| { | |
| "paper_id": "Y00-1009", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:45:17.577520Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR WITH FEATURES AND THE PARSER ON WEB PAGES", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Hiroyuki", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Ftzto", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "Tohoku Gakuin University", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "2-1-1 Ichinazaka, Izumi-ku", | |
| "postCode": "981-3193", | |
| "settlement": "Sendai", | |
| "country": "JAPAN" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "futo@izcc.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "In this paper, I present a version of Categorial Grammar reinforced with subcategorizing and operational features. Employing the features allows the further specification of combinatory restrictions in natural languages. I show also that by assigning higher-order categories to words, such irregular expressions as \"ago\" and \"last\" and controversial constructions such as the formal subject \"it,\" \"tom\" constniction and subject raising can be analyzed only through the rule of functional application. Flat categories are assigned to Japanese verbs for their \"scrambling' nature. These are demonstrated on a parser working on Web pages.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "Y00-1009", | |
| "_pdf_hash": "", | |
| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this paper, I present a version of Categorial Grammar reinforced with subcategorizing and operational features. Employing the features allows the further specification of combinatory restrictions in natural languages. I show also that by assigning higher-order categories to words, such irregular expressions as \"ago\" and \"last\" and controversial constructions such as the formal subject \"it,\" \"tom\" constniction and subject raising can be analyzed only through the rule of functional application. Flat categories are assigned to Japanese verbs for their \"scrambling' nature. These are demonstrated on a parser working on Web pages.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "In classical categorial grammar, categories are defined as follows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Classical Categorial Grammar", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(1) a. Any primitive category is a category.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Classical Categorial Grammar", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "b. IfA and B are categories, then AB and B\\A are categories.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Classical Categorial Grammar", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The rule (1b) is recursively applied. In categorial grammar, two or three primitive categories are usually employed. I show a list of categories using the three primitive categories, N, NP, and S. (2) Functional Application : a. If X is an expression of the category A/B, and Y is an expression of the category B, then XY is an expression of the category A. b. If X is an expression of the category B\\A, and Y is an expression of the category B, then YX is an expression of the category A.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Classical Categorial Grammar", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "All the expressions in the grammar are generated by the rule of functional application.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "category traditional name expression", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Here, I present a version of Categorial Grammar reinforced with two kinds of features including features subcategorizing nouns and noun phrases, features subcategorizing sentences, directional features of \"f---\" and \"--p\" and other operational features for negation, copying, adding and deleting. These features will be shown and explained along with extended categories. Now, the basic categories are defined as sets of subcategorizing features, and there are two groups of basic categories, noun phrase categories and sentential categories.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Categorial Grammar reinforced with features", | |
| "sec_num": "2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Unlike many versions of Categorial Grammar, the categories N and NP are basically the same and merely differentiated by the presence of the features \"p\" and \"d\". All nouns and noun phrases has the feature \"N.\" (\"N' hereafter refers to a feature, not a category. All categories but noun phrases and sentences are derived from basic categories and they are categories of functional type. They take an expression of some category and give an expression of another category. They are functions from a set of categories to another set of categories. Derived categories can contain operational features. Intransitive verbs or verb phrases take a noun phrase on its left side and give a category of sentence. Therefore, they are functions from categories of noun phrase to categories of sentence. The intransitive verb runs has a category that combines with a singular noun phrase to give a category of sentence with present tense.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "nouns and noun phrases", | |
| "sec_num": "2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The first parenthesized part in the category, \"(<----N sg p)\" expresses the condition of the category runs takes as its argument. It requires that the argument come on the left side, and that it have the features \"N,\" \"p,\" and \"sg.\" Note that more than one category can satisfy the condition. The category \"(N sg p d)\" as well as the category \"(N sg p)\" satisfies the requirement. When the condition is satisfied, runs gives the sentential category \"(S present)\".", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "runs N p sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "he runs (N sg p d) (<-N p sg)(S present) (S present", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "runs N p sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Contrastively, walk has a slightly different category. The operational feature \"-\" expresses the negative requirement that the input category should not have the specified subcategorizing feature which follows \"-.\" The rule of functional application is extended as categories are. It consists of two processes, the checking or matching process for argument or input categories, and the yielding process for output categories. This operational feature operates in the checking process. \"(<----N p -sg)\" can be satisfied by \"(N p)\" and \"(N p d)\" as its input category.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "runs N p sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A transitive verb of English takes a noun phrase or a sentence or other expressions on the right side and gives a category of intransitive verb.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "walk N p -sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "loves (-> N p) N p sg)(S present)) know (-> S) N p -sg) (S present))", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "walk N p -sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "he loves dogs is given a category of sentence as (3) shows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "walk N p -sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(3) he loves dogs", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "walk N p -sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(NPdsg) (---* N (( 4-N p sgXS present)) (S present)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "walk N p -sg)(S present)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Adjectives look for nouns on the right side and give the same category as the nouns. The category of an adjective is expressed as follows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "adjectives and determiners", | |
| "sec_num": "2.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The operational feature \"@\" means that the input category should copied and pasted as the output category. Determiners are like adjectives but they add some subcategorizing features to the output category. The operational feature \"+\" is ignored and does not wok in the process of checking the input category, but it adds the subcategorizing feature following it to the output category.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "N -d) good", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "N -d -sg) many N -p +p +d) a (---* N -d +p +d) the N -d -sg +p +d) these", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "N -d) good", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "These categories above can be expressed by the other notation without using the operational feature `.\" The two occurrences of the index number in (4b) specify the ranges of copying and pasting. These are two notational variants of the same category. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "N -d) good", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Verb phrases concatenated with auxiliary verbs lose the restriction about the number of the subject noun phrase they seek. The operational feature \"-\" deletes the feature (here, the combination of the features \"-\" and \"se') that follows it. The adding and deleting operational features do not operate in the process of checking but work in giving output categories. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "auxiliaries", | |
| "sec_num": "2.5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Decomposing syntactic categories in terms of function and features might be compared to decomposing an atom into a nucleus and the electrons orbiting it. How something behaves can be explained by what internal structure it has. How and whether A and B combine can be explained by their internal structures. This \"decomposing\" tactic can successfully give proper categories to irregular expressions such as ago and next. The expression ago is usually classified as an adverb but behaves more like a preposition but it takes the noun phrase not on the right but left hand. The category of ago is like that of an ordinary preposition except that the directional feature is not \"-*\" but \" 4-\" for the object noun phrase. Similarly, next as in See you next week is considered to have a category that takes a noun and gives an adverb. 2.7 the formal subject \"it\"", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Assigning higher-order categories allows some syntactic rules to be dispensed with. The formal subject \"it\" can be given a category like that of an adverb which modifies an intransitive verb phrase. The difference is that the real subject can not be a usual noun phrase but must be a \"that' clause or an indirect question or a \"to\" infinitive, and that the category of the verb phrase concatenated with the formal subject looks for the real subject not on the left hand but on the right hand. The phrase is doubtful below looks for the subject on its left hand, but it is doubtful takes it on the right hand. The expression it changes the direction. The categories are given as follows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is doubtful (4--S q XS) is believed (<-S XS) seems S -00", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Note the changing of the directional features in the two verb phrases in (6).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(6) it is doubtful whether he walks", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 0, | |
| "end": 8, | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", | |
| "raw_str": "S OS) S -q +q) (S) -> S q)(S) (S q)", | |
| "eq_num": "(s)" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2.8 subject raising A sentence containing subject raising as in (713) can be parsed by assigning a higher order category to the expression to. The word to has a disjunction of multiple categories, and one of them requires on the right hand an intransitive verb like \"walk\" and then requires an intransitive like \"seems\" or \"is believed\" on the left and lastly seeks as the subject such a noun phrase that the first intransitive verb phrase required. (I leave the question open as to how the information about the number of the subject from the main verb survives after merging with that of the infinitive.)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 0, | |
| "end": 8, | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", | |
| "raw_str": "seems (4--S -q sgXS) is believed (4--S -q sgXS) to N p -sg 1XSN\" S -q 2XS 3)) mergea 2)X3)))", | |
| "eq_num": "(7)" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "a. It seems that he walks. b. He seems to walk. seems S --ctsgXS) to N P -sg WS)) S 2XS 3))", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(( m om (1 20(3))) walk N P -WM (8) He (NPdsg) (*-- S 2XS 3)) merige N p -8g 2))(3)) N P 8gXS) (s)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The expression \"to\" has another similar category causing \"tough\" construction. It takes a transitive verb phrase or a verb phrase with a noun phrase gap and then seeks on the left hand a verb phrase like \"is easy\" which requires \"to\" infinitive as its subject, and lastly takes as the subject a noun phrase like \"a book\" which the first transitive verb has been looking for as its object.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "irregular expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "2.6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The Japanese language is a non-configurational language, and has free word orders among the complements and modifiers of a verb. We assume flat categories for Japanese verbs. Then, the transitive verb yomu (read) is not given the category (9a) but (9b). Here, \"wo\" and \"ga\" are the features added to the output noun phrase by the case particles wo and ga, respectively. (9b) can be regarded as a disjunction of \" ( 4-N wo)(e-N ga)(S))\" and \"(-N ga)((4--N wo)(S)TIVIany Japanese auxiliary verbs change case patterns of verbs they modify. Tharu (be left) combines with a transitive verb and yields an intransitive verb. The category is as follows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Categories in Japanese", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4-@ (*-N wo -wo +ga) N ga) (S +con +sta))", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "tearu", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "7baru combines with a verb having a category like \"( f -N wo)(N ga)(S)\" and gives a category like `( E -N g a ) ( S c o n s t a ) . \" O t h e r a u x i l i a r y v e r b s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s , w h e r e \" s t a . , \" a n d \" c o n \" a r e aspectual features.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "tearu", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4-@ (<-N ga -ga +ni) +(<-N ga) (S )) rare N ga -ga +ni) +e-N ga) (S )) e-(+-N wo -wo +ga) (<-N ga -ga +ni) (S )) tai (*-N wo -wo +ga) (S +con +sta)) garu N ga -ga -wo) N ga) (S sta -sta))", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "sale", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Aspectual features allow finer specification of selectional restrictions among verbs, auxiliaries, conjunctions and adverbials. Treating long distance dependency requires another extension of categories. A slash category must be added, which is usually inactive and is inherited and lastly deleted when faced with the binding expression. In (10), a slash category is created by the interrogative pronoun dono and deleted by the adverbial particle ma I developed a web-based parser employing the Categorial Grammar discussed above using DHTML and VBScript. It is accessible at http://www.izavc.tohoku-galcuin..acjp/-futoduto.html. The parser on the web page, after your selecting words by double-click and clicking the \"parse\" button, displays the parsing tree. Unlike many other grammars, Categorial Grammar, with its simple but firm combination principle called functional application, can be easily coded. Checking process of the input category and the calculation of the output process are the main parts of the scripting. The scripting of the parsing process itself is the simplest that can show the efficiency and effectiveness of the grammar. No hierarchic relations among subcategorizing features are assumed in the program. Anyone can add words and categories and test the parsing.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "sale", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF0": { | |
| "ref_id": "b0", | |
| "title": "The Proper Treatment of Quantification in Ordinary English", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Richard", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Montague", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1973, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "221--242", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Montague, Richard, 1973, \"The Proper Treatment of Quantification in Ordinary English,\" Approaches to Natural Language pp.221-242, ed. by J. Hintikka, J. Moravcsic, and P. Suppes, D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "sg --sg)(S present -present + past))", | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF0": { | |
| "text": "Two expressions are concatenated by the functional application rule.", | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>ADP/ADP</td><td>Adverb</td><td>very slowly</td></tr><tr><td>S/S</td><td>Adverb</td><td>probably he walks</td></tr><tr><td>ADP/NP</td><td>Preposition</td><td>a letter frail John</td></tr><tr><td>TV/NP</td><td>Preposition</td><td>run in the park</td></tr><tr><td>(SAS)/S</td><td>Conjunction</td><td>Mary walks if John walks</td></tr><tr><td>S/S</td><td>Conjunction</td><td>Mary knows if John walks</td></tr><tr><td>NP\\S (=IV)</td><td>Intransitive Verb</td><td>John walks</td></tr><tr><td>NP/N</td><td>Determiner</td><td>the dog</td></tr><tr><td>(NP\\S) /NP</td><td>rfransitive Verb</td><td>John loyea Mary</td></tr><tr><td>N/N (=A)</td><td>Adjective</td><td>hig dog</td></tr><tr><td>IV/IV</td><td>Auxiliary Verb</td><td>gan walk</td></tr><tr><td>A/A</td><td>Adverb</td><td>very big</td></tr><tr><td>IV\\IV (=ADP)</td><td>Adverb</td><td>walk slowly</td></tr></table>", | |
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| "type_str": "table", | |
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