts. In other words, paradigmatic relations may be more salient for nominal concepts, whereas syntagmatic relations, especially nounverb and noun-adjective associations, are more significant for the learning and memory of verbs and adjectives.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Basic Profile of Data", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Regarding the semantic associations between the stimuli and responses, taxonomic relations account for about 20%, collocational relations 42%, thematic relations 21%, and the remaining 17% (others) are mostly non-linguistic associations which often involve personal experience and judgement. Previous analysis of word association norms reveals that there are several common relations found between the responses and the stimuli, including coordination (e.g. salt to pepper), superordination (e.g. colour to red), synonymy (e.g. hungry to starved), collocation (e.g. net to butterfly), attributes (e.g. comfortable to sofa) and functions (e.g. rest to chair) (e.g. Aitchison, 2003) , though their distribution is not clear. It appears that for Chinese, at least from the pilot data in this study, narrow taxonomic relations (including attributive and part-of relations) are relatively minor, whereas collocational and thematic associations have the largest share. Figure 4 shows the distribution of the various kinds of semantic associations for concrete stimuli, including nouns and verbs of high and low frequency. Figure 5 shows similar results for abstract stimuli.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 664, | |
| "end": 680, | |
| "text": "Aitchison, 2003)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 963, | |
| "end": 971, | |
| "text": "Figure 4", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1116, | |
| "end": 1124, | |
| "text": "Figure 5", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Basic Profile of Data", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Some interesting facts are observed on the semantic associations with respect to the frequency, POS and concreteness of the stimulus words.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Frequency, POS and Concreteness", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "First, collocational associations are particularly prominent for abstract stimuli. For nouns and verbs alike, abstract words were mostly responded with collocational items. Second, while collocational responses still occupy a large share for concrete verb stimuli, their importance for concrete noun stimuli is taken over by thematic associations. In other words, concrete words tend to elicit more thematic responses, and this is particularly true for nouns. Third, in general nouns tend to elicit more taxonomic relations than verbs, except for high frequency abstract nouns and verbs. Fourth, the role of the rather constant proportion of other non-linguistic associations in the semantic memory should by no means be ignored. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Frequency, POS and Concreteness", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Referring to the questions raised in Section 1, the preliminary observations and analysis of the pilot association norms above thus suggest certain possibilities for the Chinese mental lexicon for further investigation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Regarding the basic units, disyllabic words apparently dominate the Chinese mental lexicon. This is not only evident from the overall 74% disyllabic responses. In fact, the large number of monosyllabic items especially in response to monosyllabic stimulus words also points to the significance of disyllabic concepts. Many of the monosyllabic responses are not really elicited because of their morphemic meaning, but are intended to be combined with the stimulus to form a disyllabic word. For example, the stimulus \u5b57 zi6 'character' elicited responses like \u6253 daa2 '(to) hit' and \u9ad4 tai2 'body', probably because they form common words \u6253\u5b57 daa2-zi6 '(to) type' and \u5b57\u9ad4 zi6-tai2 'font' respectively, and these disyllabic words are also among the responses for the same stimulus. There also remains the philosophical distinction between concepts and lexical items in the mental lexicon. To a certain extent, the mental lexicon is not like a dictionary of words, but rather a repository of words superimposed with a semantic network of concepts.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Hence different responses may simultaneously point to the same concept. For instance, among the responses for \u95b1\u8b80 jyut6-duk6 '(to) read' in Figure 3 , the top three responses ( \u66f8\u672c syu1-bun2 'book', \u66f8 syu1 'book', and \u66f8\u7c4d syu1-zik6 'book') all refer to the same concept \"book\" except that they might be more conventionally used in different contexts or registers. This is quite specific to Chinese given its word formation mechanisms and may suggest a slightly different organisation of the mental lexicon for Chinese from that for English which is worth further investigation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 139, | |
| "end": 147, | |
| "text": "Figure 3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Regarding the semantic associations, although previous studies have identified several prominent kinds of responses particularly under narrow taxonomic relations, in this study we nevertheless found that the broader but less mentioned collocational relations and thematic relations made up the majority of the responses. This is in fact quite an unexpected finding, especially for nouns, though less so for verbs and adjectives. While taxonomic relations are by definition confined to stimulus and response under the same part-of-speech, collocational and thematic relations may apply to intra-or inter-POS pairs. Past studies on the semantic memory tend to focus on the connection of nominal concepts, and semantic lexicons often emphasise their taxonomic connections. When it comes to free association, however, it happens that even for nominal stimuli, taxonomic associations are not always more readily activated than collocational and thematic associations. This suggests that the associative strengths for pure ontological relations may not be as strong as others which are probably continuously reinforced through personal and media contact. The diversity of relations exhibited in word association norms should not be under-estimated, especially in view of the \"Others\" category which covers situational associations and personal judgement. For instance, one response for \u6f22\u5821\u5305 hon3-bou2-baau1 'hamburger' was \u597d\u5403 hou2-hek3 'delicious' which appears to be a property of hamburgers, but it is nevertheless too subjective to be taken as a genuine semantic association as being delicious is hardly an intrinsic attribute for any food. This suggests that while the organisation of the mental lexicon as a network may be something universal, the semantic associations and associative strengths in individuals' semantic memory may be a personal copy containing the universal structure and ontological connections, but to a large extent augmented and shaped by one's experience, perception, and exposure to interpersonal as well as cultural and media influence. We must therefore be cautious in interpreting the association norms.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The top responses for individual stimulus words may be considered more universal and they are expected to inform and correspond to what one designs for semantic lexicons. The infrequent responses, which make up the majority, constitute only personal mental pictures, and may not even be properly considered very weak associations in general.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Regarding the role of frequency, POS and concreteness, taxonomic relations as well as thematic relations are apparently more accessible for nouns than verbs, especially concrete nouns. The concreteness effect is also exhibited in the dominance of collocational responses among abstract stimuli. The frequency effect does not seem to be significant, except that high frequency abstract verbs were found to elicit unexpectedly many taxonomic associations. The dominance of nominal concepts in the mental lexicon is nevertheless obvious as nominal responses made up the majority regardless of the POS of the stimuli.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Regarding the organisation of written and spoken vocabulary items, the above preliminary analysis reveals that they co-exist in the mental lexicon of Hong Kong Chinese. While most lexical items can be used both in written and spoken form (and hence all considered written items), spoken items are more or less confined to specific contexts and registers, and are more readily activated when the stimulus word is also a spoken item. It seems that when prompted with a spoken item, participants tend to feel greater acceptability of colloquial spoken items to be given as responses.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Some Implications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Results from word association norms have a direct role for advancing our understanding of the mental lexicon and the development of psycholinguistic models for human lexical processing. Upon quantitative and qualitative analyses of the norms, we can draw up hypotheses on the nature and strengths of semantic associations, the degree of isolation or PACLIC-27 distinctiveness for particular concepts, the dispersion or diversity of the network, etc. for further investigation. One possible direction of study concerns the asymmetry of associative strength and thus readiness of activation between concepts. The traditional spreading activation model suggests that activation strengths depend, to a certain extent, on the number of connections (or density of nodes) from a concept and the distance in the activation path. With real data from the association norms (for example, the top response for the stimulus \u8863\u6ac3 ji1-gwai6 'wardrobe' is \u8863\u670d ji1-fuk6 'clothing' (39.7%), but conversely, when \u8863\u670d ji1-fuk6 'clothing' is the stimulus, \u8863\u6ac3 ji1-gwai6 'wardrobe' only accounts for 5.2% of the responses), this notion can be subject to more systematic investigation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The association norms can also provide support for other areas including natural language processing, computational lexicography, and language pedagogy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For natural language processing, the analysis of word association norms may reveal various kinds of semantic associations in relation to different salient factors including frequency, polysemy and concreteness, to inform the design of word sense disambiguation systems to better address the issue of lexical sensitivity, allowing a better exploitation of various knowledge sources with respect to different kinds of target words. For instance, Kwong (2012) suggested that concrete and abstract senses may be best distinguished and thus disambiguated by different knowledge sources.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 444, | |
| "end": 456, | |
| "text": "Kwong (2012)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF15" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For computational lexicography, the very notion of association plays an important role, and has thus significantly influenced the design of many lexical resources. WordNet (Miller et al., 1990 ) is perhaps the most typical example in this regard, as it started out as a psycholinguistic project on network models for the mental lexicon, but turned out to be one of the most popular semantic lexicons in computational linguistics.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 172, | |
| "end": 192, | |
| "text": "(Miller et al., 1990", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF19" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "With the availability of large corpora, many studies have subsequently tried to simulate the observations from word association norms statistically from large corpora, and such statistical simulation provides concrete and scalable data to enhance lexicography (e.g. Church and Hanks, 1990; Wettler and Rapp, 1993; Ferret and Zock, 2006) . Having a set of Chinese word association norms available will certainly enhance work in this regard.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 266, | |
| "end": 289, | |
| "text": "Church and Hanks, 1990;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 290, | |
| "end": 313, | |
| "text": "Wettler and Rapp, 1993;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF27" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 314, | |
| "end": 336, | |
| "text": "Ferret and Zock, 2006)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Despite that participants were clearly asked to give the first \"word\" which the stimulus word brings to mind, responses other than words are still seen. This echoes that the concept of \"word\" is not really a clear and unambiguous one even for native speakers of Chinese. Monosyllabic responses comprise morphemes and words, and multi-syllabic responses contain phrases, sentences, and even non-constituent in addition to words. The many responses in the \"Others\" category involving extra-linguistic associations and personal mental pictures do not only reveal the organisation of the mental lexicon (especially of the younger generation) but also the influence of media and culture, which should be informative to educators to reflect on language pedagogy, even for L1 teaching.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Potential Applications", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this paper, we have reported on the design and implementation of a pilot word association test for Hong Kong Chinese. Preliminary analysis of the resulting association norms has revealed the dominance of disyllabic and nominal concepts, and collocational associations in the Hong Kong Chinese mental lexicon. The concreteness effect was also observed. In addition to traditional linguistic relations, semantic associations based on subjective experience and value judgement were also constantly found. More detailed quantitative and qualitative analysis of the responses is underway, and a larger-scale data collection will be planned. Notwithstanding the limitation of discrete word association, a benchmarking set of word association norms, which is currently lacking for Hong Kong Chinese, can offer a snapshot of the mental lexicon to inform and complement experimental studies.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Future Work and Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Further investigation on how the conventional spreading activation model may account for the asymmetry of associations will be done. The association norms will also be useful to other related areas like natural language processing, computational lexicography, and language pedagogy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Future Work and Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "PACLIC-27", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For simplicity, properties/attributes and part-of relations are grouped with other conventional taxonomic relations in this study.PACLIC-27", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The work described in this paper was supported by grants from the City University of Hong Kong (Project No. 7002798 and funding from the Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acknowledgements", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "text": "Distribution and Examples of Stimulus Words by Various Factors (Each group contains 20 stimulus words, amounting to 500 words altogether.)" | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |